• ,11. Jr. s.t> APPLETONS' ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA REGISTER OF IMPORTANT EVENTS OF THE 1883. EMBRACING POLITICAL, CIVIL, MILITARY, AND SOCIAL AFFAIRS; PUBLIC DOCU- MENTS; BIOGRAPHY, STATISTICS, COMMERCE, FINANCE, LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AGRICULTURE, AND MECHANICAL INDUSTRY. NEW SEKIES, VOL. VII. WHOLE SERIES, VOL. XXII. NEW YOEK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 1, 3, AND 6 BOND STREET. 1883. COPYRIGHT BT D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 1883. PREFACE. THE volume of this work for 1882 is the seventh of the new series and the twenty-second of the whole series. It has grown in size to meet the rapidly in- creasing activity in human affairs, and to present the interesting public questions and scientific developments which have arisen, and the discussions of their prin- ciples. A special article is devoted to each State of the United States and generally to each country of the world, which contains a sketch of its history during the year, the administration of its government, and its legislation ; full and official information is given of its area, population, education, military and naval force, commerce, finances, productions, statistics, public men, and the public questions agitated, and reforms effected. No efforts are spared to secure the fullest infor- mation from all parts of the world, and it is considered that in its several depart- ments the work may be safely consulted as the completest and most reliable book of reference. At the same time its record of progress in the various de- partments of science and useful practical knowledge will be found most valuable and unsurpassed. In this volume are fully presented the details on the great question agitating the country, " The Protection of American Industry," in the " Debates of Con- gress " ; the " Tariff Revision Commission " ; an analysis of the " Manufactures of the United States " ; the " Occupations of the Various Classes of Population as shown by the Census " ; the revenues from taxation and the duties on im- ports, as shown in the " Finances of the United States," by Kussel A. Bay- ley, of the Treasury Department, which contains results not before put in print. Also the articles " on the Commerce and Finances " of the country ; the revival of " The Merchant Marine Service," with others valuable and important, bear upon the same subject. The reports of the census, showing the marvelous strides of the country, are collated in articles on the " Cereal and Coal Products " ; the " Cotton Crop and its Special Manufactures " ; the " Farms and Live-Stock " of the country ; the vast extent of the " Fisheries of the Coast-line States " ; " Forestry and the Question of the Conservation of the Forests " ; the results of the " Investigation of the Lung-Plague in Cattle " ; statistics of " Education and Illiteracy," to which is added the educational measures in European nations ; " Details of the Criminal Jurisprudence of the States " ; the " Railroads," the " Telegraphs," and the " Telephones " of the United States ; the " Indebtedness of the United States," "National," "State," "County," and "Municipal," and the "Public Debts of Jv PKEFACE. the Various Countries of the "World." This article is illustrated by numerous engravings, showing the relative magnitude of these debts, and by colored maps of the relative indebtedness of different sections of the country. The " Kecent Progress of the States " is fully noted, and that especially of Georgia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Mississippi, and Louisiana, receives particular attention in articles prepared from official and original documents by Professor W. M. Browne, of Georgia. Other subjects of a public nature are presented under " Labor Movements and Agitations " ; de- cisions of questions of constitutional law, under " Obligation of State Con- tracts"; "Suits against a State"; "Railroad Taxation"; "Chinese Immigra- tion " ; the surprising " Political Kevolution of the Year," with its results, is set forth under " New York " and " United States." The stirring events in some foreign countries have been of unusual interest ; as the " Irresistible British Campaign in Egypt," which is authoritatively nar- rated, with illustrations ; the " Irish Question " ; the " Cloture in England " ; the " Struggle of Bismarck with the Reichstag " ; the " Austrian Campaign in Her- zegovina." The recent views on " Non-intervention among Nations," in oppo- sition to that intervention which is an endless cause of wars, and the " Disci- plinary Power of Legislative Assemblies," both by the editor of the " whole series" of these volumes, discuss some most vital principles. An illustrated article on the " Navies of Europe " affords a complete understanding of their immense power, and of the principal naval question of the age — the contest between plated armor and heavy guns. The recent " Italian Experiments at Spezia " are reported with illustrations. Of the long list of special articles and new subjects may be mentioned, " The Sanitary Control of Epidemic Diseases," illustrating the experience with the yellow fever in Texas during the year, by Dr. John B. Hamilton. It is the first formal article on the subject which has appeared in print, and will serve as a guide to municipal health in all the States and cities of the Union ; the " Prog- ress made in Electric Lighting" ; the " Storage of Electric Energy " ; " Sewage Disposal " ; " Astronomy," by Professor Daniel Kirkwood, of Indiana ; " Physi- ology " ; " Metallurgy " ; " Egyptological and Assyriological Research," its re- sults to the present time ; the " Manufacture of Oleomargarine " ; " Operations in Ostrich-Farming " ; the " Harvests of the World " for 1882, etc. The rec- ord of Literature and Literary Progress in this country and those of Europe is extensive as usual. The great Engineering enterprises of the world are specially described. Articles on the great religious divisions and denominations present the religious history of the year. Biographical notices of eminent persons of all countries are included in these pages. Fine steel portraits of Chief -Justice "Waite, Sir Garnet Wolseley, the con- queror of Egypt, and Sir John A. Macdonald, the Canadian premier, illustrate the volume, together with smaller portraits of prominent men of the year, in- cluding the members of the President's Cabinet, with maps and diagrams. THE ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA. A AGRICULTURE, DECLINE OF, IN ENG- LAND. From various sources the fact has become apparent that agriculture in England has of late years suffered a great, almost alarm- ing decline. The whole subject is occupying the attention of the public, and numerous pub- lications of interest have appeared, in which are investigated the various phases of this de- cline during the last fifteen or twenty years, and a searching inquiry is made into the state and prospects of English agriculture at the present, as well as what may reasonably be looked for in the immediate future. BAD SEASONS. — The chief occasion of present suffering is the succession of bad seasons, the loss from which has been summed up in figures absolutely appalling. And further, the uneasy, restless condition of mind with masses of the people urges the search for a deeper source of the evil, e. g., in the social and legal rela- tions between the owner and the cultivator of the land. But, without entering into that question here, it is clear that extreme remedies (urged by some) are to be deprecated, and the facts are fairly and calmly to be examined into, seeing that the land-owner, the fanner, and the laborer have really a common interest in every measure which will tend to draw the most produce out of the land for their own profit and the good of the whole community. " High farming '1 (as it is called), which implies the importation of material from without, is not found to yield any sufficient remedy. Its expense has, hardly without exception, beeu found to be greater than its returns. A marked improvement in the wages of domestic servants has had the effect of drawing away numbers of the daughters of laborers from field-work, and the complaint is freely made that juvenile labor is much decreased by the longer attendance at school, and the ill results of much which children learn there, in render- ing them dissatisfied with house - work and farm-labor. VOL. xxii. — 1 A AMERICAN COMPETITION. — American compe- tition, too, has had a most depressing effect upon agricultural interests in England. The wheat- crop in the United States has grown during the twenty years just past from twenty to sixty million quarters. Exports from America of meat, cheese, and butter have also largely increased. Some comfort, however — such as it is — may be drawn from the consideration that Manitoba, a rising and important part of the British possessions in America, promises to exceed in fertility all the wheat-growing coun- tries in the world. During the past fourteen years it appears that the United Kingdom has obtained from abroad about one half the amount of its consumption of wheat. " It is clear," says an English writer, " that, however much we may deplore the losses from bad sea- sons, the extension of tillage throughout the world has not kept pace with the needs of our population ; and the new railways and water- ways abroad may not prove more injurious to English farmers, in the face of an increasing population, than the extension of roads in England was to the farmers of Middlesex, who petitioned Parliament, in the last century, against the opening up of remote districts which, they said, could undersell them, ow- ing to the cheapness of their lands.'1 Wheat growing is not regarded by good authorities as of first-rate importance in English home- farming; * on the contrary, live-stock seems to have become the paramount interest in agri- culture. STATISTICS. — The London "Times" furnishes some very valuable as well as instructive sta- tistics on this subject, especially with reference to the question of live-stock in farming. There is, it appears, a very great curtailing, almost relinquishing, of the breeding or fattening of * Of the whole cultivated area of the United Kingdom (about 48,000,000 acres) the grain-crops occupy only 22A per cent (6 per cent only being wheat, 5£ barley, and 9 oats), the green crops, clover, etc., and permanent pasture occupying the remaining T7i per cent. AGRICULTUKE, DECLINE OF, IN ENGLAND. animals, notwithstanding that sheep are selling for one shilling per pound in their wool, and no farmer can possibly have exchanged breed- ing and grazing for the cultivation of wheat. Is this prostration of husbandry, it is asked, typical of a general degradation of farmers' resources ? And has the process of depletion begun only in the last few seasons, or has it been operative for a decade of years or more ? On comparing the stock of sheep in 1881 with that in 1868, a tolerably clear view is ob- tained of the loss during those thirteen years. There is not a single county in England with- out a diminution, more or less large, in the amount of sheep-stock. In England there are not three fourths as many sheep as there were in 1868, the decrease being 5,548,000. The loss for Wales is 201,000 sheep, or 7£ per cent ; for Scotland, 381,000, or 5£ per cent ; for Great Britain, the reduction is 6,130,000, or about 20 per cent; for Ireland, 1,564,000, or 32£ per cent ; and for the United Kingdom, a loss of 7,712,000, or 21$ per cent. The augmentation of cattle-stock does not at all counterbalance this great decrease in sheep-stock. While sheep diminished in England, in thirteen years, 26£ per cent, cattle increased only 10 per cent, and in the United Kingdom only 9 per cent. In the tables furnished, a comparison is instituted between cattle and sheep stock, by estimating each head of cattle as equivalent to six sheep ; and in this way an approximation is made, as nearly as possible, to the true deficit with live-stock in the United Kingdom. From this it appears that the total combined cattle and sheep stock of England in 1881 was less than that of 1868 by a head of live-stock equivalent to 3,268,000 sheep, being a reduc- tion of 7i per cent. Put at £2.10 per sheep, the money loss is £8,170,000 (over $40,000,000). The decrease for Great Britain was 5 per cent; but, owing to some increase in Wales and Ireland, it was for the United Kingdom 3 per cent. This is, it must be confessed, a rather sad position of affairs, after all the expense and toil incurred in the application of improved methods of husbandry. Another table gives the acres in the different counties under permanent pasture, as clover, grasses, green crops, etc., showing an increase of over 15 per cent in England, and over 10 per cent in the United Kingdom.* This increase in permanent pasture has diminished a large breadth of the area devoted to wheat. Hence, while England has probably £8,000,000 less farmers' capital in live-stock, it has a further £4,000,000 loss in wheat-crops than it possessed fourteen years ago. The fact, too, is to be faced that there is now a much lighter stocking per acre in England of animal food-crops, as com- pared with 1868, and this is corrected to only a small extent by the reduced acreage of straw- * Rather more than half the cultivated acres of the United Kingdom (say about 25,000,000) are in permanent pasture, be- sides the mountain-lands. In Great Britain, out of 32,211,000 acres in cultivation, nearly 15,000,000 are in permanent past- ure, besides the mountain-lands. crops. The decline in the stock upon grass and forage crops in England is 20 per cent, in Wales 15 per cent, in Scotland 12 per cent, though in Ireland it is less than 2 per cent. Farmers, no doubt, would have multiplied their head of stock had they been able to do so; but apparently invincible obstacles stood in their way. The great drought of 1868, suc- ceeded quickly by another hot summer in 1870, and this immediately followed by two years of freat prevalence of foot-and-mouth disease, rought the herds and flocks very low, except in Wales and in Ireland, and not to such an extent in Scotland as in England. A maximum head of stock was attained in 1874 and 1875 ; then came a decline, partially recovered at the June census of 1879. But since then the fall in numbers has been rapid, sheep-rot and cattle- diseases having made excessive ravages, while the last three or four years' failing wheat-crops destroyed a serious proportion of the capital which would have been otherwise available for raising animal produce. The decrease in breeding, too, has been remarkable, amount- ing to 2,136,000 lambs less in 1881 than was bred in 1868, i. e., about 27 per cent. The in- crease of 116,000 calves does not compensate for the decrease of lambs, since this number of calves is equivalent only to an addition of 696,- 000 against a loss of 2,136,000. On a compari- son of small with large holdings — that is, farms of 50 and 100 acres and less, compared with those of 1,000 and 2,000 acres — it is quite evi- dent that large farms are favorable to preserva- tion and development of live-stock in times of agricultural depression. THE QUESTION. — It is a grave question which the people of the United Kingdom are called upon to consider at the present time ; yet, de- spite unusual difficulties and trials, there does not seem to be any necessity for undue alarm, or for yielding to any despairing view, or for resorting to any desperate efforts toward ob- taining remedies of existing evils. The Eng- lish farmer must practice his art better and with more intelligence, if he would meet suc- cessfully foreign competition ; and especially should he improve the breed of animals, and stamp out and keep out diseases hitherto im- ported. There is, no doubt, ample room for increasing the efficiency of farming in England, and judicious legislation, particularly in im- proving the outfall of rivers and preventing floods, will materially further this desirable end. In addition, the frank interchange of views, and comparison of interests and advan- tages between landlords and tenants (a begin- ning of which has already happily been made), will greatly aid in reaching the much-wished- for result. The Duke of Argyll expresses his " perfect confidence in the prospcts of British agriculture, provided those who conduct it are left to do so in the perfect freedom which is the fundamental condition of improvement and of success in all industrial occupations"; and an able English writer expresses himself in ALABAMA. words worth quoting in conclusion : " Farmers would be ill advised if they allowed the press- ure of present difficulties to tempt them to dab- ble in revolutionary remedies, and, instead of putting their shoulders to the wheel, to invoke the political Hercules of the day as one who has an unbounded power to reform all ills." FURTHER STATISTICS. — It may be added here, from later sources, that the summary of agri- cultural returns of Great Britain for 1882 gives further evidence of the severe blow which a seven years' cycle of bad seasons has inflicted upon English agriculture. The area of wheat- culture has somewhat increased, but probably to no profit; and there is a decrease in the number of cattle and sheep. The picture as a whole is gloomy ; and the one that in the minds of those interested in the matter is, how best to increase the live-stock in English home farming. ALABAMA. STATE GOVERNMENT. — The State officers during the year were as follows : Governor, Rufus W. Cobb, (Democrat) ; Secre- tary of State, W. W. Screws ; Treasurer, I. H. Vincent ; Auditor, J. M. Carmichael ; Attor- ney-General, H. C. Tompkins ; Adjutant-Gen- eral, J. F. White ; Superintendent of Education, H. C. Armstrong ; State Librarian, J. M. Riggs. Judiciary : Chief-Justice of Supreme Court, Robert C. Brickell ; Associate Justices, George W. Stone and H. M. Somerville. LEGISLATURE. — The Legislature met on the 14th of November. On the 28th John T. Mor- gan was re-elected United States Senator by 29 votes to 2 for Paul L. Jones in the Senate, and 84 to 10 for Jones in the House. Morgan was supported by the Democrats and Jones by the Republicans and Greenbackers. On December 1st Governor O'Neal was inaugurated. No im- portant legislation had been perfected before the close of the year. STATISTICS. — The following is a summary of receipts and disbursements for each year from 18T4 to 1882 : 1814^76. 1876-'?6. istc-'rt. 18??-"?8. 18?8-'?9. 1879-»80. 1880-'81. 1881-»88. AUDITOR'S REPORTS. Cash balance beginning of year Receipts from all sources. . . . Expenditures on all ac- counts Cash balance at close of year TREASURER'S REPORTS. Actual cash at close of year. . $76,442 99 728,370 22 1,061,349 02 43,473 19 $51,574 19 $43,473 19 928,169 80 880,073 00 91,569 49 $100,063 84 $91.569 49 979,592 21 880,604 06 190,557 64 $198,737 58 $190,557 64 942,998 61 872,867 48 260,638 77 $265,620 85 $260,683 77 981,289 16 927,323 08 266,576 09 $267,051 75 $266,576 09 980,601 25 844,649 09 353,538 23 $358,583 75 $353,528 23 964,741 78 874,174 61 444,110 35 $444,111 07 $444,110 35 1,012,547 01 918,588 61 538,068 75 $538,133 63 Governor Cobb, in his message to the Legis- lature, says: I recommend a further reduction of the tax-rate. In two years the balance in the Treasury has been more than doubled, and is now entirely too large. Taxes should be collected only as they are needed, and to the extent they are > needed, for the proper purposes of economical administration. The debt settlement provided for by the act of February 23, 1876, has been practically com- pleted. There yet remain outstanding a few of the old bonds for which provision is made. As they come in, new bonds, bearing interest from the date of issue, are exchanged for them. It is probable the most of those still out are lost or destroyed. In two years, but $146,300 of the new bonds, of all classes, have been issued. The total bonded debt, including $253,500 of eight per centum bonds held by the Agricultu- ral and Mechanical College, is now $9,407,800, on which the interest charge is $343,929. There will be no further increase in the rate of inter- est on any class of bonds until January, 1887, when class A bonds will advance to four per centum. The valuation of property for taxa- tion has been for six years as follows : 1876, $135,535,792; 1877, $130,799,138; 1878, $126,- 773,262; 1879, $123,757,072 ; 1880, $139,077,- 328; and 1881, $182,920,115. So far as the abstracts have been received for 1882, they in- dicate a still larger aggregate. The scholastic year ends September 30th, but the reports of the Superintendent of Education are often delayed for reports from county su- perintendents. The report for 1880-'81 was not made until the middle of February, 1882, and the report for 1881-''82 was not made dur- ing the year. The total revenue of the school department for 1880-'81 was $397,479.04, de- rived from the following sources: Interest on sixteenth section fund, $105,424.49; interest on valueless sixteenth section fund, $5,825.47; interest on United States surplus revenue fund, $26,763.47; escheats to the State, $160.83; an- nual appropriation, $130,000; unapportioned balance from 1880, $1,092.45 ; and poll-tax col- lected and retained in the counties, $128,212.33. This was apportioned as follows: to counties and cities, including the poll-tax, $382,552.52 ; to the normal schools, $13,500; educational con- tingent fund, $1,000 ; unapportioned, $426.52. The expenditures of the fund were as follows : Paid to teachers of white schools, $225,867.77; to teachers of colored schools, $158,901.85 ; sal- aries of county and city superintendents, $11,- 883.80 ; normal schools, $13,500 ; and contin- gent expenses, $535.65. The total number of children within the school ages enumerated was 88,003, of which 217,590 were whites and 170,- 413 were colored. The total number of chil- dren enrolled was 176,289, of which 107,338 were whites and 68,951 were colored. The daily average attendance in the white schools was 66,840, and in the colored schools 48,476. There were 4,572 schools taught during the year, of which 2,981 were white schools and 1,591 were colored schools. The total number of teachers was 4,698, of whom 3,053 were in the white schools and 1,645 were in the colored schools. The average length of time taught in ALABAMA. the white schools was 84 days and in the col- ored schools 76 days. The average monthly pay of teachers in the white schools was $22.98 and in the colored schools was $23.15. It is not likely that there will be any very large va- riations from these statistics in the report for 18Sl-'82. From October, 1880, to October, 1882, there were 75 pupils in the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind Asylum at Talladega, of whom 14 were discharged, leaving at the latter date 61 in the institution, of whom 40 were mutes and 21 were blind. On September 30, 1880, there were 402 pa- tients in the Hospital for the Insane, of whom 213 were men and 189 were women. During the two years ending September 30, 1882, 188 patients were discharged, 57 died, and 260 were admitted, leaving under treatment 417 patients, of whom 209 were men and 208 were women. Of these, 345 were white and 72 were colored. The causes of death were as follows: Apoplexy, 2 ; Bright's disease, 2 ; cer- ebral softening, 1 ; cerebral congestion, 2 ; diarrhoea, 1 ; epilepsy, 3 ; fracture of skull, 1 ; heart-disease, 2 ; maniacal exhaustion, 9 ; ma- rasmus, 11 ; paresis, 6 ; pericarditis, 1 ; peri- tonitis, 1; phthisis, 11; pneumonia, 3; and syphilis, 1. Of the discharges, 126 had recov- ered, 49 were improved, and 13 were un- changed. In the two years, 155 applications for admission were refused for want of room. From the opening of the hospital in July, 1861, to the date of the last report, 1,835 patients had been admitted into it, of whom 671 had been discharged recovered, 211 discharged im- proved, 84 discharged unchanged, and 452 had died. The cost of maintaining the hospital for the two years was $140,003.50, of which $13,- 729.41 was for improvements and repairs. An extension to the hospital building is in course of construction. The effective militia of Alabama consists of two regiments and a few unattached companies, uniformed at their own expense, and armed and equipped by the State. These organiza- tions are numerically weak, numbering in all less than one thousand men, and they are not all as well drilled and disciplined as they should be. The Governor comments unfavorably upon one feature of the penal law, as follows : Hard labor for the county, as an alternative for im- prisonment in the penitentiary, is peculiar to Alabama. It is unknown in other States. It confounds misde- meanors and felonies. It unequally punishes ofifend- era. The felon in the penitentiary escapes the severer punishment of hard labor for the county, which must M inflicted upon the misdemeanant. The convict to the penitentiary has the benefit of State inspection, which gives him some protection while serving out his sentence, and secures his discharge at its expira- tion. The convict to hard labor for the county is gen- erally hired to work outside of the county, is sub- jected to penitentiary discipline, is beyond the care of those who should see that he is humanely treated, and has no assurance of discharge at the expiration of his sentence. The following is the record of the Alabama Penitentiary for recent years : ?nr 8 YEARS. e.§ 3 I J3 •2 2 £ "3 •i •* £ 1 r I3 H 1875 850 60 290 2 21 23 1876 ,. 500 55 445 5 18 28 1877 . .. 600 60 540 4 41 45 1878 680 74 606 16 16 1879 660 77 583 5 18 18 1880 600 74 526 5 87 42 In 1872 only 10,000 tons of coal were mined in Alabama. In 1879 were mined 290,000 tons; in 1880, 340,000 tons; in 1881, 400,000 tons. According to the census of 1880, the State produced 699,654 bales of cotton, 25,451,278 bushels of corn, 3,039,639 of oats, and 1,529,657 of wheat. The following is the cotton statement of the port of Mobile, August 81, 1882 : Bales. Bales. Stock ou hand September 1 , 1881 4,281 Received this year 263,619 Corrections 1,399 Wagon-cotton 22—265,040 Received from Pensacola 2,096 Total 271,417 Exports to Great Britain 86,822 " France 6,313 " other foreign ports 3,231 " United States ports 223,755 Local consumption 1,099—271,220 Stock on hand this day 197 Net receipts for the year 265, 040 PROPORTION OF COTTON RECEIPTS AT MOBILE. By rivers and railroads. 1881-»8«. 1880-'81. 18t9-'80. Alabama River Tombigbee River Black Warrior River Mobile and Ohio Railroad . . Mobile and Montgomery Railroad Mobile and Alabama Grand Trunk Railroad 81,989 45,101 9,545 119,723 57,261 46,848 67,387 15,665 162,723 97,563 46,842 77,228 15,479 177,866 40,674 Totals 263,619 890,186 857,089 Wagon- cotton, etc 1,421 2,133 1,882 Total for the year 265,040 892,319 358,971 WEIGHT AND VALUE OF COTTON EXPORTS TO FOREIGN PORTS FROM MOBILE FOR THREE TEARS. 1881-'88. 1880-»81. 18?9-'80. Total exports Total weight Total value 46,866 22,936,333 $2,547,811 70 494£fr $54 95 11-llc. 116,263 58,693,850 $5,657,357 58 M4Jft $48 66 9-64c. 111,687 56,948,084 $6,395,197 62 809A'* $57 26 ll-28c. Average weight per bale Average value per bale Average value per pound By means of the improvement of Mobile Bay which has just been completed by the United States Government, a vessel drawing twenty- three feet may now enter the lower bay and find secure anchorage, and a vessel drawing seventeen feet may pass from the lower bay di- rect to the wharves of the city. The following table gives the population by counties, distinguished as white and colored, according to the census of 1880 : ALABAMA. COUNTIES. POPULATION. COUNTIES. POPULATION. Total. White. Colored. Total. White. Colored. A t In 1875, part to Chilton. Included in the total are 4 Chinese and 213 Indians. There were living in the United States 1,319,189 persons born in Alabama (708,904 white and 610,285 colored). Of the total population 622,629 were males and 639,- 876 females, 1,252,771 native and 9,734 foreign born. Of persons ten years of age and up- ward, 370,279, or 43-5 per cent, could not read, and 433,447, or 50'9 per cent, could not write. Of the latter, 111,040 were native whites, being 25 per cent of that class, and 321,680 were colored, being 80'6 per cent of that class. There were 141,461 white and 118,423 colored males twenty-one years of age and over. The number of horses on farms was 113,950 ; mules and asses, 121,081; working oxen, 75,- 534 ; milch-cows, 271,443 ; other cattle, 404,- 213 ; sheep, 347,538 ; swine, 1,252,462 ; manu- facturing establishments, 2,070 ; capital, $9,- 668,008; hands, 10,019; value of materials used, $8,470,205 ; products, $13,565,504. POLITICAL CONVENTIONS. — The Democratic State Convention met in Montgomery on the 7th of June, and on the second day nominated the following ticket : For Governor, Edward A. O'Neal, of Lau- derdale ; for Secretary of State, Ellis Phelan, of Jefferson; for Attorney-General, Henry C. Tompkins, of Montgomery ; for Treasurer, Isaac H. Vincent, of Chambers; for Auditor, • In 1877, part from Montgomery. 9 Since 1870, name changed from Sanford to Lamar. 10 In 1877, part to Cullman. 11 In 1877, parts to Bullock and Elmore. 14 In 1821 name changed from Cataco to Morgan ; in 1877, part to Cullman. 13 In 1877, part from Clay. 54 In 1850 name changed from Hancock to Winston; in 1877, part to Cullman. Jesse M. Carmichael, of Dale; for Superin- tendent of Education, Henry C. Armstrong, of Macon, The following is the platform adopted : Resolved, by the Democratic and Conservative party of Alabama, in convention assembled : 1. That we re-affirm our devotion to the time-hon- ored principles of the Democratic party ; a strict con- struction ot the Federal Constitution? obedience to the laws of the General Government within its constitu- tional limits, and maintain the right of the State to regulate its local affairs by its own authority. 2. We are unalterably opposed to the continued acts of the Federal authorities tending to centralization of all power in the General Government, to the destruc- tion of local self-government. 3. We present the record of the administration of the State's affairs while in the control of the Demo- cratic party as an earnest of the fidelity of the party to the principles of economy and good government. We invite immigration and capital to our State, and pledge full and perfect protection to all such as may come among us. 4. That public education should be fostered and encouraged by the State as far as the means of the State will allow_, having at the same time due regard to thepreservation of the public credit. 5. We recognize the necessity of protecting and preserving the purity of the ballot-box as the safe- guard of free institutions, and condemn any attempt to interfere with the free and full exercise of the elect- ive franchise. The nominee for Governor was born in Madi- son County in 1818. He was a general in the 6 ALABAMA. ALASKA AND ITS FUR-SEAL INDUSTRY. Confederate army. In 1841 he was elected solicitor of his circuit ; in 1875 he was a raern- her of the Constitutional Convention, and in 1880 one of the Hancock electors from the State at large. The Independent- Greenback State Conven- tion met in Birmingham on the 5th of July, and nominated the following ticket : For Governor, James L. Sheffield, of Mar- shall; for Secretary of State, A. H. Town- send, of Butler ; for Attorney-General, Paul L. Jones, of Madison; for Treasurer, John W. Montgomery, of Jefferson ; for Auditor, John B. Shields, of Walker ; for Superintendent of Education, Dr. Ira G. Wood, of Jackson. On the 6th the Republican State Conven- tion met in Montgomery, and indorsed the above ticket ; but Charles P. Lane, of Lime- stone County, was subsequently substituted for Mr. Jones. The following platform was adopted, which is substantially that of the Birmingham Convention : Be it resolved, by the Eepublicans of Alabama in convention assembled : 1. That we favor such amendment or revision of the present election law of Alabama as will give each, voter of the State assurance that his ballot will be counted as cast, and that the real result of every elec- tion will be honestly declared, and will remove the existing inspectors and other officers of election, and render it impossible to defeat the will of the majority by making fraudulent returns. 2. That, while demanding that adequate punish- ment shall be meted out to every violator of the law, we favor such changes in the convict system— both State and county— as will at least tend to reform as well as punish criminals, to humanize rather than brutalize them, and also such other changes as will put an end to the conflict now existing, in some por- tions of the mineral districts of our State, between cheap convict-labor and the working-man. 3. That we favor a liberal support to tbe free schools of the State, and an enactment of such laws as will foster and cherish our school system. 4. That we favor the enactment of such laws as will not only invite, but make it to the interest of, immi- grants to seek homes in Alabama. ^ 5. That we favor, as far as the same may be prac- ticable under our organic law, the encouragement and protection of manufactories of all kinds in our State for such time as may be necessary to secure their permanent establishment. This we favor, believing that the prosperity of all tbe people depends largely upon it. C. That we favor and heartily approve the protec- tion of all homo industries by the Federal Govern- ment, and we recognize in the principle "protection for protection's sake" the wisdom that cherishes its own, and in its application by the National Kepub- lican party in its administration of the government we recognize the statesmanship that favors the labor- ing 1 1 Kin of the nation by enlarging and increasing the demand for labor ; and at the same time taking from their shoulders the burden of taxation and plac- ing it on the wealthy. A State Temperance Convention was held in Montgomery on the 21st and 22d days of November, which agreed to ask of the Legisla- ture certain amendments and new laws looking to the restriction of the liquor-traffic. ELECTION RETURNS.— The election in August resulted in the choice of the Democratic ticket. The aggregate vote was as follows : For Gov- ernor, Edward A. O'Neal, 100,591 ; James L. Sheffield, 46,386. For Secretary of State, Ellis Phelan, 103,153; A. H. Townsend, 44,798. For Treasurer, Isaac H. Vincent, 102,780; J. W. Montgomery, 43,639. For Auditor, Jesse M. Carmichael, 100,968 ; J. B. Shields, 45,053. For Attorney -General, H. C. Tompkins, 103,- 562 ; C. P. Lane, 44,605 ; Paul Jones, 20. I. H. Vincent received 1,031 for Auditor in- tended for Treasurer. J. M. Carmichael re- ceived 1,041 for Treasurer, and Jas. M. Car- michael 2,247 for Auditor, all intended for Jesse M. Carmichael. For Superintendent of Education the vote was: Armstrong, 104,170; Wood, 47,133. The Legislature stands as fol- lows: Senate, 31 Democrats and 2 opposition; House, 79 regular and 7 independent Demo- crats, and 14 opposition. Democrats were elected to Congress in November in each of the eight districts. ALASKA AND ITS FUR-SEAL INDUS- TRY. The population of Alaska Territory is given by the census of 1880, by districts, as fol- lows: Yukon Division, 7,000; Interior Division, 2,226 ; Kuskoqwim, 3,654 ; Bristol Bay, 4,340; Kadiak, 2,606; Kenai, 984; Belkovsky, 669; Oonalaska, 1,392 ; islands in Behring Sea, 1,290; Prince William Sound, 500; South- eastern Alaska, 6,725; total, 31,386, of whom about 18,000 are supposed to be Esquimaux or Innuits. In addition to these, who represent the regular population, are about 1,500 whites, mostly traders and miners, in Southeastern Alaska. The Aleutian population and a part of the Innuits were civilized under the Russian domination, and live after the European style ; of these, some 8,000 or 9,000^are attached to the Russian Greek Church. Recent surveys show that the country is much more important, and its resources are more extensive, than had been supposed. Its area (580,107 square miles) is equal to that of all the United States east of the Mississippi River, and north of Georgia and the Carolinas. It measures 1,400 miles in direct line from north to south, and 2,200 miles from its east- ern boundary to the end of the Aleutian Isl- ands, and has a total of 25,000 miles of coast- lines. The total area of its islands is 31,205 square miles. Its principal river, the Yukon, may be ranked among the largest rivers in the United States, being seventy miles wide across its five mouths and the intervening deltas, and from one to five miles wide for the first thousand miles of its course. It is known to be navigable for 1,500 miles, and is be- lieved by Mr. Robert Campbell, of the Hudson Bay Company, who has explored the streams, to be, with its tributary, the Pelly, navigable, when full, for nearly 3,000 miles. The land abounds in fur-bearing animals ; the seas yield fur-bearing seals and otters, and fish in many varieties and immense quantities. Three thousand tons of codfish were caught on the banks off the Shumagin Islands, during 1879, for houses in San Francisco. Salmon- ALASKA AND ITS FUR-SEAL INDUSTRY. canneries have been established near Sitka, at Klawak, and at Kasaan Bay. The southeastern section of the Territory is densely covered with forests of yellow-cedar, white-spruce, and bal- sam-fir. Coal has been found at different places along the coast; petroleum near the Bay of Katmai and on Copper River; copper abun- dantly on Copper River and at Kasaan Bay ; lead on Whale Bay and in Kadiak Island; iron and graphite in many places ; marble and sul- phur in large quantities ; bismuth on Vostovia Mountain ; and kaolin, fire-clay, gypsum, ame- thysts, zeolites, garnets, agates, carneliaiis, and fossil -ivory are also found. Gold-mines, both placer and quartz, were opened during 1881 on Gastineaux Channel, opposite Douglas Island, when the Board of Home Missions of the Pres- byterian Church in the United States of Amer- ica began to establish schools. That board has now five schools in the Alexandria Archipelago (including Sitka and Port Wrangell), in all of which the English language is taught. These schools, with two which are supported by the Alaska Commercial Company on the Seal Isl- ands, and the two Russian schools already mentioned, represent all the facilities for edu- cation existing in this vast Territory. An exploring expedition left San Francisco for Alaska during the summer, under the direction of Mr. Edward Schieffelin, who purposed to ascend the Yukon River as far as possible. He took with him a stern-wheel steamer and three Commander Ids. 8 .Attoo Copper Id. O o St. Lawrence Id. St. Matthews Id. 2?univak Id. S JZ JL St.George Oonolaska SKETCH MAP of ALASKA Showing- the relative position of the SEAL ISLANDS. "Vancouver and yielded more than $30,000 during the first summer. Gold is supposed to exist in many other places; and the Cassiar mines of British Columbia, which are near the Territory, prob- ably extend into it. Sitka, the capital of the Territory, is the port of Alaska most familiarly known to Americans of the States, but is really, according to Mr. Henry W. Elliot, of the United States Com- mission of Fish and Fisheries, inferior in im- portance to several other places. " Kadiak, Oonga, Belkovsky, and Oonalaska," says this author, in his " Monograph of the Seal Islands of Alaska," " each has a greater population than has Sitka to-day, and each has a hundred- fold more importance as a trade-center." A considerable number of schools were es- tablished by the Russians while they held Alas- ka, both on the main-land and on the islands. When the Territory passed under the control of the United States they were all discontinued, except one at Oonalaska and one at Belkov- sky ; and education was neglected until 1877, companions, and expected to spend a year in his cruise. FUR- SEALS. — One of the most important business industries of Alaska is connected with the capture of the fur-seal ( Callorhinus ursimts) at the Pribylov Islands, and the trade in its furs, which are under the exclusive control of the Alaska Commercial Company. The fur-seals, particularly as represented by the southern spe- cies (ArctocepJialus Australia), were formerly numerous and widely distributed, frequenting the islands of the coast of South America and of the Southern and Antarctic Oceans ; but they have been nearly exterminated by reckless hunting, and now only a comparatively insig- nificant part of the world's supply is drawn from these sources. In the northern hemi- sphere they are not represented in the Atlantic Ocean at all, and in the Pacific Ocean only at two localities, the Pribylov Islands St. Paul and St. George, Alaska, and Behring and Copper Isl- ands, of the Commander Group, which are un- der Russian jurisdiction. The world's supply ALASKA AND ITS FUE-SEAL INDUSTRY. of seal-furs is principally derived from the for- mer locality, where the seal population is, by wise management, kept up unimpaired. The Pribylov Islands lie in the heart of Behr- ing Sea, 192 miles north of Oonalaska, 1,400 miles west-northwest from Sitka, and 2,250 miles west-northwest from San Francisco. They include the Islands of St. Paul and St. George, which lie from twenty-seven to thirty miles apart, and of which St. George lies southeast- ward of St. Paul. The Island of St. Paul, the larger of the two, has an area of about 33 square miles, or 21,120 acres, and 42 miles of shore-line, of which 16£ miles are k' hauled" over by fur-seals. St. George has an area of about 27 square miles and 29 miles of coast-line, of which 2£ miles only are visited by the seals. The islands are inhabited by 390 Aleuts (298 on St. Paul and 92 on St. George), who dwell in comfortable houses in the villages of their respective islands, and are employed in killing the seals. The fur-seal, which resorts to these islands to breed and shed its hair and fur, is the high- est organized of all the animals of the order (Pinnipedia) to which it belongs, and exhibits an instinct of an extraordinarily high order. It is distinguished from the hair-seal (Phoca vitu- lina), with which it has not even a generic af- finity, by its erect habit and black or ochre- colored body. The male, or " bull," when fully grown, measures between six and a half and seven and a half feet in length, and will weigh between four hundred and six hundred pounds. The head appears disproportionately small in comparison with the thick neck and shoulders, but is nearly all occupied by the brain; the eyes are bluish hazel, with a changing expres- sion ; the muzzle and jaws are of about the same size and form as those of a Newfoundland dog, but with firmly lined and compressed lips ; it has a long, yellowish-white and gray mus- tache ; and it carries its head about three feet from the ground. The females, or " cow-seals," are between four and four and one half feet in length, are much more shapely in their pro- portions than the bulls, and have handsome heads and eyes, and an expression of consider- able intelligence. They resort to the islands for the purpose of giving birth to their young, reaching there at the end of their period of gestation, and generally within a day or two of their time of delivery. The selection of the Pribylov Islands for resort is determined by the peculiar adaptation of the beaches to the habits and comfort of the animals during the breeding-season. The shores present, at the places selected for the "hauling" and breed- ing-grounds, gentle slopes of shingle or a firm, well-drained surface, to which the seals can travel without discomfort, and where they can lie without annoyance from mud or sand,vfrom May till October, every year, in perfect phys- ical peace and security. The " bull-seals " seek the islands considera- bly earlier in the season than the cow-seals, the first arrivals taking place early in May, and the great body reaching the grounds about the first of June, while the females do not come up till three weeks or a month later than the lat- ter time. Each bull selects a spot about six or eight feet square, which he defends as his own against all rivals, and to which he invites the females when they have come to the shore, till he has collected a "harem" of fifteen or more cows around him. The breeding-season is at its height from the 10th to the 15th of July in every year, after which it subsides at the end of that month and in August. It is also established that the breeding is confined entirely to the land, and that it is never effect- ed in the sea ; the females bear their first young, a single pup each, when they are three years old, after about twelve months of gestation. The animals begin to scatter from the definite limits of their breeding-places about the 25th of July, and the " rookeries " are entirely broken up after the middle of September, when the " pups '* have all learned to swim. By far the largest number of the male seals, including those which are not yet six years old, fail in the competition to establish themselves on the breeding-grounds and to secure harems of fe- males. They are called "bachelor-seals," or, in Russian, " holluschickie," and are allotted distinct grounds, called " hauling-grounds," after the seal's peculiar mode of progression. The hauling-grounds, with the passages lead- ing to them through the breeding-grounds, are definitely marked off, and the boundaries are strictly respected by both the breeding and the bachelor seals. The bachelor-seals are the par- ticular objects of the chase which is conducted on the islands. The hunting-season nearly cor- responds with the breed ing- season, the greater proportion of the work being done in June and July. The process of hunting is rather one of driving the animals from the "hauling-grounds" to the "killing-grounds," as domestic animals are driven, for the seals are quite tame and obey the commands of their drivers with do- cility. Only, care has to be taken to avoid over-driving and heating them, which destroy the quality of the fur. The killing is done by the native inhabitants of the islands, who, armed with clubs about five or six feet in length and three inches in diameter (which are made in New London for the purpose), and knives, knock them on the head, stab them to the heart, and skin them speedily, before a pe- culiar reaction, which they call "heating," has had time to set in. The skins, which weigh from five and a half to twelve pounds each, according to the age of the animal, are salted, and piled, "hair to fat," in bins, whence, after having lain two or three weeks, till they are "pickled," they may be taken out at any time and rolled into bundles of two skins each, with the hairy side out, ready for shipment. The business of hunting the seals and curing the skins is, by act of Congress, a monopoly of the Alaska Commercial Company of San Fran- ALASKA AND ITS FUR-SEAL INDUSTRY. 9 cisco. This company was organized by Mr. H. M. Hutchinson and Captain Ebenezer Morgan, who were the first persons to visit the islands in search of seals (in 1868) after they had passed into the possession of the United States. They perceived what the islands could be made to yield permanently under proper regulations, and also that the seals would be speedily ex- terminated if such regulations were not adopt- ed. They accordingly procured an order from the Treasury Department declaring the islands a governmental reservation, and afterward an act of Congress for the protection of the fur- bearing animals on the islands. This act limits the time when the seals may be killed to the months of June, July, September, and Octo- ber in each year ; prohibits killing by fire-arms, or any other means that will tend to drive the seals away, as well as the killing of female seals or of any seals less than one year old ; and the killing of any seals in the waters or "on the beaches, cliffs, or rocks where they haul up from the sea to remain " ; limits the number that may be killed to 100,000 in each year, besides what the natives may re- quire for their food; and provides for the leasing of the exclusive privilege of killing the seals for the term of twenty years. The lease was awarded to the Alaska Commercial Com- pany, whose charter, rules, and regulations have been framed to accord with the provisions of the law. Practically the company does not allow more than 99,850 seals to be taken on its account in a single year. The natives use 5,000 or 6,000 more. The company employs a fleet of four steamers and a dozen or fifteen sailing-vessels, and gives its principal attention to the seal-islands, while it has also stations scattered over the Aleutian Islands and that Sirt of Alaska west and north of Kadiak. utside of the seal-islands, all trade in Alaska is open to the public. The whole number of breeding-seals and their young on the two islands was calculated from actual survey in the season of 1873 to be 3,193,420. This enormous aggregate is entirely exclusive of the great numbers of non-breeding seals, to which the killing is confined, which are never permitted to come to the breeding- grounds. The animals of the latter class are nearly equal in number to the adult breeding- seals, and may therefore be counted at at least 1,500,000 ; so that the grand total of the fur- seal life on the Pribylov Islands is represented by more than 4,700,000 individuals. The theoretical value of the interests of the Government on the islands, measuring it by the value of 2,500,000 or 3,000,000 adult fur-seals, male and female, in good condition, is estimated by Mr. Henry W. Elliot, of the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries, to be not less than $10,000,000 or $12,000,000; taking, however, the females out of the question and from^the calculation, and including the "hol- luschickie " alone, as they really represent the only killable seals, then the commercial value of the same would be expressed by the sum of $1,800,000 to $2,000,000— a sum which stands as a permanent principal in the islands, and re- turns the public Treasury upward of $317,000, or more than 15 per cent, annually. In answer to the question, which has been frequently asked him — whether the seals are not in danger of being exterminated at the present rate of killing them — Mr. Elliot says that, provided matters are conducted on the islands in the future as they are to-day, and no plague or abnormal causes of destruction arise, one hundred thousand seals under the age of five years, and more than one year old, maybe safely taken every year, without the slightest injury to the birth-rates or regular increase. This assertion is based on the estimate that about a million "pups," or young seals, are born on the islands every year, of which about one half, or 500,000, are males. These ani- mals reach the sea, having suffered a loss of not more than one per cent, but are there exposed to destruction by various agencies, in conse- quence of which not more than half of them, or 250,000 males, return in the following year. After that time the causes of destruction are less extensively operative, and 225,000 out of the original 500,000 male young, with as many females, may be expected to live out the ordi- nary terms of their natural lives. Not more than one in fifteen of the males born is needed for breeding purposes in the future ; but, even if one fifth of them are reserved, there are still left 180,000 animals that might be safely killed every year. Mr. Elliot further states his be- lief that it is not possible by any management materially to increase the production of the isl- ands. The total number of skins taken — from 1797 to 1880 — is computed, from the best data that can be obtained, at 3,561,051. The Alaska Commercial Company paid into the Treasury of the United States, from July, 1870, to Au- gust, 1881, in taxes and rental, the total sum of $3,452,408.50. The fur-seals are voracious eaters, and live on fish, of which, estimating that each individual requires ten pounds a day, they can hardly consume less than six million tons every year. They are also, in their turn, particularly the young ones, preyed upon act- ively by the killer- whale (Orca gladiator). The most probable contingency under which a change may be produced in the seal product- iveness of the Pribylov Islands may possibly arise from a diversion of the herds to Behring and Copper Islands, of the Commander Group, in Russian territory, which afford equally favorable grounds for their rookeries, and are now sparsely visited by them. No other coast in the region is adapted to them. Between 1862 and 1880, 287,462 fur-seal skins were shipped from the Commander Islands. Among other animals of the Pribylov Islands which are applied to economical uses are the sea-lions (Eumetopias Stelleri), which are little appreciated in the commercial world, but are invaluable to the natives. Their skins are used 10 ALGERIA AND THE SEA. for covering the native boats, and the tough parts are made into boots; their intestines are sewed together into water-proof garments; their stomach- walls are used as oil-pouches ; their carcasses are preserved by hanging in the open air for the winter's supply of meat ; and their mustache-bristles are sold to the Chi- nese for use as pickers to opium-pipes, and in the ceremonies of the joss-houses. These ani- mals are far less numerous than the fur-seals. Air. Elliot does not believe that the number of them, resorting to the islands for breeding pur- poses, exceeds ten or twelve thousand. ALGERIA AND THE SEA. The popula- tion of Algeria, according to the census of 1881, is as follows: DEPARTMENTS. Inhabitants under civil adminittration. Inhabitants under military administration. Total. Algiers 1.072,762 178,910 1,251,672 Oran 674,880 92,492 767,322 Constantino 1,075,355 216,063 1,291,418 Total ... 2 822 947 487465 8 810 412 The inhabitants of Algeria are of two dis- tinct races — the Arabs, who invaded and con- quered the country, and the Kabyles, who have lived in the country since the time of the Ro- mans, and who were driven into the mountains by the Arabs. Great differences exist between these two races. The Kabyles speak a lan- guage which is not understood by the Arabs. They build houses, have a municipal organiza- tion which was given to them by the Romans, and cultivate with care small tracts of land, fence and protect them like the Europeans. They hate the Arabs, to whose rule they have never entirely submitted. The ruins of former Kabyle villages can be found in many places. The Kabyles retain to the present day the traditions of the cruel conquest of the Arabs. On the other hand, the Arabs are an idle and destructive race. They do not cultivate more ground than is necessary to produce a supply for their immediate wants, and even this little is done without care and without method. The two races are described by recent French au- thors, the one as industrious and capable of be- ing civilized, the other lazy, vicious, and entirely opposed to civilization. They have completely separated from each other, and are kept apart by their mutual antipathy. It is now proposed that the French shall make an effort to attract the Kabyles by presenting themselves to the latter as their liberators, and inviting them to descend from their mountains to the fertile plains which formerly were occupied by their ancestors. Thus, it is thought, the French Government would be able to reduce its army of occupation, by opposing the Kabyles to the Arabs. The question of creating a large inland sea on the south of Algeria has long been agitated in France. A few years ago Commandant Roudaire carefully examined the desert which it is proposed to change into a sea, and made an estimate of the cost. Afterward he organ- ized a company ready to undertake the work. He then applied to the French Government for a concession to go on with the enterprise ; and the latter, on April 2Vth, appointed an extraor- dinary commission to investigate the subject in all its bearings. The plan of Commandant Roudaire is to change into a sea the three great natural depressions on the south of Al- geria, called Shotts, known as Rharsa, Melrir, and El-Djerid, which extend from east to west to the Gulf of Gabes, in Tunis. Of these only the first two lie below the level of the sea, while the surface of El-Djerid is on an average 66 feet above, so that a canal would have to be dug through the latter, in order to fill the other two with water. This canal would be about 190 miles long, and, although passing through a desert, could be constructed. With regard to the cost, M. Roudaire estimated that about 46,800,000 cubic yards of sand and clay and 1,950,000 cubic yards of rock would have to be removed, which, at 15£ cents per cubic yard, would amount to $7,500,000. For other digging and excavation M. Roudaire estimates $2,800,000, which, together with the cost of the necessary machines, and $4,000,000 for miscellaneous expenditures, would bring the total amount to about $15,000,000. This sum had been sub- scribed, and the company only asked of the Government the concession, and the land which will border on the sea. Among the receipts ex- pected by the company, the principal ones were those from fisheries and salt-works which were to be established. The commission appointed by the Govern- ment divided itself into three sub-commissions — the first a technical one, which was to ex- amine into the feasibility of the project ; the second a physical commission, which was to examine into the meteorological and sanitary conditions; and the third a political one, to investigate the question from a political, stra- tegical, moral, and commercial view. The first and most important sub-commission came- to the conclusion that the plan was a feasible one, and could be practically carried out. With regard to the cost, however, the commission rejected completely M. Roudaire's estimates. According to its own calculation, it arrives at the following result : If the Shotts are to be filled in to the necessary height, it would require a constant flow of 243 cubic yards of water per second in order to make up the losses by evaporation, and to keep the sea at the proper level. The canals must be wide and deep enough to furnish this amount of water, while, at the same time, the current must not exceed 1£ foot per second. According to the estimates of the commission, the construction of the canal would cost, in ordinary ground, 15^ cents per cubic yard, and for rocks 46£ cents per cubic yard, or, in all, $90,600,000. In order to fill the proposed sea, 223,600,000,000 cubic yards of water would be necessary, and, to do ALPS, TUNNELS OF THE. 11 this at the rate of 243 cubic yards per second, or 6,696,000,000 per year, twenty-nine years would be necessary, without taking into account the loss by evaporation. If this loss is taken into account, the commission thinks, the sea would never be filled at that rate. It furthermore thinks that the formation of an inland sea could not be undertaken, with any expectation of success, if a longer time than ten years was required to fill its basin. But, in estimating the amount of water required, both for filling and replacing the losses by evaporation during the ten years, the commission arrives at a total of 289,000,000,000 cubic yards. This would necessitate a supply of 915 cubic yards per second. As to the amount of the expense, the commission estimated the cost of con- struction at $145,539,800, other expenses at $7,276,990, and interest on the capital for twelve and a half years, at 5 per cent, at $95,510,500— in all, $248,327,290. The sec- ond sub-commission was of the opinion that an inland sea would bring about a decided improvement in the temperature, climate, and sanitary condition of the country. The third sub-commission reported that, in its opinion, no international difficulties were to be appre- hended in consequence of the formation of the sea. It would offer but small advantages in the military defense of the country, while for the navy the most important result would be the creation of a port at Gabes. It could not be assumed that the sea would become the means of creating a large commerce. If an improvement of the climate should take place, it might be possible to permanently settle the Arabs, and to accustom them, under the direc- tion of the Europeans, to regular labor. The full commission, after haying received these reports, passed the following resolution at its last session, held on July 7th : The commission, while fully appreciating the in- teresting labors or M. Koudaire. and admiring the courage and perseverance which he has shown in the course of his researches in the south of Algeria and Tunis, is, in view of the fact that the expenses would be out of all proportion to the benefits to be derived therefrom, of the opinion that it is not advisable for the French Government to encourage this undertak- ing. ALPS, TUNNELS OF THE, In May, 1882, the tunnel through the St. Gothard was fin- ished and formally opened. This great work was begun in 1870, by Switzerland and Italy. These countries had entered into a conven- tion for that purpose in 1869, which Germany joined in 1871. The cost was estimated at 187,000,000 francs, of which 85,000,000 francs were to be furnished by government subsi- dies, Italy paying 45,000,000, and Germany and Switzerland 20,000,000 francs each. The length of the tunnel is 14*92 kilometres, or about nine miles. It begins at Goeschenen and ends at Airolo. With the exception of a curve of 240 metres, it is perfectly straight. In ad- dition to the tunnel, it was proposed to build the following lines: Lucerne-Kussnacht-Im- mensee-Goldau, Zug-St.-Adrian-Goldau, Gol- dau-Fliielen-Biasca-Bellinzona, Bellinzona-Lu- gano-Chiasso, and Bellinzona-Magadino-Luino, with a branch to Locarno. In 1876 it was found that a very considerable deficit existed, which was estimated at 102,000,000 francs. At a conference of the three powers, held in 1877, this was reduced to 40,000,000 francs by dropping the lines Lucerne-Immensee, Bellin- zona-Lugano, and Zug-Art. The railroads be- longing to the Gothard system, according to this calculation, have a length of 186'6 kilo- metres, or 116 miles. The deficit was covered by subsidies from Italy and Germany to the amount of 10,000,000 francs each, and from Switzerland 8,000,000 francs, while the bal- ance of 12,000,000 francs was raised by the Gothard Railroad Company. The highest point of the tunnel is 1,162-5 metres above the level of the sea. (See ENGINEERING.) The St. Gothard Tunnel was regarded in France, long before its completion, with feel- ings of envy, as it was feared that a great por- tion of the through freight from the North Sea to the Mediterranean would be lost to the French railroads; and when, therefore, in 1880, the Swiss Federal Council inquired of the French Government whether it would favor an international conference on the subject of a tunnel through the Simplon, a pass through the Alps in the Canton of Valais, the latter an- swered that the subject was even then being considered by the proper ministers. The con- sideration of this question was interrupted by a ministerial crisis. Then a motion was made, and supported by 109 deputies, in the French Assembly, to assist the Simplon line with 50,- 000,000 francs. A commission was appointed to investigate the matter, which made a tech- nical examination of the proposed route, but rather favored another which was spoken of at the time, through Mont Blanc. The gen- eral elections again put a stop to the work, as it is a parliamentary custom in France, as else- where, that a question proposed in one House falls to the ground when the term of the As- sembly expires. Nothing has since been done by the French Government. The Railroad Company of Western Switzerland, which is largely interested in the proposed Simplon Tunnel, has recently again applied to the Swiss Federal Council, and the latter has addressed the French Government. But, owing to fresh ministerial complications in France, it ha3 seemed most prudent to postpone action until the negotiations with France for commercial customs were concluded. For the Mont Blanc route it is claimed that it would secure for France the through freight from Calais to Chamounix, on the Italian bor- der, for 928 kilometres, and that the distance by this route would be 85 kilometres less than by the Mont Cenis route, which is now used, between Calais and Piacenza. The road from Calais to Genoa, through Mont Blanc, would be 41 kilometres shorter than through 12 ALPS, TUNNELS OF THE. ANGLICAN CHURCHES. the St. Gothard, and 25 kilometres shorter than by way of Mont Cenis. One of the results of the St. Gothard Tunnel is the opening of the new railroad from Novara to Pino, the most direct route between the St. Gothard and Rome. The Milan line ascends the Monte Ceneri at Giubiasco, a village below Bellinzona, while another railroad branches off to the right to Locarno, passing through the swampy delta where the Ticino empties into the Lago Maggiore. At the first station of this road, at Cadenazzo, another road branches off, which, passing along the left bank of the lake, 4 Q^ (I St.Jeanofthe "~JS- Mauricnne PROPOSED TUNNELS OF THB ALPS. leads to Pino. Here it connects with the Ital- ian road, which, after passing to Sesto by way of Luvino, crosses the Ticino, which leaves the lake at that point, and then after crossing the railroad from Arona to Milan passes on to No- vara and there connects with che roads to Tu- rin and Genoa. The entire line from Pino to Novara is forty-one miles long, and passes through eighteen tunnels, which together have a length of eight and a quarter miles. Another plan to preserve for French roads the through commerce from England to the Mediterranean, and which has been brought forward very recently, is to build a new and direct line from Calais to Marseilles. Among the promoters of this new line are M. Roth- schild and a number of deputies. The line after leaving Calais would touch Boulogne and Ab- beville, then leaving the Railroad of the North, which from Abbeville extends on to Amiens, it would go direct to Paris by way of Beauvais and Pontoise. From Paris it is to pass by way of Nevers to Lyons, and from there would fol- low the line from Paris to the Mediterranean, to Avignon, and Marseilles. This great line would make several im- portant connections, as follow : with Dijon, Lausanne, Geneva, and Italy by way of D61e and Po- ligny; with St. Etienne ; with Clermont-Ferrand; and with Cette. These connections bring the new line in direct communication with the different lines of the great French companies, and with the Swiss and Italian railroads. In addition, all local roads which could be joined with the main line or its branches would be ceded to this company. (See ENGINEERING.) ANGLICAN CHURCHES. The history of the Church of England during 1882 was marked by continued agitation respecting questions of ritual, and the right of clergymen to obey in respect to them the monitions of their consciences, as opposed to the decrees of the secular power ; by the progress of movements seek- ing to reform the system of pa- tronage ; and by continued activ- ity on the part of the advocates of disestablishment and disendow- ment. A return issued by the House of Lords shows that there were in the province of Canterbury, in 1880, 4,371 stipendiary curates, and in the province of York, 1,269, making a total, in England and Wales, of 5,640. A statistical table, published in the " Church Times," gives the total number of confirmations in the two ecclesiastical provinces, during 1881, as 176,464; of these, 105,910 were of girls and women, and 70,554 of boys and men. The largest number of confirmations in any one diocese was 15,525, in that of London; the next largest, 15,183, in that of Manchester ; and the third largest, 11,517, in the diocese of Lichfield. CONDITION OF CATHEDRAL CHURCHES. — The Royal Commissioners for inquiring into the condition of cathedral churches in England and Wales stated in their first report that they had ANGLICAN CHURCHES. 13 held sixty-two meetings, and had had twenty- nine cathedrals under consideration. The re- port recommended that application should be made to Parliament for the establishment of a Committee of Privy Council for cathedral purposes, to consist of the Archbishops of Can- terbury and York, the Bishop of London, the Lord President, the Lord Chancellor, and two other members of the Privy Council (being members of the Church of England), and to have power to approve cathedral statutes. In a statement of the general principles which they had adopted for their guidance, the com- missioners indicated that they would propose regulations for the conduct of cathedral serv- ices, and suggested that the capitular bodies might give instruction in theological subjects, and offer their services as preachers; while canons, where accommodation renders it pos- sible, should reside within the cathedral pre- cincts for eight months during the year, and should not hold preferment inconsistent with the performance of diocesan duties. All prop- ositions recommended in the report are quali- fied by the reserve that vested interests must be respected. The Bishoprie of Newcastle was constituted by an order of council issued in May, the dio- cese to consist of the county or Northumber- land and the towns of Newcastle and Berwick- upon-Tweed ; the parish church of St. Nicholas, at Newcastle - on - Tyne, to be the cathedral church ; and the bishop to be subject to the metropolitan jurisdiction of the Archbishop of York. The Rev. Ernest Roland Wilberforce was appointed bishop of the new diocese, and was consecrated in Durham Cathedral July 22d, and enthroned on the following Thursday. A report in favor of the separation of the Channel Islands from the see of Winchester, and their constitution into a separate diocese, has been made by a joint committee of the two Houses of Convocation. The new bishop, it is proposed, should have jurisdiction over the English congregations in Europe which are not under the direction of the Bishop of Gib- raltar. MISSIONARY SOCIETIES. — The reports of the missionary societies of the Church of England showed that they had enjoyed a year of finan- cial prosperity at home, and of encouraging success in the mission-fields abroad. The in- come of the Church Missionary Society had been £221,135, and had been exceeded in only two years— 1878 and 1880 — in the history of the society. The expenditures had fallen be- low the income. More than £8,000 sterling had been applied for specific purposes, among which were included a college in Hang-chow, China, the extension of the missions on the Niger and among the Esquimaux, etc. The society employed 260 missionaries, 226 native clergy, and 2,900 native lay agents, and had connected with its churches 36,000 communi- cants, 160,000 native Christian adherents, and 1,527 schools, with 65,000 scholars. The mis- sion in Sierra Leone continued to develop self- reliance, and make progress in self-support ; a large re-enforcement of laborers was to be sent to Uganda, on the north shore of the Victoria Nyanza. Considerable numbers of Moslem children were attending the schools in Pales- tine ; a station in connection with the Persian mission was soon to be opened in Bagdad; in India the native churches were growing in number and strength, and 120 of the clergy, were native against 94 European missionaries; better relations had been established with the Bishop of Colombo, in Ceylon ; and an exten- sion of the mission in China — where the native Christians had doubled in the last five years- was proposed, in three of the provinces. The Society for the Propagation of the Gos- pel had received, on all accounts, £134,978, of which £36,643 were in special funds for par- ticular objects. It employed 594 missionaries, and 1,283 catechists and teachers, and had 300 students in colleges abroad. The field of the work of this society includes British residents in the colonies, and everywhere, of whom the membership of its churches is chiefly composed, and only a small proportion of its resources is spent in work among the heathen. The bish- ops of Madras reported to the society that the number of baptized native Christians connected with the Church of England had increased during four years from 79,917 to 101,246, the increase being 21,329, or 27 per cent. One half of this increase belonged to the Church Missionary Society and one half to the Propa- gation Society. The mission at Rangoon, in Burmah, had now fourteen ordained mission- aries (including six native clergymen), 1,400 communicants, 3,500 native Christians, and 54 chapels. The receipts of the South American Mission- ary Society were £11,639, and its expenditures £12,887. Its mission in Terra del Fuego was under the charge of one clerical and eight lay missionaries. The clerical missionary, the Rev. Thomas Bridges, had compiled a grammar and dictionary of the Yahgan language, and had translated the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles, and was now engaged upon a translation of the Gospel of John, into that language. CHURCH AND STATE. — Both Houses of the Convocation of Canterbury met for the dis- patch of business, February 14th. The Convo- cation of the Province of York met at the same time. An important report on " Church and State," prepared by a joint, committee of the two convocations, was considered in both bodies, and was approved in the Convocation of Canterbury, but was deferred in the Con- vocation of York. Its substance is as follows : Your committee having been appointed to consider the constitutional relations between the authorities ecclesiastical and civil in this Church, and realm, and the best methods whereby common action may be taken by them in matters affecting the Church, have, in conference with a similar committee of the Lower House of the Convocation of Canterbury, agreed to 14 ANGLICAN CHURCHES. the following resolutions, which they have now the honor to submit as their report, viz. : 1. That no settlement of ecclesiastical judicature will be satisfactory which does not proceed upon the principle that the ancient canonical courts oe pre- served, subject to such amendments as may be deemed necessary, and shall receive synodical ap- proval. 2. That all ecclesiastical judges be, as far as pos- sible, canonically qualified and commissioned. 3. That the Archdeacon's Court be retained, and strengthened if necessary. 4. That all questions relating to doctrine, ritual, and discipline, except such as come under the juris- diction of the archdeacon, be referred, in the first in- stance, to the bishop, who may stay all proceedings, or hear the cause either in camera or in his court, as he may determine. 5. 'f'hat the ancient provincial courts of Canterbury and York be retained with their separate jurisdic- tions. 6. That, in accordance with the constitution of this' Church and realm, the right of appeal for the main- tenance of justice in all ecclesiastical causes lies to the Crown. 7. That, in cases of appeal to the Crown for the maintenance of justice in questions involving doctrine or ritual, the judgment of the spirituality shall be re- quired on the precise points of doctrine or ritual which are involved, and that such judgment of the spirituality be made public. 8. That for the purpose of the seventh resolution the term " spirituality " be taken to mean the Upper Houses of the two convocations, assisted, if they think fit, by learned divines of the Church of Eng- land. 9. That when those who are appointed to hear the appeal are not unanimous, they shall give their opin- ions seriatim. 10. That when a clerk has been acquitted, no appeal be allowed. 11. That when on appeal to the Crown the judg- ment of the Church court is to be varied, the cause should be remitted to the court the judgment of which is appealed against, in order that justice may be done therein accoraing to the order of the Crown. 12. That, in accordance with canon 122, whenso- ever in any cause the sentence is of a spiritual charac- ter? such as exclusion from the Church, excommuni- cation, or degradation, or of a mixed character, such as suspension ab officio et beneficio, or deprivation, the sentence be pronounced by the archbishop or the bish- op himself in open court. 13. That it is desirable that, in addition to any statutory enactments which may be recommended, her Majesty be requested to grant to the clergy in their convocations her royal assent and license to enact such canons as may be found necessary. Measures concerning pluralities and the union of benefices, the performance of ecclesi- astical duties, the constitution and manage- ment of Queen Anne's Bounty and Patronage, were also discussed ; and a large share of the attention of both bodies was occupied with the consideration of the case of the Rev. S. F. Green, Vicar of St. John's, Miles Platting, who was lying in prison for contumacy in re- fusing to obey an admonition of court ordering him to discontinue ritualistic practices. At the meeting of the Convocation of Can- terbury in May, a committee was appointed to make inquiries for the purpose of ascertaining the tenets and practices of the members of the Salvation Army, and to consider how far it was possible to attach that body to the Church, and "generally to advise the clergy as to their duty in the matter." CASE OF REV. S. F. GREEN.— The case of the Rev. S. F. Green, of Miles Platting, the clergyman imprisoned for contumacy, con- tinued to occupy the attention of the public, the clergy, and the convocations, without de- veloping any incidents of striking novelty. Early in the year, Mr. Green replied to a num- ber of letters of sympathy which he had re- ceived, saying: There are three great principles involved in our present struggle, and all alike are matters of the first consequence : 1. The rights of the Church. 2. Our rights as citizens to the benefit of the law. 3. Our rights as men to religious liberty. "What the end may be we can not forecast, but surely, if we be faithful to God, the future must be in our own hands. All hope that the Government could be in- duced to intervene in behalf of the prisoner under the existing conditions was cut off by the Home Secretary's replying to a request for such intervention made by some of Mr. Green's friends, that " the powers of the Crown to dis- charge persons from custody would not be rightly or even constitutionally exercised in the case of a person imprisoned for contempt of court, committed by a persistent disobe- dience to a competent tribunal." The case of Mr. Green was brought to the attention of the Convocation of Canterbury at its session in February, in the form of a gravamen adopted by the Lower House expressing the universal feeling of regret and uneasiness at his con- tinued imprisonment, and praying the bishops to interfere for his release, either by memorial to the Crown, or in any other way which they might think desirable. In the discussion fol- lowing the presentation of this petition in the Upper Hou!?e, the Bishop of Lincoln ?poke of the pain with which the whole body regarded the imprisonment of Mr. Green. The Bishop of Peterborough controverted the plea that Mr. Green was entitled to consideration be- cause he was acting conscientiously, saying that, " if they once allowed a man to set up a plea of conscience against the authority of law, of course there was an absolute end of law. When a man sets up the plea of conscience against law, one of two things is certain to happen. The community must either feel the law to be unjust, and repeal or amend it; or, the community, considering the man's con- science ill-informed, must retain the law, and the man must suffer." He, however, con- demned the manner in which the Church As- sociation had undertaken to enforce the law, intimating that they had acted very unwisely in locking the defendant up when other reme- dies less violent and less liable to provoke sympathy were provided ; and when by wait- ing three years they might have deprived the offending clergyman of his living ; and insisted that the course taken by the promoters of the suit against him was diametrically opposed to the whole spirit of the Public Worship Regu- ANGLICAN CHURCHES. 15 lation Act, and almost against its letter. The Bishop of Lichfield took notice of the grave dangers involved in the continuance of the ex- isting ecclesiastical tension. He alluded to the time when in his boyhood he had seen four hundred men come forth from the General As- sembly of the Established Church of Scot- land, leaving behind them their parsonages and their incomes, on a question which was al- most exactly the same as in the present case, and said that : He would be sorry to speak words of unnecessary- alarm, but he feared that things might be tending toward a similar secession from the Church, or per- haps more likely to hasten disestablishment. He did not look forward to disestablishment with so much alarm as some of their lordships, but he would greatly dread a secession from the Church such as was, he believed, contemplated — perhaps more than contem- plated— as possible by thousands of Churchmen. To avert such a serious issue they should exert them- selves strenuously. He believed that they would be doing a good and righteous thing, even it' the crown lawyers were to return the same answer, if they were to unite in memorializing the Crown. The question was ultimately one of God and Caesar, and they would never make those who sympathized with Mr. Green think otherwise. The Archbishop of Canterbury assented to the views of the Bishop of Peterborough as to the unwisdom of the promoters of the suit against Mr. Green, but said that it was hard to understand the defendant's scruples against obeying the law, and that he could find abun- dant authority in the action of his ecclesias- tical superiors for observing its requirements. The discussion was ended by the adoption of resolutions : That this House sympathizes in the general feeling ot pain and disapproval with which the prolonged im- prisonment of the Rev. S. F. Green is regarded ; that this House is of opinion that the promoters of the suit against Mr. Green, in resorting to the older and severer process of the writ de contumace capiendo, have taken a step which was in excess of the require- ments of the case, and which has proved injurious to the peace and welfare of the Church ; and that this House, haying regard to the serious legal and consti- tutional difficulties in the case, regrets to feel itself precluded from approaching the Crown with a peti- tion for Mr. Green's release. In the Lower House of the Convocation of York, a gravamen was adopted as an articulm eleri : That the continued imprisonment of the Rev. S. F. Green, a clergyman of this province, is a perplex- ity and scandal to this House and to the Church at large. And this was supplemented by a resolution : That the Lower House, while it does not feel called upon to express any opinion as to Mr. Green's con- duct, humbly requests of the Upper House to take some united action, whether by way of an address to the Crown or otherwise as they may be advised, which may lead to the removal of this scandal, by the release Of the Rev. S. F. Green. _ This request was met in the Upper House simply with an exposition by the archbishop of the legal difficulties in the way of taking such action as was desired. During the dis- cussion of the subject in the Upper House, the Bishop of Manchester, Mr. Green's diocesan, related the history of his connection with the case, and explained his position with reference to it. Instead of the parish of St. John's, Miles Platting, being " a desert," as had been alleged, when Mr. Green came to it, it had been in charge of an excellent clergyman, and had a good congregation, though of a differ- ent kind from the one to which Mr. Green had ministered. The present congregation was not composed of parishioners, but was one which had been gathered of persons who liked the ritual. In the very year in which the proceed- ings against Mr. Green were commenced, far from the parish of St. John's, Miles Platting, being a scene of perfect unity and peace, he had a petition signed by 320 parishioners ask- ing him to interfere. It was framed in loose and vague language, and contained no definite charges, and he therefore put it aside, hoping that by private influence with Mr. Green he might stop proceedings. They told him that as they were working-men, and as he refused them redress, they had no alternative but to put themselves in the hands of the Church Association. The Church Association had pub- lished a document in which they said they did not designate the three men who were selected as prosecutors, but that their names were hand- ed to them by some of the aggrieved parishion- ers. At any rate, when the representation came, it was contrary to his own nature and desire to encourage these proceedings. If he could have stopped them in any legitimate way, he should have felt bound to have stopped them, but an act of Parliament having been passed which gave the aggrieved parishioners certain rights, he did not consider that he had a right as an individual, if he could offer them no re- dress, to step in and prevent them from ob- taining their legal remedy." On the 2d of De- cember, 1878, he wrote to Mr. Green, calling his attention to the complaints that had been made, expressing a desire to avoid litigation, and inviting him to call at the registry, exam- ine the papers in the case, and submit to the authority of his bishop — under protest, if he preferred; else, the writer would have no choice but to allow the proceedings to go on. Mr. Green called, but refused to look at the papers, or to submit himself to his bishop, and the latter therefore felt — " though he took that step with the greatest possible pain and reluctance — that he had no alternative but to allow the proceedings to go on. He had fre- quent complaints — four or five — with reference to Mr. Green, between 1871 and 1881. He admonished Mr. Green in 1871, but Mr. Green did not discontinue the practice of the mixed chalice, which he mixed ceremonially, in ac- cordance with the decision of Sir Robert Phil- limore, and he (the bishop) had a letter before him in which Mr. Green said, 'I will obey your lordship's admonition.' In 1877 three charges were brought against Mr. Green of using vestments and incense. Mr. Green 16 ANGLICAN CHUKCHES. then explained how he came to use them, and told him that they were introduced in 1876 without any consent on his (the bishop's) part, and without any reference to him. Mr. Green made no change in those matters, and in 1878 mine a petition from 320 persons, and later still, in December, 1878, there came a repre- sentation. He had now laid the whole case before the convocation, and he asked them frankly — he was not at all afraid of what might be said, for he could justify entirely to his own conscience the course which he had taken — he asked them as Englishmen, fairly minded, whether they were not willing to make allowances for the difficulties in which a bishop was placed by a clergyman who would neither acknowledge the law of the land nor submit to his decision or advice ? " Sunday, March 19th, was the anniversary of Mr. Green's consignment to prison, and was celebrated as such with special observances and prayers in a large number of metropolitan and provincial churches. Meetings in view of its near approach were held during the week preceding the anniversary, by branches of the English Church Union and the Workingmen's Society, at which resolutions thanking Mr. Green for his consistent defense of the prin- ciples at stake, and expressing sympathy with him and with his wife and family, were passed. At the sixth anniversary of the Church of Eng- land Workingmen's Society, in August, resolu- tions were passed expressing indignation at the imprisonment of Mr. Green by a court of at least doubtful validity, and declaring that " Churchmen should at once make known clearly to their rulers in church and state that they can not and will not recognize the au- thority of Parliament, and courts created by it, to deprive a priest of the cure of souls committed to him by Almighty God, acting through the appointed ministers of his Church." A bill designed to open the way for the relief of the suffering clergyman, which had been introduced in the House of Com- mons, was lost. Thereupon, the Archbishop of Canterbury wrote to Mr. Gladstone, Au- gust 16th, representing to him and to the Gov- ernment that the three years which the law required to elapse before an order of inhibi- tion could operate a deprivation of the offend- er's benefice had that day expired, and that Mr. Green appeared to be no longer the in- cumbent of Miles Platting. His Grace, there- fore, urged upon the Government the duty of at once putting an end to the imprisonment. Mr. Gladstone replied, promising careful con- sideration of the matter. On the 8th of Sep- tember, the Diocesan Conference of Carlisle adopted a memorial to the Home Secretary, showing: "1. That, according to the provis- ions of the Public Worship Regulation Act, the Rev. S. F. Green is no longer legally in- cumbent of Miles Platting. 2. That, this be- ing so, it appears contrary to all principles of justice that Mr. Green should still be kept in prison. 3. That the Bishop of Carlisle, and the other members of the conference, would gladly learn from her Majesty's Secretary of State whether there is any reason why Mr. Green should not be set at liberty." On the 16th of September, Mr. Gladstone informed a committee of the Church of England Work- ingmen's Society that the matter of Mr. Green's release from imprisonment was in the hands of the Lord Chancellor, who was "most anx- ious to carry it through." On the 27th of September, the Archbishop of Canterbury gave to Sir Percival Heywood, the patron of the living, the formal notice required by the Public Worship Regulation Act, that the bene- fice of St. John's, Miles Platting, had become void, and expressed the hope that his taking this step might facilitate Mr. Green's release. Sir Percival failed to pay any attention to this notification; but a few days afterward Mr. Green wrote to the patron from his prison in Lancaster Castle, tendering his resignation of the benefice. He also wrote to the congre- gation and parishioners of St. John's, stating the reasons by which he had been influenced in taking that step. Alluding to the fact that the Bishop of Manchester had made a motion in Lord Penzance's court for his release, he said that, feeling it his duty to resist the usurpa- tions of Lord Penzance to the utmost of his power, he must deprecate the appearance of a bishop in court, even by proxy. He was, how- ever, of the opinion that the patron of the liv- ing ought not to be permitted to embark on a new venture in disputing the legality of his de- privation, for that would entail much expense on what was probably a foregone conclusion. Lord Penzance, on the 4th of November, deliv- ered judgment on the application of the Bishop of Manchester for Mr. Green's discharge from his imprisonment. He reviewed all the facts in the case, and said that Mr. Green could have been discharged at any time, by satisfying the contempt. The law must be obeyed, and the Court considered it had been satisfied, though not willingly, by Mr. Green. As he was no longer vicar of Miles Platting, the Court was enabled by a reasonable interpretation of the statute under which he was imprisoned to put an end to the imprisonment which Mr. Green himself seemed so little desirous of terminat- ing. Mr. Green was accordingly released Sun- day morning, November 5th, after an imprison- ment of one year and ten months. The Rev. W. Ruthven Prym, curate of the parish church at Lytham, was appointed by Lord Penzance to the charge of the vacated benefice. The church- ward ens, however, representing the con- gregation to whom Mr. Green had ministered, refused to acknowledge him, and addressed him a note informing him that they would not accept him. Subsequently the benefice was offered by the patron to the Rev. Henry Cow- gill, who had been for a long time Mr. Green's curate, and was accepted by him. CASE OF MARTIN vs. MACKONOCHIE. — The ANGLICAN CHURCHES. 17 decision of the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in the appeal case of Martin against Mackonochie was given February 3d. This was the third suit brought against the in- cumbent of St. Alban's, Holborn, by Mr. Mar- tin. The first was instituted for ritualistic practices in 1867, and resulted in a monition calling upon Mr. Mackonochie to abstain from the practices complained of. The monition was disregarded, and a second suit was insti- tuted in 1874, and Sir Robert Phillimore sus- pended Mr. Mackonochie for six weeks and appended another monition. The services, however, continuing unchanged, application was made to Lord Penzance, who had since become judge, and he issued a fresh monition. This was equally disregarded, and Mr. Mackon- ochie was then suspended db officio et bene- ficio for three years. The Queen's Bench was then appealed to, and pronounced that Lord Penzance had exceeded his powers, and issued a writ of prohibition against him. The Court of Appeal, which was finally sustained by the House of Lords, held however that, except in respect to two points, Lord Penzance's action was right. Mr. Martin then instituted an al- together fresh suit against Mr. Mackonochie for deprivation, but Lord Penzance refused to hear it on the ground that his last judgment had not been enforced, which would have resulted in Mr. Mackonochie being sent to prison for contempt. It was against this de- cision that the appeal was now made to the Privy Council. The Lord Chancellor delivered the judgment of the court, which, after reca- pitulating the facts of the case, and stating the reasons given by Lord Penzance for his judg- ment, proceeded to state that from this judg- ment and from the reasons assigned for it their lordships found themselves compelled to dis- sent. They did not think that it could have been the intention of the learned judge to af- firm the existence generally of a discretion in an ecclesiastical court to refuse by decree to pass any sentence of canonical censure or pun- ishment upon a clerk in holy orders found by the same decree to have been guilty of offenses against the law, properly charged. They thought the judge had no discretion, while finding the defendant guilty of ecclesiastical offenses, to absolve him from all ecclesiastical censure or punishment for those offenses. Contempt or contumacy in another suit can not deprive the bishop (or a promoter who satisfies the bishop that there is reason for pro- ceeding in respect of new offenses by a new suit) of the remedies given by the Church Dis- cipline Act. Their lordships did not find that any obligation is cast by law upon the pro- moter of a suit in an ecclesiastical court to take proceedings for the imprisonment of a party guilty of contempt. Their lordships thought that if, as the case now stands, a more severe penalty should appear to the learned judge to be called for, he might stiU give the respondent one more opportunity of being VOL. xxii.— 2 A heard against such a sentence, and of submit- ting himself to the court and the law. Their lordships agreed with Lord 'Campbell's re- marks in Head vs. Saunders, where he says that, " except under peculiar circumstances, a court of final appeal ought not to decide any cause in the first instance, as it ought to have the benefit of the discussion and judgment in the court below; and there ought not to be an original judgment pronounced from which there is no appeal." Their lordships, there- fore, would advise her Majesty to reverse the sentence of the 5th of June, 1880, so far as re- lates to the matter complained of by this ap- peal, and to remit the case to the court below, to decree against the respondent such lawful and canonical censure or punishment as to that court shall seem just. APPEAL OF REV. WILLIAM ENRAGHT. — The appeal of the Rev. "William Enraght against Lord Penzance and John Perkins was decided in the House of Lords, May 22d. The appel- lant was the Vicar of Holy Trinity Church, Bordesley, Warwickshire, and the suit was pro- moted by the respondent Perkins (one of the reverend gentleman's church-wardens) on ac- count of fourteen offenses in the celebration of divine worship, in respect of which it was alleged that the appellant had been guilty of acting illegally. The case came before the Queen's Bench division on an application for a writ of habeas corpus to discharge the de- fendant from custody for disobedience to the monition of Lord Penzance, as well as for a prohibition. The Court of Appeal allowed the discharge from custody, but refused the pro- hibition. Their lordships now affirmed the order of the Court of Appeal, and dismissed the present appeal with costs. Another appeal in this case, in which the question was whether a new church-warden could be substituted for Mr. Perkins, who had ceased to be a church-warden and parishioner, as promoter of the suit against Mr. Enraght, was decided by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, July 4th, in favor of Lord Pen- zance's judgment that the substitution could not be made. The Bishop of Winchester, in November, gave notice to the patrons of Holy Trinity, Bordesley, that under the Public - Worship Regulation Act the benefice had become va- cant, the three years from the date of the mo- nition against the vicar, Mr. Enraght, having expired. A protest signed by a considerable number of the parishioners was issued, de- nouncing the action taken to remove the vicar as uncanonical, unconstitutional, and cruel. The Church of St. Yedast's, London, after having been closed for two years, on account of the ritualistic practices of the rector, the Rev. T. Pelham Dale, was reopened in Septem- ber, with a new incumbent in charge. ENGLISH CHURCH UNION. — The English Church Union, the most active and influential of the ritualistic organizations, had at the, be- 18 ANGLICAN CHURCHES. ginning of the year 270 branches and 19,930 members and associates, having received 2,450 accessions during the preceding twelve months. The twenty-third anniversary of this society was celebrated June 10th, with special services in more than three hundred churches in Lon- don. At the regular annual meeting of the society, Mr. Wood, its president, speaking with especial reference to the case of Mr. Green, said that the Union, it must be understood, rejected the authority of the Privy Council, and of the courts subject to its jurisdiction, in spiritual matters; it maintained the integrity of the ornaments rubric, and held that the Church of England had drifted into a position where, if any reform was to be hoped for, resistance to the encroachments of the civil power had become an absolute necessity. If imprisonments had been stopped only to sub- stitute deprivations, it must be understood that the Union would strenuously resist depriva- tions by civil courts. RITUALISTIC STATISTICS. — The annual tables of statistics show that the number of ritualis- tic churches in London and vicinity is gradu- ally increasing. According to the summaries published early in 1882, eucharistic vestments were used in 37 out of 907 churches, against 14 in 1869: incense in 10, against 8 in 1869; altar-lights in 59, against 36 in 1874; candles on the altar in 45 ; and the " eastward posi- tion " was taken in 270 churches against 74 in 1874. Forty-six churches had daily commun- ion, 473 surpliced choirs, and 319 free seats. CONTROL AND PATRONAGE. — The annual meeting of the Society for the Liberation of the Church from the Control and Patronage of the State was held May 3d. Mr. H. R. Ellington presided. The society had distrib- uted during the year about a million and a half of publications, and had held 368 meet- ings. The treasurer's receipts had been £9,759, and his expenditures £9,194. The report of the secretary, referring to general events bearing upon the objects which the society has in view, as well as upon its own particular transactions during the year, recited that among the unusual number of legislative measures dealing with the interests and posi- tion of the Church Establishments was a bill introduced by Mr. H. Richard, to simplify the law with respect to interments in cemeteries, which would remove many anomalies in the existing Burial Acts, lighten the burdens on ratepayers, and facilitate the work of burial boards. A bill had also been introduced by Mr. Brinton to reduce and equalize burial fees, and to abolish the payment of such fees ex- cept for services actually rendered. A select committee had been appointed to examine into the operation of the law of burial fees. The committee reported, with great satisfaction, that during the year the principle of religious equality had had an important extension in its application to the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge. The new statutes framed by the universities commissioners went far to abolish clerical restrictions; and, speaking generally, the offices, honors, and emoluments of the uni- versities and colleges would in future be con- ferred without reference to ecclesiastical dis- tinctions. The three bills before Parliament dealing with the ecclesiastical and charitable endowments of London, proposed to take prop- erty which belonged to the public at large, and to devote it afresh to sectarian purposes. On the subject of church patronage, the report stated that Mr. Stanhope's bill only touched the fringe of the evil, and gave fresh legislative sanction to the rest. The society opposed that bill, but supported the measure prohibiting generally the sale both of advowsons and next presentations. The Lord Chancellor's Aug- mentation of Benefices Bill was open to simi- lar objections. The committee declared their belief that it would be impossible effectually to secure church reform until by disestablish- ment the Church gained the power of self-gov- ernment. In regard to the disestablishment of the Scotch Church, it was urged that steps in support of Mr. Peddie's motion should be taken throughout Scotland by means of peti- tions, etc. At home the tension in the estab- lishment caused by the conflicting views of the different parties within it had rather increased than diminished during the last twelve months. The decision in Mr. Mackonochie's case, and the failure to obtain the release of Mr. Green from prison, had made a deep impression on the minds of those who were already chafing under the yoke of the establishment. The re- sult had been that the principle of spiritual in- dependence had been increasingly dwelt upon by the members of the English Church, and they were slowly coming to see that for its sake all the perils of disestablishment and dis- endowment might be safely encountered. The tendency of public opinion in favor of dises- tablishment had been strengthened by the -dis- closures of the recent census taken by local newspapers. Resolutions were adopted urging the neces- sity of supplementing the Burials Act of 1880 by further legislation ; expressing gratification at the provision in the new statutes of the universities commissioners for the abolition of clerical restrictions in connection with the headships of the Oxford and Cambridge Col- leges; approving Mr. Peddie's motion relative to the early disestablishment of the Church of Scotland ; and insisting that the parliamentary oath should be optional, with the provision of an equivalent alternative declaration. At a public meeting following the business meeting of the council of the society, resolutions were adopted expressing gratification at the further progress that had been made during the year toward the attainment of religious liberty at home and in the colonies, as well as at the growth of public opinion on the question of disestablishment ; invoking the hearty support of the Liberal party in the House of Commons ANGLICAN CHURCHES. 19 to Mr. Peddie's motion for the disestablish- ment and disendowment of the Church of Scotland; and declaring that "the meeting, while sympathizing with the Episcopalians in their desire for greater liberty and for the re- moval of evils which now restrict the useful- ness of the Church, is of opinion that that liberty can not be enjoyed, and those evils can not be effectually cured, until the Church ceases to be established by law, and becomes a self- supported and self-governed religious commu- nity." The Execative Committee of this society, in October, issued a circular to its supporters relative to its contemplated operations during the coming session of Parliament. It antici- pated that domestic questions would receive more attention than they had during the past two sessions, and that new demands for re- form would exercise a stimulating influence on the public mind, and make it possible to press the subject of disestablishment with increased earnestness. Preparations were, therefore, making for greater activity. The London School Board elections would be used as a means of urging that the surplus city charities should be applied to educational instead of to ecclesiastical purposes ; agitation in support of Mr. Peddie's motion for the disestablishment of the Scottish Church would be renewed ; the questions of cemeteries, burial fees, and the training colleges would be dealt with ; in- formation was being collected relative to vi- cars' rates, church rates to repay borrowed money, and other ecclesiastical exactions, and also to the proceedings of the Charity Com- missioners in regard to endowed schools. The committee stated, also, that as soon as it could do so with advantage, it would deal direct- ly with the Establishment in England and Wales. The annual meeting of the Church Defense Institution was held in June. The Archbishop of Canterbury presided, and remarked, in his opening address, that very little had been openly done during the past year to encour- age an attack upon the Church of England. It was, however, to be remembered that the most dangerous periods were sometimes those when there was little outward appearance of a violent assault. He did not look with any sat- isfaction upon those who thought it their duty to resist all attempts at reform made within the Church herself. He hardly thought it was a fair mode of action, and was certain that those who were conscientiously desirous of seeing the Church of England with other in- strumentalities in the country doing as much good as possible for the promulgation of the gospel, would not be likely to endeavor to thwart the usefulness of the Church by oppos- ing reforms where they thought reform neces- sary. An impression seemed to be sometimes disseminated at meetings of the Liberation So- ciety that the Church of England had done very little for the education of the working classes, but he maintained that the contrary was the case. The question of the amendment of the sys- tem of patronage and the abolition of purchase in the Church has been discussed with consid- erable interest, the discussion centering chiefly around the bills on the subject proposed in Par- liament by Mr. Leatham and Mr. Stanhope. The subject was considered in the Convocation of York, at its meeting in February, in connec- tion with a resolution offered by Canon Gore, of Chester: That, with a view to remove abuses now incident to the sale of the right of patronage in the Church, it is expedient — (a) That the sale of the new presen- tation to a benefice be forbidden ; (b) That an interval of not less than five years intervene between two sales of the same advowson ; (c) That provision be made to prevent donative benefices from being used to create vacancies in presentative benefices ; (a) That diocesan boards of patronage be incorporated, with the power of acquiring advowsons, whether by gift or purchase ; (e) That all deeds affecting the advowson of a bene- fice be registered publicly in the diocesan registry ; (/) That large additional powers be granted bishops to refuse institution to unworthy presentees. The Central Council of Diocesan Confer- ences, at its meeting, March 7th, adopted a resolution declaring — m That, in view of the report of the Eoyal Commis- sion of 1879, and of the decisions of diocesan confer- ences, the most strenuous efforts should be made to obtain the passing of an act without delay, which should enforce the principle that " patronage partakes of the nature of a trust to be exercised for the spir- itual benefit of the parishioners," and should contain clauses (1) for the abolition of the sale of next pres- entations : (2) for the due regulation and registration of the sale of advowsons ; (3) for the conversion of all donatives into presentative benefices ; (4) for giv- ing increased powers to the bishop to refuse institu- tion in certain cases and under express limitations and conditions. At the annual meeting of the Liberation So- ciety, May 3d, Mr. Ellington, chairman, criti- cising Mr. Stanhope's measure, said that the main defect in it was, that it dealt only with next presentations and failed to touch advow- sons. The society could not see that there was any material difference between presenting to the cure of souls in perpetuity and the presen- tation of any particular minister. A conference of clergy and laity, convened by the Council of the National Church Reform Union, met in London, June 20th, to consider the various measures on the subject which were before Parliament. Mr. Albert Grey, M. P., who pre- sided at the meeting, said that neither Mr. Leatham's nor Mr. Stanhope's measure was adequate to meet the evil. Resolutions were adopted declaring that no reform of patronage could be regarded as satisfactory which did not confer upon the parishioners, by vote or otherwise, directly or indirectly, a voice in the choice of their clergymen ; and that no dealing with the subject would be satisfactory that did not provide for its total abolition as soon as possible. Popular discontent with the system of selling advowsons and next presentations found expression on several occasions when ANGLICAN CHURCHES. such franchises were offered at public sale, and the proceedings were interrupted or stopped in consequence of the demonstrations against them. A like fate attended some attempts to enforce the payment of vicars' rates by the sale of goods levied upon for the purpose. DIOCESAN CONFEEENCKS. — The plan of hold- ing diocesan conferences in the several dio- ceses, at which the clergy and laity could meet together for free, informal discussion of all questions affecting the interests of the Church, which was first started in the diocese of Ban- gor, has worked so satisfactorily that such conferences have now been founded in all the dioceses of England and Wales, except those of "Worcester and Llandaff. The success of these meetings has suggested the establishment of some kind of connection between them, and accordingly the organization of the Central Council of Diocesan Conferences has been com- pleted. The object of the organization is stated in its constitution to be " to give greater unity of action to diocesan conferences by con- sidering, through representative members, the resolutions at which such conferences may have arrived, and other matters concerning the in- terests of the Church which the council may deem it expedient to suggest for discussion by the conferences ; and so the general opinion of the Church at large may be obtained on mat- ters affecting its welfare, with a view to their being brought prominently, if thought desir- able, before the convocations and Parliament." It is further provided that the action of the Central Council shall be free from political bias. The council is composed of represent- atives from the diocesan conferences; while other persons, though not representatives, may be present by special invitation, and speak, but not vote. At the meeting of the Council in March, when the organization was effected, representatives were present from seventeen dioceses, while the dioceses of Oxford and Rochester had not yet chosen representatives. Mr. Cecil Raikes, M. P., was chosen president of the counci! for the year. A diocesan conference for the diocese of London was organized in March, and, its consti- tution and standing orders having been agreed upon, received the approval of the bishop in May. The conference is to consist of 102 cler- ical and 204 lay representatives, two of the lat- ter—the lord-lieutenant of the county and the chancellor of the diocese— and six of the for- mer being ex-officio. All clergymen in priest's orders will, under certain conditions, have a vote in the election of representatives ; while the lay electorate will consist of members of the Church of England, residents or rate- payers in their respective parishes. The lay representatives in the conference must be com- municants. THE CHURCH CONGRESS. — The twenty-second annual Church Congress met at Derby, October 3d. The attendance was large, exceeding two thousand persons. The opening sermon was preached by the Archbishop of York. The Bishop of Lichfield presided, and, in his open- ing address, described one of the objects ac- complished by the Congress to be the bringing of the several parties within the Church into a position where they could compare their views and attain a better understanding of each other, and to prepare the way for the toleration of differences of opinion. The Church had been free from differences of opinion in no age, not even in apostolic times ; and it would, in fact, "not be impossible for a scoffing spirit even to affix our modern party names to some of the apostolic writers themselves." The principal subjects discussed were : " Unity of Belief in Relation to Diversity of Thought," in connection with which a tendency toward the encouragement of greater toleration was ap- parent in the leading speakers ; " The Church and Modern Thought," considered as to the limits of authority and free thought, the har- mony of science and faith, and the dependence of morality on revelation ; " The Causes and Remedies of Neglect of Public Worship " ; and topics relating to the beneficed and unbeneficed clergy, home evangelization, the Church and paupers, the Church and state, the Church and laborers, the Anglican and Roman Catholic Churches, and the Church and the Noncon- formists. IRISH EPISCOPAL CHURCH. — A statement of the sums payable to the Irish Church Tempo- ralities Fund was published in a parliamentary paper in April. The total amount payable to the fund was set down at £36,961, and was made up as follows: Tithe-rent charge, £22,- 932 ; tithe-rent charge annuities, £9,267 ; per- petuity rents, £884; yearly and other rents and stipends, £88; interest on simple mort- gages, £1,518 ; land annuities, £2,049 ; interest on mortgages (converted leaseholds), £223. The twelfth annual session of the Synod of the Church in Ireland was opened at Dublin April 18th. The report of the representative body recorded a distinct advance in financial prosperity, notwithstanding the agitation and depression of the past year. The fund devoted to parochial sustentation amounted to nearly £3,500,000; but that sum would still hardly provide £120 for each curate and less than £200 for each incumbent, while three hundred incumbents were obliged to be content with much less. The various investments of the church body were producing a total income of £280,503. A resolution was adopted express- ing sorrow and shame at the wide-spread law- lessness prevailing in the country, and urging upon every one the necessity of maintaining the principles of order and good government, of justice and honesty. Much of the time of the synod was spent in the discussion of edu- cational interests. The report of the Temper- ance Society showed that the whole number of members of the organization was 60,000, and that the accessions had been about 1,400. The average income of the clergy of the AEABI AHMED. Scottish Episcopal Church is £209, to which may be added the rental value of the parson- age, £20. The total number of members in the Church is 67,483. The strong congrega- tions, except those of Forfar, Johnston, and Stonehaven, are in the large cities. BISHOPEIO OF GEAHAMSTOWN. — The Judicial Committee of the Privy Council gave judg- ment at the end of June, in an appeal from the Supreme Court of the Cape of Good Hope, re- specting the Bishopric of Grahamstown, South Africa. The bishop, Dr.'Merrirnan, had brought an action to enforce two decrees of suspension against Dr. Williams, the Dean of Grahams- town, for preventing him from officiating in the Cathedral Church of St. George in Gra- hamstown, and the colonial Supreme Court had held that it had no power to enforce the diocesan decree. The bishop thereupon ap- pealed to the Queen in Council for a declara- tion of his right to exercise episcopal author- ity over Dr. Williams as one of his clergy and as dean. The appeal was dismissed. The grounds on which the decision of the Colonial Court, thus sustained by the Judicial Com- mittee, was based, were as follows : 1. That bishops elected by their respective dio- ceses are not legally successors of the bishops formerly appointed under letters patent. 2. That there is nothing in law to prevent the Crown from sending out new bishops to supersede the elected bishops. 3. That the elected bishops have no title to the possession or use of the property formerly vested in their respective sees. 4. That consequently the civil courts can give them no protection or relief in questions relating to the use of such property (e. g., churches, parsonages, schools, etc.). The Right Rev. A. 0. Tait, Archbishop of Canterbury, died December 3d. The vacant see was offered to the Right Rev. Edward White Benson, Bishop of Truro, and was ac- cepted by him. ARABI AHMED, Pasha, was born in a lit- tle village in the province of Charkieh, in the eastern part of Lower Egypt, almost on the borders of the desert, of one of the families of the fellahs. These compose the lower la- boring class. He joined the army under Said Pasha, and was brought to the camp, like all his companions, with hands fastened to a rope that held together all the young fellahs fit for military service taken by the same conscription, or draft. Said Pasha loved handsome men, and Arabi is bulky, and about five feet ten inches (iin metre quatre-vingt) in stature ; his complexion dull and yellow, like the fellahs of Lower Egypt ; his figure regular, his head peaked, the forehead high and retiring, that his cap somewhat conceals ; his mouth large, lips full, chin square and retiring. The features of his face express firmness, and in character he is stubborn and obstinate. His great merit is his memory, which would be regarded as rare in Europe, and is peculiar to all his kin- dred. He has now an expression of counte- nance which has become habitual, and has been acquired by constant practice., and he seems to be in continued thought or reflection. Always melancholy, he has a gentle and soft look. His eyes are very beautiful, black, and surmounted with thick eyebrows. He has not a frank ex- pression, and never looks one full in the face, but casts furtive glances without fierceness ; on the contrary, they are attractive by their pas- siveness, and often prevent one from observing that he never looks more than a few seconds at once at the person to whom he speaks. He is very rarely moved, and speaks gently, with- out pressing himself, and as if he felt fatigued under the weight of business and thoughts crushing him. His walk is straight, but with a little spring, which is very common in Egypt and the East. Said Pasha was the first to remove foreign officers from the army and fill their places with native Egyptians. Arabi was of the number, and quickly rose in rank ; but, under the ca- price of the Viceroy, he was soon put on half pay. He went to the university at Cairo for scientific studies. There he remained a suffi- cient time to appear to his companions in the army as a learned man. They esteemed him also as a person of piety and of irreproachable morals. He married the daughter of the nurse of Hamid Pasha, son of Abbas Pasha. She had been reared in the palace of the prince. It is not known when or how he made the acquaintance of Ali Pasha, who became his intimate friend, and brought him out of ob- scurity. During 1876-"T8, he organized a kind of secret society among the fellah offi- cers, which, during exciting events, escaped the notice of the Khedive and his ministers. Ali Pasha was the soul of that society, which had no other object in view than the overthrow of the Khedive. They labored conjointly with bankers in Europe, without knowing the ob- ject or means used, but aided by the money and counsels of the bankers of Cairo, who had an interest in bringing about some change in the arrangements imposed on Egypt by Europe. Ali Pasha, whom they proposed to put at the head of the movement, explained it to the Khedive, who combined with them and effect- ed the fall of the European ministry in 1879. The Khedive now made Arabi a colonel, and gave to him the command of a regiment. At this time the intrigues of the ex-Khedive, Halim Pasha, and the Porte commenced, which it is useless to describe. Each sought to con- trol the society of officers and soldiers, which alone remained, by promises of increased pay and better treatment. It is not necessary to repeat the events which ensued until Arabi became Minister of War. He now represented the native Egyptians, who were known as the National party, and whose watchword was, " Egypt for the Egyptians." " The debt," they said, "was made by Ismail Pasha, and Egypt was not responsible; let Europe collect the debt of Ismail Pasha, whom she holds as a ARABI AHMED. ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. hostage ; so far as relates to reform courts, our institutions suffice for us ; if the Europeans are not satisfied, let them go to their own courts at home." Before he became minister, Arabi had ac- quired great influence in all parts of the public administration. All those who could approach him, obtained letters of recommendation, which ARABI PASHA. were seldom without effect. After he became minister, his hatred of the foreigners, who, he said, were ruining the country, overcame his disinterestedness. In all purchases of supplies for the army, or other objects, the preference was given to the native, even at much higher prices. In all promotions in the army his friends were advanced, and thus he acquired his strength, which was exercised to press the Europeans out of the country. In this state of affairs, England, for the preservation of the great advantages to herself of the Suez Canal, took- the first step toward making Egypt a de- pendency of her own. (See EGYPT.) The facts, thus far very summarily stated, are derived from a native Egyptian writer, who thus concludes his remarks : " Arabi never had any settled plan ; circumstances have made him all that he is; the role which he has played is due entirely to the haughty jealousies and in- trigues of the Western governments, consuls- general, European and native adventurers, rot- ten bankers and merchants of little conscience. To-day (July) the position of Arabi is such that, if he were put down, the movement he has commenced would not be thereby ended. On the contrary, others, such as Ali Pasha el Rouby, Mahmoud Samy Pasha, Mahmoud Pasha Ferni, Ali Pasha Femi, Abdulaal Pasha, Toulba Pasha, Yacoub Pasha Samy, and a hundred others, are interested to continue the movement through fear of losing the position which they have obtained, the fortune they have acquired, and even their lives. A Turk- ish occupation would be of no ad- vantage at present; quite the con- trary, the Sultan is wholly inter- ested in prolonging the existing state of affairs, under the hope that a European complication would leave him distinctly the master of Egypt for the future. To restore Egypt to the path of progress in which she was placed by Mehemet Ali and his succes- sors, under the civilizing influence of Europe, a European occupation of the country is necessary, and severe punishment of all the Egyp- tians, whatever may be their rank in the civil or military positions, who were engaged in the late movements and events. Decimate the corps of gendarmes (Moustah- fezines) and the city officers who took part in the massacres at Alex- andria and in all the other cities, make a general disbandment of the army, and put the officers on half pay or in retirement. Then form a corps of ten thousand gen- darmes for all Egypt, commanded by officers not engaged in the re- cent events, honest, intelligent, and rigidly examined, and under the control of a superior council of natives and Europeans, and in which the latter shall be a majority, under the presidency of a European commander-general, who shall receive orders directly from the Khedive for the administration of the interior police, or from the President of the Council of Civil, Judicial, and Financial Affairs. Let these measures be quickly and unhesitatingly adopt- ed, and Arabi would be forgotten in less time than he became known." (See EGYPT.) ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (REptJBLicA AR- GENTINA). Statistics concerning area, territo- rial division, population, etc., have been given in the volumes of the "Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1872, 1877, and 1878. In an official esti- mate, the population of the republic at the end of 1880 was set down at 2,540,000; but those figures, if correctly reported, are, perhaps, somewhat exaggerated, and those given in our volume for 1881 (2,400,000) may be regarded as a closer approximation to accuracy. The population of the capital, Buenos Ayres, at the end of 1881, has recently been published at 289,925, against 177,787 in 1869, according to the census of the latter year. The number of immigrants in 1870 was 39,- ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. 667; in 1871, 20,928; in 1872, 37,037; in 1873, 76,332; in 1874, 68,277; in 1875, 42,066; in 1876, 30,965; in 1877, 28,798;' in 1878, 35,- 876; in 1879, 50,205 ; in 1880, 41,615; and in 1881, 47,489. The following table exhibits the nationality and number of the immigrants who landed at Buenos Ayres in 1879, 1880, and 1881 : NATIONALITIES. 18?9. 1880. 1881. Italians 22,774 18,416 20,506 3,422 8,112 8,474 French 2,149 2,175 8,612 English 788 588 1,149 Swiss 717 581 635 490 445 591 1,760 879 495 Portuguese 28 34 73 Belgians 78 57 140 47 54 11 Dutch 7 10 Kussians . 15 8 84 Greeks and Turks Americans 17 51 11 21 28 72 Various 864 292 643 Total 82,702 26,643 81,468* The President of the Republic is Brigadier- General Don Julio A. Roca (inaugurated Octo- ber 12, 1880), and the Vice-President, Don Fran- cisco B. Madero. The Cabinet was composed of the following ministers: Interior, Dr. Ber- nardo de Trigoyen ; Foreign Affairs, Dr. V. do la Plazar; Finance, Dr. Juan Jose Romero; Justice, Public Worship, and Public Instruc- tion, Dr. E. Wilde ; War and the Navy, Dr. B. Victor ic a. The Argentine Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States and Great Britain is Dr. Luis L. Dominguez (accredited in 1882); the Consul-General (at New York) for the American Union is Seflor Don Carlos Carranza. The Governors of the several provinces, etc., were: Buenos Ayres Dr. D. Rocha. Catamarca J. Acuna. Cordoba M. Juarez Celman. Corrientes A. Soto. Entre-Kios Colonel J. F. Antelo. Jujuy Dr. P. Bias La Rioja J. V. Bustos. Mendoza J. M. Segura. Salta Dr. M. S. Ortiz. San Juan A. Gil. San Luis Z. Concha. Santa Fe Dr. M. Zavalla. Santiago del Estero P. Gallo. Tucuman M. M. Nouges. Gran Chaco Territory Colonel F. Bosch. Patagonia Colonel A. Barros. Misiones Colonel R. Roca. The United States Minister Resident in the Argentine Republic is General Thomas O. Os- born, and the United States Consul at Buenos Ayres is Mr. E. L. Baker. The Argentine army comprised, exclusive of the National Guard, 7,362 men, as follows : 3,710 foot; horse, 2,647; and artillery, 1,005. There were 4 generals of brigade, 14 colo- nels-major, 32 colonels, 147 lieutenant-colonels, 143 sergeant-majors, and 816 officers of other * See President Roca's message, at the end of this article. grades. The National Guard was 297,384 strong. The navy, in June, 1882, was composed of 27 vessels: 2 steam ironclads, 6 gunboats, 2 steam torpedoes, 12 steamers transformed into war-vessels, 3 transports, and 2 sail of the line, with an aggregate tonnage of 12,000, an arma- ment of 88 guns, and manned with 2 chiefs of squadron, 5 colonels, 8 lieutenant-colonels, 6 majors, 7 captains, 26 lieutenants, 22 students, 43 midshipmen, 7 pay-masters, and 26 engi- neers; 900 seamen, including officers, 2,000 in- fantry and artillery (National Guard), 1 torpedo section comprising 3 commandants, 8 subaltern officers, and 80 privates. About the end of 1881 the number of vessels was increased by the addition of a new ironclad, the Almirante Brown, armed with six 40-pounder breech- loading guns, of new model, on automatic car- riages; eight 8-inch 11^-ton breech - loading Armstrong guns, also of new model, firing pro- jectiles of 180 pounds weight, with 90 batter- ing charges, and a number of smaller guns. The 8-inch guns, so mounted that two can be fired straight ahead and three on each broad- side, are described as surpassing in range all the guns hitherto mounted in the British Navy, and inferior to only a few in penetrative power. There is a naval school and a school for cabin- boys, and at Zarate there is an arsenal. The national revenue and expenditure for the fiscal year 1881 have been officially reported as follows : REVENUE. Import duties .. $18,500,000 Export duties 8,000,000 Warehouse fees 354,000 Stamped paper, etc 650,000 Post-Offlce and telegraphs 452,000 Light-houses, etc 88,000 Railways 700,000 Sundries 1,160,000 Total $19,898,777 EXPENDITURE. Ministry of the Interior $3,262,413 " Foreign Affairs 139,920 " Finance 9,576,646 " Justice, Public Worship, Public In- struction, etc 1,875,072 " War and the Navy 5,482,450 Total ordinary expenditure $19,836,501 In this table the expenditure extraordinary is not included. The amount may be estimated at about $8,000,000. In the budget for 1882, the national revenue and expenditure were estimated as follows: REVENUE. Import duties $15,979,000 Export duties 4,006,000 Warehouse fees 880.000 Stamped paper, etc 1,860,000 Direct taxes Post-Office and telegraphs . Light-houses, etc Railways Interest Wharfage Forests Sundries . . . 900,000 6SO.OOO 40,000 845,000 116,000 12,000 777,000 Total ordinary revenue $25,681,000 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC. EXPENDITURE. Ministry of the Interior $4,987,795 Foreign Affairs 238,760 Finance 12,066,557 " Justice, Public Worship, Public In- struction, etc. 2,756.264 War and the Navy 6,598,387 Total ordinary expenditure $26,592,713 To which is to be added : Expenditure extraordinary .... $1,562,529 Grand total $28,155,242 On the subject of the national finances it would be superfluous to add any comments to the remarks contained in President Roca's message (see page 26). To the same message, and to page 28 of our volume for 1881, we would refer for details relating to the national debt. By the terms of a law, promulgated in 1881, the duties on exports and imports were in- creased one per cent. The values, sources, and destinations, re- spectively, of the exports and imports for the year 1881, are exhibited in the following table : If to this last amount be added $6,351,048, the value of exports in transitu, the total value of the foreign commerce of the republic will be raised to $116,449,801, against $100,563,- 000 for the year immediately preceding. But this increase of $15,886,801 is merely appar- ent, since the value of the exports in transitu for 1880 was not included in the official re- turns for that year. On viewing the foregoing tables of exports and imports, it is observed that the total value of the trade of the United States with the Ar- gentine Republic is but a little over $8,000,- 000, against $80,000,000 approximately repre- senting the value of the Argentine commerce controlled by European countries. Frequent reference has been made in these volumes to this unfavorable state of things, with explana- tion of the circumstances to which it is due. As the subject is one of paramount interest to the commerce of the United States, it is deemed advisable to insert here the following remarks on " European vs. American Trade Methods in Destinations. EXPORTS. values. the Argentine Republic," contained in a report Belgium .' $13,644,951 transmitted by United States Consul Baker to gj™ irreiii the Department of State at Washington : France' 16'il7'l32 Those nations will secure the largest share (of trade) Germany ...... '. '. ........ '. '. '. '. . '. . . . . . . . . . . . . . '. . s'875^684 'which offer the speediest and easiest facilities for ef- Great Britain 3,763,952 fecting exchanges ; that is, for transporting cargoes, Holland 8,936 disposing of them promptly, and remitting the pro- ceeds. This is the cause of the commanding position, with reference to the commerce of the Argentine Ee- 1 228s41 PuWic, which the great maritime nations of Europe United States ... 8,'924!s77 enjoy to-day. Having products to sell and products Uruguay '........... ....'.'.".'.". '. '. '. . '.".'. l',936,023 to buy, they have labored to make such traffic easy West Indies 985,384 and certain. By gradual but sure methods they South Africa 150,807 have laid the foundations for a fixed and permanent trade- They have arranged, as we may say, the tools and in8truments by which thev can handle the largest Total $56 069 104 commerce with certainty and dispatch, and at the same time with profit to all through whose hands it From IMPORTS. values. passes. This really has been of more concern to them Belgium $8,338,550 than idle panegyrics on the excellence or superiority £oliYia Jo'l^f °f w^at tne7 ka<* to se^ '•> *or tnev argue The En|lish The values of the dutiable and of the free nave six or seven different lines; the French have commodities for the year above referred to three; the Germans have foiir; the Italians have werft as f nllowc, rpanApH VA! v • three ? tlie Belgians have two ; the Spaniards have one ; [lows, respectively. and the p^ have one? and there ig not a gingl(; IMPORTS. maritime port of importance on the coast of Europe, Dutiable $53,022,774 or in the Mediterranean, but is connected by regular Duty free 1,006,875 steamers with Montevideo and Buenos Ay res. The Tntoi »mr> ««u rv>o p. M. A fine aurora was seen in Scotland. October 2d. A very bright aurora was seen in England on the evening of October 2d. Shortly before seven o'clock a bright arch ex- tended along the northern horizon to a height of 20°. From this arch " remarkable outbursts of streamers" shot up at intervals toward the zenith, the most active movements correspond- ing closely in point of time with the violent magnetic disturbances of the same evening. November 13th. A grand auroral display was witnessed in New York and other North- ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS. 35 ern States on the morning of November 13th, Mr. Brooks, of Phelps, N. Y., describes it as the most brilliant he had seen in many years. Its light was estimated as equal to that of the moon at first quarter. Streamers and auroral waves arose from the northern horizon to the zenith. A feeble aurora was also seen on the following evening. November I7th-20th. Another extraordi- nary aurora was seen very generally through- out the Northwestern States and Territories on the nights of November 17th and 19th. An ob- server at Wooster, Ohio, who witnessed the great aurora of 1859, describes that of Novem- ber 17th as surpassing it in grandeur. In Minne- sota, Nebraska, Wyoming, and Dakota, the dis- play was extremely brilliant, the brightness being greater than that of the full moon. As seen "in Indiana and the adjacent Northwestern States, that on the night of the 19th was scarcely less magnificent. Its greatest bright- ness was between the hours of 1 and 6 A. M. In some places the light was so great that per- sons arose, supposing it to be daylight. The aurora was preceded and attended by a violent magnetic storm both in Europe and America. Large sun-spots — one visible to the naked eye — were seen a day or two before the aurora. TRANSIT OF VENDS. — A.t the last session of Congress, a committee was appointed to take charge of all matters connected with the ob- servations of the transit of Venus on Decem- ber 6, 1882. This committee consists of the Superintendent of the Naval Observatory, the President of the National Academy of Sciences, the Superintendent of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Superintendent of the Nautical Almanac, and two professors from the Naval Observatory. An appropria- tion of $85,000 was also made to meet the ex- penses connected with the observations. Eight stations — four in the northern hemisphere and four in the southern — were selected for the observations. Each party of observers con- sists of four members — a chief astronomer, a photographer, and an assistant to each. The stations and aotronomers-in-chief are as fol- lows: STATIONS. Chief Astronomers. "Washington, D. C Prof. William Harkness, TJ. S. N. Fort Thorn, N. M Prof. Geo. Davidson, TJ. 8. C. & G. 8. Cedar Keys, Fla Prof. J. R. Eastman, U. 8. N. San Antonio. Texas . . . Prof. Asaph Hall, D. 8. N. Santiago de Chile Prof. Lewis Boss. New Zealand Mr. Edwin Smith, U. 8. C. & G. 8. Santa Cruz, Patagonia. . Lieut. 8. W. Very, U. 8. N. Cape of Good Hope .... Prof. 8. Newcomb, U. 8. N. At the station last named, the sun will set with Venus on his disk, and at New Zealand, ingress will have taken place before sunrise.* The Executive Committee of the Royal So- ciety of London, acting under the authority of the Treasury, have selected thirteen stations for the observation of the transit, and the gov- ernments of Continental Europe have made similar arrangements. NEW DETERMINATION OF THE EARTH'S MEAN * This article was written before the date of the transit. DENSITY. — A new and ingenious method of find- ing the earth's density has been devised and applied by Professor von Jolly, of Munich. On the top of a tower, seventy-three feet high, was placed a pair of scales. To each plate of the instrument a wire was attached which, passing through a zinc tube, reached within less than four feet of the earth. To the lower end of each wire another plate was attached, and under one of these was placed a globe of lead one metre in diameter. Bodies placed first in the upper scales, and then in the lower, had a measurably greater weight in the latter. Again, bodies weighed more or less in the lower scale, according as the leaden globe was present or absent. The differences of these weights furnished data for determining the ratio of the earth's density to that of lead. Mr. von Jolly's experiment gave a mean den- sity of 5-692, the density of water being unity. This slightly exceeds the value obtained by Mr. Bailey. MINOR PLANETS. — The following asteroids were discovered in 1882 : No. Discoverer. Where discovered. Date. Discoverer's No. 221 Palisa... Vienna.. . January 19.. 80 222 Palisa... Vienna . . February 9.. 81 223 Palisa Vienna . . March 9 ... 82 224 Palisa Vienna . . March 80 ... 88 225 Palisa Vienna . . April 19 .... 84 226 Palisa Vienna . . July. 19 35 227 Paul Henry. Paris.. . . August 12 . . 7 228 Palisa Vienna . . . August 19 ... 86 229 Palisa... .. Vienna . . . August 22 ... 37 280 Dr.de Ball. Bothkamp . September 3 . 1 281 Palisa Vienna .... September 10 88 It is thus seen that of the eleven minor planets, discovered since January 1, 1882, the indefatigable Palisa has detected nine. The elements of these new members of the group, so far as determined, are as follows : » Mean Dist. Period. Eccen. Incl. Long. Asc. N. Long. Per. 221 3-0015 Days. 1899-4 0-1415 11 45 13 142 47 53 8305417 222 8-1942 2085-2 0-1715 2 654 78 10 15 236 46 50 223 8-1000 1993-3 0-1408 1 57 17 502056 101 14 4 224 2-6422 1568-7 0-0350 55552 353 80 40 272 36 20 225 8-3580 2247-5 0-2485 2058 2 200 35 18 30244 5 226 2-7477 1663-6 0-2214 15 48 31 185 19 40 281 32 45 227 8-1785 2069-9 0-2482 93918 3304211 223 42 27 228 2-2030 1195-0 0-2565 23249 313 15 19 380 32 57 229 3-3914 2281-2 0-1552 2 12 4 30 31 44 320 19 19 280 2-3830 1344-3 0-0539 9 28 23 239 30 12 248 58 26 231 2-9260 1830-4 0-1730 523 5 3525345 2484954 It is seen from this table— 1. That the orbit of No. 224 is nearly circular ; 2. That those of Nos. 225, 226, 227, and 228, are very eccen- tric; and, 3. That the perihelion distance of the last (228) is about equal to the aphelion distance of Mars. The following minor planets have been re- cently named : No. 205. Martha. " 207. Hedda. " 208. Lachrimosa. " 210. Isabella. " 211. Isolda. " 212. Medea. " 213. Lilaea. No. 214. Aschera. " 215. CEnona. " 216. Cleopatra. " 217. Eudora. " 218. Bianca. " 219. Thusnelda. 36 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS. OBSERVATIONS OF MINOR PLANETS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF THE SOLAR PARALLAX. — A method of determining the solar parallax from observations of the interior asteroids when in opposition was proposed by Dr. Galle some years since. A series of observa- tions to be employed for this purpose was recently arranged by Dr. Gill, the Astronomer Royal for the Cape of Good Hope. The minor planets Sappho and Victoria were favorably situated for such observations at their oppo- sitions in 1882. In the northern hemisphere the necessary observations were made at Clin- ton, N. Y., Dublin, Strasburg, Berlin, Both- kamp, Leipsic, Upsala, and Moscow ; and in the southern hemisphere at Melbourne, Rio de Janeiro, the Cape of Good Hope, and Natal. The number of stations south of the equator is less than in the north, but from the clearer skies of the southern hemisphere an equal number of available observations was looked for as probable. The value of the sun's hori- zontal parallax resulting from the observations will doubtless be made known at an early day. Dr. Gill, it will be remembered, had pre- viously deduced a value of the solar parallax from helioineter observations of Mars in oppo- sition. OBSERVATIONS OF PROFESSOR HOUGH. — The annual report of Professor G. W. Hough, Di- rector of the Dearborn Observatory, at Chi- cago, was issued in June, 1882. The planet Jupiter has been an object of special study dur- ing the past year, as it had been, in fact, since 1879. Recent observations, it is claimed, en- able us to decide definitely in regard to the motion of certain points on the disk, though the physical condition of the planet is still somewhat uncertain. The most important conclusions reached by Dr. Hough are: that the changes taking place on the planet are very slow in their operations ; that the ob- served phenomena on the disk are probably periodical, as has been found to be the case on the sun's surface ; that some of the marks or objects noticed are much more permanent in their positions than others; that at least the superficial parts of the planet are in a liquid or plastic condition; that the great red spot is not fixed as a solid portion of the planet's crust, but, on the contrary, is slowly retro- grading ; that the mean period of rotation be- tween September '25, 1879, and March 29, 1882, was 9h- 55m- 35 -9'- ; that the apparent rota- tion period has increased about four seconds since the opposition of 1879, indicating a total drift of the red spot in longitude of 40,000 miles; and that this interesting object may be regarded as "an immense floating island 29,- .600 miles in length, by 8,300 miles in breadth, which has maintained its shape and size, with- out material change, during more than three years." Several small elliptical white spots have been also carefully watched. Two in particu- lar, a little south of the great red spot, were systematically observed from November 21, 1881, to February 23, 1882. The following spot of this pair was apparently at rest rela- tively to the red spot from November 22d to December 6th. About the latter date it com- menced drifting in the direction of rotation ; the total drift in seventy-nine days amounting to 41°. During the last sixty days the average motion relatively to the planet's surface was fifteen miles per hour. The two white spots did not retain the same relative positions in longitude with respect to each other. The observations also indicate that the whole surface of Jupiter outside the equatorial belt rotates with nearly the same angular velocity. Also that these spots are not fixed, but may have a slow direct or retro- grade motion. Professor Hough remarks that the observations of these spots may have an important bearing on the theory of the plan- et's physical condition, as well as en that of the rotation of its different parts. There are also two principal white spots in the great equatorial belt, differing in longitude about 15°, and in latitude about V. The rota- tion period for these spots has been found to be 9h- 50m- 9-8B- or 5m- 28' less than that of the great red spot. In other words, the equatorial spots drift in the direction of Jupiter's rotation at the rate of 260 miles per hour ; making a complete revolution on the planet's surface in about forty-five days. Professor Hough adds that " from observations on other small white spots, as well as on dark markings near the equator, it is probable that the matter in the equatorial regions constantly drifts in the di- rection of the planet's rotation ; and it seems probable that the rate of this drift depends on the latitude." From all the observations we may infer that no exact period can be assigned as that of Jupiter's rotation, and that, in fact, the period varies with the latitude. Mr. S. W. Burnham, who had been absent some months at the Washburn Observatory, Wisconsin, has returned to Chicago, and re- sumed his observations on double stars with the great refractor of the Dearborn Observa- tory. He is preparing for publication a cata- logue of 151 double stars, discovered by him- self during the past three years, and also a collection of all his star observations during the same period. Professor Hough's report has an engraving of the Chicago University, showing the tower of the Dearborn Observatory, one of the 18^- inch equatorial, and twelve colored drawings showing the appearance of Jupiter's disk at different times, giving the forms, positions, and colors of the belts and spots. A compari- son of these drawings shows very clearly the relative drift of the spots on the planet's sur- face. COMETS. — The first comet of 1882 was dis- covered by Mr. Charles S. Wells, at the Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y., on the night of ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PEOGEESS. 37 March 17th. Its elements, according to Dr. H. Oppenheim, are as follows: Perihelion passage 1S82, June 10, Berlin M. T. Longitude of perihelion 53° 55' 25" j \ro Longitude of ascending node.. .204 54 54 [• M? Inclination ? 73 47 29 f 1 Perihelion distance 5,600,000 miles. Motion Direct. These elements have no decided resemblance to those of any other known comet. Spectro- scopic examinations by Drs. Vogle, Huggins, Lohse, and others, gave evidence of a peculiar chemical constitution. In the " Astronomische Nachrichten," No. 2,434, Dr. Vogle remarks that " since 1864, when Huggins first analyzed the light of a comet, about twelve comets have been spectroscopically examined. The spectra of all these showed, in addition to a more or less distinct continuous spectrum, three sepa- rate streaks diffused on one side, and situated correspondingly to those in the spectra of the compounds of carbon. The completely different constitution of the present comet, the proper light of which appears principally to proceed from incandescent vapor of sodium, places it among the most interesting subjects of obser- vation in the new department of spectrum analysis that have yet been examined." This result, however, need not seem surprising, since the spectroscopic analysis of the meteors of dif- ferent streams has indicated a difference in their chemical composition. The second comet of 1882 was observed very near the sun during the total solar eclipse of May 17th. It was seen by Messrs. Lockyer, Tac- chini, Thollon, TrSpied, and possibly others. Its bright- ness appeared to M. Tr6pied of the same order as that of the exterior parts of the co- rona. For several days after the eclipse this observer con- tinued his search for the com- et, both after sunset and be- fore sunrise, but without suc- cess. If periodic, however, the fact may be determined by future observations, and the comet identified by tracing back its movement to the position when seen in 1882. Three pho- tographs of the corona were taken during the totality of the eclipse. The comet is found in each of these pictures, and an exact compari- tember 17th, at ten o'clock A. M. It was seen, very generally, close to the sun, by the aston- ished inhabitants of the village ; and so great was its brilliancy that its motion could be ob- served through thin passing clouds. On ex- amining it by the aid of an opera-glass with colored lenses, the tail was distinctly visible. The distance of the nucleus from the sun when first noticed was about 1° 30'. In England it was first seen by Mr. Ainslie Common, at Bal- ing, at 10h- 45m- Mr. Common happened to be observing the sun, when to his surprise he found a bright comet close to its margin, and apparently approaching it with great rapidity. On Monday, September 18th, it was seen in bright sunlight by many observers both in Eu- rope and America. In the clear mountain air of Colorado and Arizona it could be followed without a telescope for several days after its discovery. Its nearest approach to the sun occurred on Sunday, September 17th, when its distance from the surface, according to Dr. Hind, was only 300,000 miles. This was the distance of its nucleus or center of gravity, and, as its envelope or coma was of considerable extent, the latter doubtless grazed the solar atmosphere. The comet's velocity in perihelion was 370 miles per second, or nearly twenty times that of the earth in its orbit. Consider- THB COMET AS SEEN BY THE EYE AT NEW YORK. able perturbation of the comet's motion during its perihelion passage would therefore be high- ly probable, and accordingly such disturbance was indicated by observation. In " Nature," for October 12th, it is said that — At the moment when Mr. Gill observed the comet upon the sun's limb, when the distance from the sun's son shows its distance from the sun to have center was consequently 16-0', the orbit gives the been increasing. In other words, the comet central distance as 10-9', or the comet projected upon i-> T ., " .1 T the sun's disk. Considering that Mr. Gill's observa- tion was made less than one day previous to the ac- cordant meridian observations at Dun Echt and Coim- bra, it is not easv to see how such difference could had passed its perihelion. The third comet of 1882 was discovered at Cordoba, South America, by Dr. B. A. Gould, on the night of September 6th. It was de- tected independently by Mr. Finlay, of the Eoyal Observatory, at the Cape of Good Hope, on the morning of the 8th, and four days later by Dr. Cruls, of Eio de Janeiro. In the north- ern hemisphere it was first seen at Eeus, Spain, by M. Jaime Pedro y Ferrier, on Sunday, Sep- arise from error of elements, which represent the middle position employed in their determination within a minute of arc. Mr. Gill, in his account of the observations of September 17th, makes the interesting re- mark that the comet was followed by two ob- servers with different telescopes entirely to the 38 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS. BUD'S limb, where it suddenly disappeared at 4h- 50m' 58*-, Cape mean time. Elements of the comet were computed by Professor S. C. Chandler, of Cambridge, Mass. ; Dr. Hind, of London, Eng. ; Mr. Corrigan, of Washington, D. C. ; Professor H. A. Howe, of Denver, Col., and many others. A striking resemblance between these elements and those of the comets of 1668, 1843, and 1880, was at once noticed, suggesting the identity of the four bodies. This hypothesis was provisionally accepted by several astronomers, who account- ed for the rapid shortening of the period by the comet's motion in perihelion through the corona, or the outermost strata of the solar at- mosphere. Should this theory be verified, the comet's career must evidently soon terminate in a collision with the sun. The resemblance of the elements of the com- ets of 1668 and 1882 is seen by the following comparison : ELEMENTS. Comet of 1668. Comet of 1880. 1668, Feb. 28- 8 2T7° 2' 0" 357 17 0 8558 0 0-0047 Ketrograde . . Henderson. . . 1S82, Sept. 17-00 276° 10' 45" 346 16 00 87 54 03 o-oosi Retrograde. Corrigan. Longitude of perihelion Longitude of ascending node. Perihelion distance Motion Computer The similarity of elements is no less strik- ing in the case of the comets of 1843 and 1880. Mr. Chandler, however, assigns to the comet of 1882 a period of over eight years, or more than three times the interval between the appari- tions of 1880 and 1882— a fact unfavorable to the theory of identity. On the other hand, the " Astronomische Nachrichten," No. 2,430, has some new researches on the orbit of the great comet of 1880, by Dr. M. W. Meyer, of Geneva, Switzerland — researches which have an important bearing upon this question of or- bital convergence. Dr. Meyer finds the period of Gould's comet (1880 I.) to be somewhat less than thirty-seven years, or equal to the inter- val between its own perihelion passage and that of the great comet of 1843. Dr. Meyer accordingly regards the two apparitions as re- turns of the same body. Professor Hubbard assigned the comet of 1843 a period of more than five hundred years. It becomes, there- fore, Dr. Meyer remarks, a matter of much im- portance that the observations of the comet of 1843 be rediscussed, to determine whether they can be reconciled with the short period of thirty- seven years. If not, he concludes that the accel- eration of the comet's motion may have been due to its passage through the sun's atmosphere. The spectroscopic examination of Gould's comet exhibited both the sodium and the car- bon lines. "The spectrum of the nucleus," says Professor Young, "consisted of a fairly bright continuous spectrum, overlaid by the usual carbon bands, and one or two lines. The D-line was distinctly seen, and seen double, but was faint and hard to catch. The fourth carbon band in the violet was also faint. The brightest carbon band (near 5) was very bright and beautifully defined, showing clearly the three bright lines in it, which were seen in the great comet of 1881. A direct comparison with the blue base of the flame of a small wax- candle showed a perfect coincidence between its bands and those of the comet. No dark lines were visible in the comet spectrum. The cometary bands were easily seen all through the head of the comet, and, "by opening the slit, could be traced a long distance into the tail." The observations of several astronomers seemed to indicate that parts of this comet had become, or were becoming, detached from the nucleus. Dr. Julius Schmidt, Director of the Observatory of Athens, Greece, announced the discovery, on October 8th, of a telescopic comet only four degrees southwest of the great comet, and moving in the same direction. In the " Sidereal Messenger " for November, Mr. William R. Brooks, of Phelps, N. Y., states that while sweeping in the region of the great comet, on the morning of October 21st, he dis- covered a cometary mass eight degrees east of Gould's comet. Its length was about two de- grees. On the 15th of October, Professor Young, of Princeton, noticed a nebulous stripe, about half a degree wide, extending from the nu- cleus toward the sun a distance of four degrees. The greatest apparent length of the tail ot Gould's comet was from 15° to 18°, and its true length probably about 50,000,000 miles. In the "Science Observer" for November 15, 1882, Mr. Chandler gives elements derived from all available observations from September 18th to October 20th. The period indicated is much longer than that which he had previ- ously calculated. The theory, therefore, that the great comet of 1882 is identical with that of 1880 has been generally abandoned. Mr. E. E. Barnard, of Nashville, Tenn., dis- covered another comet on September 10th. It was circular, with some central condensation, and its light was equal to that of a star of the tenth magnitude. From the observations ob- tained from September 14th to October 7th, Mr. Hind, of England, calculated the following elements: Perihelion passage, November 13 '0067, G. M. T. Longitude of perihelion 354° 47'6' Longitude of ascending node 249 8 • 9 Inclination 83 43-1 Perihelion distance. . 88.000,000 miles. Motion Retrograde. These elements have no decided resemblance to those of any other known comet. EXPECTED RETURN OF THE COMET OF 1812. — The period assigned this comet by Bessel was 70'68 years; its return was therefore ex- pected in 1882 or 1883. Recently, however, Professors Schulhof and Bossert have redis- cussed the observations of 1812, including a series by Banplain at Marseilles, which they discovered in the original, and which were not used by Bessel. The resulting period is 73 '18 years, and the most probable time of the next return, September, 1884. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS. 39 DISCOVERY AND ANNOUNCEMENT OF COMETS. — In a statement of work done at the Harvard College Observatory during the years 1877- 1882, by the director, Professor Edward 0. Pickering, the following account is given of the methods adopted in the systematic search for comets, the announcement of discoveries, and the early determination of coinetary or- bits: By securing the services of Mr. Chandler as an as- sistant, and by the co-operation of Mr. Ritchie of the " Science Observer," a scheme has been developed which has made great advance in the early announce- ment of comets. When a comet is discovered, notifi- cation is usually sent to this observatory by telegraph. If the discovery was made in this country, a telegram is at once sent to the Dun Echt Observatory, and thence distributed throughout Europe. The iollow- ing evening, if clear, an observation of the comet is taken, and the resulting position telegraphed to Europe. These early positions have in some cases proved of great value, and have been used again and again in each subsequent orbit. Great care has been taken to avoid all delay in sending them, with the re- sult that occasionally these precise positions have be- come known abroad before the discovery itself had been announced by the usual method. As soon as these observations are obtained, the computation of the orbit is begun, and the work continued at all hours of the day or night until the results have been translated into the "Science Observer" cipher and cabled. About four days after the comet is discov- ered its elements and ephemeris are generally printed and distributed in this country and in Europe. Bv an arrangement with the Signal Service and with other observatories, when cloudy weather is expected here, observations are sometimes obtained elsewhere to avoid delay. Such arrangements have been made with the daily papers and with the Associated Press, that any important observation made here before mid- night would probably be printed in the papers of the following morning in the principal cities of the coun- try. By the same system of co-operation a plan for sweeping for comets has been developed, in accord- ance with which a number of observers have under- taken to examine a certain portion of the heavens once or twice every month, and satisfy themselves that no comet within the reach of their telescope is to be found there. The results published in the u Science Observer" show that the entire heavens is now so thoroughly swept that a comet is not likely to be long visible without detection. The observers engaged in this systematic search in the northern hemisphere are Mr. T. S. H. Shearman, of Brantford, Canada ; Mr. E. S. Martin, Wilmington, N. 0. ; Mr. A. S. Will- iams, West Brighton, England; M. C. De- taille, Paris, France; Dr. H. Oppenheim, Ber- lin; Dr. Lewis Swift, Rochester, N. Y. ; Mr. E. E. Barnard, Nashville, Tenn. ; Professor E. L. Larkin, New Windsor, 111., and Mr. W. R. Brooks, Phelps, N. Y. In the southern hemi- sphere, Mr. John Tebbutt, of Windsor, N. S. Wales, takes the zone between the 20th and 40th parallels of latitude ; Mr. A. B. Biggs, of Launceston, Tasmania, from the 40th to the 60th ; and Mr. W. Bone, of Castlemaine, Vic- toria, from the 60th to the 80th. METEORIC SHOWERS. — The meteors of April 20th were more numerous than usual in 1882. Mr. H. Corder, of England, watching from 9h' 30m> to 12h- 30m>, counted thirty-four me- teors, of which twenty-six were conformable to the radiant in Lyra. Mr. Corder, who has given attention to the meteors of this stream for the last six years, found the hourly num- ber twice as great in 1882 as in any other year since 1876. Four of the meteors were equal to stars of the first magnitude. The radiant point was near Theta Lyrse, in right ascension 268°, and north declination 37°. The meteors of the August shower were much more numerous in some localities than in others. In "Nature," for September 28th, Mr. Donald Cameron, of Glasgow, Scotland, gives the result of his observations from the 6th to the llth of August inclusive. The showers witnessed on the nights of the 9th, 10th, and llth, are described as "gorgeous." On the evening of the 10th, before the close of twilight, he counted thirteen very large me- teors in the space of a few minutes, although his view was much intercepted by trees and buildings. Mr. Cameron does not give the whole number observed, but he remarks that he had not for years during any month wit- nessed so grand a display of meteors as in Au- gust, 1882. The shower "was of very short duration on each night, and after twelve o'clock not one scarcely could be seen." According to the " Sidereal Messenger," for October, 1882, watch was kept for the Au- gust meteors at several points in Indiana on the nights of the 8th, 9th, 10th, and llth. At Bloomington, on the night of the 10th, a party of four, under the direction of Professor D. E. Hunter, counted 521 meteors in four hours, commencing at 10h- 30m-. This was an average of 130 per hour. Of these, 139 were estimated as of the first magnitude, 99 of the second, and 76 of the third. A stationary me- teor was seen at lh- 34m-, which increased from the fourth to the first magnitude. This, of course, was at the point of divergence, and moving directly toward the observers. A bluish Perseid of the first magnitude appeared in Draco at lh- 33£m', and moved in a track ap- parently curved. In a second or two this was succeeded by another, of nearly the same size and color, which moved in precisely the same path. The meteors frequently came in clus- ters, five or six sometimes appearing in quick succession. At other times a lull or total ces- sation would last several minutes. In one hour — from eight to nine — on the evening of the 10th, Mr. W. F. L. Sanders, watching alone at Jasper, Dubois County, ob- served forty meteors. At Bloomfield, Greene County, Ind., Dr. H. R. Lowder and others kept a continuous watch on four nights, commencing at nine o'clock on the evening of the 8th. The ob- servers counted — On the night of the 8th 761 meteors. 9th 1,527 " " 10th . 3.677 " llth... . 667 Total in four nights 40 ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS. At Cambridgeport, Mass., where watch was kept by Mr. E. F. Sawyer, the number of me- teors observed was not extraordinary. The night of the 10th, however, was quite over- cast, and those of the 9th and llth were more or less cloudy. METEORS OF OCTOBER 20th. — At Washing- ton, Ind., on the morning of October 20th, thirty meteors were counted by Professor D. E. Hunter, from 4h> to 4h- 30m-. Twenty-three of this number had their radiant in Gemini. METEORS OF NOVEMBER 14th. — On the morn- ing of November 14th, Mr. D. E. Hunter, Prin- cipal of the Washington High-School, Wash- ington, Ind., watched for meteors from 3h- 10m' to 5h< llm'. The number seen in successive half-hours was as follows : Leonids. Sporadic. Total. From 3h. 10m. to 3h. 40m " 8 40 " 4 10 " 4 10 "4 40 " 4 40 "5 11 Meteors in two hours 14 16 4 14 43 16 9 4 7 86 80 25 8 21 84 During the first hour Mr. Hunter had four as- sistants, and during the second three. The visible paths of the Leonids were unusually short — thirty not exceeding 10° in length. The morning of the 15th was cloudy. LARGE METEORS. — Meteoric fire-balls were observed during 1882 at the following dates : March 9th, at llh- P.M. This meteor was seen by a party of five gentlemen about eight miles northeast of Warsaw, Kosciusko Coun- ty, Ind. The sky was entirely covered with clouds, and snow was rapidly falling. Conse- quently the meteor could not be seen till it had passed below the clouds. The report of its explosion was distinctly heard at Warsaw, the county-seat, and excited much attention, from the fact of its occurring during a heavy snow-storm. — (Observatory, July, 1882.) March 12th, 8h- p. M. A large, violet-colored meteor was seen near Haren, Netherlands, in the southwest. March 13th, !"• A.M. A large, detonating meteor was seen near Groningen. On the same night, and at the same hour, another fire-ball was observed near the village of Ber- gen, in North Holland.— (Nature, July, 1882.) March 12th, 9h- 25m-, p. M. A very brilliant fire-ball was seen at Cambridge, Mass. It appeared near the zenith, and vanished at an altitude of 65°, its course being from south- east to northwest. It consisted of two nuclei, one following the other.— (Science Observer. July, 1882.) May 4th, 9h- 31m- p. M. A meteor "as brill- iant as the full moon " was seen at Stonyhurst Observatory, and at other points in England. It appeared near Arcturus, and moved through Ursa Major, passing between the stars Delta and Epsilon. It was visible five seconds. — (Nature, June 8th.) May 16th, 1T> A.M. A large meteor was seen at the University of Oxford, England. It appeared 5° above the main cluster of Co- ma, passed a little above Iota, in the Great Bear, and vanished 5° to the left of Beta Auriga? ; time of flight between eight and ten seconds. A few minutes later another was seen, describing very nearly the same path. — (Nature, May 25.) June 24th, 9h- 33m> A magnificent meteor was observed by many persons at Wilmington ^and other points in North Carolina. It ex- 'ploded with a loud detonation over Lenoir County. September 3d, at 9h- 10m> p. M. A large me- teor was seen by H. Corder, of Great Baddow, England. It appeared "just below Lacerta, and, passing Polaris, disappeared with a flash near the tail of Draco." September 10th. At 8h- 25m- p. M., Messrs. O. and E. Corder saw from the cliff of Lowes- toft, England, a meteor which seemed to start in the east from a point about 20° above the horizon and move to the zenith, where it ex- ploded. The head was pear-shaped and nearly as large as the moon. VARIABLE STARS. — In the " Science Observ- er," No. 35, December 15, 1881, Mr. Edwin F. Sawyer, of Boston, announced the discovery of a new variable. Its position for 1882-0 is right ascension I7h- 10m- 33s- declination 1° 20' 36" north. The character of its variations as- signed it to the small but very interesting class of short period variables of which Algol is the type; the period, according to Mr. Sawyer's observations, being about five days and six hours. The same journal for July 12, 1882, contains the result of late observations of the same star by Mr. S. C. Chandler, of the Cam- bridge (Mass.) Observatory. Mr. Chandler has demonstrated that the period is but 20h- Tm' 42"- instead of 5-24 days, and that all the variations take place in one fifth of this time, or in about four hours. " In several respects, Mr. Sawyer's star ranks as the most remarka- ble in the list of known variables. Its period is the shortest of any, and very much shorter than any of the peculiar class to which it be- longs, known as the Algol type. Not only this, but the portion of its period to which the variations are confined is also far the shortest of any." The " Observatory," for March, 1882, con- tains a second paper by Mr. T. E. Espin on the distribution of the variable stars. In his for- mer paper on this subject it was shown that the variables are confined for the most part to a well-marked zone inclined 15° or 20° to the equator. His later discussions furnish some remarkable conclusions in regard to the peri- ods of variation. Thus "if we tabulate the number of stars in each ten days up to periods of 440 days, we find — " 1. There are no stars with periods between VI and 135 days. " 2. No such gap occurs elsewhere, nor is there any sign of such. ASTRONOMICAL PHENOMENA AND PROGRESS. 41 " 3. The number of stars decreases rapidly on one side of the gap, and increases on the other side of the gap.1' Calling the stars with periods less than 71 days Class I, and those on the other side of the gap (that is to say, with periods greater than 135 days) Class II, Mr. Espin has found, from a careful consideration of the phenomena of the variable stars in Class I, that when the variation is small, or when the variable at its maximum is bright, the period is generally short. These facts, he remarks, may be of service in observing stars suspected of varia- tion. NEW PLANETARY NEBULJE. — The " Observa- tory," for October and November, gives the positions of twelve small planetary nebulas re- cently discovered by Professor Pickering. It is a remarkable fact in regard to these objects that they are all found in or near the Milky Way. OBSEKVATORIES. — WASIIBURN OBSERVATORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. — The first volume of the publications of this observatory was issued in October, 1882, by the director, Professor Edward S. Holden. It contains a description of the observatory buildings and instruments ; a catalogue of 195 stars, reduced by Mr. G. C. Comstock, assistant in the Wash- burn Observatory ; reduction tables for the latitude of Madison ; a list of 27 new nebulaa discovered in the zone observations at the Washburn Observatory, from April 23 to Sep- tember 30, 1881 ; a list of 60 new. double stars discovered in the zone observations by Pro- fessor Holden ; a list of 88 new double stars discovered by Mr. S. W. Burnham ; measures by Mr. Burnham of 152 selected double stars ; observations of 84 red stars, and a list of 27 new red stars ; and observations and drawings of the great comet of 1881. THE LEANDER MoCoRMioK OBSERVATORY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. — Professor Or- mond Stone, late of Cincinnati, having been appointed director of this observatory, com- menced the duties of his new position in the summer of 1882. The great refracting tele- scope, made by Messrs. Alvan Clark and Sons, of Cambridge, Mass., for Mr. McCormick a few years since, has been presented by that gentle- man to the University of Virginia. This in- strument, which cost $50,000, is not surpassed in this country, and is equaled only by the 26- inch refractor of the Naval Observatory at Washington. It is understood also that the chair of Astronomy has been liberally endowed by the friends of the university. From the great power of the instrument, its favorable position, and the recognized ability of Professor Stone, astronomers may anticipate important results. THE PRINCETON TELESCOPE. — This instru- ment, now mounted and ready for use, ranks as the second in magnitude of the great re- fracting telescopes in the United States. Its object-glass is twenty-three inches in diameter — only three inches less than that of the great equatorial of the Naval Observatory at Wash- ington. This glass is peculiar in its form, con- sisting of two lenses separated by an interval of about seven inches. The free circulation of air through this vacant space will diminish the disturbance resulting from a change of temperature. The instrument, which is pro- vided with all necessary appliances, will be chiefly used by Professor Young, the distin- guished director, in the department of stellar spectroscopy. The spectroscope, the most powerful of its kind ever constructed, was made by Hilger, of London, under the super- vision of the Astronomer Royal. The whole cost of the equatorial and spectroscope was $26,000. In the summer of 1882 the Yale College Observatory received its new heliometer, re- garded as the most perfect micrometric appa- ratus in either Europe or America. This in- strument, as well as the equatorial recently purchased, was expected to be in readiness for observing the transit of Venus on December 6th. The Lick Observatory, on Mount Hamil- ton, California, has received a sidereal clock from Hohwu, of Amsterdam, and the observ- atory buildings are in the process of erec- tion. The Warner Observatory, Rochester, N. Y., was completed in 1882. Its new telescope, a sixteen-inch refractor, has been received and mounted. In the hands of Dr. Swift, the di- rector, it may be expected to perform good service. NEW ASTRONOMICAL JOURNALS. — Professor William W. Payne, director of the observatory at Northfield, Minn., has commenced the pub- lication of a new astronomical periodical en- titled "The Sidereal Messenger." The jour- nal is issued monthly, except for July and August. It is popular rather than technical, giving the results of observation and research both in Europe and America. M. Flammarion, of Paris, well known for his numerous works on popular astronomy, commenced the publication of a new journal under the title of "L'Astronomie," in March, 1882. It is a monthly review of astronomy, meteorology, and physiography, each number containing forty pages, large quarto, with nu- merous woodcuts. The first number contains an interesting account of the Paris Observa- tory. ASTRONOMICAL PRIZES. — The gold medal of the Royal Astronomical Society of London was awarded in February, 1882, to Dr. David Gill, Astronomer Royal at the Cape of Good Hope, for his heliometric observations of Mars at ascension, and for his discussion of the re- sults. The president, J. R. Hind, Esq., laid before the society the ground on which this award had been founded. The Lalande prize of the French Academy of Sciences was awarded to Dr. Lewis Swift, Director of the Warner Observatory, Rochester, N. Y., for his dis- covery of seven comets in four years, one of AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. them belonging to the group of periodic com- ets having their aphelia in the vicinity of Ju- piter's orbit. The prize offered by H. H. War- ner, Esq., of Rochester, N. Y., for the best essay on cornets, their composition, purpose, and effect upon the earth, was awarded to Professor Lewis Boss, Director of the Dudley Observatory, Albany, N. Y. AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. The Australasian colonies resemble each other greatly in their public policy and their economic conditions, which are not seriously affected by the rivalry between high and low tariff carried on by the two leading colonies. Their policies differ only in degree, and have a prospect of becoming assimilated. The proposal of an Australian Federation has been revived in the Victorian Legislature. In spite of the bound- ing prosperity of Australia and the high rates of wages now prevailing, the bone and sinew of British immigration is drawn toward the more liberal institutions of the United States, while farmers with large capital are naturally attracted by the splendid opportunities of these colonies. REVENUES. — The financial budgets of all the colonies for 1882 show revenues greatly ex- ceeding the estimates. The revenue of New South Wales for the year ending June 30th was £7,213,000, an increase of a million over that of the previous year. That of Victoria was £5,750,000, being £316,000 above the es- timate. The revenue of South Australia was £2,225,000, an increase of £175,000. That of Queensland was £2,100,000, showing an in- crease of £331,000, and leaving a surplus of £.245,000. The redundant revenues which place these progressive young commonwealths in a financial position altogether exceptional are due to the supplementary income from sales of public lands. Yet the present augmenta- tions in the public income are not attributable to forcing the land-sales, but to the increased consumption of articles paying custom and excise duties, and to increased traffic on the Government railroads. Severe droughts af- fected nearly the whole surface of the Austra- lian Continent in the beginning of the year. The wool-crop in consequence showed very little, if any, increase over the preceding year. But, notwithstanding the losses from this cause, and the partial failure of the wheat-crop in South Australia in 1881, the general tide of prosperity has continued to rise. When the surface of Western Australia, which is rapidly filling with squatters, is as completely occu- pied as the Eastern colonies now are, the limit will be reached of Australian wool production under present conditions and at present prices. New South Wales and New Zealand have added to their large public debts by contracting new loans; which they have obtained on favorable terms in London. The agreement of the col- onies to exercise common federal action can not be consummated while Victoria and New South Wales maintain their rival commercial policies. But the abandonment of the restrict- ive tariff of Victoria seems only a matter of time, since a respectable number of the manu- facturers have joined with the merchants and farmers in condemning the tariff. The pro- tective policy vehemently championed by Gra- ham Berry, the former Prime Minister, and leader of the Democratic party, still finds strong support among the laboring classes. The primacy among the colonies would be re- gained by New South Wales without the ad- vantage of freer commercial intercourse with other countries, because that colony possesses a vast area of agricultural land, a central geo- graphical position, and coal and the useful metals as well as gold. RAILROADS. — The progress of Australia de- pends upon the extension of railroad commu- nications, so that politics and finance center in the railroad policy of the colonies. In con- structing state lines with capital mostly raised by public loans, the colonies do not have to look to remote returns in the increase of the taxable capacity of the country. The railroads thus far constructed pay a fair interest on the investment, and add greatly to the assets of the Government by rendering the public lands immediately valuable. The eighteen millions thus invested in Victoria yield 4£ per cent net per annum. That province has authorized the construction of 850 miles more. New South Wales has built over a thousand miles of rail- roads, and receives from them an income of 4 per cent on the expenditure. Queensland and Soutli Australia have each laid out about 700 miles of railroads and several thousand miles of telegraphs. The railroad debts of the colo- nies are lightly borne; the railroads themselves usually yield the interest. New South Wales pays the interest of £766,000 on the public debt with the eighth part of its revenue. This colony has authorized £15,500,000 of new loans since 1879, which nearly double its debt. The Earl of Denbigh's projected railroad through fertile, well-watered, and rich mineral regions in the interior of Queensland to con- nect Sydney with Brisbane, was opposed by the Governor, who objects to signing away the valuable land-grants demanded, and is still in abeyance. South Australia is more favorably disposed to land subventions, and has enter- tained the project of a company to construct a line 1,900 miles long, following the line of the Government telegraph put up in 1881, directly across the continent from Adelaide to Port Darwin. It is a question whether this bold project shall not be carried out by the Govern- ment instead of the company. It has 400 miles of the proposed line, from Adelaide to the new town of Farina in the 30th degree of latitude, already built. The railroads which are now being constructed by New South Wales westward to the Darling River, south- westward to meet the railroads of Victoria, and northward in the direction of Brisbane, and the road which South Australia is pushing AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. 43 toward Melbourne, promise to soon bring the four capitals of the leading provinces into di- rect railroad communication with each other. PUBLIC LANDS. — The Australian colonies have pursued a policy with regard to the pub- lic domain widely divergent from that of the United States. While keeping the land out of the hands of speculators almost as effectually, their system has encouraged instead of prevent- ing extensive agriculture and the formation of large estates. The agriculture of the country might have been more varied under the Amer- ican homestead system, instead of being con- fined to stock-raising, and the ultimate social results might be better ; but such a rapid pro- duction of wealth and such immediate eco- nomical progress would have been impossible.* The Australian policy is for the state to re- tain the lands until they attain a commercial value, and meanwhile to lease them out -on terms long enough and at rents low enough to attract settlers. This plan has been really more advantageous for the sheep-growers, who were thus enabled to put more capital into stock, so that many of them are rich in flocks and in money from the sale of the produce, and are able at the expiry of their licenses to buy the land from the Government at good prices. The inflow of public money from a source possessed by no other states old or new, and one quite independent of the taxable re- sources of the people, was likely to lead to an embarrassment of riches if the fortunate colo- nies had not adopted the plan of building rail- roads in advance of private enterprise. The construction of a railway net-work to connect the prosperous but scattered settlements of this vast continental island is not only good public policy, but under honest control, with tariffs fixed on commercial principles, will prove a profitable investment of the capital. But the outlay on these public works, until the main lines are completed, must exceed the receipts from the land-sales; and thus it comes that the public debt of New South Wales and the other colonies is growing at the same time that the revenues are abnormally large. MILITAKY FORCE. — The Australian colonies have busied themselves lately with military de- fenses and the organization of militia forces. This military activity was accelerated after the outbreak of hostilities in Egypt. Victoria has * Even in America, the theory of the homestead laws is ig- nored since modern transportation has rendered the produc- tion of animal products, on a large scale, on outlying lands, profitable. Such is the exigency of economic laws, that the advantage given to money-lenders, by the sanguine disposi- tion of farmers to improve their property with borrowed capital, without reckoning on years of failed crops or low prices, has been used to bring about a new distribution of land, and the building up of large properties in some of the settled states, since the cultivation of cereals on the extensive system has become profitable ; although the introduction of the Metayer system has also much to do with these changes. The vastness of some of the pastoral estates in Australia is illustrated by an auction-sale which took place at Melbourne at which 335,000 acres of first-class riverine land, the greater part freehold, stocked with high-grade sheep and blooded cattle, with residence, pleasure-grounds, shops and tools, steam-machinery, and all improvements equally complete changed hands for the sum of £447,000. expended £200,000 in the reconstruction and extension of coast-batteries, and £100,000 for gunboats, torpedo-boats, and war material. Torpedoes have been sunk in both the main entrances to Melbourne port. The colony has a paid volunteer corps, armed with Martini- Henry rifles, numbering 3,903 men. The naval armament consists of an ironclad, a wooden frigate, a sloop-of-war, and two new guriboats. Sydney is the chief station for the imperial squadron. In return for the resigna- tion by the Home Government of all rights over land in New South Wales the Colonial Government has provided a navy-yard and a residence for the admiral. The fortifications at the entrance to Port Jackson and Sydney Harbor have been strengthened. In South Australia a permanent artillery corps has been established, a gunboat purchased, and the forts renovated. The military preparations have been made in concert by the different colonies according to the recommendations of the Gov- ernor of South Australia, Sir William Jervois, a distinguished officer of engineers, who was instructed by the Imperial Government to look into the colonial defenses. AREA AND PRODUCTS. — The total area of the Australasian colonies is 3,103,903 miles. Their aggregate male population in 1880 was 1,499,- 258. The total population of Australia, by the census of 1881, was under 2,250,000. The land in cultivation was 6,371,238 acres. The aggre- gate agricultural production of that year was as follows: 36,346,950 bushels of wheat, 17,- 766,875 bushels of oats, 3,506,191 of barley, 6,335,239 of maize, 424,155 tons of potatoes, nearly 1,000,000 tons of hay, and 1,871,861 gallons of wine. The flocks and herds num- bered 1,064,655 horses, 7,878,782 cattle, 65,- 915,765 sheep, and 882,337 swine. There were 24 animals, but less than one inhabitant, to the square mile. The revenue raised by the colo- nists has increased from £15,927,000 in 1879, to £20,776,000 in 1882. The imports in 1880 amounted to £45,060,000, and the exports to £48,866,168, a trade of £35 per capita. VICTORIA. — The compromise Cabinet of Sir Bryan O'Loghlen held out only because the two leading parties in the colony were neither of them strong enough in the House or in the country to make a Government, and so they both of them gave some amount of support to this Government, which represents no particu- lar views or party. Mr. Berry attempted to carry a vote of confidence, on the ground that the Government had purchased pipes and rail- road-wagons in England, but the Parliament was not caught by such a demagogic appeal. A tariff commission has been hearing the views and complaints of all classes regarding the tariff. The farmers complain of the high price of implements. A manufacturer of steam- engines declared that the complex tariff works injuriously for his branch. The brewers asked for a rebate of duty on barley converted into malt, while the grain-growers demand the con- 44 AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. tinuance of protection against the superior bar- ley of New Zealand. In obedience to a gen- eral demand Parliament repealed the stock-tax, which enhanced the price of meat in Melbourne, hampered the meat-preserving industry, and helped to divert the Riverina trade from Mel- bourne to Sydney. The trade of the Riverina country, which formerly went to the nearer Melbourne, now finds its outlet by the railroads of New South Wales and the steamers and rail- roads of South Australia. The extension of the New South Wales Railroad to Hay threat- ens to draw away this valuable trade from Mel- bourne. The repeal of the duty on live-stock, imposed at the height of the protectionist fever under the Berry Government, by which 9d. is collected on every sheep brought across the Murray from New South Wales, is not suffi- cient to restore the Riverina traffic to Mel- bourne. A lively war of rates was opened be- tween the two Governments. In this contest Victoria is at a disadvantage, notwithstanding the shorter length of its trunk-line, as it was built when wages were at their highest point. The considerable revenue derived from the im- ported goods supplied to the interior of New South Wales furnishes a fiscal motive for sacri- ficing the railroad profits in this freight com- petition. This danger to the commerce and revenues of Victoria is the principal reason for the progressive railroad policy which has been inaugurated. No less than fifty-six new lines have been projected, at a total estimated cost ,of £2,500,000. One feature of the scheme is to tap the Murray at three points, so as to re- gain the Riverina traffic. A loan of £4,000,000 is to be raised in England. A new land policy was also inaugurated. Under the old homestead law, the land was all falling into the hands of speculative capitalists. To check this, a land- tax was imposed, which discouraged all pur- chasers. A harbor-trust act authorizes a loan for the project of making Melbourne accessible to large The diamond-drill, which passes through the hard basalt with rapidity to great depths, and does away with the expense of sinking shafts to explore for gold, has come into common use in Victoria, and given a great impetus to the mining industry. The census of Victoria, taken April 3, 1881, gives the population as 452,083 males, and 410,263 females; total, 862.346. This shows an increase in ten years of 12'7 per cent in the male, 24-1 per cent in the female, and 17'9 per cent in the total population. NEW SOUTH WALES. — The public affairs of New South Wales are held in the firm grasp of Sir Henry Parkes, the Premier, and Sir John Robertson, who are fortified in their position by the enormous patronage which they dis- pense, owing to the working of the Robertson land laws. These laws discourage immigra- tion and agriculture, although they do not in- terfere with the development of sheep-culture. Through their operation the public domain is being rapidly alienated, and falls exclusively into the hands of land monopolists, who have purchased all the lands opened by the new rail- ways in enormous tracts. These purchasers are the squatters, who have already stocked the land with sheep, and grown wealthy from the produce. The dryness of the season of 1882 only partly checked the pastoral prosperity. An act to promote artificial irrigation, called the water conservancy act, was suggested by the late droughts. Under it many districts have raised money to carry out extensive schemes of water storage. Wages in New South Wales were never so high, or speculation so rampant. The population of New South Wales increased in ten years 50 per cent, being over 750,000 by the census of 1881. Two thirds of the increase was due to the natural excess of births over deaths. The immigration is mostly from the neighboring colonies. The wool export in- creased from £4,750,000 in 1871 to over £7,- 000,000 in 1881. Including hides, tallow, pre- served meat, and live-stock, the total export of pastoral produce amounted to £8,750,000. The number of sheep in the colony increased from 16,000,000 to 33,000,000. The number of cattle barely increased, large numbers hav- ing been sent away to Queensland ; the local price of beef has risen. The cereal product has increased but little ; droughts and rust discour- age agricultural enterprise, and the best wheat- lands are remote from the coast. Although gold production shows no increase, the devel- opment of tin and coal mining has increased the value of the mineral product over one third in ten years. The coin and bullion in the col- ony has increased from £10,500,000 to £36,- 500,000, or from £16 to £35 per capita ; some proportion of this remarkable accumulation rep- resents English capital, which has been largely sent over for investment in the latter half of the decade. The amount of the discounts and mortgages rose from £9,500,000 to £27,000,000. QUEENSLAND. — Sugar-growing is rapidly as- suming the proportions of a leading industry in this colony, though it will take many years at the present rate of increase for the product to supply the markets of Australia. An im- portant movement for the separation of North- ern Queensland from the rest of the colony has been set on foot. The Brisbane Government and people desire to become dissociated from the sugar-planters, and relieved of responsibil- ity for the abuses of coolie labor. The whole northern, tropical coast of Australia may be united into a single colony, governed ou the basis of "black" labor, and with the idea that this form of slavery is indispensable for the development of the region. The Government geologist reports the discovery of numerous and thick seams of coal near Palmersville. Western Australia, which has made but slow progress hitherto, is developing fast under the tide of immigration which has set toward the Kiinberley and other rich tracts of pastoral AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. 45 territory. Railroads are projected from Perth, the capital, to Albany, King George's Sound, and the northern districts. NATIVE QUESTION IN NEW ZEALAND. — The only settlement which is promised for the na- tive question in New Zealand, which has been reopened by the recent invasion of the North Island by new colonists, is the expulsion of the Maoris from their remaining lands and the rapid extinction of the dying race. The Maori chief, Te Whiti, who gathered about him about two thousand natives on the west side of the North Island, and offered a passive resistance to the confiscation of the Parihaka tract, was first approached with an offer by the colonial authorities to settle his followers on other lands. Te Whiti was a pious Christian, who had received his instruction from Lutheran missionaries. He preached in the monthly as- semblies at Parihaka that God would preserve their hereditary lands to the natives if they bore themselves worthily. The tract in dis- pute belonged to the Taranaki tribe, and had been declared confiscate twenty years before, as a penalty for an insurrection, in which nearly all the natives of the west coast took part. They were left in possession, and the Government subsequently promised that they should have the title restored to them. Now that the land had become valuable for occupa- tion, the Government proceeded to carry out the old decree. The religious enthusiast who led the natives was opposed to all forcible re- sistance, but refused the reservation which was offered in the place of the Parihaka block. They asserted their legal rights by remov- ing the fences set by the surveyors, and by many of them squatting in the tract and plow- ing up the land. The Government, on the pre- text that the monthly meetings constituted a danger to the peace, took peremptory measures against the natives, who were only asserting their treaty rights by peaceful and proper methods. The Minister for Native Affairs, Mr. Bryce, at the head of the armed constabulary and a strong force of volunteer rifles, marched into Parinaka Pah, the Maori village. Not the slightest opposition was offered. Te "Whiti was arrested, with Tohu, his principal lieuten- ant, and the other chiefs, on the charge of seditious practices and language. Their fol- lowers were taken away from their lands and distributed among the different tribes of the Maoris. A special law was passed by the Leg- islative Assembly, by virtue of which the chiefs were kept in close confinement, without trial, until the next session. Sir Arthur Gor- don, the Governor of the colony, did not ap- prove the expulsion of the native squatters from the holdings to which they had obtained a presumptive right by ~bona fide settlement, which should enable them to have their claims judicially examined. A correspondence was carried on over this point between the Gov- ernor, the Prime Minister of the colony, and the Secretary of State for the Colonies. In April Mr. Hall, the Prime Minister, resigned on account of ill health. Sir Arthur Gordon, with a singular disregard for constitutional precedents, went to the leader of the Opposi- tion, Sir George Grey, who was twice Govern- or of New Zealand before the parliamentary constitution was conferred, and has been at different times since the Prime Minister, with the proposition that he should form a ministry which should be actuated by a keener sense of justice to the natives. Besides the special act under which Te Whiti and the other pris- oners were held in prison, the ministry had carried an act of indemnity to protect them from the consequences of their high-handed proceedings. Sir George Grey, as a true colo- nial politician, not only declined to attempt forming a Cabinet, but when the acts were brought forward in the Assembly, to the dis- appointment of his own followers, he expressed complete approval of the course of the Native Minister. The ministry was reconstituted un- der Mr. Whittaker, previously Attorney-Gen- eral, as Colonial Secretary, with Major Atkin- son as Colonial Treasurer, Walter Johnston as Minister of Public Works, and Mr. Bryce as Minister for Native Affairs. Te Whiti, after being kept in prison for many months, was given a tour in railroads and steamers all through the South Island, in order to impress him with the power and superiority of the white conquerors before setting him at lib- erty. A deputation of Maori chiefs visited Eng- land in the summer for the purpose of enlist- ing sympathy in behalf of their dying race. It is proposed to defend their remaining pos- sessions by confiding them to a trust associa- tion in England, which will obtain the best prices for them, and invest the proceeds so that they will yield annuities to the remnant of the race. There are ten million acres, which will yield £4,000,000 within eighteen years, and leave land of the value of £14,000,000 for subsequent sale and distribution among the Maoris and shareholders of the association. REVENUE. — The revenue of New Zealand in 1881-'82 was £3,488,170, being £190,650 in excess of estimates; £125,000 of which excess was under the head of customs and £11,115 under that of stamps, showing increased con- sumption and accumulation of capital. The railroads produced less than the estimate, but the receipts were largely in excess of those of the previous year. They pay 4 per cent net on the cost of construction. The land-sales amounted to £317,000, of which £34,000 was in deferred payments, showing the success of settlers who took up land without any capital. The deposits in the savings institutions, chiefly in the Government banks, give another indica- tion of the general prosperity. These deposits aggregate £1,549,000, belonging to 61,000 de- positors. Of the population of New Zealand, which has increased in ten years from 266,988 to over 500,000, the class of workers for wages, 46 AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. AUSTRIAN ELECTORAL SYSTEM. including female servants, numbers 323,000; 96,000 who do not work for wages pay no property-tax — that is, are not possessed of property to the amount of £500— and 68,445 pay property-tax. The incidence of taxation is about £1 per capita for the wage-earning class; £2 13s. for the intermediate class; and £6 8s. Qd. for the class which pays the property- tax, but the impending reduction of this tax to one half the present amount will reduce the average burden of this class to £4 10*. The public debt of New Zealand, after deducting £2,226,000 of sinking fund, stands at £27,680,- 000. It is to be increased £4,000,000 by bor- rowing in London £1,000,000 a year for three years and by a special loan of £1,000,000, in order to complete the trunk lines of railroad and some other public works. RAILROADS. — The capital already invested by the Government in railroads amounts to about £11,000,000. Of the 1,333 miles con- structed, 875 are in the provinces of Canter- bury and Otago, in the South Island, while in the North Island only 458 miles have been opened. The colonists think of expending a million sterling a year of borrowed capital on the railroad development of the North Island, though the Opposition party expressed alarm at the proposal of the new loan. The running expenses of the railroads are light, averaging 47i per cent of the gross receipts. The state will receive benefits from the sales of public land in the North Island, which it could not in the older provinces, where the soil was already monopolized by owners of enormous estates. Here the early squatters or run-holders were permitted to convert their leases, covering blocks of tens of thousands of acres, by pre- emption into titles in fee simple. The agricult- ural lands in the North Island are being rap- idly taken up by immigrants from England, most of whom are possessed of capital. This rush is due to the agricultural depression in Great Britain. There are no markets at pres- ent accessible to the produce of the immigrants. Hopes have been raised by the successful ship- ment of a cargo of 7,000 frozen sheep to Eng- land which were sold in London as first-class meat. LAND SYSTEM. — Anew feature in the land system is the Government proposal to grant leases at a low rent, with fixity of tenure, and the privilege of renewing the lease from term to term. The tenancy must in no case exceed 640 acres, and can not be held along with other land. The Colonial Treasurer, Major Atkin- son, has made a novel legislative proposal, which may not become law, but which illus- trates the proneness of these active colonies to entertain projects of social reform. This is a scheme of compulsory Government insurance, by which about £40 should be collected from every young person in the colony, in weekly payments, between the ages of sixteen or eight- een and twenty-three ; this would afford sick- pay, a superannuation allowance of 10*. a week from the age of sixty-five, and a pension to widows of 15*. a week. A system of voluntary Government life-insurance has been in success- ful operation for twelve years. The Govern- ment offices do more business than all the pri- vate companies combined, and derive from it a profit. The Post-Office and Government Sav- ings-Bank assist the laboring classes in the pay- ment of small life-insurance premiums. An- other institution of a similar kind, in which New Zealand leads older countries, is the ad- ministration of marriage settlements, trusts for infants, bequests, and other private trusts, by an official trustee. The aggregate borough and county valuations for land-tax and property- tax in New Zealand are £236,000,000. In 1870 the total valuation of real and personal property was £50,000,000. The wool exports of New Zealand for the year ending September 30, 1881, amounted to 60,- 477 pounds, valued at £3,001,288. Gold, wheat, oats, and barley, kauri-gum, and rabbit-skins, are the other principal exports. Rabbit-skins are being exported also from Victoria, where a premium is paid, as in New Zealand, for the destruction of these pests to the farmer. The exports of 1882 show a marked increase over the preceding year. A line of steamers is to run from New Zealand to England, for which an annual subsidy of £20,000 has been voted by the Assembly at Wellington. AUSTRIAN ELECTORAL SYSTEM. Aus- tria really has three parliamentary bodies — the Upper and Lower Houses of the Reichsrath and the Delegation to the joint Parliament with Hungary. Its electoral law is one of the most complicated in Europe ; like a strange piece of variegated work, the colors of the present are confounded with those of the past time. Rest- ing at once on representation of orders, a relic of former periods, and upon a direct vote which has been recently won, it bears the character- istic stamp of Austria, by observing the dis- tinction of nationalities. The body of electors is, therefore, composed of four divisions — the large proprietors, the cities, the chambers of commerce, and the country communes.* Of the three hundred and fifty-three mem- bers which compose the Reichsrath, a word used to designate the whole Parliament and also the Lower House, the first group consists of eighty-five, who are elected by the large land-holders who pay a direct land-tax of not less than two hundred and fifty florins, in Bo- hemia, Moravia, and Silesia; of two hundred florins in Lower Austria; and of a hundred florins in the other countries, except Tyrol, where it is fifty florins: but the elector must be a noble. That dignity is not required else- where ; it is sufficient to possess an ancient estate which is entered in the register of the province. Such an estate can not be divided, but it may be sold, and the purchaser becomes an elector, even if the transfer was made only a few days before the election. Hence arise bad * M. A. Keynaert," Revue G6n6rale7rJuly, 1881. AUSTRIAN ELECTORAL SYSTEM. 47 transactions and speculations, that debase the right of suffrage to an article of traffic, which turns most frequently to the advantage of the Germans and the Jews, who are the largest owners of personal property. This land group, which, according to its nature, should repre- sent the landed and noble aristocracy, has been democratized in another respect. If the electoral census is differential, if it is scaled by kingdoms and states, it is subject, on the con- trary, to a leveling equalization in the interior of the same circumscription. Whether they pay the minimum tax, varying from two hun- dred and fifty to fifty florins, or an enormous tax like Prince Adolph Schwarzenberg, whose assessment is one million florins, yet all the great proprietors are placed on the same level. They have only a single vote, and are especially included in a single electoral college, excepting, however, Dalmatia, which has four, and Ga- licia six, colleges. Thus, as a striking illustra- tion, the proprietors of Bohemia assemble on an appointed day at Prague, and elect the twenty-three deputies to the nominating con- vention. Now, as the two parties are very nearly equal in strength, the influence of the Government is almost always sufficient to give the majority to the Germans, and to exclude the Slavs from all representation. Thus, the influence of the rich old families of Bohemia and Moravia, who are the owners of thirty villages, is absolutely paralyzed by the com- paratively small proprietors, who are Germans and Israelites, and who bought, only a short time before the election, the land which car- ried the right to vote. An unsuccessful at- tempt has been made to divide the landed group of Bohemia into three electoral colleges. Be- sides the exceptions of Dalmatia and Galicia from the rule of one electoral body, another exists in Bukowina, which has three represent- atives. The greater part of the proprietary electors are Roumanians, and one electoral body gives them a decided superiority. To prevent this unfavorable result to the Germans, the group has been divided into two bodies or curia, of which one is composed of ecclesias- tical dignitaries of the Greek rite, and the prior of a monastery, comprising in all seven elect- ors, who generally elect the governor of the province for deputy. The ecclesiastical curia of Bukowina is not the only exceptional feature of that electoral district ; for the voter can be represented by proxy. Then, women of twenty-four years of age, and legally independent, have the right to vote. They vote according to the local law, gen- erally by their husbands, or, if they are daugh- ters or widows, by proxy. The right to vote is also given to corporations and societies whose landed interests have elevated them to the class of great proprietors, especially to funded insti- tutions, to schools, churches, and hospitals, whenever there exist express provisions in the provincial law. The right is for them exer- cised by a person designated in the charter of the institution, or by a special delegate. The elector can, at the same time, vote for himself and as a mandataire. The same proprietor can hold the right of suffrage in different districts, and it is this fact which has secured the vote by proxy. The second and third groups embrace those engaged in commerce, industrial pursuits, and the liberal professions. These are the ancient citizens. The two groups have one hundred and thirty-six mandats, which is four more than the rural communes, which have one hundred and thirty -two. Nevertheless, the population of the open country is much more numerous than that of the cities. According to the census of 1869, Cisleithan Austria had 8,000,000 inhabitants devoted to agriculture, and only 2,500,000 engaged in commerce and industrial pursuits. In the Slav provinces the disproportion is still greater. But this is not the only disadvantage which the rural popu- lation suffers; for, while the other groups vote directly, the country electors choose from among themselves certain persons, who in their turn make a choice of the deputies. At the primary election, five hundred inhabitants choose one. It is still a mandat, which in some respects resembles the mandat of the great proprietor; but, while the latter is free and personal, the first is forced and collected. Such is the rule. But, in order to complete the complication, aside from the " indirect " electors, there are in the rural communes " di- rect " electors, who are relieved from the pri- mary vote, and who consist of owners of landed estates, but who do not pay a sufficient tax to place them among the great proprietors. Whence comes this shocking inequality ? It can be explained only from the fact that the electoral law is the work of the German party, which has favored the cities, where the popula- tion is principally German and liberal, to the detriment of the open -country people, and especially the conservative and Slav element. Such is the case also with the chambers of commerce, nearly all of which are in the hands of a growing liberal majority. The great proprietors, the citizens, and the peasants are the exclusive possessors, although unequally, of the political influence of Austria. To this fundamental division of the electoral body there is added another of great weight likewise, and which equally tends to secure the pre-eminence of the German population. It is the division of mandats among the numer- ous nationalities adjacent to each other or con- founded together in the empire. This division is in no sense proportional, nor is it made ac- cording to the number of the population, or the amount of taxes. Austria is estimated to con- tain 13,000,000 Slavs, 500,000 Italians, 200,- 000 Roumans, 600,000 Israelites, and 7,000,000 Germans. If universal suffrage existed, or if the election were made on an equalized basis, the majority would undoubtedly be steadily on the side of the Slavs. It is far from being so 48 AUSTRIAN ELECTOEAL SYSTEM. now. The Germans, although less than half of the population, have in the House actually more than two hundred of the three hundred and fifty-three deputies. In Bohemia, in particular, the law of 1873 assigns thirty-four deputies to 2,500,000 Slavs, and fifty-six deputies to 1,500,- 000 Germans. One can conceive how this law must raise opposition. It has been assailed vigorously, especially by the Poles, who refuse to assent to it, notwithstanding all the independent conces- sions that have been offered to them. When the bill was presented, on February 15, 1873, M. Casimir de Grocholski denounced it as a flagrant violation of national rights, and with- drew, at the head of all his friends, from the Polish bench. Nevertheless, the bill was passed some days afterward by one hundred and twenty votes to two, in the absence of the Czech and Polish deputies. The agitation for an electoral reform has commenced, and penetrated the most diverse classes of society and the most opposite polit- ical parties. Operatives and peasants, socialists and democrats, progressives and conservatives, agree in the desire to modify the law, although their views have been very different relative to the extent of the modification. Some at- tempts at reform have been made in the Reichs- rath, and an important measure has passed, by which the qualification of voters was low- ered from ten to five florins in towns, and the number of voters considerably increased. In the unique political condition of Austria it is the so-called Liberal or Centralist party which will lose by the extension of the franchise, and which opposes it as a danger to its pretended Liberal principles. Liberalism in Austria, as above stated, means Germanization and the continuance of German domination. The Lib- eral, or German Constitutional, party, with which Prince Auersperg fell in 1879, was, like the Liberals of Germany and Republicans of France, brought into discredit by the financial speculation and corruption which flourished under their rule, while its main political aim was the reactionary one of combating the Czechish movement, and keep the Czechs and other Slavic races in political subjection to the Germans. The Clerical party, on the other hand, was in thorough sympathy with the Czechs, who had preserved a haughty silence ever since the dual Constitution had left their great nation unenfranchised, but who were now thoroughly aroused. The Clericals were thus the advocates of popular rights. They received a partial support from the German Conservatives. In the Taafe Ministry the Czechs found recognition for the first time. They have made great headway in their strug- gle to preserve the Bohemian language and national ideas and customs from the extinction systematically planned by their German rulers. The success of the Czechs has given heart to the various lesser nationalities in Austria. The distinctive policy of the Taafe Government is to favor the Slav races and reverse the process of forcible Germanization. The new electoral law was not brought in by the Government, but adopted, and its limits set after it was under discussion. Under this new law the representation will be something like 183 Ger- mans and 167 of other nationalities; while, if the programme of the new German People's party were carried out, class representation abolished, and the suffrage greatly extended, it would be 225 of other nationalities against 127 Germans. Placing the limit at "five- gulden men," and not lower, was done out of regard for the German dread of the " Slavic inundation." Count Taafe's Ministry does not represent either of the warring elements, but acts as an intermediary between them. The working majority with which he carries through his compromise measures, often by a very close vote, contains a considerable element in mod- erate sympathy with German prejudices. If he should be driven by an adverse vote to dis- solve Parliament, a strong phalanx of Czechs and Clericals would be returned under the five-gulden qualification, which would drive him more rapidly in the course which he is pursuing. The electoral question was introduced in the Provincial Diets, and gave rise to sharper struggles than attended its discussion in the Reichsrath. With the progress of decentrali- zation the Diets are becoming powerful polit- ical bodies. The Slavs demanded, reasonably enough, that the electoral limitation should be lowered to the five-florin basis, and attacked the system of class representation. Where the German party would gain, as in Lower Aus- tria, they eagerly supported the electoral re- form, but set their face firmly against it in Bohemia, where it would cost them the su- preme control which they now exercise. The House of Lords is neither a popular body nor elective. Like the majority of similar bod- ies in Europe, it rests upon constitutional right, inheritance of land, or nobility, and the ap- pointment of the Emperor. It is composed of- the elder princes of the imperial house, mem- bers of right, the nine archbishops, and the seven bishops, who have the rank of princes ; the great lord-proprietors, to the number of fifty- three, members by inheritance; and members appointed for life by the Emperor. The half-Austrian and the half-Hungarian Parliament meets alternately at Vienna and at Pesth. Its authority is limited to the com- mon interests of the empire. Each delegation consists of sixty members, chosen by the Cis- leithan and Transleithan Parliaments. The ap- pointments are made in accordance with a pro- portional division of the whole number among the distinct nationalities. The variety of nations and languages in Aus- tria has not only produced a strange and com- plicated electoral system, but it is manifest in the diversity of parties. This does not arise, as under most of the constitutional governments, AUSTRIAN ELECTORAL SYSTEM. 49 exclusively from a diversity, more or less in- tense arid profound, of ideas and political, so- cial, or religious aspirations, but is incessantly nourished by old national memories and the old prejudices of race. " Centralists" and "Federalists" compose the radical denominations of parties. Apart from the dualism of Austro-Hungary, the state is a unit, and derives its expression from the Consti- tution of December, 1867. By the force of that instrument, the empire is based upon a single government, with two representative Houses and one responsible minister. This condition of affairs was effected by the Germans, and they desire not only to preserve but to extend and develop it. Not satisfied with placing in the hands of the (general Government, whose seat is at Vienna, all the principal interests of the monarchy, nor witli having modeled to their liking and arranged to their profit the electoral system, they aspire to secure the pre- dominance of the German spirit and German culture everywhere, or rather to Germanize Austria entirely. As M. de Kaiserfeld lately said in the Diet of Styria, who afterward was made President of the Reichsrath : "Austria should be a German state in language and edu- cation; the German should be spoken by all persons, and serve as a political bond to all the races and nationalities of the empire ; the unity of language, an expression and symbol of the state, is the sine qua non condition of the ex- istence even of Austria. Consequently, all the citizens, whatever may be their mother-tongue, Czechs, Moravians, Slovaks, Poles, Rutheni- ans, Slovens, Roumans, and Italians, should sub- mit to the baptism of the German school, if they desire to take a part in the public affairs of the state." This was the demand of Kai- serfeld in the name of his party. Some one answered : " You desire to Germanize the em- pire ; you are not Austrians, you are Germans." He protested in reply, " There are no Aus- trians in Austria — only Germans ! " The ob- jects of the German party are the same at this day. Although the Constitution proclaims the equality of languages, yet a profound discon- tent has arisen under the just concessions in that respect made to Bohemia and Moravia. For the purpose of a reaction against these measures, and definitely to secure to the Ger- man language the ascendency over the other idioms, the Progressives have obtained the ex- amination of a special committee on proposi- tions, tending, in the first place, to regulate by law the use of languages in Bohemia, and, sec- ondly, to recognize the German as the official language of the state. Thus centralism consists in the political and social leadership of the German race for the very existence of the state. But their parti- sans do not all go to this length. The Central- ists, properly so called, do not limit their uni- fying aspirations to Cisleithania ; they cross the river, and desire to rupture the compro- mise with Hungary. Instead of that arrange- ment, already twice confirmed, they desire to substitute a "personal union," and, conse- quently, to abolish the common delegations. Others, on the contrary, yield to the existing relations, and desire to preserve the political and administrative division, so that the dualism of Austro-Hungary shall remain. In the face of German centralism, federal- ism raises itself, with claims of effecting ad- vantages to the nationalities, and especially the Slav nationality. As there are two groups among the Centralists, so likewise the Feder- alists are subdivided into two factions on the basis of more or less extensive claims. The Federalists, especially those of Bohemia and Moravia, are, like the ultra-Germans, but un- der another designation, and for another ob- ject, the avowed adversaries of dualism. To that agreement — which, according to their views, has violated their historical right in de- stroying the equilibrium between the states essentially distinct and independent of each other— they seek to substitute a general federa- tion embracing all the countries of the empire, including Hungary. This is a complete nega- tion of the supremacy of Austria, and involves the destruction of the constitutional charter. In 1877 Count Beleredi said, " Historical Aus- tria, which God has designated in this world to be the protector of the Church, the guardian of the rights and liberties of these countries and peoples, should become a confederation of states, united by solemn compacts, under the scepter of the illustrious house of Hapsburg." The other faction of "autonomists," on the contrary, do not desire to disturb the general organization of the empire, nor the compro- mise with Hungary. They look, in the first place, to the rights of their respective coun- tries, for the advantage of which they demand an extension, in different degrees, of their inde- pendence, such as is already more or less con- sistent with constitutional law. Among these the Poles must be classed, who, in hatred of Russia, dread the exaggerations of Slavism, and who, while desiring a large autonomy forGalicia, desire to preserve Austria strong and powerful. Nevertheless, if there exists a real difference between the Federalists and the Autonomists, yet in the daily discussions it is not apparent. As in Germany the " Particularists " belong to the ranks of the Conservatives, whether Catholic or Protestant, while the partisans of centralism are grouped under the flag of lib- eralism, so in Austria the Federalists, in the general acceptation of the term, are the Con- servatives, and the Centralists the Liberals. However, it should be observed that the inter- mingling is not absolutely complete between the Autonomists and the Conservatives, nor between the Centralists and the Liberals. The flag of the Federalists shields in effect the young Czechs and the Poles ; all of the former, and a very large number of the latter, pay hom- age in different degrees to liberal ideas. The tendency to autonomy unites them with the 50 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Conservatives. The ground of common action is not strictly the political question, but the na- tional question. So in the ranks of theCentraliscs are Conservatives whose alliance with the Lib- erals rests only on their aversion to federalism. The same observation may be made relative to another division of parties — the " Constitu- tionalists," who are Centralists or Liberals, and the "Anti-constitutionalists," who are Fed- eralists or Conservatives. But the truth is, that there are partisans and opponents of the Constitution in the ranks of the Liberals as well as of the Conservatives. The Centralists or Liberals are likewise desig- nated as "the Right," and the Autonomists or Conservatives as " the Left." Here were lately found all the distinctions of the French Lower House — as Left, Left Center, Extreme Left, Right, Right Center, Extreme Right. Ordi- narily there are different degrees of the lib- eral and conservative scale, but the space and duration of these are essentially variable. Ac- cidental rather than permanent distinctions pro- duce fluctuations in the liberal or conservative policy, and are founded more often on diver- gence of tactics than disagreement in principle. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY, an empire of Cen- tral Europe composed of the federated king- doms of Austria and Hungary, which were definitely organized as separate states in 1867. Both crowns are hereditary in the Hapsburg family. The Emperor, Francis Joseph, born August 18, 1830, succeeded his uncle, Ferdi- nand I, who abdicated in 1843. The heir-ap- parent is the Archduke Rudolf, the Emperor's only son, who was born August 21, 1858. Common affairs, relating to the common army and navy and foreign policy, are referred to delegations of deputies from the two Parlia- ments, to which the Common Ministers are responsible. The Common Ministers at pres- ent are: Count Kalnoky, who succeeded the late Baron Haymerle as Minister of Foreign Affairs in November, 1881 ; Lieutenant Field- Marshal Count Bylandt-Rheydt, appointed Min- ister of Wai- in 1876 ; Baron von Kallay, Min- ister of Finance, appointed after the resignation of Baron Szlavy in May. The Austrian Ministers are : Count Taafe, President and Minister of the Interior ; General Count Welsersheimb, Defense; F. Ziemialkow- ski, without a portfolio; Count Falkenhayn, Agriculture; Baron Eybesfeld, Education; Dr. Dunajewski, Finance ; Baron Friedenthal, Commerce ; A. Prazak, Justice. The Hungarian Ministers are : Tisza, Presi- dent ; Baron B. Orczy, Minister of the Court ; A. de Trefort, Education; Baron Orczy, De- fense ; Baron Kemeny, Agriculture and Com- merce, and ad interim of Public Works; B. de Komor, of Croatia-Slav onia; Dr. Pauler, Jus- tice; Count Szapary, Finance. STATISTICS.-- The area and population of the two monarchies and of their provinces, accord- ing to the census of December 81, 1880, were as follow : PROVINCES OF THE EMPIRE. Area In square miles. Population. GERMAN MONARCHY: Lower Austria (Unter der Ens). Upper Austria (Ober der Ens).. Salzburg 7,654 4,631 2 T67 2,330.621 759,620 163 570 Styria (Steiermark) 8670 1 213 597 Carinthia (Kiirnten) 4,005 348 730 Carniola (Krain) Coast-land (Kustenland) Tyrol and Vorarlberg 8,856 8,084 11 324 481.243 647,834 912 549 Bohemia (Bohmen) Moravia (Mahren) 20,060 8583 5,560',819 2 153 406 bilesia (Schlesien) 1 987 565 475 Galicia (Galizien) 80807 6 958 907 Bukowina 4035 571 671 Dalmatia (Dalmatian) 4,940 476,101 Total, German monarchy. . . KINGDOM OF HUNGARY : Hungary and Transylvania Croatia and Slavonia 115,903 108,258 * 16,773 22,144,243 13,778,268 1 198 403 Town of Fiume 8 17865 Military Frontier 7890 701 546 TotaX Hungary 132 929 15 695 184 Total, Austro-Hungary 240,942 87,839,427 The number of inhabitants to the square mile is 159 for the whole empire. The pop- ulation of Austria has increased only 8*4 per cent since the census of 1869 ; and that of Hungary has remained almost stationary, the increase being but 1-8 per cent. This is chiefly owing to a high rate of mortality. The Ger- mans constituted 38 per cent of the population of the German or Cisleithan part of the em- pire, and 20 per cent in the Hungarian or Trans- leithan part. The Slavonian races predomi- nate, forming 49 per cent of the population of Austria and 16 per cent of that of the Hunga- rian dominions. The Magyars constitute 58 per cent of the Hungarian population. They form no appreciable proportion of the popula- tion of Cisleithania. The population of Vienna is 705,402, against 607,514 in 1869 ; but includ- ing the suburbs it numbers about 1,300,000 inhabitants. Of the other principal towns of German Austria, Prague contains 162,318 in- habitants; Trieste, 144,437; Lemberg, 110,250; Gratz, 97,727; Briinn, 82,665; and Cracow, 66,095. Of the Hungarian cities, Buda-Pesth has 359,821 inhabitants; Szegedin, 50,983; Holdmezo-Vasarhely, 74,094; and Maria-The- resiopel, 61,655. Two thirds of the population of Hungary are engaged in agriculture, but the proportion is diminishing and the relative popu- lation of the towns increasing. The density of population in Hungary is 125 per square mile, against 191 in the Austrian dominions. The percentage of the population adhering to each of the various religious denominations is as follows: DENOMINATIONS. Austria. Hungary. Whole empire. Roman Catholics . . Greek Catholics . . . Evangl. Protestants Byzantine Greeks . . Per cent. 80-4 11-7 1-7 2-5 8-5 Per cent. 48-6 10-2 20-4 1C-7 3-6 Per cent. 66-4 11-0 10-0 9-0 3-2 Unitarians 0-8 0-2 Catholic Armenians. . Other sects . . . '6:2 o-i o-i o-i o-i AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 51 The increase of the Jewish race exceeds in a remarkable degree that of the rest of the population in the dominions of the Austrian crown. The number of Jews in Cisleithan Austria increased between 1869 and 1881 from 822,220 to 1,005,563, or 22'9 per cent, repre- senting a mean annual increase of 2*1 per cent. The rest of the population increased from 19,395,311 to 21,125,142, or 7'9 per cent, the annual increment being 0'6 per cent. Between the censuses of 1857 and 1869 the increase of the Jews was 32'4 per cent ; of the Chris- tians 10-2 ; between 1850 and 1857, among the Jews 30-3 per cent, among the Christians 3'2 per cent. Previous to 1850 the enumerations of the population were taken in connection with the military conscription. As the young Jews were particularly addicted to fraud and bribery for the purpose of avoiding military service, and in the eastern provinces were ac- customed to place themselves across the bound- ary when the time of enlistment approached, the difference in the returns for the two classes was less striking. Between 1834 and 1837 the reported increase among the Jews was 542 per cent, against 2-3 for the remainder of the popu- lation ; in the enumeration of 1840, 5 -4 against 3 per cent ; in the one taken in 1843, 5*7 against 2-9 per cent; in that of 1846, 7'6 against 3-1 per cent; in that of 1850, 6 -3 against 0-6 per cent. The normal rate of increase among the Jewish race is notoriously greater than among the other peoples of Europe. The main cause of their rapid growth in Austria, however, is the continued immigration from the east of Europe. The increase varies greatly in different parts of the empire, and depends upon the opportuni- ties for their favorite occupations ; but every- where except in a few rural localities there has been an increase. In Lower Austria it was 81 -5 per cent in the twelve years ; in Salzburg 146*8 per cent ; but in Bohemia only 4, and in Moravia only 2 -9 per cent. They have settled in districts of Tyrol where a few years ago there were none. In Carniola, Carinthia, and Istria there are still but few ; yet the number has increased two, three, and five fold. In the Bukowina, which receives a steady stream from the neighboring Roumania, and where they are thickest, numbering 67,418 to 502,181 other inhabitants, the increase has been 41 •! per cent. The increase is naturally greatest in the cities. Vienna counts 72,543 Jews among its 705,402 inhabitants. They have increased in this capital 80*2 per cent, while the Christian population has grown only 11 '5 per cent. They also people the suburbs of Vienna and form a large proportion of its floating and day popula- tion. In Prague, with 155,813 inhabitants, the Jews increased 3,515, or 26'8 per cent, and the rest of the population 5,415, or only 3'7 per cent. In Lemberg and Cracow the Hebrews constitute about 30 per cent, and in many of the smaller towns of Galicia four fifths of the population are Jews. In Brody, the chief of these Jewish towns, the increase was only 1*1 per cent, on account of the falling away of trade since its inclusion in the customs bound- ary and the consequent emigration, whereas in other towns of Galicia it was from 12 to 30 per cent. The discovery of petroleum near Boryslav had the effect of doubling the Jewish population in a few years, while the non- Jew- ish population showed no increase. MILITARY DEFENSES. — The strength of the common army, recruited on the principle of universal liability to arms, is 296,284 men for the peace establishment, including the reserves. Including the Austrian Landwehr and the Hun- garian Honved, the separate militia organiza- tions of the two kingdoms, about 1,000,000 men can be called to arms in the event of a war. The navy consists of fourteen ironclads, ten of them first class, and armed with guns ranging from six and a half tons in weight to the twenty-five-ton guns of the Tegethoff. The territorial organization of the army was instituted, in principle, when the new military system was introduced in 1868. It was not only an essential element of the system of uni- versal service adopted from Germany, but was a political prerequisite amid the diversity and ethnic rivalry of the Austro-Hungarian popu- lation. Yet up to the present the actual organ- ization of the army during the term of active service has been directly contrary to the the- oretical basis. In order to preserve a national feeling in the sense of the German centralists, the troops of different nationalities have been commingled as much as possible. German has been retained as the language of command. The territorial organization was nominally car- ried up as far as divisions, but the only service the men ever saw was in temporary bodies studiously made up of battalions and troops detached from their regiments and brought together from distant parts of the empire. There was no organization of the different arms into army corps. The system of military centralization is condemned by all military au- thorities since the breakdown of the central- ized French army and the success of the de- centralized German army in 1870. Austria, in adopting the territorial basis, but practical- ly retaining the centralized system, would be doubly unprepared in the event of a great war ; aside from the practical difficulties of mobili- zation and the departmental services attending military centralization, the entire organization of the army into the larger divisions would have to be proceeded with after mobilization, and the regiments would not be composed of men who had served and trained together, but of troops brought together for the first time. As the political interests of the German cen- tralistic element prevented the decentralization of the army, the pressure of the Magyars and the minor nationalities who have acquired po- litical power has accomplished the final reform, although it was hastened by a sense of the dan- ger of the confused and imperfect organization at a time when Austria may be called upon to AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. put forth her utmost military strength. The Hungarians have long demanded a Magyar army of the line, as they carried through the scheme of a Magyar militia. The alien mili- tary system has never been accepted by the majority of the Austrian subjects. When the common army has been split up into a number of little national armies it may be more efficient to fulfill the destinies of the reorganized em- pire, but the corps of German officers, who have ably conducted the present system, will no longer exist, and the central government will have lost one of its main props. The re- organized army of the line consists of 102 regi- ments, of four battalions each. This enables every regiment to mobilize one battalion of full strength without calling upon the reserves. One battalion of each regiment will be de- tached, the same as in France ; but the bulk of the regiment will remain in the recruiting district, with its reserves ready to fall in at short notice, instead of having to be called in from some distant garrison. The fourth bat- talions of thirty-four regiments make up the army of occupation in Bosnia. The whole army will be organized in fifteen corps, each in its recruiting district, with the artillery, engi- neers, and all the auxiliary services, so that each corps can be mobilized independently, under the directions of the War Department. The division is carried still higher into three army commands, in Vienna, Buda-Pesth, and Prague. COMMERCE. — The total exports of the em- pire, except the province of Dalmatia, which is not included in the imperial customs bound- ary, amounted in 1879 to 675,100,000 florins (the florin, or gulden, is a little less than fifty cents); the imports to 551,400,000 florins. Nearly two thirds of the foreign trade is with Germany ; of the rest the largest share is with Turkey, Italy and Russia following next, but at a long distance. AUSTRIAN GOVERNMENT. — The Austrian mon- archy has a central and local Legislature. The Provincial Diets are competent to deal with matters of local administration, particularly those relating to the cultivation of the soil, and to educational, ecclesiastical, and charit- able institutions, and are empowered to levy taxes for these purposes. The central body is the Reichsrath or Council of the Empire. (The system of representation in Austria is explained in AUSTRIAN ELECTORAL SYSTEM.) The min- istry, which is responsible to the two Houses of the Reichsrath, is composed as follows: Minister of the Interior and President of the Council, Count Eduard Taafe ; Minister of Ed- ucation, Justice, and Worship, Baron Eybes- feld ; Minister of Finance, Dr. J. Dunajevski ; Minister of Agriculture, Count Julius Falken- hayn ; Minister of Commerce, Chevalier Ker- mer d'Auenrode; Minister of National De- fense, or of the Militia, Major-General von Welsersheimb. HUNGARIAN GOVERNMENT.— The Constitu- tion of the Hungarian monarchy, consisting of fundamental statutes running back to the Golden Bull of Andrew II granted in 1222, was restored in 1867. There is only one Legis- lature, elected by the equal votes of all citi- zens who pay direct taxes to the amount of eight florins annually. The ministry is com- posed as follows : President of the Council, Koloman Tisza, who has charge of the Depart- ment of the Interior ; Minister of National De- fense, or of the Honved, Bela Szende de Ker- esztes; Minister Adlatus to the King, Baron Bela d'Orczy ; Minister of Education and Pub- lic Worship, Dr. August de Trefort ; Minister of Justice, Dr. Theodor Pauler; Minister of Public Works and Communications, Thomas Pechy; Minister for Croatia and Slavonia, Count Bedekovitch ; Minister of Agriculture, Industry, and Commerce, Baron Kemeny. FINANCES. — The imperial budget for 1883 places the total expenditures at 117,910,763 florins, against 117,148,549 florins in 1882. In the estimates for 1883 102,800,821 florins come under the head of ordinary and 8,774,621 of extraordinary military expenditures. Deduct- ing the balance in hand, and the surplus of the customs revenue over the charges, there re- main 99,991,763 florins to be voted by the Parliaments. The extraordinary demand for the cost of the military occupation is only 8,988,000 florins. The sums granted for ex- traordinary military expenses in the occupied provinces and the Crivoscie for 1882 were, 6,177,500 before the outbreak of the insurrec- tion, and then 8,000,000 florins, and again in April 21,700,000 florins, being 2,000,000 florins less than were asked for; total, 35,877,500 florins. The gross revenue from customs is estimated at 45,269,225 florins, from which are to be deducted 1,850,000 florins for cost of collection, 600,000 florins as the fixed share assigned to Bosnia, and 28,149,000 for restitu- tion of the excise duty on beer, spirits, and sugar exported. This export trade has so in- creased that an actual deficiency in the net customs revenue was anticipated, but under the operation of a revised tariff it has probably been averted. Hungarian finances are suffering from a chronic deficiency. The deficit in the ordinary expenditure and revenue in 1875 amounted to 26,800,000 florins. This has been greatly re- duced, and the greater part of the recent defi- cits are due to extraordinary expenditures on permanent public works, such as railroads and the protection of river-banks. The Govern- ment are constantly occupied with the prob- lem of making them disappear. Although the debt is increasing, the credit of the Govern- ment has improved. The old six per cent debt is being converted at a lower interest. The Hungarian final estimates for 1882 fixed the total ordinary expenses at 288,306,313 florins; transitory expenses at 3,502,447; in- vestments, among them the Pesth and Bel- grade Railroad, at 29,211,311 florins; extraor- AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 53 dinary common expenses, including the share in the 8,000,000 florins for military expenses in Herzegovina, at 7,118,210 florins. The total amounts to 328,228,281 florins. The total revenues were fixed at 301,967,214 florins. The Minister of Finance, Count Szapary, was authorized to cover the deficit, except 3,000,- 000 florins, "by credit operations. Sums subse- quently voted brought the total expenditures of the year up to 335,242,080 florins. The total deficit was 30,605,867 florins. The budget for 1883 makes the total esti- mated expenditures for 1883 322,711,484 flor- ins. The ordinary expenses are estimated at 288,848,002 florins; transitory expenses, or those which are balanced on the other side of the accounts, at 6,503,276 ; investments at 21,771,855 florins, being less on account of the completion of the Pesth-Theiss and the approaching completion of the Pesth-Semlin railroads; extraordinary military expenses — that is, the extraordinary expenses of the Bosnian garrisons — at 5,588,351 florins. The estimates of revenue in Hungary and Austria are somewhat problematical, being partly based upon the operations of a new tariff. The estimated income for 1883 is 301,029,896 florins, 280,732,785 florins from the ordinary and 20,297,111 florins from the transitory revenues. The Minister expected to reduce the deficit to 12,881,588 florins by new taxes and other financial measures to be proposed to Parliament. OCCUPIED PROVINCES. — The Turkish sanjaks, which were placed under Austrian adminis- tration temporarily by the Treaty of Berlin, are governed by the common administration. Their area and population, as enumerated in 1879, are as follows: PROVINCES. Area in English square miles. Population. Bosnia 16417 862 202 Herzegovina 4 SOS 207 970 .Novi-Bazar 8'o22 142 000 Total 24247 1 212 172 Of the total inhabitants, 496,761 are Greek Orthodox, 448,613 Mohammedans, 209,391 Roman Catholics, 3,426 Jews, and the rest of various faiths. The cost of administration is ostensibly defrayed from taxes raised in the provinces; but the military subjugation of the inhabitants has cost large sums which have been supplied by the Delegations. The budget of the administration of Bosnia and Herzego- vina estimates the total expenditures at 7,039,- 809 florins. Some of the principal items are : central administration, 150,700 florins ; gendar- merie, 1,114,475 florins; military contingent, 251,000 florins ; education, financial adminis- tration, and cost of collecting taxes, 348,000 florins; dotations to the clergy, 162,500 florins. The estimated revenue is 7,217,819 florins. The chief items are as follows: tithes and land produce, 2,250,000 florins ; income-tax, 600,000 florins; tobacco, sale and licenses, 1,896,000 florins; sheep and goats, 204,000 florins; pigs, 42,000 florins; licenses for inns, 50,000 florins; excise duty on articles of consumption, includ- ing beer, 45,000 florins ; stamps and registra- tion duty, 300,000 florins; customs, 600,000 florins. Bosnia has been included in the cus- toms boundary since 1880. The customs rev- enue contributed by the provinces has averaged only 140,000 florins a year, but they received the fixed sum of 600,000 florins annually as their share. The occupied provinces have beyond this been made to pay for their civil administration, but the Delegations are asked each year for a large sum for extraordinary military expenditures. FOKEIGN RELATIONS. — The outward hinder- ances to the definite annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina are not slight. Turkey and Rus- sia are not the only countries to oppose it. Herzegovina was at one time attached to Mon- tenegro, and the Montenegrins look upon it as their rightful possession. The rayas of the Bosnian valleys are of kindred blood with the Servians, and most of them speak the Servian language. The dream of a Great Servia is al- most as dear to them as it is to the Servian patriots. Austria is constantly increasing her influence in the South Slav principalities. Ser- vian politics are controlled from Vienna instead of from St. Petersburg, but the Austrian as- cendency has alienated the people from their ruler, who recently assumed the kingly title under Austrian auspices. The erection of their country into a kingdom is a step toward the accomplishment of the inextinguishable idea of a Great Servia. Hatred of the arrogant Schwabs, as the German-speaking Austrians are called, is increasing in all the Slav princi- palities. Every convulsion among the Balkan populations sets Russia throbbing in sympathy. At the outbreak of the insurrection in the Herzegovina the same phenomena that pre- ceded the Turkish war were noticed ; but, as they did not reach the dangerous stage of an rn participation of Russians in the rebellion, war-cloud passed over. Count Kalnoky, who is at the head of the Austrian Foreign Office, is confident that the conflicting inter- ests of the two empires can be peaceably rec- onciled. Signs of Panslavic activity were de- tected among the Ruthenians in May. A whole village had gone over from the Roman Catholic to the Greek Orthodox faith. The discovery of papers showing a systematic re- ligious and political propagandism led to the arrest of eleven Ruthenians, who were brought to trial for high treason. Austria and Germany shape their foreign policy in common, and speak with one voice in the councils of Europe. The German allies have constituted themselves the guardians of the peace of Europe, and use their powerful influence to arrest any cause of dis- turbance. One of the periodical meetings of the two Emperors took place at Ischl in Au- gust. 54 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. The question of returning the friendly visit of King Humbert was a state problem of some difficulty. The Emperor Francis Joseph would not visit Rome without paying his reverence to the Pope, which might bring him, the Italian King and his people, and all the courts of Eu- rope, face to face with the papal question, which perhaps he would not have been loath to bring up. The Italian Government was un- willing to risk the consequences. For the King to capitulate his capital to the Pope and appoint a rendezvous outside would have been ignominious. Count Kalnoky announced that he could not recommend Rome, and the cor- respondence broke off without umbrage, but with the position of the Pope decidedly strengthened as the result of Francis Joseph's pious fidelity. At the celebration of the five-hundredth anniversary of the union of Trieste with Aus- tria, and at the subsequent visit of the Emper- or on September 17th, Irredentism manifested itself not merely in inflammatory proclamations but in villainous plots. A grenade was thrown into a procession on the arrival of the Arch- duke Karl Ludwig, and on the coming of the Emperor an Austrian deserter, named Ober- dank, was arrested with Orsini bombs in his possession. The inhabitants of Trieste are thoroughly loyal to Austria. They have reason to rejoice that their city is Austrian, .for it would be only one of several Italian ports on the Adriatic, while now it has the monopoly of the Austrian Mediterranean trade and a large share of the southern and eastern trade of Ger- many. POLITICAL SITUATION. — The transformation of the empire from a centralized state to a federal union has proceeded far enough to show that the cohesive principle will not be lost. The minor nationalities, having tasted the sweets of political liberty, are more urgent, and the Germans cling less tenaciously to the power which is slipping out of their hands. How far the traditions of German order and thoroughness will be preserved in the new centers of power under popular government, which is inevitable, is the subject of national misgivings. The Hungarians have won their liberty and managed their own affairs under a system of government which seems to satisfy the people. In imperial affairs their Parlia- ment has an equal voice with the Reichsrath. The two Delegations, or committees from the two bodies, must agree upon the appropria- tions, although Hungary contributes but thirty per cent of the amount. The political ferment is confined to Cisleithania. It takes the singu- lar form of a war of languages, and an agi- tation for the political equality of the differ- ent races. Of individual equality very little is said, although Austria is the last country in Europe in which the basis of political repre- sentation is feudalistic. Universal suffrage is the only possible basis of equality of the races ; so that the subjects of the Austrian crown re- ceive the extension of the franchise not as a direct aim, but as a means of asserting their suppressed nationalities. The Emperor con- gratulates himself that revolutionary aspira- tions have not been awakened in his domin- ions, and that Nihilistic violence is unknown. The people are absorbed in their various na- tional aspirations. Decentralization has ac- quired an irresistible impetus. The danger of a Russian war, and the German alliance, strengthen the throne and the German party, and preserve for the present the old bond. Magyars, Poles, and Germans are united against Russian aggression. The Government have favored the Ruthenians and other minor Slav nationalities which might waver in their allegiance. Liberty and federalism are seen to be the means of the empire's salvation. The Emperor draws out a sentimental attachment, while he is paying especial court to the nation- alities ; but when a federal system has been established the office of the throne will in a great measure disappear. The German bureau- cracy, while the control over the Austrian populations is passing away from them, seek to perpetuate their mission by taking the Slavs of the Balkans in hand. But their methods have signally failed thus far with the fierce lovers of liberty who live in primeval Slavic unrestraint on the Bosnian highlands. If Aus- tria could extend her sway by old-time rigor and repression, Hungary is unwilling to have the dual monarchy converted into a Slavic empire under German rule. The question ot the definitive annexation of Bosnia and Herze- govina has not yet come to a final solution. The difference of view between the two co- ordinate Governments is almost as great an obstacle as the external difficulties. The Mag- yars are unwilling to sacrifice the principle of the dualistic Constitution to the extent of ad- ministering Bosnia perpetually as a dependency of the empire, and equally unwilling to have it attached to the Austrian crown. The only solution they deem equitable would be to in- corporate it with the Hungarian dominions, but they would be unprepared to accept the gift with the attendant costs and responsibili- ties. An attempt to organize a party on genuine liberal principles was attempted during the year, but neither the German Liberals nor the Slavs of advanced opinions showed a disposi- tion to forget the racial conflict which is the question of the hour. The new party grouped itself around Robert von Walterskirchen, a Styrian deputy, who seceded from the Constitu- tional party and was selected as an independ- ent on account of his advanced opinions on electoral reform ; and Dr. Fischhoff; a promi- nent Liberal of 1848, who has held himself aloof from politics on account of the compul- sion exercised by his party upon the minor nationalities which led to its downfall. Now that the imbittered Czechs and Poles, in alli- ance with the Clericals and the Feudalists, have AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 55 beaten the German Constitutional party out of the field, these new leaders propose to con- cede to the Czechs and the other races the right to perpetuate their languages and na- tionalities, retaining, to the extent that the public interests require, German as the official language of the Government. The paragraph in the Constitution securing this right to each race they would give full effect to by legisla- tive enactments. If the Germans will accept the situation now, as they must in the end, and give up the ethnic contest, the liberal elements of all the nationalities can unite in the pursuit of constitutional liberties. The programme of this growing party, which has purged its mind of the idea that forcible Germanization is a prerequisite of constitutional freedom, is of an advanced democratic character : universal suf- frage, with the entire abolition of the repre- sentation of special interests in the Reichsrath ; complete liberty of the press and the right of assembly ; positive reforms for the benefit of the working-classes. The dominance of German, even as the offi- cial language in Bohemia, is endangered. The civil servants already use their native tongue inside the offices. Aroused by the intentions of the Centralists to use state education as a means for exterminating their national tongue, the Czechs did not rest after expelling Ger- man from the common schools, but insisted on the instruction in all the intermediate and technical schools being given in Bohemian, and now have their national university. The Slo- vens have imitated the Czechs, and are strug- gling for the preservation of all the character- istics of their insignificant nationality. Prince Czartoryski is endeavoring to unite all the Slavs in a revolt against Germanizing tenden- cies. While Austria is experiencing a transfer of political powers, which is in nature though not in form a political revolution, Hungary is occu- pied with no question more important than finance. The harvest was abundant, and the Government was never in a more favorable position. Koloman Tisza, the able Prime Min- ister, is the absolute master of the country, and has no rival and no organized opposition to disturb him. The chief problem of the Gov- ernment at present is the reform of the system of taxation. The people have suffered much, and sometimes they have been provoked into resistance and riot by the exactions of the tax- collectors. The system of taxation is all in confusion, so that the evils may be remedied without reducing the revenues. INSURRECTION IN CRIVOSCIA A.ND HERZEGO- VINA.— By stubbornly ignoring the wants of the people, the Imperial Government has, in three years of harsh maladministration, civil and military, greatly increased the difficulty of amalgamating Bosnia and Herzegovina with the empire. Austria entered upon the mission of extending her rule into the Balkan lands with the approval of Europe. The more intel- ligent spirits among the populations of the peninsula looked hopefully to the prosperous and enlightened empire for deliverance from Turkish misrule, and for guidance and govern- ment. The dual monarchy inaugurated its rule in the provinces confided to it by the mandate of Europe with a ruthless war against the sturdy, freedom-loving mountaineers, which cost $90,000,000, one quarter of which sum, if expended in productive works, might have won the hearts of the impoverished people. The nominal sovereignty which the Porte in- sisted upon preserving at the Congress of Ber- lin has become more shadowy and problematic since the Sultan has turned his attention to consolidating the Ottoman power in Islamic lands. The Panslavonic agitation has dwindled away, and the dreaded influence of Russian machinations, and of the ruble on its travels, has practically ceased since the Russians have given their thoughts to home problems. Yet, after three years' trial of the civilizing efforts of the Austro-Hungarian Government, a uni- versal cry was heard in the occupied provinces, from Christians and Mohammedans alike, that the yoke of the Austrian was more cruel and intolerable than that of the Turk; and the Herzegovinians in their desperation arose again in open rebellion. The Imperial Government entered upon its task financially hampered as usual, for in the united monarchy money can never be had for imperial purposes when it is needed. Only a small party approved of the occupation in the first place, and after the blundering war of occupation the Government announced that no further appropriations would be required from the Parliaments, as the rev- enues of the provinces would suffice for their administration. The Bosniaks and Herzegovinians were taxed for their own repression more heavily than they had been taxed by the begs and pashas. All the Turkish taxes were continued, and a host of octrois, tolls, license and excise taxes were superimposed, with, finally, the salt and tobacco monopolies. The Turkish taxes were severe, but the administration was lax; and the tax-gatherers, when seasons were bad, ac- knowledged the will of Allah, and took only what the raya could bring. The Austrian offi- cials, entering this land exhausted by wars and insurrections, its stock destroyed and its indus- try unhinged, exacted the last penny of the augmented taxes. The cattle of the peasantry were driven off, their household goods and seed- corn taken, and their houses sold to the highest bidder. The Greek Orthodox and Roman Cath- olic population suffered most from this unac- customed stringency of the administration. Many of the ruined emigrated into Turkish dominions, and many became mountain robbers and cattle-thieves. While draining away the capital and para- lyzing the productive forces of the people to pay for military roads, which were of no prac- tical use, because wagons and draught-animals 56 AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. were unknown, and for the elaborate systems of civil officialism and military occupation, which were felt to be a twofold tyranny, the Austro-Hungarian Government did nothing to remove the peculiar grievance which had ex- cited the Herzegovinian outbreak of 1875 that led to the Servian and Turkish wars, and fur- nished the ground of Count Andrassy's famous note of December 30, 1875, with which the dip- lomatic campaign against the Porte was inau- gurated. The agrarian question was referred to a Bosnian commission, which simply revived an old Turkish law enabling the landlords to collect their rents by the aid of the military. The Mohammedan proprietors — the aristocracy of the country — were propitiated, lest their complaints to the Porte might interpose an ob- stacle to annexation. But the Christian agri- culturists it was sought to assimilate by dis- ciplining them in the rigorous regulations of Austrian officialism, and by the violent obtru- sion of the German language and the Roman Catholic religion. The vexatious over-government into which this wild and simple people were initiated, brought no compensating advantage over the loose and negligent regime of the Osmanli. Even the administration of justice, which, if capricious, was speedy and available in Turk- ish times, was now worse ; for the people would not accept the elaborate procedure of the new courts. In October, 1881, the law introducing uni- versal military service in the occupied prov- inces was published. The recruiting was to commence in the March following. To con- ciliate the wealthy Mohammedans, the law was modified to permit the hiring of substitutes. The Porte raised no objections, asking only that the Mohammedan conscripts should not be employed in foreign operations, and might be permitted to wear the fez. To the Chris- tians the conscription law was not less obnox- ious than to the Mohammedans. It was felt to be the most oppressive measure to which they had yet been subjected, for under Otto- man rule the Christians had been entirely ex- empt from military duty, paying instead a cap- itation tax of about a dollar yearly. There was every prospect that the people of the occupied provinces would resist vigorously the enforcement of the conscription law. The difficulty was complicated by the circumstance that compulsory military service had never been fully introduced in Dalmatia. The Cri- voscians were exempted from military duty, as well as from taxes, tithes, and other public burdens, by a solemn charter repeatedly re- newed. When the Government, in the reor- ganization of the military system of the empire, attempted to annul this privilege, a portion of the Dalmatians submitted to the conscription, but the Crivoscians rose in arms, destroyed a detachment at Fort Dragalj, and routed General Auersperg's army. His successor, Rodich, sub- mitted to their terms, agreeing not only to their immunity from military service, but grant- ing them an indemnity of forty florins per head. After their ancient privileges were thus reaffirmed by the treaty which was struck at Kneslac in February, 1870, no attempt was made to impose the conscription laws upon the South Dalmatians until it was thought neces- sary to subject them to the system of universal military service before applying it to their kin- dred in Herzegovina.* Preparatory to the introduction of this dis- ciplinary means of civilization in the occupied provinces, General Rodich, then Governor of Dalmatia, was instructed in 1880 to carry out the militia law in the district of Cattaro. He professed himself able to execute the law, but asked time to prepare the people. Nothing was accomplished that year nor the next ; yet when summoned to Vienna, just before the is- suance of the order for the occupied provinces, he still declared that his moral influence would be sufficient. A meeting of the Crivoscie peo- ple at Risano had previously declared that they would only comply with the law on certain conditions, which were rejected at Vienna. Relying on the assurances of General Rodich, the military law for Bosnia was published Octo- ber 24th. Before the Delegations separated, the people of the Crivoscie rose in revolt against the conscription. The insurrection spread from the Bocche di Cattaro into the adjacent part of Southern Herzegovina. It was re-enforced and controlled from the beginning by Herze- govinian malcontents, who hastened through Montenegro to the scene of disturbance, and by Montenegrin allies, headed by experienced guerrilla chiefs. Support and encouragement were received from a party of the Montene- grins and of the Servians, and from professional agitators of the Panslavist cause. Although the Austro-Hungarian Government gave out that it had to do only with the forays of rob- ber bands, military precautions were taken betimes. Rifle battalions were sent into the Crivoscie. A cordon was drawn around the insurrectionary center. The Prince of Monte- negro took what slight measures he could to prevent re-enforcements from reaching the in- surgents. He stationed a guard along the bor- der, and the Austrians formed a second cordon, but both were insufficient to keep out the guer- rilla bands, coming by secret trails through the mountains. The district of Crivoscie is hardly sixteen square miles in extent, and contains but fifteen villages, with 1,600 inhabitants. The recusant conscripts are a tall, handsome, muscular race * When Dalmatia was incorporated into the Austrian do- minions, after the Peace of Campo Formio in 1797, the in- habitants fought for the preservation of their ancient privilege of immunity from military service. This right, which they had enjoyed under the Venetian dominion e^er since their subjugation in 1420, was formally conceded, and in 1814 re- affirmed. They have fought in the wars of Austria as volun- teers— for example, in the war with France and Italy in 1859, when the Bocchese furnished a body of 2,300 men ; but, for seventy years, their exemption from compulsory levies was duly respected by the Austrian Government. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. 57 of men. They have never been subdued, and know no law or discipline. Their raids into the neighboring Turkish territory have earned them the epithet of " Sheep-stealers." The dif- ficulties of a military expedition in their district and in the adjacent parts of Herzegovina are incredible. The conformation of the land is the same as in Montenegro. An army must advance in the intricate mountain-paths, often in single file, and throw a bridge across every one of the numberless torrents. They must transport on pack-animals their ammunition, their cannon in separable parts, all their food and provender, and even their drinking-water. In the occupied territory 1,830 kilometres of roads were built in three years ; but in the Crivoscie there are no means of communica- tion but the difficult bridle-paths. The agile mountaineers have no need of paths, but can shoot down upon the toiling column from every cliff, and disappear without a trace. They can beset them anywhere on the flank or in the rear, or drive away the flock which is destined for the soldiers' meals. In military operations in such a country it is necessary to fortify and garrison every point of importance, every bridge that is built, every source of sup- plies. For this purpose the kulas, or block- houses, which are scattered through the country are of importance. They are built of rough stones, with towers pierced with slits for rifles. In peace-time they furnish nightly shelter to the patrolling gen- darmes. The hans, or way-side inns, serve as gathering-places for insurgents, and the landlords are their zealous spies. The district of Cattaro furnished its re- cruits in obedience to the order of October 24, 1881. The inhabitants of the Crivoscie only opposed a passive resistance, and when the commune of Ubli was preparing to send its quota the other Crivoscians drove its cattle up into the mountains as se- curity for its fidelity. Detachments of ri- flemen were sent into the district. On the approach of the soldiery, several hundred men collected in bands. They were armed with Martini rifles. Raids were made on the neighboring districts. Skirmishes with the troops commenced in December. Some of the corpses of the fallen were found with the ears and noses cut off, a form of mutilation cus- tomary with these savage mountaineers. Their threat to put to the sword every captive sol- dier of Bocchese birth was not carried into effect. By January all Herzegovina east of the Na- renta was aroused, up to the southeast Bosnian border. The insurgents concentrated with stra- tegic sagacity at a point near Fotcha, which commanded the communication between Sera- jevo and the Austrian forces on the Drina; in the vicinity of Konjica, on the lower Narenta, a point which commands the only military road leading from Bosnia into Herzegovina; and near Korito on the Montenegrin frontier. The isolation of the Crivoscie by a military cordon had proved a complete failure. With the spread of the insurrection into Herzegovina the Austrian Government was confronted with the danger of a European war. A military credit was voted by the Delegations. The command of the operations for the sup- pression of the insurrection was given to the young and energetic Lieutenant-Field-Marshal Jovanovics. The number of the insurgents was variously estimated at from five to fifteen thousand. They were armed throughout with breech-loaders. The heated language of Gen- eral Skobeleff and several Russian statesmen, the collection of money and war material by native and foreign Slavic agitators, the activi- ties of the Young Servian League of the Omla- dina, and the direct aid in munitions and sup- plies given by the inhabitants of Montenegro, furnished the elements for another conflagra- tion in the Balkan Peninsula. The insurgents presented in the beginning of February an irregular line from Trebinje through Liubinje, Bilek, and Gatzko to Nevesinje, and through the wild mountains of Zagorje, where they concentrated in the greatest force, to Fot- cha, and beyond as far as Cainitcha. Behind the way of escape into Montenegro or the San- jak of Novi-Bazar was open. Over a thousand of them, under Dandalitch and Sekanovitch, held the advanced post in the valley of the Zel- jeznika, an affluent of the Drina, south of Sera- jevo. In Fotcha and the Zagorje the Sirdar Tungus commanded ; in Nevesinje, Gatzko, and Bilek the redoubted brigand Stojan Kovatze- vitch ; in Zubzie, near Korito, Tripko Fukalo- vitch ; around Trebinje, Tomasevitch ; and in the Crivoscie, Militch and Sutitch. They had a fully equipped mountain battery, and pursued systematic plans under the direction of some 58 AUSTKIA-HUNGARY. unknown strategists. In fight they gathered sometimes eighteen hundred strong. In the in- tervals between their attacks they were hidden in scattered bands in the gorges of the mountains. General Jovanovics had a force of 40,000 men with 56 mountain-guns, composed of the garrisons of the coast-lands and several regi- ments sent on to the seat of war. They were formed into so-called mountain brigades. The signal service, sanitary arrangements, and com- missariat were admirably organized. Jovano- vics assumed the command of the forces in Herzegovina and the Crivoscie on the 6th of February. In Herzegovina his authority was unfortunately divided with General von Dah- len, the civil and military governor of the oc- cupied provinces. The insurgents proposed peace at once to the new general; but he re- jected their stipulations for universal amnesty. He proposed to wait for open weather, organ- ize his army for the difficult service for which it was none too large, and drill the troops in rifle practice. But General von Dahlen urged an immediate advance, and on the 9th of Feb- ruary the forward movement began from Mos- tar, where General Jovanovics had established his headquarters. On the same day Eisano, the chief town of the Crivoscie, was captured by the help of the fleet in the Bocche ; and Ledenice, the center of the insurrection in the Crivoscie, was taken by storm. The insurgents were thus at the start cut off from all aid com- ing by sea, and separated from the southern coast district, the Prim or je. Nevertheless, they boldly took the offensive, and on the 10th and the following days struck at Fotcha, an important central position, and at Tirnova, and attacked the fortified height of Eogai. Their object was to spread the insurrection into the interior of Bosnia. They were repulsed, and on the 14th the ridge of Zimje Polje, east of Mostar, was occupied, and its commanding points fortified. After these first successes the movement of the Austrian troops was slow and difficult. There were no communications be- tween the different columns. Each pressed forward on a converging line toward the center of the insurrection. Their object was to get between the insurgents and the frontier. Until they could be cut off from Montenegro, the enemy were unapproachable. They could dis- appear when hard pressed, and reappear to attack the Austrians where they were weakest. Montenegro was impelled by the success of these tactics, and by the promise of the Aus- trian Government to bear the whole cost, to strengthen her boundary cordon, and place more trusty officers in command. There was no opportunity for strategic combinations. The Austrian lines had to contend sharply for every step of their progress. Bravery and perseverance were displayed by the troops, and quite as much discipline and fortitude were ex- hibited in the resistance of the insurgents. In the fights which took place almost daily the Austrian regulars were many times worsted. The Austrian soldiers did not forget the strict discipline for which they are distinguished ; but their commanders adopted stern and cruel measures for crushing out the rebellion. Their path was marked by smoking villages. About the 20th of February the insurgents collected in great number in the plateau of Zagorje, a natural stronghold which they deemed impregnable, for the purpose of strik- ing a blow at Serajevo. The Austrians ad- vanced in four columns from different points, with the object of surrounding them. The access to the plateau is very arduous, and they were impeded by snow and storm. After sev- eral days of fighting, in which a number of positions were carried by assault, the Austrians occupied the plateau * on the 25th. Yet they did not succeed in entrapping the enemy. The insurgents escaped on the right bank of the Drina toward the Montenegrin frontier. The Knez of Zagorje made his submission. The people of the district were famishing, and food was distributed by the authorities. Another column in a sharp assault carried the steep heights at Ulok, east of Mostar, and drove the insurgents over the Narenta. Worn out in daily battles, the insurgents of Herzegovina were gradually pressed back upon a strip of land skirting the Montenegrin frontier. In the Crivoscie the right wing of the Austrian army was not idle. After taking Bratlo and Ubli, the insurrection was confined to the wedge of land which projects into Montenegro. By the capture of Fort Dragalj, on the 10th of March, the last of the insurgents were driven over the border. The insurrection, as an or- ganized military movement, was broken up. The Austrian soldiery held the land. Flying columns traversed the country, and met with little resistance. The inclement weather told severely on the Austrian troops, but their losses in battle were remarkably light, being only 53 dead, and 210 altogether. On April 22d Freiherr von Dahlen issued a proclamation to the inhabitants of the occu- pied territory, announcing the final suppression of the insurrectionary movement, and inviting them to return to their homes. He promised amnesty to all but the leaders. The Austrian army had won the campaign, but it was a hol- low victory. "When they came into possession of the country it was a desert. They found only burned villages and deserted farmsteads. The inhabitants had emigrated in a mass to Montenegro with their families and their flocks and herds. From there they continued to re- turn in bands to harass the troops. The Cri- voscie was absolutely empty of inhabitants. The Montenegrin authorities arrested and dis- armed the immigrants, but were at a loss what to do with them. At the instigation of the Austrians the Government cut off the rations which were supplied out of its limited means * This almost inaccessible stronghold the Turks did not attempt to assail in 1875, but contented themselves with a siege. BAPTISTS. 59 and tried to drive them back to their homes, but with indifferent success. At the meeting of the Delegations in April, the Common Ministry asked for 23,730,000 florins to defray expenses in South Dalmatia and the occupied provinces until October, in addition to the military credit of 8,000,000 florins granted at the special meeting of the Delegations on January 28th. The Hungarian Delegation took this opportunity to overhaul the Bosnian policy of the Government. The Minister of Finance, Count Szlavy, explained that the conscription in Bosnia would be con- fined to recruiting 1,200 men. who would not be removed from the country, and was only in- tended to enforce the principle that it is the duty of the people to take part in the defense of their boundaries. The conscription is a direct infringement of the Treaty of Berlin. In the administration of this practically an- nexed territory the Austrian Government goes through the form of submitting every procla- mation to the Porte. The Turkish minister revises and alters it, but it is always issued in the original shape. The Hungarian Delegation cut down the appropriation for fortifications and other items. Count Szlavy resigned in consequence. In the Hungarian Lower House the reduced appropriations were warmly con- tested. In the Upper House, Count Desseffy, who was for three years chief administrator of the district of Serajevo, unfolded all the mis- takes and abuses of the Bosnian administration. Tisza, the Hungarian Premier, admitted that the Bosnian bureaucracy needed a thorough purification. In deference to the determined attitude of the Hungarian opposition, after Szlavy had continued his functions for nearly a month, awaiting his successor, Baron Kallay, a Hungarian statesman, but a friend of the Slavs and believer in the Slavic extension of the empire, was appointed Common Minister of Finance. The post might be better de- scribed as the ministry for Bosnian affairs. The programme to be carried out was the re- versal of the obnoxious German methods, and an administration according to Slavonic no- tions and customs. As an initial reform, a separate Civil Governor of Bosnia was ap- pointed, the choice falling upon Count Rudolf Khevenhuller, who, like M. de Kallay, is famil- iar with the southern Slavs and their languages. The elaborate machinery of the law, which was introduced after European models, was first done away with, and the decision of cases made speedy and inexpensive. No lawyers nor briefs are necessary in petty suits, and in larger ones only one appeal may be heard. INUNDATIONS IN TYKOL. — Various parts of Europe were visited in 1882 by devastating floods. In the Alpine regions the abnormal rain-fall wrought the most destruction, and no- where so great as in the valleys of Austrian Tyrol, where the losses exceeded 30,000,000 florins, or $13,000,000. An inundation oc- curred in the middle of September, the effects of which were partly averted by the energy of the authorities. On the 28th of October the people were driven out of Bruneck, Toblach, Innichen, and the hapless Welsberg, by one of the most destructive floods that is recorded in history. The protective works were de- stroyed, towns almost annihilated, farms not only stripped of harvest and improvements, but left desolate under a layer of silt and bowlders. B BAPTISTS. I. REGULAR BAPTISTS IN THE churches in the United States, as they are UNITED STATES. — The following is a sum- given in the " American Baptist Year-Book " mary of the statistics of the Regular Baptist for 1882 : STATES AND TERRI- TORIES. Associa- tions. Churches. Ordained ministers. Total of members. STATES AND TERRI- TORIES. Associa- tions. Churches. Ordained ministers. Total of members. Alabama 71 1,751 1,014 167650 Missouri 70 1448 847 95176 Arizona 1 14 Nebraska 11 'l36 68 4'803 Arkansas 50 1,148 655 64305 i Nevada 2 1 'no California 8 98 91 6083 g 81 87 8 915 Colorado 2 22 16 1,598 New Jersey 5 179 201 32*323 Connecticut 6 119 119 20 880 3 2 45 Dakota 1 21 18 ?731 New York 44 873 786 118 S62 Delaware 11 13 1 991 North Carolina 78 1 905 1 060 192 658 District of Columbia . . . 2 23 28 8,837 Ohio 31 '619 470 49114 Florida 19 834 216 23126 5 69 41 2752 121 2896 1 732 238 975 23 555 455 62*S77 Idaho 1 ' 20 Rhode Island 3 62 85 10 662 Illinois 42 915 675 67,089 South Carolina 46 1,184 685 150,792 Indiana 80 534 826 42489 52 1331 846 110 877 Indian Territory 4 98 82 5,973 Texas 81 1 929 1 110 108340 Iowa 27 411 217 24264 Utah 1 1 ' 16 Kansas 21 408 284 17,109 Vermont. 7 115 72 9614 Kentucky 71 1,678 978 162,423 Virginia 32 1,337 709 203,050 Louisiana 83 780 453 58799 3 22 18 511 Maine Maryland 13 1 257 45 169 42 20,637 8755 West Virginia Wisconsin 13 14 399 169 228 92 26,968 19961 Massachusetts 14 291 346 48,994 2 2 101 Michigan 18 857 822 26 844 Minnesota Mississippi 9 68 159 1,554 71 879 6,935 126,984 Total United States. . 1,155 26,373 16,514 2,336,022 60 BAPTISTS. Whole number of Sunday-schools, 14,473, with 120,678 officers and teachers, and 1,006,- 412 scholars ; number of additions by baptism during 1881, 81,570. Total amount of benev- olent contributions, so far as reported, $4,600,- 910. Number of theological institutions, 8, with 41 instructors, 447 students for the min- istry, $1,925,803 of property, and (in five in- stitutions) $1,320,649 of endowment funds; number of colleges and universities, 33, with 295 instructors, 4,690 students (of whom 784 were young women and 557 were studying for the ministry), $8,085,950 of property, and $3,- 698,619 of endowment funds ; number of acad- emies, seminaries, institutes, and female col- leges, 53, with 390 instructors, 6,201 students (of whom 3,676 were young women, and 445 were studying for the ministry), $2,500,780 of property, and (sixteen institutions) $416,286 of endowment funds. The statistics show an increase during the year of 25 associations, 313 churches, and 39,695 members, with a decrease of 82 or- dained ministers and 21,154 baptisms. The " Year-Book " gives the following gen- eral statistics of the Regular Baptists in all countries for 1881 : Associa- tions. Churches. 1 Ordained ministers. Members. North America (includ- ing the United States). South America (Brazil). 1,1T9 27,213 g 17,106 4 2,429,118 215 Europe 61 8039 2111 328,076 Asia 4 596 168 44358 Africa 2 60 44 8697 Australasia 4 143 95 7918 Grand total 1 250 81 084 19528 2 818 377 Total number of baptisms reported for the year, 118,927. NORTHERN BAPTIST BENEVOLENT SOCIETIES. —The anniversaries of the Northern Baptist Societies in the United States were held in the city of New York, beginning May 24th with the meeting of the American Baptist Home Mission Society. As this meeting marked the completion of the fiftieth year of the society's existence, the regular proceedings were sup- plemented by special jubilee services. The general receipts of the society for the year had been $359,306, or $124,273 more than the re- ceipts of the previous year, which had been the largest recorded to that time in the history of the organization. A debt of $29,955, which stood against the society at the beginning of the year, had been fully paid; and there now stood a balance in the treasury, available for the coming year's operations, of $7,512. Sev- enty-five churches had been organized, 1,460 churches and out-stations supplied, and 1,675 members received by baptism, during the year. The mission churches returned a total mem- bership of 21,131 and 819 Sunday-schools, with 38,575 attendants, and had contributed to benevolent funds the total sum of $14,375. During the fifty years of its existence, the so- ciety had issued 9,102 commissions to mission- aries and teachers, through whose agency 2,838 churches had been organized and 87,056 per- sons had been baptized. Twelve educational institutions among the colored people in the South, or two more than were reported in the previous year, were receiving assistance from the treasury of the society. The new institu- tions were " Bishop Baptist College," at Mar- shall, Texas, and the "Kentucky Normal and Theological Institute," at Louisville, Ky. In all of these schools, 79 teachers were employed, and 2,151 pupils, 400 of whom were preparing to preach, were enrolled. The sum of $39,964 had been paid for teachers' salaries, and the students had paid in $22,331 for tuition, board, and room-rent. Dr. J. M. Gregory had been appointed superintendent of the society's edu- cational work " among the colored people, the Indians, and others to whom it may be ex- tended." Twelve missionaries, nine of whom were natives, were under appointment in the Indian Territory, and reported 896 members of the church and 1,148 persons in Sunday- schools. The Indian University at Tahlequah was attended by 69 students, four of whom were preparing for the ministry. Eecom- mendations were made concerning the en- largement and more thorough equipment of this school, and for the sending of missionaries as soon as practicable among the Indians of Alaska. The Chinese mission at Portland, Oregon, with 50 members, had contributed $85 to the jubilee fund of the society. The missionary work in Mexico, resumed a year before, was carried on by the Mexican Mission- ary Society in co-operation with this body. A general missionary was supported in this work, and another missionary had been commis- sioned. The 8 churches returned 156 mem- bers. Forty-six missionaries were employed in co-operation with the Eastern and Western German Baptist Conferences, among the Ger- man population. The missionary work among the Scandinavian settlers had resulted in the building up of about 120 churches, with 6,500 communicants. A Scandinavian department was connected with the Theological Seminary at Chicago. The American Baptist Publication Society had received during the year $345,632 in the business department, and $107,784 in the mis- sionary department. It had issued twenty- nine new publications and 308,000 copies of all publications; had expended $3,517 in grants of Bibles and Testaments ; and had employed 81 missionary colporteurs and 35 Sunday- school missionaries, through whose agency 13 churches had been constituted, 422 Sunday- schools organized, and 433 persons baptized. A resolution was adopted, requesting the Boards of the American Baptist Publication Society, the American Baptist Missionary Union, the American and Foreign Bible So- ciety, the Southern Baptist Convention, and the three Baptist Conventions of the Dominion BAPTISTS. 61 of Canada, to appoint committees of confer- ence on the best method of uniting Baptist Bible- work in America. The object of the committee was specified to be to submit a plan for the readjustment of the Baptist Bible- work, covering both translation and circulation, and to designate the methods by which it can be done efficiently and to the satisfaction of the denomination as a whole. The total receipts of the American Baptist Missionary Union for the year had been $352,- 787, of which sum $157,989 were from dona- tions, $54,462 from legacies, and $59,102 from the Women's Societies. The total expendi- tures had been $353,183, leaving a balance against the treasury of $396. The report on Bible-work recorded the progress that had been made in the publication or translation of the Bible in the Karen, Garos, Shan, Japanese, Teloogoo, and German languages. The follow- ing is a summary of the condition of the sev- eral missions of the Union : ASIATIC MISSIONS. Mission- aries. Native preachers. Churches. Members. 96 488 471 28,483 Assam Teloogoos, India Chinese (including Bang- kok, in Siam) 17 29 25 13 37 94 34 10 29 39 40 8 1,765 18,992 1,582 185 " * ' * * Total .... 1S1 683 587 46017 Of the native preachers, 190 (126 in Burmah, 9 in Assam, 46 in India, 7 Chinese, and 2 in Japan) were ordained, and 473 (362 in Burmah, 28 in Assam, 48 in India, 27 Chinese, and 8 in Japan) were unordained. EUROPEAN MISSIONS. Mission- aries. Native preachers. Churches. Members. Sweden . ... 160 815 19920 Germany 850 146 28038 France 18 9 738 Spain 4 3 150 Greece 3 1 7 Total 535 474 48862 Total for the whole work 181 1,198 1,061 94,879 A resolution was adopted accepting the in- vitation which had been made by the Publica- tion Society to appoint a committee to confer with similar committees of other Baptist socie- ties in reference to a readjustment of their Bible-work. The American Baptist Historical Society re- ported its year's receipts to have been $224, and its expenditures $157. The regular receipts of the American and Foreign Bible Society for the year preceding its last anniversary were $11.028, and its ex- penditures $7,007. The society had, further- more, received the sum of $2,000 in bonds and 413 acres of land in Illinois. The receipts of the Woman's Baptist Foreign Missionary Society were returned at $56,132, and its expenditures at $55,819. Thirty-eight missionaries and 49 Bible-women had been employed during the year,- and aid had been given to 84 schools, in which were reported 2,170 pupils and 175 baptisms. The Woman's Foreign Missionary Society of the West had re- ceived and expended $23,578. Two additional missionaries had been sent out. SOUTHERN BAPTIST CONVENTION. — The South- ern Baptist Convention met at Greenville, S. C., May 10th. The Rev. P. H. Hell, D. D., of Geor- gia, was chosen president. The Home-Mission Board had received $28,370 ; adding to this the funds reported by the several State Home-Mis- sion Boards as having been received and expend- ed by them, the total sum of $94,273 was shown to have been contributed by the Southern Bap- tist churches for the purposes of this work. The operations of the board were conducted at various points in the Southern States otherwise not provided with Baptist churches, among the Indians, and among the Chinese in California. The buildings of the Levering Manual Labor School, in the Creek Nation, had been com- pleted, furnished, and paid for during the year. The cost of the school had been $10,340, and it had an assured annual income of $8,400. It was attended by 120 pupils. Four mission- aries had been employed among the Chinese in San Francisco, California, and had the charge of schools for Chinese boys. The Foreign Mis- sion Board had received $49,041, or $5,000 more than during the previous year, with which all its expenses had been paid, and it was now out of debt. Its missions were hi Italy, China, Africa (the Yoruba country), Brazil, and Mex- ico, and included in all 34 stations, at which 61 missionaries and native assistants were em- ployed. The whole number of native mem- bers was 740, of whom 126 had been baptized during the year. Eight new missionaries had been sent out, and six candidates had applied for appointments. The English language was beginning to be taught in the Chinese mission- schools. The heathen converts were contribut- ing nearly a dollar each for benevolent pur- poses, and the women in the African missions were sustaining a native missionary. BAPTIST AUTUMNAL CONFERENCE. — A Bap- tist Autumnal Conference, on the plan of the autumnal conferences held by the English Bap- tist and Congregational bodies, was held in Brooklyn, K Y., "November 14th, 15th, and 16th. It was the first meeting of the kind at- tempted by Baptists in the United States, and was called as an experiment. The Rev. George Dana Boardman, D. D., of Philadelphia, pre- sided. Papers were read and discussed on " Skeptical Drifts in Modern Thought " (Rev. L. Moss, D. D., and Rev. E. H. Johnson, D. D.) ; " The Economics of Foreign Missionary Ef- fort " (Rev. George E. Merrill and President A. H. Strong, D. D.) ; u The Church and the Chil- dren " (Rev. A. J. Sage, D. D., Rev. John Humpstone, Professor A. E. Waffle, and others) ; " The Labor Question " (A. J. Fox) ; " Chari- ties " (Rev. J. M. Gregory, LL. D., and Hon. BAPTISTS. Francis Wayland, LL. D.) ; " Race and Relig- ion on the American Continent " (J. M. Hoyt, LL. D.r President E. G. Robinson, and Hon. George Williams) ; "Diversity of Opinion with- in the Limits of Denominational Unity " (Rev. W. C. Wilkinson, D. D., on diversity of opinion on questions of Church polity, and Rev. C. B. Crane, D. D., on diversities of doctrinal views) ; "The Taxation of Church Property" (Hon. George H. Andrews and others); "Modern Evangelism " (Rev. A. J. Gordon, D. D.) ; and " The Meditative Element in Christian Life " (President H. G. Weston and others). It was determined to hold another conference in the autumn of 1883, at Boston. II. SEVENTH-DAT BAPTIST CHURCH. — The following is a summary of the statistics of this Church as they were reported to the General Conference of 1882 : Eastern Association (16 churches in Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York city, and New Jersey) 2,216 members. Central Association (15 churches in Central New York) 1,661 " Western Association (20 churches in West- ern New York and Pennsylvania) 1,981 " Northwestern Association (34 churches in Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, Iowa, Minnesota, Kansas, Missouri, Kentucky, Nebraska, and Dakota) 2,230 " Southeastern Association (6 churches in West Virginia) 648 Foreign (2 churches in England, 1 in Hol- land, and 1 in China) 50 " Total. 8,781 Net increase of members during the year, 155. The whole number of Sabbath-schools was 93, with 6,211 scholars, or 310 more schol- ars than were reported in the previous year. The receipts of the American Sabbath Tract Society for the year ending August 31, 1882, were $8,294, and its expenditures were $8,085. The society returned a balance of $2,379 of assets over liabilities. It had employed agents in Pennsylvania, Haarlem (Holland), where a monthly journal was published on its account, and in Norway and Hamburg, Germany, where 7,916 tracts had been distributed ; and it had organized a system of work by tent-meetings, to be held at different places in the United States. It published a general religious news- paper, a Sabbath-school journal, and a monthly journal designed especially to present the views of the denomination to the public, and which has been sent to clergymen, Sunday-school workers, and public reading-rooms throughout the United States and Canada. The funds of the Seventh-Day Baptist Edu- cation Society were reported at its annual meeting, September 22d, to be in amount $44,004. Reports were presented at the meet- ing of the condition of Milton College, Milton, Wis., and Alfred University, Alfred Center, N. Y. The former institution returned an in- come of $8,067, a faculty of nine members, and 241 students. Ten thousand dollars had been added during the year to the endowment fund of the college. Alfred University re- turned an income of $8,783, a general faculty of thirteen, with a theological faculty of five members, and 378 students. The receipts of the Seventh-Day Baptist Missionary Society, for the year ending Sep- tember 21st, were $9,330. The society sus- tained both home and foreign missions. Twen- ty-three home missionaries were employed in eleven States, and reported the organization of three churches, fifty additions by baptism, and a total of 858 church-members and 575 per- sons in Bible-schools. The foreign mission at Shanghai, China, was conducted by three American missionaries, with two native preach- ers, one Bible-woman, and three teachers of day-schools, and returned 40 pupils in the Bi- ble-school and 52 pupils in three day-schools. A missionary was employed at Haarlem and W^orkum, in Holland, where were returned twenty-five church-members. The sixty-eighth annual session of the Sev- enth-Day Baptist General Conference was held at Hopkinton, R. I., beginning September 20th. Professor A. R. Crandall presided. A new church at Cartwright, Wis., was admitted to the conference. The increase in the number of members that had taken place during the year was reported to have been greater than the average annual increase of the previous five years. Progress toward the preparation of a denominational history was reported in the collection of material and in securing the preparation of original histories and memoirs. Professor William A. Rogers was elected presi- dent of the conference for the ensuing year. III. THE BEETHEEN, OK TUNKEES. — The dif- ferences of opinion which have prevailed and have been widening for several years among the Brethren, or Tunkers, have finally resulted in a definite schism ; and the Church is now divided, in effect, into three branches, which are called the Old Order, the Conservatives, and the Progressives. The Old Order Breth- ren represent a local schism which occurred in 1881 in the Miami Valley, Ohio. They do not differ in doctrinal points from the Conserva- tives, but believe, as to points of practice, that the Church has erred " in encouraging pro- tracted meetings, high-schools, Sunday-schools, and prayer-meetings, and in departing, to some extent, from the ancient order in dress and other matters, such as the use of musical in- struments, etc." Their first meeting in 1882 was held in Brookville, O., and was attended by about six thousand persons, most of whom, it was remarked, were aged. The meeting made rulings against " fashionable mustaches," the parting of the hair on one side, the use of more than one color in house-painting, the wearing of silk and dress-trimmings by women, the raising of tobacco, and the selling of grain to be distilled. The regular Annual Meeting of the Brethren was held near Milford Junction, Ind., in June, and was attended by ten or twelve thousand persons. The full privilege of voting was granted to the sisters. The most important BAPTISTS. 63 business of the meeting was the consideration of the case of H. R. Holsinger, one of the ed- itors of the " Progressive Christian," who was charged with having published unwarrantable criticisms of certain customs observed by the Brotherhood, and with having caused divisions. The committee, to which the case had been re- ferred by the previous Annual Meeting, re- ported recommending that Mr. Holsinger be expelled, and added to their recommendation a statement that the church at Berlin, Pa., of which tbe accused was a member, had refused to allow the trial which had been instituted against him to proceed secretly, as in the ordi- nary way, and had insisted on the presence of a short-hand writer to take a minute of the proceedings. Mr. Holsinger's friends made several efforts to bring him and the meeting into accord, but their offers were rejected, and the report of the committee was adopted by an overwhelming majority. A memorial was afterward presented from Mr. Holsinger's side asking that a committee, one half of whom should be Conservatives and one half Progres- sives, be appointed to prepare a plan for " a general reconciliation between the Annual Meeting and all the Brethren called Progres- sives," but the standing committee declared it could not entertain the proposition. The meet- ing ordered that all the decisions of the Annual Meeting should be mandatory instead of ad- visory ; that any one who should " speak or write anything reproachfully against the An- nual Meeting, or the practice, order, and usages of the Brethren," should be dealt with as an offender; that the Church papers should be consolidated, in order that the Brotherhood might hereafter have control of the press ; and forbidding fellowship with the Progressives, recognition of them, or preaching in their churches. This action was followed by a conference of the Progressive party, which adopted a pre- amble reciting that, "inasmuch as Christ gave his people a complete plan of salvation, con- taining neither too much nor too little ; and inasmuch as no church, during all the history of the past, has successfully made additions to or subtractions from it through mandatory legis- lation without discord and trouble ; and, inas- much as reformations have universally tended to reaffirm the primitive doctrines of Christ, by divesting them of accumulated decrees, enact- ments, and laws made by church-leaders, which always tended toward abridging God-given liberty ; and that church legislation has had a tendency in all ages to run into power, and the history of Christendom is full of examples of suffering and ostracism, as its legitimate off- spring ; " alleging that the spirit of intolerance had frequently been manifested in the Church in the expulsion of brethren and sisters " for no violation of gospel or moral principle," and had just been freshly illustrated by " what appears to us an act of injustice " ; pointing to the fact that the Annual Conference was "almost wholly taken up with legislation tending to abridge our liberties in the Gospel, enforcing customs and usages, and elevating them to an equality with the Gospel, and defending them with even more rigor than the commandments of God," and that the conscientious opposition of the Progressives to these proceedings had caused them to be styled "troublers" and "railers," and exposed them to reprobation ; expressing sympathy and fellowship with all who had been expelled " without a violation of the gospel," and oppo- sition to all tendencies toward intolerance and corruption of doctrines, and reaffirming the doctrines of the gospel as the only rule of faith and practice, and the doctrine of the Church " as it existed in its earlier and purer age, be- fore it was corrupted by the additions made by elders and their abuse of power." A con- vention of all Brethren sharing in these views was called, to meet at Ashland, O., June 29th. The convention was attended by between two and three hundred persons representing the progressive element in their several locali- ties, and continued through two days. J. W. Beer was elected president. A preamble was adopted, in which were stated the grounds of complaint against the Annual Meeting, togeth- er with a declaration of principles reaffirming the doctrines of Alexander Mack, asserting that this convention represented the true, original Church of the Brethren, and setting forth pro- visions for the organization of conferences. Committees were appointed to publish the dec- laration ; to confer with other branches of the Brotherhood ; and to take the care of Sunday- school, educational, and missionary work. A subscription was taken up for Ashland College. Delegates were present at the conference rep- resenting a small body of a few hundred mem- bers, an offshoot from the Brotherhood, called the " Congregational Brethren," and another body, called the " Thurmanites," of Virginia, both of which proposed union with the Pro- gressives. No definite action was taken on these propositions. The position of the Progressives is thus de- fined by one of their journals, " The Gospel Preacher " : The Progressive believes in non-conformity, liu- milityj and all the other attributes taught by the Con- servative or Old Order Brother ; but he renounces the decisions of men where there is doubtful gospel au- i thority, he pleads for liberty of Bpeecli and of the s press, advocates high-schools, Sunday-schools, prayer- meetings, and encourages the missionary work. Claiming that uniformity is not taught in the gospel, he opposes its being made a test of fellowship or offi- cial standing. He maintains that the world is ad- / vancing, and that, to keep pace with it, the Christian x must choose all the good from the improvements and utilize them. IV. MENNONITES. — The first General Con- ference of the Evangelical Mennonites, a branch formed within a few years by the union of two small bodies, was held in Indiana in September. Three conferences were represented by dele- gates. A course of reading for young minis- ters was prescribed. Resolutions were adopt- 64 BAPTISTS. ed making the term of the General Conference three years, and that of presiding elders one year ; refusing fellowship to persons who take out insurance policies, who violate the Script- ure rule of divorce as laid down in Matthew and Mark, and who use tohacco. The churches were prohibited having organs and choirs; and a system of raising funds for foreign mis- sion work was adopted. V. KEGULAE BAPTISTS IN GREAT BRITAIN. —The "American Baptist Year -Book" for 1882 gives the following statistics of the Regu- lar Baptists in Great Britain and Ireland for 1881: COUNTRIES. Associa- tions. Churches. Ordained ministers. Members. England 88 1 893 1 360 203 304 Wales . . . 9 '584 '344 67859 Ireland 1 SO 17 1 251 Scotland 1 88 79 9234 Total 11 2 545 1 800 281 648 The "Baptist Hand-Book" for 1882 gives for the United Kingdom 2,586 churches, 3,395 chapels, 1,101,361 sittings, 295,035 members, 46,321 teachers and 433,801 scholars in Sunday- schools, 1,885 pastors in charge, and 3,247 evangelists. The annual meeting of the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland was held April 24th. The Rev. John Jenkyn Brown, of Birmingham, was president for the year. Returns had been received from 2,586 churches, with a reput- ed membership of 295,000, as against 2,565 churches and 281,000 members reported in the previous year. Nearly 50,000 sittings had been added to the chapel accommodation, giving 1,101,000 sittings, against 1,052,000 reported in the previous year, and school-rooms had been provided to accommodate 8,000 Sunday- school children. Chapel debts had been dimin- ished by more than £124,000. Not less than £20,000 had been raised for evangelistic work in the several counties, including that of the British and Irish Baptist Home Mission. Some changes in the constitution were agreed upon, with the object of making it possible for the Union to become legally amalgamated with the British and Irish Baptist Home Mission. Ac- cording to the new provisions, the governing body of the Union will consist of a council of one hundred members, seventy of whom are to be chosen by ballot, and the rest elected by the members thus chosen. The officers of the Union and of the Baptist Unions of Scotland and Wales will be ex-officio members of the council, and societies or organizations accepted by the Union as auxiliaries to any of its work will be empowered to appoint a representative who shall be entitled to attend and vote at the meetings of the council. The actuary of the annuity fund reported that an additional an- nual income of £400, or an augmentation of the capital to £100,000, was needed to keep the annuities »t their present annual value of £45 for each minister and £39 for each widow on the list. The committee was instructed to procure the opinion of counsel respecting the in- terpretation of the rule which deals with funds the investment of which has been specially prescribed by the donors. The Baptist Build- ing Fund had aided with £25,000 in the erec- tion of twenty-five new chapels and the en- largement of other chapels, by which a clear increase of 7,646 sittings was gained. The total cost of the new erections had been £83,- 770. The Bible Translation Society had ex- pended £2,665 in the prosecution of its work, and had a small balance on hand. Progress was reported on the Bengali Commentary on the New Testament, in which Mr. Eouse had taken the place of the Rev. Dr. Wenger, de- ceased, and on the Dualla (African) version of the New Testament. The Baptist and Irish Home Mission had received £4,002 ; the Zenana Mission, £4,635. The total income of the Baptist Missionary Society had been £52,366, and it closed its year with a deficiency of nearly £7,000. The receipts for special purposes (included in the total) had been £6,497. Encouraging prog- ress was reported of the missionary work in India, the West Indies, and Africa. A special steam-launch was in course of construction for the Congo mission in Africa. In China, Mr. Richard had been preparing translations and original books for the literati in Shansi. The annual report of the Baptist Union of Scotland for 1880-'81, which was read at the meeting of the Union in April, gave the num- ber of churches in connection as 80, with 8,500 members. Sixty-seven Sunday-schools, with 905 teachers and 7,300 children, and 157 preaching-stations, were also reported. Forty- seven Bible-classes had been formed during the year, and were attended by 1,940 persons. One new chapel had been opened, and three others were being built. VI. GENERAL BAPTISTS. — The one hundred and thirteenth annual meeting of the General Baptist Association was held at Derby in June, under the presidency of the Rev. William Gray, of Birch cliffe. Reports had been received from 168 out of 187 churches, which showed a clear gain of 442 members. The total ex- penditure for home missions for the year had been £483, and the committee returned a bal- ance on hand of £401. The total receipts for foreign missions had been £8,116, of which sum £3,203 had been received in India, and £185 in Rome. The expenditures had been £8,947. The liabilities of the society had been increased by £279. The Building Fund Committee returned a capital, provided " all promises were fulfilled," of £5,500. Its re- ceipts had been £1,557, and it had made grants to churches of £1,250. VII. BAPTISTS OF GERMANY.— The twelfth Triennial Convention of ihs* Baptists of Ger- many and other European countries was held in August in Altona. One hundred and thirty- BARNARD, JOHN G. BEER. 65 five delegates were present, representing 140 churches and 2,800 members, all the result of a mission which was begun under American auspices in 1834. The publishing business of the convention was represented as being in a flourishing condition. Six thousand dollars had been raised during the past three years for the theological school. The convention resolved to celebrate the semi-centennial anni- versary of the mission in 1884, by establishing a fund for invalid preachers. BARNARD, JOHN GROSS, born in Shef- field, Mass., May 19, 1815; died at Detroit, Mich., May 16, 1882. General Barnard re- ceived a good rudimentary education, and at the age of fourteen was admitted as a cadet in the United States Military Academy at West Point. After graduating he was brevetted sec- ond-lieutenant of the Corps of Engineers, and soon was sent to the Gulf coast, where, as as- sistant and principal engineer, he was engaged on the fortifications of Pensacola and New Or- leans. He was also employed on various har- bor improvements until the war with Mexico called him to active service. He superintend- ed the construction of the defenses of Tampico, and surveyed the battle-fields about the city of Mexico. For his " meritorious conduct while serving in the enemy's country," he was bre- vetted major on May 30, 1848. Two years after he was appointed chief of a scientific commission to survey the Isthmus of Tehuan- tepec, with a view to the construction of a rail- road across it. He was next employed in im- proving the mouths of the Mississippi River. He was superintendent of the United States Military Academy from 1855 to 1856, and then was in charge of the fortifications of New York Harbor. At the outbreak of the war General Barnard served as chief-engineer of the Department of Washington from April to July, 1861, and then as chief-engineer to General McDowell in the first Bull Run campaign. Next, with the rank of brigadier-general, he acted as chief- engineer to the Army of the Potomac in the Virginia peninsular campaign of 1862. When the Confederate army invaded Eastern Vir- ginia, he was appointed chief-engineer of the defenses of Washington, D. 0. In January, 1864, he was appointed chief-engineer, and was on the staff of General Grant in the Richmond campaign. At the end of the war he was made brevet major-general, United States Army, " for gallant and meritorious services in the field," and soon promoted colonel in the Corps of Engineers. The President nominated him, on the death of General Totten, to suc- ceed the latter as brigadier-general and chief of engineers in April, 1864; but, at General Barnard's request, the nomination was with- drawn before the Senate had taken any action on it. He was made a member of the Joint Board of Army and Navy Officers on Harbor Defenses, Torpedoes, etc., and served as senior member of the Board of Engineers for Per- VOL. xxii.— 5 A manent Fortifications, and also as a member of the United States Light-house Board. General Barnard was not only a brave soldier, but an eminent scientist and author. He wrote a number of valuable works, among which are : " Survey of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec," 1852 ; " Phenomena of the Gyroscope," 1858 ; " Dangers and Defenses of New York," 1859 ; " Notes on Sea-coast Defense," 1861 ; " The Confederate States of America and the Battle of Bull Run," 1862 ; " Reports of the Engineer and Artillery Operations of the Army of the Potomac," 1863; "Eulogy on General Tot- ten," 1866 ; and many scientific and military memoirs and reports. The University of Ala- bama conferred on him the degree of A. M. in 1838, and in 1864 he was made LL. D. of Yale College. He was also a corporator of the National Academy of Sciences. BEER. According to recent statistics, the total annual production of beer is, in round numbers, 3,675,000,000 gallons. The countries producing the greatest amount of beer are as follows : COUNTRIES. Gallon«. Per cent of the total production. Great Britain . . . 1,286,000 000 85'0 Germany 99T 500 000 27-0 United States 898,750,000 11-0 815 000 000 8'5 France 210 000 000 5-7 Belgium . . . 196,900,000 5-0 Russia (in Europe) 105,000,000 2'8 Netherlands 52,500.000 1-4 52 500 000 1'4 Sweden 89 000 000 1*0 The greatest amount of beer consumed per head of population is in Bavaria and Wiirtem- berg; then come England, Belgium, Saxony, Austria, United States. In Austro-Hungary the beer-tax amounted to $10,000,000 in 1881, and in Germany to $4,500,000. A new beer-tax went into operation in Great Britain on October 1, 1880. While the tax was formerly imposed on the amount of the grain used, it is now estimated on the specific gravity of the unfermented beer, called wort, in such a manner that a tax of 6s. 3d. is im- posed on every barrel of thirty-six gallons, of a specific gravity of 10'57. Heavier or lighter beers are to be taxed more or less pro rata. Besides this tax, every brewer must pay £1 per annum for a license. Brewers are per- mitted to use any materials they see fit. On beer which is exported the tax is remitted. The brewing for private use is not taxed, pro- vided the annual rent of such private brewer, or its estimated value, does not exceed £15. Beer brewed under this condition can not be sold. The only charge put on a private brew- er is an annual license-fee of 6*. The report for the first year of the new tax, from Octo- ber 1, 1880, to September 30, 1881, showed that there were 17,110 brewers in the United Kingdom, who paid taxes to the amount of £8,498,044, 2*. 5d. It appeared from the re- 66 BELGIUM. port that the large breweries which paid the highest taxes also paid much more in propor- tion than the smaller establishments. Another interesting fact was that the number of private brewers had increased beyond all expectation, the Chancellor of the Exchequer stating the amount received in fees from this source dur- ing the fiscal year, 1881 to 1882, at £46,000. The total number of breweries on September 30, 1880, and the number doing business dur- ing the year 1880-'81, were as follows : BREWERIES. Number Number on Sept. during 30, 1880. 1880-'81. Breweries producing less than 1,000 barrels 1,000 to 10,000 " 16,770 1,768 14,948 1,677 M 10,000 20,000 " 272 275 •• 20,000 80,000 " 96 88 ** 80,000 50,000 " 69 68 " 50,000 100,000 " 88 82 »' 100,000 150,000 " 7 7 " 150,000 200,000 " 7 7 '» 200,000 250,000 " 2 2 *' 250,000 800,000 " 3 *• 300,000 350,000 « 1 it 350,000 400,000 " ^ 'i *fc 400,000 450,000 " g 8 U 450,000 500,000 500,000 »' 600,000 " 1 1 1 " 750,000 800,000 " 1 »' 800,000 850,000 " 'i k* 900,000 950,000 " i " 950,000 1,000,000 » 'i " 1,000,000 1,050,000 « l 'i 2,183 Total . . 21,228 17,110 The general result of the new tax, according to these figures, seems to be a closing of the smaller breweries; for, if the 2,183 beginners of the year 1880 are added to those producing less than 1,000 barrels, a total of 18,953 results, which number was reduced to 14,948 in the first year under the new tax, showing a de- crease of 4,005. The total amount of the beer- tax, inclusive of licenses, during the fiscal year ending March 31, 1882, was £8,500,000, while in the last fiscal year, under the old tax, which ended on March 31, 1880, the total beer- tax amounted to £7,727,000, showing a surplus of £853,000. BELGIUM. The census of December 31, 1880, makes the total population of Belgium 5,519,844. The mean density of population is 187 inhabitants per square kilometre. The kingdom is divided into 41 administrative ar- rondissements and 2,583 communes. The pop- ulation of the different provinces is as fol- lows: PROVINCES. Population. Per square kilometre. Antwerp . 577 282 204 Brabant 985274 800 West Flanders . . . 691 764 214 East Flanders. . 881 816 294 Hainault 977 562 262 Liege 664 606 230 Limburg Luxemburg 210^851 209 118 87 47 Namur 822 620 88 Total 5,519,844 187 The population of Belgium at former censuses was 5,087,826 in 1870, 4,731,957 in 1860, 4,426,- 202 in 1850, and 4,073,162 in 1840. In 1870 the province of Antwerp had 492,482 inhabitants ; Brabant, 879,814; West Flanders, 668,976; East Flanders, 837,726; Hainault, 897,006; Liege, 592,177; Limburg, 200,336 ; Luxemburg, 205,784; and Namur, 313,525. The population has increased most in the arrondissements of Oharleroi (160 per cent), Brussels (91 per cent), Antwerp (89 per cent), Liege (82 per cent), Verviers (63 per cent), and Mons (49 per cent) ; it remained nearly stationary in those of Bruges, Fumes, Ypres, Courtrai, and Tournai, and di- minished in those of Audenarde, Thielt, and Ath. AREA. — The total area of the kingdom is 2,- 945,516 hectares, about 11,373 square miles. The number of agricultural holdings has in- creased from 5,720,976 in 1845 to 6,472,845 in 1880. Their average size is a little over an acre. OCCUPATIONS. — The statistics of occupations show that 773,698 persons are employed in agricultural pursuits : 267,940 in the clothing trades, 185,658 in textile manufacture, 139,612 in domestic service, 131,311 in the building trades, 110,139 in food manufactures, and 83,- 363 in the coal and iron industry. There are 8,146 in the employment of the Government, 18,196 religious, and 50,804 landlords and cap- italists. Of the population above the age of seven years, 58 per cent know how to read and write ; above the age of thirty -five, the propor- tion is 49 per cent, and below the age of four- teen it is 72 per cent. In 1866, 32 per cent of the population was married. In 1840 there was one divorce to every 1,175 marriages ; in 1865, one to every 739 ; and in 1880, one to ev- ery 182. The excess of births over deaths was 33 per cent in 1840, 28 per cent in 1865, and 39 per cent in 1880. The percentage of illegiti- mate births was 8 per cent in 1880, an increase of 2 per cent since 1840. CHAMBEBS. — The representation in the Cham- ber of Deputies was increased by six, and in the Senate by three seats, by a law introduced by the Government to give effect to the pro- visions of the Constitution requiring one dep- uty to be chosen to every 40,000 inhabitants, and half as many senators as there are dep- uties. The present numbers are 138 and 69. A new oath has been adopted in criminal pro- cedure which runs as follows: "I swear be- fore God and man to speak without hate or fear, and tell the whole truth and nothing but the truth." Whoever declares that he has con- scientious scruples against swearing can use the formula, " I solemnly promise to speak," etc. POLITICAL QUESTIONS. — Political activity in Belgium is confined to the protracted conflict over education, and the rights and status of the Roman Catholic clergy in the state. In the elections in June the Liberals gained a slight advantage, increasing their majority in the Lower Chamber from fourteen to sixteen, while BLANC, JEAN J. L. 67 in the Senate they have a majority of seven instead of four. The latest programme of the Clerical party embraces among other points the abolition of the Ministry of Instruction, and the solution of the educational question by the introduction of the English voluntary sys- tem. The continual deficit in the public ac- counts will disappear with the contraction of the state school establishment. The Clericals propose, when they come into power, to extend the electoral franchise, and to secure the self- government of the provinces and the com- munes which is threatened under the Liberal regime of Frere Orban, the present President of the Council. The diplomatic relations with the Papal court would naturally be speedily resumed. LEGISLATION. — Dissension arose among the Liberals over the question of the property qualification for suffrage, which is the payment of forty francs in taxes. The Clericals de- manded a reassessment, which would increase the number of rural voters, which was ac- corded. A portion of the Liberal party pro- posed instead the amendment of the Constitu- tion and the substitution of an educational test. An extradition treaty has been concluded with the United States, in which for the first time in euch an instrument the attempted as- sassination of a ruler is made an extraditable offense. Sainctelette, the Minister of Public Works, who retired in July, on account of his health, introduced the practice of employing women in the railroad, postal, and telegraph services. The innovation found many indignant oppo- nents, but his successor, Olin, is determined to make it successful. FINANCES. — The Chambers have authorized various loans, amounting in all to 209,015,124 francs, at three per cent interest. Rothschilds and Belgian banking-houses took 133,000,000 francs at 82 per cent of the par value. The budget for 1883 places the revenues at 300,- 153,390 francs, 3,505,681 francs more than the expenditures authorized for 1882 ; and the expenditures at 312,566,885 francs — that is, 12,413,495 francs more than the revenues. Among the items are 104,433,556 francs for public works, 88,805,919 francs for interest on the public debt, 44,727,300 francs for army and navy, 20,474,734 francs for public instruc- tion, 16,051,411 francs for the administration of justice, 15,649,980 francs for the depart- ment of finances, 10,090,580 francs for inter- nal administration, 3,496,900 francs for the gendarmery, and 2,335,830 francs for the for- eign department. BLANC, JEAN JOSEPH Louis, French states- man, historian, and socialistic theorist, died De- cember 6th, at Cannes. He was born at Mad- rid, October 28, 1813. His father was finan- cial overseer under King Joseph, his mother a Spanish lady of earnest temperament, belong- ing to the family of Pozzo di Borgo, whose hostility to Napoleon she shared. The family were ruined in fortune by the Revolution of 1830. Louis was recalled from his studies to Paris and became a clerk in a lawyer's office. In 1832 he became tutor in a family residing in Arras. Returning to the capital in 1834, he entered upon a journalistic career, contribut- ing to journals of radical tendencies, like "Le Bon Sens," the " Revue Republicaine," which was suppressed in 1835 by Thiers, and the "Nouvelle Minerve." He was editor of the first periodical from 1836 to 1838, and left it because the proprietors objected to his writing in favor of the nationalization of the railroads. He established "La Revue du Progres," in which he advocated 'socialistic ideas, and pro- posed the organization of a league of demo- cratic associations. He was waylaid by masked men, who beat him and left him for dead, short- ly after the appearance of an article in praise of Bonapartist liberalism. It was popularly be- lieved that the police were concerned in the outrage. The notion that he was a martyr for his opinions greatly extended the influence of Louis Blanc, whose admirable style and origi- nality of thought had already won him many readers. After his recovery he wrote his essays on " The Organization of Labor." In these not only the doctrines of French communism were unfolded in a more convincing and capti- vating form than previously, but a practical scheme for their accomplishment was presented which has remained to this day the goal of French socialism. They were issued in book form in 1841, in which year was published also the " History of Ten Years," a work which greatly added to his literary reputation and raised him to the position of a popular leader of the revolutionary movement against the monarchy of July. This political tract, which summed up the sins of the reign of Louis Phi- lippe and the hopes of the French democracy, helped to precipitate the Revolution of 1848, When the revolution came, Louis Blanc, who was looked upon by the working-men as their prophet, was made a member of the Provision- al Government. He secured the adoption of a law abolishing the death-penalty for political offenses, but when he enunciated some of his revolutionary projects they were received so coldly that he resigned, but resumed his posi- tion in the Provisional Government when the opportunity of carrying out the experiment of the organization of labor was offered him as a bait to the masses who were ripe for a social revolution. He called together the Labor Com- mission, of which he was appointed president, in the Luxembourg Palace, and invited before it masters and laborers. When the working- men of Paris saw the delusive character of the revolution, they called upon Louis Blanc to as- sume the dictatorship. By declining, he lost his power over them. He was elected a member of the National Assembly. He brought for- ward the law repealing the sentence of exile against the Bonaparte family. After the Po- 68 BORNEO, NORTH. land demonstration he was accused of plotting it, and after the June insurrection the charge was revived, and the Assembly voted to pro- scribe him. He fled to England, where he lived in exile until 1870. He corresponded with French newspapers, and continued his " History of the French Revolution," the first volumes of which had appeared before the February Revolution, during his long banish- ment. In 1865 he married Christina Groh, an accomplished Englishwoman. His " Letters on England " were collected and published. He wrote "Historical Revelations" to correct Lord Normanby's account of the Revolution of 1848. After his return to France, Louis Blanc was no longer the extremist who pro- posed to reform society in 1848. He was elect- ed a member of the National Assembly in Feb- ruary, 1871. The socialists looked to him for a leader, but when he became a follower of Thiers his political influence was gone, but not the reverence with which the radicals regard- ed their teacher. Louis Blanc was an unimpressive orator, being a small man of juvenile appearance and a thin voice. In conversation he was enter- taining, and mild and agreeable in manners. It is reported that when his attempted assas- sination occurred, on August 15, 1839, his younger brother, who became distinguished as an art critic (see OBITUARIES), had a vivid pre- sentiment of the scene, an incident on which Dumas founded the play of "The Corsican Brothers." BORNEO, NORTH. Borneo, the largest isl- and in the world after Australia, is one of the Malay Archipelago, and lies under the equator, with the 114th meridian of eastern longitude passing through its center. The northeast cor- ner of the island, a tract about 18,000 square miles in area, with a coast-line of about 500 miles, and containing two natural harbors equal to any in the world, has been brought practically under the dominion of the British crown by the intermediation of a commercial company called the British North Borneo Com- pany. Spain has long laid claim to the sovereignty of this portion of Borneo, together with the islands of the Sooloo Archipelago. In 1836 the Sul- tan of Sooloo made his submission to the Span- ish crown by a treaty. By another act, signed in 1851, he acknowledged all his territories to be integral parts of the Spanish dominions. In 1849 Sir James Brooke attempted to conclude a treaty with the Sultan, but in deference to the Spanish protests it was never ratified. In 1870 the Sultan of Sooloo rebelled, and a des- ultory war was carded on until 1877, during which Spain declared a blockade and stopped some German and British vessels. A diplo- matic dispute ensued, which ended in the sig- nature of a protocol waiving the right to ob- struct commerce. The mooted question of sovereignty was purposely left unmentioned. In 1878 Spain reduced the rebellious vassal, and exacted a new declaration of allegiance, recognizing her sovereignty over the Sooloo Archipelago and its dependencies. This time the British Government saw fit to enter a pro- test against the Spanish protectorate. In the mean time, while the Sultan of Sooloo was in rebellion against his sovereign, Baron Overbeck, an Austrian, with financial means Provided by Alfred Dent, a tea-merchant of hanghai, had obtained from this potentate and the Sultan of Brunei a formal cession of sovereign and proprietary rights over all North Borneo. The agent of the adventurous British merchant had first bought out an American company which held a commercial concession from the Sultan of Brunei. He then acquired from the latter all his rights in the territory for the sum of $5,000. The ruler de facto, and, in virtue of grants from the Sultan of Brunei, de jure, was the Sultan of Sooloo. Overbeck went to him and received, six months before he capitulated to the Spaniards, the cession of all his domains in Borneo, in consideration of an annual payment of a few thousand dollars. The bestowal of exclusive privileges would be in violation of treaty rights secured to citizens of the United States. Accordingly, the Sultan of Brunei was called to account by the Ameri- can Government, and replied that Dent and Overbeck's cession was subject to the treaty stipulations. Dent applied to the British Government for a charter of incorporation in 1878. Lord Salis- bury, in objecting to the assertion of sover- eign rights in North Borneo by Spain, dis- claimed any intention to establish British rule in Borneo. The Government of the Nether- lands protested against the adoption of the acts of the company by the British Government, because a good portion of the territory lay within the boundaries of the Dutch dominions, and because a treaty, made in 1824, precluded England from assuming sovereign powers in these regions. The charter was granted by the succeeding Government in November, 1881. By the terms of the charter the company can not transfer the benefits of their grants without the sanction of the British Government. They are bound to discourage and, if practicable, abolish by de- grees the institution of slavery. The appoint- ment of the chief officer of the company in the island is made subject to the approval of the crown authorities. The cultivation and sale of opium are subjected to certain limitations. The authority transferred by the two Sultans to Dent and his associate, and vested by them in the joint-stock company, is of the most ab- solute and unlimited character. They were constituted the rulers of these wide domains, and proprietors of the soil, with the power of life and death over the 150,000 inhabitants, the rights to coin money, to levy an army, and to impose taxes and customs. They possess these sovereign rights under the titles of Maharajah of Sabah, or North Borneo, Rajah of Gaya BRAZIL. and Sandakan, and Datu Bandahara. The treaty gives them authority to acquire, by pur- chase or other means, other lands besides those ceded. The company took formal possession of the territory soon after receiving the grants in 1877. A deputy of each of the Sultans accom- panied the representative of the association on a voyage around the coast. In each of the six places at which they landed the chiefs and people were called together to listen to a proc- lamation announcing the grant, and enjoining them to obey the new authorities. The com- pany established factories at several points on the coast. The results of the new rule were salutary. Trade and production were stimu- lated, and piracy decreased rapidly. BRAZIL (IMPEEIO DO BRAZIL). (For de- tails relating to area, territorial divisions, popu- lation, etc., reference may be made to the " An- nual Cyclopaedia " for 1878.) The Emperor is Dom Pedro II, born Decem- ber 2, 1825 ; proclaimed April 7, 1831 ; regency until July 23, 1840 ; crowned July 18, 1841 ; married September 4, 1843, to Theresa Chris- tina Maria, daughter of the late King Francis I of the Two Sicilies. The Cabinet in 1882 was composed of the following Ministers: President of the Coun- cil and Minister of Finance, Councilor A. S. C. Martinho ; Interior, Councilor R. E. S. Dantas ; Justice, Councilor M. S. Mafra; Foreign Affairs, Councilor F. F. De Sa ; Navy, Councilor A. C. De Rocha ; War, Councilor A. A. M. Penna ; Public Works, Commerce, and Agriculture, Councilor M. A. De Aranjo. The Council of State was composed of the following members in ordinary : The Princess Imperial, Donna Isabel; Prince G-aston d'Or- 16ans, Count d'Eu; the Senators Viscount de Abaete, Viscount de Muritiba, Viscount de Bom Retiro; Viscount de Jaguary; Viscount de Nictheroy, Viscount J. J. Teixeira, Vice- Admiral J. R. de Lamare, and Dr. P. J. de Soares de Souza ; and of members extraordi- nary : Senator Viscount de Paranagua, Senator M. P. S. Dantas, Councilor Martin Francisco, Viscount de Prados, and Councilor J. C. de Andrade. The President of the Senate, which com- prises 58 members elected for life, was Baron de Cotegipe, and the Vice-President, Count de Baependy. The President of the Chamber of Deputies, with 122 members elected for four years, was Councilor J. F. de Moura; and the Vice-President, J. L. Lima Duarte. The Presidents of the several provinces were as follow : Alagoas, Dr. J. R. Torres : Amazonas, Dr. J. L. da Cunha Paranagua; Bahia, Councilor Pedro Luiz P. da Souza ; Ceara, Dr. S. B. Pi- mentel; Espirito Santo, Dr. H. M. Inglez de Sousa ; G-oyaz, Dr. C. P. de Magalhaes ; Maran- hao, Dr. J. M. de Freitas ; Matto-Grosso, Colo- nel J. M. de Alencastro ; Minas-Geraes, Th. Oltoni ; Para, Dr. J. R. Chaves ; Parahyba, Dr. M. Ventura B. ; Parana, Dr. C. A. de Car- valho ; Pernambuco, Councilor J. L. Barroyo ; Piauhy, Dr. M. J. A. Castro ; Rio Grande do Norte, Dr. F. G. C. Barreto ; Rio de Janeiro, Dr. B. A. Gaviao P. ; Santa Catharina, Dr. E. F. L. Santos ; Sao Paulo, Councilor F. C. S. Bran- dao ; Sao Pedro do Sul, Dr. J. L. Godoy V. ; Sergipe, Dr. J. A. do Nascimento. The Archbishop of Bahia, the Right Rev. L. A. dos Santos (1880), is Primate of all Brazil ; and there are eleven bishops: those of Para, Sao Luiz, Fortaleza, Olinda, Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo, Porto Alegre, Marianna, Diaman- tina, Goyaz, and Cuyaba. ARMY. — Pursuant to the law of February 27, 1875, military service is obligatory for Brazilian subjects, while admitting numerous exemptions and substitutions. The period of service in the regular army is six years, and in the reserve three years. The strength in time of peace is 13,000 ; the army counted, in 1882, 1,743 officers and 11,368 men; the regulation war strength was to be fixed at 32,000. NAVY. — The navy, in 1882, consisted of ten iron- and steel-clads, one steam-frigate, seven steam-corvettes, sixteen steam-gunboats, and five steam-transports, one sailing-corvette, and two sail -avisos, together forty -two vessels; manned by 3,567 men, carrying altogether 166 guns, and having a joint horse-power of 8,660 ; building, two iron- and steel-clads and one gun- boat. The personnel of the navy was composed of 15 superior officers, 412 officers of the first class, 73 men forming the sanitary corps, 92 pursers, 50 guardians, and 184 machinists. Im- perial Marine Corps, 2,698 men; Naval Battal- ion, 214 men; apprentices, 997; total, 4,735 men. FINANCES. — The actual revenue of the em- pire during the fiscal year 1878-'79, according to the accounts rendered in 1882, has been 116,- 460,981 milreis, while the expenditure proves to have been 181,468,557. The budget estimate for 1882-'83 is set forth as follows : Milreis. . . 123,283,000 1,200,000 3,000,000 Total 127,4S3~000 OUTLAY. Milreii. Ministry of the Interior 9,332,418 " Justice 6,T6T,000 Foreign Affairs 919,906 " War 14,436,076 Navy 10,695,296 Agriculture and Commerce 28,238,506 " Finance 61,944,916 Total 127,234,118 The expenditure authorized to be made dur- ing the fiscal year 1883-'84 runs up 129,823,- 825 milreis, and differs little in the various items from those above given. In the mean time the Government has placed on the London market a 4£ per cent loan for £4,000,000, through the Messrs. Rothschild, which was placed at 89. INCOME Ordinary and extraordinary revenue . . . Emancipation fund Deposits 70 BRAZIL. The national debt stood, on March 31, 1882, as follows : Five per cent foreign indebtedness, payable in Milreis. gold 141,072,000 Internal debt, payable in paper money, and bear- ing 4 to 6 per cent interest 408,132,000 Floating debt : Milreis. Contracted prior to 1327 143,022 Orphan funds and deposits 51,622,116 Treasury bonds 28,894,700 Paper money issued by the state.. 138,110,973—268,770,811 Total 818,574,811 The assets of the Government, March 31, 1882, were: Uncollected taxes, 13,407,483; due to the state by railroads, 13,211,019 ; due to the state by the Argentine Republic, 15,796,- 301 ; and by Paraguay, 227,883 milreis. About the above national debt the "Diario Official," of Rio, remarks, under date of Decem- ber 9, 1882 : " Four hundred and seven million milreis of the above indebtedness arose from the Paraguayan War; 60,400,000 from state aid extended to our northern provinces during a series of years when the drought afflicted them ; and 130,885,000 milreis were spent on railroads and other public improvements." Since the law of September 28, 1871, the amount of money disbursed under its provis- ions from the Emancipation Fund has been 12,096,000 milreis, 8,683,859 of which since March 25, 1875. Further payments are to be made without delay, and thus the total avail- able fund of 24,000,000 milreis will soon be disbursed. This is calculated to allay the agi- tation about the slavery question which has ex- isted in Brazil in 1882. The Rio correspondent of the " Independ- ance " (Brussels) remarks : " Slavery has re- ceived a death-blow ; everybody tries to get rid of this shameful heritage of the past as fast as possible, so that hardly a day passes but one hears of numerous liberations of slaves. It is, however, necessary, at almost any cost, to pro- cure other hands to replace the emancipated. There is some European immigration, but it does not amount to much, though latterly rather in the ascendant. Hence, it is intended to introduce Chinese coolies, not as a perma- nent source of immigration, but as an element of transition that is to bridge over the gap be- tween the black field-laborer and the free Eu- ropean tiller of the soil. With this object before them, the coffee-planters of Rio de Janeiro and Sao Paulo have accepted the proposal made them by the ' China Merchants' Steam Naviga- tion Company ' of importing for them twenty- one thousand Chinese coolies within the ensu- ing three years. It will then be seen whether this importation will answer." M. Ad. de Fontpertuis, in his work just pub- lished in Paris, " Les Nations latines de 1' Ame- rique," remarks about Brazil that it may be divided into three great zones : that of the for- ests— distinguished by the production of cocoa, India-rubber, sarsaparilla, vanilla, a great va- riety of gums, nuts, and textile plants, many of the latter three yet unknown in manufacturing countries— thai of coffee, and that of cereals. The foreign-trade movement in Brazil, in- cluding the precious metals, is officially given to have been during the ensuing two fiscal years : Import!. Export.. 1878-79. .. Milreis. 162,392 400 Milreis. 206 453 000 1879-80 173,612,300 222'35l'700 The value of exports in contos de reis of 1,000 milreis was distributed as follows among the chief articles : ARTICLES. 18?8-'7». 18?»-'80. Coffee... 134 029 126 260 Cotton 4614 5 187 Sugar 28 874 81 334 Paraguay tea (Herva-Matte). Hides 3,'239 8855 2,'522 89SO Tobacco 8069 7661 India-rubber Diamonds 11,866 1831 12,243 1 007 COFFEE EXPORTATION FROM RIO. YEAR. To the United State.. To other countries. Total. 1857... 1858 1859.... I860.... 1861.... Bags. 1,077,030 1,377,050 1,408,812 1,408,845 907,293 Bags. 1,492,850 858,709 1,077,072 1,416,812 1,626,841 Bags* 2,570,480 2,230,759 2,485,384 2,825,151 2,533,534 Total. 6,178.530 6,466,784 12,645,314 1862... 1868.... 1864.... 1865 .... 1866.... 478,390 456,706 671,389 863,960 1,928,748 1,346,266 1,195,553 1,140,540 2,383,504 1,839,892 1,819,656 1.MS.259 1,811,929 3,197,464 3,268,635 Total. 4,394,188 7,855,755 11,749,943 1867. . . 1868.... 1869.... 1870.... 1871 .... 1,501,606 1,404,129 1,526.374 1,680,269 1,656,844 1,754,374 1,868,800 1,618,415 1,024,473 1,227,782 8,255,980 2,772,929 3.139,789 2.704,742 2,884,626 Total. 7,769,222 6,988,844 14,758,066 1872... 1873... 1874... 1875... 1876... 1,383,193 1,435,800 1,521,499 2,041,995 1,448,424 1,077,158 1,007,909 1,151,782 1,110,301 1,817,498 2,460.851 2,443,709 2,673,281 8,152,296 2,765,922 Total. 7,830.911 5,664,648 13,495,559 1877. . . 1878.... 1879. 1880... 1881.... 1,710,073 1,670,383 2,288,545 1,886,857 2,241,976 1,186,452 1,860,816 1,251,638 1,676,197 2,135,442 2,846,555 3,031,199 8,535,183 3,563,054 4,377,418 Total. 9,792,884 7,560,575 17,853,409 RECAPITULATION. •To other conn tries. 6.466,784 7,355,755 6,988,844 5,664,648 7,560,575 To the United Stale.. 6,178,530 4,394,188 7,769,222 7,830,911 9,792,834 85,965,685 The foregoing tables show that, out of the 70,002,291 bags shipped during the twenty- five years, the United States took more than one half. * One bag = sixty kilogrammes n«t. BRAZIL. 71 COFFEE SHIPMENTS FROM SANTOS. DESTINATION. 1878. 1874. 1875. 1876. 1877. 1878. 1879. 1880. 1881. 1888. To England and British Channel To Hamburg and Bremen To France, Belgium, and Hol- land Bag.. 37,445 78,714 22,912 Bags. 94,622 79,544 59,573 Bags. 101,293 76,420 50,356 Bag.. 22,230 124,449 74,348 Bag.. 50.103 169,631 90,883 Bags. 19.803 195,599 195,057 Bags. 65,937 127,062 173,658 Bags. 42,080 169,459 174,126 Bags. 92.385 193,482 278,203 Bags.* 111,222 219,327 839,538 To the Mediterranean and Lis- 7128 46,723 86,769 54,561 45,303 41,014 30,167 43,065 85 424 84 600 Total Europe 146,199 280,467 264,838 275,588 855,920 450,973 396,824 428,730 644,499 754,797 To the United States 61 940 46,074 92 521 27,310 37 737 114,726 140664 149 787 103 0:34 215 069 To Rio and coastwise 24,360 11,003 8,117 14,144 24,129 16,819 17 069 7,785 6 322 10 240 Grand total 232,499 337,544 365,476 317,042 417,786 588,518 554,557 586,252 753,855 980 100 Santos coffee being classified as a so-called "mild" coffee — i. e., pure-flavored — there is more competition for it, and the United States, as the above table exhibits, receive but a moderate proportion of the crop. GENERAL COFFEE CONSUMPTION IN LEADING COUNTRIES. COUNTRIES. 1855. 1878. Increase. United States Tons. 97490 Tons. 142 372 Tons. 44,882 France . 26700 54,120 27,420 Germany 61,230 99,364 88,184 Austria 18877 89876 20999 Belgium 20186 23079 2893 Total 224,483 858,811 134,328 ian produce has expanded most rapidly at Para, the port of the Amazon River. EXPORT OF LEADING PRODUCTS FROM PARA IN 1882. To the United States 19,486,737 Other countries 17,007,529 TO ALL QUARTERS, 1878-1882 (FIVE YEARS). YEAR. India-rubber. Cocoa. Brazil-nuts. 1S82. . Kilogrammes. 9,624,569 Kilogramme.. 6,298,673 Kilogrammes. 4,033,200 1881. . 1880. . 8,427,427 7,977,894 5,404,957 3,121,085 6,368,400 5,252,050 1879. . 7,605,589 5,129,339 1,750,087 1878. . 7,777,680 2,699,023 4,792,150 Total increase, 60 per cent. Since slavery was abolished in the southern States of the Union, the consumption of Rio coffee, in particular, has increased more rap- idly than ever in the United States, as the negroes prefer this strong coffee to any other. Next to Rio, the export movement in Brazil- VALUE IN MILREIS. YEAR. India-rubber. Cocoa. Brazil-nuts. 1882... 1881.... 1880.... 80,062,893 20,148,578 17,559,079 8,653,209 8,177,199 1,765,899 606,680 699,163 871,276 1879.... 14,768,930 4,637.061 272,152 1878.... 10,152,588 1,391,763 534,760 COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES WITH BRAZIL, FROM 1859 TO 1879, INCLUSIVE, FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30— EXPORTS. Total exports. Import*. Total imports and exports. Domestic. Foreign. 1859 $5,929,004 5,945,235 4,787,702 3,784,249 4,S14,2>>2 5,484,772 6,533,293 5,679,513 5,085,930 5,645,024 5,910,565 5,707,361 5,945,397 5,864,920 7,093,187 7,562.852 7,634,865 7,253,218 7,499,118 8,610,646 8,106,928 130,778,071 $327,972 335,020 285,515 84,745 185,879 102,368 95,889 105,991 164,421 197,859 158,514 110,485 143.757 121,004 106,735 142,968 110,494 94,162 83,695 76,058 87,442 $6,256,976 6,280,255 5,023,217 8,868,994 5,000,171 5,537,140 6,629,182 5,785,504 5,200,351 5,842,883 6,069,079 5,817,846 6,089,154 5,985,924 7,199,922 7,705,828 7,745,359 7,347,380 7,582,813 8,686,704 8,194,370 $22,439,842 21,214,803 18,100,456 12,787,898 10,945,476 14,441,617 9,849,359 16,831,423 19,132,951 23,682,885 24,912,450 25,175,959 80,560,648 30,134,249 88,558,028 43,911,815 42,033,046 45,453,173 43,498,041 42,972,036 89,385,638 $28,696,818 27,495,058 23,123,673 16,656,892 15,945,647 19,978,757 16,478,541 22,616,927 24,833,302 29,525,768 80,981,529 80,993,805 36,649,802 36,120,173 45,757,950 51,617,135 49,778,405 52,800,553 51,080.854 51,658,740 47,580,008 709,870,337 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866... 1867... 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876.. 1677... 1878..., 1879 Total 8,070,973 133,849,044 576,021,293 SUGAR IMPORTATION FROM BRAZIL INTO THE UNITED STATES — THIRTEEN FISCAL YEARS. Pounds. 1876 40,010,416 1877 74,327,436 1878 78,076.553 1879 63,880,355 1880 152,811,613 1881 231,453,342 1870 24,145,331 1871 21.558,500 1872 28,378,952 1873 55,669,036 1874 86,894,454 1875 70,878,273 | The table below exhibits the amount of cot- ton contributed to the world's supply by Bra- zil, as compared with other producing coun- tries, during half a century, giving the annual average of each quinquennial period, reduced to millions of pounds : * Of sixty kilogrammes net. BRAZIL. STATEMENT SHOWING THE PRODUCTION OF RAW COTTON, IN MILLIONS OF POUNDS, FJROM 1831 TO 1878, BY PERIODS OF FIVE YEAES. COUNTRIES OF PRODUCTION. 1831 to 1835. 1836 to 1840. 1841 to 1845. 1846 to 1850. 1851 to 1855. 1856 to I860. 1861 to 1865. 1866 to 1870. 1871 to 1875. 1876 to 1878. United States 405-9 585-7 816-3 964-2 1,254-7 1,633-7 531-7 1,108-6 1 682-3 2068*8 Brazil 80-6 25-3 18-9 28-8 27-1 27-7 86-2 99-9 108-8 '55-4 West Indies 9-5 13-4 9-4 6-3 6-3 7-2 14'6 33-2 42-3 16'2 East Indies 34-2 56-5 72-6 86-7 134-8 207-9 491-8 576 '5 538 '5 418"7 26-4 30-1 23-8 29-7 60-0 57-0 191-4 190'9 238'0 283 -2 Total 506-6 711 '0 941-0 1 HO'7 1,482-9 1 983-5 1 265-2 2 009 • 1 2 609 • 9 2 842 '3 IMPORTATION OF MERCHANDISE FROM BRAZIL INTO THE UNITED STATES, UNITED KINGDOM, AND FRANCE, AND EXPORT THEREOF FROM THE TRIES TO BRAZIL. LATTER THREE COTTN- 18T9. 1880. Import into the United States . . . United Kingdom. France Total $39,375,441 23,114,980 10,615,000 $51,970,090 25,601,051 15,766,161 $93,337,802 $73,105,421 Export from the United States. . . United Kingdom France $8,194,370 29,130,908 13,683,700 $8,605,346 82,516,620 18,648,488 $59,770,454 Total $51,008,978 The principal article of export from the United States to Brazil being flour, we give the particulars of shipments during thirteen fiscal years: YEARS. Barrels. 1869 384,134 1870 376,217 1871 1872 1873 455,673 408,648 1874 531,879 YEARS. Barrels. 1876 536,180 1877 432,209 1878 616,182 1879 717,377 1880 537,914 1881 677,702 1875 599,8821 An article produced in the province of Pa- rand, of great importance in its traffic with Montevideo, Buenos Ayr.es, and Valparaiso, is Paraguay tea (Herva-Matte), of which that province exported: DESTINATION. 1881. 1888. To Montevideo Tons. 8254 Tons. 3 878 To Buenos Ayres 7510 7 729 To Valparaiso. . 1 960 8 787 Total 12,724 15,889 So-called "central sugar-factories" (mines centrales) are rapidly being introduced through- out the sugar regions of Brazil, and promise to do as good service as they do in Cuba and the French West Indies and other cane-sugar pro- ducing countries. One such factory, in the province of Sao Paulo, we shall give some de- tails about by way of example. This factory, the Corapanhia Assucareira de Porto Feliz, be- gan operations on October 28, 1878, and de- clared a dividend for 1882 of Hi per cent. It produced last year (1882) : 5.729 bags of sugar, first quality ................... Ill 121 M**, 8econd quality ................ 8^600 third quality .................. 20,102 TWcasksof rum Milreis. Brought forward 178,918 Sugar-house expenses, including cartage and ordinary labor Salaries to experienced operatives (en- gineer, etc.) 12,180 Canes purchased 92,756 134,345 Net proceeds of 1882's operations. , Total. 178,918 44,573 The "Diario Official," of Rio de Janeiro, of March 15, 1883, contains some interesting notes relative to the development of cotton manufac- ture in the South American empire, which may prove of value to the manufacturers of cotton machinery in this country. Nowhere, it seems, can cotton be grown so advantageously as in Brazil. Even at the present low price the Brazilian cotton planters in some districts clear an annual net profit on their cotton of twenty per cent. Seventeen years ago cotton manu- facture was still in its infancy in Brazil, for there were then but nine mills, with 768 opera- tives employed therein, 14,875 spindles, and 385 mechanical looms. Total horse-power (steam) at the time, 36; water-power, ditto, 288; yards of tissue turned out, 3,944,600 ; twist made, 126 tons. Yalue of total production in 1866, 1,166,- 200 milreis. At present there are 45 cotton- mills. In the province of Eio de Janeiro there is the Santo Aleixo, founded in 1849 ; has 7,000 spindles, 160 looms, 130 operatives ; makes 1,800,000 yards tissues, and 14 tons twist; produces 400,000 milreis annually. Power, 50 horse, water. Brazil Industrial, 20,000 spindles, 450 looms, 560 horse-power, water ; 400 operatives ; prod- ucts, 3,800,000 yards. Sao Pedro de Alcantara, at Petropolis, in 1874, with a capital of 150,000 milreis, 50 horse-power, water. Consumed the past seven years altogether 30,479 bales of cotton; 130 operatives. Has dyeing department, dyeing 200 arrobes of twist per day. Production, 1,200,000 yards. Fabrica Petropolitana, also near Petropolis ; founded in 1874, with a cash capital of 540,- 000 milreis; 120 horse-power, water; 5,600 spindles and 108 mechanical looms; 200 oper- atives, drawing salary as to age, $1 to $9. Con- sumes 500 tons Pernambuco cotton. Turns out 1,500,000 yards annually. The greatest amount of raw cotton exported in any one year from Brazil was reached in 1872, when 78,517 tons were shipped, amount- ing to 46,445,928 milreis. Now Brazil con- sumes a great portion of its crop. BULGAEIA. BULGARIA, a principality of Eastern Eu- rope created by the Treaty of Berlin, signed July 13, 1878, out of a portion of the Chris- tian provinces of Turkey which by rising in rebellion provoked the intercession of Russia and the Turkish War. It lies between Rouma- nia on the north and the autonomous Turkish province of Eastern Roumelia, with Servia on the west, and the Black Sea as its eastern boundary. The estimated area is 24,360 square miles ; the population, according to a census taken January 1, 1881, is 1,995,701. It was re- divided in August, by a decree of the Council of State, into fourteen instead of fifty -six ad- ministrative circuits: Sophia, Tirnova, Shum- la, Varna, Vracan, Kustendje, Russen, Ras- grad, Lorn, Silistria, "Widin, Sevlje, Sistova, and Plevna. The inhabitants are industrious agri- culturists. They are adherents of the Greek Church, and speak the Servian tongue. The reigning sovereign is Prince Alexander Batten- berg, a grand-nephew of the Emperor of Ger- many and cousin-german of the Emperor of Russia, who assumed the government, June 28, 1879. The principality pays an annual trib- ute to Turkey. Since its deliverance it has been administered virtually as a Russian de- pendency. SUSPENSION OF THE CONSTITUTION. — The at- tachment of the people to Russia has waned since their independence. Panslavism, as taught to them by its Russian apostles, signified the revival of ancient Slavic freedom as well as the union of Slavic peoples under one government. The Bulgarians received from the Panslavic founders of the principality a constitution on the Western model, which, if not Slavic, was very liberal. The activity of parties, the rival- ries of politicians, the spread of the extreme theories of Slavic equality forbidden as Nihil- ism in Russia, and the agitation for the Great Bulgaria of the Treaty of San Stefano, to be formed by union with Eastern Roumelia, which would be as inopportune to the Russian Gov- ernment now struggling for the autocratic prin- ciple as distasteful to Austria, led Prince Bat- tenberg, with the sanction of his Russian pro- tector, $0 abolish the Constitution by a coup d'etat (see "Annual Cyclopaedia " for 1881). A Grand National Assembly, convened for the purpose, invested him with autocratic powers for seven years by a vote taken July 13, 1881. EVENTS OF THE YEAR. — The Conservatives, who had supported the Prince, and the Mod- erates as well as the Radicals, whose ministry he had dismissed, were scandalized at the methods by which he and the Russian military officers had manipulated the elections. The Conservative party were alienated by the ap- pointment of foreigners and men outside of politics in the new Cabinet. A revolutionary agitation was raised, but the people and their intellectual leaders in Bulgaria and Eastern Roumelia were disposed to wait and see if the Prince would introduce the promised economy and reform in the administration, and govern better than the politicians, who had pleased the people at !large scarcely better than they had the Prince. When months went by without any developments besides the suppression of newspapers, the imprisonment of statesmen, and the rigorous supervision of the school- teachers, popular dissatisfaction revived and took the form of an organized agitation for the restoration of constitutional government, in which both the political parties joined. Depu- tations and petitions poured in from all parts of the country, until the Prince refused to re- ceive any more, on the pretext that he had been deceived by fraudulent deputations. The Bul- garians, who are simple in their habits and fond of money, were particularly distrustful because there was a heavy deficit instead of a large sur- plus under the new administration, and because the Prince showed a tendency to lavish ex- penditure by commencing a $500,000 palace and assuming airs of royalty. The new offi- cials offended the people by their arrogance and formalism. The taxes, instead of being reduced, were increased by a land-tax, levied in addition to the tithes. The Prince in his perplexities leaned more and more upon the Russian Government. The first ministry, which was suspected of Austrian sympathies, was replaced by creatures of the Russian court. The exploitation of the country, by Russian commercial speculators became one of the causes of popular dissatisfaction. The Prince had great difficulty in getting together the Council of State with which he proposed to re- form the Government. Before it began to work the country had reached the verge of revolution, and talked of deposing the reforming Prince. In May he visited St. Petersburg to take coun- sel with his imperial patron. Martial law was proclaimed throughout the country. The agitation was fostered by the intriguing agent- general of the Russian Government, Hitrovo, who the year before had managed the coup d'etat. This Russian, De Blignieres, was finally recalled. Under the directions of the Russian Foreign Office, Prince Battenberg issued orders for the election of a new National Assembly, not, however, with constitutional powers, but without control over the ministry, and even without freedom of debate. The Council of State, which was formed after searching six months for suitable and willing members, had passed several measures, chief of which were the repartition of the country into administra- tive districts, and the commutation of the tithes into a land-tax. The elections to the fictitious National Assembly took place in the autumn. The militia controlled the balloting, as they did in the plebiscite of the previous year. Care was taken that none of the active oppo- nents of the Prince should appear upon the scene, although an entirely subservient Assem- bly could not be collected, since discontent is universal. Zancoff, one of the Liberal leaders, was cast into prison. POLITICAL SITUATION. — The Prince, who is 74 CALIFORNIA. a German in education and character, and a scion of the Hohenzollern family, formerly ex- hibited German tendencies, but he has become the submissive vassal of the Czar. "When in- vited to the throne ho was wittily advised by Prince Bismarck to accept, because his reign would be a " pleasant reminiscence." His not ill-intended attempt to govern the independ- ent Bulgarians as he would a German regiment has brought him into a position where the bayonets of the militia, officered by Russians, are ah1 that prevent his people from driving him out of the country, and where a word from the Russian Foreign Office, which may be spoken at any time, would deprive him of his crown. C CALIFORNIA. The State officers during the year were as follows: Governor, George C. Perkins (Republican) ; Lieutenant-Govern- or, John Mansfield ; Secretary of State, Dan- iel M. Burns ; Treasurer, John Weil ; Comptrol- ler, D. M. Kenfield ; Superintendent of Public Instruction, F. M. Campbell; Attorney-Gen- eral, Augustus L. Hart ; Surveyor-General, J. W. Shanklin ; State Librarian, R. O. Cravens. The Supreme Court was constituted as follows: Chief -Justice, Robert F. Morrison; Associate Justices, M. H. Myrick, G. W. McKinstry, G. W. Ross, J. D. Thornton, J. R. Sharpstein, and S. B. McKee. STATISTICS. — The State tax levy, as fixed by the State Board of Equalization for 1882, is based upon a property valuation of $582,158,- 981, or $51,420,696 less than that of 1881, which was $633,579,677. For 1882 the tax rate was 59 '6 cents on each $100 of assessed valuation. This was divided for the funds as follows : For the general fund, 27'8 cents; for the schools, 24*3 cents ; and for the interest and sinking fund, 7*5 cents. The tax levy for 1881 was 65-5 cents. According to the report of the State Comp- troller, dated February 18th, the securities held in trust for the school fund by the State Treasurer consisted of bonds of the State of California, amounting to $1,737,500, together with bonds of different counties of the State, aggregating $251,900. The money in the State Treasury belonging to the State school fund, subject to apportion- ment, was $1,483,413, as follows: Balance unapportioned August 18, 1981 Amount received from the following sources since last apportionment : From property-tax 1,215,408 05 From poll-tax 157,311 45 From interest on State school-lands 42,590 71 From interest on bonds held in trust 68,102 83 Total $1,483,474 00 Less amount refunded to Sun Joaqmin County for an overpayment of interest 81 00 Total amount subject to apportionment. . . .$1,483,413 00 This was apportioned among the counties according to the number of children therein between the ages of five and seventeen years, which for the whole State was 211,237. The California wheat-crop of 1882 has been esti- mated at 29,590,500 centals, as against 34,150,- 000 centals for 1880 and 19,801,000 centals in 1879. The surplus for export will be abont 1,111,315 tons, which will require over 550 ships of 2,000 tons each to carry away. This, at $35 per ton, would amount to nearly $39,- 000,000. A comparison of the statistics at hand for the last five years — 1877 to 1881, inclusive — shows the following values of the agricultural and mining products and exports of California for that period : Wheat— value of exports $90,806,856 Flour— value of exports 14,178,898 Barley— value of exports by sea 2,126,582 Total for five years $107,111,336 Precious metals— product $91,582,995 Quicksilver— value of product 10,987.632 Coal— value of product 4,464,662 Total for five years $107,035,289 In the above statement the values of the wheat, flour, and barley consumed in the State are not noted, as there are no accurate data by which to estimate them. The wheat and barley used for seed purposes form, of course, no element in such a comparison. The merchandise and produce exports from San Francisco by sea during the twelve months ending December 31, 1881, were as follows: 1881. Great Britain $28,719,868 New York ... 5,434,123 Hawaiian Islands 2,636,995 Mexico 2,515,382 Belgium 2,414,420 Germany '. 90,774 Australia 816,646 New Zealand 185,980 New Bedford 100,600 France 1,977,091 Central America 739,705 Cape Town 127,414 British Columbia 1,180,643 China and Hong-Kong. Japan Panama South America Cape de Verd Islands . . Society Islands East Indies Islands in the Pacific... Eussian Asia 5,229,284 96,749 84,799 877,791 19,804 46,684 120,445 Total $53,546,196 The total value for 1880 was $34,686,759, for 1879 the value was $36,941,668, and $33,993,- 551 for 1878. The number of through passengers by the Central and Southern Pacific Railroads was as CALIFORNIA. follows in the first eleven months of the given years : YEARS. Arrived. Departed. Gain. 1881 42,818 28,889 13,929 1880 31,915 28,455 8,4«0 1879 33,953 23,25T 10,696 YEARS. Arrived. Departed. Gain. 1881— By rail 42 818 28,889 13,929 By sea 25,818 12,114 13,704 Totals 68636 41 003 27,633 1880 44470 89,943 4,527 1879 45871 86,255 9,616 The arrivals and departures by rail and sea in the given eleven months are shown in the next column : The population of the State by counties and race, according to the census of 1880, is given in the following table : COUNTIES. POPULATION. COUNTIES. POPULATION. Aggregate. White. Chinese. Aggregate. White. Chinese. Alameda 62,976 539 11,384 18.721 9,094 13,118 12,525 2,584 10,633 9,478 15,512 2,923 5,601 6,596 8,340 33,3St 11,324 4,839 12,800 5,656 4,399 7,499 11,302 13,235 20,823 14,232 57,785 521 9,924 14,270 7.832 11,698 11,712 1,731 8,869 7,891 13,313 2,197 4,563 5,339 2,953 31,707 9,791 3,395 11,185 5,015 8,955 7,082 10,643 12,160 17,567 11,832 4.402 17 1,115 3,793 1,037 970 733 434 1,489 753 241 90 T02 469 50 1,170 1,334 697 346 575 IT 363 872 907 8,005 2,190 6,180 84,390 5,584 7,786 8,618 232,959 24,349 9,142 8,669 9,513 35,039 12,802 9,492 6,628 8,610 18,475 25,926 8,751 5,159 9,301 4,999 11,281 7,848 5,073 11,772 11,284 4,761 28,923 5,255 6,988 6,674 210,496 21,990 8,783 8,031 9,135 82,110 12,085 7,066 6,337 6,461 17,887 24,623 8,186 4,815 8,218 2,780 10,757 6,612 4,849 11,015 8,824 872 4,893 242 123 229 21.790 1,997 183 596 227 2,695 523 1,335 1,252 1,568 995 904 518 266 774 1,951 326 805 129 608 2,146 75,2181° Alpine Sacramento San Benito6 San Bernardino Butte ' San Diego San Francisco San Joaquin Del Norte San Luis Obispo San Mateo El Dorado Santa Barbara 7 Humboldt 1 Santa Clara Santa Cruz Shasta Lakes Sierra Siskiyou 8 Solano Marin Sonoma Mariposa Stanislaus Sutler Merced Tehama Modoc3 Trinity Tulare Napa5 Ventura 9 Nevada Yolo Placer The State Yuba 864,694 767,181 1 In 1874, part from Klamath. 2 In 1872, part to Napa. 3 In 1874, from part of Siskiyou. •* In 1874, part to San Benito 6 In 1872, part from Lake. Included in the aggregate are 6,018 colored persons and 16,277 Indians; 518,196 were males and 346,518 females, 571,820 natives and 292,874 of foreign birth. The number of persons ten years of age and upward, unable to read, was 48,583, or 7*1 per cent ; unable to write, 53,430, or 7'8 per cent, of whom 7,660 were native whites and 27^340 colored (including Chinese and Indians). There were living in the United States 355,- 157 natives of California. There were 262,583 white males twenty-one years of age and over in the State (135,209 of native and 127,374 of foreign birth), and 66,809 colored, including Chinese and Indians. On farms there were 237,710 horses, 28,343 mules and asses, 210,078 milch-cows, 2,288 working-oxen, 451,941 other cattle, 4,152,349 sheep, and 603,550 swine. The number of manufacturing establishments was 5,885 ; cap- ital, $61,243,784; hands employed, 43,799; value of materials used, $72,607,709 ; of prod- ucts, $116,227,973. The yield of barley, according to the census, was 12,579,561 bushels (more than any other State, and more than a quarter of the entire 8 In 1874, from part of Monterey. 7 In 1871, part to Ventura. 8 In 1874, part to Modoc, and part from Klamath. 9 In 1871, from part of Santa Barbara; in 1873, organized. 10 Including 86 Japanese. product of the country); of corn, 1,993,325; of oats, 1,341,271; of wheat, 29,017,707. THE DEBRIS QUESTION. — Great interest was felt throughout the State in the case of the People of the State of California against the Gold Run Ditch and Mining Company, which for fifty-eight days was on trial before Judge Jackson Temple in the Superior Court, Sacra- mento County. The defendant is a corporation organized for the purpose of mining by the hydraulic process and selling water to miners and others, and possessing certain mines and mineral land adjacent to the North Fork of the American River, near the town of Gold Run, Placer County. A decision was rendered in June, and the following extract from the opin- ion of the judge explains the nature and ob- ject of the action : This action is brought to restrain the defendant from dumping its tailings into the North Fork of the American Kiver. It is charged that these tailings be- ing washed down by the current, are deposited in and fill up the channel of the American River below Alder Creek, as well as the Sacramento, impairing the navi- gation, increasing the liability of both to overflow, and making each overflow more destructive, causing deposits upon the farming lands, thereby rendering 76 CALIFORNIA. them unproductive, raising the soil-water, which also tends to unproductiveness, and producing malarial and other diseases among the inhabitants of the valley. It is substantially found that much of the tailings come down the streams, filling up the rivers, and pro- ducing most of the evils charged. Navigation has been obstructed, much valuable land covered with sand, and that the continuation of the practice will probably be productive of still greater damage. The finding may be considered for the defendant, however, upon the charge that the debris adds materi- ally to the malarial influences, or has obstructed or will obstruct the sewers of Sacramento, or have inju- riously affected the sanitary condition of that city. It is found that mining pollutes the water of the riv- ers with mud, rendering them less suitable for domes- tic purposes. And that numerous other persons en- gaged in the same pursuit contribute debris to the same streams, but for which contributions the rivers would be able to maintain their channels without serious obstruction, notwithstanding the detritus from the mine of defendant. The judge adds: I have concluded to so find that when the heavier debris is completely impounded mining may be re- sumed, virtually refusing to hold that the plaintiff may enjoin such operations as only corrupt the water with mud and render it less suitable for domestic and other uses. Perhaps I am somewhat moved to this by the consideration that otherwise mining can never be prosecuted at all. It will probably be impractica- ble to impound the lighter portion of the sediment. I confess I shrink from a consequence so far-reaching. It seems to be a conceded fact that this is not mate- rially injurious either to navigation or the riparian lands. Counsel denied that there was any intention to assail the prosecution of drift, seam, or quartz min- ing. There was no material injury from that source. The sediment from such mines is of the same charac- ter as the material which can not be wholly impound- ed. Perhaps this will not materially add to the per- mitted evil. Among the facts found by Judge Temple are the following: The Sacramento is navigable, and has been continuously navigated by steamers, barges, schooners, and smaller craft, and up to 1862 was navigated as far as the city of Sacramento without difficulty by steamers of deep draught, to wit, by boats drawing nine or ten feet of water. That said river has been declared navi- gable by law to the mouth of Middle Creek, which is above the confluence of the American and the Sacramento. That since 1862 the navi- gation of said river has been seriously impaired by deposits of mud and sand therein, which have in part come from hydraulic mines ; so that now the city of Sacramento can be reached by boats of deep draught during the high stages of the water only, instead of at all times as formerly. That hydraulic mining, as that term is gen- erally understood, consists in washing and re- moving from their natural positions into the water-courses and rivers, by means of water, high banks of earth and gravel containing gold, and thereby separating the gold from the earth, sending the residue, consisting of bowlders, cobble-stones, gravel, sand, and clay, into the water-courses, the larger portion of which finds its way into^the principal confluents of the Sac- ramento River, and is deposited along said streams from the place of discharge or dump to San Pablo and San Francisco Bays, the heavier material being first deposited. That hydraulic mining has been practiced for twenty years to some extent in the mountains of the Sacramento Basin. It attained great magnitude as an industry before 1875, and is still extensively carried on, principally in the counties of Butte, Yuba, Sierra, Nevada, and Placer. That the debris from mines, including the mine of the defendant, has materially contrib- uted to such filling of the river-channel, and thereby has interfered with and obstructed the free and comfortable use and enjoyment of large portions of the land upon the American and Sacramento Rivers. That the beds of said rivers have already become so widened and filled that the depth of the water therein has been greatly lessened ; that said water, at all times, is heavily laden with earthy matters, chiefly from mines ; there- fore, said rivers are likely to fill more rapidly in the future in proportion to the quantity of hydraulic tailings than in the past. That thousands of acres of good land in the Sacramento Valley have already been covered by such debris, and if some preventive is not applied, much further and greater injury is likely to ensue in the future, and large tracts of land will probably be rendered within a few years unfit for cultivation and inhabit- ancy. That if the said acts of the defendant and others, mining as aforesaid, are allowed to continue, there is imminent danger that the beds and channels of the lower portion of the American River, and of the Sacramento River below the mouth of the American, will be so filled and choked up by tailings and other de- posits that said rivers will be turned from their channels, cutting new water-ways, injuring or destroying immense tracts of land, and prob- ably will result in greatly impairing the navi- gability of the Sacramento River. That the acts threatened to be performed by the defendant in continuing to prosecute its mining industry in the manner set out in these findings, as it will do unless restrained, if al- lowed to be done, will, in connection with like acts by others, obstruct the navigation of the Sacramento River, and fill up, to some extent, Suisun Bay, destroy or injure large amounts of land, and constitute an obstruction to the free use and enjoyment of the property of a large number of citizens of this State. From these facts the judge drew the follow- ing legal conclusions : 1. That the plaintiffs cause of action and its right to the relief in this action demanded, is not barred oy all or either of the statutes of limitation pleaded by the defendant in this case or otherwise. 2. That defendant has not acquired any right to the use of the bed of the American River, or of the Sacramento River, as places of deposit for its mining tailings, nor to choke or fill with such tailings the channels of said rivers in the valleys thereof, nor to CALIFORNIA. 77 flow or overflow the said lands situate along the bank thereof. 3. That the said acts of defendant constitute a pub- lic nuisance, in that they are an obstruction of the free use by a considerable number of the citizens of this State of their said lands situate along the banks of said rivers as aforesaid, so as to interfere with the comfortable enjoyment thereof, and in that they un- lawfully obstruct the free passage and use in the cus- tomary manner of the said Sacramento Kiver. 4. The mining customs, usages, and regulations authorized by the statutes of this State, or recognized by the decisions of its courts, are local in their opera- tion, and have not, and are not intended to have, any effect beyond a mining-bar, diggings, or district in which they have been adopted or recognized. 5. That the mining laws and mining customs or practices of the said Gold Run mining district, in which said defendant's mines are located, mentioned and referred to in the findings of fact herein, were not intended to, and did not, and can not, protect the defendant in the doing of the acts, matters, and things complained of in this action. 6. That the plaintiff is entitled to a decree of this court restraining and enjoining the defendant, its su- perintendent, agents, and employds from discharging or dumping into said North Fork of the American Eiver, or into Canon Creek, and also from suffering or causing to flow into said river any tailings, bowl- ders, cobblestones, gravel, sand, clay, debris, or ref- use matter perpetually, or until it shall be first shown, upon application made to this court for a modification of such decree, that dams shall have been built in said American Eiver, which will prevent the heavier portion of said material, including the coarser sands, from coming below Alder Creek, or until some other means equally efficacious shall be adopted to impound said debris, and which, in the opinion of the court, upon such application, will certainly prevent sand, and all heavier material than sand, from being carried by the water below Alder Creek. The following is the decree made : This cause having been duly called for trial upon the complaint and answer, and both parties appear- ing and waiving a jury trial, the said cause was duly tried before court without a jury, and the court hav- ing heard the evidence and the argument of counsel, has duly signed findings of fact and conclusion of law therefrom, which said findings are now duly filed in this court. Now, therefore, by reason of the premises and of the law, it is considered by the court, and it is or- dered, adjudged, and decreed: That said defendant, and all the officers, superin- tendents, foremen, agents, and employes thereof, be perpetually enjoined and restrained from discharging or dumping into the North Fork of the American river, or into any stream tributary thereto, and espe- cially into Canon Creek, any bowlders, cobblestones, gravel, or sand from the mines ; also from causing any such material to flow or to be washed into said river from its said mines or tracts of mineral land. Subject, nevertheless, to this, that said defendant may at any time, as it shall be advised, apply to this court to have this decree and restraining order modi- fied or vacated and set aside. And whenever upon such showing it shall appear that efficient means have been provided to impound, detain, and hold back such tailings at any point on said American Eiver above Alder Creek, and that such means are sufficient to detain all bowlders, cobblestones, gravel, and the heavier sand, then said defendant shall be entitled to have said decree vacated and set aside. This result is regarded as a compromise be- tween the extreme views of the farmers on the one hand, and the miners on the other, and as such is favorably looked upon in many quarters. The case will doubtless be carried go Ju by appeal to the Supreme Court. In the course of his findings the judge made the following statement respecting the mining industry of the State : Competent persons estimate the entire product of ld from California mines at $1,154,689,039 up to une, 1881, $900,000,000 being from the ancient chan- nels. The present yield varies between fifteen and twenty millions per annum, and there is, no doubt, much more gold still remaining in these ancient chan- nels than has been washed out. Present investments in California mines are esti- mated at $150,000.000, $100,000,000 of _ which is in hydraulic mines. Some portion of this is, no doubt, in mines which can not be profitably worked.. Mining for gold is the principal industry in fifteen counties of the State, and.1 the population of the min- ing counties is over one hundred thousand. This decision was followed by conventions of persons interested on the one side and the other of the question. A convention of miners was held in Nevada City on the 22d of July, which adopted the following resolutions, among others : Resolved, That this meeting, which is composed of all classes in this community, embracing not only miners of all kinds, but also merchants, mechanics, agriculturists, and laborers, fully realizes the fact that, if' mining be stopped or seriously injured, it will re- sult in destroying the value of all sorts of property in these now prosperous counties of Nevada. Sierra, Plu- mas, and the minin» portion of Yuba County ; we, therefore, acting in tne defense of all classes, pledge ourselves to resist in all proper ways the attacks made upon us by the anti-miners. Resolved, That while we admit that a certain amount of damage has been committed, consequent upon min- ing operations, yet this damage has been grossly ex- aggerated, and represents but a small percentage in value of the vast mining industry and the interests which directly and indirectly depend upon mining. Resolved, That with the help of the aid proposed to be given by the General Government, it is now within the power of the miners, and particularly of the min- ers on the Yuba water-shed, to prevent further damage by the construction of one or more dams across the Yuba Eiver, for the purpose of impounding such de- bris as may hereafter find its way into that river, and also for the purpose of retaining the vast quantities of debris now in that stream and its tributaries from passing down into the plains. Resolved. That in consequence of the late opinion of Judge Temple, in whom we recognize an upright and non-partisan judge, we advise the miners upon the water-shed of each river flowing from the Sierra Nevada into the Sacramento or San Joaquin Valley, to follow out the mode judicially set forth in that opin- ion, and to organize upon each water-shed where min- ing is carried on, an association similar to that pro- posed for the Yuba Eiver, and for the same purposes. An Anti-Debris Convention held a two days' session in Sacramento, beginning on the 26th of September. About one hundred and ten delegates were present, representing the coun- ties of San Joaquin, Sacramento, Yolo, Butte, Sutter, Yuba, Colusa, Placer, Tehama, and the State Grange Patrons of Husbandry. The call for this convention recites that the object for which it is called is the organization of the resi- dents and property -holders of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Valleys into a compact body, in order that complete protection may be af- forded to all persons, property, and water- courses therein, from further injury by the 78 CALIFORNIA. vicious and now judicially condemned system of hydraulic mining. It was stated by the temporary chairman that " the territory subject to the evils of hy- draulic mining is larger than either Massachu- setts or New Jersey, and nearly the size of Vermont, and in it dwell 118,785 people, and in it is property valued at the lowest at $77,- 000,000. The section has already suffered over $23,000,000 at the lowest calculation. Through the territory affected the Sacramento Eiver flows, staggering with loads of debris from the Feather and American Rivers. The value of the navigation of this stream is partially shown by the statement that this year 33,000,000 bushels of wheat will be shipped to market by it, of which 7,000,000 were raised on the mar- gins of the Feather River." Provision was made for the formation of a permanent organization to further the objects of the convention. The following resolutions, among others, were adopted : Resolved — 1 . That we disclaim any desire to interfere with either drift or quartz mining, or to do anything against any lawful rights of hydraulic miners. 2. That as it is the duty of the State of California to defend herself against such terrible mutilation, and to protect the people of the valley in the peaceful enjoy- ment of their homes and of the fruits of their labors, and as the two leading political parties have ignored this duty, we call upon the people of the State, irre- spective of political affiliations, to aid us in the de- fense of our homes and in our demands for justice by electing representatives to the next Legislature only such candidates as are willing to pledge themselves to the promotion of these objects. 3. That we favor the passage of a law whereby the several parties committing a common nuisance may be joined in one suit. 4. That the system of impounding mining debris by the construction of dams in our rivers and their tributaries is a delusion and a snare, and would prove a constant source of danger, and that we are opposed to remedial measures based on such a system, and pledge ourselves to resist all legislation looking to a compromise of the slickens question on such a basis ; that we oppose the expenditure of one dollar of the recent appropriation made by Congress for improving the navigation of the Sacramento and Feather Eivers and their tributaries by the construction of dams for impounding mining debris, and demand that it be expended in accordance with the letter and spirit of the law in improving the navigation by deepening their channels. A committee of twenty was appointed to attend the Farmers' Convention to be held in Stockton on the 7th of October, to which committee was referred the question of nomi- nating candidates. A convention of citizens and supervisors of the counties interested had been held in Sacra- mento on the 3d of May, by which resolutions similar to the foregoing had been adopted, and concert of action among the supervisors pro- vided for. RAILEOAD TAXATION. — Among the questions relating to railroads which have arisen under the new Constitution of the State, perhaps that of taxation has been the most vexed. The dis- putes culminated in the case of the County of San Mateo against the Southern Pacific Rail- road Company, originally commenced in the Superior Court of the State and removed into the United States Circuit Court, which reached a decision in September before Justices Field and Sawyer. By the Constitution of California, all prop- erty in the State, not exempt under the laws of the United States, is, with certain excep- tions, to be taken in proportion to its value, to be ascertained as prescribed by law ; but, in the ascertainment of its value as a basis for taxation, a distinction is made between the property owned by individuals and that owned by railroad corporations. By the thirteenth article, a " mortgage, deed of trust, or other obligation by which a debt is secured, is treated, for the purposes of assessment and taxation, as an interest in the property affected thereby," and, " except as to railroad and other quasi public corporations," the value of the property affected, less the value of the security, is to be assessed and taxed to its owner, and the value of the security is to be assessed and taxed to its holder (section 4). But by the same article " the franchise, roadway, road- bed, rails, and rolling stock of all railroads operated in more than one county " are to be assessed at their actual value, and apportioned to the counties, cities, and districts in which the roads are located, in proportion to the num- ber of miles of railway laid therein. No deduc- tion from this value is allowed for any mort- gages on the property. By the Constitution there is also a different system of assessment provided for "the fran- chise, roadway, road-bed, rails, and rolling- stock " of railroads operated in more than one county from that provided for the assessment of other property. The assessment of other property is to be made in the county, city or district in which it is situated, in the manner prescribed by law ; and the supervisors of each county constitute a Board of Equalization of the taxable property of the county, and must act upon prescribed rules of notice to its owners. A State Board of Equalization is also created by the Constitution to equalize the valuation of the taxable property of the several counties, so that equality may be pre- served between the tax-payers of the different localities, and its action in this respect must likewise be upon prescribed rules of notice. The assessment of the franchise, roadway, road-bed, rails, and rolling-stock of railroads operated in more than one county in the State is to be made by this State Board. And in making it the board is not required to give any notice to the owners, nor is any provision made for affording them an opportunity to be heard respecting the valuation of their prop- erty. The tenth section of the article which confers this power of assessment has been held by the Supreme Court of the State to be self- executing, requiring no legislation for its en- forcement. The railroad company contended that the CALIFORNIA. 79 taxes are invalid and void on two grounds : First, because the assessment, according to which they were levied, was made in pursu- ance of the discriminating provisions of the State Constitution, in the enforcement of which the company was not allowed any de- duction from the valuation of its property for the mortgage thereon, and was thus subjected to an unjust proportion of the public burdens, and denied the equal protection of the laws guaranteed by the fourteenth amendment of the Federal Constitution ; and, second, because the assessment was made in pursuance of pro- visions of the State Constitution, which gave no notice to the company, nor afforded it any opportunity to be heard respecting the value of the property, or for the correction of any errors of the board, thus depriving it of its property without due process of law guaran- teed by that amendment. The plaintiff, on the other hand, contended : 1. That the power of taxation possessed by the State is unlimited except by the Consti- tution of the United States, and that its ex- ercise can not be assailed in a Federal court, either for the hardship or injustice of the tax levied. 2. That the classification of property for tax- ation, and the apportionment of the taxes ac- cording to such classification, are not forbid- den by the Constitution of the United States ; and that within such classification the property of the railroad company and the apportionment of taxes to it are to be placed. 3. That the fourteenth amendment of the Constitution of the United States was adopted to protect the newly-made citizens of the Afri- can race in their freedom, and should not bo extended beyond that purpose. 4. That corporations are not persons within the meaning of that amendment. 5. That the statute fixing the sessions of the State Board of Equalization and requiring a statement in writing from the defendant of the amount and value of its property, afforded all the notice and hearing essential to the va- lidity of the assessment made ; and — 6. That the provisions of Article XIII of the Constitution, as to the taxation of railroad property, are to be treated as conditions upon the continued existence of railroad corpora- tions. The court decided in favor of the railroad company that the provisions of the California Constitution relating to the assessment and taxation of railroads were repugnant to the terms of the fourteenth amendment to the Fed- eral Constitution, and that the taxes sued for could not be recovered. The case now goes to the Supreme Court of the United States. It is claimed that the logic of this decision ren- ders invalid many provisions of the State Con- stitution relating to the railroad commission created by it. POLITICAL CONVENTIONS. — The political cam- paign, while not an excited one, aroused deep interest. The chief local questions were the " slickens " or debris question, the Sunday law, the management of railroads, and the restric- tion of Chinese immigration. No new Sunday law had been enacted, but the attempted clos- ing of drinking-saloons by the temperance peo- ple under the old law called forth the opposi- tion of the saloon keepers and frequenters. The act of Congress relating to Chinese immi- gration, while not giving the people of the* Pacific coast all that they had demanded, yet sets that question at rest for the present. The Democratic State Convention met in San Jos6 on the 20th of June, and remained in session five days. The following platform was adopted : The Democracy of the State of California, as repre- sented in convention, hereby declare that, with un- shaken faith in the soundness of the constitutional principles and traditions of the Democratic party, as illustrated by the teachings and example of a long line of Democratic statesmen and patriots, and expressed in«the platform of the last Presidential Convention of the party, we pledge ourselves to maintain these prin- ciples and to labor to make them paramount in the administration of the State and General Government. Resolved, That the Democratic party of California tenders its thanks to the Democracy of the Union for a long, earnest, and partially successful struggla, through the Democratic Congressmen} with a hostile ^Republican Administration against Chinese immigra- tion and in behalf of the highest interests of the peo- ple of this coast. Such action again illustrates the fidelity of the party to its pledges, given to the people in the platforms of successive Presidential Conven- tions. It again recognizes that the people of each lo- cality are the best judges of their own wants and ne- cessities, and again declares the great doctrine that it is the duty of the General Government to heed their complaints, and to extend its strong arm for their pro- tection. Resolved, That the Democratic party of California recognizes with the highest appreciation the prompt and determined movement in their behalf made by the working-men of the Eastern States, and notably of Pennsylvania, in presenting the menace of a free people as an irresistible power against the combined efforts of vast moneyed corporations and the monopo- lists of the Chinese trade, who, in the name of the brotherhood of man, and under the cloak of universal charity, were endeavoring to thwart every effort made in behalf of the permanent existence of the white man of California ; we recognize the interests of white labor everywhere as in full alignment with the advancing movement of the Democracy of the Union in its pur- pose to preserve the heritage we have a right to enjoy from the merciless ravages of the Asiatic hosts who have already captured many of our best industries, impoverished thousands of our people, drawn large numbers into debauchery and crime, and almost ex- cluded Eastern and European immigration. Resolved, That the Chinese now in California are an unmixed curse to this people, their presence an ever- increasing evil, threatening to block every avenue of labor and every branch of trade, and, so long as they remain, will continue to be an insurmountable barrier in the pathway of California toward the high destiny for which Nature has so amply equipped her ; that, in view of this condition, we confidently appeal to the Democracy of the Union for our 'deliverance, and claim as one of the first duties of the party that the next Presidential Convention of the Democracy shall declare the doctrine of self-preservation the highest law of nature and of nations upon this subject, as upon all others, and the Government of the United States, then placed under Democratic administration, will in- 80 CALIFORNIA. dicate its just appreciation of the imperious necessities of the people of California, by providing such certain and speedy means as may be deemed most just and proper for the removal of every Mongolian from this country, and to the accomplishment of this end we hereby pledge to the people our earnest and persistent efforts, inviting every citizen of this State who has the Commonwealth at heart, whatever bis present or previous political affiliation, to lend us the aid of his personal support as a freeman toward strengthening the right arm of the Democratic party of the Union, whose fidelity has been proved, for the early and per- fect accomplishment of this great work. Resolved, That the constant pretense of the Eepub- lican party organs, and of the Eepublican leaders in California and in the Eastern States, that the " ten- year law " had taken the Chinese question from the arena of political issue, is deceptive in purpose, and will ever be false in fact so long as the Chinese re- main in this country. Resolved, That the Democratic party, inheriting the doctrine of Jefferson and Jackson, hereby declares its unqualified enmity to all sumptuary legislation, re- garding all such exercises of the law-making power as against the just objects of free government, and that all laws intended to restrain or direct a full and free exercise by any citizen of his own religious and political opinion, so long as he leaves others to enjoy their rights unmolested, are anti- Democratic and hos- tile to the principles and traditions of the party ; cre- ate unnecessary antagonism j can not be enforced, and are a violation of the spirit of republican govern- ment ; and we will oppose the enactment of all such laws, and demand the repeal of those now existing. Resolved. That the railroad fares and freights should be materially reduced, discriminations in favor of lo- calities and persons should be prohibited, and we con- demn the majority of the Eailroad Commissioners of this State for their faithlessness in the discharge of their official duties. The nominees of the Democratic party will, if elected, carry out in letter and in spirit the declarations of this resolution, and relieve the people, to the extent of their jurisdiction, from the ex-- actions and injustice now practiced with impunity by the railroad companies. Resolved, That most speedy and effective measures should be taken to compel the railroad corporations of California to pay their taxes. No compromise should be made. The property of every corporation, as well as that of every individual, should be assessed at its true value, and the payment of the resulting tax be strictly and impartially enforced. Resolved, That all railroad land grants forfeited by reason of non-fulfillment of contracts should be imme- diately revoked by the Government, and that hence- forth the domain be reserved exclusively as homes for actual settlers. Resolved, That the Democratic party declares its unalterable purpose to restrain all private and public corporations within the exact letter of their lawful powers, and to prevent any and all imposition upon individuals or the public, whether attempted under the features of " lawful right," or in the arrogance of accumulated money power, and favors the referring enactment of all needful legislation toward this end. Resolved, That the rivers and harbors of this State belong to all the people, and that it is the duty of the Federal Government to protect them from destruc- tion, and to so improve them from time to time as to keep them forever open as channels. Resolved, Recognizing the ihct that much of the cor- ruption in politics results from the enormous patron- age in the hands of the President of the United States, and its unscrupulous use in carrying elections and maintaining the party in power ; and that, so long as the temptation exists, this patronage will be used. thereby degrading party contests to the debasing level of a mere scramble for the petty offices in the gift of the Executive Department, the Democratic party of the State of California announces itself as in favor of a reform of the civil service of the country upon prin- ciples similar to those proposed in the bill introduced in the Senate of the United States by Senator Pendle- ton, of Ohio. Resolved, That the Democratic party recognizes the duty of the State of affording to every child within its limits the advantages of a common-school education, and it believes in fostering and protecting the common schools and maintaining in them the highest standard of efficiency. The following is the ticket nominated : For Governor, George Stoneman ; for Lieu- tenant-Govern or, John Daggett ; for Judges of the Supreme Court, J. E. Sharpstein, E. M. Koss. For Congressmen at large, Charles A. Sum- ner, John K. Glascock ; for Secretary of State, T. L. Thompson; for State Comptroller, John P. Dunn ; for State Treasurer, W. A. January ; for Attorney-General, E. C. Marshall ; for Sur- veyor-General, H. I. Willey ; for Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, W. T. Welcker ; for Clerk of the Supreme Court, J. W. McCarthy. Congressmen — First District, W. S. Eose- crans, of San Francisco ; Second District, James H. Budd, of San Joaquin ; Third District, Bar- clay Henley, of Sonoma ; Fourth District, P. B. Tully, of Santa Clara. Board of Equalization — First'District, Charles Gildea, of San Francisco ; Second District, W. M. Crutcher, of Placer; Third District, Caleb S. Wilcoxson, of Sutter. Eailroad Commissioners — First District, J. G. Carpenter, of El Dorado ; Second District, "William P. Humphreys, of San Francisco; Third District, W. W. Foote, of Alameda. The Eepublican State Convention met in Sacramento on the 30th of August, and re- mained in session four days. The following platform was adopted : The Eepublicans of California, in State Convention assembled, do announce and declare : 1. We reaffirm our adherence to the principles of the Eepublican party as embodied in its history. 2. We lament the death of our late President, James A. Garfield. His lofty patriotism and heroic character endeared him to the people. His memory will be fondly and forever cherished by his countrymen. 3. We reaffirm the platform of the national Eepub- lican party as declared at Chicago in 1880. We have faith in the wisdom of the present Admin- istration, and confidence that it will result in honor and additional laurels to our party and its cause. 4. We point with pride to the financial policy of the Eepublican Administration, which has with unexam- pled rapidity reduced the national debt while improv- ing the national credit, lessened taxes while increas- ing revenues, and lowered the rate of interest on the national bonds while adding to their value in the markets of the world. 5. History and experience unite to prove the neces- sity of preserving one day in seven as a day of rest from labor. Without legislation on this subject the laboring-classes might be compelled to continue in un- ceasing toil. Therefore, we are in favor of observing Sunday as a day of rest and recreation ; and while we expressly disavow the right or the wish to force any class of our citizens to spend that day in any particu- lar manner, we do favor the maintenance of the pres- ent Sunday laws, or similar laws, providing for the suspension of all unnecessary business on that day. 6. Corporations are creatures of law and subject to CALIFORNIA. 81 law, and all legal means should "be taken to render it impossible for aggregations of capital to become op- pressive. 7. While wo recognize the fact that the building of railroads has proved one of the most potent agencies in the development and progress of the country, we at the same time remember that the great power which authorized such roads to be built, including the sov- ereign right of eminent domain, was granted to the railroad companies by the people, for the people, and on the sole ground that the construction and working of railroads constitute a public use, and such roads public highways. We declare that railroad companies, the same as individuals, should be dealt with in fairness and with- out injustice; but, by reason of their relation to the people, they must be kept subordinate to the interests of the people, and within governmental control. The people should be protected by law from any abuse or unjust exactions. Unjust discriminations t ties should be prohibited. Equal service upon equal terms to all persons should be enforced. Charges for transporting persons and property should be limited to what is required to pay the legitimate expenses of operating such railroads, their mainte- nance hi good repair, and a fair interest on their actual value. Such value should bear the same relation to its assessed value that the value of other property does to its assessed value. Charges in excess of this are in violation of the fundamental law of public use. which allows railroads to be built; and we hereby pledge our nominees for Railroad Commissioners to the enforcement of these principles by such a material and substantial reduc- tion ot the rates of fares and freights as will secure that result — the basis being cost of service with reasona- ble allowance for interest and repairs as above indi- cated, instead of the mercenary exaction of "all the traffic will bear." 8. That the proper public authorities should not re- fuse to act in regulating freights and fares by reason of lack of exact information in any particular, if such in- formation could be given but is refused by the railroad corporation, but in such case these authorities should act as nearly correctly as possible, taking care, how- ever ? that the public interest should not suffer, and holding themselves in readiness to correct any error, if error there should be, upon the corporation giving the necessary information to enable such error to be corrected. 9. We denounce the railroad contract system as a deliberate attempt to enslave the commerce and trade of the whole Pacific coast, and subjugate them to the control and caprice of the railroad companies. It is against public policy, because it seeks to make use of the national bounty to break down that health- ful competition which it is the policy of the nation to encourage. It is unjust and oppressive, because it discriminates in favor of the strong at the expense of the weak, and offers bribes to the rich which it collects back from the poor. It is arbitrary and tyrannical, because it arrogantly interferes with the freedom of trade, and proposes to prohibit those who make use of its transportation facilities from doing business with any one who refuses to submit to its dictation. Its existence ia a threat, and its abolition a necessity. The Eepublican party pledges itself to prohibit the making of such contracts by proper legislation, to the extent, if necessary, of making the same a public offense. 10. We demand of Congress legislation govern- ing the carrving-trade between the States or States and Territories. The rates of freights and fares of all railroads engaged in such trade should be justly regulated and restricted, and any unjust discrimina-' tion between persons or places should be absolutely prohibited. 11. That we are opposed to granting any further VOL. xxn. — 6 A subsidies to companies or corporations, and are in favor of the immediate revocation of all land grants and subsidies forfeited by non-fulfillment of the con- ditions of such grants, and the restoration of such lands to the public domain, to be held exclusively for actual settlers. 12. All property should pay its just share of taxa- tion. The property of corporations, like other prop- erty, should be assessed at its actual cash value, and the corporations and individuals alike should be com- pelled to pay their just taxes without abatement, dim- inution, or compromise. 13. The Republican party has always advocated liberal appropriations for the improvement of rivers and harbors, and we declare it to be the duty of the Federal Government to maintain the natural channels of internal commerce in their highest standard of usefulness, as a trust committed to it by the Constitution of the United States, and as a constant check upon the exorbitant exactions of arti- ficial highways. 14. We are in favor of establishing a Bureau of Statistics of Labor, for the purpose of collecting and publishing such statistics and other information in regard to labor and wages as may be useful to the laboring-classes. 15. The Republican party is unalterably opposed to Chinese immigration. It is a cause for congratula- tion that this question, which has heretofore en- gaged the earnest attention of both political parties, has at length been settled by suspending further im- migration, the treaty having been framed by Repub- lican commissioners and ratified and approved by a Republican Administration. We offer our thanks to our Senators and Representatives in Congress for the legislation procured by them on this subject. 16. The same principles which guide the admin- istration of well-ordered private affairs should prevail in the selection of public officers. Honesty, efficien- cy, and fidelity should be the essential qualifica- tions for public position, and such rules should be established to regulate appointment to the public service as will insure fitness, to be ascertained by practical tests, and promotion should follow faithful service. The Republican party of California demands a thorough, radical and complete reform in the modes of appointment to subordinate executive offices, found- ed upon the principle that public office is a public trust, admission to which should depend upon proved fitness, to be ascertained by methods open to all applicants and regulated by law. 17. Finally, we insist upon economy in the admin- istration of the Government, integrity in office, and honesty and efficiency in every branch of the public service. The following planks were added : The Republican party demands that the public schools shall receive generous support as the policy of free government; that education, from the pri- mary school to the State University, shall be free and within the reach of the children of every citizen : that in furtherance of this principle we recommend to the 'Legislature the establishment of some system by which the State should print and provide the principal reading and other text-books used in the public schools, supplying the same to pupils at actual cost. The following is the ticket nominated : Governor — Morris M. Estee, of Napa ; Lieu- tenant - Governor, A. R. Conkling, of Inyo ; Secretary of State, F. A. Pedlar, of Yolo; State Comptroller, W. A. Davies, of Tuolumne ; State Treasurer, John Weill, of Sierra ; Attor- ney-General, A. L. Hart, of Colusa; Surveyor- General, "William Minto. of Modoc ; Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, S. D. Waterman, CALIFORNIA. of San Joaquin ; Clerk of the Supreme Court, Frank Gross, of San Francisco ; Justices of the Supreme Court, John Hunt, Jr., of San Fran- cisco, and S. C. Denson, of Sacramento. Congress — First District, Paul Neumann, of San Francisco; Second District, Horace F. Page, of El Dorado ; Third District, J. J. De Haven, of Humboldt ; Fourth District, George L. Woods, of San Jose ; at large, Henry Ed- gerton, of Sacramento and "W. W. Morrow, of San Francisco. Board of Equalization — First District, R. P. Johnson ; Second District, L. C. Morehouse, of Alameda; Third District, G. G. Kimball, of Tehama ; Fourth District, C. W. Dana, of San Luis Obispo. Railroad Commission — First District, Charles F. Reed, of Yolo; Second District, Charles Clayton, of San Francisco ; Third District, E. M. Gibson, of Alameda. Morris M. Estee, the Republican candidate for Governor, was born in Warren County, Pennsylvania, in 1833. At the age of twenty he went to California. After following various occupations, he was admitted to the bar of the Supreme Court in 1859. He was elected to the Assembly from Sacramento County in 1862. He served one term as District Attorney of Sacramento County. In 1866 he removed from Sacramento to San Francisco. For the greater part of his political career he has been a Re- publican. He was Secretary of the Republican State Central Committee in 1871, when New- ton Booth was elected Governor. In 1872 he came out for Greeley on the Democratic ticket, and opposed the election of General Grant. In 1875 he was elected on the Independent or " Dolly Varden " ticket to the Assembly from San Francisco, and was elected Speaker of the Assembly for that session. He was elected as delegate at large to the Constitutional Con- vention which framed the present Constitution of the State in 1879, and was chairman of the Committee on Corporations in that body. Mr. Estee is a vigorous campaign speaker. The Greenback State Convention met in San Francisco on the 6th of September. The plat- form adopted is practically a reproduction of that adopted by the St. Louis Convention of the previous March, with the addition of a clause favoring the Sunday law in a modi- fied form. It nominated a full State ticket, Thomas J. McQuiddy being the nominee for Governor and Mrs. Marion Todd for Attorney- General. The Prohibition Home Protection party also held a State Convention in San Francisco, and adopted a platform of principles, including the following: We declare the cardinal principles of our party to be the prohibition, by constitutional amendment, of the manufacture of all alcoholic liquors not demanded for medicinal, mechanical, or scientific use, and the regulation by law, under severe penalties, of the sale of alcoholic liquors for such use, and the absolute and We demand the enactment and enforcement of an intelligent and rational Sunday law, and especially do we demand that all saloons or places of business where intoxicating drinks are now licensed to be sold or permitted to be sold on secular days shall be abso- lutely closed on Sunday. We emphatically protest against all State subsidies or other countenance to encourage the business of making intoxicating drinks from grapes. We oelieve that the State should assume control of the water-supply for irrigating purposes, and provide at once by suitable legislation for the equitable distri- bution of the same. We shall insist upon such amendments to existing laws as shall fully and forever enfranchise the women of our country. The following resolution, which was adopted, brought on a warm debate : ^ Resolved, That we hail with pleasure the cultiva- tion of the grape in this State, as offering our people a most pleasant, healthful, and remunerative occupa- tion, and an incalculable and inexhaustible mine of wealth for centuries to come. An unlimited market will always be found for all the raisins, sirups, canned fruit, and fresh grapes that the State can pro- duce. We are assured from our own experience so far, and from the past history and the present condi- tion of the people who have prostituted the luscious grape to the vile uses of drunkenness, that the wine ana brandy manufacture is the most degrading, de- moralizing, depraving, and pauperizing business which has ever cursed the world. We point for the truth of this to the utter ignorance, poverty, drunkenness, and moral ruin which have enshrouded Spain, Portugal, Italy, _ Sicily, Greece, Hungary, and the wine districts of Switzerland ; to the vice, turbulence, drunkenness, insanity, and suicides of France, and to the rapid de- generation of its people. We point to the fact that only one half of the young men of France are phys- ically fit for military duty when they arrive at legal age. We denounce the promises of wealth from the production of wine as entirely baseless and false. A resolution was adopted setting out that the loss to the State's revenue through pro- hibition would be more than compensated for through the diminution of taxes for the sup- port of criminals and paupers, who will disap- pear with the success of prohibition. A ticket was nominated by this convention, headed by Dr. R. H. McDonald, of San Fran- cisco, for Governor. The Farmers' Anti-Monopoly Convention met in Stockton on the 7th of October. The platform adopted related chiefly to the rail- road question, and was in substance as fol- lows: Railroads to be controlled by the State; justice to both labor and capital ; railroads are public highways, to be operated for the transit of all persons and property on equal and im- partial terms. Railroad operatives are com- mon carriers, and their charges should be based on "cost of service," against all kinds of discrimination. Insurance no longer should form a part of the contract for carriage, but should be optional. Carriers by rail to be liable as are bailees for hire. Railroad charges are excessive. The management of railroads by private corporations is a public trust. Pri- vate tariffs and special contracts condemned, and they should be made offenses before the law. Favoring the Reagan bill. The Legisla- ture to re-enforce the powers of the Railroad Commissioners by enlarging legal remedies, CAPE COLONY AND BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA. 83 etc. Revision of all the laws relative to rail- roads, defining their rights and duties, and enforcing obedience. The final plank, referring to the recent de- cision of the United States Circuit Court as to railroad taxes, and the proper assessment of railroad property, reads : To award the time necessary to secure a decision ot the question by the United States Supreme Court be- fore action would derange the finances of the State and counties to such a degree that we deem it best to assume the correctness of the decision, and amend the Constitution at the coming session of the Legis- lature, so as to make the mode of assessing railroad property subject to mortgage the same as that adopted in the case of individuals, and provide for the assess- ment and collection of the taxes remaining unpaid. The candidates for Railroad Commissioners were required to agree to move within thirty days after election to reduce freights and fares 20 per cent. For Railroad Commissioners the Democratic candidate in the Third district and the Re- publican candidate in the First were endorsed. In the Second district John T. Doyle, a Demo- crat, was nominated. For the State Board of Equalization tbe Republican candidates in the Fourth and Second districts and the Demo- cratic candidate in the Third were endorsed. In the First district, James Within gton, of San Francisco, a Republican, was nominated. For Controller, the Democratic candidate was endorsed. No other nominations were made by the convention. The election in November resulted in the choice of the entire Democratic State ticket by a large majority, and of Democratic con- gressmen in each district. The new Legis- lature will be largely Democratic in both branches. The vote for Governor was as follows : To- tal, 164,657; Democratic, 90,649; opposition, 74,008; Democratic majority, 16,641. CAPE COLONY AND BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA. The Cape of Good Hope is a British Colony at the southern extremity of the Continent of Africa. It was first settled by the Dutch, and passed into the possession of Great Britain during the Napoleonic wars. It has had a responsible government since 1872. The Parliament consists of a Legislative Council of 21 and a House of Assembly of 68 members, both elected by voters qualified by a certain amount of income. The Governor is Sir Hercules G. R. Robinson, appointed in 1880. The Prime Minister is T. C. Scanlen, as Sir John C. Molteno, who formed a ministry in which the Dutch land-owners of the western districts were fully represented after the defeat of Gordon Sprigg and the British party, has retired from office. AREA AND POPULATION. — The area and population have been more than doubled by the annexation of British Caffraria, in 1866; Basutoland, in 1868 (area 7,000 square miles, population 127,000) ; the Transkei, or Caffre- land proper (area 17,000 square miles, popu- lation 475, 000),bet ween 1875 and 1880 ; Griqua- land West, in 1876 (area 17,800 square miles, population 45,277); and the Transgariep or Damara and Namaqua Lands, in 1880 (area 200,000 square miles, population 200,000). • The administration of the native districts is not successful. The whole of South Africa is kept in a disturbed condition by the encroach- ments of the rival white races upon the blacks, and the resistance of the vigorous Caffre race. The situation is complicated by the jealousy between the Boers and the English, and their intrigues with the Caffre tribes. The area of Cape Colony proper is 199,950 square miles. The population, according to the census of 1875, was 720,984. The 236,793 whites (123,- 910 males and 112,873 females) consist mostly of the descendants of the original Dutch, German, and French settlers; the English settlers and authorities being greatly in the minority. The native population comprises, besides the Hottentots and Caffres, a con- siderable number of colonized Malay laborers, and the offspring of Dutch fathers and black women, who are commonly called African- ders. COMMERCE. — Wool is the principal product, constituting nine tenths of the total exports. There are many large sheep-farms, ranging from 3,000 to 15,000 acres. The exports of wool in 1880 amounted to 42,226,044 pounds. Ostrich-feathers were exported of the value of £958,254, copper-ore of the value of £301,585, and sheep-skins of the value of £238,102. Diamonds are a very important article of export, but most of the trade is through secret channels. The total exports were re- turned for 1880 as £4,340,017, the imports as £7,648,863. The trade is mainly with Great Britain. There were 692,514 cattle and 9,836,- 065 sheep in the colony at the end of 1875. On January 1, 1882, the mileage of railroads was 961, and of telegraphs 3,575 miles. To the harbor improvements of Table Bay, at Cape Town, a graving-dock has been added, and a new outer harbor is to be constructed by extending the breakwater 1,800 feet, and building projecting moles to inclose a large area of deep water. The existing basins were completed a year after the Suez Canal. Instead of shipping deserting the port, the tonnage in 1881 was four and a half times as great as before the canal was opened. A fever of speculation in diamond shares led to a crisis in 1881, and ostrich-farming declined from over-production; but the country is generally prosperous and commercial interests are ex- panding. FINANCES. — Public finances are in a nour- ishing condition. The revenue of 1881-'82 amounted to £3,492,396, being £524,196 be- yond the estimate. The revenue for 1882-'83 is estimated at £3,572,110, and the expendi- tures at £3,530,118. Out of the surplus re- ceipts a temporary loan obtained to meet the Basuto war expenses, and a claim of the Im- 84 CAPE COLONY AND BRITISH SOUTH AFRICA. perial Government on account of the Caffre war of 1878, were discharged. NATAL. — Natal, on the east coast, was con- stituted as a separate colony in 1856. The colony has an estimated area of 21,150 square miles. The population in 1881 numbered 406,625, comprising 25,271 persons of Euro- pean descent, 362,477 blacks, and 18,877 coolies. The chief product is wool, which is exported to Great Britain to the value of £500,000 annually. Cotton-raising commenced in 1866, but the exportation of raw cotton has entirely ceased. Sugar is also grown. The exports to Great Britain in 1880 were returned as £615,029, and the imports from that country as £1,651,706. Many of the exports, particularly wool, come from the Dutch re- publics, which absorb over one third of the imports. There is no trade of any account, except with Great Britain. A railroad 105 miles in length, which was authorized in 1875, has been completed. The company received a land grant of 2,500,000 acres, the right to certain coal-beds, and an annual subvention of £40,000, which is 3£ per cent on the cost. The construction of 118 miles more has been authorized. The revenue in 1880 was £582,715, and the expenditure £477,100. There is a public debt which amounted in 1881 to £1,631,700, on which 6 per cent interest is paid. About one fourth of the revenue is derived from customs and the rest from various sources, including the hut-tax of 14s. collected from the natives, which was paid on 85,714 huts in 1878. PUBLIC AFFAIRS. — The abandonment of the South African policy of the Beaconsfield ad- ministration, upon the accession of the Liberal ministry in Great Britain, caused the complex- ion of politics at the Cape to change. The Tories adopted the scheme of building up a South African confederation, which the Dutch Republics were constrained to enter. It was first necessary to thoroughly subjugate the na- tive races. This part of the scheme pleased all the whites. The British party were in the ascendant at the Cape. The Gladstone admin- istration proposes to leave the Cape Colonists to settle all difficulties which arise between them and their neighbors, white and black. The former policy not only fanned the cupid- ity of the whites and stirred up native wars all along the border, but brought the whole Boer population into a dangerous state of disaffec- tion. The country is gradually becoming quiet under the policy of non-interference. The Dutch yeomen of the older settlements have asserted their preponderance. The Cape Par- liament has passed a resolution allowing the Dutch language to be spoken in debates, but the Boer representatives continue to use Eng- lish. ^ The English colonists of the eastern districts, coveting the lands of the peaceable and industrious Basutos, passed a disarma- ment act through the Legislature, and at- tempted to conquer their country as a penalty for non-compliance (see "Annual Cyclopaedia '' for 1881). The colonists soon tired of carry- ing on a Caffre war at their own cost. The Dutch colonists of the west had nothing to gain from the war, and when the Imperial Government announced that there should be no confiscation of lands, the peace party be- came strong enough to repeal the disarma- ment act and proclamation. The arbitration of terms with the Basuto chiefs was left to Sir Hercules Robinson. The majority of the Basuto nation agreed to pay a large fine in cattle, and accept a protectorate and the im- position of a small hut-tax. Masupha and cer- tain other chiefs refused to accept terms after their successful defense. The famous Colonel Gordon was commissioned to arrange the dis- putes. When he was on the eve of a satis- factory settlement the chiefs broke off negotia- tions on account of an act of the Cape Legisla- ture, and Gordon resigned. The Basuto question is far from being set- tled. A precarious peace has been kept up by playing off the different chiefs against each other. Leshuburn was threatened by Letbo- rodi that, if he did not pay his hut-tax to the Government, he should be " eaten up." Ma- supha threatened the same treatment to Letho- rodi if he did not pay the tax. The adminis- tration of Basutoland costs £10,000 a year, which must be paid out of the Cape revenue unless local taxes can be collected. The diffi- culties are augmented by the squatting of Dutch and English settlers in the land. The scheme has been broached of providing lands for the loyal natives elsewhere, and leaving the rest to themselves. New complications with the native races have been prepared by an ir- ruption of Dutch squatters into Tembuland in defiance of the land regulations set up by the Cape Government. In "West Griqualand, Mankoroane and Montsioa, two chiefs who aided the British in the war in the Transvaal, have been at war, the latter with Moshette and the former with Massouw, who are be- friended by the Transvaal Boers. Boer re- cruits enlisted with these chiefs, and expedi- tions were organized on Transvaal territory, while British filibusters joined the other side, and arms were supplied from Barkly. Gen- eral Joubert stationed guards on the Transvaal frontier to prevent violations of neutrality, but Massouw and Moshette were not hindered from retreating when defeated and from driv- ing captured cattle into the Transvaal. The Transvaal Government represented that the adjustment of the unsatisfactory boundary- line drawn by the commission so as to include the territories of Moshette and Massouw in the Transvaal, would end the disturbances. Brit- ish freebooters and certain of the Caffre tribes of the Transvaal who refuse to pay taxes are endeavoring to provoke conflicts, with the ob- ject of securing the reannexation of the Trans- vaal, but the present British Government will rebuke such an agitation. There is no disposi- CAPE COLONY. CEREAL PRODUCTION OF THE U. S. 85 tion to interfere in the native affairs of theTransvaal, but the resettlement of the boundaries which the Boers say they ac- cepted on compulsion, is an open question. CETEWAYO'S RESTORATION. — The Zooloo question affects more particularly the colony of Natal. After the capture of Cetewayo, or Ketchwayo, Zoo- looland was apportioned among thirteen chiefs. One of these was John Dunn, Cetewayo's treacherous Irish lieutenant, who was appointed British Resi- dent, but afterward replaced by a more respectable represent- ative. The country, which is about half the size of Natal, was left in a state of famine by the war and the subsequent confis- cation of the King's treasury, which consisted of all the cattle in Zoolooland, its only wealth. Three of the appointed chiefs, John Dunn, Hamu or Oham, the King's brother, and Zibebu, proved cruel tyrants and robbers, who pillaged and killed the other tribes. The rest of the Zooloo nation, including eight of the appointed chiefs, pined incessantly for their captive monarch, to whom they were attached with the fervor of the negro nature. The intimidations of the three ambitious tyrants, the machinations of Natal politicians and ly- ing interpreters, long prevented the pathetic appeals of the Zooloos for "their bone," as they figuratively designate their King, from coming to the ears of the imperial author- ities. Bishop Colenso, of Natal, was the only advocate of the Zooloos. The eyes of Lord Kirnberly, the Colonial Secretary, were grad- ually opened to the true state of affairs. The rights of responsible government had been offered to the people of Natal, if they would conduct their own frontier defenses, but the boon on these conditions was refused. The British Government, after long hesitation, concluded that the restoration of Cetywayo would be the best guarantee of order and peace. The Natal settlers protested clamor- ously. Previous to his restoration the sav- age monarch was taken to England to view the majesty and power of the British na- tion. He passed the month of August in London, and was then conveyed back to Cape Colony with the intention of reinstating him in his kingdom as soon as the difficulties could be arranged. He is to be subjected to conditions similar to those which were" im- posed upon the thirteen chiefs. He is pro- hibited from reviving his army. A British resident will remain in the country. The chiefs and people who will not accept Cete- wayo's rule will have separate lands allotted to them. The entire European population of Natal is less than 30,000, while the natives within the borders are ten times as numerous. The prop- osition that the colony should undertake the management of its own affairs and the respon- sibility of its defenses came originally from the colonists themselves. The intended resto- ration of Cetewayo produced a great agitation in the town of Durban, and was the cause of their refusing the independence which they had recently sought. The head of the govern- ment of Natal is Sir Henry Bulwer, who was Lieutenant-Governor before the coining of Sir Bartle Frere and the inauguration of the policy which brought discord and confusion in South Africa to a climax, and provoked internecine struggles in the embattled field between all three races. The dispatches of Sir Henry Bulwer, during his former incumbency, bear witness to the fact that Cetewayo neither in- tended nor committed any acts of hostility to- ward the colonists of Natal. COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT. — Railroad con- struction is proceeding gradually, and the lines opened return a profit of 3-J- per cent. Of agri- cultural progress there are few signs. The Transvaal Boers export wool and hides, be- sides copper, and a little gold and ivory, but the staple exports of the English possessions are diamonds and ostrich-feathers. The in- creased trade of Cape Town and Port Eliza- beth has stimulated enterprise. The improve- ments in Table Bay Harbor render the port of Cape Town safe and commodious. CEREAL PRODUCTION OF THE UNI- TED STATES. The cereal production, ac- cording to the census of 1880, is reported, at great length, for the counties of each State and Territory. A summary of this report, by States and Territories, ars given in the following table : 86 CHEMISTRY. STATES AND TERRITORIES. Barley. Buckwheat. Indian corn. OaU. Rye. Wheat. Busheli. 5,281 Busheh. 363 Bushels. 25,451,278 Busheh. 8,039,639 Bushels. 28,402 Bushels. 1,529,657 239,051 84.746 564 136 427 1,952 548 24,156,417 2,219,822 22,387 1,269,780 California. 12,579,561 22,307 1,993,825 1,341,271 181,681 29,017,707 Colorado 107,116 110 455,968 640,900 19,465 1,425,014 Connecticut 12,286 137,563 1,880,421 1,009,706 870,733 88,742 Dakota 277,424 2,521 2,000,864 2,217,132 24,859 2,830,289 523 5,857 8,894,264 878,508 5,953 1,175,272 District of Columbia 29,750 7,440 3,704 6402 Florida 210 3,174,234 468,112 2,965 422 Georgia 18,662 402 28,202,018 6,548,748 101,716 8,159,771 Idaho 274,750 16,408 462,236 4,341 540,589 Illinois 1 229 523 178,859 825,792,481 63,189 200 8,121,785 51 110 502 882,835 89,707 115,482,300 15,599,518 303,105 47 284,853 4,022,588 166,895 275,024,247 50,610,591 1,518,605 31,154,205 Kansas. 800,273 24,421 105,729,325 8,180,885 413.181 17,324,141 486,326 9,942 72,852 263 4,580,788 668050 11 856 113 9,906,189 229,840 1,013 5034 Maine. . 242,185 382,701 960,633 2,265,575 26.398 665,714 6097 136 667 15 968 583 1 794 872 288 067 8 004 864 80,128 67,117 1,797 593 645159 218 716 15768 Michigan 1,204,816 413,062 82,461,452 18,190,793 294,918 35532543 2 972 965 41 756 14 881 741 28 882 158 215245 34 601 030 Mississippi 1 848 21 340 800 1 959 620 5184 218 890 Missouri. 123 031 57,640 202,485,728 20,670 958 £35 426 24 966 627 Montana . . 39,970 437 5,649 900 915 430 469 688 Nebraska 1 744 686 17562 65 450 135 6 555 875 424 348 13 847 007 Nevada 513 470 12 891 186 860 ' 69*298 New Hampshire 77877 94,090 1 350,248 1 017 620 84 638 169 316 New Jersey .... .... 4,091 466,414 11,150,705 8 710 573 949 064 1 901 739 New Mexico. 50,053 633,786 156,527 240 706641 New York 7 792 062 4,461 200 25 875 480 87 575 506 2 684 690 11 587 766 North Carolina. 2421 ' 44^668 28 019 889 3 888 068 285 160 8 397 393 Ohio .. 1,707 129 280,229 111,877124 28 664 505 889221 46 014 869 Oregon 920,977 6,215 126 862 4,385 650 13 305 7 480 010 438100 8 593 326 45 821 531 88 841 439 8 683 621 19 462 405 Ehode Island 17783 1 254 372 967 159389 ' 12'997 ?240 South Carolina 1 6 257 11 767 099 2 715 505 27049 962 358 Tennessee . . . 30019 83,434 62 764 429 4 722 190 156 419 7 331 358 Texas... 72,786 535 29,065,172 4,893 859 25399 2,567 760 Utah 217 140 163842 418 082 9 605 1 169199 Vermont 267 625 856 618 2014271 8 742 282 71 733 837 257 Virginia 14,223 136 004 29 106 661 5 383 181 824 431 7 822' 504 "Washington 566,537 2,498 39 183 1 571 706 7 124 1 921 322 West Virginia 9740 285 298 14 090 609 1 908 505 113 181 4 001 711 Wisconsin. 5 043 118 299 107 84 230 579 82 905 820 2 298*513 24 884 689 Wyoming 22512 78 4674 United States 44 113 495 11 817 327 1 754 861 535 407 858 999 19 831 595 459 479 505 The number of acres under cultivation is as follows: Barley, 1,997,717; buckwheat, 848,- 389 ; Indian corn, 62,368,869 ; oats, 16,144,593 ; rye, 1,842,303; and wheat, 35,430,052. CHEMISTRY. The tendency of recent chem- ical progress, according to Professor Liveing, President of the Chemical Section of the Brit- ish Association for 1882, has been toward placing the dynamics of the science on a satisfactory basis, and toward rendering an account of the various phenomena of chemi- cal action on the mechanical principles ac- knowledged to be true in other branches of physics. The most recent work has not been marked by any brilliant discoveries, or by the application of any startling novelties in pro- cesses, but has been rather distinguished by efforts to correct and perfect discoveries already made, to confirm advances already attained, to simplify and facilitate the application of prin- ciples already wrought out to industrial, eco- nomic, and other practical or beneficial pur- poses. To these categories belong the work in the redetermination and verification of the atomic weights, in which some of our Ameri- can chemists have played an important part ; the progressive improvements that are made in industrial and manufacturing chemistry, the patient work that is done in physiological chem- istry, and the persistent zeal with which all problems that have a bearing on the security of life and health are followed up. NEW SUBSTANCES. — The leaf and wood of the California bay -tree, or laurel (Umbellularia, or Laurus Californica), a tree the wood of which is much used for veneering and fine cabinet-work — have a very fragrant, aromatic odor, which, when strong, as in the crushed leaf, excites the mucous surfaces, brings tears to the eyes, and produces headache. Mr. J. M. Stillman, of the University of California, has obtained from the leaves, by distilling them with steam, an oil of a clear yellowish or straw color, of the peculiar aromatic odor of the leaf, having a specific gravity at 11° C. of 0*94, which has not thickened after stand- ing for nearly a year. Subjected to fractional distillation it gives up a small quantity of dis- solved water, and separates into two principal fractions, one boiling at from 170° to 190° C., and the other at from 210° to 225°, with smaller quantities which pass over at the higher tem- perature of 260°. The lower fraction men- tioned was subjected to repeated fractional OHEMISTEY. 87 distillation, and gave a considerable quantity of a clear, colorless, mobile liquid, boiling at from 167° to 168° 0., though apparently with slight dissociation. A part of the purest of this substance showed, under elementary analy- sis, a composition corresponding with the for- mula OaoHaaHaO, agreeing with the composition of terpinol. The compound has an odor not quite identical with that of spirits of camphor, is not readily affected by metallic sodium, even when heated with it, and gives off a vapor of a density calculated at 4*7. The higher frac- tion (that boiling at from 210° to 225°), when subjected to fractional distillation, gave off a colorless, mobile liquid of aromatic but pow- erful odor, which boils without decomposition at from 215° to 216°; gives, with sulphuric acid, a blood-red color, turning to brown and black ; forms with sodium a blood-red, brittle, resinous substance, and is acted on violently and decomposed by strong nitric acid. Its va- por density is 4*39, and its composition is ex- pressed by the formula 08Hi2O. This sub- stance is isomeric, so far as Mr. Stillman knows, with no other known compound. It is homol- ogous, so far as its empirical formula is con- cerned, with common camphor, but has differ- ent properties. Messrs. J. M. Stillman and E. 0. O'Neill have examined and described a new fat acid from the nut of the California bay- tree (Umbellularia Calif arnica). The nuts, when ground and ex- tracted, yielded a content of 59 per cent of the crude fat, which solidified on cooling to a hard, tallowy mass, nearly white, having a specific gravity of 0-925 in the melted condition at 88° Fahr., its melting-point. It is disagreeable in taste, and produces irritation in the throat. When saponified and treated with hydrochloric acid the fat yielded an oily acid layer, which the analysts regard as composed chiefly of a new acid, of the acetic acid series, to which they have given the name, derived from the accepted name of the tree, of umbellulic acid. With it there seems to be also present a certain quantity of some higher acid, and possibly a small quantity of some lower acid. Umbellu- lic acid, the composition of which is expressed by the formula OnHn(OjH,)Oa, is a white, crystalline substance of a peculiar taste, which does not appear to be derived from mere im- purities, and irritates the mucous membrane of the throat. It distills at the ordinary atmos- pheric pressure without decomposition, giving a water-clear distillate that becomes, on cool- ing, a white, crystalline solid. Its melting-point appears to be from 21° to 23° 0. (70° to 73i° Fahr.), and its boiling-point from 275° to 280° 0. (527° to 536° Fahr.). The results of the analysis are the more remarkable inasmuch as they are not in accordance with the general theory that the natural fats contain only acids with an even number of carbon atoms in the molecule. Mr. Malvern W. lies has described a new manganese mineral, which has been found in Hall Valley, Park County, Colorado. It is a hydrous sulphate of the Epsomite group, and is composed of five equivalents of the sulphate of manganese, with one each of the sulphates of iron and zinc. It is described as composed of loosely adhering, very friable, thick ortho- rhombic prisms, which are frequently found terminating in truncated pyramids, with a slightly glimmering luster, somewhat resem- bling pure kaolin, and a number of effervescent salts, of a pure milky- white color, but sometimes stained with sesquioxide of iron, as having a bitter, astringent taste, and as being very read- ily soluble even in cold water. The aqueous solution effervesces with sodium carbonate, and reddens blue litmus-paper. Its hardness is from '75 to 1, and its specific gravity is 2*167. Professor F. W. Clark and N". W. Perry de- scribe a new mineral from near Gunnison, Col., for which they propose, if it should prove to be a new species, the name of gunnisonite. It is massive, easily scratched by the knife, and has a deep purple color, the tint of which is retained in the powder. At first sight it suggested yttrocerite, and this led to its ex- amination for fluorine. The new mineral is associated with a semi-massive calcite, which in portions is tinged with ferric oxide, and with which it is so interpenetrated that it could not be completely separated mechanically. Its specific gravity is 2*85. The analysis, mak- ing allowance for the intermixed calcite, gave for the composition of the mineral nearly the formula 7 CaO, 2 A12O3, 4 SiO2, 32 CaF2. An analysis of purer material might give the sim- pler ratio of four equivalents of the silicate to sixteen of the fluoride. M. E. Grimaux, having effected a transfor- mation of morphine into codeine, has since succeeded in obtaining a new series of bases from the latter substance. By treating code- ine or the sodium derivative of morphine with methyl iodide, he obtained the iodomethylate of codeine, a substance possessing the proper- ties of a quaternary iodide of ammonium. This, treated with silver oxide, is transformed into a solid and crystallizable tertiary base, slightly soluble in water and easily soluble in alcohol and ether, which crystallizes in needles fusing at 118*5° 0. The new base appears to be formed by the abstraction of a molecule of water from the quaternary hydrate of ammo- nium, and to constitute methocodeine, Ci8H20 NO2(OCH3), an isomer of codethyline, CirHis NO^OCaHe). The substance was also ob- tained by boiling iodomethylate of codeine with an aqueous solution of potash, but the yield was less than when silver oxide was used. When silver oxide and potash are both used, an- other tertiary crystallizable base fusing at 132°, and resembling methocodeine, but less soluble in ether, is obtained. This base has not been analyzed as yet, but is probably methocodethy- line, Ci8H2iNp2(OC2H6). We have here, then, a general reaction by means of which can be ob- tained homologues of codeine containing new 88 CHEMISTRY. alcohol groups, not in the phenol hydroxyl of the morphine, but in the hydrocarbon radical of the morphine itself. M. A. Muntz has obtained, by treating the meal of lucerne with water containing a little neutral acetate of lead, the gum-galactine, a distinct substance which is characterized by its high dextro-gyrate rotatory power, and the property of reducing, under the influence of diluted acids, the sugar of milk. It occurs abundantly in vegetable products, and is found in large quantities in leguminous seeds, partic- ularly in those which do not contain amidon. It is digested by animals, but has not been sac- charified experimentally. M. Muntz suggests that the remarkable property of this body of giving rise to galactine permits it to be re- garded as forming a part of the materials from which the females of herbivorous animals de- rive the elements of the sugar of milk that is secreted by their organs of lactation, the origin of which is still involved in mystery. Sugar of milk is of rare occurrence in the vegetable kingdom, and has been detected with certainty only by M. G. Benchardat, in the juice of the sapota. Dr. T. L. Phipson has described a new col- oring-matter, ruberine, which he has extracted from the Agaricus ruber, a poisonous fungus, and which possesses interesting optical and chemical qualities. It is of a beautiful rose-red color, very similar to that of palrnerine ; when seen by transmitted light it presents a very vivid blue fluorescence ; and it gives in its spectrum two wide and dark absorption-bands in the green. Ruberine is soluble in water and alcohol, in solutions that are rose-red by trans- mission and blue by reflection. Dr. Phipson imperfectly isolated the alkaloid from the Aga- ricus ruber, which he calls agaracine, in the form of a white or yellowish-white amorphous substance, somewhat greasy in aspect, with a distinctly bitter taste, followed by a burning sensation on the tongue and a slight odor of its own kind, easily fusible into pale- yellow glob- ules, and volatile with an odor recalling that of quinoloine. It dissolves in alcohol and ether, and slowly but completely in dilute hydro- chloric acid. Observing that air transforms the alkaloid into the red coloring-matter, Dr. Phipson concludes that the coloring-matter in the plant is formed from the alkaloid at those points of the fungus that are at the same time in contact with the air and the solar rays — which is where it is most conspicuous. Both plants belong to the aromatic series. As ru- berine is very easily soluble in water, it some- times happens that heavy rains wash it out of the head of the fungus, and give the plant a peculiar bleached appearance. A new carbon sulphobromide has been ob- tained by mixing bromine and carbon disul- phide, allowing them to settle, distilling off the excess of carbon disulphide, and crystallizing the brownish oily residue under the action of water. It is carbon trisulpho-hexa-bromide , and has the form of small bright prismatic crystals or rhombic plates, fuses at 125° to a red liquid, and solidifies unchanged on cooling. At higher temperatures it decom- poses, evolving brown-red condensible fumes, and leaving a coal. When pure is has no odor or taste. It is insoluble in water, and hardly soluble in cold ether, alcohol, and glacial acetic acid. Mr. Charles Upham Shepard has described two new minerals found in the Tertiary lime- stone of the Twin Islands, Mona and Moneta, near Porto Rico, West Indies. They have been formed by percolation of water from the su- perficial beds of guano into the limestone lying under them, and are named monetite and monite. Monetite occurs in a highly crystalline form, and is described as a crystalline dicalcic hydric- phosphate, or dicalcic-ortho-phosphate differ- ing from that artificially prepared in not con- taining water of crystallization. Monite is a hydrated tricalcic phosphate, and resembles in color and density the more friable varieties of kaolinite. In the same islands was found a pyroclasite, which may be a uniform compound of monetite and monite, or only a mechanical mixture of the two, and is " eminently prone to admixture with gypsite, aluminum and iron phosphates, silica, and organic matter." Anhydrous crystalline hasmatein is obtained by treatment of the ammonio-compound of hsematein with strong acetic acid, in micro- scopic rhombic plates, solvable in water, al- cohol, ether, acetic acid, and alkalies. The composition of the crystals is represented by the formula, CielliaCV By treating hsematein with cold concentrated sulphuric acid, and adding acetic acid, Messrs. J. J, Hummel and A. G. Perkin have obtained an orange- colored powder composed of microscopic prismatic crystals of acid isohsematein sulphate. It is insoluble in alcohol, ether, and benzole, but soluble in ammonia and sulphur solutions, and to a small extent in acetic acid. Isohaematein chlorhydrin is produced, by heating hffimatein in sealed tubes with hydrochloric acid, in mi- croscopic red needles. It dissolves easily in water, is less soluble in alcohol, and gives a reddish violet solution with alcoholic potash. It is converted by concentrated sulphuric acid into isohsematein sulphate. With hydrobrornic acid, haematein gives isohaemauein monobrom- hydrin. By treating either of the last two substances with argentic hydrate, isohaematein, isomeric with hsematein, is obtained. Crystalline brazilein is obtained from Brazil- wood extract in the same manner that hsema- tein is obtained from logwood extract. It forms thin microscopic reddish-brown rhombic plates, very slightly soluble in cold water, more so in hot, and soluble in alkalies. The formula of its composition is CieHiaOeHaO. With sulphuric acid it gives acid isobrazilein sulphate, with hydrochloric acid isobrazilein chlorhydrin, and with hydrobromic acid the corresponding bro- mine compound. The tinctorial power of the CHEMISTRY. 89 new compound8 is much greater than that of the original hsBmatein and brazilein, and the colors are much faster. Prof. F. W. Clarke and Mary E. Owens have obtained a number of new substances from the action of potassium cyanate upon the com- pounds of platinum. With platinum tetra- chloride they obtained a buff-yellow precipi- tate soluble in water, but completely insoluble in alcohol, the aqueous solution of which de- composes on boiling, and to which analysis gave the novel formula, K2PtCl6(CNO)H2O. With the green salt of Magnus, PtN"2H6Cj, new com- pounds were formed, apparently of great com- plexity. The hot aqueous solution, concentrated to the crystallizing point, deposited pale-yellow needles, containing potassium, ammonia, water, and carbon, with 43*93 per cent of platinum. From the mother-liquor beautiful brown crys- tals were obtained, in which were found am- monia, platinum, and chlorine. Strychnia chloro-platinate with potassium sulpho-cyanate gave a blood-red solution which, after cooling, deposited a brilliant red crystalline precipitate, 2(C2iH22N2O2)H2PtCy8S6— the strychnia salt analogous to the potassium sulpho-cyanoplati- nate. Ogier has obtained a new oxychloride of sulphur by heating to 250° in sealed tubes a mixture of equal weights of S2C12 and SO2C12. Jts composition is expressed by the formula (SaOOlOa + S02 + S. It is a dark-red liquid of density 1*656, and of a repulsive odor, recalling that of sulphur chloride, and is decomposed by water and by heat of 100°. ATOMIC WEIGHTS. — Mr. James Blake, of Calistoga, Cal., has determined the atomic weight of beryllium and its true position among the elements, by the application of the rule that the intensity of the action of different substances upon organisms increases with their atomic weight. Introducing the salts of beryllium to the blood of living ani- mals, he found that the reactions caused by them were the same as those caused by the salts of alumina and ferric oxide, and strik- ingly different from those caused by the salts of the magnesium group. The metal is there- fore placed in the aluminum group ; and this determines its atomic weight as 13'65, and the formula for its oxide Be203, in accordance with the determinations of Nilson and Pettersson. Roscoe has redetermined the atomic weight of carbon by the method employed by Dumas and Stas, which consists in the direct combus- tion of the diamond. The mean of six separate experiments, taking the atomic weight of ox- ygen as 15-96, was 11-9708. NEW PROCESSES.— The tests for the detection of oleomargarine and of impurities in butter depend upon chemical analysis and upon the determination of specific gravity. Two pro- cesses of chemical analysis by saponifying the fat of the butter are used at the Municipal Laboratory in Paris. In the first process, the clear fat saponified with potassic hydrate (three or four grammes of fat to one or two grammes of hydrate) is mixed with 50 c.c. of alcohol, after which the soap, provided the solution formed is perfectly clear, is decomposed with weak sulphuric acid, and the insoluble fat- acids are collected and weighed. The quantity of fat- acids thus obtained is in butter usually 86-5 to 87'5 per cent, and sometimes as high as 88 per cent; in animal fats from tallow the per- centage of insoluble fat-acids is 95|. The dif- ference— about 8 per cent — is attributed to the absence in tallow of volatile and soluble fat-acids which exist in butter. In the other process, the result is obtained volumetrically, by estimating the quantity of potassa used in saponifying the fat. One gramme of butter re- quires from 225 to 232*4 c.c. of potassa solu- tion, while one gramme of tallow or other fat of the same nature requires from 195 to 197 c.c. of the same potassa solution. M. Charles Girard, of the Municipal Laboratory, considers as adulterated any butter requiring, for saponi- fication, less than 221-5 c.c. of the potassa solu- tion. The test by determination of the specific gravity, as employed by Messrs. Leune and Harburet, consists in placing the clear melted fat in a cylinder heated by the vapor escaping from a boiling water-bath, but no part of which is in the boiling water. By heating in this way, the temperature of the melted fat is kept at about 93° 0., or about 199° Fahr. To determine the density of this fat, an areometer is placed in it, so graduated that in butter it will sink to the lowest mark of the scale, while in oleomargarine it will stand at the highest point. The intervening space in the scale is divided into ten equal parts, each one of which corresponds to one tenth of oleomargarine mixed with butter. This instrument is relied upon to give correct results to within ten per cent. Mr. P. Casainajor, from the results of his experiments to ascertain the actual specific gravity of the two substances, has derived another very simple test with alcohol. It con- sists in finding the grade of alcohol in which the substance will remain at equilibrium in whatever part of the liquid it is placed. Mr. Casamajor found that this was, for butter, al- cohol of 53*7 per cent; for oleomargarine, of 59-2 per cent, at 15° C., or 59° Fahr. The fat may be melted in a little spoon or scoop and dropped upon the alcohol, care being taken to have the drop free from air-bubbles. If alcohol at 56£ per cent— the medium between the two grades specified above — is taken, a globule of melted butter will sink in it to the bottom, while a globule of oleomargarine will remain at the top, both being still warm and liquid. Afterward, if the alcohol is raised to about 30° C., or 86° Fahr., the butter will become solid, while the oleomargarine may still remain liquid. Then the butter will rise to the top of the alcohol. If the alcohol is then kept for a few minutes at 15° C., the oleomargarine will become opaque and remain at the top, 90 CHEMISTRY. while the solid globule of butter will sink to the bottom. If we use alcohol of 59 per cent, oleomargarine will remain on top, and butter will sink to the bottom, at all temperatures above 15° C. At 15° C. oleomargarine will remain in equilibrium in any portion of the liquid in which it is placed. Since oleomar- garine is seldom sold pure, but is mixed with true butter to improve its taste and appear- ance, it may be practically most convenient to use alcohol of 55 per cent and consider as oleo- margarine any so-called butter that will not sink to the bottom in it at 15° 0. or 59° Fahr. The theory has sometimes been set up in cases where arsenical poisoning is suspected, that the arsenic found in the subject may have been absorbed from bismuth taken for medici- nal purposes. In view of this fact, Messrs. E. H. Ohittenden and S. W. Lambert, of the Sheffield Laboratory, Yale College, have made experiments for the purpose of ascertaining the purity of bismuth subnitrate as regards arsen- ical poison, and whether, if arsenic is present, the poison taken in repeated doses of the bis- muth is absorbed by the different organs and tissues of the body. Out of fourteen different samples of subnitrate of bismuth analyzed, only one was found to be absolutely free from ar- senic, while the average content of arsenic in the samples examined was -013 per cent, or 13 milligrammes of arsenious oxide in 100 grammes of bismuth. This amount is equivalent to two tenths of a grain of arsenious oxide. Of one of the specimens 100 grammes contained 77 milli- grammes, or 1-2 grain of arsenious oxide, or half a fatal dose of the poison. Although arsenic is known not to be an accumulative poison, but to be gradually eliminated from the healthy body when very small quantities are taken at periods somewhat remote from each other, there was still no evidence to show that even such small quantities as were present in the samples of bismuth might not be absorbed and give rise to an appreciable accumulation of the poison. In order to ascertain exactly to how great an extent it is absorbed and retained when arsenical bismuth is taken, a given quan- tity of bismuth subnitrate was administered to a large and healthy dog three times daily with his food, in increasing doses. This was con- tinued for five weeks, when the dog was killed, twenty -four hours after the last dose was given. During the whole time he had taken a little more than a grain of arsenious oxide, and 2*38 milligrammes per day during the last three weeks. He was apparently unaffected by the bismuth. Only -00116 gramme of metal- lic arsenic was found in the stomach and in- testines, with unweighable mirrors or minute stains in the other organs, and but little ab- sorbed bismuth. It is concluded from these results that the greater part of the arsenic taken was not absorbed. The amount found in the alimentary canal was only one half the amount contained in the last three doses of bismuth taken, a portion of which remained in the alimentary canal at the time of death. This, then, was not absorbed arsenic, but sim- ply the amount contained in the bismuth still remaining in the alimentary canal. The un- weighable mirrors found in the liver, brain, and blood were, however, evidence of slight absorption. The non-absorption of arsenic is probably dependent upon the form in which it exists in the bismuth — that is, upon its in- solubility. The conclusion is drawn from tlie experiments that, while medicinal bismuth subnitrate contains a weighable quantity of arsenic, the poison was not present in the specimens experimented with, in a form capa- ble of being readily absorbed into the system. This fact, however, does not diminish the need of a preparation of bismuth entirely free from arsenic. M. Goppelsroeder has invented a method of what might be called dyeing by electricity, or of forming dye-stuffs by electrolysis. His pro- cess depends upon the decomposition of water in the galvanic battery, and upon the fact that coloring-matters may be produced by the oxi- dation of some substances and the deoxidation of others. To produce his dyes he dissolves organic matters, chiefly coal-tar products, which produce dyes by either action, in the acidulat- ed water which is to be decomposed by the battery. As the same substance may some- times give one color by oxidation and another by deoxidation, he separates the poles with- in the acidulated bath by interposing porous earthenware between them. The battery be- ing put in action, the coloring substances which are derived by oxidation are produced in the oxygen end of the bath, those derived by re- duction in the hydrogen end. With this pro- cess he has successfully produced aniline-black, different aniline-blues, Hoffmann's violet, arti- ficial alizarine, etc. ; and he exhibited at the Paris Exposition some fabrics beautifully col- ored with the dyes thus formed. MM. Latour and Dubreuil have described a new process for extracting sulphur. The method commonly employed in Sicily is by roasting the mineral by piling it into tower- like heaps, and making fires at the bottom. The sulphur melts and is collected, but only half of it is secured, for the rest is lost in the atmosphere as sulphurous and sulphuric acids. The process can be carried on only during a part of the year, for the acid vapors destroy all vegetation during the growing season. The new method consists in throwing the mineral into boilers containing chloride of calcium. When the mixture is heated to 248°, the sul- phur melts and sinks to the bottom of the boiler. As soon as the separation is completed the boiling liquid is poured off into another boiler, and is good to use again, without cool- ing. Extraction by this method secures nearly all of the sulphur, and can be carried on at all times, for it does not disengage any noxious gases. M. E. Houdard has described a process and CHEMISTRY. 91 apparatus for determining the sulphates con- tained in wines, by which as low a proportion as one half a gramme of sulphate per litre of wine can be ascertained, The process requires ten test-tubes placed in two parallel rows, five in each row ; a pipette of 25 c.c. graduated in five divisions, each of 5 c.c. ; a burette gradu- ated in five divisions from 0*5 c.c. to 2*5 c.c., each division consequently containing 0'5 c.c. Five cubic centimetres of the wine to be tested are put into each of the test-tubes of the first row ; Marty's standard liquid, 10 c.c. of which precipitate O'l gramme of potassium sulphate per litre, is then added, to the first tube 0'5 c.c., to the second 1-0 c.c., and so on, till the fifth tube receives 2'5 c.c. The contents of the five tubes are heated and filtered respect- ively into the five tubes of the second rank. It is then merely needful to add a drop of the standard liquid to each of the second set of tubes, and to notice in which tube it produces a faint turbidity. If, for instance, this turbid- ity appears in number 2 and not in number 3, it follows that the wine contains more than 2 grammes of potassium sulphate and less than 3 grammes. Mr. Charles W. Folkard, in criticising the processes of analysis for the determination of organic matter in potable waters, notices, as a defect of them all, that since the products of the decomposition of the organic matter are the same as the normal constituents of rain, viz., carbonic acid, ammonia, and nitric acid, it is impossible to ascertain whether those sub- stances were derived from contaminating bod- ies, or have been dissolved by the rain in fall- ing. It is possible in the oxidation method to determine approximately the minimum amount of contamination which has taken place since the water was precipitated as rain, by deduct- ing the average amount of nitrogen in water falling to the earth from the total amount found. But this affords no direct evidence as to the fitness of the water for dietetic pur- poses, because subsequent oxidation and fer- mentation may have rendered it to a great extent harmless. Regarding the subject in a biological aspect, the effect of mere dilution is hardly appreciable in disarming the germs of disease of their power. A single germ in a glass of water is competent to convey disease to a person sufficiently debilitated. It would be impossible to banish zymotic disease from towns the water of which contains the dejecta of persons suffering from the disease, even though in the most minute quantity. The very feeble would contract the complaint from the water, and from them it would spread to the robust around them. These germs are en- dowed with a most persistent vitality, and it appears that once-contaminated water is un- suited for dietetic purposes. Irrigation, chem- ical treatment, and filtration are alike power- less to effect a real purification of sewer-con- taminated water. The only way to ascertain if a sample of water is fit for drinking pur- poses is, in Mr. Folkard's opinion, to trace it to its source and see that contaminating mat- ter has been excluded from the time that the water fell as rain till it entered the reservoir or the engine-well. Dr. Edmund W. Davy, of the Royal College of Surgeons, Ireland, has applied a new and expeditious test for the determination of ni- trites in water, which is based upon the reac- tion of nitrous acid or a soluble nitrite on gallic acid. "When an aqueous solution of the latter acid is brought in contact with a soluble nitrite, the mixture, unless the amount of the latter substance present be very small, will soon ac- quire a yellow or yellowish-brown tint that will increase in depth up to a certain point, after which the color remains permanent, while at the same time minute globules of gas make their appearance in the mixture. If the quan- tity of nitrite present is exceedingly small, the reaction at the ordinary temperature will take some days, but may be made almost immediate by heating to the boiling-point. The depth or intensity of the color produced being in direct proportion to the amount of nitrite reacting on the gallic acid, the quantitative determina- tion of the nitrites may be conveniently ef- fected by comparing the color produced with that given by a standard solution containing a known quantity of nitrite. With this test, Dr. Davy has detected an amount of nitrite in water equivalent to one part of nitrous acid in twenty million parts of water. He is not pre- pared to say how much more delicate it may be. He considers it almost, if not quite as delicate, as Griess's test, and more convenient in many respects. The nitrates do not produce the reaction described, and do not affect the test, unless they are present in large quantities. IMPROVED APPARATUS. — C. R. Tichborne, F. R. S., describes a new form of apparatus for estimating ammonia in potable waters. It consists of a retort fitting air-tight into a fair- ly long-necked receiver, with an India-rubber stopper. To the receiver is attached a bent tube proceeding from its stopper and con- necting it with two bulb-tubes of a special form, somewhat similar to a flat Liebig's pot- ash bulb, but with two pear-shaped bulbs on each side to prevent regurgitation of the fluid, and three absorption-bulbs at the bottom, the center one of which is provided with a glass tap. The whole apparatus having been con- nected, and the two bulbs filled with water free from ammonia, the water to be examined is poured into the retort and distilled over gently. After the distillation is completed the most of the ammonia, if not all, will be found in the receiver, while any vapor which may have escaped will be found in the first, and any atmospheric ammonia which may have en- tered by regurgitation, in the second bulb-tube. Cross and Bevan's new apparatus for deter- mining melting-points consists of a small strip of thin sheet-iron, having a hole at one end to admit the bulb of the thermometer, fitting it CHEMISTRY. closely, and a small indentation near the other end. A glass float is also made and attached to a piece of platinum wire bent at right an- gles. To make an observation, a small quantity of the substance is melted in the indentation of the plate, and while still liquid the platinum wire of the float is placed in it and allowed to become fixed by cooling. The plate is then attached to the thermometer, and the whole is heated in mercury till the float is liberated by the melting of the substance. The thermome- ter tells the temperature. Andrews has described a simplified form of the air-thermometer of Crafts for determining temperatures above 350°C. The thermometer part consists of a capillary tube bent twice at right angles, on one end of which is a bulb of about one centimetre capacity, and on the other end a wider tube about fifteen centimetres long. At the point where the tube widens is a point of black glass to serve as an index, and in the middle of the wide tube is a glass cock. To the end of this wide tube is attached a rub- ber tube with two branches, one of which goes to a closed manometer and the other to a rub- ber bag. The bag, the manometer, and the wide tube are filled with mercury. To make an observation, the rubber bag is compressed till the mercury rises to the black glass index and the height of the mercury column in the manometer is noted. The thermometer is then exposed to the temperature to be measured, the column is again adjusted, and the new height ^ noted. From these data and the constants of the instrument the temperature may be calcu- lated. M. D'Arsonval has invented an apparatus for uninterruptedly preparing oxygen without the agency of heat. It is based upon the mutual decomposition of peroxide of hydrogen and chromic acid. The apparatus is composed of two flasks, one containing clippings of binoxide of barium, the other bichromate of potassium dissolved in hydrochloric acid in excess. The two flasks are connected by an India-rubber tube, which also conveys the stream of chromic solution to the binoxide of barium. The hy- drochloric acid in excess in contact with the binoxide produces peroxide of hydrogen, which, in contact with chromic acid, decomposes and causes the chromic acid to decompose. Thus a stream of oxygen is generated by two dis- tinct decompositions, and is easily regulated by controlling the flow of the liquid. Tommasi has described a simple apparatus, which he calls a dissocioscope, for showing the dissociation of ammoniacal salts. It consists of a tube of glass in which is suspended a slip of blue litmus-paper, previously moistened with a solution, completely saturated, and ex- actly neutral, of ammonium chloride. If the tube be plunged into a cylinder containing boiling water, the ammonium salt is dissociated and the^ blue litmus-paper becomes red. On placing it in cold water the dissociated ammo- nia and hydrogen chloride reunite, and the paper becomes blue again. This may be re- peated any number of times at pleasure. VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY. — Dr. E. Ray Lankes- ter controverts the assumption that chloro- phyl, under the influence of sunlight, has the property of decomposing carbonic acid. The action never takes place except when living protoplasm is present in intimate association with the chlorophyl, and Dr. Lankester ad- duces a number of facts to show that it is really due to the protoplasm. Among them is the fact that the rays absorbed by the chlorophyl are not the most efficient ones in promoting the decomposition, while light that has traversed a solution of chlorophyl is still competent to excite the chemical process in question. The action of light, on the other hand, on the chemical motion of protoplasm is known to be very important, in that it pro- motes oxidation and the decomposition and disruption of the protoplasmic parts of the cell; and Pringsheim has suggested that the true function of chlorophyl is by its general absorbent action on light to protect the proto- plasm of the cell from excessive oxidation, and especially the protoplasm of the chlorophyl corpuscles ; while the protoplasm of these cor- puscles, under the influence of the rays of light that pass the chlorophyl, decomposes carbonic acid and synthesizes starch. Dr. Lankester re- gards this explanation as reconciling the diffi- culties in the question. The fact, moreover, that in the organic world generally, the more complex chemical processes connected with nutrition and secretion appear to be carried on directly under the influence of the living sub- stance of the cells, renders it probable on a priori grounds that the living protoplasm is the active agent. M. Leon Bontroux, of Caen, has deduced from the examination of the ferments in fruits some facts that are interesting, though hardly conclusive, respecting their origin. Using Pas- teur's method for ascertaining whether a body is charged with ferments, he introduced the body, after employing all necessary precau- tions, into a wine-must deprived of germs, which was then raised to a temperature of 86°. The foreign organisms that were developed with the ferments were then eliminated by methodic cultivation. Certain green fruits, in- cluding black currants, gooseberries, raspber- ries, and barberries, seemed to bear peculiar alcoholic ferments normally on their surface. Other fruits — like strawberries, cherries, and currants — did not exhibit them ; but the most active ferments, those which produce wine, appeared suddenly on the ripe fruits. Seeking to find where the minute fungi that thus ap- pear exist during the growing season, M. Bon- troux discovered that they were borne in great abundance in nectariferous flowers, where the ferment grows at the expense of the saccharose of the nectar. This, then, is wrhere the fungus lives during the spring and summer previous to the maturation of the fruit. The transfer- CHEMISTRY. 93 ence of the ferment from the flower to the fruit remained to be accounted for. Thinking it might be due to the agency of insects, M. Bontroux examined the bees which frequented flowers in the nectar of which he had found the ferment-plants, and found the same kinds upon them. M. Bontroux explains the life- history of these organisms as follows: The ferments developed in flowers and fruits dur- ing the summer are preserved during the cold season, partly, perhaps, in the remains of plants, partly in the ground, and partly in the winter habitations of insects. In the spring, the germs that remain alive are borne by insects to the nectariferous flowers, where they are devel- oped; in summer they are cultivated from flower to flower, being sown from one to an- other by insects that visit them, and are car- ried to ripe fruits by the same agency. It has been in dispute whether plants absorb noxious substances which may be present in the soil, or have a capacity to discriminate against them. Freytag concluded, from ex- periments he made, that they have no discrim- inating power, but are compelled to take up whatever may be in the soil in a suitable form for assimilation. Liebig lias advanced the same doctrine, but it has been contradicted by the results of experiments made by other observ- ers. Mr. Francis 0. Phillips publishes, in the "Journal of the Franklin Institute," the re- sults of experiments which he made on this subject with selected plants, at Alleghany Park. His conclusions are, that healthy plants, grown under favorable circumstances, may absorb through their roots small quantities of lead, zinc, copper, and arsenic; that lead and zinc may enter the tissues in this way without causing any disturbance in the growth, nutri- tion, and functions of the plant, and that the compounds of copper and arsenic exert a dis- tinctly poisonous influence, tending, when pres- ent in large quantity, to check the formation of roots, and either killing the plant or so far reducing its vitality as to interfere with nutri- tion and growth. Freytag and others have supposed that the absorption of poisonous met- als causes no disturbance until a certain degree of concentration is reached, when the plant rapidly withers and dies; while others sup- pose that the plants absorb no such substances. The theory of Freytag seems to have the weight of facts in its favor, and if it is possible that crops may become charged in this way with poisonous elements of the soil, it becomes • a matter of the highest importance that, wher- ever there is danger of such impregnation, the most efficient means be employed for avert- ing it, for soil once impregnated with copper, lead, and zinc, may year after year bear crops poisoned in the same manner. Ad. Mayer has reinvestigated the question of the capacity of the leaves of plants to as- similate ammonia. He found it to exist in the higher plants, but that the legumes, which are believed to gather considerable quantities of nitrogen from the air, have no peculiar power in this respect. He infers that the prac- tical significance of the capacity is very small. Experiments by Hasselbarth and Wein indi- cate that while nitrates are readily assimilated by plants, ammonia is taken up with difficulty, if at all. The most noticeable recent experiments on the sources of the ash ingredients of plants are those of Grandeau on the functions of the so- called mature noire of fertile soils, or the black inorganic matter, insoluble in water or acids, but soluble in alkalies, which can be extracted from the soil by ammonia. Notwithstanding it has been made probable that the organic matter in the soil does not contribute directly, to any appreciable extent, to growth of the plant, those soils which are distinguished for their fertility in general contain much humus, and soils deficient in organic matter are usual- ly improved by adding humus to them. Gran- deau believes that the organic matter contrib- utes to this property by acting as a solvent by means of which the inorganic salts in the soil are embodied in a peculiar compound with it, and are thus taken up and supplied to the roots of the plant in an assimilable shape, and has published the results of a number of ex- periments made by him with the matiere noire of the Kussian " black earth " and with other soils, in support of his view. Professor H. P. Armsby suggests that the humus acts through its decomposition, by supplying carbonic acid as a solvent for the rock-dust with which it is intermixed. Hence, if by any means the or- ganic matter in the soil be increased, especial- ly if it be finely divided and uniformly distrib- uted, we have a considerable increase in the carbonic acid of the soil, and an increase in the rapidity of the solvent action which con- verts rock-dust into available plant-food. Add to this the solvent action of the acids formed by the decay of the organic matter, and the effect on the porosity, temperature, permeabil- ity, etc., of the soil, each in its. turn reacting on the rate of weathering as well as on the growth of the crop, and we can readily see why humus should have a high value in the soil. Moreover, the natural organic matter of the soil is a consequence as well as a cause of fertility. A large amount of humus in a soil implies an abundant previous growth of vegeta- tion, and this in its turn implies a soil of at least moderate original fertility. It is agreed that the greater part of the car- bon in plants is derived from the carbonic acid of the air ; but the question has been much discussed whether a part of it may not be de- rived directly from the carbon matters con- tained in fertile soils. A few experiments by Van Tieghem and Blociszewski in the growth of embryos deprived of their endosperm in arti- ficially-supplied albumen apparently confirmed the view that it might. Other experiments by Stutzer, in which it appeared that no growth took place when carboxyls only were present, 94 CHEMISTRY. but that alcohol groups were required, indi- cated that in all the cases of apparent direct conversion carbonic acid was first found and became actually free in the soil before assimi- lation took place. Experiments with chloro- phyl-free plants gave similar results. Stut- zer's conclusions were confirmed by Schmoger, who did not, however, regard them as deci- sive. Experiments with such organic matters as are found in the soil have in general given negative results. Experiments by Bohm and Moll seemed to show that plants were inca- pable of producing starch when supplied with carbon only through their roots. Leaves were separated from starch and arranged with the basal end in an atmosphere containing carbonic acid, and the other end in an atmosphere free from it; no formation of starch could be de- tected in the part of the leaf deprived of carbonic acid, although it took place vigorously in the other end. These experiments, as well as the very similar ones of Cailletet, while they do not conclusively show that plants may not assimi- late carbon from organic compounds, do show that under ordinary circumstances and in or- dinary soils the amount of carbon which plants obtain through their roots is, at least, too small to be of any practical significance. ANIMAL CHEMISTKY. — Eecent experiments by Messrs. Chittenden and Griswold on the dia- static action of saliva under various conditions have revealed the fact that human mixed saliva in the presence of an equal volume of artificial gastric juice containing *05 per cent of hydro- chloric acid is capable of forming, from a given quantity of starch, a much larger amount of sugar than the same quantity of saliva alone can do under a like degree of dilution ; this being the more remarkable, when it is remem- bered that the same percentage of acid by it- self greatly retards the diastatic action. This somewhat curious fact has led Mr. E. H. Chit- tenden, with Mr. J. S. Ely, to study the indi- vidual influence of several bodies of physio- logical importance on salivary fermentation. They directed their attention particularly to the inquiry whether many of the digestive pro- cesses in the body may not be more dependent for their fullest action on the stimulating or other influence caused by the mere presence of many of the digestive products, than has gen- erally been supposed. Several of the products of digestion, it is true, when present in the di- gestive mixture in excess, have been found to retard the digestive process; but there are no facts to warrant the belief that the products of one digestive process necessarily hinder the action of some other allied ferment ; for it is ordinarily understood that any accumulation of the digestive products simply hinders the action of their own particular ferment by clogging the digestive fluid. The results of their experiments show that peptones, a prod- uct of gastric digestion, exercise a decided in- fluence on salivary digestion, stimulating the ferment to increased action, particularly in the presence of acid which by itself completely prevents the conversion of starch into sugar. The ptomaines, alkaloids produced by the de- composition of animal bodies, appear to have been discovered simultaneously and independ- ently by M. A. Gautier, of France, and Pro- fessor Selmi, of Bologna. M. Gautier detected them in the course of chemical researches; Professor Selmi, while examining the fluids of a corpse in aid of a legal investigation. In the latter case, Professor Selmi detected the pres- ence of an alkaloid that could not be identified with any body whose reaction was known, and confirmed his discovery by repeated experi- ments. Afterward he found, in the scrapings of the skeletons of subjects that had been buried for six and eleven months, fixed and crystal- lizable alkaloids possessing special chemical and physiological properties. Some of them were extracted by ether, others by chloroform or amylic alcohol ; but, unfortunately, they were all yielded in extremely minute quantities. It is established by these experiments that an or- ganic poison may always be found in an ex- humed body, even when the person has not been poisoned. All bodies exhumed a month or two after death, all viscera preserved in bottles with or without alcohol, yield, when treated by Stass's method for the extraction of alkaloids, a certain quantity of ptomaines poisonous to animals that are made to take them. Although the existence and poisonous nature of the ptomaines have been proved, little has been determined concerning their chem- ical nature. Selmi has not isolated a pure ptomaine, nor has he made a salt or an analy- sis of them ; he has only given their reactions. They are bodies of energetic reducing powers. With sulphuric acid they produce a violet-red color, and give out an agreeable odor like that of the hawthorn when heated. In the pres- ent state of our knowledge, we are not author- ized to affirm that these alkaloids have pro- duced poisoning until we shall have been able to isolate them and characterize them individ- ually by the distinctive chemical reactions that are peculiar to them. The presence in a toxi- cological analysis of bodies presenting the gen- eral characters of the cyanic alkalies, and capable, like them, of causing the death of an- imals to which they are given experimentally, can not furnish a presumption of poisoning. INDUSTBIAL CHEMISTKY. — A new industry has recently been established in the Landes of France, in the extraction and applications of the oils of the pine. Two kinds of oils are extracted from this tree : heavy oils employed for painting and the preservation of woods, and lighter oils for the purposes of illumina- tion. Pinoleum, or the heavy oil of the pine, is obtained by distilling resinous woods at a low temperature. It is composed of essence of turpentine (35 per cent), metanaphth aline, resin-oil, phenic acid, creosote (40 per cent), and coal-tar, benzole, retene, etc. (25 per cent). It is valuable for the injection of CHEMISTRY. 95 woods, and might advantageously take the place of the metallic salts generally employed for that purpose. It is also capable of being very serviceable in painting. The lighter oil for illumination is extracted directly from the wood by submitting it to distillation in spe- cial apparatus, and treating the product with chemical purifying agents. The oil thus pre- pared is of a light yellowish color, and may be used immediately. Belonging to the cate- gory of essential oils and being isomeric with the essence of turpentine, this oil has the same composition (OaoHie), and is distilled at the same temperature, 300° to 340°, but has the great advantage over turpentine of not form- ing resin and of not containing pinic or sylvic acid. It is wholly inexplosible, and is there- fore perfectly safe as a light ; and its light is one third brighter than that of petroleum, since it contains 88 per cent of carbon to 82 per cent in petroleum. Professor Baeyer has communicated a favor- able account of the progress which is making in the manufacture of artificial indigo at Lud- wigshafen, and of the application of the dye to cloth - printing. A cheap cinnamic acid to serve as the base for the preparation is made directly by fusing benzyl chloride with ace- tate of soda, the operation being carried on in large boilers fitted with mechanical stirrers. The cinnamic acid is then treated, by hundred- weights at a time, with nitric acid and the sub- stances required in the successive processes leading to the formation of propiolic acid. The last substance is precipitated from the solution of the soda salt by means of an acid, and, after washing, is sent to market as a paste. Artifi- cial indigo is not itself manufactured at the works, but the coloring-matter is deposited by the printer in the fiber of the cloth from propi- olic acid, as is aniline black from aniline. For this purpose a mixture of propiolic acid and xanthate of soda, to which a proper amount of thickening has been added, is printed on the cloth. The color makes its appearance on exposure to the air. It is found to be fast, and exhibits the characteristic tints of indigo in both light and dark shades. The processes of preparation and conversion, though long, work so well that the whole can be carried out with perfect ease. The only serious imperfection in the series is the loss of 40 per cent of cin- namic acid in the form of para-nitro-cinnam- ic ether. Professor Roscoe suggests that the difficulty arising from this source may possibly receive a solution from the recent researches of Otto Fischer on the synthesis of the rosan- iline dyes by means of para-nitro-benzalde- hyde, a body obtained by the limited oxidation of para-nitro-cinnamic acid. At the time Pro- fessor Baeyer visited the manufactory, 200 kilogrammes of propiolic acid paste, contain- ing 25 per cent of the dry acid, were produced every day, and sold at the price of ten shillings per kilogramme. M. Pechiney, of the chemical works at Se- lindres, France, has made important improve- ments in the manufacture of the chlorates, whereby the loss of from 15 to 25 per cent of the total incurred in the manufacture of chlorate of potash by the ordinary method is reduced to one of below 5 per cent. In the method of preparation heretofore pursued, of treating milk of lime with chlorine and adding potassium chloride to the resulting "crude chlorate liquor," a mixture of two parts of potassium chlorate and about seven parts of calcium chloride is formed, from which it has been impossible to extract more than from 75 to 85 per cent of the chlorate of potash in any satisfactory state of purity. In this process the calcium chloride is separated by evaporat- ing to a suitable degree of density, crystalliz- ing by cooling to between 10° and 12° 0., add- ing to the mother-liquor water and lime, and heating to determine the formation of oxy- chloride of lime, till only three tenths of an equivalent are left. The solution obtained, after the calcium chloride is separated, can now be made, by adding potassium chloride aa before, to yield 95 per cent of the chlorate of potash in clear crystals. The solution of cal- cium chlorate obtained as above, treated with sodium sulphate, is made to yield chlorate of soda, and this is used with most excellent effect as an oxidizing agent in the process of dyeing aniline-black with the salts of vanadium, for the removal of the surplus aniline and the fixing of the color. M. Pechiney has also introduced a process for recovering sulphur from soda waste by injecting air into the "yellow liq- uor " till the right point of oxidation has been reached, and decomposing with hydrochloric acid. A precipitation of lime takes place dur- ing the process, and this facilitates the opera- tion by rendering a less quantity of the acid necessary. ANTISEPTICS. — Professor Barff has intro- duced a new antiseptic compound which is adapted to preserve food in a fresh state for any length of time, and appears to be superior to any other application for the purpose. It is called boro-glyceride, and is obtained by heating together boracic acid and glycerine in the proportion of 62 parts of the former sub- stance to 92 of the latter, when it is produced as a hard, ice-like substance. For use it is mixed with about fifty times its own weight of water. A gallon of the mixture, which costs less than an English shilling, will preserve as much meat as can be surrounded by it in any containing vessel. It can be used by untrained persons, and the same liquid may be employed over and over again. The quality of the work of this preservative was proved before the Society of Arts by the exhibition of articles that had been kept in it for several months, and were still perfectly fresh and retained their distinct natural flavors. Its innocuous- ness is proved by the fact that milk treated with it was used at a college near London, containing three hundred persons, during all 96 CHEMISTRY. the summer months of 1881, without any one suspecting the presence of anything unusual. Remarkable antiseptic properties have been discovered in peroxide of hydrogen by MM. Paul Bert and P. Kegnard. It immediately and definitely arrests all fermentation due to an organized ferment, and kills the ferment, BO that the fermentation does not recommence, even after the removal of the hydrogen perox- ide by one of the substances that destroy it most rapidly. It also arrests the putrefaction of all substances which do not decompose it. At the same time, it has no effect on diastase fermentations, and the gastric and pancreatic fluids continue to act in solutions containing it. MM. Bert and Regnard further announce, as results of their investigations, that dilute hydrogen peroxide is not destroyed by fats, starches, soluble ferments, egg-albumen, casein, the peptones, creatine, creatinine, or urea; it is rapidly destroyed by nitrogenous collagens, by musculin, fibrin of the blood, and various nitro- genous vegetable matters ; and that this action is definitely arrested by a temperature above TO 0. (140° Fahr.). Putrefaction, however, leaves the peroxide entirely intact. Acting upon the suggestions of these investigations, MM. Pean and Baldy, of the Hospital St. Louis, have used the peroxide as an antiseptic in sur- gery, with very successful results. They find that, when containing from two to six times its volume of oxygen, it appears to be capable of advantageously replacing alcohol and car- bolic acid. It can be employed externally, for the dressing of wounds and ulcerations of all natures, in injections and in vaporization, and internally. Satisfactory results have been ob- tained from its use in old wounds as well as fresh ones; and the general as well as local state appears to be favorably influenced by it. It has the advantage over carbolized water, of being free from all poisonous effects and un- pleasant odor, while its application is entirely painless. Peroxide of hydrogen for surgical use must be entirely neutral. That obtained in commerce contains a considerable quantity of sulphuric acid, and is therefore not wholly safe. Dr. R. Koch having remarked that the only substances worthy of the name of disinfectants are chlorine, bromine, iodine, mercuric chlo- ride, and perhaps potassium permanganate, and having particularly disputed the antiseptic properties of zinc chloride, Fr. Boillat calls attention to the fact that for a substance to be an antiseptic it is not necessary for it actually to destroy the germs. In the antiseptic treat- ment of wounds it would be impossible to em- ploy such violently acting substances as those mentioned by Koch. All that is necessary is the presence of substances capable in some way of restraining the development of the gorms, and such substances may from that fact properly be called antiseptics. Many antisep- tics have the power of coagulating proteids. Among these is zinc chloride, and Boillat found by experiments that coagula prepared with that substance required from thirty-one to forty- five days for bacteria to appear in them, while in serum, gelatine, and phenol albuminates pre- pared at the same time, the bacteria appeared in one or two days. Applied to the surface of a wound, zinc chloride forms a superficial coat- ing of the neutral zinc albuminate, which af- fords no means for the bacteria to develop, and protects the parts under it. PETEOLEUM-TESTS. — Engler and Haas have thoroughly tested the different forms of ap- paratus in use for the determination of the flashing-point of petroleum, and find that all those are worthless in which the determina- tion is made indirectly by measuring the ten- sion of its vapor ; because the tension of the vapor of petroleum and its inflammability stand in no simple relations to each other. Those tests in which the petroleum is heated in an open vessel have also been found to give unreliable results. Among these is the Say- bolt tester, used in the United States, which gives results that are too high. Many of those testers in which the oil is heated in closed ves- sels were found to be constructed on false principles. The following principles have been laid down as those which ought to be kept in mind in testing petroleum, or in judging of the efficiency of the testing apparatus : The quan- tity of petroleum used in each case must be the same, and for each separate test a fresh portion must be taken. The heating must be uniform and slow, and the heating period should extend over 10° ; while those oils whose flashing-point is but little above the tempera- ture of the air should be cooled about 10° be- fore heating. The intensity of the ignition flame and its distance from the surface of the oil must be the same in all the tests. If the size of this flame be increased and its distance from the oil be diminished, the flashing-point will be lowered. The ignition flame must never be so near the oil as to cause local vaporization, and for this reason its time of action should be reduced to a minimum. In general, the con- ditions for the formation of combustible gases in the testing apparatus should resemble as nearly as possible those which occur in lamps or in petroleum-stoves. Victor Meyer's method, in which a closed cylinder, one fifth filled with oil, is heated in a water-bath to a desired tem- perature, and is then taken out and shaken vio- lently and tested with a gas-jet, was found to possess the advantages claimed by its author, and to give a fairly accurate test. Abel's test, adopted by the English and German Govern- ments, employs an air-bath inclosed by a water-bath, to" insure a slow heating of the oil, and may be tried and read at any time by merely opening the lid of the vessel. Its values are, however, regarded as too low. Skalneit has suggested that the specific gravity, the boiling-point, and the index of refraction of petroleum, be used in judging of its quality ; but Engler and Haas have arrived at the con- CHEMISTRY. CHILL 97 elusion, after experiment, tliat neither of these properties can be used as an accurate gauge. The best results were obtained with instru- ments made by the authors themselves, and provided with arrangements for exploding the vapor by means of an electric spark. The in- struments of both are complicated, and require considerable skill on the part of the operator. Haas's apparatus is a clever modification of Victor Meyer's. Mr. Peter T. Austen, who also has investigated in this line, remarks that Meyer's and Haas's methods are both depend- ent for reliable results upon the interval of time that is allowed between the shaking, and objects to the necessity of repeating the shak- ing from degree to degree as an unpleasant feature of them. Liebermann's apparatus is free from these objections. In it a current of air is forced through the heated petroleum, so that it is charged with petroleum-vapor, and is tested from time to time with a lighted match or small flame. The apparatus has the recom- mendation of simplicity of construction and manipulation, and gives concordant results. Mr. Austen has adopted a modification of Lie- bermann's apparatus and method, in which the supply of air from a source of compressed air is regulated and controlled by a pinchcock on India-rubber tubing, so that a foam of about a half a centimetre is maintained on the surface of the oil, and the test is made from degree to degree by applying a small blow-pipe flame or a match. It is noteworthy that a slow continu- ous current of air gives a considerably higher flashing-point. The rapid current is effective by bringing the vapor to the mouth of the tube, and diluting it sufficiently to form an ex- plosive mixture. In all the apparatus sug- gested by Meyer's principle the determinations are largely independent of the size or shape of the oil-holder, the quantity of oil, the means of ignition, the distance of the spark or flame from the surface of the oil, and the rapidity of the heating ; and in Mr. Austen's application the determination of the flashing-point be- comes as easy and trustworthy an operation as that of determining the boiling-point, while the results have a significance wholly wanting to those obtained by the older methods. ISOLATION OF CAESIUM. — The isolation of cae- sium, hitherto unachieved on account of the extreme affinity of the metal for oxygen, has been effected by Carl Setterberg, by the elec- trolysis of a fused mixture of caesium and ba- rium cyanides. Thus prepared, it is a metal very similar to the other alkali metals, silver- white, very soft and ductile, having a melting- point of 26-5° C. (82° Fahr.), and a specific grav- ity of 1-88. On exposure to the air it ignites spontaneously, and if thrown upon water it burns like potassium, sodium, and rubidium. Setterberg has proved anew that in conse- quence of the affinity of the metal for oxygen and the volatility of its salts, the preparation of caesium by igniting its carbonate along with carbon — according to the ordinary method for VOL. xxii. — 7 A obtaining rubidium and potassium — is quite "ble. CHILI (REpfrBLicA DE CHILE). To the gen- eral statements of area, territorial divisions, population, etc., given in preceding volumes, it may here be added that the population* on January 1, 1880, has been reported at 2,183,- 434. The President of the Republic is Sefior Don Domingo Santa-Maria, inaugurated September 18, 1881, for the usual term of five years. The Cabinet was composed, April, 1882, of the following ministers: Interior, Senor Don J. M. Balmaceda; Foreign Affairs and Colo- nization, Sefior Don L. Aduante; Finance, Sefior Don P. L. Cuadra ; Justice, Public Wor- ship, and Public Instruction, Sefior Don J. E. Yergara ; and War and the Navy, Sefior Don C. Castellon. The regular army comprised, in 1881, 10 gen- erals, 21 colonels, 77 lieutenant-colonels, 103 majors, 191 captains, and 513 lieutenants, to- gether 915 officers; ten battalions (9,040 men) foot, three regiments (1,296 men) horse, and two regiments (2,100 men) artillery; total strength of army, 12,436. The National Guard counts 20,400 men enlisted. The navy in the same year embraced two iron-clad frigates, one monitor, two corvettes, two gunboats, six steamers, one sailing-frigate, three pontoons, and a number of smaller steam- ers— the whole equipped by 1,200 sailors. Navy officers : one vice-admiral, four coun- ter-admirals, eleven captains of ships-of-the- line, ten captains of frigates, twenty -two cap- tains of corvettes, forty -five lieutenants, and forty-two enrolled cadets. FINANCES. — The latest report of the Minister of Finance submitted to Congress renders an account of the actual workings of the Treasury in 1881. According to this document, the reve- nue of the republic in that year aggregated $36,- 434,721, toward which income the custom- house contributed $22,425,045 ; internal reve- nue (stamps, etc.), $6,114,138; revenue from monopolies, $2,549,376; the post-office, $309,- 288; railroads, $4,418,980 ; and sundries, $61 7,- 891. This shows that the Government collect- ed, in 1881, $10,492,721 more than the pre- ceding year. This excess of revenue resulted from an increased income from duties, war contributions paid by the enemy, guano, and railroads. On the other hand, less revenue was derived in 1881 from the mint, nitrate, and monopolies. The actual expenditure, part of which went toward covering deficiencies in 1880, was $36,604,562. Of this amount only $16,000,000 were spent to meet the require- ments of the ordinary budget, the balance be- ing absorbed by the war, the working of nitrate- of-soda deposits, etc. During the first quarter of 1882 the ordinary revenue yielded $17,537,131, and the extraor- dinary revenue $1,291,857; it was estimated by the minister that the former would prove * See " Annual Cyclopaedia " for 1879. 98 CHILL to have yielded in 1882 $34,352,000, and the latter $1,452,100. If to this there is added a balance that accrued to the Treasury from 1881, the minister calculates that the aggregate rev- enue for 1882 will have reached $41,222,570, against a budget of outlays voted by Congress of $25,562,838. But to this latter amount there will still have to be added about $12,000,000 war expenditure and $6,174,700 to be used in February and March, 1883, toward canceling bonds under the 1876 and 1877 loans falling due. On the other hand, the minister expects to save in the way of expenses $4,000,000, which would enable him to transfer to the credit of 1883 $1,500,000. For the latter year he estimates an income of $36,462,000, and outlays to the amount of $34,770,000. The to- tal amount of bonds due that were to be paid off early in 1883 was $10,000,000. The foreign national debt of Chili amounted, in accordance with this officer's report, to $34,- 870,000 on June 30, 1882 ; the home debt to $56,546,584. The former involved at the time an annual payment of interest of $1,944,237, and the latter of $1,837,630. Add to this $2,- 010,089 going toward the sinking fund, and $1,500,000 loss in exchange (premium on the gold to be remitted to Europe for coupons), and it will be seen that Chilian expenditure under this head amounted to $6,891,956 in 1882. The report of the Minister of the Interior dwells on the tranquillity prevailing throughout the republic on the occasion of the transfer of powers when the new President took charge of the affairs of the country in 1881, as well as when the congressional and local elections took place. He mentions that several reform bills are submitted to Congress bearing on elec- tions in the departments, and the rights of and protection to citizens, etc. Furthermore, Con- gress is urged to elaborate a law reforming the management of Government railroads, the ad- ministration of the latter at present being split into two distinct departments, in lieu of which it is proposed to substitute a central one. RAILROADS. — The total length of these Gov- ernment lines is at present 947 kilometres (equal to 597 miles), built at an aggregate cost of $40,- 000,000. The net earnings of the Valparaiso- Santiago line have been, in 1881, $948,896, being $83,206 less than in 1880, but the Govern- ment has availed itself of the line for transport- ing troops, ammunition, etc., to the amount of $217,567, which have to be added to the above earnings. There were forwarded 847,415 pas- sengers against 662,185 in 1880; goods, 445,566 tons, being 3,742 tons in excess of 1880. The Southern Railroad shows net earnings $894,445 greater than in 1880. Congress sanctioned in 1882 the ensuing lines, and ordered the necessary surveys in con- sequence: Serena-Rivadivia ; Quilpe-Santiago ; Pelequen to Peuino; Parral to Cauquenes; Co- hihue-Mulchen, and Robleria-Fort Victoria. The Government recommends the building of three additional lines, viz. : a branch line on the Central Railroad from Mapocho to the Condes mines ; from Palmilla to Matanzas, and from Concepcion to Coronel, and a new tram- way at Santiago. A number of new iron bridges were ordered to be built over various rivers at a total expenditure of $268,697. Total length of lines of railroads in opera- tion early in 1881, 1,689 kilometres, or 1,064 miles. STATISTICS. — The Chilian mails forwarded in 1881, altogether: 8,872,234 letters, being 588 more than in 1880; 19,142 sample packages, and 11,640,060 newspapers, being 656,623 more than the previous year. The post-office netted, in 1881, $208,039, being $24,922 in excess of the year preceding. Postal orders paid $899,- 866. To the 5,534 miles of telegraph in operation in Chili in 1881, there were to be added without delay 2,910 miles. The duplex system prevails on these lines. There were sent, in 1881, 287,- 476 messages, for which the sum of $84,671 was collected, being $51,466 more than the previous year. The Government forwarded and received 159,999 messages besides, paying for the same $159,999, being $90,281 more than in 1880. The latest census statistics, those of 1881, show the populations of the principal cities, with the municipal expenditure set against each item : Santiago, 208,708 souls, city dues paid, $1,174,882; Valparaiso and the suburb Vina del Mar, 96,558, $620,754; Talca, 91,645, $106,210; Copiapo, 32,659, $105,916; andRan- cagua, 18,334, $103,898. COMMERCE. — Trade statistics for 1881 show a notable increase of importation into Chili, as compared with the previous year. Thus, there were imported $39,564,814 worth of merchandise and specie in 1881 (of the latter only $433,692), against $29,716,004 (the latter amount including $29,427 specie) in 1880. Chilian exports reached in 1880 only $51,- 648,000; in 1881 they amounted, inclusive of specie and goods re-exported, to no less than $60,525,859. The increase of imports was : from England, 31 per cent; Germany, 54 per cent; France, 27 per cent; Peru, 121 per cent; the Argen- tine Republic, 39 per cent; and the United States, 5 per cent; the decrease from Spain was 55 per cent ; Belgium, 37 per cent ; and Paraguay, 89 per cent. CHIEF IMPORTS. 1880. 1881. $13 398,824 $17 589 267 4,185,642 7,885,870 " France 4,399,035 5,588,916 " Peru 1,113,726 2.905,049 " Argentine Republic " United States 1,465,063 1,667,078 2,032,517 1,748,184 The principal articles of import from Chili into the United States are nitrate and wool. Of the former, there were received, in the fiscal year 1881, 23,941 tons; of wool, 1,852,721 pounds. CHILI. 99 The leading European nations, on the other hand, take nearly all the copper, the bulk of the nitrate and wool, and all the wheat and barley shipped abroad by Chili, leading to an extensive trade by both direct steamship lines with some of those nations, and by sailing-ves- sels, thus reducing the freight rates, and ren- dering American competition extremely diffi- cult in anything but specialties produced better and cheaper in the United States than else- where. Our heaviest export to Chili is made up of plain cotton fabrics. The re-establishment of peace is not likely to produce much of change in this respect, but it will by degrees restore to us a valuable Pe- ruvian trade. The Chilian export movement in 1881 em- braced the ensuing items : Products of the mines $47,145,757 Agricultural products 9,967,780 Manufactures 107,593 feundry other articles 262,801 Merchandise ... ... $577483^981 Specie 1,582,277 Total $59,066,208 Re-exported merchandise $1,327,041 Specie 132,610 1,459,651 Total $60,525,859 There has been a falling off, as compared with 1880, of $1,000,000 in copper exporta- tion, and $2,000,000 in that of silver; but ni- trate of soda has been rapidly on the increase since Chili occupied TarapacA, and its export amounted, in 1881, to $22,891,000. EXPORT OP ALL KINDS OP COPPER PROM CHILI, DURING TWENTY YEARS, IN FINE COPPER, IN TONS OP 2,240 POUNDS. YEAR. 1862 43,109 1863 «2 Mn YEAR. 1869 54867 YEAR. 1876 1877... 1878 1879 1880 . 50,740 . 45,400 .. 46,770 . 49,890 .. 42,990 1870 49 139 1864. . 1865. . 1866. 1867. . 1868. . . 47,500 . 48,327 . 44,820 . 44,654 . 48,669 1871 . 41,200 1872 1873 . 46.337 1874 1881 .. 87,500 1875 . 45^430 The decrease in the production of copper is due to the drafting of miners into the army. As soon as a treaty of peace between the bel- ligerents shall have been signed, it is expected that Chili will be able to withdraw from Peru and Bolivia 20,000 of the 32,000 soldiers form- ing the present army of occupation, and that the output of the Chilian copper and silver mines will gradually recover from its recent comparative decline. CHILIAN WHEAT EXPORTATION. YEAR. Ton.. 1872 878,400 1878 459,900 1874 856,800 1875 889,100 1876 845,000 Total 1,929,200 Total 1,718,800 Scarcity of hands, through drafting into the army, and less abundant crops, have caused the falling off noticeable above. As for the vicissitudes of the war in 1882, YEAR. Tons. 1877 299,600 1878 273,800 1879 875,000 1880 411,400 1881 859,000 we refer to the details given in this volume under " PERU." Negotiations for the re-estab- lishment of peace, with and without mediation, both American and European, have followed each other in rapid succession without lead- ing to any practical result. The retention of Tarapaca by Chili, the latter makes a condition sine qua non, the latest proposition in addi- tion thereto on her part being that Tacna and Arica be given to Bolivia, so that the latter may form a barrier between the Chilian ac- quisition of Tarapaca, and Peru, and at the same time restore to Bolivia an outlet to the Pacific, which she possessed before the war, though of less magnitude and value than the one now proposed by Chili. THE COUNTRY. — Count Eugene de Robiano, who traveled throughout the republic in 1882, has just published a book on Chili, entitled " Le Chili, 1'Araucanie et le detroit de Magellan " (the house of Plon, Paris, publishers), in which we find the ensuing introductory passage: " Chili, together with Brazil, is of all South American countries the one whose progress has been most astonishing the last twenty years, and the state of civilization there reached places Chili in the first rank among those nations liv- ing at a great distance from us whose future seems safest." The fertile plateau stretching through a great portion of Chili parallel with the coast, be- tween the Cordilleras of the Andes and the coast-range of mountains, Count Robiano de- scribes in about the following words: "This central valley, as may be supposed, varies a good deal in breadth, and does so to an equal extent as regards its products, which embrace mineral ores, cattle, vines, and cereals. Irri- gation is, however, necessary, there being hardly any rain, but plenty of streams from the Cordilleras. Chili produces not only the cereals, etc., of Europe, but also tropical fruits. The climate is probably the most healthy on earth, while in point of minerals its deposits are almost inexhaustible." The vigor and enterprise with which Chili pushes into the country of the semi-barbarous Araucanian Indians, one of its possessions, Count Robiauo dwells on at great length, and so does a correspondence from Chili we find in the " Norddeutsche Allgemeine Zeitung." A passage from the latter reads about as fol- lows: "Our readers are probably aware that of the eighteen provinces into which Chili is divided, the two southernmost — Valdivia and Llanquihue — have, since 1848, become prosperous German settlements. These two provinces are separated from the north of Chili by Araucania, a strip of land where hitherto the Pehuenches, a tribe of wild In- dians, held exclusive sway. While Spain has, during three centuries, been unable to subdue these barbarians, Chili has not been more suc- cessful than the mother-country in this re- spect till within the past few years, for the Araucanians restricted their defense to a guer- 100 CHINA. rilla warfare. For some years past the Arau- canians have gradually been shut in by a circle of forts, which circle has gone on narrowing, and a railway has been pushed all the way to Angol, into the very heart of Araucania, a city founded only fifteen years since. Now the ter- ritory makes good agricultural headway, so that wheat and wine are for some years past exported from there on an extended scale. Two passes, or 'boquetes,' across the Andes, however, remain open, and thence the Arau- canian and Argentine Pampa Indians occasion- ally make raids into that portion of Chili. An expedition has been set on foot from Angol for the purpose of building forts at the entrance of the ' boquetes ' named, and the Government has proposed to Congress the construction of a railroad from Angol to Valdivia. This matter is to be pushed through without delay. The railroad will run all the way through the cen- ter of the valley situate between the Cordille- ras and the coast-range from Valparaiso in a southerly direction, with three intersecting lines at suitable distances to connect the Cor- dilleras with the seaports that may be selected. This entire railway is to be built out of a $6,- 000,000 surplus which the republic will have at its disposal early this year after paying off $10,000,000 of the public debt. As soon as 20,000 men of the army of occupation return, after peace shall have been concluded, pros- perity in Chili will make still more extraor- dinary strides." CHINA, an autocratic empire in Asia, em- bracing the eighteen provinces of China prop- er, the province of Liautung outside the wall, the dependencies of Mantchooria, Mongolia, and Thibet, and the vassal kingdom of Corea, and possessing undefined suzerain powers over the kingdoms of the Malay Peninsula. Tsaifien, the present Emperor, is a child, horn in 1871, who succeeded to the throne by proclamation on the demise of T'oung-che in 1875, who died in his eighteenth year without appointing his successor. The proclamation was the result of an intrign.e of the Empress Regent, widow of the Emperor Hienfung, and Prince Ch'un, his brother and Tsait'ien's father. Tsait'ien is the ninth Emperor in the Tartar line of Tsing, which succeeded the native dynasty of Ming in 1644. The government is regulated by the principles laid down in the book of Ta-tsing- hwei-tien and the writings of Confucius. The administration is directed by the Interior Coun- cil Chamber, consisting of four members, two of Tartar and two of Chinese origin, with two religious and legal advisers who see that their acts conform to the fundamental laws. There are under them six boards, each presided over by a Tartar and a Chinese : the board of civil appointments; of revenues, or finances; of rites and ceremonies; of the army; of public works ; of criminal jurisdiction. AREA AND POPULATION. — The area and popu- lation of the eighteen provinces are officially returned as follow : PROVINCES. Area: English square miles. Population. Population per square mile. Chihli 68,949 27 990 871 475 (Shantung 65,104 28,958,764 444 Shansi 55,268 14004210 253 Honan 65,104 23037 171 354 Kiangsu 44,500 37,848 501 850 48461 34 168 059 705 Kiangsi 72,176 23 046 999 820 Chehkiang 89.150 26 256 784 671 Fukien £3,480 14,777 410 276 Hupeh 70,450 27,370,098 889 84000 18 652 507 228 Bhensi . . 67400 10 207 256 152 Kansuh . . . 86608 15193125 175 Szechuen 166,800 21,435 678 128 Kwangtung 79,456 19,174 030 241 Kwangsi 78 250 7 313 895 93 Kweichow . . 64554 5 288 219 82 Yiinnan 107.969 5 561 320 51 Shengking 227,274 2,167,286 10 Total 1 534 953 362 447 188 286 These returns are probably excessive. The population was formerly greater, being re- turned in 1840 as 414,686,994, or 320 to the square mile, and in 1852 as high as 450,000,- 000, or 347 to the square mile. Intestine wars and famines have since reduced the population to probably not more than 300,000,000. The extent of the outlying provinces and dependen- cies can be only vaguely determined, as their population and area are a matter of estimate, and the limits of the actual rule of the Chinese Government are shifting and uncertain. Ac- cording to estimates of the missionaries the total area and population of the Chinese Em- pire are as follow : DIVISIONS. Area. Population. China proper Dependencies : Alantchooria Kng. sq. miles. 1,534,953 862 313 862,447,183 8 000 000 Mongolia 1,288 035 2.000 000 Thibet 643,734 6,000,000 90 300 8 000 000 2982 1 000 000 Total 3 922,317 88? 447 188 The foreign population was returned in 1879 as 3,995, the majority residing at Shanghai. The number of British was 2,070 ; of Ameri- cans, 469; of Germans, 364; of French, 225. MILITARY. — There are two distinct bodies of soldiery — 1. The Mantchoo, Mongol, and Chi- nese Bannermen, distributed in permanent garrisons in the great cities, and representing the army with which the Mantchoo Tartars conquered and occupied China in 1644; and, 2. The native Chinese army, stationed in a great number of commands, each capable of muster- ing from 20,000 to 100,000 men in time of war, and performing police duties in time of peace. The foundation of a modern navy was first laid by the purchase of some ironclad gun- boats in 1877. An ironclad man-of-war was completed in Germany in 1881. FINANCES.— The public revenues, derived from land, grain, and license taxes, and from import and export duties, are estimated to be CHINA. 101 about $125,000,000 a year. The customs re- ceipts only are published. These increased from 7,872,257 Haikwan taels (the Haikwan tael = $1.50) in 1864 to 12,483,988 in 1878. The largest receipts are from export customs. The army consumes about $75,000,000 of the revenues. There is a small public debt paying eight per cent interest, contracted abroad in two loans, one of $3,138,375 in 1874, the other of $8,021,380 in 1878. COMMERCE. — The total imports in 1880 amounted to $118,940,000, and the exports to $116,825,000. In ten years the imports had increased 19 and the exports 27 per cent. There are twenty-two ports opened to foreign commerce since 1854 by treaty, although one of them, Nanking, has not been thrown open. The largest share of the foreign trade is with Great Britain, which received from China in 1880 146,081,679 pounds of tea, valued at £7,- 701,804, and £2,650,085 worth of raw silk, and imported into China £3,498,684 worth of cotton manufactures, £867,420 of woolens, and £698,201 of other goods, besides £3,778,- 201 of imports, mostly cotton manufactures, imported through Hong-Kong. The progress of China in adopting Western arts and commer- cial methods is retarded by the abuses of the system of Chinese officialism, as well as by the conservative prejudices of the people. The patronage of powerful mandarins is required to protect every novel enterprise of importance, and this is only to be obtained by sharing the profits with the patrons. The oldest under- taking of the kind, the China Merchants' Steam Navigation Company, has prospered in the end through the interest and support of Li Hung Chang. The company started in 1872 with two small steamers purchased at exorbitant prices from an English corporation. A subsidy in the form of liberal freights on the rice sent to the Mantchoo garrisons in Peking enabled them to compete successfully with the foreign vessels for the coasting-trade. They purchased other vessels, and in 1877 bought out the Shanghai steamship line with borrowed money, part of it advanced by the Government. The company was enabled to pay interest by the subsidies, but could not have long continued in existence, as the debts far exceeded the value of the vessels. The share capital stood at 751,000 taels and the borrowed capital at 3,800,000 taels in 1878. A reform in the management was instituted. The officials and their friends who had ob- tained places in return for the Government loans were dismissed, and their peculations stopped. This with the revival in trade has enabled the directors in three years to reduce the debt, lower the capitalization to something like the value of the fleet, and report a net profit of 21 instead of 7 or 8 per cent on the capital employed. The share capital was given in 1881 as 1,000,000, and the borrowed capi- tal as 2,600,000 taels, 1,500,000 of which were Government loan. In addition to their coast- ing business, the company has attempted to run packets to San Francisco and tea-ships to London. A Eussian and Danish company completed a telegraph line from Shanghai to Tientsin at the end of 1881. The enormous coal deposits which are scattered all over the eighteen provinces have only been begun to be worked. In Formosa the Government started mines in 1876, employing an English engineer. The works were not commercially successful at first; yet the output increased from 14,000 tons in 1878 to 30,000 tons in the first six months of 1881. The coal sells at $2.50 a ton, the cost of mining being only $1.34; but embarkation is difficult. At Kai- ping, near Tientsin in North China, a private company, encouraged by Li-Hung-Chang, is working rich beds, four to six feet thick. A woolen factory established in Lan Chowfoo, in the remote province of Kansuh, with public means by Tso - Tsung - t'ang, produces cloth very cheaply, though the quality of the wool thus far received is inferior. AGRICULTURE. — In the vast territory of the Celestial Empire some district is stricken with famine nearly every year by drought, floods, or locusts, if not in consequence of an insur- rection. In 1882 a rise of the Yangtse and its tributaries, caused by a heavy rain-fall com- ing at the time of the melting of the snows in Central Asia, overflowed large tracts of rice- land. The cultivators of China are extremely poor, never accumulating capital. This may be owing to the land laws, although they cor- respond to some of the advanced ideas of modern agrarian theorists. All waste lands belong to the crown, but whoever brings them under tillage acquires a clear title, and can freely sell the property. The property of a decedent passes to his male children in equal shares, and can not be bequeathed away from them. The greater part of the soil is owned in small parcels, or from five acres down to a sixth of an acre. The possessor of ten acres is considered well-to-do, and the owner of an estate of a thousand acres is accounted a mill- ionaire. Over two thirds of the land is culti- vated by tenants on the metayer, or half-profit system ; the landlord providing the houses and paying the tax, which amounts to 10 per cent of the net returns, and the cultivator the sim- ple implements besides his labor. One bad season reduces these tenants to beggary. EVENTS OF THE YEAR. — The most important events to chronicle are the removal of the prejudices and the obstacles connected with the official system to the introduction of the material improvemonts of European civiliza- tion. The Kaiping coal -mining operations were nearly stopped in compliance with a me- morial of one of the censors representing that they offended the protecting dragon of the district, and disturbed the manes of the lately deceased Empress, who is buried some sixty miles distant. It was only by bribery that , these superstitious objections were overcome. 102 CHRISTIAN CONNEC11ON. CLAY, CLEMENT C. The enlightened Prime Minister, Li-Hung- Chang, upon the death of his mother, peti- tioned, in obedience to custom, to be relieved of his offices during the long period of mourn- ing prescribed, taking the precaution to secure as his deputy a man in sympathy with his pro- jects, Chang-Shu-Sheng, Governor-General of Canton. His request was at first refused, but he was finally relieved of his duties as Secre- tary of State and Governor of the Metropolitan Province, but retained as Imperial Commis- sioner of Commerce, and commander of the forces at Tientsin. Three daily newspapers are printed at Shanghai ; the oldest, the " Shen- Pao, " has a circulation of 10,000. The Eev. Mr. Allen, an American missionary, has founded a university at Shanghai. The cause of prog- ress receives its chief support from Chinese merchants who have acquired wealth in for- eign trade, already a numerous and powerful class. A new decorative order has been created for bestowal on foreigners of distinction who have rendered services to China ; it is called the Order of the Double Dragon. (For legis- lation prohibiting Chinese immigration into the United States, see CONGEESS, UNITED STATES, and IMMIGBATION, CHINESE.) CHRISTIAN CONNECTION. The statis- tics of the Christian Connection are very im- perfectly reported, and no attempt has been made to compile them in tabular form for sev- eral years. The Connection has sixty annual or local conferences, ten of which are in New England and Canada, ten in the Middle States, and forty in the Southwestern and Western States, and includes, according to the most recent estimates, about one hundred and fifty thousand members. A kindred organization in the Southern States, called the Christian Church, originated in a separation from this body in 1854, which was provoked by the ac- tion of the General Convention on the question of slavery. The Eev. 5. W. Wellons, a frater- nal delegate from this body to the recent Quad- rennial Convention, stated there that it num- bered about twenty thousand white and five thousand colored members. The Christian Connection does not assume any denominational name, but adopts the term Christian in a general sense simply to indicate that it makes a Christian profession. It ac- cepts the Bible as its only rule of faith and practice, granting to every man the right of individual judgment, and professes fellowship with, and admits to its communion, all Chris- tians, without regard to their theological opin- ions or their views or practices in ordinances. It has always encouraged preaching by women, and welcomes them to all the privileges of the church. Its government is stated by the editor of its official newspaper organ to be "neither Congregational, Presbyterian, nor Episcopa- lian. It is neither a democracy, an aristocracy, nor an autocracy, but a brotherhood with one only Master, even Christ, to whom each indi- vidual shall answer for himself." MEETING or THE QUADRENNIAL CONVENTION- — The Ninth Quadrennial Session of the Chris- tian Convention of the United States and Can- ada was held in Albany, N. Y., beginning Oc- tober 4th. The Rev. Asa W. Coan presided. The Sunday-school secretary reported concern- ing 875 Sunday-schools, with 52,000 members. The financial secretary reported that $25,000 a year were needed for the several branches of denominational work. The publishing agent reported a net gain by the Publishing House at Dayton, Ohio, during four years, besides pay- ing interest on its debts, of $2,286. A weekly general religious newspaper and three Sunday- school papers were published at the establish- ment. The general weekly paper, the " Herald of Gospel Liberty," was originally started in Portsmouth, N. H., in September, 1808, and was the first religious periodical in newspaper form ever published. Outside of the Publish- ing House were published the " Christian Gem," at Suffolk, Va., as the organ of the Christian Church of the South, and the " Christian Indi- cator," at Kokomo, Ind. Reports were made of the condition of the educational institutions of the Connection, including Starkey Seminary, Eddytown, N. Y. ; Antioch College, Yellow Springs, Ohio ; the Christian Biblical Institute, Stanfordville, N. Y. ; the Franklinton School, Franklinton, N. C. ; Le Grand Institute, Iowa ; and Union Christian College, Merom, Ind. Resolutions were adopted in favor of total ab- stinence from the use of intoxicating drinks, and prohibition of the traffic in them. Secre- taries were elected for missions and church extension. Fraternal delegates were present from the Christian Church of the South ; and six fraternal delegates were appointed to repre- sent the Convention at the next meeting of the Southern Convention. CIVIL RIGHTS CASES. (See LAW, CON- STITUTIONAL.) CLAY, CLEMENT CLAIRBOENE, born in Mad- ison County, Alabama, 1819 ; died near Hunts- ville, Ala., January 3, 1882. Mr. Clay grad- uated at the University of Alabama with honor at the age of sixteen. He was endowed by nature with more than ordinary intellectual abilities, and even when he was quite young was not unmindful of the obligations they im- posed. When his father was elected Govern- or of Alabama, he appointed his son private secretary. He did not, however, forsake his books, but continued adding to the stores of a retentive memory, at the same time contribut- ing editorials to the leading journals of Alaba- ma. After his father was elected to the Sen- ate of the United States, Mr. Clay went to the University of Virginia, and completed his legal studies. Returning to Huntsville, Ala., he com- menced a successful practice of law. Soon his fellow-citizens insisted upon electing him as their Representative to the State Legislature, in which he served in 1842, '44, and '45. In 1846 the Legislature elected him Judge of the Madison County Court, where he presided un- COAL, BITUMINOUS, PRODUCTION OF. 103 til 1848, when he resigned, to resume his prac- tice. In 1853 he was elected to the United States Senate from Alabama. As a Senator he regarded himself as the envoy of a sovereign State to the council of the nation, and lost no opportunity of asserting the rights of that State as defined by Mr. Calhoun and other Southern statesmen. His course in the Senate was fully approved by his constituents, and in 1857 he was re-elected for a second term of six years by a unanimous vote of the Legislature. Re- turning with this unqualified indorsement, he renewed his efforts in behalf of his State, and was among the boldest champions of State rights. When the invasion of these rights was com- menced with military force, as viewed by the Southern States, and the Confederate States Government was sorely pressed by its assail- ants, Mr. Clay, who had been a member of the Confederate Congress, was selected by Presi- dent Davis as an agent for the purpose of per- forming some important secret service, in con- nection with Jacob Thompson, on the North- ern frontier of the United States. In May, 1865, at the close of the war, a reward was offered by President Johnson for the arrest of Mr. Clay, hearing of which he came forward and surrendered to the United States officer commanding at Macon, Georgia. He was shortly afterward taken as a prisoner to For- tress Monroe, and assigned a casement on the same floor with the late President Davis. Mr. Clay was detained at Fortress Monroe until April, 1866, when he was released on his pa- role, by the conditions of which he was allowed to go anywhere in the United States on private business, but was to make the State of Alabama his residence, and hold himself in readiness to obey at any time any summons made upon him by the Government of the United States. COAL, BITUMINOUS, PRODUCTION OF, IN THE UNITED STATES, DURING THE YEAR END- ING JUNE 1, 1880. I. The census returns give statistics drawn from eighteen States east of the one hundredth meridian, viz., Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, Missouri, Nebraska, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Ten- nessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. Three hundred and fourteen counties are specified, of which forty-nine are in Kentucky, forty- six in Illinois, thirty-five in Missouri, thirty in Ohio, twenty-nine in Pennsylvania, and twenty- eight in West Virginia. 1. Number of establishments, 2,943, of which Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois furnish the largest number (Pennsylvania, 666 ; Ohio, 618; Illinois, 590=1,874). 2. Capital employed and invested in estab- lishments, $90,000,000, of which Pennsylvania furnishes nearly $40,000,000. Irregular work- ings are rated at about $3,500,000. 3. Total product, 40,940,028 tons, of which Pennsylvania yields 18,425,163 tons, Illinois and Ohio over 6,000,000 tons each. 4. Value of total product at mines, $49,733,- 603, of which Pennsylvania obtains $18,567,- 129, Illinois nearly $9,000,000, and Ohio nearly $8,000,000. 5. Total number of men and boys employed, 96,475: of these Pennsylvania employs 33,- 248 ; Ohio, 16,331 ; and Illinois, 17,307. The working-time is here taken to consist of twelve months, of twenty-five working days each. 6. Wages paid to all classes of labor, $30,- 707.059, of which Pennsylvania pays nearly $11,000,000; and Ohio and Illinois $5,000,000 and $6,000,000 each. 7. Steam-engines used, 812. Value of these and other machinery, $2,403,211. 8. Value of real estate, $90,000,000: in Pennsylvania, $27,152,403; Maryland, $11,- 387,000; Ohio, $8,529,931; Illinois, $6,100,- 460 ; and West Virginia, $3,597,259. 9. Acres of available coal-lands attached to working establishments, 410,642: being, in Pennsylvania, 118,311; in Ohio, 58,639; in Illinois, 55,061 ; in West Virginia, 46,659 ; in Kentucky, 34,635 ; in Tennessee, 23,743. 10. Tons raised yearly per man, on average, 431-53. Maryland gives the largest, 651*23 ; Pennsylvania next, 560-14 ; Tennessee, 487*90 ; West Virginia, 407'82; Illinois, 385-64; Ohio, 373-03. As between the bituminous coal industry and the iron-ore mining industry, the former takes from the earth a product worth 140 per cent more, employs 205 per cent more hands and 46 per cent more capital, uses 161 per cent more materials, and pays 222 per cent more wages. The increase in the tonnage of the iron-ore mined during the census year is 136 per cent, and in that of bituminous coal 135 per cent, as compared with the census year of 1870; showing that these two great divisions of mineral production keep pace with each other, and are advancing nearly twice as fast as the production of anthracite. The reason of this is the obvious one that in the former cases new fields are laid under contribution, from time to time, as railroads are extended, whereas anthracite is restricted to its original area. Iron is mined in 135 counties, and bitu- minous coal in 314 counties, east of the one hundredth meridian. 11. Production of bituminous coal and lignite west of the one hundredth meridian. Twenty counties are specified in the States of Califor- nia, Colorado, and Oregon, and in the Terri- tories of Montana, Washington, and Wyoming. 1. Number of establishments, 46; of these, 25 are in Colorado. 2. Capital employed and invested, $8,479,- 573; nearly $6,000,000 is in Colorado, and $1,240,000 in California. 3. Total product, 1,477,736 tons, of which Wyoming Territory (four counties, six estab- lishments) yields nearly 590,000 tons, and Col- orado, 463,000 tons. 4. Value of total product, $3,272,470; of 104 COAL-MINING WITH CAUSTIC LIME. COLOMBIA. which Wyoming Territory obtains $1,080,451, and Colorado $1,041,250. 5. Total number of men and boys employed, 3,441; of these, 1,434 are in Colorado, and 1,000 in Wyoming Territory. 6. Wages paid to all classes, $1,828,401. 7. Steam-engines used, 42 ; of these, 20 are in Colorado. 8. Value of real estate, $6,858,300 ; of this, $5,448,100 are credited to Colorado. 9. Acres of coal-land, 33,000 ; 23,592 being in Colorado. III. Production of coal in the United States for the year ending June 1, 1880, by coal-fields (tons of 2,000 pounds) : 1. BITUMINOUS : Appalachian field 29,842,240 Western field (Illinois, Indiana, etc.) 8,721,101 Michigan field 100,800 Triassic field (Virginia and North Carolina) . . . 46,246 Iowa and Kansas field 2,232.458 All fields west of the one hundredth meridian. 1,477,786 Total bituminous 42,420,581 2. ANTHRACITE : Pennsylvania 28,640,819 Ehode Island 6,176 Total anthracite 28,646,995 Grand total coal production 71,067,576 Grand total of hands employed 170,585 In this connection it may be noted that the production of coal in England was, in 1855, 64,661,401 tons, in 1877 it was 136,179,968 tons, and in 1880 it was 146,818,122 tons. The number of collieries in 1880 was, in Eng- land, 3,880, and in the United States 3,264. COAL-MINING WITH CAUSTIC LIME. A new method of bringing down coal, in which quicklime takes the place of explosives, has proved a success in English coal-mines. The lime is obtained in a strongly caustic state from mountain limestone. It is first ground to the finest powder, and then pressed into compact cakes by a pressure of forty tons. The cakes are of the form of cartridges, two and a half inches in diameter, with a groove along the side. The hydraulic press, specially designed for compressing the cartridges, can be erected at a moderate cost in any colliery. The car- tridges are ready for use after coming out of the press, but until they are needed they must be kept in air-tight boxes, to preserve them from damp. The drill-holes are made with a light boring-machine, and an iron tube, about half an inch in diameter, is inserted in the hole along its whole length. The tube is provided with a groove along the outside with perfora- tions. A bag of calico covers the perforations and one end of the tube, and has a tap fitted on at the other end. The cartridges are lightly rammed, so as to insure their filling the bore- hole. They are inclosed with tamping in the same manner as a gunpowder-charge. The charge is then ready for blasting. This is ac- complished by connecting the tap at the end of the iron pipe with a small force-pump by means of a flexible tube, and forcing in a quan- tity of water equal in bulk to the quantity of lime in the tube. The water is driven to the lower end of the shot-hole through the tube, and escapes along the groove through the per- forations and the calico, saturating the lime and driving out the air. The tap is closed, to prevent the escape of the steam generated by the action of the water on the lime. There is an interval after the introduction of the water before the steam attains a high pressure, so that all danger can be avoided. The action of the steam cracks the coal away from the roof. The sprags are left in under the coal, so as to allow the fissures to extend as far as possible. In many cases the coal is broken away for a distance of several inches beyond the end of the drilled holes. The expansive force of the steam generated by the usual charge of seven cartridges is about 2,850 pounds. The expansion of the lime takes place subsequently. Its ef- fect may be measured by comparing the bulk of a quantity of lime equal to that used in the cartridges before and after slaking. The action is over in from ten to fifteen minutes. When the sprags, or props, are then removed, the coal falls from the roof in large masses, leaving a clean surface. The waste in dust and small coal is much less than when powder is used for blasting, being only about six per cent. For economy, thoroughness, avoidance of smoke, etc., the new process offers many advantages over gunpowder-blasting ; but its greatest merit consists in averting the danger of explosions from the ignition of gas by the blast. COLOMBIA (EsTAcos UNIDOS DE COLOM- BIA). For statistics relating to area, territorial division, population, etc., see " Annual Cyclo- pedia " for 1877. The Executive of the confed- eracy, President F. Zaldua, inaugurated April 1, 1882, died later in the year, and the Federal Congress at Bogota appointed Messrs. Otalora, Aldana, and Hurtado to exercise jointly the Federal executive power as " Designados " to the end of the presidential term. The Cabinet was composed of the following Ministers : Sec- retary of State and head of the War Depart- ment, Sefior B. Noguera; Public Instruction, Seftor J. M. Campas; Interior, Sefior J. de J. Alirar ; Finance, Sefior M. Samper ; Treasury, Sefior N. Borrero; Foreign Affairs, Sefior J. M. Suijano Wallis; and Public Works and Post- Offices, Sefior F. F. Paul. The chief magistrates of the nine States were as follow : Antioquia, Sefior Lucien Restrepo ; Bolivar, Sefior Benjamin Noguera ; Boyacd, Sefior Aris- tides Calderon ; Cauca, Sefior Ezequiel Hurta- do ; Cundinamarca, Sefior Daniel Aldana ; Mag- dalena, Sefior Jose Maria Campo Serrano ; Pan- amd, Sefior Rafael Nufiez; Santander, Sefior Solon Wilches; Tolima, Sefior Marcelo Bar- rios. Each of the foregoing functionaries has the title of president, except those of Cundina- marca and Tolima, who are styled governors. The United States Minister Plenipotentiary to Colombia is General Manney (accredited September 21, 1881), and the United States COLOMBIA. 105 Consuls at Bogota and the chief Colombian sea- ports respectively are: Barranquilla, W. W. Randall ; Bogota, B. Koppel ; Carthagena, E. W. P. Smith ; Colon, J. Thorington ; Panama, J. M. Wilson ; and Riohacha, N". Daniels. The regulation strength of the army in time of peace is 2,000, and in time of war each of the nine States is required to furnish a contin- gent of one per cent of its population. The revenue and expenditure of the republic for the fiscal year, 1882-'83, were officially re- ported at $6,327,540 and $9,097,549, thus showing a deficit of $2,770,009. The previous budget had been: 1881-'82— income, $5,- 917,000; outlays, $9,529,547; showing a de- ficiency of $3,612,547. The national debt was reported as follows, on August 31, 1881 : Foreign debt $9,510,500 Home debt 10,386,278 Total $19,956,178 The foreign trade of the republic by land and sea was as follows : Imports. Exports. 1880-'81.. $12 071 480 $15 836 900 ISTS-'SO 10 387 003 13 804 981 ISTS-'TQ . . . 10 787 654 18 711 511 1877-'7S 8 708 797 11 111 197 In 1879-'80 the exports were distributed as follows: To the United States, $4,565,200; to England, $4,326,200; to France, $1,971,000; to Germany, $1,648,000 ; and to other coun- tries, $1,294,581 ; together, $13,804,981. The following articles constituted this export movement: Quinine-bark, $3,229,000; coffee, $3,051,000; leaf-tobacco, $1,284,000; hides, $1,009,000; cattle, $528,000; India-rubber, $355,000; vegetable ivory (tdgua), $285,000; cabinet and dye woods, $133,000; gold and silver bullion, $2,765,000 ; gold and silver ores, $515,000. One of the most valuable products of Co- lombia, quinine-bark, or cinchona, is being rap- idly exhausted there as well as in Peru, and its culture has therefore been successfully in- troduced into Ceylon and Java. We may be permitted to add, with reference to this impor- tant drug, a passage we take from Cassell's "New Popular Educator": The discovery of the medical properties of cinchona-bark is enveloped in great obscurity. All that we know about it for certain is this: Before the year 1638 — that is to say, one hundred and fifty years subsequent to the discovery of America — not even the Spaniards were acquainted with the febrifuge qualities of cinchona-bark ; but in this year, or thereabout, the Countess de Chinchon, the wife of the Spanish Viceroy of Peru, was cured of a violent intermittent fever by drinking an infusion of the bark, and this led to its introduction into Europe. Were the natives themselves acquainted with it ? Hum- boldt answers this question very positively in the negative, and refers the discovery to the Jesuit missionaries, who, being in the habit of tasting the bark of every tree they hewed down, at length discovered the precious febri- fuge. Other authors of repute contend that the virtues of cinchona-bark were known to the Indians long before the advent of the Span- iards; but the question again arises how they first became acquainted with its properties. To account for this, the ridiculous tale has been invented that certain animals, while la- boring under fever, happened to gnaw the bark of one of the cinchona-trees, and were cured forthwith. Far more probable is it that some cinchona-trees having been laid prostrate by the tempests in a pool of water, and the latter becoming charged with the medicinal principle, some person laboring under fever drank of this water, was cured, and published the result. But, however this may be, it is certain that the remedy first became popularized in Europe through the agency of Count de Chinchon, Viceroy of Peru, whose wife, as we have said, was cured of intermittent fever by its administration. The new remedy, however, was badly received in France and" Italy. The faculty set their faces against it. Physicians who dared prescribe its use were persecuted, and it was only the patronage of Louis XIV which ultimately rendered it popular in France. This monarch, suffering from intermittent fe- ver, was cured by an English empiric named Talbot, by means of a secret remedy. This was no other than cinchona-bark. Louis XIV purchased the secret for the sum of 48,000 livres, and bestowed yearly a pension of 2,000 livres on the Englishman, besides giving him letters of nobility. Three years subsequently the remedy was published. It was a highly concentrated vinous tincture of cinchona-bark. Cinchona-trees grow in the densest forests of Peru and Colombia. The task of discovering them, removing their bark, and conveying the latter to the place of export, is troublesome, difficult, and dangerous. In these forests there are no roads. Frightful precipices intersect the path of the cascarillero, or bark-gatherer, across which it is difficult to pass, even while unembarrassed by a load. So soon as the treasure of bark has been secured, these diffi- culties and dangers proportionately increase, so that the comparatively low price at which cinchona may be procured is in itself a matter of surprise. As for the maritime movement in 1880-'81, it may be judged of by the entries, which were : sailing-vessels, 1,119, with a joint tonnage of 79,600, and 524 steamers of, together, 661,460 tons. IMPORTS FROM THE UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA INTO THE FOLLOWING COUNTRIES (MERCHANDISE ONLY). YEARS. United States. United Kingdom. France. 1878 $5 848 043 $4 540 1 38 $1 679 100 1879 6,330,946 4 506 934 2'6S2'700 1880 2 441 972 4 080 263 5 682 064 106 COLOMBIA. EXPORTS TO COLOMBIA FROM THE SAME COUNTRIES. YEARS. United States. United Kingdom. France. 1878 $4,495,822 $5,104,555 $4,083,700 1879 . 5,528,014 4,400,756 4,803,900 1880 5,837,314 5,060,216 5,782,092 TRADE BETWEEN COLOMBIA AND THE UNITED STATES, 1869-'82, SPECIE NOT INCLUDED. In 1881 the United States imported from the United States of Colombia $5,991,890 worth of merchandise, the United Kingdom $6,677,- 505, and France $5,016,006; while the United States exported to Colombia $5,383,138 worth, the United Kingdom $5,999,776, and France $6,214,345. The commercial statistics published in Co- lombia fail to show the export of precious stones, such as topazes, found in the country, of excellent quality and in considerable amounts. FISCAL YEARS. Net imports from the former into the latter. Domestic exports from the latter to the former. 1869 $5,111,489 $4,900,075 1870 4,827,431 4,612,861 1871 6,199,264 4,182.567 1872 6,407,948 4,495,258 1S73 6,112,279 5,817,001 1874 7,513,984 5,128,845 1875 . 12,715,956 4,272,950 1876 5,832.842 8,946,442 1877 5,362,226 4,022,232 1878 6,870,896 4,559,226 1879 6,851,296 5,435,637 1880 8,914,877 5,867,316 1881 5,788,118 5,179,366 1882 4,784,040 6,230,916 Total $92,292,546 $67,645,692 IMPORT OF PRODUCTS FROM THE UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA INTO THE UNITED STATES. FISCAL YEARS. Chemicals, drugs, dyes, and medi- cines of all kinds. Cocoa, crude, and leaves and shells of. Coffee. Hides and skins other than furs. India-rubber and gutta- percha,crude. Fruita of all kinds, includ- ing nuts. Brown sugar. Other mer- chandise. Total import of merchan- dise.* 1869 1870 1S71 $1,058,848 1,084,851 1,300,064 $207,294 179,608 156,796 8178,600 130,124 324,144 $460,057 583,805 783,238 $534,648 631,998 1,143.339 $17,872 38,024 89,944 $966 2,377 12,677 $2,226,169 1,S57,936 1,809,850 $4,684,454 4,508,723 5.570,052 1872 .. . 1,771,630 170,480 498,696 818,179 2,042,359 131,161 6,388 692,479 6,181,372 1878 1874 1875 1,336,741 1,452,360 1 147336 186,830 93,778 150 717 642,376 1,168,673 950,976 851,872 1,127,872 1,323.689 2,698,139 1,978,450 1,450,562 70,635 22,971 105,246 2,246 480 1,092 360,001 1,519,678 7,154,445 6,148,840 T,m$j 12 284 063 1876. 1,323,837 84,273 673,380 1,118,833 1,253,243 95,470 4,098 481,639 5,034,27* 1877. 782,045 129,481 948,063 1,033,079 1,570,511 112,386 71,338 426,423 5,028,32« 1878 1,472,213 116,972 1,022,216 1,401,347 1,006,521 186,151 66,737 625,886 5,848.04o 1879 1 519 123 205 627 1 354,938 1 293 353 1 047 266 142,175 14225 754,239 6 330 94« 1880 1881. ' 1,327,295 503,620 875,031 182,406 2,018,471 1,200,358 1,775,206 1,512,298 1,909,851 1,898,744 156,184 188,200 46,909 42,370 838,025 518,899 8,441,972 5,991,89)? 18S2 1 103 200 2£0 221 857 612 1 321 816 767 426 315 261 6891 869 543 4 961 47a DOMESTIC EXPORT FROM THE UNITED STATES TO THE UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA. FISCAL YEARS. Wheat-flour. Coal, bitu- minous, and other. Cotton, tures of. Drugs, chem- icals, medi- cines, acids, ashes, and dye-stuffs. Glass and glass-ware. Iron and steel, and manufac- tures of. Oil, mineral, refined. Paper and stationery. Provisions. 1869 $188,772 $182,918 $605,498 $171,959 $17,096 $832,282 $22,346 $663.577 1870 . .. 175071 22,364 800668 254,630 7,547 1,231,304 84862 $24 093 752558 1871 196,146 157,755 266,068 402,091 6.691 831,835 62,474 8 067 707,509 1872 243,182 168,229 89,267 279,646 46,371 973,055 48,874 22973 950,139 1878 302,253 143,628 88,225 413,755 82,588 1,265,090 52,405 27,609 868,886 1874 317 373 124,443 50473 257,787 61,832 1,160 453 47715 43 :>24 1 0^5 92T 1875 202,691 120,094 101,859 271,287 42,450 758,469 38595 73229 1 194 36(1 1876 1877 282,529 174 587 104,292 35210 103,347 466109 279,000 266,231 85,839 48558 688,661 942481 53,878 44 188 70,450 49 573 874,300 681 661 1878 220,175 66,073 545017 362,365 79,509 952 231 80847 71 861 715504 1879 179,720 48,980 664,267 290,841 46,562 1,124619 29559 136 449 771,194 18SO 224,561 61,107 586,692 811,733 39,620 1,322,596 55,213 185,688 604,889 1881 223 868 27902 838 138 289 649 88,680 1 080 983 64502 147 322 617 898 1882 372,099 41,914 627 883 801,411 45,855 1,155,827 35816 123 115 1 101 501 IMPORT OF SPECIE INTO THE UNITED STATES FROM THE UNITED STATES OF COLOMBIA, AND EXPORT THEREOF TO THE LATTER. FISCAL YEARS. Imports. Exports. 1869 . . . $607 252 $847 890 1870 . 497467 633465 1871 .... 866 724 855 580 1872 458 077 235 860 1873 262 124 241 918 1874 .... 885 676 92544 1875 658 242 66882 1876 463 373 59282 1877 431 067 93490 1878 656 056 197 107 1879 856 167 243440 1880 . . . 598 683 155780 1881 523 140 231 '241 1882 429,818 290,540 The first and only railroad finished in Co- lombia, besides the one from Sabanilla to Bar- ranquilla, twenty-eight kilometres, is the Pan- ama Eailroad across the Isthmus, seventy-five kilometres (forty- seven miles), now the prop- erty of the Panama Canal Company. Other railroads authorized to be constructed by the Colombian Congress during several ses- sions of the past two years are : 1. The North- ern, to connect the States of Cundinamarca, Boyaca, and Santander with the Magdalena River ; 2. The Cauca Railway, from Call, on the Cauca River, to Buenaventura, on the Pacific, one hundred and thirty-eight kilometres, of * Re-export not deducted. COLOMBIA. 107 which thirty-three are in operation ; 3. The Antio'quia Railroad, from Port Berrio, on the Magdalena, to Medellin in the State of An- tioquia, two hundred kilometres, of which sixteen are finished ; 4. The Cucuta, to the port St. Buenaventura, on the Tulia River, which flows into the Lake of Maracaibo (Vene- zuela), one hundred and thirty-eight kilome- tres, one quarter finished ; 5. A small railway between the upper Magdalena and the Honda rapids, soon to be finished ; 6. The Bogota and Girardot Railroad, the latter a village near Honda. A project is besides on foot to connect by rail the port of Riohacha with the rich coal- mines forming the basin of the river Cesar, in the State of Magdalena; and several short branch-lines to stretch from Bogota to im- portant points in the Savana, such as Facata- tiva, Cipaquira, Pandi, and others. Respecting the Panama Canal, a report, which has just been made to Rear-Admiral Cooper, commanding the North Atlantic sta- tion, by Lieutenant Raymond P. Rodgers, of the navy, has the great merit of describing simply, intelligibly, and candidly exactly what has been done toward constructing the canal, and what remains to be done. It differs from the rose- colored generalities of the financial managers of the enterprise on the one hand, and on the other from the depreciatory criti- cisms and the prophecies of evil set forth by the partisans of the rival routes through Tehuante- pec and Nicaragua. Two years ago, when the vanguard of the construction party arrived at Aspinwall, they not only found no part of their way cleared, but even the proposed line of the canal not cer- tainly fixed, and no houses to live in or build- ings tit for the storage of their tools, machinery, and property. What has been since accom- plished, as Lieutenant Rodgers makes plain, is the building of wharves at the termini, the erection of workshops all along the line, the setting up of machinery therein, the construc- tion of villages for the workmen and engi- neers, the definite fixing of the axis of the canal, and the clearance of the route from surface impediments to a width of over 300 feet throughout. Lately the delayed contracts have been completed. It is safe to say that the machine-digging of the canal proper will open with vigor at the beginning of the dry season. But the details also show that a greater quantity of actual excavation has already been done by manual labor than many people sup- pose. On the Colon section there has been much dredging for the basin in which vessels about to enter the canal may lie in security. At Gorgona the excavation of the main cut has been begun by hand. Beyond Obispo, 650 men have been for some weeks engaged in the actual work of canal- digging. In the Culebra section, which is the highest point of the route, they have dug down to the proposed full depth of the canal. In short, it is evident from the observations of Lieutenant Rodgers, that not only reservoirs and railways for carrying off the refuse, besides other important aids, have been thoroughly prepared, and docks, quarters, machinery, and rolling-stock made ready, but in four sections the actual work of digging is going on by manual labor. The theory of a sea-level canal is to be strictly carried out, in preference to the lock system, which the American naval engineers were in- clined to consider less difficult and less costly. Lieutenant Rodgers does not conceal his opinion that the completion of the canal, now announced by Count de Lesseps for the year 1888, will be postponed far beyond that date, and the esti- mate of cost hitherto given, namely, $120,000,- 000, will be very largely exceeded. So confi- dent is Lieutenant Rodgers as to the latter point that, although studiously cautious and apparently unswayed by prejudice throughout his report, he yet concludes that "it seems probable that this will undergo the experience of many other great projects — that the original subscribers must again subscribe or lose their venture, and that new stockholders will be the ones who will share the profits." When it is reflected how much remains to be done, and how long the preliminaries have dragged, it seems likely that the canal will not be open before the year 1890, at the earliest ; and, as the statistics of Lieutenant Rodgers show that the sum of $26,000,000 has already been ex- pended, it is also reasonable to suppose that the original estimate of cost will be exceeded. Still, the existing expenditures include the cost of all the machinery thus far ordered, as well as the purchase of grounds, while about 5,000 men are under constant employ. Besides, the eagerness with which the company's shares were taken up makes it obvious that more money could easily be raised if required, and in any case it would seem possible to enlarge the capital stock instead of calling upon the original subscribers to put in more money. The Colombian Post-Office forwarded, in 1879-'80, 463,832 letters and 413,350 newspa- pers, and money to the amount of $2,283,974, exclusive of 4,920 kilogrammes of gold, and 14,348 kilogrammes of silver. The length of telegraphs in operation in the country, in 1879-'80, was 2,960 kilometres, (1,865 miles), and the number of telegrams passed over the wires was 150,204. The foreign hospital at Panama received in 1882 1,154 sick persons, of whom only 76 died ; the patients received belonged to thirty- three different nationalities. The municipal- ity of the capital, Bogota, has asked the Federal Government for aid to the extent of $20,000, in order to improve its sanitary con- dition. Two candidates for the presidency are prominently before the country, ex-President Raphael Nufiez, for re-election, and General Solon Wilches. 108 COLORADO. COLORADO. The following were the State officers during the year : Governor, Frederick W. Pitkin (Republican) ; Lieutenant-Governor, H. A. W. Tabor; Secretary of State, N. H. Melldrum ; Treasurer, Nathan S. Culver ; Au- ditor, Eugene K. Stimpson ; Attorney- General, Charles W. Wright ; Superintendent of Public Instruction, Joseph C. Shattuck ; Adjutant- General, Robert S. Roe; State Librarian, Jo- seph 0. Shattuck. Supreme Court — Henry 0. Thatcher, Chief-Justice, and Samuel H. Elbert and Wilbur F. Stone, associates. STATISTICS. — From the county returns to the State Auditor of taxable property, it appears that Lake, Fremont, and Gilpin are the only counties which do not show an increase in their wealth. The increased valuation for the year is $19,884,357.09. The county values are as follows : Total valuation as reported $104,440,683 5T General revenue fund, 4-mill tax Capitol Building, i-mill tax Agricultural College, J-mill tax Insane Asylum, £-mill tax Mute and blind fund, £-mill tax School of Mines fund, £-mill tax University of Colorado fund, ^-mill tax Stock-inspection fund, A-mill tax Military poll-tax fund, |l per poll on 28,776 417,762 73 52,220 34 20,888 14 20,888 14 20,888 14 20,888 14 20,888 14 6,962 71 28,776 00 Grand total tax for the State $610,162 48 The following is a statement of the bullion product for 1881 : Boulder County $535,482 88 Chaflee County 196,400 00 Custer County 755,600 00 Clear Creek County 2,204,980 34 Dolores County 125,000 00 Fremont County 14,535 50 Gilpin County 2,150,700 00 Grand County 10,000 00 Gunnison County 535,033 00 Arapahoo $34,557,730 00 Hinsdale County 187,375 00 Bent 8,282,011 00 Lake County 12,738,902 00 Boulder 4,477,05000 La Plata and San Juan Counties 40,00000 Chaffee 2,651,563 00 Ouray County 78,000 00 Clear Creek 2,128,209 29 Park County 350,000 00 Conejos 1,486,29800 Pitkin County 120,00000 Costilla 958,981 48 Kio Grande County 280,000 00 Custer •. 1,478,528 51 Saguache County 53,500 00 Dolores 484,550 00 Summit County 1,828,000 00 Douglas 1,242,144 00 Elbert 1,610,553 00 Total $22,203,508 72 ElPaso 4,879,37500 _ .. . -, ,, . . . , Fremont 2,004,155 oo On the whole, the mining industry was pros- jjUJlJ-" If425 079 oo Perous Curing the year. In most of the newer Gunnison'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'."".'.'.".'."!.'.'.".'.'.'.'.' 2,340^95600 districts a considerable increase of develop- Hinsdaie '830,46000 ment and production took place. The gross ?Z^0;::::::::::::::;:;::;;::::;;::;;;:: iSSS » return *m be somewhat greater than that of Lake 4,586,07500 188.1. The yield of the Leadville mines is the Jifk£ ' ' ' foS 260 oo Sreatest e ver produced in that section. The Las Ar.ima's '.'.'.'. '. !!!!!!!!!!!!! '. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '. '. '. \ sjooi J43 oo San Juan country will give a much larger re- Ouray 657,533 oo turn than ever before, and the same is ex- Pitkin : : ::::::::::::::::::::'.: 1 SS 22 pected of Gunnison and pitkm. summit win Pueblo'.'.'.'.!'.".'.!'.'.'.;'.'.'.!'.'.!;'.'.'.!'.!'.!'.'.'.;'.'.'.! 7,066/T20 oo yield about the same as in 1881, Boulder near- Rio Grande... 1,081,716 00 ly fifty per cent more> wMle Qilpm and CIea'r Saguache; .";;;;.".!!!'.! ! ! !'.!'.!! ! ! ! ". '. ! ! ! !!'.! ! ! is&\m oo Creek will make a good report. But few sales San Juan 624,67500 were made, though several of considerable WeTcT. ! ! !!.!!!!:!!:!!!!;!!!;'.!!! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! 6,113,395 Ss magnitude were under negotiation at the close - of the year. There were no excitements and Total $104,440,683 5T but fe w important discoveries, yet the develop- The value of the different items of property ment m &H sections continued with more or is as follows : less energy. The most conspicuous event was valuation. the removal of the Grant smelter to Denver, 2,642,777^ acres of land and improvements.. $18,714,386 oo and the erection there of one of the finest es- 2,245^ miles of railroad and valuation 17,788,153 24 tohlisrimfmta r»f ire tinrl in tliA wnrlrl A ma Value of merchandise 7>82 912 00 ta»UShmentS Ot ^ It* kind m tne world. A ma- Amount of capital in manufacturing 907,921 oo terial advance in the treatment of low-grade Tpwn and city lota 89,187 ,284 oo Ores has been made by the successful establish- ™m^:::::;:::;:;:::::;;;c:;:::;::;: i^S??? ment of the Bancroft- walker process, which 4iOasses 5,54900 will take a prominent part in the affairs of «Bt^::::::;:;;::::::::::::::::::::: SSSSJffi ****• * is understood that a large part of 4,167 goats 4,028 oo these mills will be manufactured in Denver. ffiS5£asa: %&% , ?e Pr°dncft °f the Leadvill« ftrict *or *« Musical instruments 297 214 oo l«wt quarter of the year was as follows : Pounds Clocks and watches 299,681 50 of lead, 17,009,228 ; ounces of silver, 1,336,212 ; fS^1^,^":^;;; ::::: ^USS ounces' of 'gold, 2,921. Total currency v'alue! Carriages and vehicles of all kinds 915,936 00 $5,783,127. The total value of the output for SS^UW7. ;:::::::::::: *$$ JS the last four years ha8 been as foll°W8: Bank and other shares 1,201,878 00 1879 $10,383,740 1 1881 ... . . ..$13,170.576 Insurance premiums 283,223 44 1880 14,187,697(1882 18£3$898 Granatotal $104,440,683 57 The population of the State in 1880 was The State tax for the year is: 194,327, of whom 129,131 were males and 65,- COLOEADO. 109 196 females, 154,537 natives and 39,790 for- eign-born, 191,126 white, 2,435 colored, 612 Chinese, and 154 Indians. There were 93,608 males twenty-one years old and over, of whom 26,873 were whites of foreign birth; 9,321 persons ten years old and upward, or 5'9 per cent, were unable to read, and 10,474, or 6-6 per cent, were unable to write. There were living in the United States 31, 827 persons born in Colorado. The yield of barley was 107,116 bushels; corn, 455,968; oats, 640,900; rye, 19,465; wheat, 1,425,014. There were on farms 42,257 horses, 2,581 mules and asses, 2,080 working-oxen, 28,770 milch-cows, 315,- 989 other cattle, 746,443 sheep, and 7,656 swine. The number of manufacturing estab- lishments was 599; capital, $4,311,714; hands employed, 5,074 ; value of material used, $8,777,262; products, $14,260,159. There are at the present time in the State about 2,250,000 cattle, two thirds of which are well bred ; 1,000,000 of these cattle are in the south, along the Arkansas and Purgatory Riv- ers, and the other 1,250,000 are north of the Divide, along the waters of the Republican, the Platte, and in the North, South, and Mid- dle Parks. UNITED STATES SENATOR. — On the llth of April, George M. Chilcott was appointed by the Governor United States Senator, in the place of Henry M. Teller, appointed Secretary of the Interior, in President Arthur's Cabinet. George M. Chilcott was born in Trough Creek Valley, Huntingdon County, Pennsyl- vania, January 2, 1828. He was reared on a farm, and received a common-school educa- tion. In the spring of 1844 he removed with his parents to Jefferson County, Iowa, where he lived, working upon a farm, about two years. He subsequently taught school, and also pursued the study of medicine, until the spring of 1850, after which he located near his father and engaged in farming. In 1853 he was elected, on the Whig ticket, Sheriff of Jefferson County, which office he held one term. In 1856 he removed to Burt County, Nebraska, where he was shortly afterward elected to represent the counties of Burt and Gumming in the Lower House of the Legisla- ture, which met in session at Omaha, in the winter of 1856-'57. Mr. Chilcott started, in the spring of 1859, for the famous "Pike's Peak country," arriving at Denver in the month of May. He engaged in prospecting during the summer and in the fall following he was elected from the town of Arapahoe to the Constitutional Convention, which met at Denver. In October, 1860, he removed to Southern Colorado, now Pueblo Connty. He engaged in farming during 1861-'62, and in 1863 he located upon a farm of his own, twelve miles east of Pueblo. He served as a member of the Territorial Legislature in the first two sessions of that body. In 1863 he received from President Lincoln the appointment of Register of the United States Land-Office for the District of Colorado. Mr. Chilcott held the position nearly four years, until he was, in 1866, elected to Congress under the State or- ganization then formed, and which sought ad- mission into the Union. But Congress refused to receive Colorado as a State at that time, and Mr. Chilcott could not take his seat. In 1867 he was elected a Delegate to Congress for the Territory of Colorado, and served one term. It was he who introduced and secured the pas- sage of a bill repealing the act which discrimi- nated against all the territory west of the west line of Kansas and east of the east line of Cali- fornia, by charging letter postage on all printed matter between the two boundaries. Mr. Chilcott was a member of the Territorial Council, and president of that body during the session of 1872-'73. He was also a member in 1874. In 1878 he was elected to the State Legislature from Pueblo County, and during the session of 1878-'79 he was prominently before the Legislature as a candidate for United States Senator, Mr. Hill, however, securing the place. POLITICAL NOMINATIONS. — The Republican State Convention met in Denver on the 14th of September, and on the following day nomi- nated candidates as follows: For Governor, Ernest L. Campbell, of Lake ; Lieutenant-Gov- ernor, William Meyer, of Costilla; Congress, J. B. Belford, of Gilpin ; Secretary of State, Melvin Edwards, of Summit; State Treasurer, Frederick J. Walsen, of Huerfano ; State Au- ditor, John C. Abbott, of Larimer ; Attorney- General, D. F. Urmy, of Pueblo ; Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, J. 0. Shattuck, of Weld ; Regents of the State University, James Rice, of Pueblo, L. S. Cornell, of Boulder; Judge of the Supreme Court, Joseph C. Helm, of El Paso. Ernest L. Campbell is a native of Woodford County, Kentucky, thirty-six years old. He was educated in Bethany College, Virginia, Harrodsburg College, Kentucky, the Illinois State University at Jacksonville, Heidelberg University, Germany, and the Wurzburg Uni- versity, Germany. He is a lawyer by profes- sion, and went to Colorado in 1874. In 1879 he went to Leadville, and in 1881 became President of the Bank of Leadville, which posi- tion he still holds. The Democratic nominees were: For Gov- ernor, James B. Grant; Lieutenant- Governor, John R. Prowers ; Secretary of State, Frank C. Johnson ; Treasurer, Dennis Sullivan ; Au- ditor, Ansel Watrous ; Attorney-General, B. F. Montgomery; Superintendent of Public In- struction, Frank M. Brown ; Regent of the University, J. M. Vanauken; Judge of the Supreme Court, Vincent D. Markham; Con- gressman, S. S. Wallace. The Greenbackers nominated for Governor, George W. Woy ; Lieutenant-Governor, Theo- dore O. Saunders ; Secretary of State, William N. Bachelder ; Treasurer, John L. Herzinger ; Auditor, Amos K. Frost; Attorney -General, 110 COMMERCE AND FINANCE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. Alvah H. Breman; Superintendent of Public Instruction, Mrs. A. L. Washburn ; Regents of tbe University, Seth Terry and William J. Lynde; Judge of Supreme Court, L. F. Hoi- lings worth ; Congressman, Leland W. Green. ELECTION RETURNS.— The election in No- vember resulted in the choice of a Democratic Governor and of Republicans for most of the other offices. The vote in most cases is not officially determined until the meeting of the Legislature in January. Unofficial figures, for Governor, from all but one county, with the reported majority in that, give 29,897 for Grant and 27,552 for Campbell; Democratic majority, 2,345. The following is the declared result for Congressman, Judge of the Supreme Court, and Regents of the University : Congressman. Judge. Regents. Belford 80,847 Wallace 29,080 Green 1,195 Scattering . . 42 Kep. plurality 1,767 Helm 30,335 Markhara.... 29,819 Hollingsworth. 1,200 Scattering 9 Rep. plurality.. 516 Rice 82,427 Cornell 32,001 Vanauken.. 27,921 Lynde. 1,222 Terry 1,239 Scattering.. 6 Bep.plur....|Jjg5 A constitutional amendment, increasing the salaries of the Governor and Judges of the Supreme Court, was adopted at the same elec- tion, the vote being 32,861 for, and 8,838 against. The new Legislature will stand : LEGISLATURE. Sinate. House. Joint ballot. 17 36 53 9 13 22 Republican majority. ... : 23 31 A Mining and Industrial Exposition was held in Denver in August. COMMERCE AND FINANCE, AMERI- CAN, IN 1882. A series of disasters befell the country in 1881 which reduced the accu- mulation of national wealth almost to the van- ishing-point. In the severe winter of ISSO-'Sl great numbers of cattle perished on the Plains. Snow-storms entailed heavy expenses on the transportation companies. The crop of wintef wheat was a failure. The parching summer or 1881 caused a deficiency in spring wheat and the other cereals. Cora alone fell five hun- dred million bushels below the previous crop. Finally, the cotton-crop was a million and an eighth bales less than the product of the season before, and inferior in quality ; yet the losses were still within the amount of the exportable surplus, and, corning after years of unusual pro- duction, did not check the consumptive demand, and consequently produced no contraction in the general industrial and mercantile business of the country. The effects were, however, serious, though they did not amount to a gen- eral commercial depression. The consequences were not developed until 1882. Industrial ex- pansion was arrested in certain directions, par- ticularly in railroad-building and the depend- ent industries. The general rise in wages con- sequently stopped short. The prices of the necessaries of life at the time became much higher. The discontent of the laboring peo- ple, and their extensive and mostly unsuccess- ful strikes, were the most conspicuous eco- nomical features of the year. This state of things continued until the abundant harvests of 1882 caused the prices of food to fall, and relieved the working class from the chief cause of their distressed position. The imports did not begin to decline in response to the short- age in the crops and the diminished exporta- tion during the fiscal year 1881-'82. The rev- enues of the Government were larger than ever before. The accumulation of a surplus in the Treasury, and the disposal made of it by Con- gress, aroused a popular demand for the remis- sion of taxes and stimulated the free-trade agi- tation. The import trade would speedily have caught a fresh impulse from the harvests of 1882, which were as abundant as those of the previous year were deficient ; but the uncer- tainty of the action of Congress caused a par- tial cessation of operations in all branches of business which would be directly affected by tariff or internal revenue reductions. The stagnation in the tobacco industry and in many other departments, and subsidence in the im- port trade, were the most noteworthy inci- dents of the later months of the calendar year. Production and importation had been over- stimulated, and stocks had accumulated some- what in advance of the consumptive demand. Low prices and small profits gave difficulty to the manufacturers and traders in 1881-'82 as dear living did to the workmen. A reaction would have come, which would be greater on account of the falling off in the demand when the losses of 1881 began to be felt ; but it was precipitated and exaggerated by the uneasy an- ticipations of congressional action. The mania for speculation, which, within a few years, has extended to the staple products of the country, reached an unprecedented height in 1881-'82. With short crops of grain, rings of speculators in Chicago commenced manipulating prices and engrossing supplies. The price of wheat was driven above the ex- porting point, and European customers sup- plied their wants from elsewhere. The ship- ping which visited New York for grain-cargoes deserted that port. American millers were obliged to pay more than normal prices for grain, and the bread of the people was thus made dearer. At the close of the crop-year there was a large stock of wheat remaining. The corners were continued through the first half of 1882, and even when the crop of 1882 was assured, wild and contradictory reports being spread to influence prices. In the final collapse many banks and business houses were dragged down with the losing party of the gamblers. The unsatisfactory slowness with which the new crop of 1882 was exported after the harvest is attributed to the influence of the late speculations. COMMERCE AND FINANCE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. Ill There was a corner in wheat for July delivery at Chicago, by which the price was run up to $1.35 a bushel. The losers appealed to the ar- bitration committee of the Chicago Exchange, which decided that they must settle at the price which the buyers were able to fix. The St. Louis Exchange shortly before decided that contracts should be settled at a price even be- low what the sellers were willing to agree to. The difference in the commercial conditions of the two years is shown in the following ta- ble: ARTICLES. 1881. 1882. Coin and currency in United States November 1st $1 455,631 000 $1,488 838 554 Total clearing's in twenty-three cities 64,332,000,000 61,543,000 000 81 155 932 101 547 564 65 514 598 19 182 900 Exports of gold and silver (eleven months) 18 303 482 54 000 489 Imports of merchandise (eleven months) 612 871,846 693310224 756 487 485 675 021 019 143 615 639 18 289 205 Railroads constructed (estimated), miles 9400 11 000 Gross earnings fifty -four railroads (eleven months) $224,980,851* $257,172 130* 380 000 000 510 000 000 Corn raised (estimated) bushels 1 194 000 000 1 635 OOo'oOO Cotton raised, 1882 (estimated), bales 5 435 845 7'000 000 Pig-iron, tons ... . .% " 4 461 000 Anthracite coal, 1882 (approximated), tons 28,500,000 29 250 000 Immigration (eleven months) 682 485 705 259 The prices of the leading staples on or about the 31st of December for three years were as follows : MERCHANDISE. 1888. 1881. 1880. Cotton, middling uplands, per pound 10Tssc. life. lljfc. Wool, American XX, per pound 85c @ 43c 87c @ 45c 37c @ 48fc Iron, American pig, No. 1, per ton $25 00 @ $26 00 $25 50 @ $27 00 $24 00®, $26 00 Wheat, No. 2 red winter, per bushel $1 09J@,$1 lOf $1 41f@$l 43f $1 17J @,$1 18J Corn, Western mixed, per bushel 59c. @ 67c. 65c @71c. 54c @, 58c. Pork, mess, per barrel .... . . $18 37^@$18 50 $17 50 @ $19 50 $14 00 FOREIGN COMMERCE. — The returns of the exports and imports for 1882 present a re- markable contrast to those of the preceding year. This was wholly due to the diminished exports of breadstuffs, cotton, and provisions. Petroleum was the only one of the great sta- ples which showed an increase. The three classes named constituted nearly three quar- ters of the total exports in 1880-'81. The to- tal exports decreased from $883,925,947 in 1880-'81 to $733,073,937 in 1881-'82, over $150,000,000 less. In the three leading staples the falling off was still greater, as shown in the following table : EXPORTS. 1881. 1888. Breadstuff's $265 561 091 $176 977 496 Provisions 145 622 078 112 895 714 Cotton 247 695 746 199'812'644 Total $658 878 915 $489 685 854 For the eleven months ending November 30th, the total exports were $675,021,019, against $756,487,485 for the same period in 1881, and the imports $693,310,224, against $612,871,846, changing an excess of exports of $143,615,639 into an excess of imports of $18,289,205. But, for the last five of the eleven months, there was again a favorable balance of $21,147,825, nearly half as much as for the corresponding period in 1881. The exports in November were heavier than in any month since March, 1881. The large total was due to the heavy shipments of cotton, of which over 700,000 * Mileage November 30, 1881, 42,160 ; in 1882, 46,636. bales were exported. In December the cotton movement reached still greater proportions, more than 750,000 bales being sent out. The exports of breadstuffs amounted to $165,606,- 693 for the eleven months, against $210,318,- 432 for the same period in 1881. Nearly as much wheat was shipped as in the previous year, the export amounting to 100, 345, 387 bush- els, valued at $114,441,885, as against 109,814,- 650 bushels, valued at $128,318,378 ; but the corn export was less than one fifth as great in quantity, amounting to 13,057,940 bushels, valued at $9,944,652, as against 70,263,464 bushels, of the value of $42,266,154. Indian corn finds a certain demand in Europe, princi- pally for stock-feeding purposes in England. When the supply is insufficient for the domes- tic requirements, the foreign consumers com- pete for it until, as in 1882, the price approaches that of wheat. The exports of provisions for the eleven months were in value $84,863,003, against $120,345,092 in 1881. In hog products there was a decrease of over 37i per cent, nearly 350,000,000 pounds. During the eleven months of 1882 there was a net export of specie of $34,817,589, against a net import in 1881 of $47,211,166 for the eleven months. More than half of this came in the last five weeks of the period. There was still a small export of gold at this time in 1882, but with the ex- port movement of grain retarded, and the pros- pect of a turn in the current at the opening of the new year. The foreign trade movement for each of the eleven months was as follows, in thousands of dollars : 112 COMMERCE AND FINANCE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. ME I'.CIIANDI IB, GOLD. 81LVEB. 1888. Export.. Imports. Excess of exports. Importi. Exports. Exceis of imports. Exports. Imports. Excess of exports. 64,921 56,956 7,965 1,134 102 1,032 2,182 534 1,648 56,607 58,827 t2,220 469 7,231 *6,762 1,552 631 921 March 62,614 68,604 t5,990 840 8,229 *2,389 1,527 621 906 April.. 51,952 66,361 t8,409 551 2,343 *1,792 1,054 1,055 tl Mar 49,179 68,350 t!9,171 204 13,289 *13,085 1,778 611 1,107 51,078 62,690 tll,612 257 5,572 *5,315 1,327 817 510 July 54,618 65,804 tll,186 162 4,755 *4,593 1,656 420 1,236 62,714 65,719 t-3,005 425 1,807 *1,882 1,488 722 766 62,815 63,409 t594 1,136 230 906 1,188 512 676 October 71,548 61,435 10,113 8,836 104 3,782 608 277 831 November 80,975 55,155 25,820 2,242 58 2,189 926 1,727 +801 Total 675,021 693,810 t!8,289 11,256 38,715 *27,459 15,286 7,927 7,359 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION. — The settlement of new lands, particularly in the Northwest, is an important factor in the prosperity of the country. The occupation of new lands in the fiscal year 1881-'82 greatly exceeded the tak- ings of any previous year. Previous to 1878 the aggregate annual disposals of Government lands under the homestead and timber- culture laws and for cash, ranged between three and five million acres. In that year an increased movement began. The takings in 1877-'78 amounted to 7,168,334 acres; in 1878-'79, to 8,650,219 acres; in 1879-'80, to 9,166,918 acres; in 1880-'81, to 8,379,618 acres; and in 1881 -'82, to 12,526,262 acres. Of the latter total, 4,355,039 acres were in Dakota, and 1,085,737 acres in Minnesota, Kansas coming next with 904,061 acres, and Nebraska with 884,028 acres. Railroad lands in the North- west, which are sold at from four to six dollars an acre, were taken in 1882 in largely in- creased quantities, the Northern Pacific dis- posing of 175,772 acres in Dakota and Minne- sota, and the St. Paul, Minneapolis and Mani- toba Company of 203,143 acres. CEEEALS AND PROVISIONS. — A general crop failure has been regarded as- an impossibility in the United States, a country of such broad extent and varied climate. The crop year 1881-'82 showed a deficiency everywhere east of the Rocky Mountains. The season's yield of Indian corn was 1,194,916,000 bushels, against 1,717,434,000 bushels in 1880-'81. The wheat-crops fell off from 498,549,000 to 380,280,000 bushels, a decrease of 118,269,000 bushels. The cotton yield was 1,154,000 bales less, or 5,435,000 against 6,589,000 bales. Pork products in the West decreased from 1,551,331,000 to 1,250,000,000 pounds, or 301,- 331,000 pounds in meat products, and from 400,976,000 to 297,500,000 pounds, or 103,476,- 000 pounds in lard. The value of merchandise exports showed a falling off in the fiscal year 1881-'82 of $151,835,000, nearly 17£ per cent. The yield of the crop-year 1882-'83 is fully as abundant as that of 1880-'81. The wheat- crops are reported to be over 500,000,000 bushels. Corn is estimated by the Agricultur- al Bureau at 1,680,000,000 bushels, and by other authorities as high as 1,800,000,000 * Excess of exports^ ~~ t ExcesTof imports. bushels. The cotton-crop is estimated at from one to two million bales greater than in 1881- '82. In cattle and hog production the dearth of 1881-'82 is still felt, but in another year the conversion of the corn into pork will be shown in the provision-trade. It is estimated that the country produced 440,000,000 bushels more of corn, 130,000,000 bushels more of wheat, and 1,560,000 more bales of cotton in 1882 than in 1881. Flour has only recently become an impor- tant item among American exports. The shipments grew from 2,000,000 barrels in 1868 to 4,000,000 in 1876, and 8,000,000 in 1881. In 1881-'82 they reached from nine to ten million barrels. When flour was shipped in barrels it could not command a market. In sacks it comes in a form of package to which the European consumers are habituated, while the sacks can be baled and returned to be used again, instead of being a dead loss as were the barrels. They also weigh about twenty pounds less, and can be packed more closely in cars and steamships. The quality of American flour shipped abroad is more even and much superior to that sent formerly. The millers of Minneapolis have taken pains to establish a reputation for their brands in England, and are succeeding in overcoming the old prejudice against American flour. They buy up all the choice grades of spring wheat, which can be obtained in Europe in no other form than in their "patent" or roller-ground flour, a prod- uct which English millers can not equal. With freight rates to Liverpool almost as low as are ordinarily paid on either the rail or the steam- ship alone, and with agents in the principal towns of Great Britain, they reap the full ad- vantage of their unlimited water-power. The total number of swine slaughtered dur- ing the regular pork-packing season of 1881- '82, that is between November 1st and March 1st, was reported by the Cincinnati "Price Current " as 5,747,760, a decrease of 1,171,- 696 from the preceding winter. Summer pack- ing was formerly insignificant, but with ice and refrigerating appliances, it has attained dimensions which practically obliterate the old limits of the season. In 1881 it numbered 4,803,689 swine, against 5,323,898 in 1880, making the packing for the whole year 10,551,- COMMERCE AND FINANCE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. 113 449, a decrease of 1,691,905. The smaller sup- plies of 1881-'82 caused an advance in price which was carried to the highest point by speculative forestallers of the market. The gross cost in the winter was $7.58 per 100 pounds, against $5.80 the preceding season. In the beginning of the summer-packing sea- son of 1882 the expectations of a short supply were not realized, for more hogs, and of greater weight than the preceding spring, were sent to market. COTTON. — The cotton-crop of 1881-'82 was 5,435,845 bales. The exports amounted to 3,595,031 bales, and the takings of American spinners to 1,661,206 bales ; leaving a stock on hand on the 1st of September of 120,722 bales. The crop of 1880-'81 reached 6,589,329 bales ; the stock on hand, September 1, 1881, 212,233 bales. The movement of the crop compared with the previous season was as follows : shipped to Great Britain, 2,311,790 bales, against 2,843,957; to Channel ports, 80,060, against 56,210; to France, 381,186, against 556,344; to other foreign countries, 821,995, against 1,139,768; total exports, 3,595,031, against 4,596,279 ; shipments from Tennessee, etc., direct to manufacturers, 477,481, against 510,239 bales ; manufactured in Southern mills, 238,000, against 205,000; shipped overland, 1,134,788, against 1,090,067. The overland movement had increased very greatly in the three years preceding 1881, but in that year, with an increase in the crop of 14'25 per cent, the rail shipments were 7'71 less than the year before. In 1882, although the crop was 17'50 per cent smaller than the previous years, the quantity shipped overland was 4-10 per cent greater. The average weight of bales in 1881- '82 was 475.67 pounds, against 485.88 pounds in 1880-'81. The crop was of high average quality, dry and clean. The Sea Island crop was 38,552 bales, against 36,442 in 1880-'81, and 26,704 in 1879-'80. Florida and Georgia produced more and South Carolina less than the previous sea- son. American spinners consumed 14,762 bales of this staple, 3,492 bales more than in 1880- '81 ; the exports were 24,756 bales, against 24,- 395 in 1880-'81. The new crop of 1882 was about two weeks late in planting, and continued backward till the harvest. The planting was large, and the season remarkably favorable and free from drought or caterpillars, and with less shedding than usual. The boll-worm did considerable damage, however, west of the Mississippi. Al- though the growth was excessively vigorous, the plants matured well. Frosts were later than usual, but prevented a portion of the bolls from ripening in the northern part of the cotton belt. The weather of the picking sea- son was exceptionally favorable. The Decem- ber report of the Bureau of Agriculture makes the approximate size of the crop of 1882-'83 6,700,000 bales of 460 pounds. The takings of Northern spinners were VOL. xxii.— 8 A 1,661,206 bales, against 1,686,804 in 1880-'81. The consumption for the year is estimated at 1,986,206 bales: 1,748,206 bales in the North- ern and 238,000 bales in the Southern mills. The estimated consumption of 1880-'81 was 1,855,000 bales. For the manufacturers of printing cloths at least the year was an unsatis- factory one. The mills were kept in operation during the whole crop year, except slight stoppages on account of strikes at Cohoes and Fall River. The increased consumption was far short of the enlarged capacity of the mills. There were about 575,000 new spindles added during the year; new and improved spindles were largely introduced, which raised the average capacity per spindle to, perhaps, 67 pounds in the Northern and 153 pounds in the Southern mills. In the census year their ca- pacity was estimated by E. Atkinson at 65-83 pounds North and 149*77 pounds South. The total number of spindles in this country on the 1st of September is estimated at about 12,000,- 000. The speculation in cotton placed the manufacturers at a disadvantage. One effect of the speculation which prevailed in 1881-'82 was that the price of American cotton was lower during the whole year in Liverpool than it was to American spinners. Wages had risen considerably since 1878. The manufacturers, to preserve their margin of profit, resorted to a reduction of wages/ although the cost of living had recently been greatly enhanced. As soon as the crop of 1881-'82 was estimated in the fall of 1881, and known to be only about 4,500,- 000 bales, speculators took possession of the cotton market. Southerners particularly were confident that a cotton famine would result, and many expected the price to go up to twenty cents a pound. Contracts for future delivery were taken without limit. The Eng- lish dealers and manufacturers had enough on hand to defer their purchases until they had tired out the speculators. The corners conse- quently broke down in the spring. A few months later, when the world's stock was really running very low, speculation rose to a still greater height. Altogether the cotton market suffered almost as much as the wheat export and milling trades from the disturbing effects of speculative gam- bling: although the foreign trade could only be retarded, not permanently lost, as when the export of surplus breadstuffs is interfered with. The price of middling uplands was forced up to 13 cents by a corner during that interval between the old crop and the new, which is the usual opportunity of speculators. From that price, in July, it fell to 10-f cents when the new crop began to move, and between the 1st of September and the last of December the exports exceeded those of the previous year by over 500,000 bales. Many of the cotton-mills were obliged to close, or work part time. Notwithstanding improved machinery, and wages so low that the cost of labor per pound of cotton cloth, when genuine, is no higher 114 COMMERCE AND FINANCE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. than in Manchester, the export trade in 1881- ending June 30th, with their values, were '82 actually receded. The quantities of cotton follows : manufactures exported for the last four years, EXPORTS. 1880. 1881. 1880. 18?9. Colored goods .... , 29,525,672 $2,326,819 114,994,402 $9,351.713 1,534,947 68,184,298 $4,988.312. 80,399,154 $6,624,374 1,968,601 87,758,166 $2,956,760 68,821,567 $5,834,541 1,190,117 45.116,058 $8,309,968 84,081,319 $6,288,131 1,356,534 Uncolored goods . . Other manufacture 3 of cotton, value $13,212,979 $13,571,287 $9,981,418 $10,858,950 The British exports of cotton manufactures are nearly thirty times those of the United States, amounting, for the calendar year 1881, to $395,000,000. The European consumption was about 6,786,- 000 bales, of 400 pounds, against 6,528,000 in 1880-'81, and 6,075,000 in 18T9-'80. The large increase in 1880-'81 was due to the poor qual- ity of the crop. Some of that year's cotton was so damp and sandy that it only brought fid. and 3d. a pound in Liverpool. Ellison esti- mates the European imports for 1882-'83, on the basis of an American crop of 6,800,000 bales, as follows: Imports from the United States, 4,500,000 bales; from the East Indies, 1,450,000 bales; from other countries, 950,- 000 bales; total imports, 6,900,000 bales. The stock on hand, October 1st, was estimated at 771,000 bales, making the total supply 7,671,- 000 bales, of which -6,563,000 will be delivered for consumption, and 1,078,000 remain in store on October 1, 1883. The number of spindles in Europe, the United States, and India, in 1882, were as follows: Great Britain, 41,000,- 000; the Continent, 21,855,000; the United States, 12,000,000; India, 1,620,000; total, 76,- 475,000, an increase of 1,684,000 since the pre- ceding year. PETROLEUM. — The export of petroleum in 1881-'82 rose to about $50,000,000, an increase of $12,000,000. The total value of the prod- uce of the wells, since the first one was sunk in 1859, is estimated at $1,500,000,000. This ad- dition to the wealth of the country has been mainly contributed by the foreign consumers. China, Japan, and India have become as steady customers for American oil as Germany and England. Vast quantities are sent to the Med- iterranean. There is hardly a country in which this illuminant is not used. America 'is the only important accessible source at present. The yield last year was nearly 27,000,000 bar- rels. The consumption is about 71,000 bar- rels a day. The production in the early part of the year was about 80,000 barrels daily. There was a stock on hand of about 80,000,- 000 barrels in the summer. Although the oil- fields of Pennsylvania have several times ap- peared to be at the last limit of the supply, new wells have been struck each time when the stock was running low. With an increasing demand, which would not fail if the price were several times as high, and with the production constantly declining, until a new discovery gluts the market, oil is one of the most tempt- ing subjects for speculation and corners, and one of the most disappointing hitherto, for each new discovery has proved richer than the preceding. Since the establishment of the pipe- line and common reservoirs, the facilities for speculative dealings are complete. The Pipe- Line certificates are as easily exchanged as bank-notes. There are Oil Exchanges at New York, Philadelphia, and Pittsburg, and at Titus- ville, Oil City, Bradford, and Warren. The depth and extent of the oil-producing rock are well known, and the time is approaching when the world must look to the Caucasus, China, or some field yet unknown for its rock-oil. From 1866 till 1872, when the now exhausted wells in Venango County and along Oil Creek were the source of supply, the price was $4 or $5 a barrel. Since the discovery of the Butler County field, in the latter year, production has generally exceeded consumption. When the Butler wells began to run dry, the Clarion County deposits were struck, with the famous Bullion wells, pouring out 2,000 and 3,000 barrels a day each, and driving the price down to $1.50 a barrel. The Clarion fields were soon exhausted ; but immediately the Brad- ford deposits, the richest ever known, were dis- covered. These lasted five years, and swelled the production to sometimes 100,000 barrels a day, fully double the consumption. In May, 1881, when the Bradford wells were rapidly declining, oil was struck in Alleghany County, N. Y. The summer of 1882 was one of the most memorable in the history of petroleum speculation. In the spring the new wells at Rich burg, N. Y., began to fail. The price of oil was 80 cents on April 1st, but was rising rapidly toward $1 a barrel. Speculation was excessively active. Future contracts were dealt in to enormous amounts. On May 18th a well was struck in another new district in the for- ests of Warren County, Pa. The oil-bearing rock was pierced by the drill at the depth of 1,612 feet, in Cherry Grove Township, Warren County. Other wells were found in the same locality which yielded from 2,000 to 3,000 gal- lons a day, bringing the production up to 25,- 000 barrels daily in the new district and 105,- 000 barrels for the entire oil-regions at its highest point in August. The price fell to 50 cents, the lowest quoted since 1874. The own- ers of the new springs showed the character- istic feverish haste to realize, exploding nitro- COMMERCE AND FINANCE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. 115 glycerine cartridges at the bottom of the wells when the flow diminished. In September the Cherry Grove wells suddenly declined, reduc- ing the daily production by 25,000 barrels. For the first time in five years it approached the consumptive demand. A speculative ex- citement followed, which transcended all for- mer limits. The sales in September in the exchanges of the oil districts, where the largest transactions took place, amounted to as much as the whole existing stock multiplied several times. The price rose above $1 a barrel. With an immense stock on hand, such prices could not be sustained, notwithstanding the failing supply. When the bubble burst, and the price receded to 80 cents, thousands of speculators were ruined, business firms all over the country embarrassed, and three banks obliged to close. The extreme range of prices during the year was from 87 cents in February to less than 50 cents in June, then to $1.46 in November, and back to 75 cents in December. The field for future discoveries of petroleum is probably limited to Warren and Forest Coun- ties, Pa. ; Butler, Armstrong, Clarion, Venan- go, Crawford, and Bradford Counties being nearly exhausted of their deposits, and the territory in McKean County and New York State thoroughly explored. IRON. — The production of iron and steel in the United States, in 1881, was reported by the Secretary of the Iron and Steel Association as follows: Production of pig-iron, in net tons, 1,041,564, including 21,086 tons of spiegel- eisen ; production of all rolled iron, including nails and excluding rails, 2,155,346 tons; Bes- semer-steel rails, net tons, 1,330,302; open- hearth steel rails, net tons, 25,217; iron and other rails, net tons, 488,581 ; production of iron and steel street-rails, included in above, 21,554; crucible-steel ingots, net tons, 89,762; open-hearth steel ingots, net tons, 146,946 ; Bessemer- steel ingots, net tons, 1,539,157; blister and patent steel, net tons, 3,047. Pro- duction of all kinds of steel, net tons, 1,778,- 912. Production of blooms from ore and pig- iron, net tons, 84,606. The imports during the year were, in value, $61,555,078; exports, $15,782,282. The iron business is peculiarly subject to fluctuations, owing to its dependence on rail- road-building, and to the fitful way in which railroad extension takes place. In 1881 com- menced the greatest era of railroad construc- tion which the country has seen, but the one of the shortest duration. In 1882 there were over 11,000 miles of railroad built, more than in any previous year. In the spring a great strike of the iron- workers for higher wages was started at Pittsburg, Pa., and extended to all the iron-producing districts. For over three months, more than 100,000 men were kept out of work. But the fever for railroad extension had already subsided, and the wants of the lines under way were in great part sup- plied. The dissatisfied workers lost the con- test. The powerful trade organization of iron and steel workers was broken up. Before the year ended this great branch of industry began to languish. Rails were sold in large quan- tities for $38 a ton, the lowest price ever reached. In December hundreds of establish- ments were closed, or running on half-time. The production of coal was reported for the year 1880 as 28,646,995 net tons of anthracite, and 42,420,580 tons of bituminous. In 1881 the anthracite product amounted to 28,500,- 016 gross tons. THE MONEY MARKET. — Notwithstanding the expansion of the currency, the demand for money was so active in 1882 that the average rate of interest rose perceptibly during the year. The diminution in the volume of the currency from exports of gold was more than restored by the silver certificates which repre- sented the silver dollars which had accumu- lated in the Treasury since their coinage was begun, and were now added to the circulation by this device. The Secretary of the Treasury endeavored to return to circulation the sur- plus accumulating from taxes as rapidly as possible, and his payment of bonds and other transactions he conducted with regularity, so as to disturb business as little as possible. In October and November there was great strin- gency in the money market, which was in- creased by the manipulations of bank funds by stock operators, but relieved, as far as it was due to this cause, by the accelerated payment of called bonds by the Treasury. In Decem- ber the market was easier. In January, 1882, the inflow of gold, which began on a large scale in 1879, and had con- tinued without interruption since, ceased, and in February a contrary movement began which continued until August. During this period $34,000,000 net were exported from the coun- try. In September, although the balance of trade was still heavy against the United States, the draughts against future shipments and the purchase of American securities abroad turned the tide. Nearly a million was received in that month from the West Indies and Mexico on English account,- and about $3,750,000 in October. Small consignments arrived later from Europe, but, owing to the return of some speculative securities and of called United States bonds, exchange wavered for the re- mainder of the year about the gold-importing point. The rapid payment of the Government debt endangered the note circulation of the national banks. The process could not go on as rapidly in the latter half of the year 1882-'83, since by the 1st of December about $85,000,000 of the estimated surplus income for the year had been already thus applied, leaving only $35,000- 000 for bond redemption up to June 30, 1883. Comptroller Knox suggested three ways of enabling the banks to continue their circula- tion: 1. Reducing the interest on the 4 and 4-J- per cents by paying or compounding the 116 COMMERCE AND FINANCE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. premium, and then issuing circulation to the amount of 90 per cent of the par value. 2. That the law be amended so that notes may he obtained to within 10 per cent of the market value of the bonds, with a provision for an additional deposit in case of depreciation. 3. That the tax on circulation be reduced to an amount sufficient to simply cover the expenses of the Treasury incident to the issue of these notes. The Beck law against the over-certifi- cation of checks was directed against a prof- itable branch of the business of New York banks. Upon the opinion of the Attorney- General that the "acceptance" of overdrawn cbecks was an evasion of the law, several of the largest national banks of New York city prepared before the new year to retire their circulation, which was but slightly profitable, owing to the contracted supply and high prices of United States bonds, to resign their char- ters, and to reorganize as State banks. The national banking system has many ene- mies, but Congress passed without hesitation the bank extension act which was necessary in order to enable those banks organized under the first banking laws to continue their exist- ence. The act contained a provision for the exchange of the five per cent Government bonds continued temporarily as three and a half per cents for three per cent registered bonds, also redeemable at the pleasure of the Government, but only after all bonds bearing a higher rate of interest which may be pay- able have been redeemed. Of these three per cent bonds, those which are last issued are to be paid off first, and the earliest issued called in last. The total amount of coin and currency in the country at the date of resumption, and on each 1st of November subsequent, as estimated by the Comptroller of the Currency, was as fol- lows: CURRENCY. Jan. 1, 1879. Nov. 1, 1879. Nov. 1, 1880. Nov. 1, 1881. Nov. 1, 1882. $278 310,126 $355,631 532 $453 882 692 $562 568,971 $567,105456 10(5,573,803 126,009,537 158,320 911 186,037,365 212,324,835 Le<"al-tender notes 346,681,016 346,681,016 346,681,016 846,681.016 346,681,016 823 T91 674 837,181 418 843 884 107 860 344 250 362 727 747 Totals $1 055 356 619 $1 166,553 503 $1 802 718,726 $1 455.681,602 $1 488 838 554 The gold production of the year ending No- vember 1st is reported as $43,359,021. During the year there was a net export of $36,122,536. Taking the amount used in the arts as $2,700,- 000, there remained $4,536,483 to be added to the gold currency. From the date of resump- tion to November 1, 1882, there was a total excess of imports of gold over exports of $161,- 311, 5T8. The total product of the mines for the same period is estimated at $147,509,021. The total amount of standard silver dollars coined up to November 1, 1882, was $128,- 329,880. The amounts of gold, silver, and paper cur- rency in sight at the same dates as above were as follow : MONEY IN SIGHT. Jan. 1, 1879. Nov. 1, 1879. Nov. 1, 1880. Nov. l, 1881. Nov. 1, 1882. GOLD. In the Treasury, less certificates In national banks, including certificates In State banks, including certificates $112,703,342 35,039,201 10,937,812 $156,907,986 37,187,288 12,171,292 $138,679,349 102,851,032 17,102,130 $167,781,909 107.222,169 19,901,491 $148,435,473 94.127,324 17,892,500 Totalgold $158,680,355 $206,266,516 $253,682,511 $294,905,569 $260,455,297 SlLVEB. In the Treasury, standard silver dollars $17,249,740 9 121 417 $32,115,073 8 824 931 $47,156,588 $66,576,378 $92,414.977 In the Treasury fractional coin 6 048 194 17 8r%4 327 6'46o'557 Total silver $38,879,908 $58,780,823 $84,472,626 $103,098,207 $131,411,701 CUBRENCY. $44 425 655 $21 711 876 $18 221 826 $26 224 248 In national banks, including certificates In State banks, including certificates 126,491,720 25,944,485 14 513 779 118,546^369 25,555,280 15 880 921 86,489',925 25,828,794 17 072 680 77,630.917 27,319,317 11 782 248 92',549,'767 27,086,482 14 724 978 $211 875 689 $181 693 946 $147 563 225 $160 580 475 Grand totals $408 985 902 $446 741 285 $485 668 362 $537 583 083 $552 447 473 Deducting these totals from the amounts computed as the total stock in the country, the amounts held by the people at each date are approximately determined as follows : IN THE HANDS OF THE PEOPLE. Jan. 1, 1879. Nov. 1, 1879. Nov. 1, 1880. Nov. 1, 1881. Nov. 1, 1882. Gold . . . $119 629 771 $149 415 016 $200 250 181 $267 668 402 $306 650 159 Silver 67' 693' 895 67'228'714 78'848'285 82' 9891 158 8o'912'684 Currency . 459 097 051 502'l68'488 549 951 898 567 445 959 548 828 288 Totals $646 420 717 $718 812 218 $817 050864 $918 048 519 $936 891 081 COMMERCE AND FINANCE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. 117 It thus appears that the people increased their hoardings of gold between November 1, 1881, and November 1, 1882, about forty mill- ions, and decreased their hoardings of silver about two millions and their hoardings of cur- rency about nineteen millions. A new kind of currency was introduced in October. Gold certificates were issued on the deposit of gold in the Treasury at Washington or the sub-Treasury at New York. Bankers hastened to make the Government vaults the repository for their gold. The Bank of Amer- ica, however, still kept the reserves of the Clearing-House banks. Within a month, nearly $30,000,000 of the gold certificates were in cir- culation. The greater part of the customs dues were paid with this more convenient medium. This threatened to cut off the source from which the Treasury reserve held against the greenback circulation was kept, as the law contained no provision for the cancellation of certificates received by the Treasury, and only imperfectly guarded against the danger by directing the Secretary to cease issuing new ones after the reserve has sunk below $100,- 000,000. The increase in the circulation of standard silver dollars between November 1, 1881, and November 1, 1882, was less than a million and a half of dollars, although $27,772,075 had been coined in the mean while. Of the $128,- 329,880 coined since the passage of the act of February 28, 1878, only $35,383,786 were in circulation. There were silver certificates out- standing for $65,620,450, leaving $26,794,527 belonging to the Treasury. The amount of sil- ver certificates in circulation had decreased dur- ing the year to about the same amount that the circulation of silver dollars had increased. The new gold certificates are expected by the Secretary of the Treasury to expel the silver certificates. The state of India exchanges had caused an accumulation of India Council bills, leaving three fifths of the £15,000,000 annually drawn by the English Government to be dis- posed of between the 1st of January and the 31st of March, 1883. The price of silver de- clined from 52^nAW^ Aldrich' R- 18S8' M- c- B«tler. B. 883, H. B. Anthony, R. isss, Wade Hampton, D. 4, J. Proctor Knott, D. 9, John D. White, R. 5, Albert S. Willis, D. 10, Elijah C. Phister, D. Tennessee. Tea-.as. Louisiana. 1887, Howell E. Jackson. D. 1887, 8. B Maxev D 1, Randall L. Gibson, D. 4, Newton C. Blanchard, D. .883, 1. G, Harris, D. 1883, Richard Coke, D. 2, E. John Ellis, D. 5. J. Floyd Kina-, D. 8, Chester B. Darrall, R. 6, Edward W. Robertson, D. Vermont. Virginia. 1S& ?' sensibility of the nation to the event of the decease of the late President, James A. Garfield, and that so much of the message of the President as relates to that melancholy event be re- ferred to said committee. 126 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. The resolution was adopted, without debate, on the next day. At the same time, a similar resolution, appointing a committee of one member from each State, was adopted by the House. The committee appointed on the part of the Senate consisted of Messrs. Sherman, of Ohio ; Pendleton, of Ohio ; Dawes, of Massachusetts ; Lapham, of New York ; Bayard, of Delaware ; and Morgan, of Alabama, to whom Mr. Con- ger, of Michigan, and Mr. Brown, of Georgia, were subsequently added. The committee appointed on the part of the House consisted of the following members : Wil- liam McKinley, Jr., of Ohio; RomualdoPacheco, of California ; James B. Belford, of Colorado ; John T. Wait, of Connecticut ; William H. For- ney, of Alabama ; Poindexter Dunn, of Arkan- sas; Edward L. Martin, of Delaware, Robert H. M. Davidson, of Florida; Alexander H. Ste- phens, of Georgia ; Joseph G. Cannon, of Illi- nois; Godlove S. Orth, of Indiana; John A. Kasson, of Iowa; John A. Anderson, of Kan- sas ; John G. Carlisle, of Kentucky ; Randall L. Gibson, of Louisiana ; Nelson Dingley, Jr., of Maine ; Robert M. McLane, of Maryland ; Benjamin W. Harris, of Massachusetts; Ros- well G. Hoar, of Michigan ; Mark H. Dunnell, of Minnesota ; Charles. E. Hooker, of Missis- sippi; Nicholas Ford, of Missouri ; Edward K. Valentine, of Nebraska; George W. Cassidy, of Nevada; Joshua G. Hall, of New Hamp- shire; John Hill, of New Jersey; Samuel S. Cox, of New York ; Robert B. Vance, of North Carolina ; M. C. George, of Oregon ; Charles O'Neill, of Pennsylvania; Jonathan Chace, of Rhode Island ; D. Wyatt Aiken, of South Caro- lina; A. H. Pettibone, of Tennessee; Roger Q. Mills, of Texas ; Charles H. Joyce, of Ver- mont ; J. Randolph Tucker, of Virginia ; Ben- jamin Wilson, of West Virginia ; and Charles G. Williams, of Wisconsm. On December 21st the committee reported as follows : Whereas, The melancholy event of the violent and tragic death of James Abram Garfleld, late President of the United States, having occurred during the re- cess of Congress, ana the two Houses sharing in the general grief, and desiring to manifest their sensibility upon the occasion of the public bereavement : There- fore, Be it resolved by the House of Representatives (the Senate concurring), That the two Houses of Congress will assemble in the hall of the House of Kepresenta- tives on a day and hour to be fixed and announced by the joint committee, and that in the presence of the two Houses there assembled, an address upon the life and character of James Abram Garfield, late Presi- dent of the United States, be pronounced by Hon. James G. Elaine ; and that the President of the Sen- ate pro tempore, and the Speaker of the House of Kep- rescntatives, be requested to invite the President and ex-Presidents of the United States, the heads of the several Departments, the judges of the Supreme Court, the representatives of the foreign governments near this Government, the Governors of the several States, the General of the Army and the Admiral of the Navy, and such officers of the Army and Navy as have re- ceived the thanks of Congress, who may then be at the seat of government, to be present on the occasion. And be it further resolved, That the President of the United States be requested to transmit a copy of these resolutions to Mrs. Lucretia K. Garfleld, and to assure her of the profound sympathy of the two Houses of Congress for her deep personal affliction, and of their sincere condolence for the late national bereave- ment. The preamble and resolutions were adopted. Subsequently a concurrent resolution was adopted to set apart Monday, February 27th, for the memorial services above mentioned. In the House, on February 27th, the Speaker said : " This day has been dedicated by the ac- tion of the two Houses of Congress to services in commemoration of the life and death of James Abram Garfield, late President of the United States. This action was taken through the adoption of concurrent resolutions by the unanimous vote of the two Houses, presented by a select joint committee appointed 4to con- sider and report by what token of respect, es- teem, and affection it may be proper for Con- gress to express its and the nation's deep sensi- bility over the event of the decease of our late President.' "• The House is now assembled and ready to perform its part in the solemn duty." The following programme of arrangements, prepared by the joint committee of both Houses, was carried out : PEOGEAMME OF AEEABTGEMENTS. The Capitol will be closed on the morning of the 27th to all except the members and officers of Con- At ten o'clock the east door leading to the Eotunda will be opened to those to whom invitations have been extended under the joint resolution of Congress by the presiding officers of the two Houses, and to those holding tickets of admission to the galleries. The hall of the House of Kepresentatives will be opened for the admission of Kepresentatives and to those who have invitations, who will be conducted to the seats assigned to them, as follows : The President and ex-Presidents of the United States, and special guests, will be seated in front ot the Speaker. The Chief-Justice and associate justices of the Su- preme Court will occupy seats next to the President and ex-Presidents, and special guests, on the right of the Speaker. The Cabinet officers, the General of the Army and Admiral of the Navy, and the officers of the Army and Navy who, by name, have received the thanks of Congress, will occupy seats on the left of the Speaker. The Chief- Justice and judges of the Court of Claims, and the Chief- Justice and associate justices of the Su- preme Court of the District of Columbia, will occupy seats directly in the rear of the Supreme Court. The diplomatic corps will occupy the front row of scats. Ex-Vice-Presidents, Senators^ and ex-Senators, will occupy seats in the second, third, fourth, and fifth rows, on east side of main aisle. Kepresentatives will occupy seats on west side of main aisle, and in rear of the Senators on east side. Commissioners of the District, Governors of States and Territories, assistant heads of Departments, and invited guests, will occupy seats in rear of Kepresent- atives. The Executive gallery will be reserved exclusively for the families of the 'Supreme Court, and the fami- lies of the Cabinet, and the invited guests of the Pres- ' CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 127 ident. Tickets thereto will be delivered to the Pri- vate Secretary of the President. The diplomatic gallery will be reserved exclusively for the families of the members of the diplomatic corps. Tickets thereto will be delivered to the Secre- tary of State. The reporters' gallery will be reserved exclusively for the use of the reporters for the press. Tickets thereto will be delivered to the press committee. The official reporters of the Senate and of the House will occupy the reporters' desk in front of the Clerk's table. The House of Eepresentatives will be called to or- der by the Speaker at twelve o'clock. The Marine Band will be in attendance. The Senate will assemble at twelve o'clock, and im- mediatelv after prayer will proceed to the hall of the House of Beprcsentatives. The diplomatic corps will meet at half past eleven o'clock in Kepresentatives' lobby, and be conducted by the Sergeant-at-Arms of the House to the seats as- signed them. The President of the Senate will occupy the Speak- er's chair. The Speaker of the House will occupy a seat at the left of the President of the Senate. The Chaplains of the Senate and of the House will occupy seats next to the presiding officers of their re- spective Houses. The chairmen of the joint committee of arrange- ments will occupy seats at the right and left of the orator, and next to them will be seated the Secretary of the Senate and the Clerk of the House. The other officers of the Senate and of the House will occupy scats on the floor, at the right and the left of the Speaker's platform. Prayer will be offered by the Key. F. D. Power, Chaplain of the House of Eepresentatives. The presiding officer will then present the orator of the day. The* benediction will be pronounced by the Eev. J. J. Bullock, Chaplain of the Senate. By reason of the limited capacity of the galleries the number of tickets is necessanly restricted, and will be distributed as follows : To each Senator, Eepresentative, and Delegate, three No person will be admitted to the Capitol except on presentation of a ticket, which will be good only for the place indicated. The Architect of the Capitol and the Sergeant-at- Arms of the Senate and Sergeant-at-Arms of the House are charged with the execution of these ar- rangements. JOHN SHEEMAN, WM. McKINLEY, JR., Chairmen Joint Committee. The President pro tempore of the Senate called the two Houses to order. Rev. F. D. Power, Chaplain of the House of Representatives, offered prayer, as follows : PRAYER. O Lord our God, we thank thee for this hour and for this service. We thank thee for a great life given to this nation ; for its genius and potencies ; for its example and memories ; for its immortality and eternity. May this republic never forget its dead ! As we come together this day to recall the wisdom, the integrity, the statesmanship, the loyalty, the rev- erence for thee and thy word, the unselfish love for country and for all mankind, wherewith thou didst endow thy servant and fit him for the administration of the affairs of the Government ; as we meditate upon the patience, the sweetness, the fortitude, the faith, the quiet resignation to thy will wherewith thou didst fit him for his sore tria'l ; as we remember his triumph and our sorrow, grant us thy gracious bene- diction. We bear, during this memorial service, our Father, before thee, on our hearts, his loved ones with whom we weep. Sustain, we beseech thee, the mother who bore him. May the peace of God that passeth all understanding be the strength and the crown of her spirit. Be very merciful to the wife in her present separation from the husband of her youth. May she rest in God, and may she find such sympathy and joy in her Saviour as the world can not give nor take away. Be a father to the children now fatherless, and may they imitate the virtues of their illustrious par- ent, and like him be useful in living and mourned in dying. May the youth of this land and of all lands feel the power of his example and follow in his foot- steps. May those who rule among us and among men everywhere by the study of his virtues be incited to like patriotism and piety. Now we ask thy blessing on this assembly. May the remembrance of this great life be a genuine help to all those present and that greater audience waiting without. Give grace and utterance to thy servant who shall speak to us. May his words be wise and worthy and fitly chosen, like apples of gold in pict- ures of silver. Eemember thy servant before thee, the President of the United States. Preserve him from evil influ- ences and evil men. May truth rest upon his brow, wisdom upon his lips, justice in his hands, and grace in his heart. Bless his counselors, this Congress as- sembled, our magistrates and judges, our Army and Navy, pur schools and churches, our whole land and all the inhabitants thereof. May we keep alive in us the faith and virtue of those who have passed before. Give peace in our time. Make religion and righteousness, truth and jus- tice, knowledge and freedom to abound everywhere. May thy name be glorified and thy kingdom rule over us from sea to sea. We ask it all reverently, through Jesus Christ our Lord. Amen. The President pro tempore of the Senate: "Senators and Representatives, this day is dedi- cated by Congress for memorial services upon the late President James A. Garfield. I pre- sent to you Hon. James G. Elaine, who has been fitly chosen as the orator for this histor- ical occasion." Mr. Elaine (who was greeted with hearty applause) delivered the following oration : ORATION. "Mr. President: For the second time in this gen- eration the great departments of the Government of the United States are assembled in the hall of Eepre- sentatives to do honor to the memory of a murdered President. Lincoln fell at the close of a mighty strug- gle in which the passions of men had been deeply stirred. The tragical termination of his great lite added but another to the lengthened succession of horrors which had marked so many lintels with the blood of the first-born. Garfield was slain in a day of peace, when brother had been reconciled to brother, and when anger and hate had been banished from the land. ' Whoever shall hereafter draw the portrait of murder, if he will show it as it has been exhibited where such example was last to have been looked for, let him not give it the grim visage of Moloch, the brow knitted by revenge, the face black with settled hate. Let him draw, rather, a decorous, smooth-faced, blood- less demon ; not so much an example of human nature in its depravity and in its paroxysms of crime, as an infernal being, a fiend in the ordinary display and development of his character.' " From the landing of the Pilgrims at Plymouth till the uprising against Charles I, about twenty thousand emigrants came from Old England to New England. As they came in pursuit of intellectual freedom and ecclesiastical independence rather than for worldly honor and profit, the emigration naturally ceased 128 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. when the contest for religious liberty began in earnest at home. The man who struck his most effective blow for freedom of conscience by sailing for the colo- nies in 1620 would have been accounted a deserter to leave after 1640. The opportunity had then come on the soil of England for that great contest which es- tablished the authority of Parliament, gave religious freedom to the people, sent Charles to the block, and committed to the hands of Oliver Cromwell the su- preme executive authority of England. The English emigration was never renewed, and from these twenty thousand men, with a small emigration from Scotland and from France, are descended the vast numbers who have New England blood in their veins. u In 1685 tlie revocation of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV scattered to other countries four hundred thousand Protestants, who were among the most intel- ligent and enterprising of French subjects — merchants of capital, skilled manufacturers, and handicraftsmen, superior at the time to all others in Europe. A con- siderable number of these Huguenot French came to America ; a few landed in New England and became honorably prominent in its history. Their names have in large part become anglicized, or have disap- peared, but their blood is traceable in many of the most reputable families, and their fame is perpetuated in honorable memorials and useful institutions." ANCESTORS. " From these two sources, the English-Puritan and the French-Huguenot, came the late President — his father, Abram Garfield, being descended from the one, and his mother, Eliza Ballou, from the other. " It was good stock on both sides— none better, none braver, none truer. There was in it an inheritance of courage, of manliness, of imperishable love of liberty, of undying adherence to principle. Garfield was proud of his blood ; and with as much satisfaction as if he were a British nobleman reading his stately ancestral record in Burke's 'Peerage,' he spoke of himself as ninth in descent from those who would not endure the oppression of the Stuarts, and seventh in descent from the brave French Protestants who refused to sub- mit to tyranny even from the Grand Monarque. " General Garfield delighted to dwell on these traits, and, during his only visit to England, he busied him- self in discovering every trace of his forefathers in parish registries and on ancient army rolls. Sitting with a friend in the gallery of the House of Commons, one night, after a long day's labor in this field of research, he said, with evident elation, that in every war in which for three centuries patriots of English blood had struck sturdy blows for constitutional gov- ernment and human liberty, his family had been rep- resented. They were at Marston Moor, at Naseby, and at Preston ; they were at Bunker Hill, at Sara- toga, and at Monmouth, and in his own person had battled for the same great cause in the war which pre- served the Union of the States." EARLY AGE. " Losing his father before he was two years old, the early life of Garfield was one of privation, but its pov- erty has been made indelicately and unjustly promi- nent. Thousands of readers have imagined him as the ragged, starving child, whose reality too often greets the eye in the squalid sections of our large cities. General Garfield's infancy and youth had none of their destitution, none of their pitiful features appeal- ing to the tender heart and to the open hand of char- ity. He was a poor boy in the same sense in which Henry Clay was a poor boyj in which Andrew Jack- son was a poor boy ; in which Daniel Webster was a poor boy ; in the sense in which a large majority of the eminent men of America in all generations have been poor boys. Before a great multitude of men, in a public speech, Mr. Webster bore this testimony : It did not happen to me to be born in a log-cabin, but my elder brothers and sisters were born in a log-cabin raised amid the snow-drifts of New Hampshire, at a period so early that when the smoke rose first from its rude chimney and curled over the frozen hills there was no similar evidence of a white man's habitation between it and the settlements on the rivers of Canada. Its remains still exist. I make to it an annual visit. I carry my children to it to teach them the hardships endured by the generations which have gone before them. I love to dwell on the tender recollections, the kindred tics, the early affections, and the touching narratives and incidents which mingle with all 1 know of this primitive family abode. " With the requisite change of scene the same words would aptly portray the early days of Garfield. The poverty of the frontier, where all are engaged in a common struggle and where a common sympathy and hearty co-operation lighten the burdens of each, is a very different poverty, different in kind, different in influence and effect from that conscious and humiliat- ing indigence which is every day forced to contrast itself with neighboring wealth on which it feels a sense of grinding dependence. The poverty of the frontier is indeed no poverty. It is but the beginning of wealth, and has the boundless possibilities of the future always opening before it. No man ever grew up in the agricultural regions of the West where a house-raising, or even a corn-husking, is matter of common interest and helpfulness, with any other feeling than that of broad-minded, generous inde- pendence. This honorable independence marked the youth of Garfield as it marks the youth of millions of the best blood and brain now training for the future citizenship and future government of the republic. Garfield was born heir to land, to the title of free- holder, which has been the patent and passport of self- respect with the Anglo-Saxon race ever since Hengist and Horsa landed on the shores of England. His ad- venture on the canal— an alternative between that and the deck of a Lake Erie schooner— was a farmer's boy's device for earning money, just as the New Eng- land lad begins a possibly great career by sailing fore the mast on a coasting-vessel or on a merch be- ant- man bound to the farther India or to the China seas. " No manly man feels anything of shame in look- ing back to early struggles with adverse circumstances, and no man feels a worthier pride than when he has conquered the obstacles to his progress. But no one of noble mold desires to be looked upon as having oc- cupied a menial position, as haying been repressed by a feeling of inferiority, or as having suffered the evils of poverty until relief was found at the hand of charity. General Garfield' s youth presented no hardships which family love and family energy did not overcome, sub- jected him to no privations which he did not cheer- 'fully accept, and left no memories save those which were recalled with delight, and transmitted with profit and with pride." EDUCATION. " Garfield's early opportunities for securing an edu- cation were extremely limited, and yet were sufficient to develop hi him an intense desire to learn. He could read at three years of age, and each winter he had the advantage of the district school. He read all the books to be found within the circle of his acquaintance ; some of them he got by heart. While yet in childhood he was a constant student of the Bible, and became fa- miliar with its literature. The dignity and earnest- ness of his speech in his maturer life gave evidence of this early training. At eighteen years of age he was able to teach school, and thenceforward^ his ambition was to obtain a college education. To this end he bent all his efforts, working in the harvest-field, at the car- penter's bench, and,"in the winter season, teaching the common schools of the neighborhood. While thus laboriously occupied he found time to prosecute his studies, and was so successful that at twenty-two vears of age he was able to enter the junior class at Williams College, then under the presidency of the venerable and honored Mark Hopkins, who, in the fullness of his powers, survives the eminent pupil to whom he was of inestimable service. " The history of Garfield's life to this period pre- sents no novel features. He had undoubtedly shown perseverance, self-reliance, self-sacrifice, and ambi- tion—qualities which, be it said for the honor of our CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 129 country, are everywhere to be found among the young men of America. But from his graduation at Williams onward, to the hour of his tragical death, Garfield's career was eminent and exceptional^ Slowly working through his educational period, receiving his diploma when twenty-four years of age, he seemed at one bound to sp'ring into conspicuous and brilliant suc- cess. Within six years he was successively president of a college. State Senator of Ohio, major-general of the Army 01 the United States, and Representative- elect to the National Congress. A combination of honors so varied, so elevated, within a period so brief and to a man so young, is without precedent or paral- lel in the history of the country." ARMY LIFE. " Garfield's army life was begun with no other mili- tary knowledge than such as he had hastily gained from books in the few months preceding his march to the field. Stepping from civil life to the head of a regiment, the first order he received when ready to cross the Ohio was to assume command of a brigade, and to operate as an independent force in Eastern Kentucky. His immediate duty was to check the ad- vance ot Humphrey Marshall, who was marching down the Big Sandy with the intention of occupying, in connection with other Confederate forces, the en- tire territory of Kentucky, and of precipitating the State into secession. This was at the close of the year 1861. Seldom, if ever, has a young college professor been thrown into a more embarrassing and discour- aging position. He knew just enough of military sci- ence, as he expressed it himself, to measure the extent of his ignorance, and with a handful of men he was marching, in rough winter weather, into a strange country, among a hostile population, to confront a largely superior force under the command of a dis- tinguished graduate of West Point, who had seen ac- tive and important service in two preceding wars. " The result of the campaign is matter of history. The skill, the endurance, the extraordinary energy shown by Garfield, the courage he imparted to his men, raw and untried as himself, the measures he adopted to increase his force and to create in the enemy's mind exaggerated estimates of his numbers, bore perfect fruit in the routing of Marshall, the capt- ure of his^camp, the dispersion of his force, and the emancipation of an important territory from the con- trol of the rebellion. Coming at the close of a long series of disasters to the Union arms; Garfield's vic- tory had an unusual and extraneous importance, and in the popular judgment elevated the young com- mander to the rank of a military hero. With less than two thousand men in his entire command, with a mobilized force of only eleven hundred, without cannon, he had met an army of five thousand and de- feated them — driving Marshall's forces successively from two strongholds of their own selection, fortified with abundant artillery. Major-General Buellj com- manding the Department of the Ohio, an experienced and able soldier of the regular Army, published an order of thanks and congratulation on the brilliant result of the Big Sandy campaign, which would have turned the head of a less cool and sensible man than Garfield. Buell declared that his services had called into action the highest qualities of a soldier, and Presi- dent Lincoln supplemented these words of praise by the more substantial reward of a brigadier-general's commission, to bear date from the day of his decisive victory over Marshall. " The subsequent military career of Garfield fully sustained its brilliant beginning. With his new com- mission he was assigned to the command of a brigade in the Army of the Ohio, and took part in the second and decisive day's fight in the great battle of Shiloh. The remainder of the year 1862 was not especially eventful to Garfield, as it was not to the armies with which he was serving. His practical sense was called into exercise in completing tne task, assigned him by General Buell, of reconstructing bridges and re-estab- lishing lines of railway communication for the army. VOL. xxn.— 9 A His occupation in this useful but not brilliant field was varied by service on courts-martial of importance, in which department of duty he won a valuable repu- tation, attracting the notice and securing the approval of the able and eminent Judge- Advocate-General of the Army. That of itself was warrant to honorable fame ; for among the great men who in those trying days gave themselves, with entire devotion, to the service of their country, one who brought to that serv- ice the ripest learning, the most fervid eloquence, the most varied attainments, who labored with mod- jary's deliverance— was Joseph Holt, of Kentucky, who in his honorable retirement enjoys the respect and veneration of all who love the Union of the States. " Early in 1863 Garfield was assigned to the highly important and responsible post of chief of staff to Gen- eral Rosecrans, then at the head of the Army of the Cumberland. Perhaps in a great military campaign, no subordinate officer requires sounder judgment and quicker knowledge of men than the chief of staff to the commanding general. An indiscreet man in such a position can sow more discord, breed more jealousy, and disseminate more strife than any other officer in the entire organization. When General Garfield as- sumed his new duties he found various troubles al- ready well developed and seriously affecting the value and efficiency of the Army of the Cumberland. The energy, the impartiality, and the tact with which he sought to allay these dissensions, and to discharge the duties of his new and trying position will always re- main one of the most striking proofs of his great ver- satility. His military duties'closed on the memorable field of Chickamauga, a field which, however disas- trous to the Union arms, gave to him the occasion of winning imperishable laurels. The very rare distinc- tion was accorded him of a great promotion for his bravery on a field that was lost. President Lincoln appointed him a major-general in the Army of the United States for gallant and meritorious conduct in the battle of Chickamauga. " The Army of the Cumberland was reorganized under the command of General Thomas, who prompt- ly offered Garfield one of its divisions. He was ex- tremely desirous to accept the position, but was em- barrassed by the fact that he had, a year before, been elected to Congress, and the time when he must take his seat was drawing near. He preferred to remain in the military service, and had within his own breast the largest confidence of success in the wider field which his new rank opened to him. Balancing the arguments on the one side and the other, anxious to determine what was for the best, desirous above all things to do his patriotic duty, he was decisively in- fluenced by the advice of President Lincoln and Sec- retary Stanton, both of whom assured him that he could, at that time, be of especial value in the House of Representatives. He resigned his commission of maior-general on the 5th day of December, 1863, and tooK his seat in the House of Representatives on the 7th. He had served two years and four months in the army, and had just completed his thirty-second year." ELECTED TO CONGRESS. " The Thirty-eighth Congress is pre-eminently en- titled in history to the designation of the War Con- gress. It was elected while the war was flagrant, and every member was chosen upon the issues involved in the continuance of the struggle. The Thirty-seventh Congress had, indeed, legislated to a large extent on war measures, but it was chosen before any one be- lieved that secession of the States would be actually attempted. The magnitude of the work which fell upon its successor was unprecedented, both in respect to the vast sums of money raised for the support of the army and navy, and of the new and extraordinary powers of legislation which it was forced to exercise. Only twenty-four States were represented, and one 130 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. hundred and eighty-two members were upon its roll. Among these were many distinguished party leaders on both sides, veterans in the public service, with established reputations for ability, and with that skill which comes only from parliamentary experience. Into this assemblage of men Garfield entered without special preparation, and it might almost be said unex- pectedly. The question of taking command of a di- vision of troops under General Thomas, or taking his seat hi Congress, was kept open till the last moment, so late, indeed, that the resignation of his military commission and his appearance in the House were al- most contemporaneous. He wore the uniform of a major-general of the United States Army on Satur- day, and on Monday, in civilian's dress, he answered to the roll-call as a Representative in Congress from the State of Ohio. " He was especially fortunate in the constituency which elected him. Descended almost entirely from New England stock, the men of the Ashtabula dis- trict were intensely radical on all questions relating to human rights. Well educated, thrifty, thoroughly intelligent in affairs, acutely discerning of character, not quick to bestow confidence, and slow to withdraw it, they were at once the most helpful and most ex- acting of supporters. Their tenacious trust in men in whom they have once confided is illustrated by the unparalleled fact that Elisha Whittlesey, Joshua R. Giddings, and James A. Garfield represented the dis- trict for fifty-four years. " There is no test of a man's ability in any depart- ment of public life more severe than service in the House of Representatives ; there is no place where so little deference is paid to reputation previously ac- quired, or to eminence won outside ; no place where so little consideration is shown for the feelings or the failures of beginners. What a mail gains in the House he gains by sheer force of his own character, and if he loses and falls back, he must expect no mercy, and will receive no sympathy. It is a field in which the survival of the strongest is the recognized rule, and where no pretense can deceive and no glamour can mislead. The real man is discovered, his worth is im- partially weighed, his rank is irreversibly decreed. " With possibly a single exception, Garfield was the youngest member in the House when he entered, and was but seven years from his college graduation. But he had not been in his seat sixty days before his abil- ity was recognized and his place conceded. He stepped to the front with the confidence of one who belonged there. The House was crowded with strong men of both parties ; nineteen of them have since been trans- ferred to the Senate, and many of them have served with distinction in the gubernatorial chairs of their respective States, and on foreign missions of great con- sequence ; but among them all none grew so rapidly, none so firmly, as Garfield. As is said by Trevelyan of his parliamentary hero, Garfield succeeded ' be- cause all the world in concert could not have kept him in the background, and because, when once in the front, he played his part with a prompt intrepidity and a commanding ease that were but the outward symptoms of the immense reserves of energy on which it was in his power to draw.' Indeed, the ap- parently reserved force which Garfield possessed was one of his great characteristics. He never did so well but that it seemed he could easily have done better. He never expended so much strength but that he seemed to be holding additional power at call. This is one of the happiest and rarest distinctions of an effective debater, and often counts for as much in persuading an assembly as the eloquent and elaborate argument." SERVICES IN THE HOUSE. " The great measure of Garfield' s fame was filled by his service in the House of Representatives. His rnili- tarv life, illustrated by honorable performance, and rich in promise, was, as he himself felt, prematurely terminated, and necessarily incomplete. Speculation as to what he might have done in a field where tho great prizes are so few, can not be profitable. It is sufficient to say that, as a soldier, he did his duty bravely ; he did it intelligently ; he won an enviable fame, and he retired from the service without blot or breath against him. As a lawyer, though admirably equipped for the profession, he can scarcely be said to have entered on its practice. The few efforts he made at the bar were distinguished by the same hio-h order of talent which he exhibited on every field where he was put to the test ; and. if a man may be accepted as a competent judge of his own capacities and adaptations, the law was the profession to which Garfield should have devoted himself. But fate or- dained otherwise, and his reputation in history will rest largely upon his service in the House of Repre- sentatives. That service was exceptionally long. He was nine times consecutively chosen to the House, an honor enjoyed probably by not twenty other Repre- sentatives of the more than five thousand who have been elected from the organization of the Government to this hour. "As a parliamentary orator, as a debater on an issue squarely joined, where the position had been chosen and the ground laid out, Garfield must be assigned a very high rank. More, perhaps, than any man with whom he was associated in public life, he gave careful and systematic study to public questions, and he came to every discussion in which he took part with elab- orate and complete preparation. He was a steady and indefatigable worker. Those who imagine that talent or genius can supply the place or achieve the results of labor, will find no encouragement in Garfield's life. In preliminary work he was apt, rapid, and skillful. He possessed in a high degree the power of readily absorbing ideas and facts, and, like Dr. Johnson, had the art of getting from a book all that was of value in it, by a reading apparently so quick and cursory that it seemed like a mere glance at the table of contents. He was a pre-eminently fair and candid man in de- bate, took no petty advantage, stopped to no unworthy methods, avoided personal allusions, rarely appealed to prejudice, did not seek to inflame passion. He had a quicker eye for the strong point of his adversary than for his weak point ; and, on his own side, he so marshaled his weighty arguments as to make his hearers forget any possible lack in the complete strength of his position. He had a habit of stating his opponent's side with such amplitude of fairness, and such liberality of concession, that his followers often complained that he was giving his case away. But never, in his prolonged participation in the pro- ceedings of the House, did he give his case away, or fail, in the judgment of competent and impartial lis- teners, to gain the mastery. " These characteristics, which marked Garfield as a great debater, did not, however, make him a great parliamentary leader. A parliamentary leader, as that term is understood wherever free representative gov- ernment exists, is necessarily and very strictly the organ of his party. An ardent American defined the instinctive warmth of patriotism when he offered the toast, ' Our country, always right ; but right or wrong, our country.' The parliamentary leader who lias a body of followers that will do and dare and die for the cause, is one who believes his party always right, but, right or wrong, is for his party. No more important or exacting duty devolves upon him than the selection of the field and the time for contest. He must know not merelv how to strike, but where to strike, and when to strike. He often skillfully avoids the strength of his opponent's position, and scatters confusion in his ranks by attacking an exposed point, when really the righteousness of the cause and the strength or logical intrenchment are against him. He conquers often both against the right and the heavy battalions ; as, when young Charles Fox, hi the days of his Toryism, carried the House of Commons against justice, against its immemorial rights, against his own convictions—if, indeed, at that period, Fox had con- victions—and, in the interest of a corrupt adminis- tration, in obedience to a tyrannical sovereign, drove CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 131 Wilkes from the seat to which the electors of Middle- sex had chosen him, and installed Luttrell, in defiance not merely of law, but of public decency. For an achievement of that kind Garfield was disqualified — disqualified by the texture of his mind, by the honesty of his heart, by his conscience, and by every instinct and aspiration of his nature. " The three most distinguished parliamentary lead- ers hitherto developed in this country are Mr. Clay, Mr. Douglas, and Mr. Thaddeus Stevens. Each was a man of consummate ability, of great earnestness, of intense personality, differing widely each from the other, and yet with a single trait in common — the power to com- mand. In the give-and-take of daily discussion, in the art of controlling and consolidating reluctant and re- fractory followers ; in the skill to overcome all forms of opposition^ and to meet, with competency and cour- age, the varying phases of unlooked-for assault or un- suspected defection, it would be difficult to rank with these a fourth name in all our congressional history. But of these Mr. Clay was the greatest. It would, perhaps, be impossible to find, in the parliamentary annals of the world, a parallel to Mr. Clay in 1841, when, at sixty-four years of age, he took the control of the Whig "party from the President who had re- ceived their suffrages, against the power of Webster in the Cabinet, against the eloquence of Choate in the Senate, against the herculean efforts of Caleb Gushing and Henry A. Wise hi the House. In unshared leader- ship, hi the pride and plenitude of power, he hurled against John Tyler, with deepest scorn, the mass of that conquering column which had swept over the land in 1840, and drove his administration to seek shelter behind the lines of his political foes. Mr. Douglas achieved a victory scarcely less wonderful, when in 1854, against the secret desires of a strong administration, against the wise counsel of the older chiefs, against the conservative instincts and even the moral sense of the country, he forced a reluctant Con- fress into a repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Mr. haddeus Stevens, in his contests from 1865 to 1868, actually advanced his parliamentary leadership until Congress tied the hands of the President, and gov- erned the country by its own will, leaving' only per- functory duties to be discharged by the Executive. With two hundred millions of patronage in his hands at the opening of the contest, aided by the active force of Seward hi the Cabinet, and the moral power of Chase on the bench, Andrew Johnson could not command the support of one third in either House against the parliamentary uprising of which Thaddeus Stevens was the animating spirit and the unquestioned leader. " From these three great men Garfield differed radi- cally—differed in the quality of his mind, in tempera- ment, in the form and phase of ambition. He could not do what they did, but he could do what they could not ; and, in the breadth of his congressional work, he left that which will longer exert a potential influ- ence among men, and which, measured by the severe test of posthumous criticism, will secure a more endur- ing and more enviable fame. " Those unfamiliar with Garfield's industry, and ig- norant of the details of his work, may, in some degree, measure them by the annals of Congress. No one of the generation of public men to which he belonged has contributed so much that will be valuable for future reference. His speeches are numerous, many of them brilliant, all of them well studied, carefully phrased, and exhaustive of the subject under consideration. Collected from the scattered pages of ninety royal- octavo volumes of congressional record, they would present an invaluable compendium of the political history of the most important era through which the National Government has ever passed. When the history of this period shall be impartially written, when war legislation, measures of reconstruction, pro- tection of human rights, amendments to the Constitu- tion, maintenance of public credit, steps toward specie resumption, true theories of revenue may be reviewed, unsurrounded by prejudice, and disconnected from partisanism, the speeches of Garfield will be estimated at their true value, and will be found to comprise a vast magazine of fact and argument, of clear analysis and sound conclusion. Indeed, if no other authority were accessible, his speeches in the House of Repre- sentatives, from December, 1863, to June, 1880, would give a well-connected history, and complete defense of the important legislation of the seventeen eventful years that constitute his parliamentary life. Far be- yond that, his speeches would be found to forecast many great measures yet to be completed — measures which Tie knew were beyond the public opinion of the but which he confidently believed would secure hour, popular approval within the period of his own life- time, and by the aid of his own efforts. " Differing, as Garfield does, from the brilliant par- liamentary leaders, it is not easy to find his counterpart anywhere in the record of American public life. He, perhaps, more nearly resembles Mr. Seward in his su- preme faith in the all-conquering power of a principle. He had the love of learning, and the patient industry of investigation, to which John Quincy Adams owes his prominence and his presidency. He had some of thoseponderous elements of mind which distinguished Mr. Webster, and which, indeed, in all our public life have left the great Massachusetts Senator without an intellectual peer. " In English parliamentary history, as in our own, the leaders in the House of Commons present points of essential difference from Garfield. But some of his methods recall the best features in the strong, in- dependent course of Sir Robert Peel, and striking resemblances are discernible in that most promising of modern Conservatives, who died too early for his country and his fame, the Lord George Bentinck. He had all of Burke' s love for the sublime and the beau- tiful, with, possibly, something of his superabun- dance ; and in his faith and his magnanimity, in his power of statement, in his subtle analysis, in his faultless logic, in his love of literature, in his wealth and world of illustration, one is reminded of that great English statesman of to-day, who, confronted with obstacles that would daunt any but the daunt- less, reviled by those whom he would relieve as bitter- ly as by those whose supposed rights he is forced to invade, still labors with serene courage for the amel- ioration of Ireland and for the honor of the English name." NOMINATION FOB PRESIDENCY. u Garfield's nomination to the presidency, while not predicted or anticipated, was not a surprise to the country. His prominence in Congress, his solid qualities, his wide reputation, strengthened by his then recent election as Senator from Ohio, kept him in the public eye as a man occupying the very high- est rank among those entitled to be called states- men. It was not mere chance that brought him this high honor. ' We must,' says Mr. Emerson; ' reckon success a constitutional trait. If Eric is m robust health and has slept well and is at the top of his con- dition, and thirty years old at his departure from Greenland, he will steer west and his ships will reach Newfoundland. But take Eric out and put in a stronger and bolder man and the ships will sail six hundred, one thousand, fifteen hundred miles farther and reach Labrador and New England. There is no chance in results.' " As a candidate, Garfield steadily grew in popular favor. He was met with a storm of detraction at the very hour of his nomination, and it continued with increasing volume and momentum until the close of his victorious campaign : ' No might nor greatness in mortality Can censure 'scape; backwounding calumny The whitest virtue strikes. What king so strong Can tie the gall up in the slanderous tongue ? ' " Under it all he was calm, and strong, and confi- dent ; never lost his self-possession, did no unwise act, spoke no hasty or ill-considered word. Indeed, nothing in his whole life is more remarkable or more 132 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. creditable than his bearing through those five full months of vituperation— a prolonged agony of trial to a sensitive man. a constant and cruel draft upon the powers of moral endurance. The great mass of these unjust imputations passed unnoticed, and with the general debris of the campaign fell into oblivion. But in a few instances the iron entered his soul, and he died with the injury unforgotten if not unforgiven. " One aspect of Gar-field's candidacy was unprece- dented. Never before, in the history of partisan con- tests in this country, had a successful presidential candidate spoken freely on passing events and current issues. To attempt anything of the kind seemed novel, rash, and even desperate. The older class of voters recalled the unfortunate Alabama letter, in which Mr. Clay was supposed to have signed his po- litical death-warrant. They remembered also the hot-tempered effusion by which General Scott lost a large share of his popularity before his nomination, and the unfortunate speeches which rapidly consumed the remainder. The younger voters had seen Mr. Greeley in a series of vigorous and original addresses preparing the pathway for his own defeat. Unmind- ful of these warnings, unheeding the advice of friends, Garfield spoke to large crowds as he journeyed to and from New York in August, to a great multitude in that city, to delegations and deputations of every kind that called at Mentor during the summer and autumn. With innumerable critics, watchful and eager to catch a phrase that might be turned into odium or ridicule, or a sentence that might be distorted to his own or his party's injury, Garfield did not trip or halt in any one of his seventy speeches. This seems all the more re- markable when it is remembered that he did not write what he said, and yet spoke with such logical consec- utiveness of thought and such admirable precision of phrase as to defy the accident of misreport and the malignity of misrepresentation." AS PRESIDENT. " In the beginning of his presidential life, Garfield' s experience did not yield him pleasure or satisfaction. The duties that engross so large a portion of the President's time were distasteful to him, and were unfavorably contrasted with his legislative work. ' I have been dealing all these years with ideas,' he im- patiently exclaimed one day, ' and here I am dealing only with persons. I have been heretofore treating of the fundamental principles of government, and here I am considering all day whether A or B shall be appointed to this or that office.' He was earnestly seeking some practical way of correcting the evils arising from the distribution of overgrown and un- wieldy patronage — evils always appreciated and often discussed by him, but whose magnitude had been more deeply impressed upon his mind since his acces- sion to the presidency. Had he lived, a comprehen- sive improvement in the mode of appointment and in the tenure of office would have been proposed by him, and with the aid of Congress no doubt perfected. " But, while many of the Executive duties were not grateful to him, he 'was assiduous and conscientious in their discharge. From the very outset he exhibit- ed administrative talent of a high order. He grasped the helm of office with the hand of a master. In this respect, indeed, he constantly surprised many who were most intimately associated with him in the Gov- ernment, and especially those who had feared that he might be lacking in the executive faculty. His dis- position of business was orderly and rapid. His power of analysis, and his skill in classification, enabled him to dispatch a vast mass of detail with singular prompt- ness and ease. His Cabinet meetings were admirably conducted. His clear presentation of official subjects, his well-considered suggestion of topics on which discussion was invited, his quick decision when all had been heard, combined to show a thoroughness of mental training as rare as his natural ability and his facile adaptation to a new and enlarged field of labor. " With perfect comprehension of all the inheritances of the war, with a cool calculation of the obstacles in his way, impelled always by a generous enthusiasm, Garfield conceived that much might be done by his administration toward restoring harmony between the different sections of the Union. He was anxious to go South and speak to the people. As early as April he had ineffectually endeavored to arrange for a trip to Nashville, whither he had been cordially in- vited, and he was again disappointed a few weeks later to find that he could not go to South Carolina to attend the centennial celebration of the victory of the Cowpens. But for the autumn he definitely counted on being present at three memorable assemblies in the South, the celebration at Yorktown, the opening of the Cotton Exposition at Atlanta, and the meeting of the Army of the Cumberland at Chattanooga. He was already turning over in his mind his address for each occasion, and the three taken together, he said to a friend, gave him the exact scope and verge which he needed. ^ At Yorktown he would have before him the associations of a hundred years that bound the South and the North in the sacred memory of a com- mon danger and a common victory. At Atlanta he would present the material interests and the indus- trial development which appealed to the thrift and in- dependence of every household, and which should unite the two sections by the instinct of self-interest and self-defense. At Chattanooga he would revive memories of the war only to show that after all its disaster and all its suffering, the country was stronger and greater, the Union rendered indissoluble, and the future, through the agony and blood of one generation, made brighter and better for all. " Garfield' s ambition for the success of his adminis- tration was high. With strong caution and conserva- tism in his nature, he was in no danger of attempting rash experiments or of resorting to the empiricism of statesmanship. But he believed that renewed and closer attention should be given to questions affecting the material interests and commercial prospects of fifty millions of people. He believed that our conti- nental relations, extensive and undeveloped as they are, involved responsibility, and could be cultivated into profitable friendship or be abandoned to harmful indifference or lasting enmity. He believed with equal confidence that an essential forerunner to a new era of national progress must be a feeling of contentment in every section of the Union, and a generous belief that the benefits and burdens of government would be common to all. Himself a conspicuous illustration of what ability and ambition may do under republican institutions, he loved his country with a passion of patriotic devotion, and every waking thought was given to her advancement. He was an American in all his aspirations, and he looked to the destiny and influence of the United States with the philosophic composure of Jefferson and the demonstrative confi- dence of John Adams. " The political events which disturbed the Presi- dent's serenity for many weeks before that fatal day in July form an important chapter in his career, and, in his own judgment, involved questions of principle and of right which are vitally essential to the constitutional administration of the Federal Government. It would be out of place here and now to speak the language of controversy ; but the events referred to, however they may continue to be a source of contention with others, have become, so far as Garfield is concerned, as much a matter of history as his heroism at Chickamauga or his illustrious service in the House. Detail is not needful, and personal antagonism shall not be rekin- dled by any word uttered to-day. The motives of those opposing him are not to be here adversely in- terpreted nor their course harshly characterized. But of the dead President this is to be said, and said be- cause his own speech is for ever silenced and he can be no more heard except through the fidelity and the love of surviving friends : from the beginning to the end of the controversy he so much deplored, the President was never for one moment actuated by any motive of gain to himself or of loss to others. Least of all men did he harbor revenge, rarely did he even CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 133 show resentment, and malice was not in his nature. He was congenially employed only in the exchange of good offices and the doing of kindly deeds. " There was not an hour, from the beginning of the trouble till the fatal shot entered his body, when the President would not gladly, for the sake of restoring harmony, have retraced any step he had taken if such retracing had merely involved consequences personal to himself. The pride of consistency, or any sup- posed sense of humiliation that might result from surrendering his position, had not a feather's weight with him. No man was ever less subject to such in- fluences from within or from without. But after most anxious deliberation and the coolest survey of all the circumstances, he solemnly believed that the true pre- rogatives of the Executive were involved in the issue which had been raised, and that he would be unfaith- ful to his supreme obligation if he failed to maintain, iu all their vigor, the constitutional rights and digni- ties of his great office. He believed this in all the convictions of conscience when in sound and vigorous health, and he believed it in his suffering and prostra- tion in the last conscious thought which his wearied mind bestowed on the transitory struggles of life. " More than this need not be said. Less than this could not be said. Justice to the dead, the highest obligation that devolves upon the living, demands the declaration that in all the bearings of the subject, actual or possible, the President was content in his mind, justified in his conscience, immovable in his conclusions." RELIGIOUS VIEWS. " The religious element in Garfield's character was deep and earnest. In his early youth he espoused the faith of the Disciples, a sect of that great Baptist communion which in different ecclesiastical estab- lishments is so numerous and so influential through- out all parts of the United States. But the broaden- ing tendency of his mind and his active spirit of inquiry were early apparent and carried him beyond the dogmas of sect and the restraints of association. In selecting a college in which to continue his educa- tion he rejected Bethany, though presided over by Al- exander Campbell, the greatest preacher of his church. His reasons were characteristic: first, that Bethany leaned too heavily toward slavery ; and, second, that being himself a Disciple and the son of Disciple par- ents, he had little acquaintance with people of other beliefs, and he thought it would make him more lib- eral, quoting his own words, both in his religious and general views, to go into a new circle and be under new influences. "• The liberal tendency which he anticipated as the result of wider culture was fully realized. He was emancipated from mere sectarian belief, and with eager interest pushed his investigations in the direc- tion of modern progressive thought. He followed with quickening step in the paths of exploration and speculation so fearlessly trodden by Darwin, by Hux- ley, by Tyndall, and by other living scientists ot the radical and advanced type. His own church, binding its disciples by no formulated creed, but ac- cepting the Old and New Testaments as the word of God with unbiased liberality of private interpretation, I, if it did not stimulate, the spirit of mvestiga- favored, tion. Its members profess with sincerity, and prol only, to be of one mind and one faith with those who immediately followed the Master, and who were first called Christians at Antioch. " But however high Garfield reasoned of ' fixed fate, free-will, foreknowledge absolute;' he was never sep- arated from the Church of the Disciples in his affec- tions and iu his associations. For him it held the ark of the covenant. To him it was the gate of heaven. The world of religious belief is full of solecisms and contradictions. A philosophic observer declares that men by the thousand will die in defense of a creed whose doctrines they do not comprehend and whose tenets they habitually violate. It is equally true that men by the thousand will cling to church organiza- tions with instinctive and undying fidelity when their belief in maturer years is radically different from that which inspired them as neophytes. "But after this range of speculation, and this latitude of doubt, Garfield came back always with freshness and delight to the simpler instincts of religious faith, which, earliest implanted, longest survive. Not many weeks before his assassination, walking on the banks of the Potomac with a friend, and conversing on those topics of personal religion, concerning which noble natures have an unconquerable reserve, he said that he found the Lord's Prayer and the simple petitions learned in infancy infinitely restful to him, not merely in their stated repetition, but in their casual and fre- quent recall as he went about the daily duties of life. Certain texts of Scripture had a very strong hold on his memory and his heart. He^heard, while in Edin- burgh some years ago, an eminent Scotch preacher who prefaced his sermon with reading the eighth chapter of the Epistle to the Eomans, which book had been the subject of careful study with Garfield during all his religious life. He was greatly impressed by the elocution of the preacher, and declared that it had imparted a new and deeper meaning to the majestic utterances of St. Paul. He referred often in after- years to that memorable service, and dwelt with exal- tation of feeling upon the radiant promise and the as- sured hope with which the great apostle of the Gen- tiles was ' persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things pres- ent, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord.' " The crowning characteristic of General Garfield's religious opinions, as, indeed, of all his opinions, was his liberality. In all things he had chanty. Toler- ance was of his nature. He respected in others the qualities which he possessed himself — sincerity of con- viction and frankness of expression. With him the inquiry was not so much what a man believes, but does he believe it ? The lines of his friendship and his confidence encircled men of every creed and men of no creed, and to the end of his life, on his ever- lengthening list of friends, were to be found the names of a pious Catholic priest and of an honest- minded and generous-hearted free-thinker." THE END. " On the morning of Saturday, July 2d, the President was a contented and happy man— not in an ordinary degree, but joyfully, almost boyishly happy. On his way to the railroad station to which he drove slowly, in conscious enjoyment of the beautiful morning, with an unwonted sense of leisure and a keen anticipation of pleasure, his talk was all in the grateful and gratu- latory vein. He felt that after four months of trial his administration was strong in its grasp of affairs, strong in popular favor, and destined to grow strong- er ; that grave difficulties confronting him at his in- auguration had been safely passed ; that trouble lay behind him and not before him ; that he was soon to meet the wife whom he loved, now recovering from an illness which had but lately disquieted and at times almost unnerved him ; that he was going to his Alma Mater to renew the most cherished associations of his young manhood, and to exchange greetings with those whose deepening interest had followed every step of his upward progress from the day he entered upon his college course until he had attained the loftiest eleva- tion in the g^ft of his countrymen. " Surely, if happiness can ever come from the honors or triumphs of this world, on that quiet July morning James A. Garfield may well have been a happy man. No foreboding of evil haunted him ; no slightest pre- monition of danger clouded his sky. His terrible fate was upon him in an instant. One moment he stood erect, strong, confident in the years stretching peacefully out before him. The next he lay wounded, bleeding, helpless, doomed to weary weeks of torture, to silence, and the grave. " Great in life, he was surpassingly great in death. 134 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. For no cause, in the very frenzy of wantonness and wickedness, by the red hand of murder, he was thrust from the full tide of this world's interest, from its hopes, its aspirations, its victories, into the visible presence of death — and he did not quail. Not alone for the one short moment in which, stunned and dazed, he could give up life, hardly aware of its relin- quishment, but through days of deadly languor, through weeks of agony, that was not less agony because si- brilliant, broken plans, what baffled, high ambitions, what sundering of strong, warm, manhood's friend- ships, what bitter rending of sweet household ties ! Behind him a proud, expectant nation, a great host of sustaining friends, a cherished and happy mother, wearing the full, rich honors of her early toil and tears ; the wife of his youth, whose whole life lay in his ; the little boys not yet emerged from childhood's day of frolic ; the fair young daughter ; the sturdy sons just springing into closest companionship, claim- ing every day and every day rewarding a father's love and care ; and in his heart the eager, rejoicing power to meet all demand. Before him, desolation and great darkness ! And his soul was not shaken. His coun- trymen were thrilled with instant, profound, and uni- versal sympathy. Masterful in his mortal weakness, he became the center of a nation's love, enshrined in the prayers of a world. But all the love and all the svmpathy could not share with him his suffering. He trod the wine-press alone. With unfaltering front he faced death. With unfailing tenderness he took leave of life. Above the demoniac hiss of the assas- sin's bullet be heard the voice of God. WTith simple resignation he bowed to the divine decree. " As the end drew near, his early craving for the sea returned. The stately mansion of power had been to him the wearisome hospital of pain, and he begged to be taken from its prison-walls, from its oppressive, stifling air, from its homelessness and its hopeless- ness. Gently, silently, the love of a great people bore the pale sufferer to. the longed-for healing of the sea, to live or to die, as God should will, within sight of its heaving billows, within sound of its manifold voices. With wan, fevered face tenderly lifted to the cooling breeze, he looked out wistfully upon the ocean's changing wonders ; on its far sails, whitening in the morning light : on its restless waves, rolling shoreward to break and die beneath the noonday sun"; on the red clouds of evening^ arching low to the hori- zon ; on the serene and shining pathway of the stars. Let us think that his dying eyes read a mystic meaning which only the rapt and parting soul may know. Let us believe that in the silence of the re- ceding world he heard the great waves breaking on a farther shore, and felt already upon his wasted brow the breath of the eternal morning." [The orator on concluding was greeted with most hearty applause, in which the whole au- dience joined.] Rev. J. J. Bullock, the Chaplain of the Sen- ate, pronounced the benediction, as follows : u May the peace of God, which passeth all under- standing, keep your minds and hearts in the knowl- edge and love of God and his Son, Jesus Christ, our Lord. And the blessing of God Almighty, the Fa- ther, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, rest upon and re- main with you, now and for evermore. Amen." The President and his Cabinet, the Chief- Justice and associate justices of the Supreme Court, and other invited guests then retired from the hall; after which the Senate re- turned to their chamber. The House having been called to order — Mr. McKinley, of Ohio, submitted the fol- lowing resolutions, which were unanimously adopted : Resolved (the Senate concurring), That the thanks of Congress be presented to Hon. James G. Elaine, for the appropriate memorial address delivered by him on the life and services of James Abrarn Garfleld, late President of the United States, in the Representa- tives' hall, before both Houses of Congress and their invited guests, on the 27th day of February, 1882 ; and that he be requested to furnish a copy for publica- tion. Resolved, That the chairmen of the joint committee appointed to make the necessary arrangements to carry into effect the resolutions of this Congress in relation to the memorial exercises in honor of James Abram Garfield be requested to communicate to Mr. Elaine the foregoing resolution, receive his answer thereto, and present the same to both Houses of Congress. Mr. McKinley: "I now offer the resolution which I send to the Clerk's desk." The Clerk read as follows: Resolved, That as a further testimonial of respect to the deceased President of the United States, the House do now adjourn. The resolution was adopted ; and thereupon (at one o'clock and fifty-five minutes p. M.) the House adjourned. WOMAN SUFFRAGE. — In the Senate, on De- cember 14th, Mr. Hoar, of Massachusetts, moved to take up the following resolution re- ported by the Committee on Rules : Resolved, That a select committee of seven Senators be appointed by the Chair, to whom shall be referred all petitions, bills, and resolves providing for the ex- tension of suffrage to women or the removal of their legal disabilities. The President pro tempore : " The resolution is before the Senate for consideration." Mr. Vest, of Missouri: "Mr. President, I am constrained to object to the passage of this resolution, and I do it with considerable re- luctance. At present we have thirty stand- ing committees of the Senate, and we have four joint committees and seven special com- mittees, in addition to the committee now pro- " But, Mr. President, I will be entirely in- genuous and give another reason. This is simply a step toward the recognition of woman suffrage, and I am opposed to it upon principle in its inception. In my judgment it has noth- ing but mischief in it to the institutions and to the society of this whole country. I do not propose to enter into a discussion of that sub- ject to-day, but it will be proper for me to make this statement, and I make it intending no reflection upon the zealous ladies who have engaged for the past ten years in manufactur- ing a public sentiment upon this question. I received to-day a letter from a distinguished lady in my own State, for whom I have per- sonally the greatest admiration and respect, calling my attention to the fact that I propose to deny justice to the women of the country. Mr. President, I deny it. It is because I be- lieve that the conservative influence of society in the United States rests with the women of CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 135 the country that I propose not to degrade the wife and mother to the ward politician, the justice of the peace, or the notary public. It is because I believe honestly that all the best in- fluences for the conservatism of society rest upon the women of the country in their proper sphere, that I shall oppose this and every other step now and henceforth as violating, as I be- lieve, one of the great essential fundamental laws of nature and of society. " Mr. President, the revenges of nature are sure and unerring, and these revenges are just as certain in political matters and in social matters as in the physical world. Now and here I desire to record once for all my convic- tion that in this movement to take the women of the country out of their proper sphere of social influence, that great and glorious sphere in which nature and nature's God have placed them, and rush them into the political arena, the attempt is made to put them where they were never intended to be ; and I now and here record my opposition to it. This may seem to be but a small matter, but as this letter shows, and I reveal no private confidence, it recognizes the first great step in this reform, as its advocates are pleased to term it." Mr. Hoar: "Mr. President, I do not under- stand that the question which the honorable Senator from Missouri has discussed with so much eloquence is before the Senate. No question of the extension of suffrage to any portion of our citizens is raised by the reso- lution which is before the Senate. The only question now is, first, whether Senators like the honorable Senator from Missouri will pre- fer to decide this question before it is heard or after ; and next, whether if one half the pop- ulation of this country have an interest which their representatives desire to present to Con- gress, it will be more convenient to give them a hearing by one of the standing committees of the Senate or by a separate committee ap- pointed for that purpose. I suppose the Judi- ciary Committee would be entirely competent, and would be for many reasons entirely appro- priate, as .the proper organ of the Senate to hear the requests of these ladies ; but the Judiciary Committee is crowded with great subjects, and as one very intelligent Senator observed to me, yesterday, ' Send the matter to the Judiciary Committee, for they never report on anything.' This committee is pro- posed, not alone to hear any representation or arguments which may be proper to be heard in regard to the question of woman suffrage, but in regard to all subjects where these ladies think their sex lies under an improper legal disability. "Mr. President, I suppose that the wildest conservative in this country will not deny that the old common law in defining the rights and duties of English and American women was not only unjust but almost brutal. No matter what might be the degradation of the husband, the person, the earnings, the personal prop- erty, the real estate for life of the wife were absolutely in his power. " The discussion of this class of questions has convinced the American people, I believe, to an absolute unanimity of judgment, that the law which permitted the husband to beat his wife with a rod, which varied in size with the thumb of the lord chief- justice or chancellor, which denied her the right to secure the earn- ings of her own day's work, which denied her any voice or control in the education, or cus- tody, or direction of the children which she had borne, was not only unjust but almost brutal. " Within our national jurisdiction, with Congress organizing the institutions of the freat Territories which are to become imperial tates, is it not fitting that that class of con- siderations should be gravely, fully, adequately considered ? If so, I do not see why the hon- orable Senator from Missouri (who I know entertains as high and chivalrous a regard for the sex to which our mothers and sisters and wives belong as any man on this floor) should not unite with me in providing for giving a respectful and thorough hearing, which it is impossible that any of the standing committees of this body can do, to the petitioners on this class of subjects. Unless I am misinformed, it is the rule of the Judiciary Committee, from which they almost never depart, to give no hearings at all, a course to which they are constrained by the necessities of the business committed to them. Therefore, entirely inde- pendent of any question of the right or pro- priety of extending suffrage to the women of this country, it seems to me eminently proper and fitting that this committee should be raised." Mr. Vest : " If the Senator will permit me, I simply wish to state in reference to his argu- ment as to the Territories that I have the hon- or to be a member of the Committee on Terri- tories, and at the last session, I believe, or the session before, while the Senator from Arkan- sas (Mr. Garland) was the chairman of that committee, we heard most respectfully and pa- tiently for two days, I think, the advocates of woman suffrage in the Territories of the United States, and that committee to-day is ready to hear those ladies upon that ques- tion at any time they choose to appear before it." Mr. Hoar : " The Senator's suggestion does not cover the District of Columbia ; it does not cover the jurisprudence of the national courts, the practice or the rights, wherever they extend. The Committee on Territories is not raised for the purpose of dealing with that class of questions, as this committee would be. Therefore, I say it seems to me entirely independent of the opinion of any Senator upon the question of the extension of suf- frage to women, that the raising of this com- mittee is a right and proper and expedient measure." 136 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. Mr. Vest: "The Senator from Massachu- setts was pleased to say that the Committee on the Judiciary had so many important ques- tions pending before it that the subject of woman suffrage should not be added to them. The Committee on Territories is open to any complaint or suggestion by the ladies who advocate woman suffrage, in regard to this subject in the Territories ; and the Committee on Privileges and Elections, to which this sub- ject should go most appropriately, as affecting the suffrage, has not now before it, as I am informed, one single bill, resolution, or propo- sition of any sort whatever. That committee is also open to inquiry upon this subject. "But, Mr. President, out of^all committees without business, and habitually without busi- ness, in this body, there is one that beyond any question could take jurisdiction of this matter and do it ample justice. I refer to that most respectable and antique institution, the Committee on Revolutionary Claims. For thirty years it has been without business. For thirty long years the placid surface of that parliamentary sea has been without one single ripple. If the Senator from Massachusetts desires a tribunal for calm judicial equilibrium and examination, a tribunal far from the 'madding crowd's ignoble strife,' a tribunal eminently respectable, dignified, and unique, why not send this question to the Committee on Revolutionary Claims? When I name the personnel of that committee it will be evident that any consideration on any subject touching the female sex would receive not only deliber- ate but immediate attention, for the second member upon that committee is my distin- guished friend from Florida (Mr. Jones), and who can doubt that he would give his undi- vided attention to the subject? It is emi- nently proper that this subject should go to that committee because if there is any revolu- tionary claim in this country it is that of wo- man suffrage. It revolutionizes society; it revolutionizes religion; it revolutionizes the Constitution and laws; and it revolutionizes the opinions of those so old-fashioned among us as to believe that the legitimate and proper sphere of woman is the family circle as wife and mother and not as politician and voter — those of us who are proud to believe that — ' A woman's noblest station is retreat ; Her fairest virtues fly from public sight ; Domestic worth — that shuns too strong a light.' "Before that Committee on Revolutionary Claims why could not this most revolutionary of all claims receive immediate and ample attention? More than that, as I said before, if there is any tribunal that could give undi- vided time and dignified attention, is it not this committee? If there is one peaceful haven of rest, never disturbed by any profane bill or resolution of any sort, it is the Commit- tee on Revolutionary Claims. It is, in parlia- mentary life, described by that ecstatic verse in Watts's hymn : ' There shall I bathe my wearied soul In seas of endless rest, And not one wave of trouble roll Across iny peaceful breast.' " For thirty years there has been no excite- ment in that committee, and it needs to-day, in Western phrase, some ' stirring-up.' Sir, I in- sist upon it that in deference to this committee ; in deference to the fact that it needs this sort of regimen and medicine, this whole subject should be so referred." The President pro tempore: "The Senator from Missouri offers an amendment, that the subject be referred to the standing Committee on Revolutionary Claims. The question is on the amendment of the Senator from Missouri." Mr. Farley called for the yeas and nays; and they were ordered and taken, as follows : YEAS — Bayard, Beck, Brown, Butler, Camden, Coke, Fair, Farley, Garland, Gorman, Hampton, Har- ris. Jackson, Jonas, Maxey, Morgan, Saulsbury, Vance, Vest, Voorhees, Walker, Williams— 22. NAYS — Aldrich, Cameron of Pennsylvania, Cam- eron of Wisconsin, Conger, Davis of Illinois, Dawes, Edmunds, Frye, Hale, Harrison, Hawley.Hill of Col- orado. Hoar, Johnston, Jones of Florida, Kellogg, Logan, McDill, McMillan Miller of California, Mitch- ell, Morrill, Platt, Plumb, Kansom, Eollins, Saun- ders, Sawyer, Sherman, Teller, Windom — 31. ABSENT — Allison^ Anthony, Blair, Call, Coekrell, Davis of West Virginia, Ferry, George, Groome, Grover, Hill of Georgia, Ingalls, Jones of Nevada, Lamar, Lapham, McPnerson, Mahone, Miller of New York, Pendleton, Pugh, Sewell, Slater, Van Wyck— 23. So the motion was not agreed to. The President pro tempore: "The question recurs on the adoption of the resolution. It is in order to move to refer the resolution to the Committee on the Judiciary, the Chair under- stands." Mr. Bayard, of Delaware : " I make a mo- tion that the resolution be sent to the Commit- tee on the Judiciary. " I would state that I voted with some regret and hesitancy upon the motion of the Senator from Missouri (Mr. Vest) to refer this matter to the Committee on Revolutionary Claims. My regret was owing to the fact that I do not wish even to seem to treat a subject of this character in a spirit of levity or to indicate the slightest disrespect, by such a reference, to those whose opinions upon this subject differ essentially from my own. I cast the vote be- cause I considered it would be taking the sub- ject virtually away from the consideration of Congress at its present session. I do, however, hold that there is no necessity for the creation of a special committee to attend to this sub- ject. The Committee on the Judiciary has within the last few years, upon many occa- sions, attempted to deal with it. Since you, sir, and I have been members of that commit- tee—" Mr. Hoar : " I desire to ask the Senator, if he is willing, having been lately a member of the committee to which he refers, whether it is not the rule of that committee to allow no hearings to individual petitioners, a rule which CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 137 s departed from only in very rare and peculiar cases ? " Mr. Bayard: "I will reply to the honorable Senator that the occasion which arose to my mind and caused me to remember the action of that committee was the audience given by it to a very large delegation of woman suffragists, to wit. the representatives of a convention held in this city, who to the number, I think, of twenty-five, came into the committee-room of the Committee on the Judiciary, and were heard, as I remember, for more than one day, or certainly had more than one hearing, before that committee, of which you, sir, and I were members." Mr. Hoar: "If the Senator will pardon me, however, he has not answered my question. I asked the Senator not whether on one partic- ular occasion they gave a hearing on this sub- ject, but whether it is not the rule of that committee, occasioned by the necessity of its business fro.m which it departs only in very rare cases, not to give hearings ? " Mr. Bayard: "I can not answer whether a rule so defined as that suggested by the honor- able Senator from Massachusetts exists in that committee. It is my impression, however, that cases are frequently, by order of that com- mittee, argued before it. We have had very elaborate and able arguments upon subjects connected with the Pacific Railroads, I remem- ber ; and we have had arguments upon various subjects. It is constantly our pleasure to hear members of the Senate upon a variety of ques- tions before that committee. It may be only a proof that women's rights are not unrecog- nized nor their influence unfelt when I state the fact that if there be such a rule as is sug- gested by the honorable Senator from Massa- chusetts of excluding persons from the audience of that committee, on the occasion of the ap- plication of the ladies a hearing was granted, and they came in force — not only force in numbers, but force in the character and intel- ligence of those who appeared before the com- mittee. They were listened to with great respect, but their views were not concurred in by the committee as it was then composed. " We were all entertained by the bright wit, the clever and, in my judgment, in many re- spects, the just sarcasm of our honorable friend from Missouri (Mr. Vest), but my habit' is not to consider public measures in a jocular light; it is not to consider a question of this kind in a jocular light. Whatever may be the merits or demerits of this proposition, whatever may be the reasons for or against it, no man can doubt that it will strike at the very roots of the pres- ent organization of society, and that its conse- quences will be most profound and far-reaching should the advocates of the measure proposed prevail. "Therefore it is that I think this subject should not be considered separately ; it should not have a special committee —either of advo- cates or opponents arranged for its considera- tion ; but it should go where proposed amend- ments to the fundamental law of the land have always been sent for consideration — to that committee to which judicial questions, questions of a constitutional nature, have al- ways in the history of this Government been committed. There is no need, there is no jus- tice, there is no wisdom in attempting to sep- arate the fate of this question, which affects society so profoundly and generally, from the other questions that affect society. It can not be made a specialty ; it ought not to be. You can not tear this question from the great con- tests of human passions, affections, and inter- ests which surround it, and treat it as a thing by itself. It has many sides from which it may be viewed, some that are not proper or fitting for this forum, and a discussion now in public. There are the claims of religion itself to be considered in connection with this case. Civil rights, social rights, political rights, relig- ious rights, all are bound up in the considera- tion of a measure like this. In its considera- tion you can not safely attempt to segregate this question and leave it untouched and unin- fluenced by all those other questions by which it is surrounded, and in the consideration of which it is bound to be connected and con- cerned." Mr. Beck, of Kentucky: "I desire to say only in a word that the difficulty I have and the question I desire the Committee on the Ju- diciary to report upon is the effect of this ques- tion upon suffrage. By the fifteenth amend- ment to the Constitution of the United States there can be no discrimination made in regard to voting on account of race, color, or previous condition. Intelligence is properly regarded as one of the fundamental principles of fair suffrage. We have been compelled in the last ten years to allow all the colored men of the South to become voters. There is a mass of ignorance there to be absorbed that will take years and years of care in order to bring that class up to the standard of intelligent voters. The several States are addressing themselves to that task as earnestly as possible. Now it is proposed that all the women of the country shall vote ; that all the colored women of the South, who are as much more ignorant than the colored men as it is possible to imagine, shall vote. Not one perhaps in a hundred of them can read or write. The colored men have had the advantages of communication with other men in a variety of forms. Many of them have considerable intelligence ; but the colored women have not had equal chances. Take them from their wash-tubs and their household work, and they are absolutely igno- rant of the new duties of voting citizens. The intelligent ladies of the North and the West and the South can not vote without extending that privilege to that class of ignorant colored peo- ple. " I doubt whether any man will say that it is safe for the republic now, when we are go- 138 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. ing through the problem we are obliged to solve, to fling in this additional mass of igno- rance upon the suffrage of the country. "Why, sir, a rich corporation or a body of men of wealth could buy them up for fifty cents apiece, and they would vote without knowing what they were doing for the side that paid most. Yet we are asked to confer suffrage upon them, and to have a committee appointed as favora- ble to that view as is possible, so as to get a favorable report upon it ! "I want the Committee on the Judiciary to tell the Congress and the country whether they think it is good policy now to confer suffrage on all the colored women of the South, igno- rant as they are known to be, and thus add to the ignorance that we are now struggling with, and whether the republic can be sustained upon such a basis as that." Mr. Morgan, of Alabama : " Inasmuch as this measure, I understand, has been made a party measure by the decree of a caucus, I pro- pose to make some little inquiry into the past legislation of the Congress of the United States under Republican rule in respect of the exten- sion of the right of suffrage to certain classes of people in this country. I will take up first the Territories. A system has prevailed in the organization of the Territories, I believe, uni- formly the same as that which obtained in the case of the organization of the Territory of Utah. Under the fifth section of the act or- ganizing the Territory of Utah, which was passed in 1850, it is provided : That every free white male inhabitant above the age of twenty-one years, who shall have been a resi- dent of said Territory at the time of the passage of this act, shall be entitled to vote at the first election, and shall be eligible to any office within the said Ter- ritory ; but the qualifications of voters and of hold- ing office, at all subsequent elections, shall be such as shall be prescribed by the Legislative Assembly: Provided, That the right of suffrage and of holding office shall be exercised only by citizens of the United States, including those recognized as citizens by the treaty with the Kepublic of" Mexico, concluded 'Feb- ruary 2, 1848. " I believe that every Territorial government is modeled upon this system, so far as it con- cerns the right of suffrage. We have put it in the power of the Territorial Legislature, after the first vote has been cast under the laws of the United States organizing the Territory, to prescribe the qualifications of voters, and after the qualification has been regulated by the law of the Territory, the remaining power in Con- gress is only to repeal or modify such legisla- tion. So, sir, we have put it in the power of these Territorial Legislatures to provide for female suffrage, and if they should undertake to establish the right of women to vote, in or- der to correct that if we think it needs cor- rection, we should have to repeal the act or modify it. A Territorial Legislature has the absolute right of legislation under such circum- stances, and we only have the right to repeal or modify what they may do. " Let us look for a moment at the result of woman suffrage in some of the Territories. I have read to you the act of 1850, organizing the Territory of Utah. The Territorial Legis- lature has gone forward and conferred the right of suffrage upon the women of Utah Ter- ritory. The population of Utah Territory in the last decade has reached from 64,000, I be- lieve, to about 150,000 ; I can not state the figures exactly. The Territorial Legislature of Utah conferred upon the females of that Ter- ritory the right of suffrage, and how have they exerted that right ? Sir, I am ashamed to say it, but it is known to the world that the power of Mormonism and polygamy in Utah Territory is sustained by female suffrage. You can not get rid of those laws. Ninety per cent of the legislative power of Utah Territory is Mormon and polygamous. If female suffrage is to be incorporated into the laws of our country with a view to the amelioration of our morals or our political sentiments, we stand aghast at the spectacle of what has been wrought by its exercise in the Territory of Utah. There stands a power supporting the crime of polygamy through what they call a divine inspiration, or teaching from God, and all the power of the judges of the United States, and of the Con- gress of the United States, has been unavailing to break it down. Who have upheld it? Those who in the family circle represent one husband to fifteen women. "We have now 10,000,000 voters in the United States, who represent 50,000,000 peo- ple. What is the attitude of an American voter in reference to the non-voting popula- tion? It is that of a representative. One man in our political policy represents five peo- ple in voting, whether in a local election or in the most important election to which his fran- chise extends. He stands in our system as a representative of five people and votes for them ; and by necessity it must remain so, because every child and every woman can not vote, and there must be some line of demarka- tion which fixes the boundary of the franchise of voting. That boundary was wisely fixed with reference to the supposed condition of families and the necessities of families, so that when a child became twenty-one years of age, if he were a son, or, being the head of a family and twenty-one years of age and over, he could represent that family in casting a ballot ; and it adds much to the dignity and the value of the position of the American citizen that in all the different departments in which he is al- lowed to exercise the power of the ballot he is attended with the responsibility of this repre- sentative character. We must not discard that. " Where is the necessity of raising the num- ber of voters in the United States from 10,000,- 000 to 20,000,000? That would be the direct effect of conferring suffrage upon the women, for they have at least one half, if not a little more than one half, of the entire population of CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 139 the country above the age of twenty-one. We have now masses of voters so enormous in numbers as that it seems to be almost beyond the power of the law to execute the purposes of the elective franchise with justice, with pro- priety, and without crime. How much would these difficulties and these intrinsic troubles be increased if we should raise the number of voters from ten to twenty million in the United States ! That would be the direct and imme- diate effect of conferring the franchise upon the women. What would be the next effect of such an extension of the suffrage ? " Gentlemen come here into the Senate of the United States and make long speeches urging upon the States the necessity of se- curing a full, free, fair, and unabridged right on the part of negroes to vote everywhere, and scolding and vituperating the States in re- spect of their conduct, when they themselves, after having given to the negroes the right of suffrage in the District of Columbia, took it away because they could not stand it in their own persons and in reference to their own property. If there had not been a Republican in the United States who owned any property in the District of Columbia, the negroes to-day would have been voters in this District ; but when it was found that negro suffrage was to control Republican property and Republican administration of local affairs in the District of Columbia, then with one broad swoop they dismissed the negro and the white man and the woman from all opportunities of exercising the power to vote. Let it not any more be thrown at us that we have denied any people the right of suffrage, that we have abridged or in any way restrained any persons in the ex- ercise of this right, when the men who have had such immense majorities in both branches of Congress have absolutely sponged out the right of the white and the black both to vote, merely to get rid of negro suffrage." The President pro tempore: "The question is on the adoption of the resolution." The roll-call having been concluded, the re- sult was announced, as follows : YEAS — Aldrich, Allison, Anthony, Blair, Cameron of Pennsylvania, Cameron of Wisconsin, Conger, Da- vis of Illinois, Dawes, Edmunds, Ferry, Frye, Harri- son, Hawley, Hijl of Colorado, Hoar, Jones of Florida, Jones of Nevada, Kellogg, Lapham, Logan, McDill, McMillan, Miller of California, Mitchell, Morrill, Platt, Plumb, Ransom, Rollins, Saunders, Sawyer, Sewell, Sherman, Windom— 35. NAYS — Bayard, Beck, Brown, Butler, Camden, Cockrell, Coke, Davis of West Virginia, Fair, Farley, Garland, Hampton, Hill of Georgia, Jackson, Jonas, McPherson, Maxev, Saulsbury, Slater, Vance, Vest, Walker, Williams— 23. ABSENT— Call, George, Gorman, Groome, Grover, Hale, Harris, Ingalls, Johnston, Lamar, Mahone, Miller of New York, Morgan, Pendleton, Pugh, Teller, Van Wyck, Voorhees-18. So the resolution was agreed to. THE TARIFF COMMISSION. — In the House, on March 28th, the following bill was considered : Be it enacted, etc., That a commission is hereby created to be called the " tariff commission," to con- sist of nine members. SECTION 2. That the President of the United States shall, by and with the advice and consent of the Sen- ate, appoint nine commissioners from civil life, one of whonij the first named, shall be the president of the commission. The commissioners shall receive as compensation for their services each at the rate of ten dollars per day when engaged in active duty, and actual traveling and other necessary expenses. The commission shall have power to employ a stenog- rapher and a messenger ; and the foregoing compen- sation and expenses to be audited and paid by the Secretary of the Treasury out of any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated. SEC. 3. That it shall be the duty of said commission to take into consideration and to thoroughly investi- gate all the various questions relating to the agricult- ural, commercial, mercantile, manufacturing, mining, and industrial interests of the United States, so far as the same may be necessary to the establishment of a judicious tariif, or a revision of the existing tariff, and the existing system of internal revenue laws, upon a scale of justice to all interests ; and for the purpose of fully examining the matters which may come before it, said commission, in the prosecution of its inquiries, is empowered to visit such different portions and sec- tions of the country as it may deem advisable. SEC. 4. That the commission shall report to Con- gress the results of their investigation, and the testi- mony taken in the course of the same, from time to time, and make their final report not later than the first Monday in January, 1883. Mr. Kasson, of Iowa: "Mr. Chairman, the bill presented for the consideration of the House is not new either to the House or to the country. It contains but few provisions, and they are easily comprehended, and may be simply stated. " The theory, as I understand it, of its pro- visions is that this commission shall take up a given subject, for example the question of iron and its advanced products, proceed with this investigation, and so soon as the examination shall be rounded up and concluded, their re- port on that subject, and the facts ascertained by them, shall be immediately distributed for the consideration of Senators and members of the House. Then, another subject, wool and woolens, silks, agricultural products, and so on, so far as it shall be found necessary to consult the material interests of this country, and to consider their relations to each other. By another provision of the bill their report shall be submitted to Congress, the entire re- port, at the first meeting of Congress in De- cember next, that action may be taken on it at that session. These are, simply stated, the provisions of the bill. The first question, I apprehend, that the members of this House would desire to be satisfied upon, is whether a revision of the present tariff is necessary ; whether the present system, in its character, scope, and details, is or ought to be satisfac- tory to the country. " This proposition, Mr. Chairman, needs but very little debate. I know of very few people in the United States who admit they have no complaint to make against some part of the details of the present tariff. Whether you ar-e free-traders or prohibitory tariff men, protect- 140 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. ive tariff men, or advocates of a tariff for reve- nue only, I take it for granted that you all agree that in some manner the present tariff should be reviewed and more or less modified. " For the last twenty years, subject to some slight partial modifications, this country has been conducting its business under the present tariff laws. As to its character and effect I shall speak later. At present I have only this to say, that the interests of the country have themselves become greatly modified, and in some respects radically changed, in the course of these twenty years. New industries have sprung up, and modifications of old industries have come into existence. New inventions have been applied in many arts, and thousands of new influences bearing upon the question of relative protection, upon the rates of duty re- quired, upon the cost of production, and com- bination of materials, have arisen not only in America but in Europe. The conditions of competition between this country and Europe have consequently materially changed. This could not be helped. Changes are always oc- curring in progressive countries, not only in mechanical appliances but in the products of industry put upon the markets of the world. " These changes are elements that always enter into a question of revision of any tariff system every few years in the progress of any nation ; and every nation is obliged from time to time to revise its system of revenue, owing to the changed conditions which have come into existence, and have modified the character of the results obtained under the previous con- ditions. A striking proof of the necessity in our own legislation is found in the fact stated in the other House, that in four years eighteen hundred cases for the decision of the Secretary of the Treasury have been submitted to him arising under our present system. Many cases have been decided by the courts. All this shows the need of revision of law based on in- vestigation of the actual present condition of our industries and securing greater precision. " Gentlemen have often said to us : ' Oh, you do not mean anything by this tariff commission except delay ; you do not want to touch the tariff or modify it at all ; you have held this policy before us for one, two, or three years for no other purpose than to shield the manu- facturers against a revision of the tariff.' Mr. Chairman, I take this occasion to say that this allegation does not come with the proper grace from our friends on the other side, who had it in their power in the last Congress to have al- lowed that bill to be taken from the Speaker's table and acted upon, as was desired by every member on this side of the House. Had that been done, then by January of this year a re- port would have been before you, a bill pre- pared, and your revision of the tariff would have been now in full progress. " We have seen in the resistance offered to- day the same course pursued by our free-trade and revenue-tariff members against taking up the question at ah1. I ask them to look the facts in the face, that this side of the House has been pressing the matter for consideration ; that instead of using this proposition as a screen to prevent any action we have tried to hasten it ; while for three Congresses our Dem- ocratic majority have utterly failed to give anything in the way of a revision in the ordi- nary form. It must therefore be evident that if we can do anything at all in this Congress it must be through this bill, and by the aid of a commission including neither Senators nor Rep- resentatives, but only men who can give their whole time to the subject, and who can visit the seats of our great industries." Mr. Hewitt, of New York: "Mr. Chairman, I am opposed to the bill creating a tariff com- mission, for the reason that it will make delay, and delay is dangerous in the present perilous condition of general business. We are now prosperous, but our prosperity will continue only so long as there is an adequate market for our products. At present we have a foreign market chiefly for raw materials— such as food products, cotton, petroleum, and tobacco. For our manufactured products the markets of the world are practically closed against us — closed because it is impossible to sell our goods in the open markets of the world in competition with other manufacturing nations. The reason of this is, mainly, that our tariff legislation Las erected artificial barriers to the free introduc- tion of raw materials, and by the imposition of unwise taxes we are handicapped at the very outset in the commercial race. These obstruc- tions can not be removed too soon. They are well known, and can be enumerated without difficulty. We tax food, of which we are the great exporters; we tax wool, which is the foundation of a vast industry : we tax bitu- minous coal, iron-ore, and scrap-iron, which lie at the base of the great iron and steel indus- try; we tax copper-ores, alcohol, and oils, and numerous chemicals, without which many branches of industry can not exist. "Having thus created an artificial system, we find it impossible to compete with Great Britain and France and Germany, whose in- dustry stands upon the firm and natural basis of free raw materials. This defect in our rev- enue system could be remedied by a joint reso- lution in one week, and the Committee on Ways and Means could then take as much time as might be needed to consider and adjust the infinite detail involved in the reconstruction of a tariff covering 2,500 articles. Unless a rem- edy be speedily applied, the industry of this country will be surfeited by the excess of products for which it can find no market. There is a limit to the amount of food which we can sell abroad, and it is a great mistake to suppose that Europe can not raise food in com- petition with America. The question is not, as many seem to suppose, so much the relative cost of production, as the amount of rent which can be collected from the farmer in Eu- CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 141 rope, in addition to the cost of production. It is therefore purely a question of rent. Foreign farms will not be abandoned, but the rents will be reduced and the products will be in- creased, so that, instead of larger, we are likely to have more restricted markets. The process of readjustment is now going on. Rents have been reduced from 20 to 30 per cent, and if that is not sufficient they will be further re- duced until land is as free in Europe as it is upon this continent. Nations will not abandon the soil, but they will resist the imposition of rent and taxes which it will not bear. " To any one studying the condition of this country at the present time three things are evident : first, that we are the most prosperous people in the world; and there I agree with the gentleman from Iowa; secondly, that we are paying the highest wages of any people in the world; and there again I agree with the gentleman from Iowa; lastly, that we have the highest tariff duties of any nation in the world ; and there I think I agree with the gentleman from Iowa. Bat he reasons post hoc propter hoc: because we have a high tariff, therefore we are prosperous, and therefore we pay the highest wages of any nation in the world. "But let me take him back to that era of depression between 1873 and 1879 ; and let us diagnose the condition of things then. We had then an era of depression in which men went to and fro in this land begging for employ- ment. Then we had the lowest rate of wages that has prevailed in this country for the last forty years ; and then we had the same high tariff that we have to-day. If I were to rea- son, as the gentleman did, post hoc propter hoc, I should say that the high tariff caused the bad times and the low wages and the want of work. But the truth is that the tariff has nothing to do with the matter. I will not say ' nothing to do ' ; it has an influ- ence for evil, but it has no influence for good ; it can not create good times ; it can not create high wages ; it can not give employment ex- cept in one single contingency, to which I shall recur hereafter ; and in that contingency it was powerless from 1875 to 1878 inclu- sive. " The only logical conclusion from these facts which can not be disputed is, that the depres- sion then and the prosperity now, the low wages then and the high wages now, were not produced by the revenue system, in which no changes whatever have been made, but by causes which must be searched for elsewhere, and which must be understood before it will be possible for Congress to deal intelligently with the work of revenue reform, which public opinion requires it to undertake. " Now, then, I take my first proposition, di- rectly antagonizing the gentleman from Iowa. I assert that legislation can not create value nor can it determine the rate of wages. The issue is fairly made up. There is no source of wealth in any country except that which is derived from the soil by the application of la- bor, machinery, and capital. "It is not possible by any human contriv- ance, by any amount of abstract thought, by any schemes of legislation to add to the natu- ral resources of any country. Whatever there may be, is in the soil and in the rain and sun- shine that fructify it. Capital can only sup- port the labor which is necessary to bring about the annual harvest, and machinery can only be used to economize the amount of labor bestowed. With labor and skill sufficient for the cultivation of the soil, the economy of pro- duction will be proportioned to the amount of capital and machinery employed in its cultiva- tion. There is no royal road to wealth — there is no patent process by which the resources of nature can be augmented. ' Can a man by taking thought add a cubit to his stature ? ' In the absence of any legislation the work of pro- duction will proceed in a natural channel, and all that legislation can by any possibility do will be to divert labor and capital from the di- rection which they would have taken under natural laws. I feel it necessary to make this statement, because many persons who have not given much reflection to this subject seem to think that there is some potency in legislation which can add value to the forces of nature. This fallacy underlies a great many of the propositions which are made in regard to money as well as industry. It is the key to the fiat-money delusion, and it is the explana- tion of the mistake which is made by those who advocate protection for the sake of pro- tection. When it is once realized that value can not be created by legislative action, and is the offspring only of hard and honest labor aided by actual capital — that is, by the posses- sion of accumulated wealth either in the form of money, structures, materials, or machinery — most of the difficulties in the way of intelli- gent legislation and of placing our industry upon a secure basis will disappear. " But if legislation can not create value, it can prevent the growth of wealth by misdi- recting industry into unprofitable channels, and by depriving us of the profit which is re- alized when we exchange the products of our labor, properly applied, for commodities which can be produced in other countries with less expenditure of labor than is necessary to pro- duce these commodities at home. In other words, the profits of legitimate commerce may be altogether or partially destroyed by artificial obstructions to the free natural interchange of commodities. These obstructions constitute a deduction from the amount which our produ- cers would otherwise receive for their labor and skill, and are therefore to be avoided, and not created by the action of government. "From this simple statement it will be ap- parent that I do not believe in the efficacy of taxation in any form as an aid to the develop- ment of industry. If we could dispense with 142 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. taxation altogether it must be evident that the producers of this country would have more to spend and the consumers would get more for the money which they have to expend. As I have already stated, the only possible effect of taxes imposed upon foreign commodities must be to alter the direction or distribution of hu- man effort." The Speaker: "The question is on the pas- sage of the bill." The question was taken, and it was decided in the affirmative, as follows : YEAS — Aldrich, Anderson, Atherton, Barbour, Barr, Bayne, Bingham, Bliss, Bowman, Brewer, Briggs, Browne, Brumm, Buck, Julius C. Burrows, Joseph H. Burrows, Butterworth, Calkins, Camp, Campbell, Candler, Cannon, Carpenter, Chace, Chapman, Clar- dy, Crapo, Cullen, Curtin, Darrall, Dawes, Peering, De Motte, Dezendorf, Dingley, Dwight, Ellis, Ermen- trout, Errett, Charles B. Farwell, Ford, George, Gib- son, Godshalk, Grout, Guenther, Hall, Harmer, Henry S. Harris, Haseltine, HaskelL Hawk, Hazelton, Heil- man, Henderson, Hepburn, G. "W. Hewitt, Hill, His- cock, HoblitzelL Hoge, Horr, Hubbell, Hubbs, Hum- phrey, Jacobs, Phineas Jones, Jorgensen, Joyce, Kas- son, "Kelley, Kenna, Ketcham, Kiotz, Lacey, Lewis, Lord, Lynch, Marsh, McClure, McKinley, McLane, Miller, Moore, Morey, Moss, Mosgrove, Murch, Mutch- ler, Neal, Norcross, O'Neill, Pacheco, Page, Payson, Peelle, Peirce, Pound, Prescott, Eandall, Eanney, Eay, Reed, Theron M. Rice, William W. Rice, Rich, Ritchie, George D. Robinson, James S. Robinson, Ross, Rus- sell, 'Ryan, Scoville, Scranton, Shallenberger, Shelley, Sherwin, Shultz, Skinner, A. Herr Smith, J. Hyatt Smith, Speer, Spooner, Steele, Stone, Strait, Talbott, Taylor, Thomas, William G. Thompson, Amos Town- send, Tyler, J. T. Updegraff, Upson, Valentine, Van Horn, Van Voorhis, Wadsworth,Wait,Walker, Ward, Watson. Webber, White, Charles G. Williams, Wil- lits, Wilson, George D. Wise, Morgan R. Wise, Wal- ter A. Wood, Young— 151. NAYS— Aiken, Armfield, Atkins, Beach, Belford, Belmont, Beltzhoover, Berry, Bland, Blount, Bragg, Buchanan, Buckner, Caldwell, Carlisle, Clark, Clem- ents, Cobb, Colerick, Cook, Samuel S. Cox, William R. Cox, Cravens, Culberson, Cutts, Davidson, Lown- des H. Davis, Deuster, Dibble, Dowd, Dunn, Dun- nell, Evins, Sewell S. Farwell. Finley, Forney, Gar- rison, Gunter, N. J. Hammond, Hardenbergh, Hatch, Herbert, Herndon, Abram S. Hewitt, House, James K. Jones, King, Knott, Latham, Leedom, Le Fevre, Manning, Matson, McCoid, McKenzie. McMillin, Mills, Money, Morrison, Moulton, Mularow, Gates, Orth, Phister, Reagan, Scales, Shackelford, Otho R. Singleton, Springer, Stockslager, P. B. Thompson, Tillman, R. W. Townshend, Tucker, Oscar Turner, Thomas Updegraff, Vance, Warner, Washburn, Well- born, Whitthorne, Thomas Williams, Willis— 83. NOT VOTING — Black, Blackburn, Blanchard, Ca- bell, Cassidy, Caswell, Converse, Cornell, Covington, Crowley, George R. Davis, Dibrell, Dugro, Fisher, Flower, Frost, Fulkerson, Geddes, John Hammond, Hardy, Benjamin W. Harris, Holman, Hooker, Houk, Hutchins, Jadwin, George W. Jones, Ladd, Lindsey, Martin, Mason, McCook, Miles. Nolan, Parker, Paul, Pettibone, Phelps, John B. Rice. D. P. Richardson, John S. Richardson, Robertson, Robeson, William E. Robinson, Rosecrans, Simonton, James W. Singleton, Dietrich C. Smith, Sparks, Spaulding, Stephens, Hen- ry G. Turner, Urner, Van Aemam, West, Wheeler, Benjamin Wood— 57. So the bill was passed. The Senate, on May 9th, as in Committee of the Whole, proceeded to consider the bill (H. R. No. 2,315) to provide for the appointment of a commission to investigate the question of the tariff. Mr. Morrill, of Vermont: "This is identi- cally the same bill as the Senate passed, with these words only omitted : ' and existing sys- tem of internal-revenue laws.1 Those words are left out, as I understand, for the purpose of leaving the Committee on Ways and Means of the House at liberty to propose a bill that will modify the internal-revenue laws." Mr. Davis, of West Virginia : " I understand that the commissioners are to be confirmed by the Senate." Mr. Morrill: "Yes, sir." Mr. Beck, of Kentucky : " I advised that there was no necessity for any further de- lay in regard to this bill by referring it to the Committee on Finance. I was not aware, however, of one fact that I learn this morning, that in March, 1879, shortly before the Eaton bill was presented, Mr. D. J. Morrell, of Penn- sylvania, was made president of the American Iron and Steel Association; he was a mem- ber of the House of Kepresentatives at the time when the Bessemer steel duty was raised to $28 a ton, and on taking the chair he ad- vised the association thus : " Demand that the subject shall be intrusted to a commission not of owl-eyed college professors, but of business men and statesmen appointed by the Presi- dent of the United States, with instructions and au- thority to ascertain the condition and wants of all our industries, and to examine the tariff legislation ot this and other countries with reference to its influence upon national welfare, and demand also that Congress shall refrain from legislation upon the subject until the presentation of the report of this commission. If no other good results from this, we shall at least have what the country most needs, a little rest. " They will get ' a little rest ' now for a cou- ple of years, and maintain the present condi- tion of things; and they have succeeded so well in getting a continuance that I do not suppose it is worth while to delay it." The bill was reported to the Senate without amendment, ordered to a third reading, and read the third time. The President pro temper e : " Shall the bill The result was announced as follows : YEAS — Aldrich, Allison, Anthony, Blair, Cameron of Wisconsin, Conger, Davis of West Virginia, Dawes, Frye, Gorman, Groome, Hale, Hampton, Harrison, Hawley, Hill of Colorado, Hoar, Johnston, Jones of Nevada, Kellogg, Lapham. McDill, McMillan, Mc- Pherson, Mahone, Miner of California, Miller of New York, Mitchell, Morrill, Platt, Rollins, Sawyer, Sew- ell, Sherman, Windom— 35. NAYS— Call, Cockrell, Coke, Davis of Illinois, Far- ley, George, Grovcr, Harris, Ingalls, Jackson, Jonas, Maxey, Morgan, Pugh, Slater, Vance, Van Wyck, Vest, Walker-19. ABSENT — Bayard, Beck, Brown, Butler, Camden, Cameron of Pennsylvania, Chilcott, Edmunds, Fair, Ferry, Garland, Hill of Georgia, Jones of Florida, Lainar, Logan, Pendleton, Plumb, Ransom, Sauls- bury, Saunders, Voorhees, Williams — 22. So the bill was passed. (See TARIFF RE- VISION.) APPORTIONMENT OF REPRESENTATIVES. — In CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 143 the House, on February 7th, the bill to appor- tion Representatives was considered. Mr. Prescott, of New York : u The sys- tem upon which this bill is based is best set out in the letter of its originator, Mr. 0. W. Seaton, from which I request the Clerk to read." The Clerk read as follows : The present tables differ from those contained in your letter of January 17, 1881, addressed to Hon. S. 8. Cox, chairman of the Committee on the Census, House of Representatives, in that they are based upon the population as now finally determined, and in that the calculations have been made upon assumptions as to the total number of Representatives ranging from 275 to 350, both inclusive, the range in the original tables having been from 293 to 325. While making these calculations I met with the so- called " Alabama paradox," where Alabama was al- lotted 8 Representatives out of a total of 299, receiving but 7 when the total became 300. Such a result as this is to me conclusive proof that the process employed in obtaining it is defective, and that it does not in fact "apportion Representatives among the several States according to their respective numbers." This conclusion has been confirmed by the discov- ery of other anomalies, and the result of my study of this question is the strong conviction that an entirely different process should be employed. That heretofore used is the following : The total representative population of the country is divided by the proposed total number of Represent- atives. The quotient obtained is " the ratio of Rep- resentatives to population," or, in better phrase for our present purpose, it is the number of inhabitants which would fall to each congressional district, were it possible to divide the whole country into districts exactly equal in population. This number may, for convenience in the discussion, be termed the modulus. This modulus is then applied as a divisor to the population of the several States. The entire quo- tient thus obtained for each State, after rejecting the fraction, is evidently the minimum number of Repre- sentatives which can be assigned to such State (except in the case of a State having a population less than the modulus, each State being entitled to at least one Representative). Making a preliminary allotment of minimums in this manner, the sum of the numbers so allotted will be less than the number of Representatives originally taken. The difference must now be made up by increasing the allotment to certain States. It will result from such assignment, of course, that the average number of inhabitants to each Representative in the State to which additional Representatives are allotted will be less than the modulus, and that one or more of the districts formed in such State shall have less than their full quota. It is the mode of determining to which of the States the additional Representatives shall be assigned which I believe to be erroneous, and it is at this point that the variance between the process heretofore employed and the one which I now pro- pose begins. (For the sake of convenience the two processes will hereafter be characterized respectively as the old and the new method.) The old method compares the remainders left after the divisions above described, and assigns an addi- tional Representative, first, to that State where the re- mainder after division was greatest ; next, to the State where the remainder was next in size ; and so on in order of rank of the remainders until the difference is made up. It is my opinion that it is not these re- mainders out rather the quotients which result from dividing the populations of the States by the increased number of Representatives which should govern the allotment, and that the additional Representatives should be so assigned that the population of the dis- tricts formed in the State to which additional Repre- sentatives are allotted shall fall as little below the average number for the United States as possible ; in other words, that the districts ultimately formed from the States so increased shall approximate as closely as possible in population to that of a district which should be formed by dividing the total population of the United States exactly by the proposed total num- ber of Representatives. If it were true that districts each containing a population exactly equal to the ratio of Representatives to population for the United States must first be carved out of each State, and that enough districts to fill the quota were afterward to be made from the fragments left, then the old method of allot- ment would no doubt be the proper one. In that case the largest remaining fragments would necessarily receive the additional Representatives. But the prac- tice and, so far as I know, the law has uniformly aimed to divide the States finally, after the number of Representatives for each State has been determined, in such manner that in each State the districts shall be as nearly equal to each other in population as pos- sible. Having, therefore, as before, made the preliminary allotment of minimums and ascertained the number of Representatives which must still be assigned, I would then determine, by trial, under what additional distribution the number of inhabitants per Represent- ative in the States whose representation is increased would fall least below the ratio, and distribute accord- ingly. Mr. Prescott : " Doubtless each member has carefully studied the explanation and tables, and I will spend no time in explanation further of same. The committee after careful con- sideration adopted this method, because they believed it embodied the intent and design of the Constitution, and apportioned the members among the several States according to their respective numbers. " At 320, the number provided in this bill, Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont lose 1 under any form of division; but as between the former method and the Seaton method, California, Florida, and Rhode Island each gain 1 by the old method which by the Seaton method they lose, and Illinois, New York, and Pennsylvania gain the same. In other words, Florida by the old method will have 134,746 to a member, Rhode Island 138,265 to a mem- ber, and California 144,115 to a member, in preference to giving these to the other three States, which would then have — Illinois, 146,- 565 ; Pennsylvania, 147,685 ; and New York, 149,496. " By the old method you give it to the largest fraction, by the Seaton method you obtain equality of representation as nearly as is pos- sible. As between the methods there is no dispute or uncertainty, but one question pre- sented is whether New York with her 5,082,871 inhabitants, with an assessed valuation of prop- erty subject to taxation of $2,686,139,133, whose citizens hold $210,264,250 of the na- tion's bonds, or about one third of all held by citizens of the United States, being nineteen times as many as are held in California, fifty- two times as many as are held in Rhode Island, eight hundred and thirty-one times as many as in Florida; who represent one fifth of the 144 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. bank capital of the country, and have and use one quarter of its entire circulation; whose citizens hold nearly three fourths of the whole gold certificates of the Government, and within whose State limits were collected in 1881 $141,958,855.90 of the customs, or nearly three fourths of all in the country; whose banks paid the Government $2,042,838 in taxes, or one fourth of all paid ; the citizens of which pay $17,233,393.75, or one eighth of the in- ternal revenue of the Treasury, shall by a just apportionment, according to numbers, because of the largest ratio of apportionment, receive an increase of one thirty-third of her repre- sentation, or shall California receive an in- crease of one fifth, Florida of one half, or Rhode Island one half, as you shall give to one of them the Representative taken from New York. " Rhode Island, with only 276,531 ; Florida, with only 269,493 ; and California, with 864,- 694, are each the equal of New York now in the Senate, and will continue to be, although her 5,082,871 should become 10,000,000. In one branch of the Government they stand her equal in legislative power, and, while their combined population is but a fraction of hers, their voice is three times as potential. " Am I met with the claim that wealth, the sinew for the support of the Government and her bulwark of defense, counts nothing in representation ? " That such was not the design of the found- ers of the Constitution, is self-evident. Taxa- tion and representation they considered joint factors in their blows for freedom. They re- iterated it in the original wording of the Con- stitution : > " Ecpresentation and direct taxes shall be appor- tioned among the several States . . . according to their respective numbers. u But they went further, when they added : "Which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other persons. " This added three fifths of the described per- sonal property of the States to make up the representative population of the States. This property in 1790 had 12 Representatives; in 1800, 16 ; in 1810, 20 ; in 1820, 22 ; in 1830, 25 ; in 1840, 21 ; in 1850, 20 ; in 1860, 18, and it may be her material wealth and position in the Union in 1790 gave Massachusetts her extra 3, in 1800 her extra 5, in 1810 her extra 7 and New York her 2, in 1820 Alabama and Virginia their 1 additional. Be that as it may, this is not a new claim. In 1791 Mr. Barn well asserted that extent of territory should be regarded in apportionment. Mr. Giles in 1792 contended 1 that a full and large representation was nec- essary to give the landed interest of the coun- try its proportion of power,' and Mr. Quincy in 1810 asserted that apportionment ' ought to be made, not merely in relation to population, but the weight of the different States in the Union.' The same will be found in each dec- ade of later date, and forms a reason why the Representatives of other States upon this floor should act equitably and deal justly with New York, which, though originally the fifth State of this Union, stands to-day, as she has since 1820, the first in the galaxy of States." Mr. Robinson, of Massachusetts: "I shall address myself to one particular feature of this bill, because the question of the total number of the House will be discussed by other gen- tlemen at length. I wish to speak of the dis- tribution. "It will be noticed on examination, as has been stated by my friend from New York, that the only States that are affected in that distri- bution by the choice of the old method or the new method are six. Take the table that is given to us by Mr. Seaton, of the Census Office, under the number 320 you will find the column that gives the numbers to the different States under the old method first and then under the new. Following down this column of figures you will observe, for the figures catch the eye readily, that no States are affected differently from what they were under the former com- putation, except Florida, Rhode Island, Cali- fornia, Pennsylvania, New York, and Illinois. " Now, if the number fixed in this bill, 320, is right — and as to the discussion of methods we will take it that it is — starting with that number as your basis, how will yon apportion it ? Shall we take the old way, or shall we take the new ? Certainly let us take the new if it is better, if it is more just and equitable ; but let us scan it very closely before we do adopt it and discard the old method, which has been heretofore considered just and equitable. "Now, in the last Congress when the bill for 319 members was introduced — and the total number is not a matter of consequence in this immediate connection — the apportionment was made on the old method ; and I find that the gentleman from New York (Mr. Cox), who was at that time the chairman of the Commit- tee on the Census, said after assigning the number of Representatives, that is, taking out the even numbers in the first place from the total numbers and assigning them to the States, then he would assign the balance according to the old method, and said : "The difference according to the best and most equitable recent practice should he made up by as- signing to the States having the largest fractions addi- tional Representatives. " Now, on that basis of operation let us see how we will manage. In the first place, we take the entire number of members ; say 320 is the number fixed upon. The population of the United States, leaving out those that should be excluded, foots up 49,371,200. Dividing that population by the number of Representa- tives fixed in the bill, and you will have a quo- tient of 154,285 to each Representative. That is the precise number. Now, you are to take that number, 154,285, and go around with it CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 145 and measure up the population of the States. That is what the Constitution says — that Rep- resentatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers; and you take that, as I say, and measure the population of each State by it. You go, for instance, into the State of Geor- gia, and you find that you have a certain num- ber as the Representatives to be assigned to that State ; but after that you have a fraction. Going around to all the States in the same way, and assigning Representatives on even num- bers according to this division, and you will find that your footings up will not reach 320, for in all of the States there will be a remain- der after the first division. Now, how will you supply that remainder? " The old method was to take the fractions next in order approaching nearest to the num- ber of population required, and assign the re- maining members to those fractions. Now, we thought that to be right. There was no objec- tion to that rule. The people of the country have assented to it as just and proper. Even in the last Congress, when the communication from the Census Office came in and laid down that principle as the method of operating, no- body got up in the House and let out this great flood of new light and suggested this new order of jthings with which we are met to-day. That was regarded as a proper principle. No objec- tion was made to it, and nobody ever heard of this new plan before. "Now, Mr. Speaker, how is it that the new method proposes to get at the number of mem- bers? What is the result? I submit to the Speaker and to the House that it is always a fair test of any question to stop and look back at your result after you get there ; for somehow or other there comes a conviction if your re- sult, when your attention is called to it, does not look right, that there must be something wrong in the argument, something the matter with the process. " Now, when you take up this table, as pre- sented by the committee and advocated by the gentleman from New York, what do you find ? When you find that Florida, Rhode Island, and California are to give up one Representative each, you begin to grow a little doubtful as to whether your process is right or not; but when you learn in addition to that that they are not only to surrender it themselves but that they are to lay it down in the laps of Illi- nois, Pennsylvania, and New York, then I am pretty well convinced that it is wrong. Now, is it not wrong? The great States of this Union are able to take care of themselves on this floor." Mr. Briggs, of New Hampshire : " They are trying to do it in this bill." Mr. Robinson : " My friend from New Hamp- shire says they are trying to do it. No, sir. There are gentlemen in those great States, I believe, who will not support this claim and will not gather power to themselves or to their VOL. XXII. — 10 A States on this floor by sacrificing the weaker. Gentlemen whose States are not affected di- rectly by this computation will not stand tamely by and let this go unheeded. Massachusetts has no interest directly whether the apportion- ment be under the one method or the other, but she is interested with the other States — not in her section, for the sections are divided in the extreme ; no 'places could be more re- mote than California, Florida, and Rhode Island in this great Union — she is interested, I say, that those other States shall be justly dealt with. u What is proposed here ? The gentleman recommending this method speaks of the Ala- bama paradox ; and because under a certain method of figuring there seemed to be some- thing that surprised one, that is an argument for abandoning the old scheme. Now, there will be found to be paradoxes in the new scheme." Mr. Bayne, of Pennsylvania : " I defy the gentleman to point out one." Mr. Robinson : " I accept the gentleman's defiance right here, because it is a peaceable defiance. What is the plan ? It is to take those numbers of the population of the great States and so divide them up, it is said, that the numbers shall be as near as possible all over the country to the maximum number, 154,285. u Let us see what the gentleman says who is the parent of the scheme. After commenting upon the old method, he says — I read from the communication of Mr. C. W. Seaton, chief clerk of the Census Office : " It is my opinion that it is not these remainders, but rather the quotients which result trom dividing the populations of the States by the increased num- ber of Representatives, which should govern the allot- ment, and that the additional Eepresentatives should be so assigned that the population of the districts formed in the State to which additional Kepresenta- tives are allotted shall fall as little below the average number for the United States as possible; in other words, that the districts ultimately formed from the States so increased shall approximate as closely as possible in population to that of a district which should be formed by dividing the total population of the United States exactly by the proposed total num- ber of Eepresentatives. " Unless this is in some other language than the English, I have stated it right. But let us look at some of the results. We want para- doxes, it seems. " Now, I have some figures here just as they are given under the old method. With six Rep- resentatives for California each would stand for 144,615 persons. In Florida, with her two Representatives, each would stand for 134,746. In Rhode Island, with her two Representatives, each would stand for 138,265. In New York, with thirty-three Representatives, each would stand for 154,026. In Pennsylvania, with twenty-eight Representatives, each would stand for 152,960. In Illinois, with twenty Repre- sentatives, each would stand for 153,893. That is under the old method. Now, Mr. Speaker, 146 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. it is apparent that those numbers are pretty nearly alike, while varying somewhat. *' I will now go over to the new method and see how it will bear the same comparison. In California, with five Representatives, each must stand for 172,938. In Florida, with one Rep- resentative, that one Representative must stand for 269,493 persons. Paradox No. 1 ! In Rhode Island, with her one Representative, that one man must stand for 276,531 persons. Paradox No. 2 ! In New York, with thirty- four Representatives, each one will stand for 149,496. In Pennsylvania, each will stand for 147,685, and in Illinois each will stand for 146,- 565. " Now, at first blush, does anybody think that is right ? Is that a fair representation of the people of the United States ? I know they raise able and brilliant men in Rhode Island. I do not believe they raise any one quite smart enough to overlie that whole State and have superfluous energy enough to represent 276,531 people on the scale of 154,285. The compari- son shows that Pennsylvania and New York are not quite up to that standard, and they want more men. " There is another statement. Under the old method -the California members would each represent 9,670 people less than the full num- ber. The Florida members would each repre- sent 19,869 less than the full number. The Rhode Island members would each represent 16,020 less than the full number. The New York members would each represent 159 less than the full number. The Pennsylvania mem- bers would each represent 1,325 less than the full number. The Illinois members would each represent 392 less than the full num- ber. " Now go to the new method. California : each man would represent 18,653 more than the full number. Florida : its member would represent 105,208 more than the full number. Rhode Island : its member would represent 122,246 more than the full number. Now look at the other three States. New York : each member would represent 4,789 less than the full number. Pennsylvania : each member would represent 6,600 less than the full number. And Illinois : each member would represent 7,720 less than the full number." Mr. Calkins, of Indiana: "That is, in each district?" Mr. Robinson : " I am speaking of the num- ber for each Representative. Is that equality of representation? Do you want any more paradoxes ? "I suppose it is not seriously claimed, Mr.. Speaker, in this House, that the wealth of any State shall ultimately determine the ratio of representation. Much may be pardoned to the gentleman from New York, of course, for his pride in his State. We all have the same pride in our respective States. We find something very dear to us in the people we represent upon this floor. That is all right. It is right for us to have that pride and deep sense of honor. But, after all, when the fathers wrote in the Constitution that the Representatives should be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, they did not make it within the power of this Con- gress thereafter to prescribe the qualification of wealth, nor that the members who sit here should be able to make their qualifications se- cure by presenting the roll of their bonds or of the acres of their lands. I have proposed an amendment to the bill to strike out the first section and to replace it with a new first sec- tion, making the number 320, because, as I said, I did not propose to discuss that question of the total number, What I may choose to vote by-and-by, in regard to the whole number of the House, is not of importance in my pres- ent consideration. But I ought to say, perhaps, that as little increase as practicable from the present number I believe to be wise. " Of course we have given a great deal of consideration in this hall during the last Con- gress to this subject. We find that taking dif- ferent parts of the country, and making the allotments to the several States, the number 319 would be practically fair and equal. But 320 differs from that so little that it does not seem to me that we would make much by any long discussion as to what should be the total number. I want to say that I have not only recognized that full number in the amendment which I have offered, but. I have made the amendment to correspond to the line of my argument. " That is, I have said to Pennsylvania, New York, and Illinois, you are entitled to one less each under this old scheme ; and to the States of Florida, Rhode Island, and California, you ought to have one more. In other words, I say that the new method proposed is so wretchedly and palpably at fault, is so un- just to the three States last named by me, and does more than justice to the three States first named, that we ought not adopt it, but should rather retain the old one." Mr. Mills, of Texas: " Mr. Speaker, the pri- mal, central object of the provision in the Con- stitution requiring a census of the population of the States to be taken every ten years was to afford a basis for the distribution of polit- ical power. This is a representative govern- ment, and our fathers in forming this govern- ment were careful to provide for a correct rep- resentation of its people. They have laid down a defined method of representation in this House ; and that political power which is the safeguard of their liberties and the safeguard of the liberties and rights of their children they have said shall be distributed among the people of the States in proportion to their numbers." The Speaker : " The next amendment in or- der is that offered by the gentleman from Kan- sas (Mr. Anderson), which will be read." The Clerk read as follows: CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 147 Strike out all of section 1, after the enacting clause, and insert these words : " That after the 3d of March, 1883, the House of Eepresentatives shall be composed of 325 members, to be apportioned among the several States as follows : Alabama, 8 ; Arkansas, 5 ; California, 6 ; Colorado, 1 ; Connecticut, 4 ; Delaware, 1 ; Florida, 2 ; Georgia, 10 ; Illinois, 20 ; Indiana, 13 ; Iowa, 11 ; Kansas, 7 ; Ken- tucky, 11 ; Louisiana, 6 ; Maine, 4 ; Maryland, 6 ; Massachusetts, 12 ; Michigan, 11 ; Minnesota, 5 : Mis- JLlUlti.1 WiftlvllUCM i/ •, V/U.AVTJ a*. , VA V/^VAAJ j. ^ j. v^^^j * vania, 28 ; Rhode Island, 2 : South Carolina, 7 ; Ten- nessee, 10; Texas, 11; Vermont, 2; Virginia, 10; West Virginia, 4 ; Wisconsin, 9." The Speaker: "The question is on the amendment offered by the gentleman from Kansas (Mr. Anderson), which has just been read." Mr. Sherwin, of Illinois : " Some members do not understand how many members are pro- posed in that amendment." The Speaker : " Three hundred and twenty- five." Mr. Thompson, of Kentucky : " I rise to a parliamentary inquiry. I wish to know wheth- er these three hundred and twenty-five mem- bers are by this amendment apportioned ac- cording to the new or the old method." Mr. Prescott: "The old method." The question was taken ; and it was decided in the affirmative, as follows : YEAS— Aiken, Aldrich, Anderson, Barr, Bayne, Beach, Beltzhoover, Bingham, Bowman, Bragof, Brew- er, Briggs, Browne, Brumm, Buck, Julius C. Burrows, Joseph H. Burrows, Butterworth, Calkins, Campbell, Candler, Cannon, Carpenter, Caswell, Chace, Crapo, Crowley, Culberson, Cullcn, Davidson, George R. Davis, Dawes, Deering De Motte, Deuster, Dezen- dorf, Dingley, Dunnell.Ellis, Errett, Evins, Sewell S. Farwell, Finley, Ford, Fulkerson, George, Godshalk, Grout, Guenther, Hall, John Hammond, Mariner, Ben- jamin W. Harris, llaseltine, Haskell, Hawk, Hazelton, Heilman, Henderson, Hepburn, Hill, Hiscock, Hob- litzell, Horr, Houk, Hubbell, Hubbs, Humphrey, Jacobs, Jadwin, George W. Jones, Pnineas Jones, Joyce, Kasson, Kelley, Lacey, Lewis, Lindsey, Lord, Marsh, Mason, McClure, McCoid, McCook, McKin- ley, McLane, Miles, Miller, Mills, Moore, Morey, Neal, Norcross, O'Neill, Orth, Pacheco, Page, Parker, Paul, Payson, Peelle, Pierce, Pettibone, Pound, Prescott, Ranney, Ray, Reagau, Reed, John B. Rice, Theron M. Rice, William W. Rice, Rich, D. P. Richardson, John S. Richardson, Ritchie, Robertson, Robeson, George D. Robinson, James S. Robinson, Russell, Ryan, Scranton, Shallenberger, Shelley, Sherwin, Shultz, Skinner, A. Herr Smith, Dietrich C. Smith, Spauld- ing, Speer, Spooner, Steele, Stone, Strait, Taylor, Thomas, William G. Thompson, Tillman, Amos Townsend, Tyler, J. T. Dpdegraff, Thomas Upde- graif, Upson, Urner, Valentine, Van Aernam, Van Horn, Wadsworth,Wait, Walker, Ward, Washburn, Watson, Webber, Wellborn, West, Charles G. Will- iams, Willitts, Walter A. Wood, Young— 162. NAYS — Armfield, Atkins, Barbour, Belmont, Berry, Black, Blackburn, Blanchard, Bland, Bliss, Blount, Buchanan, Buckner, Cabell, Caldwell, Carlisle, Gas- sidy, Chalmers, Chapman, Clardy, Clark, Clements, Cobb, Colerick, Converse, Cook, Samuel S. Cox, Will- iam R. Cox, Covington, Cravens, Curtin, Darrell, Lowndes H. Davis, Dibrell. Dowd, Dugro, Flower, Forney, Garrison, Geddes, Gunter, N. J. Hammond, Hardenbergh Hardy, Henry S. Harris, Hatch, Her- bert, Abram S. Hewitt, G. W. Hewitt, Hoge, Holman, Hooker, House, Hutchins, James K. Jones, Kenna, King, Klotz, Knott, Ladd, Latham, Leedom, Le Fevre, Manning, Martin, Matson, McKenzie, McMillin, Mor- rison, Mosgrove, Moulton, Muldrow, Murch, Mutch- ler, Gates, Phelps, Phister, Randall, William E. Rob- inson, Rosecrans, Scales, Scoville, Shackelford, Simon- ton, James W. Singleton, Otho R. Singleton, Sparks, Springer, Stockslager, Talbott, P. B. Thompson, Tucker, Henry G. Turner, Oscar Turner, Vance, Warner, Wheeler, White, Whitthorne, Thomas Will- iams, Willis, Wilson, George D. Wise, Morgan R. Wise-104. NOT VOTING — Allen, Atherton, Belford, Camp, Cor- nell, Cutts, Dibble, Dunn, Dwight. Ermentrout, Charles B. Farwell, Fisher, Frost, Gibson, Herndon, Jorgcnsen, Ketcham, Money, Morse, Nolan, Ross, J. Hyatt Smith, Stephens, R. W. Townsend, Van Voorhis, Benjamin Wood — 26. So the amendment was agreed to, and the bill passed in that form. In the Senate, on February 21st, the bill was passed without amendment. The bill as passed, was as follows : Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, ' That after the third of March, eighteen hundred and eighty-three, the House of Represent- atives shall be composed of three hundred and twenty -five members, to be apportioned among the several States as follows : Alabama, 8 ; Arkansas, 5 ; California, 6 ; Colorado, 1 ; Connecticut, 4 ; Dela- ware, 1 ; Florida, 2 ; Georgia, 10 ; Illinois, 20 ; Indi- ana, 13 ; Iowa, 11 ; Kansas, 7 ; Kentucky, 11 ; Louis- iana, 6; Maine, 4; Maryland, 6; Massachusetts, 12; Michigan, 11 ; Minnesota, 5 • Mississippi, 7 ; Mis- souri, 14; Nebraska, 3 ; Nevada, 1 ; New Hampshire, 2; New Jersey, 7; New York, 34; North Carolina, 9 ; Ohio, 21 ; Oregon, 1 ; Pennsylvania, 28 ; Rhode Island, 2 ; South Carolina, 7 ; Tennessee, 10 : Texas, 11 ; Vermont, 2 ; Virginia, 10 ; West Virginia, 4 ; Wisconsin, 9. SECTION 2. That whenever a new State is admitted to the Union the Representative or Representatives assigned to it shall be in addition to the number three hundred and twenty-five. SEC. 3. That in each State entitled under this ap- portionment the number to which such State may be entitled in the Forty- eighth and each subsequent Congress shall be elected by districts composed of contiguous territory, and containing as nearly as prac- ticable an equal number of inhabitants, and equal in number to the Representatives to which such State may be entitled in Congress, no one district electing more than one Representative : Provided, That unless the Legislature of such State shall otherwise provide before the election of such Representatives shall take place as provided by law, where no change shall be hereby made in the representation of a State, the Representatives thereof to the Forty-eighth Congress shall be elected therein as now provided by law. If the number as hereby provided for shall be larger than it was before this change, then the additional Representative or Representatives allowed to said State under this apportionment may be elected by the State at large, and the other Representatives to which the State is entitled by the districts as now prescribed by law in said State ; and if the number hereby provided for shall in any State be less than it was before the change hereby made, then the whole number to such State hereby provided for shall be elected at large, unless the Legislatures of said States have provided or shall otherwise provide before the time fixed by law for the next election of Representa- tives therein. All acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTORS. — Article II of the Constitution of the United States declares: " Each State shall appoint, iu such manner as 148 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. the Legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors equal to the whole number of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in Congress," etc. The number of presidential electors under the above-mentioned apportionment of Represent- atives is as follows : Alabama, 10 ; Arkansas, 7 ; California, 8 ; Colo- rado, 3 ; Connecticut, 6 ; Delaware, 3 ; Florida, 4 ; Georgia, 12 ; Illinois, 22 ; Indiana, 15 ; Iowa, 13 ; Kansas, 9 ; Kentucky, 13 ; Louisiana, 8 ; Maine, 6 ; Maryland, 8; Massachusetts, 14; Michigan, 13; Minnesota, 7 ; Mississippi, 9 ; Missouri, 16 ; Ne- braska, 5 ; Nevada, 3 ; New Hampshire, 4 ; New Jersey, 9 ; New York, 36 ; North Carolina, 11 ; Ohio, • regon, , , , South Carolina, 9 ; Tennessee, 12 ; Texas, 13 ; Ver- mont, 4; Virginia, 12; West Virginia, 6 ; Wisconsin, 11. Total, 401. RIVER AND HARBOR BILL. — In the House, the bill making appropriations for the con- struction, repair, and preservation of certain works on rivers and harbors, and for other purposes, was passed on July 26th, by the adoption of the final report of the committee of conference with the Senate committee. On August 1st, President Arthur returned it to the House, with the following objections : To the House of Representatives : Having watched with much interest the progress of House bill No. 6,242, entitled " An act making ap- propriations for the construction, repair, and preser- vation of certain works on rivers and harbors, and for other purposes," and having since it was received carefully examined it, after mature consideration I am constrained to return it herewith to the House of Representatives in which it originated, without my signature and with my objections to its passage. Many of the appropriations in the bill are clearly for the general welfare and most beneficent in their character. Two of the_ objects for which provision is made were by me considered so important that I felt it my duty to direct to them the attention of Congress. In my annual message in December last, I urged the vital importance of legislation for the reclamation of the marshes and for the establishment of the harbor lines along the Potomac front. In April last by spe- cial message I recommended an appropriation for the improvement of the Mississippi River. It is not nec- the bill appropriating for these and other valuable national objects a law, it is with great reluctance and only under a sense of duty that I withhold it. My principal objection to the bill is that it contains appropriations for purposes not for the common de- fense or general welfare, and which do not promote commerce among the States. These provisions, on the contrary, are entirely for the benefit of the par- ticular localities in which it is proposed to make the improvements. I regard such appropriation of the public money as beyond the powers given by the Coastitution to Congress and the President. I feel the more bound to withhold my signature from the bill because of the peculiar evils which manifestly result from this infraction of the Consti- tution. Appropriations of this nature, to be devoted purely to local objects, tend to an increase in number and in amount. As the citizens of one State find that money, to raise which thfy in common with the whole country are taxed, is to be expended for local improvements in another State, they demand similar benefits for themselves, and it is not unnatural that they should seek to indemnify themselves for such use of the public funds by securing appropriations for similar improvements in their own neighborhood. Thus as the bill becomes more objectionable it se- cures more support. This result is invariable, and necessarily follows a neglect to observe the consti- tutional limitations imposed upon the law-making power. The appropriations for river and harbor improve- ments have, under the influences to which I have alluded, increased year by year out of proportion to the progress of the country, great as that nas been. In 1870 the aggregate appropriation was $3,975,900 ; in 1875, $6,648,517.50 5 in 1880, $8,976,500; and in 1881, $11,451,000, while by the present act there is appropriated $18,743,875. While feeling every disposition to leave to the* Legislature the responsibility of determining what amount should be appropriated for the purposes of the bill, so long as the appropriations are confined to objects indicated by the grant of power, I can not es- cape the conclusion that, as a part of the law-making power of the Government, the duty devolves upon me to withhold my sigjnature from a bill containing appropriations which in my opinion greatly exceed in amount the needs of the country for the present fiscal year. It being the usage to provide money for these purposes by annual appropriation bills, the President is in effect directed to expend BO large an amount of money within so brief a period that the expenditure can not be made economically and advan- tageously. The extravagant expenditure of public money is an evil not to be measured by the value of that money to the people who are taxed for it. They sustain a greater injury in the demoralizing effect produced upon those who are intrusted with official duty through all the ramifications of Government. These objections could be removed and every con- stitutional purpose readily attained should Congress enact that one half only of the aggregate amount pro- vided for in the bill be appropriated for expenditure during the fiscal year, and that the sum so appropri- ated be expended only for such objects named in the bill as the Secretary of War, under the direction of the President, shall determine ; provided that in no case shall the expenditure for any one purpose ex- ceed the sum now designated by the bill for that pur- pose. I feel authorized to make this suggestion because of the duty imposed upon the President by the Con- stitution *' to recommend to the consideration of Congress such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient " ; and because it is my earnest desire that the public works which are in progress shall suffer no injury. Congress will also convene again in four months, when this whole subject will be open for their consideration. CHESTER A. ARTHUR. EXECUTIVE MANSION, August 1, 1882. In the House, on August 2d, Mr. Page, of California, from the Committee on Commerce, moved to take up the bill with the President's veto message. This was taken up, and on the question of its passage the vote was as fol- lows: YEAS — Atkins, Barbour, Bayne, Bingham, Black- burn, Blanchard, Bliss, Bowman, Brewer, Buck, Buckner, Julius C. Burrows, Butterworth. Cabell, Calkins, Candler, Cannon, Carpenter, Chapman, Clements, Crapo, Cravens, Culberson, Cullen, George R. Davis, Dawes, De Mottc, Deuster, Dibrell, Dunn, Dunnell, Ellis, Errett, Evins; Sewell S. Farwell, Ford, Forney, Fulkerson, Garrison, George, Gibson, Guenther, Gunter, John Hammond, Harmer, Benja- min W. Harris, Henry S. Harris, Haseltine, Hatch, Hazelton, Henderson, Hepburn, Herndon, Hoblitzell, Hoge, Horr, House, Hub bell, George W. Jones, James K. Jones, Kenna, King, Latham, Lewis, Lord, Lynch, Mackey, Manning, McClure, McCoid, McLane, McMillm, Mills, Oates, O'Neill, Page, Par- ker, Payson, Pierce, Phelps, Pound, Reagan, John CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 149 B. Rice, Theron M. Kice, William W. Rice, Rich, D. P. Richardson, Ritchie, Robertson, Robeson, Rosecrans. Ross, Shallenberger, Sherwin, Simonton, Otho R. Singleton, Smalls. Spaulding, Speer, Sppon- er, Stephens, Stone, Strait, Talbott, Taylor, Amos Townsend, Tucker, Upson, Urner, Vance, Van Aernam. Van Horn, Wait, Ward, Washburn, Web- ber, Weflborn, White, Charles G. Williams, Thomas Williams, Wilson, George D. Wise— 122. NAYS — Anderson, Belmont. Blount, Briggs, Browne, Brumm, Buchanan, Caldwell, Campbell, Coterick, Converse, Samuel S. Cox, Deering, Ding- ley, Ermentrout, Fisher, Godshalk, N. J. Hammond, Hardy, Haskell. Abram S. Hewitt, Hill, Hiscock, Holman, Hutchins, Jacobs, Jadwin, Kasson, Ketch- am, Klotz, Leedom, Le Fevre, McKinley, Miller, Mutchler, Norcross, Peelle, Randall, Ray, Reed, George D. Robinson, James S. Robinson, William E. Robinson, Ryan, Scales, A. Herr Smith, Springer, Stockslager, R. W. Townshend, Henry G. Turner, Oscar Turner, Tyler, J. T. Updegraff, Thomas Upde- graff, Warner, \tfhitthorne, Willis, Willits, Young— 59. NOT VOTING — Aiken, Aldrich, Armfield, Ath- erton, Barr, Beach, Bel ford, Beltzhoover, Berry, Bisbee, Black, Bland, Bragg, Joseph H. Burrows, Camp, Carlisle, Cassidy, Caswell, Chace, Clardy, Clark, Cobb, Cook, Cornell, Covington, William R. Cox, Crowley, Curtin, Cutts, Darrall, Davidson, Lowndes H. Davis, Dezendorf, Dowd, Dugro, D wight, Charles B. Farwell, Flower, Frost, Geddes, Grout, Hall, Hardenbergh, Heilman, Herbert, G. W. Hewitt, Hooker, Houk, Hubbs. Humphrey, Phin- eas Jones, Jorgensen, Joyce, Kelley; knott, Lacey, Ladd, Lindsey, Lowe, Marsh, Martin, Mason, Mat- son, McCook, McKenzie, Miles, Money, Moore, Morey, Morrison, Morse, Mosgrove, Moulton, Mul- drow, Murch, Neal, Nolan, Orth, Pacheco, Paul, Pettibone, Phister? Prescott, Ranney, J. S. Richard- son, Russell, Scoville, Scranton, Shackelford, Shultz, Sames W. Singleton, Skinner, Dietrich C. Smith, J. Hyatt Smith, Sparks, Steele, Thomas, P. B. Thomp- son, William G. Thompson, Valentine, Van Voorhis, Wadsworth, Walker, Watson, West, Morgan R. Wise, Benjamin Wood, Walter A. Wood— 108. RETIREMENT OF ARMY OFFICERS. — In the House, on March 31st, the army appropri- ation bill being under consideration, Mr. But- terworth, of Ohio, said: "Mr. Chairman, I propose, if it please the committee, first to ex- plain this bill, especially in relation to impor- tant changes. "In connection with the clause providing for pay of the army, there is a clause relating to honorable retirement, or, to use a phrase more common, compulsory retirement. The language is as follows: That on and after the passage of this act all offi- cers in the army who are over sixty-two years of age shall be placed on the retired list ; and no act now in force shall be so construed as to limit or restrict the retirement of officers as herein provided for. " It is proper to say in this connection that the Military Committee propose to offer an amendment or two, a part of which I am in- structed by the Committee on Appropriations to accept. This clause has been inserted here, the committee deeming it to be in order, to accomplish what has been desired for fifty years by the army and all those who desire to secure its efficiency. It is the concurrent tes- timony of officers in the army, old and young, that this clause, or a similar clause, is indis- pensable to secure that efficiency in the army which is desirable; and, beyond that, to se- cure that justice to junior officers which ought not to be withheld. "I have this additional word to say touch- ing this clause, and then I shall not refer to it again unless in the course of general debate it shall become necessary. It is the history not only of our own country but of the world, that before armies in the field have been relieved from the command of aged and incompetent generals, before officers rendered incompetent for the arduous duties of the field could be weeded out by the necessities of the service, ne- cessities which forced themselves on the atten- tion of the law-making power or the power having authority to provide a remedy, thou- sands of men, soldiers, have been sacrificed, vicarious offerings on the altar of age and re- sulting incompetency. It was so at the begin- ning of our own conflict, and history but re- peats itself in each war. It is true this is a time of profound peace, but it is wisely ordered that in time of peace we should provide for war. " I have said this is the unanimous voice of all the officers of the army. So it is not only of those who would be promoted but of those who would be retired as well. This clause provides for the honorable retirement of those who have either served faithfully forty years in the service or have attained to the age of sixty-two years." Subsequently, on April 4th, Mr. Henderson, of Illinois, by instruction of the Military Com- mittee, offered the following amendment : Strike out all of the pending paragraph after the word "act," in the seventy-eighth line of the same, and insert the following provisions : " When an officer has served thirty-five years, either as an officer or soldier, in the regular or volun- teer service, he shall, if he make application there- for to the President, be retired from active service and placed on the retired list ; and when an officer has served forty years, either as an officer or soldier, in the regular or volunteer service, or is sixty -two years of age, he shall be retired from active service and placed on the retired list : Provided, however, This last provision shall not apply to the General, Lieuten- ant-General, and present major-generals of the army ; and no act now in force shall be so construed as to limit or restrict the retirement of officers as herein provided for." This was again amended, on motion of Mr. Butter worth, as follows : Provided, however, This last provision shall not apply to the General, Lieutenant-General, and pres- ent major-generals of the army. The amendment was then adopted, and the bill passed and sent to the Senate. In the Senate, on June 6th, several amend- ments were adopted, one of which changed the age of retired officers from sixty -two to sixty- four years. In a conference committee of the two Houses, the following provision was ac- cepted and adopted : That on and after the passage of this act, when an officer has served forty years^either as an officer or 150 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. soldier in the regular or volunter service, or both, he shall, if he make application therefor to the President, be retired from active service and placed on the re- tired Jist; and when an officer is sixty-four years of age, he shall be retired from active service and placed on the retired list : Provided further. That the Gen- eral of the Army, when retired, shall be retired with- out reduction in his current pay and allowances ; and no act now in force shall be so construed as to limit or restrict the retirement of officers as herein provided for : Provided further, That any officer who is super- numerary to the permanent organization of the army as provided by law may, at his own request, be hon- orably discharged from the army, and shall there- upon receive one year's pay for each five years of his service, but no officer shall receive more than three years' pay in all. COMMON PEIME MERIDIAN. — In the House, on June 6th, the following joint resolution was considered : Joint resolution to authorize the President of the United States to call an international conference to fix on and recommend for universal adoption a com- mon prime meridian to be used in the reckoning of longitude and in the regulation of time throughout the world. The Speaker: "The question recurs on or- dering the joint resolution to be engrossed and read the third time." Mr. Flower, of New York : " Mr. Speaker, this joint resolution was introduced by my- self and referred to the Committee on Foreign Affairs. There are over three thousand scien- tists in this country who ask the passage of this resolution. It was drawn up by General Hazen, and is distinctively an American meas- ure. If this convention is not convened by us it will be by other nations. It will not cost the Government one dollar." Mr. Carlisle, of Kentucky: "I would like to ask the gentleman from New York if he will not accept such an amendment to this joint resolution as will provide for the appointment of these delegates by the President either from the officers of the navy or from the Engineer Corps? These are already paid by the Gov- ernment of the United States, and there is no necessity for subjecting the Treasury to addi- tional expense in the selection of such a board from outside scientists, when officers capable of performing the service are already being paid by the Government. We have a board of competent officers connected with the Observa- tory, the Coast Survey, and the Engineer Corps of the army, from whom such selec- tions could be made." Mr. Kasson, of Iowa : " The scientific peo- ple of the country are almost unanimous in their recommendations touching the impor- tance of this matter. I have a letter myself from President Barnard, of Columbia College, New York, and have seen papers from others, who suggest that it should be left to the discretion of the President to select this board." Mr. Belmont, of New York: "I do not think that necessarily any compensation will be paid to the delegates. The delegates from foreign governments will, of course, look to their own governments. Our own delegates will only be three in number." Mr. Flower: "I desire to have printed as part of my remarks the report submitted by my colleague (Mr. Belmont) from the Com- mitteee on Foreign Affairs." The report is as follows : The Committee on Foreign Affairs, ito whom was referred joint resolution No. 209, authorizing the President to call an international congress to fix and recommend a common prime meridian, having had the same under consideration, make the following report : There is at present no common and accepted stand- ard for the computation of time for other than astro- nomical purposes. In the absence of agreement seri- ous embarrassments are felt in the ordinary affairs of modern commerce, especially since the wide-spread extension of telegraphic communication and railroad transportation, and, owing to the diversity of methods now in use for indicating points on the earth's sur- face, navigators, geographers, and all who have oc- casion to use charts or maps, are put to the greatest inconvenience. International agreement upon this subject is demanded more imperatively every day, both by science and by trade. We have had as pro- visional or partial standards the meridians of Alex- andria, the Canary Islands, Toledo, Cracow, Uran- bourg, Copenhagen, Goes, Pisa, London, Paris, Kome, Greenwich, Vienna, Ulm, Berlin, Nuremberg, Venice, Bologna, Augsburg, Kouen, Dantsic, Milan, Washington, and other places. As long ago as the time of Kichelieu, an attempt was made to put an end to the confusion arising out of so great a variety of usages, and a congress was invited to assemble in Pans, in 1630, to agree, if possible, upon a common meridian. In speaking of this congress, Professor Barnard, of Columbia College, says : "The Island of Ferro, the most southwesterly of the Canary Islands, was fixed upon, and a royal order establishing this decision was promulgated in July of the same year. Unfortunately, however, the exact latitude of Ferro with reference to any point on the continent of Europe was at that time unknown. The determination of its position was never made by authority, and at length, in 1724, it was resolved to assume it as 20° west from Paris. To name the isl- and, therefore, without naming the point in it, was to leave the meridian unfixed, even had its general position been better known ; at any rate this effort to establish uniformity was without practical result." The Government has by section 435 of the Kevised Statutes adopted the Greenwich meridian for nautical purposes, but the establishment of the Meteorological Bureau and Signal-Service system, with postal and other stations extending over nearly four hours of solar time in North America, has already compelled the adoption of the standard time of 7.35 A. M. at Washington, as the moment of making telegraphic reports from all stations, and the observations on our naval vessels are made at the same hour of Washing- ton time. There is already pending in this Congresr a measure (H. K. 5009) for securing national standan time to our ports of entry and principal cities. Th: would accomplish what is desired in the regulation time in the United States, and might be incorporat in any internal system to be adopted, but the remai inwers as one of the family of nations. I am persuaded that if Congress can feel that this act violates the faith of the nation as pledged to China, it will concur with me in reject- ing this particular mode of regulating Chinese immi- gration, and will endeavor to find another which shall meet the expectations of the people of the United States without coming in conflict with the rights of China. The present treaty relations between that power and the United States spring from an antagonism which arose between our paramount domestic inter- ests and our previous relations. The treaty commonly known as the Burlingame treaty conferred upon Chinese subjects the right of voluntary emigration to the United States for the pur- poses of curiosity or trade, or as permanent residents, 168 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. and was in all respects reciprocal as to citizens of the United States in China. It gave to the voluntary emigrant coming to the United States the right to travel there or to reside there, with all the privileges, immunities, or exemptions enjoyed by the citizens or subjects of the most favored nation. Under the operation of this treaty it was found that the institutions of the United States and the character alleviate this condition by legislation, but the act which it passed proved to be in violation of our treaty obligations, and, being returned by tho President with his objections, failed to become a law. Diplomatic relief was then sought. A new treaty was concluded with China. Without abrogating the Burlingame treaty, it was agreed to modify it so far that the Government of the United States might regu- late, limit, or suspend the coming of Chinese laborers to the United States or their residence therein, but that it should not absolutely prohibit them, and that the limitation or suspension should be reasonable and should apply only to Chinese who might go to the United States as laborers, other classes not being in- cluded in the limitations. This treaty is unilateral, not reciprocal. It is a concession from China to the United States in limitation of the rights which she was enjoying under the Burlingame treaty. It leaves us by our own act to determine when and how we will enforce those limitations. China may, therefore, fairly have a right to expect that in enforcing them we will take good care not to overstep the grant, and take more than has been conceded to us. It is but a year since this new treaty, under the operation of the Constitution, became part of the su- preme law of the land ; and the present act is the first attempt to exercise the more enlarged powers which it relinquishes to the United States. In its first article the United States is empowered to decide whether the coming of Chinese laborers to the United States, or their residence therein, affects or threatens to affect our interests, or to endanger good order either within the whole country or in any part of it. The act recites that, " in the opinion of the Government of the United States, the coming of Chinese laborers to this countrv endangers the good order of certain localities thereof." But the act itself is much broader than the recital. It acts upon resi- dence as well as immigration, and its provisions are effective throughout the United States. I think it may fairly be accepted as an expression of the opin- ion of Congress that the coming of such laborers to the United States, or their residence here, affects our interests and endangers good order throughout the country. On this point I should feel it my duty to accept the views of Congress. The first article further confers the power upon this Government to regulate, limit, or suspend, but not actually to prohibit the coming of such laborers to, or their residence in, the United States. The nego- tiators of the treaty have recorded with unusual full- ness their understanding of the sense and meaning with which these words were used. As to the class of persons to be affected by the treaty, the Americans inserted in their draft a pro- vision that the words " Chinese laborers " signify all immigration other than that for "teaching, trade, travej, study, and curiosity." The Chinese objected to this that it operated to include artisans in the class of laborers whose immigration might be forbidden. The Americans replied that they ''could" not con- sent that artisans shall be excluded from the class of Chinese laborers, for it is this very competition of skilled labor, in the cities where the Chinese labor immigration concentrates, which has caused the em- barrassment and popular discontent. In the subse- quent negotiations this definition dropped out, and does not appear in the treaty. Article II of the treaty confers the rights, privileges, immunities, and exemp- tions which are accordea to citizens and subjects of the most favored nation upon Chinese subjects pro- ceeding to the United States as teachers, students, merchants, or from curiosity. The American commis- sioners report that the Chinese Government claimed that in this article they did, by exclusion, provide that nobody should be entitled to claim the benefit of the general provisions of the Burlingame treaty but those of its people and their means of obtaining a livelihood might be seriously affected by the unrestricted intro- duction of Chinese labor. Congress attempted to treaty who might go to the United States hi those capacities or for those purposes. I accept this as the defi- nition of the word "laborers" as used in the As to the power of legislating respecting this class of persons, the new treaty provides that we u may not absolutely prohibit" their coming or their resi- dence. The Chinese commissioners gave notice in the outset that they would never agree to prohibition of voluntary emigration. Notwithstanding this the United States commissioners submitted a draft in which it was provided that the United States might " regulate, limit, suspend, or prohibit " it. The Chi- nese refused to accept this. The Americans replied that they were " willing to consult the wishes of the Chinese Government in preserving the principle of free intercourse between the people of the two coun- tries, as established by existing treaties, provided that the right of the United States Government to use its discretion hi guarding against any possible evils of im- migration of Chinese laborers is distinctly recognized. Therefore, if such concession removes all difficulty on the part of the Chinese commissioners (but only La that case), the United States commissioners will agree to remove the word "prohibit" from their article, and to use the words "regulate, limit, or suspend." The Chinese reply to this can only be inferred from the fact that in the place of an agreement, as proposed by our commissioners, that we might prohibit the com- ing or residence of Chinese laborers, there was in- serted in the treaty an agreement that we might not doit. The remaining words, " regulate, limit, and sus- pend," first appear in the American draft. When it was submitted to the Chinese they said : " We infer that of the phrases regulate, limit, suspend, or pro- hibit, the first is a general expression referring to the others. We are entirely ready to negotiate with your excellencies to the end that a limitation either in point of time or of numbers may be fixed upon the emigration of Chinese laborers to the United States." At a subse- quent interview they said that " by limitation in num- ber they meant, for example, that the United States having, as they supposed, a record of the number of immigrants in each year, as well as the total number of Chinese now there, that no more should be allowed to go in any one year in future than either the great- est number whicn had gone in any year in the past, or that the total number should never be allowed to exceed the number now there. As to limitation of time they meant, for example, that Chinese should be allowed to go in alternate years, or every third year, or, for example, that they should not be allowed to go for two, three, or five years." At a subsequent con- ference the Americans said : " The Chinese commis- sioners have in their project explicitly recognized the right of the United States to use some discretion, and have proposed a limitation as to time and number. This is the right to regulate, limit, or suspend." In one of the conferences the Chinese asked the Americans whether they could give them any idea of the laws which would be passed to carry the powers into execution. The Americans answered that this could hardly be done ; that " the United States Gov- ernment might never deem it necessary to exercise this power. It would depend upon circumstances. If Chinese immigration concentrated in cities where it threatened public order, or if it confined itself to localities where it was an injury to the interests of the American people, the Government of the United States would undoubtedly take steps to prevent such accumulations of Chinese. If, on the contrary, there was no large immigration, or if there were sections of the country where such immigration was clearly CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. 169 beneficial, then the legislation of the United States, under this power, would be adapted to such circum- stances. For example, there might be a demand for Chinese labor in tne South and a surplus of such labor in California, and Congress might legislate in accordance with these facts. In general, the legisla- tion would be in view of and depend upon the cir- cumstances of the situation at the moment such legis- lation became necessary." The Chinese commissioners said this explanation was satisfactory ; that they had not intended to ask for a draft of any special act, but for some general idea how the power would be exer- cised. What had just been said gave them the ex- planation which they wanted. With this entire accord as to the meaning of the words they were about to employ, and the object of the legislation which might be had in consequence, the parties signed the treaty, in Article I of which " the Government of China agrees that the Govern- ment of the United States may regulate, limit, or sus- pend such coming or residence, but may not absolute- ly prohibit it. The limitation or suspension shall be ' reasonable, and shall apply only to Chinese who may go to the United States as laborers, other classes not being included in the limitations. Legislation taken in regard to Chinese laborers will be of such a char- acter only as is necessary to enforce the regulation, limitation, or suspension of immigration." The first section of the act provides that "from and after the expiration of sixty days next after the passage of this act, and until the expiration of twenty years next after the passage of this act, the coming of Chinese laborers be, and the same is hereby, sus- Knded, and during such suspension it shall not be svful for any Chinese laborer to come, or having so come after the expiration of said sixty days, to remain within the United States." The examination which I have made of the treaty, and of the declarations which its negotiators have left on record of the meaning of its language, leaves no doubt in my mind that neither contracting party in concluding the treaty of 1880 contemplated the pas- sage of an act prohibiting immigration for twenty years, which is nearly a generation, or thought that such a period would be a reasonable suspension or limitation, or intended to change the provisions of the Burlingame treaty to that extent. 1 regard this pro- vision of the act as a breach of our national faith ; and being unable to bring myself in harmony with the views of Congress on this vital point, the honor of the country constrains me to return the act with this objection to its passage. ^ Deeply convinced of the necessity of some legisla- tion on this subject, and concurring fully with Con- gress in many of the objects which are sought to be accomplished, I avail myself of the opportunity to point out some other features of the present act which, in my opinion, can be modified to advantage. The classes of Chinese who still enjoy the protec- tion of the Burlingame treaty are entitled to the privi- leges, immunities, and exemptions accorded to citi- zens and subjects of the most favored nation. We have treaties with many powers which permit their citizens and subjects to reside within the United States and carry on business under the same laws and regu- lations which are enforced against citizens of the United States. I think it may be doubted whether provisions requiring personal registration and the taking out of passports which are not imposed upon natives can be required of Chinese. Without ex- pressing an opinion on that point, I may invite the attention of Congress to the fact that the system of personal registration and passports is undemocratic and hostile to the spirit of our institutions. I doubt the wisdom of putting an entering- wedge of this kind into our laws. A nation like the United States, jeal- ous of the liberties of its citizens, may well hesitate Deforest incorporates into its polity a system which is last disappearing in Europe before the progress of li beral institutions. A wide experience has shown how futile such precautions are, and how easily passports may be borrowed, exchanged, or even forged by per- sons interested to do so. If it is nevertheless thought that a passport is the most convenient way for identifying the Chinese enti- tled to the protection of the Burlingame treaty, it may still be doubted whether they ought to be required to register. It is certainly our duty under the Burlin- game treaty to make their stay in the United States, in the operation of general laws upon them, as nearly like that of our own citizens as we can consistently with our right to shut put the laborers. No good purpose is served in requiring them to register. My attention has been called by the Chinese min- ister to the fact that the bill as it stands makes no provision for the transit across the United States of Chinese subjects now residing in foreign countries. I think that this point may well claim the attention of Congress in legislating on this subject. I have said that good faith requires us to suspend the immigration of Chinese laborers for a less period than twenty years ; I now add that good policy points in the same direction. Our intercourse with China is of recent date. Our first treaty with that power is not yet forty years old. It is only since we acquired California and established a great seat of commerce on the Pacific that we may be said to have broken down the barriers which fenced in that ancient monarchy. The Burlingame treaty naturally followed. Under the spirit which inspired it many thousand Chinese laborers came to the United States. No one can say that the country has not prof- ited by their work, They were largely instrumental in constructing the railways which connect the At- lantic with the Pacific. The States of the Pacific slope are full of evidences of their industry. Enter- prises profitable alike to the capitalist and to the la- borer of Caucasian origin would have lain dormant but for them. A time has now come when it is sup- posed that they are not needed, and when it is thought by Congress and by those most acquainted with the subject that it is best to try to get along without them. There may, however, be other sections of the coun- try where this species of labor may be advantageously employed without interfering with the laborers of our own race. In making the proposed experiment, it may be the part of wisdom as well as of good faith to fix the length of the experimental period with refer- ence to this fact. Experience has shown that the trade of the East is the key to national wealth and influence. The open- ing of China to the commerce of the whole world has benefited no section of it more than the States of pur own Pacific slope. The State of California, and its great maritime port especially, have reaped enor- mous advantages from this source. Blessed with an exceptional climate, enjoying an unrivaled harbor, with the riches of a great agricultural and mining State in its rear, and the wealth of the whole Union pouring into it over its lines of railway, San Francisco has before it an incalculable future if our friendly and amicable relations with Asia remain undisturbed. It needs no argument to show that the policy which we now propose to adopt must have a direct tendency to repel Oriental nations from us, and to drive their trade and commerce into more friendly lands. It may be that the great and paramount interest of protecting our labor from Asiatic competition may justify us in a permanent adoption of this policy. But it is wiser, in the first place, to make a shorter experiment, with a view hereafter of maintaining permanently only such features as time and experience may com- mend. I transmit herewith copies of the papers relating to the recent treaty with China which accompanied the confidential message of President Hayes to the Senate of the 10th of January, 1881, and also a copy of a memorandum respecting the act herewith returned, which was handed to the Secretary of State by the Chinese minister in Washington. CHESTER A. ARTHUR. EXECUTIVE MANSION, WASHINGTON, April 4, 1882. 170 CONGRESS, UNITED STATES. CONNECTICUT. The bill, upon being reconsidered with the President's objections by the Senate, on April 5th, failed to pass. Subsequently, on April 17th, a bill "to exe- cute certain treaty stipulations relating to the Chinese " was reported from the Committee on Education in the House. Mr. Bragg, of Wisconsin : "I desire to know how and why, under the rules of this House, a bill entitled a bill to execute certain treaty stipulations, prescribing intercourse between this Government and a foreign nation, making regulations concerning immigration, and affect- ing the naturalization laws, comes from the Committee on Education and Labor." The Speaker : " Because the subject was re- ferred to that committee." Mr. Willis, of Kentucky: "Mr. Speaker, I intend to vote for this bill ; and I hope every one who voted for the vetoed bill will vote for this bill. But, sir, I reserved to myself the right in committee, and I exercise that right now, to utter my solemn protest against the action of the committee in placing before us a bill which makes a hasty and unnecessary if not a cowardly surrender of all our rights both under this treaty and under natural and con- stitutional law. " I object to the bill not only on account of the absence of the penalty clause, but because the whole system of registration is cut out. Every bill on this subject that has been thus far presented to Congress has recognized the ne- cessity for some system of registration. With- out such a system it will be as difficult to know and to protect the 105,000 Chinese now here as it will be impossible to prevent the unlaw- ful coming and residence of those who are now in China. You first strike out the penalty by which Chinamen are punished for coming here unlawfully, and then you cut out the provision for registration, thus rendering it utterly im- possible to distinguish or identify the lawful from the unlawful residents. Could the door for Chinese immigration be more widely and safely opened ? " But, sir, the last and the principal objection which we, the minority of the committee, urge against this bill is the ten-year clause. For over twenty-five years the Pacific States have been cursed with the evils of Chinese immigra- tion ; the peace and order of society have been disturbed ; the interests of good government jeopardized ; the rights and comforts of hon- orable labor have been overthrown, and its worthy representatives driven into poverty and exile by an invading race, self-determined upon alien, sordid, and unrepublican habits. Will such a bill as this bring back peace and order to those burdened and excited communi- ties? Will it restore their social and industrial interests to their safe and normal condition ? Will not the people of the invaded States re- gard a ten-year suspension as a mere temporiz- ing expedient ; a brief and restless respite ; and not a substantial, permanent relief against the evils which beset them? After twelve years of urgent appeal will they accept this as the finality; the full and satisfactory reward of their long, patient, and hopeful waiting? " Mr. Page, of California: " Mr. Speaker, I do not believe the gentleman from Kentucky has a right to complain. There has been no at- tempt on this side of the House or by myself to deprive any member of the House of the right to debate this question. " All I ask is, and I earnestly appeal to all the members upon this floor, to relieve the people of the Pacific coast by giving them some legislation. Let this be placed upon the stat- ute-books of the nation. Let that people to-day be relieved of this terrible evil of which they complain. And if it shall fall to the lot of either side of this House to gain political ad- vantage, let tbat be so. I am not here to urge this as a party measure, but to accept it as be- ing the best thing we can do. " While the gentleman from Kentucky stated that he spoke for the Pacific coast, and that this bill was practically better than nothing, I believe, Mr. Speaker, and I know I speak both my own sentiment and the sentiment of a large portion of that people when I say that some of the sections included in this bill are far better for our people than the sections contained in the vetoed bill. " We have reduced the limitation of suspen- sion from twenty years to ten. While we voted, some of us for twenty years, if there had been a reasonable chance for fifteen years I would have voted for that. But my judgment is we can not afford to place the President in the position of being compelled to sign or veto a fifteen years' bill after having vetoed a twenty years' bill. I believe ten years will give us relief. I ask the members of this House to give us this bill of ten years ; and before the expiration of those ten years I trust there will be a public sentiment in this country that will unanimously extend the term of limitation." This modified bill passed both Houses, and was approved by the President. The session closed on August 8th. CONNECTICUT. The State officers during 1882 were: Governor, Hobart B. Bigelow; Lieutenant-Governor, William H. Bulkeley; Secretary of State, Charles E. Searls ; Treas- urer, David P. Nichols ; Comptroller, Whee- lock T. Bachellor. THE LEGISLATURE. — The members of the Legislature convened at the Capitol for the biennial session of 1882, on January 4th, and both Houses were speedily organized. In the Senate, Robert Colt, from the Ninth District, was elected President pro tempore, over his competitor, Rial Strickland, from the Second District, on a vote of 16 to 7; and, in the Lower House, John M. Hall, of Windham, was elected Speaker over George G. Sill, of Hart- ford, upon a vote of 138 to 89. A few hours later Governor Bigelow sent his message on public affairs through the Ex- CONNECTICUT. 171 ecntive Secretary, who read it to the joint Assembly, the two Houses having come togeth- er for that purpose. He called the attention of the Legislature to the fact that Long Isl- and Sound, the great commercial thorough- fare of Connecticut on her southern boundary, was practically without defense, as there were no fortifications worthy of the name between the ocean and the sea- ports of the State, which was thus exposed to an attack from the sea. The State depends, in this matter, wholly upon the Federal Government. The Governor, there- fore, urged the General Assembly to take such action as would call the attention of the Fed- eral Government to their defenseless condi- tion, and induce her to provide for it against any possible emergency. From the report of the directors of the Agricultural Experiment Station, which was established, by act of the Legislature, in 1877, it appears that, during the year 1881, the sta- tion's work has been mostly directed to the examination of commercial fertilizers, fodder, and feed- stuffs produced, or used, in Connecti- cut, and to the examination of milk and dairy products. As this station had no place of its own for attending to its operations, but from the beginning was kindly tendered the use of certain rooms in Yale College for five years, till June, 1882, the Board of Control requested of the Legislature that it might be furnished with the means of carrying on its work inde- pendently and efficiently. Connecticut was the first among all the States of the Union to create and put to practical work an. agricult- ural experiment station. Its lead in the es- tablishment of this service has been followed by many other States. They have recognized the wisdom of the action, and have created institutions for the same ends. Most of these are on a larger scale. The Storrs Agricultural School was author- ized by an act of the Legislature in 1881, and actually opened on the 28th of September of that year, and now is in operation, with three instructors and thirteen scholars. It is the first of its kind in this country, and, having no example to follow, it must reach success through experience. It is intended to be more technical, and nearer the farm, than the Agri- cultural College has been or well can be. Its object is not to make scholars, but to train young men to be well-informed and skillful farmers. Two acts were passed at this session — the one " appropriating twenty-five thousand dol- lars for the erection of a building for the Agri- cultural Experiment Station " ; the other, " pro- viding for regular annual appropriations to agricultural societies." With reference to the law enacted in 1881, providing for the licensing of pharmacists in the State, and for the registering of poisons sold by druggists to private people ; creating, also, a Commission of Pharmacy, charged to see that its provisions are faithfully carried into execution — the commission have report- ed that "the law works well, and meets the requirements of public safety." The list of poisons, the sale of which is reckoned as sub- ject to the duty of registration, is found to be too restricted, and should be extended by add- ing to it "laudanum, and other dangerous forms of opium." Since July 20, 1881, when the newly-finished portion of the Insane Asylum at Middletown, the South Hospital, was opened for the recep- tion of patients, above two hundred have been lodged in it, in addition to the inmates of the old hospital, the year 1881 having begun with 529 insane persons under treatment and ended with 731, of which number not less than 719 belong to the indigent class, and " are aided by the State " ; but, notwithstanding this great draining, the almshouses of the towns are not yet relieved of them, and their number seems to be increasing. The trustees of the Industrial School for Girls state that a large number of "neglected youth, of both sexes, may be found within the State growing up, without responsible guard- ianship, in varying conditions of ignorance and idleness, and plainly drifting toward a life of pauperism and crime " ; adding, " They are to be found in the streets of the cities, in the almshouses of the towns, and in other places equally ill-fitted for making them good citi- zens." An act was passed at this session " creating a commission to consider the case of children now in almshouses." A new penitentiary building, in a healthy location, is called for, as the old State Prison, wherein the convicts are now confined, besides other reasons of unfitness, stands on a " mani- festly unhealthy situation." The number of sick, or sickly convicts, unable to work, is by that cause kept very large. It is said that about three fourths of the cases of disabling sickness can be traced to malarial disorders, which cause necessarily diminishes the income derived from the earnings of convicts, and in- creases the expenses of the State. The reorganization of the courts of the State is strongly urged, as they " do not meet the just demands of the people." This is especially the case with " the courts of first resort, or original jurisdiction." The system of the justices of the peace is regarded as very defective. One thou- sand such justices are selected and installed every two years ; little inquiry is made as to their capacity and fitness for the discharge of judicial duties. A bill " creating the office of State Attorney- General " was introduced and acted upon at this session, but without final result ; it was contin- ued to the next General Assembly. The Legislature closed its session of 1882 by final adjournment on April 20th. Among the bills then passed, or continued to the next Legis- lature, were the following : A bill " to carry into effect the provisions 172 CONNECTICUT. of the twenty-sixth amendment to the State Constitution " ; " proposing a constitutional amendment to prohibit the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors " ; " providing for the issue of $500,000 of three and a half per cent twenty years' bonds, to take up and re- deem outstanding State bonds"; "imposing a State tax of one and a quarter mill on the dollar, to be assessed on the grand list of Oc- tober, 1881 " ; " providing that railroad bonds shall be taxed on their par value, unless they are below par"; "providing that all life-in- surance companies may do accident-insurance business " ; " providing that when twelve per- sons petition for temperance-instruction in the public schools, it shall be considered and de- cided upon by the school visitors " ; " provid- ing for the erection of a statue of Governor Buckingham in the Capitol Building." The amounts of money from the State Treas- ury appropriated for various purposes at this session, besides the two items before mentioned relating to agriculture, are as follows : $5,000 for the use of the Fish Commissioners; $3,000 to buy additional land for the State Hospital for the Insane ; $5,000 to Thomas Lamb for work done on the Capitol building; $5,000 for grading the Capitol grounds; $2,500 for the State Library ; and $1,500 to the commission on the revision of the liquor laws, for services and expenses." STATISTICS.— In obedience to the provision of the law enacted in 1878, " that the treasurer of every savings-bank in the State shall annu- ally deliver to the Comptroller a sworn state- ment of the name, with amount to his credit, of every depositor who shall not have made a deposit, or drawn thereon for a period of more than twenty years next preceding," the Society for Savings at Hartford, a bank incorporated in 1848, has made this year the required return, the depositors unheard from for above twenty years, and named in the list, numbering 572 ; the aggregate amount of deposits unclaimed being $74,817.21 ; the largest sum of single deposits, $6,878.97 ; the smallest, $1.39. There are in this list 22 names with $1,000 and over placed to their credit ; 62 with $100 and over ; and 51 with $50 and over. These banks have on deposit over $84,000,000, the largest amount ever held by them. There are 187,471 depos- itors, each having less than $500 to his credit, and 50,522 each having over that sum. The statistics of the railway lines operating within the limits of Connecticut for the year ending September 30, 1882, with the exception of the New York and New England, the Nor- wich and "Worcester, and the New Haven and Northampton roads, were as follows : THE NEW YORK AND NEW HAVEN RAILROAD. Gross earnings $5,937,807 64 From passenger transportation.. .$3,893,518 86 From freight transportation 2,065,855 52 Total operating expenses 8,803,678 97 Net earnings $2,134,128 67 The total number of passengers carried was 6,397,385, and the total number of miles trav- eled 3,697,211. It should be borne in mind that the returns of this road this year include the Shore Line division. THE CONNECTICUT WESTERN RAILROAD. Total operating expenses $316,470 20 Gross earnings 807,106 79 From passenger transportation $110,110 30 From freight transportation 184,078 24 Netdeficit $9,363 41 The total number of passengers carried was 241,707; and the total miles run, 309,489. While the earnings of this road are $4,681.65 more than last year, the operating expenses have also increased $49,892.54. This large outlay has been expended in improving the road, greatly bettering its condition. THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY RAILROAD. Gross earnings $195,873 61 From passenger transportation $102,699 25 From freight transportation 77,930 18 Total operating expenses 195,083 62 Net earnings $789 79 Total number of passengers carried, 330, 984 ; and total miles run, 228,024. THE AIR-LINE RAILROAD. Gross earnings $308,026 4T From passenger transportation $74,845 01 From freight transportation 74,065 09 Total operating expenses 113,262 86 Net earnings $194,768 61 Total passengers carried, 94,378 ; and total miles run, 170,506. THE OTHER ROADS. — The gross earnings of the New York, Providence and Boston were $1,065,650.31, and the operating expenses, $561,375.62, making the net earnings $504,- 274.69. Total passengers carried, 1,026,495 ; and total miles run, 641,353. The gross earnings of the Shepaug road were $62,931.83, and the operating expenses, $54,393.83, making the net earnings $8,538. Total passengers carried, 16,524 ; and total miles run, 9,930. Gross earnings of the New London North- ern, $587,384.48, and total operating expenses, $519,312.18, leaving a net earning of $68,- 072.30. Total passengers carried, 420,066 ; and total miles run, 565,968. Gross earnings of the Housatonic road, $746,- 327.76, and operating expenses, $567,200.58, making net earnings $179,127.18. Total pas- sengers carried, 340,478 ; and total miles run, 539,470. Gross earnings of the Naugatuck road, $714,- 898.01, and operating expenses, $463,865.10, making net earnings $251,032.91. Passengers carried, 415,391 ; miles run, 362,746. Gross earnings of the New Caanan road, $15,108.63; operating expenses, $9,268.56; net earnings, $5,840.07; passengers carried, 41,- 369 ; miles run, 18,240. Gross earnings of the Danbury and Norwalk road, $200,993.90 ; expenses, $128,002.67 ; net CONNECTICUT. 173 earnings, $72,990.73 ; passengers carried, 346,- 784 ; miles run, 123,732. The railroad companies contribute in taxa- tion toward the expenses of the State, $484,- 732.42. The insurance companies, including fire and life, foreign and domestic, $342,331.- 98, and savings-banks, $252,886.10. These three great monetary interests pay in taxation more than five eighths of all the ex- penditures of the State. The life and fire insurance companies are among the most prominent corporations of the State — some of them the largest and most pros- perous in the world. The last report of the insurance department shows that the fire-com- panies had over $23,000,000 of assets, and the life-companies over $105,000,000. The report of the Treasurer shows that the funded debt of the State, reduced by the pay- ment of $10,000 during the year, was, Novem- ber 30, 1882, $4,957,600. It has cost for the education of the 121,185 children in the public schools for the last year, $1,563,065.16; of this sum the State paid $222,773. In addition to the cost of public schools, the State expended for public education $49,500 for the Normal School, $5,000 for the Storrs Agricultural School, and $8,388.03 for the Board of Education. The largest item in the list of expenditures is for charitable, humane, and reformatory purposes. It amounts to over $276,000. It includes the cost for care of 380 boys in the Reform School ; 183 girls in the Industrial School; 1,079 insane persons in the hospital at Middletown, 28 in the retreat at Hartford, 24 in hospitals outside the State ; 57 imbeciles in the school at Lakeville ; 146 sick and wound- ed soldiers in hospitals ; 100 soldiers' children in different towns ; 18 blind persons at Boston ; 51 deaf and dumb at Hartford, and 241 pau- pers at Tariffville. The population of the State, by counties, in 1880 and in 1870, was as follows : COUNTIES. 1880. 1870. Fairfleld 112 042 95276 Hartford 125,882 109 007 Litchfleld 52,044 48,727 Middlesex 85589 86099 New Haven 156 523 121 257 New London 73,152 66570 Tolland 24,112 22,000 Windham 43856 88518 The State 622,700 587454 POLITICAL COTSTVENTIONS. — The Republican State Convention met at New Haven on Sep- tember 20th, little less than five hundred dele- gates being in attendance, and nominated the following ticket: For Governor, William H. Bulkeley, of Hartford; Lieutenant-Go vernor, John D. Can- dee, of Bridgeport ; Secretary of State, Stiles T. Stanton, of Stonington ; State Treasurer, Julius Converse, of Stafford Springs; State Comptroller, Frank D. Sloat, of New Haven. The following is the text of the platform adopted : The Kepublican party of Connecticut reaffirms its creed of all rights to all men ; the preservation in- violate of each and every constitutional amendment ; a free and fair ballot and the enactment and enforce- ment of appropriate legislation to preserve this right, upon which the integrity of our institutions rests ; a tariff reduced and revised, not only for revenue, but also for the protection of American labor against the labor of the Old World; the abolition of useless offices ; equal taxation and a rigid economy in all de- partments of the nation and the State ; the protection of the rights and liberty of every American citizen at home and abroad ; education under the fostering care of the General and State governments, which shall bring its advantages to the home of the humblest citi- zens ; the purity of the ballot-box and its protection against intimidation, bribery, and corruption ; appro- priate legislation for the encouragement of commerce, the reduction of the burdens of taxation, State and national, and the limitation of expenditures to the necessities of the Government ; a judicious system of civil-service reform, by which competent officers shall be secured for the public service — Federal, State, and municipal — and protected from assessment and re- moval except for cause. The Eepublican party, as an earnest of its future, refers to the record of its past service, both in war and in peace — to the suppression of the rebellion, the abo- lition of slavery, the enfranchisement of a race, the resumption of specie payments, the preservation of the honor of the country, the payments of its debt, the universal prosperity at home and peace with all nations. It reveres the memories of its martyred Presidents— Lincoln and Garfield — and it cordially • indorses and supports the administration of President Arthur, who, by his modesty, his capacity, and his fidelity to the interests of the people, and by the wis- dom and courage of his public acts and utterances, has commended himself to the confidence and ap- proval of his fellow-citizens without distinction of party. It believes that all just government derives its authority from the consent of the governed. It has confidence in the integrity and good sense of the people, and is not afraid to submit to them questions which vitally affect their prosperity and well-being. It therefore declares itselfin favor of submitting to the people, at a special election to be held for the pur- pose, the amendment to the Constitution proposed at the last session of the General Assembly relative to the prohibition of the sale and manufacture of intoxi- cating liquors, and of enforcing by appropriate legisla- tion whatever their will may be upon that question. For the purpose of promoting economy and watch- fulness in the expenditures of the State, we believe they should be regulated by a system of annual ap- propriations. We declare for the encouragement of State indus- tries ; the support of the public schools ; a limitation upon special and private legislation, and the passage of liberal general laws, under which all the citizens of the State shall have equal rights, and none shall en- joy exclusive privileges. We declare that the growing influences of the great corporations of the country ought to be jealously watched ; that the assumption of any undue power on their part should be promptly checked, and that the principle — that the people must control the corpora- tions and not the corporations the people — should be vigorously maintained. The Democrats, represented by nearly four hundred delegates from all sections of the State, convened at Hartford on October 4th, and nominated their candidates for the several public offices, as follows : For Governor, Thomas M. Waller, of New London; Lieutenant - Governor, George G. 174 CONNECTICUT. Suraner, of Hartford ; Secretary of State, D. Ward Northrop, of Middletown ; State Treas- urer, Alfred R. Goodrich, of Vernon; State Comptroller, Thomas Sanford, of Redding. The following platform was unanimously adopted : Whereas, The Democratic party, originally organ- ized in the early days of the republic to secure the administration of public affairs by those most loyal to our form of government as defined by the Constitution, and to the principle of the sovereignty of the people, upon which the Government is based, has always aimed to meet political issues as they have from time to time arisen in the spirit which actuated its founders, and to determine such issues by the test of their rela- tions to the first and unchanging principles of the And whereas, The great changes which have fol- lowed the civil war, and the rapid growth of the country in population and wealth, the dangerous and growing evils developed by years of partisan strife, without any clearly-marked differences of political conviction or definite object of administrative action ; the immediate necessity of putting an end to vicious habits that are fast hardening into a permanent sys- tem, and of securing the selection of public officers and the administration of public affairs in accordance with the true underlying principles of our Govern- ment and the aroused conscience of the people, seek- ing expression in many ways, but in every way de- manding a thorough clearing of the political atmos- phere, and an honest and definite presentation of political principles, all require a restatement of Demo- cratic principles as applicable to the condition of to- day and the political issues of the immediate future — the Democrats of Connecticut, in convention assem- bled, do declare : First. The Constitution of the United States, with its amendments, is the supreme law, and defines a form of government which is peculiar to itself, the natural growth of our history, and is of all forms of government the best adapted both to the protection of life and property and the security of personal free- dom. Under this form of government the exercise of sovereign power is not confined to any one agent, but is divided ; the exercise of certain specified powers is intrusted to the Federal Government, and the exercise of all other powers is reserved to the States and to the people ; to the existence of this Government the su- preme authority of the Federal Government, within the limit of the powers to it confided, is absolutely essential, and equally essential is the independence of the several States and their unimpeded exercise of all powers not assigned to the General Government. The Constitution or the United States, together with the constitutions of the several States, defines the form of government for one people, constituting " an inde- structible union of indestructible States." To this form of government we give our undivided support — a support rooted in the firm conviction of its absolute wisdom and strength — and to maintain and preserve the Government in its strength and purity we deem it necessary : 1. To give a hearty support to the vigorous action of the General Government in the wise exercise of all powers to it assigned. The supremacy of the General Government within the range or its powers is essential to the protection of the whole people and to the pro- motion of the general welfare. 2. To fearlessly maintain the independence of the States in the wise exercise of all powers not assigned to the General Government. Such independence con- tributes to the permanent strength of the whole Gov- ernment, and is essential to the preservation of per- sonal freedom. 3. To persistently oppose all strained interpreta- tions of the power named in the Federal Constitution. The authority of the Federal Government being su- preme within the limits of its action, strict construc- tion of the powers assigned to it is absolutely essential to the permanent preservation of that division of the exercise of sovereign power between the local and the , General Governments, which is the peculiar basis, the strength, and the glory of the American Republic. Second. Our government is the result of the will of the people. Back of all laws and all forms stand as supreme sovereign the qualified voters. To this sov- ereign we owe allegiance ; to honestly and fearlessly aid this sovereign in the wise administration of affairs is the highest duty of every citizen; to ascertain and establish" the best methods by which this sovereign can govern a powerful, rich, and populous country is the great political problem now demanding solution. We oelieve in the sovereignty of the people; we be- lieve that the absolute despotic power, which in every government must be vested in some man or body of men, is most wisely and safely intrusted to the quali- fied voters ; and to maintain the sovereignty of the people, to secure its wise exercise, to preserve its purity, and to insure its permanency, we deem it necessary : 1. To hold and to encourage a firm and generous faith in the ability of the people _ to govern; in their intelligence, honesty, and patriotism, and inspired by such faith to speak to our own sovereign, honestly and truly appealing to his reason and conscience, not seeking to make him the slave of passion or the vic- tim of deception. 2. All sovereigns must govern by agents. The people, as sovereign, must of necessity almost wholly govern by agents. The selection of these agents should be determined by laws, so framed that the selection may be made in accordance with a perma- nent system adapted to the rejection of the incompe- tent and the appointment of the most fit. 3. To protect the people in the direct exercise of power through the ballot, not only by providing more efficient guards against intimidation and fraud but by securing a true expression of the people's will when called upon to appoint by ballot any public agent. Third. In pursuance of these principles, and apply- ing them to the chief questions now at issue, we ad- vocate : 1. Strict economy in the expenditure of public moneys, and the restriction of appropriations from the national Treasury to objects clearly of a national char- acter. 2. A revision of the internal revenue law and of the tariff that shall reduce taxation, so that the reve- nue shall not exceed the present needs of the Govern- mentl and shall establish a tariff upon the only con- stitutional basis, the production of a revenue sufficient to meet expenses, giving incidental protection to in- dustries that promote the general welfare, and no protection to mere monopolies. 3. Legislation appropriate to secure the abolition of all unnecessary offices, the clearing from the civil serv- ice of all retainers of politicians, and the future ap- pointment of such persons only as shall have proved themselves most fit Iby tests of merit provided by law and open to the free competition of every citizen. 4. Legislation appropriate to secure a most careful formed. 5. Legislation appropriate to afford a more thor- ough protection against fraud in the use of the ballot, and to secure to the people when called upon to ap- point any public officer by ballot the practical power as well as the right to express their preferences under the forms and protection of law. fourth. Willing to recognize in a political oppo- nent any act worthy of commendation, we cordially approve the veto by President Arthur of the Eiver and Harbor Bill. Following in the footsteps of the Democratic Presidents who have heretofore prevented such unconstitutional legislation by the exercise of CONNECTICUT. the veto power, he has aroused the wrath of his own party, who offered him the unprecedented insult of permitting the passage of a vetoed bill by a two-thirds vote while in full control of both Houses of Congress. We ask all citizens of this State opposed^ to such ex- tra, unjust, and unconstitutional legislation, to unite with us in defeating the [Republican party, which has so openly committed itself in support of the Kiver and Harbor Bill, as well by the obstinate refusal of its late convention to approve the veto of the President, as by its renomination of the Congressmen who sup- ported the bill and opposed the veto. Fifth. The adoption of an amendment to the State Constitution is a most important exercise of the sover- eign power vested in the people. The exercise of that power has been wisely guarded by requiring such amendment to be first approved by the House of Kepresentatives ; to be then published with the laws and submitted to the people ; to be then approved by two thirds of each branch of the General Assembly, and then, and then only, to be submitted to the peo- ple for rejection or adoption. No member of the Legislature can vote to submit to the people a consti- tutional amendment of which he does not approve without violating his oath of office and destroying one of the safeguards which the people themselves have erected for the protection ot the Constitution from sudden changes. We denounce the declaration of the [Republican party platform favoring the submission to the people of a proposed amendment to the Constitu- tion which it fails to approve, as evasive and coward- ly. We fully recognize the evils arising from the abuse of intoxicating liquors. We believe the evils may be most effectually checked by the force of an enlightened public opinion ; they may be partially re- strained by wise legislation ; but such legislation should not be so oppressive or impracticable in its provisions as to trench on the personal rights and liberties of citizens, and ought not to be made a partisan question. Legislation so equally affecting every one, in reference to a subject wnere all honest men seek a common object, can most safely be left to the individual conscience, free from the blindness of party prejudice. We believe the incorporation of a police regulation relative to the sale of intoxicating liquors into the State Constitution to be opposed to the plainest principles of sound government. The Prohibitionists of Connecticut assembled in State Convention at Hartford in April, about forty delegates being in attendance. No plat- form was adopted nor reported, but the fol- lowing State ticket was nominated : For Governor, George P. Rogers, of New London; for Lieutenant-Governor, William S. Williams, of Glastonbury; for Secretary of State, F. H. Sage, of South Norwalk ; fqr State Treasurer, Edward Tuttle, of Meriden ; for State Comptroller, C. S. Harrington, of Mid- dletown. The Greenbackers nominated Tanner for Governor, and Phelps for member of Congress from the First District. The election resulted in an almost entire vic- tory to the Democratic nominees. The aggregate votes polled for Governor throughout the State in 1882 were 16,598 less than in 1880, they having been 115,165; of which 59,180 were cast for Waller, Democrat; 54,526 for Bulkeley, Republican ; 928 for Rog- ers, Prohibitionist ; and 481 for Tanner, Green- backer. In 1880 the entire vote for Governor was 132,763, distributed into 67,070 for Bige- low, Republican ; 64,293 for Eaton, Democrat ; 897 for Baldwin, Greenbacker; 488 for Rogers, COREA. 175 Prohibitionist. In regard to Congressmen, the Democratic nominees, Eaton, Mitchell, and Seymour, were elected from the First, Second, and Fourth Congressional Districts ; the Repub- licans having re-elected their nominee, Wait, from the Third District. In the Senate there are Republicans 13, Democrats 11. In the Legislature of 1881 it stood, Republicans 17, Democrats 7. To the Lower House the Dem- ocrats elected 109 members, the Republicans 139. In 1881 the proportion of their respect- ive numbers was 101 aod 147. The Republi- can majority in the next General Assembly will be 30 in the House of Representatives, and 2 in the Senate. COREA, a kingdom of Eastern Asia, occupy- ing the peninsula opposite the Japanese island of Niphon and bordering on the Chinese prov- ince of Mantchooria. The King of Corea ac- knowledges the nominal suzerainty of China, but has for ages preserved a practical iride- pendence. The Chinese have assisted the Co- reans in their wars with the Japanese, who conquered the country in the third century of the Christian era, and have repeatedly overrun it since, claiming tribute and submission down to the present time. The Coreans are a Mon- golian race (the Fuyus, who founded the Japa- nese Empire), grafted on another stock which shows evidence of Aryan origin. For nearly three hundred years the Coreans, taught by the terrors of invasions from the Japanese on the one side and the Mantchoos on the other, have followed a policy of complete non-inter- course with foreigners. OPENING OF TREATY POETS. — Within the last ten years, influenced by the pressure of the Chinese and Japanese Governments, they have commenced to open their gates. The urgency of China and Japan and the compla- cence of the Coreans is partly explained by the dread of Russian annexation, and the desire to have friends among the Western nations inter- ested. In 1876 Japan, in consideration of aban- doning her traditional claim to tribute, obtained a treaty conceding certain commercial privi- leges. The garrison town of Fusan, which the Japanese had held for centuries on the penin- sula, was transformed into a trading-station. Japan also obtained the right of trading in the sea-port of Gensan, on the northeastern coast, and in 1880, in the port of Inchuin on the west- ern coast, twenty-five miles from the capital, Seoul. The last concession precipitated a con- flict between the reactionary party in Corea, headed by Tai-wen-Kun, the father of the King and late Regent, and the progressive party, represented by the young King and Queen. The progressive party was divided between the friends of Japan and those partial to China, The Japanese military system was introduced by the Japanese faction. Commodore Shufeldt, working with the American Minister at Peking, and aided by the influence of Li-Hung-Chang and the Chinese Government, obtained through the Chinese party a treaty, signed in June, 176 COREA. COSTA RICA. 1882, by which Corea was thrown open to American commerce. A similar convention was signed with China on the same day. INSURRECTION. — Four days afterward an out- break of the conservative elements resulted in the massacre of the Queen, the heir-apparent and his bride, and the ministers, thirteen in number, who were in favor of foreign inter- course. The Japanese legation was attacked, but escaped to another town, and thence to a British man-of-war. Although the Japanese had no reason to favor the concessions made to China .and the United States, and had no hand in the proceedings, they were visited with the special wrath of the Corean mob, and only escaped a wholesale slaughter by flight. Within a month the Japanese envoy re-entered Seoul with a military escort. The people and Government of Japan were greatly incensed and made immediate preparations for war, but the matter was compounded by the payment of a heavy indemnity. The usurping rebel surrendered on the arrival of a Chinese force of three or four thousand men, which the Chinese envoy led into Seoul simultane- ously with the return of the Japanese embassa- dor, and he was taken a prisoner to Tientsin, and the King restored to full authority. THE AMERICAN TREATY. — Great Britain and Germany hastened to conclude similar arrange- ments with Corea as those secured by the American plenipotentiary. France negotiated for a treaty, but insisted on the condition that French missionaries should have the liberty to teach, which the Coreans refused to grant. French Jesuit missionaries have for centuries been the only foreigners who could obtain access to Corea. Their propaganda was for- bidden. Yet at times it was secretly protected by the influential converts whom they gained. At other times they have been rigorously dealt with, and on more than one occasion suffered martyrdom. The ex-Regent, who headed the insurrection in July, attempted to extirpate Christianity in 1864, slaughtering the native Christians and putting nine Jesuit missionaries to the sword. The American treaty was framed under the inspiration of the Chinese authorities, and em- bodies those liberal principles which the Chi- nese have endeavored to introduce in their treaty arrangements, and which it has recently been the policy of the United States Govern- ment to promote. The aim of the Chinese is to escape from the harsh and humiliating con- ditions which Great Britain imposed upon them after the last opium-war, and which are now maintained to be the proper bases of treaty arrangements with Oriental powers. The treaty introduces China by stating that the President of the United States admits that Corea has always been tributary to China, " but the treaty shall be permanently regarded as haying nothing to do with this." The re- striction of the amount of customs duties which China is allowed to levy is relaxed ; the limi- tations in the Corean treaties, instead of being fixed at 5 per cent ad valorem, as in the Chi- nese, vary from 11 per cent on necessaries to 30 per cent on luxuries. The Coreans are also allowed to charge higher tonnage dues than the Chinese. Four ports are opened to the commerce of the treaty nations, but strangers are prohibited from traveling in the interior. The importation of opium is strictly prohibited. Foreigners are not permitted to engage in the coasting-trade. The export of grain may be interdicted in times of scarcity. There is a clause providing that diplomatic correspond- ence shall be carried on between the contract- ing parties in the Chinese language. The right of extra-territoriality is qualified by a provision that " if in the future the Corean Government shall bring the laws and legal procedure of Corea into harmony with those prevailing in the United States, the power now granted to consuls of the United States to act judicially shall be withdrawn, and American citizens living within the boundaries of Corea trans- ferred to the full jurisdiction of the native lo- cal authorities." The favored-nation clause is also modified by the proviso which was intro- duced in the Chinese-German treaty of 1880, and in the more recent one concluded with Brazil. In the Corean treaty the clause runs: " But all special concessions made to the most favored nation shall be explained and made public, so that the contracting party may know that such concessions have been made to the favored nations under special conditions." COSTA RICA (REPUBLICA DE COSTA RICA). For particulars relating to territorial division, population, etc., reference may be made to the "Annual Cyclopedia" for 1877. The President of the Republic is General Prospero Fernandez (entered office on August 10, 1882) ; the Vice-President is General Pedro Quiros; and the Cabinet (at the end of 1882) was composed of the following Ministers : In- terior and Justice, General Victor Guardia; Foreign Affairs and Public Instruction, Senor Jos6 Maria Castro ; Finance and (ad interim) War and Marine, Senor Bernardo Soto. On the death of General Tomas Guardia, which occurred on July 6, 1882, Minister Li- zano, as First Designate, assumed the executive power provisionally. The decease of General Guardia, who had for so many years been in name the President, but in fact the Dictator, of Costa Rica, provoked a marked exhibition of public excitement ; but the peaceful change of government which ensued proved that his long permanence in power had been effectual in crushing out the spirit of civil strife. The Bishop of Costa Rica is the Right Rev. Bernardo A. Thiel. The Costarican Minister to the United States is Sefior Manuel M. Peralta ; and the Consul-? General of Costa Rica at New York is Senor Jose" M. Mufioz. The United States Minister (resident in Guatemala, and accredited to the five Central COSTA RICA. 177 American Republics — Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Salvador, and Costa Rica) is Mr. H. 0. Hall. The military force of the country consists of the standing army, nominally 500 strong, and the rnilitia, comprising all male citizens between the ages of eighteen and fifty-five, the reserves being made up of men between thirty and fifty- five. The number susceptible to be called upon to carry arms was reported at 16,370 in 1879. STATISTICS. — The financial condition of Costa Rica, once so flourishing, would seem to grow more and more unsatisfactory each successive year, and this is attributed mainly to the per- sistent maintenance, during the Guardia administration, of a ponderous and costly govern- ment machinery alike incom- mensurate with the require- ments and possibilities of the country, and an ever-increasing home debt accruing from suc- cessive loans the proceeds of which have been applied in part to cover deficits, while the re- mainder has been wasted in un- productive public works. The revenue for the fiscal year end- ing April 30, 1880, as given in the " Annual Cyclopaedia " for that year, was $2,802,279, and the expenditure $3,460,597, leaving a deficit of $658,318. In an official statement issuing from the finance department, and bearing date of October 17, 1882, the ex- penditure for the nine months immediately en- suing was estimated at $3,271,513, to be dis- tributed as follows: Interior..., ... $166,8T4 50 Police 50,54600 Public Works 812.20768 Justice... 106,78600 Worship and Charities 22,150 59 Warand Marine 878,792 55 Finance 2,012,646 65 Foreign Affairs 42,505 00 Public Instruction 174,190 00 Additional 4,815 00 Total $3,271,51897 Now, the revenue for that period of nine months, if in the same proportion as for the year ending April 30, 1880, would be but $1,101,710, and the resulting deficit would be $2,169,803.97, or nearly double the amount of the revenue. To lighten the burden of such an onerous deficit, however, the Executive, duly authorized by the Congress, issued a decree on October 18, 1882, ordering a reduction of 10 per cent of the salaries of all persons employed or pensioned by the Government and paid out of the public funds. Yet, even after deducting 10 per cent from the total estimated expendi- ture (in which, of course, are included many outlays other than salaries), as shown in the foregoing table, the deficit would still exceed the income by $740,942. The foreign debt of Costa Rica stood as fol- VOL. xxii.— 12 A lows at the end of 1882, according to the re- port of the bondholders' committee : Principal of 6 per cent loan £941,200 Interest oil 6 per cent loan 508,248 jM AAQ 44C Principal of 7 per cent loan £1,460,100 Interest on 7 per cent loan 970,966 2,481,066 Total foreign debt "£8^880^514 This amount, even at an exchange of 10 per cent, would give the sum of $21,342,827. Pay- ment of the 6 per cents is guaranteed out of the national revenue, the proceeds of sales of SAN JOSfi, THE CAPITAL OF COSTA KICA. state property, and the customs receipts ; and the 7 per cents were to be paid from the pro- ceeds of the tobacco and spirit monopolies, the export duty on coffee, and the profits on local railway traffic. "In return for this heavy in- debtedness," says a native writer, "we have three sections of railway, of the estimated value of £1,200,000," or say $6,600,000, calculating exchange at 10 per cent. The precise amount of the home debt it would be difficult to determine, in the absence of official returns ; but with expenditures ag- gregating $28,541,000 for the decade 187l-'80, against an aggregate revenue of only $24,920,- 600, the country must owe at least $3,620,400 on that score. " Thus we prove that there is a crisis," adds the writer already quoted, " and this crisis the empirics would cure by issuing paper money, which would at once lead to the withdrawal of all specie from circulation ; vio- lent fluctuations in exchange, and the conse- quent immediate depreciation in the value of the new currency ; the employment of this last in risky and unproductive speculations ; the im- position of an immense tax on future revenues ; and the immediate discredit of the Govern- ment which issues that paper money." President Fernandez is said to share with his Cabinet ministers in the conviction that the country's salvation depends upon the comple- tion of the railway and the equitable settle- ment of the national debt. The bondholders have been informed that it is useless to expect 178 COTTON CROP OF THE UNITED STATES. payment from Costa Rica until the railway is finished. This will require at least two years, and an additional expenditure of about one million pounds sterling, to which the republic declares its total inability to contribute any- thing. Hopes were entertained of the possi- bility of raising the funds before long. Arrangements were made for the extinction of the home debt, the different banks dividing the negotiation between them. A balance was to be struck, and the amount due would then be paid by the Government in $100 bonds, which would be canceled by the Anglo and Union Banks by quarterly drawings in which the amount would be employed as a redemp- tion fund, which might have been received in notes in the custom-house. Notes receivable in the custom-house were to be issued to the full amount of the debt. The banks were to issue notes in consideration of a commission of one per cent, and agreed to redeem the bonds as aforesaid with the notes received from the custom-house. These measures, however, do not appear to have proved successful. On December 4th there was a panic in San Jose, and all who held bonds, notes, or drafts, com- menced trading them off in the hope of sav- ing some portion of the capital invested. At the doors of the banks crowds gathered to ef- fect transfers in the streets, and notes of the National Bank were sold at 25 per cent dis- count. Public confidence was afterward par- tially restored; but the extreme measures re- sorted to by the Government had evidently produced an injurious rather than a salutary effect, and there was little likelihood that the crisis would soon subside. Concerning the foreign commerce of the re- public, no later statistics have been published than those given in the volume of the " An- nual Cyclopaedia " for 1880. The branches of the railway so far in opera- tion are those from Alajuela to Cartago, ma Heredia and the capital (27 miles) ; from Pun- tarenas, on the Pacific coast, to Barranca (9 miles) ; and from Limon, on the Atlantic coast, to Rio Sucio (71 miles) : total, 107 miles. The telegraph lines are of the aggregate length of 454 miles, with 16 offices, and, estab- lishing communication between the ports of Puntarenas and Limon, and the principal cities of the interior, extend to the frontier of Nica- ragua. For interesting details concerning public edu- cation, reference may be made to the " Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1879. The establishment of normal schools in each of the provinces was decreed in October, 1882. The Cordial relations of the republic with the neighboring states were maintained un- broken throughout the year. COTTON -CROP OF THE UNITED STATES, AND ITS SPECIFIC MANUFACTURES. The cotton-crop of 1880, as returned by the census, amounted to 5,746,414 bales. This was an average of 0-40 bale per acre of the land planted. This crop was gathered from thir- teen States and the Indian Territory, and the yield of each was as follows : STATES. Acres. Bales. Bales per acre. Alabama 2,830,086 699,654 O'SO Arkansas 1 042 9T6 608256 0-5S Florida 245 595 54.997 0'22 Georgia 2,617,138 814441 0'31 Indian Territory Kentucky 35,000 2 667 17,000 1 367 0-49 0-51 Louisiana 864787 508 569 0-59 Mississippi 2 093 330 955808 0-46 Missouri 32,116 20,318 0-63 ]$ orth Carolina 893,153 389,59S 0-44 South Carolina 1 364 249 522 548 0'38 Tennessee 722 562 830 621 0'46 Texas 2,173 732 803,642 0'37 Virginia 45040 19 595 0-44 Total United States 14,462,431 5,746,414 0440 Under the term specific cotton manufactures are included establishments which work cotton into a fabric known and sold under that name. The spindles mentioned are those making yarn for mixed goods, and spindles appurte- nant to looms upon which cotton is woven into cloth. The returns of the specific manufacture of cotton - yarn and woven fabrics, including some cotton hosiery, are as follows: Number of spindles 10,653,435 Number of looms 225,759 Bales of cotton consumed 1,570,344 Number of persons employed, exclusive of admin- istration, as overseers, operatives, watchmen, me- chanics, yard-hands, or laborers 172,544 Sum of wages paid, in the census year, to these persons $42,040,510 To the cotton consumed there should be added an amount for woolen-mills, for up- holstery, increased amount consumed in the cotton year over the census year, and the total is 1,740,773 - bales. The statement of the New Orleans Exchange is 1,705,334, and that of the New York Financial Chronicle 1,760,000. In the consideration of the following data it will be observed — 1. That the capital employed is the sum of the estimates of the several owners or mana- gers of the value of their mills and machinery, or what is known as the plant; these esti- mates vary greatly in respect to individual cases and to sections. 2. The spindles given are the producing spindles, not including doubling or twisting spindles. 3. The number of operatives is assumed to be the average number employed for a full year, as that was the intention of the questions framed. It will be observed that the average of the whole country in specific cotton-mills is a fraction over sixteen to each thousand spin- dles, being less in fine mills, more in coarse mills. The horse-power available for this work, as returned by owners or managers, appears to be : Water-power 183,313 Steam-power 119,255 Total. 257,563 CRIMINAL JURISDICTION" IK THE UNITED STATES. 179 which would be at the rate of more than This is more than the power actually used, twenty-four horse-power to the 1,000 spindles, probably by one third. STATISTICS OF SPECIFIC COTTON MANUFACTURES. STATES. Number of establishments. Capital. Spindles. Looms. Average number yarn. 439 $156 754 690 8 682 087 Middle 189 81 014 759 1 891 164 .... Southern ... 161 17375897 542048 .... Western 17 8135000 88'l86 1 842 .... Total 756 $208 260 346 10 653 435 STATES. Cotton consumed. Goods manufactured. Wages of operatives. Value of materials. Value of products. Eastern .... Bales. 1 129 498 Cost. $63 169 434 Pounds. Middle *228'729 13 258 526 Southern 182349 8 890 408 6s' 858^265 2?75o'9S6 Western 29768 1 627 357 Total 1,570,344 $86,945,725 607,264,241 $42,040,510 102,206,847 192,090,110 STATISTICS OF SPECIAL MILLS. — Mills em- ployed in working raw cotton, waste, or cotton- yarn into hose, webbing, tapes, fancy fabrics, or mixed goods, or other fabrics, which are not sold as specific manufactures either of cotton or wool ; some work both fibers, but belong more in the class of cotton manufactures than in tbe class of wool manufactures. The num- ber of establishments is 249 ; bales of cotton consumed, 40,597 ; cost, $2,338,385. STATES. Capital. Spindles. Loom*. Operatives. Wages and salaries of operatives. Value of production. Eastern . . . $3 970 808 15848 897 8169 $877 007 *5 KQO 100 Middle 6 61 6 645 84922 2894 9271 2 598 931 12 760 128 Southern 881 500 9972 234 '317 ' 63'024 285 205 Western 255 500 171 84 947 825 658 Total til 224.448 60242 4025 12928 $8 573 909 $18 860 278 CRIMINAL JURISDICTION IN THE UNITED STATES. An effort was made, in the preparation of the census of 1880, to pro- cure such information as would show the sys- tem of courts of criminal jurisdiction estab- lished in the several States, and for the United States. UNITED STATES COUETS.— The Supreme Court consists of nine judges, who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. They hold their office during good behavior, and can be removed by impeachment. Their names, and that of the State from which each was appointed, were as follows in 1880 : Chief- Justice— Morrison R. Waite, of Ohio. Associ- ate-Justices—Horace Gray, of Massachusetts; Noah H. Swayne, of Ohio ; Samuel F. Miller, of Iowa ; Stephen J. Field, of California ; Wil- liam B. Woods, of Georgia ; Joseph P. Bradley, of New Jersey ; Ward Hunt, of New York ; and John M. Harlan, of Kentucky. The States are divided into fifty -nine districts, in each of which, with four exceptions, a circuit court is also held ; and each justice is required to sit as a circuit justice at least one term in two years. There is also a Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, and also of each of the Terri- tories. Of the former there are six judges, and of the latter twenty-five judges. In addi- tion, there are nineteen hundred and thirteen commissioners appointed by the circuit courts. These issue warrants, make preliminary exami- nations, and commit or hold to bail offenders against the United States. State magistrates also have power to arrest, commit, or hold to bail, offenders against the United States. As there are no United States circuit or district courts in the Territories, the functions of these courts are exercised by the Supreme Courts of the Territories. STATE COURTS. — The State courts embraced in the returns are those which have original or appellate criminal jurisdiction. Original criminal jurisdiction is not possessed by certain courts, except the power to issue writs. This is generally the case with the courts of last re- sort, known in most States as the Supreme Court (but in Alabama, Kentucky, Maryland, New York, and Texas, as the Court of Ap- peals; in Connecticut, as the Supreme Court of Errors ; in Maine and Massachusetts, as the Supreme Judicial Court ; in New Jersey, as the Court of Errors and Appeals; and in West Virginia, as the Supreme Court of Appeals). In a number of States, judges of the highest court are ex-officio judges also of some court of inferior jurisdiction: as the Superior Court, in Connecticut ; the Courts of Oyer and Terminer and of General Sessions, in Delaware ; the Court of Oyer and Terminer, in New York • 180 CRIMINAL JURISDICTION IN THE UNITED STATES. the District Court, in Ohio ; the Supreme Court, in New Jersey ; the Court of Oyer and Ter- miner, in Pennsylvania ; the Court of Com- mon Pleas, in Rhode Island ; and the County Court, in Vermont. The Maryland Court of Appeals is composed of the circuit judges, sit- ting in bane. In Massachusetts original criminal jurisdic- tion (but in capital cases only) has been con- ferred upon the Supreme Judicial Court. In Maine, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, the supreme judges hold trial terms in the several counties for the trial of all felonies and misde- meanors, but the court sits in bane for the hear- ing of appeals. In capital cases, the jurisdiction of the Su- preme Judicial Court in Massachusetts is ex- clusive. Exclusive jurisdiction in capital cases is exercised also by the Courts of Oyer and Terminer in Delaware, New Jersey, and New York, and by the Circuit Court in Virginia. In three States special courts have been or- ganized for the trial of all felonies (of which class of offenses they have exclusive jurisdic- tion), namely, the Circuit Court in Arkansas, the Superior Court in Georgia, and the District Court in Texas. But in the majority of States the same court which has jurisdiction of felonies has jurisdic- tion of misdemeanors also, either of all mis- demeanors— as in Alabama, Delaware, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Massa- chusetts, Missouri, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Vermont, Vir- ginia, West Virginia, and Wisconsin — or of misdemeanors not cognizable by inferior courts, as the case may be — as in California, Colorado, Connecticut, Florida, Maine, Michigan, Minne- sota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jer- sey, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Rhode Isl- and, and Tennessee. These courts of general criminal jurisdiction are known by various titles : usually as circuit or district courts, but sometimes as superior courts, or courts of ses- sions, or courts of oyer and terminer, or of common pleas. Their character is for the most part similar. Their territorial jurisdiction is commonly (but not always) bounded by the limits of the county in which the term is held. In Vermont and in Virginia they are called county courts. In many States an inferior grade of courts exists, with jurisdiction of misdemeanors only. Such are the county courts of Alabama, Geor- gia, Illinois, Oregon, and Texas ; also the Dis- trict Court in Massachusetts, the Inferior Court in North Carolina, the Probate Court in .Ohio, and the Quarter Sessions in Pennsylvania. In Arkansas, Mississippi, and Missouri, justices ot the peace have jurisdiction of all misdemean- ors. There is a class of courts found only in local- ities which either possess concurrent jurisdic- tion with some of the courts already named, or replace them within certain defined territo- rial limits, e. g., in a city, county, or district. To the first of the two subdivisions indicated belong the City Courts of Mobile, Montgomery, and Selma, in Alabama ; the City Courts of At- lanta, Gainesville, and Savannah, in Georgia; the Criminal Court of Cook County and the City Courts of Alton, Aurora, East St. Louis, and Elgin, in Illinois; the Superior Court of Kennebec County, in Maine ; the Superior Court of Grand Rapids, in Michigan ; the Court of General Sessions in the city of New York, the City Court of Brooklyn, the Superior Court of the city of Buffalo, and the Courts of Special Sessions for the cities of New York and Al- bany, in the State of New York ; the Criminal Court of New Hanover County, in North Caro- lina ; the Special Criminal Courts in the coun- ties of Davidson and Rutherford (forming one circuit), Knox, Montgomery, Shelby, and Mad- ison, in Tennessee ; the City Court of Burling- ton, and the Municipal Court of Rutland, in Vermont; and the Municipal Courts of Dane and Milwaukee Counties, in Wisconsin. To the second subdivision (jurisdiction exclusive) belong the " Criminal Circuit " Courts of In- diana ; the Criminal Court for the counties of Canton, Campbell, Harrison, Bracken, and Pendleton, in Kentucky ; the Criminal District Court for the parish of Orleans, in Louisiana ; the Superior Court of Cumberland, in Maine ; the Criminal Court of Baltimore, in Maryland ; the Criminal Court of Jackson County, the Criminal Court of the Sixth Judicial Circuit, the Moberly Court of Common Pleas, and the St. Louis Criminal Court, in Missouri ; and the Corporation or " Hustings " Courts, in Vir- ginia. It may be presumed, however, that even where the jurisdiction is concurrent, it is prac- tically exercised (except, perhaps, in cases of the very first importance) by the local rather than by the general court. The trial jurisdiction of justices of the peace is ordinarily limited to misdemeanors of a low grade. Arkansas, Mississippi, and Mis- souri, as stated above, are exceptions. But in Georgia, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island, justices have no trial jurisdic- tion. In Maine and Massachusetts certain jus- tices (designated by the Governor and specially commissioned) are vested with trial jurisdic- tion and entitled "trial justices." In Rhode Island one justice in each town (chosen in some cases by the Legislature and in others by the town council) acts as trial justice, and his court is known as a "justice court." In New York justices have no trial jurisdiction as such ; but they may try certain oifenses in their capacity as courts of special sessions. In Ohio the ju- risdiction of justices is limited to violations of city or village ordinances. In the remaining States the class of misdemeanors of which jus- tices have jurisdiction is defined in the statutes either by a list of the offenses triable injustices' courts, or by prescribing the maximum penalty which they are authorized to impose. This maximum is, of course, arbitrary, and varies greatly, the lowest being in Connecticut (seven CRIMINAL JURISDICTION IN THE UNITED STATES. 181 dollars, or thirty days), and the highest in Kan- sas (five hundred dollars, or one year). In Ne- vada justices try not only misdemeanors, but also violations of corporation ordinances. A somewhat remarkable feature in the juris- prudence of Maine is the power conferred upon justices of the peace to issue writs of habeas corpus in certain cases — a provision not found in the penal code of any other State, except in South Carolina, where two trial justices, acting jointly, may issue writs of habeas corpus in like manner and with like effect as judges of any court of record. The trial of violations of corporation ordi- nances is intrusted in some States to police justices ; in others to police courts, mayor's courts, or recorder's courts, created either un- der a general law or by special act. The survival of usages derived from the English system of practice in criminal proceed- ings is noticeable in several States, particularly in the maintenance of the distinction between the Court of Oyer and Terminer and the Court of General Quarter Sessions, in New Jersey (where the justices of the Supreme Court and of the Court of Common Pleas are ex-officio judges of both courts) ; and of the distinction between the Supreme Court and the Court of Common Pleas in Rhode Island (whose jurisdiction is concurrent, except in Providence County, and the Supreme judges are ex-officio judges of Common Pleas). In Delaware the same body of judges constitute the bench, not only of the Superior Court, but also of the Court of Oyer and Terminer and of the Court of General Sessions. APPELLATE JURISDICTION. — There are some striking departures from the ordinary system of appeals from the decisions of inferior courts. In Delaware, an appeal may be taken in a bas- tardy case directly from a justice of the peace to the Superior Court, which is the court of last resort ; but the decisions of the Courts of General Sessions and of Oyer and Terminer, in criminal cases, are final. The peculiar organi- zation of the bench of the Delaware courts has the effect of depriving a convicted prisoner of the right of appeal. In Colorado, an appeal may be taken from a justice of the peace to the County Court, which has no original criminal jurisdiction, but no appeal lies from the County Court to any other. In New York and New Jersey, a court known as the Supreme Court is interposed between the inferior courts and the Court of Appeals. Theoretically, the Supreme Court has original criminal jurisdiction ; but, practically, it does not exercise it. An appeal lies from its decis- ion to the Court of Appeals. The system of appellate courts in Illinois is somewhat simi- lar ; but these courts have no original jurisdic- tion, criminal or civil. There is a system of district courts in Ohio. The occasion for the creation of these special courts of appellate ju- risdiction probably was a desire to relieve the dockets of the courts of ultimate resort in the States where they exist. In Texas, the Court of Appeals is the court of last resort in criminal proceedings only ; the Supreme Court enjoys the ultimate jurisdiction in civil cases. INVESTITURE OF JUDGES. — There are three modes of investing a judge with the authority pertaining to his office: 1. Election by the people ; 2. Election by the representatives of the people ; and, 3. Appointment by the Ex- ecutive. In one-half the States of the Union the first is the only mode in use ; and in seven others a marked preference for this mode is mani- fested. Delaware, Maine, Massachusetts, and New Hampshire are the only States in which inves- titure by appointment is the mode exclusively practiced ; but in New Jersey all judges are appointed, except justices of the peace ; in Florida, all except mayors ; and in Mississippi, all except mayors and justices. The intermediate method (investiture through election by the Legislature) appears to have the preference in the States of Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia. In Connecticut and Georgia, a mixed system prevails. Where appointments are made by the Gov- ernor, they are in some States subject to con- firmation by the Senate, and in others not. In New Hampshire they must receive the unani- mous approval of the Governor's Council, who also sign the judges' commissions. TENURE OF OFFICE. — In Massachusetts, all judges above the grade of trial justices, includ- ing even the judges of police courts, are ap- pointed for life. The only other life tenures are those of the judges of the Superior Court in Delaware, and of the Supreme judges in Florida, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island. The tenure of office of other judges, above the grade of justice of the peace, varies from two to twenty-one years, the longest term be- ing that of the judges of the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania. In the majority of cases it is four or six years. Justices of the peace are usually elected or appointed for from two to four years; but longer terms are provided in New Hampshire, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania (five years each), in Tennessee (six years), in Delaware, Maine, and Massachusetts (seven years each), and in Florida (eight years). REMOVAL FROM OFFICE.— A judge may be re- moved from office either by impeachment, by the act of the Governor (whether at his discre- tion or on address of both Houses of the Legis- lature), by joint resolution of the legislative body, by the action of a court, or on convic- tion of crime or of misfeasance or malfeasance in office. Instances of all these modes of re- moval occur. In some cases no mode of re- moval is prescribed in the statutes, but it is probable that indictment and conviction would, 182 DANA, RICHARD H. in the absence of statutory provision, vacate the seat of any judge upon the bench. INITIAL" PROCEEDINGS IN CRIMINAL CASES. — Criminal proceedings may be initiated either by presentment, indictment, information, or sworn complaint. Prosecutions in inferior courts are usually commenced by complaint ; but in some States they may also be begun by information. In- dictments may be brought in the police courts of Kentucky, the recorder's courts in New York, the " inferior " courts of North Caro- lina, and the county courts of Oregon and West Virginia. Indictments may sometimes be brought in a superior court and certified to an inferior, as in Georgia, Illinois, and Texas. In Texas the district court may certify an in- dictment for trial to a justice of the peace. In the higher courts the common mode of commencing prosecutions is by indictment ; but the State of Wisconsin has abolished the grand-jury system, and substituted proceedings by information or complaint instead of it. In fourteen States proceedings may be commenced either by indictment or information ; in several of these the statutes require an indictment in case of a felony or other crime of high grade. In North Carolina, proceedings may be begun by sworn complaint. The initiation of proceedings by presentment is peculiar to Nevada, Pennsylvania, and Vir- ginia. The statutes of Pennsylvania provide that this mode shall not be adopted in the case of offenses of low grade where the remedy by indictment is adequate and no urgent ne- cessity exists. In Virginia, presentments may be made even in the county and corporation courts. MODE OF TRIAL. — The mode of trial in all higher courts is by jury. In certain States no provision appears to have been made by statute for the impaneling of a jury in inferior courts. In others, a jury is summoned only on demand of the accused. Some States have a system by which, in cer- tain courts of minor jurisdiction, trial must be by jury; in others it may be, and in others it can not be, but must be by the court. SPECIAL PROVISIONS TO INSURE SPEEDY TRIAL. — In several States provision has been made for granting to offenders who are willing to plead guilty, or to waive indictment and jury trial, a speedy hearing of the charges against them, In Colorado, any misdemeanant may appear before a justice and plead guilty. The same is true in New Hampshire, except that the justice can not receive a plea of guilty in cases where the maximum penalty exceeds a fine of one hundred dollars. In New Jersey, the court of Special Quarter Sessions (which is in effect a special term of the Court of General Quarter Sessions) may be con- vened for the trial of alleged offenders who de- mand a speedy trial and waive indictment and trial by jury. In Wisconsin, the county judge of each coun- ty, in his capacity as an individual magistrate, may receive a plea of guilty, at the request of an offender actually in custody, in any case where the maximum penalty for the offense charged does not exceed five years in the peni- tentiary. DANA, RICHARD HENRY, LL. D., an Amer- ican jurist and author, born in Cambridge, Mass., August 1, 1815; died in Rome, Italy, January 7, 1882. He was son of Richard Henry Dana, the poet and essayist (who died in his ninety-second year), and grandson of Chief-Justice Francis Dana. His early educa- tion was received in his native town, and he entered Harvard College in 1832; but, owing to over-devotion to work, and some trouble with his eyes, he was compelled to suspend his studies for a time. His physician having prescribed entire respite from intellectual la- bor, young Dana resolved to try the benefit of a sea-voyage. He accordingly shipped at Boston as a common sailor, on board a vessel which was bound to California by way of Cape Horn. The remedy proved to be admi- rably adapted to his case : he fully performed all the duties of the station he had assumed ; he recovered his health entirely ; and, on his return, wrote a narrative of his experiences and adventures, under the title of " Two Years before the Mast " (1840). This work has been pronounced by universal consent to be the best and truest picture of sea-life ever written. Resuming his college work, Dana graduated at Harvard in 1837, studied law under Judge Story, and was admitted to the bar in 1840. His career as a jurist and public man was dis- tinguished by qualities of high excellence. He was an eloquent speaker and clear and cogent reasoner, and he was frequently engaged in cases of great importance; such as the legal right to read the Bible in the public schools in Maine ; the defense of the slave Shadrach, and subsequently (1854) the more exciting de- fense of Anthony Burns, another slave; the prize cases for the Government before the Supreme Court, arguing (successfully) the right of the President of the United States to use war powers for the national defense, etc. In 1853 he was a member of the Massachusetts Constitutional Convention, and in politics was one of the founders of the " Free-Soil " party, and an ardent supporter of Lincoln and Grant as Presidents of the United States. In 1859- '60 he made a tour of the world, revisiting California, and visiting China, Japan, Egypt, and returning by way of Europe. In 1861 he DARWIN, CHARLES R. 183 was appointed United States District Attorney for Massachusetts, but resigned in 1865, in consequence of not being in accord with An- drew Johnson and his course in the presi- dential office. Harvard College conferred upon him, in 1866, the degree of LL. D. He was a member of the Massachusetts Legisla- ture in 1867-'68, but failed of election to Con- gress, against Ben Butler, in 1868. President Grant nominated him Minister to England, in place of Mr. Schenck, in 1876, but the Senate refused confirmation. The latter years of his life were spent in Europe, in investigating the subject of international law, with the intention of preparing and publishing a treatise oil that important branch of legal knowledge. Mr. Dana was an able writer as well as learned jurist and statesman. Besides his first work (noted above), his chief publications were as follows : " The Seaman's Friend, con- taining a Treatise on Practical Seamanship (with Plates), a Dictionary of Sea-Terms, Cus- toms, and Usages of the Merchant Service" (1841) ; a new and revised edition of Washing- ton Allston's " Lectures on Art, and Poems " (1850); "To Cuba and Back," a volume of travels (1859) ; a new edition, with continua- tion, of Wheaton's "Elements of International Law" (1866), which excited some unpleasant controversy ; " Oration on the Life and Char- acter of Ed ward Everett" (1865); and "Oration on Lexington Common, at the Centennial An- niversary of the Battle of Lexington " (1875). In addition, Mr. Dana was a contributor to the " North American Review," and wrote fre- quently for the pages of the " Law Reporter " and the " American Law Review." He de- livered a course of Lowell Lectures, was au- thor of numerous speeches, addresses on polit- ical and other topics, etc. He was an earnest and active member of the Protestant Episcopal Church, and served faithfully for many years as one of its most efficient laymen. DARWIN, CHARLES ROBERT. This English naturalist, distinguished as the expounder of the development theory of the organic world, died at the home where he had resided for forty years, Down House, in the village ot Down, near Orpington, England, on the 19th of April. He had suffered for some time from weakness of the heart, but was able to do a little experimental work until he was finally pros- trated, the day before his death. Charles Dar- win, as he usually wrote his name, was born Feb- ruary 12, 1809, at Shrewsbury, where his father was a practicing physician. Robert Waring Dar- win, his father, was the third son by his first marriage of Erasmus Darwin, the author of "The Botanic Garden," and was celebrated for the boldness of his speculative views, some ot which foreshadowed the famous doctrine of which his grandson became the teacher. Charles Darwin's father was also a thinker in science, and was chosen a Fellow of the Royal Society, but he gave his main attention to his profession. On his mother's side, also, the author of the theory of descent was descended from a man of original genius, his other grandfather being Josiah Wedgwood, the famous amateur artist in pottery. Charles Darwin went at the age of sixteen from the grammar-school at Shrewsbury — pre- sided over by Dr. Samuel Butler, author of a text-book of geography, and afterward Bishop of Lichfield — to Edinburgh University. He left there after two years for Christ College, Cambridge, where he took his bachelor's de- gree in 1831. At Edinburgh he gave some attention to marine zoology, and before he left he read two short papers before the Plinian Society, the subject of the first being the move- ment of the ova of Flustra. He is known to have been fond of the sport of fox-hunting in his youth. At Cambridge he was greatly in- terested in the study of botany. In 1831 Captain Fitzroy, of the ship Beagle, who had just returned from South America, and was commissioned to continue his explora- tions in a surveying voyage round the world, offered to take with him a naturalist. Darwin volunteered to serve without pay, on the con- dition that he should have the disposal of the collections, and was accepted. The voyage lasted from December, 1831, to October, 1836. They circumnavigated the globe, visiting Brazil, Patagonia, Chili, Peru, the Galapagos and So- ciety Isles, New Zealand, Australia, Mauritius, St. Helena, and the Cape Verd Islands. No scientist had received more favorable opportu- nities for original work than fell to the lot of the unknown young naturalist of the Beagle ; but no corps of scientists on subsequent ex- ploring expeditions have amassed a more co- Eious store of observations than he did single- anded, or have by their combined thought derived from them so many profound and original conclusions. To the reports of the expedition published by Captains Fitzroy and King, Darwin contributed a volume entitled " A Journal of Researches into the Geology and Natural History of the Various Countries visited by H. M. Ship Beagle," which was re- published separately in 1845. The zoological results of the cruise were worked up by him, with Professor Owen and Messrs. Waterhouse, Jenyns, Gould, and Bell as contributing spe- cialists, and published before the narrative in 1840, as was the treatise on the " Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs" (1842). Two other original treatises, embodying further fruits of his geological observations, were sub- sequently published, and took rank among the classics of that science— a volume on the " Vol- canic Islands visited during the Voyage of the Beagle" (1844), and "Geological Observations in South America " (1846). Other memoirs, based upon the opulent store of observations gathered by Darwin, are incorporated in the " Transactions " of the Geological Society, the first in the volume for 1838, and further re- sults are recorded in various papers on botany and entomology. He read a paper before the 184 DARWIN, CHAKLES R. Geological Society in 1837, just a year after Ms return, on the subject of the "Formation of Vegetable Mold," in which he broached a theory that illustrates his singular genius for understanding the processes of nature. The observations ou which the theory was founded were begun some time before. He arranged then for experiments which took forty years to mature. The results of these experiments, and the final elaboration of his theory of vegetable mold, were given in the latest work of his life, the volume on "Earthworms," the im- port of which was given in the " Annual Cy- clopaedia " for 1881. The discovery of the im- portant relation of the habits of the earth- worm to the sustenance of all terrestrial life, like that of the geological significance of the coral zoophyte, exemplifies the originality of Darwin's mind. He was a solitary worker, with his mind bent singly upon the book of nature. No scientific discoverer has owed less to his book-learning, to the premonitions and suggestions of other workers in the same field. His character, too, was elevated above the am- bitions, jealousies, and controversial propensi- ties of the ordinary man of science. He struck out new paths of investigation, and the truths which he came upon made less stir than if he had discovered the key to problems for which many were searching. He had so little of the hackneyed ways of the professional scientist that the mass of good work which he had ac- complished before his doctrine of evolution di- vided the scientific world into opposite parties procured him very inadequate recognition. In 1870, when his name was presented for election to the French Academy of Sciences, Emile Blanchard spoke of him as an "intelligent amateur," and Elie de Beaumont of his work as the " froth of science." The younger scien- tific thinkers of England and Germany had at that time accepted his doctrine of the origin of species, but in France he had few adherents. In 1872 he was defeated a second time, but in 1878 he was triumphantly elected a correspond- ing member of the French Academy. Darwin's work oh board the Beagle won him nothing but credit. The scientists of England recognized him as an accurate, watchful, and sagacious observer. Some, particularly Sir Charles Lyell, in the fertile suggestions strewn through his journal, adumbrations of the great doctrines which he set forth in his riper years, saw the reflections of thoughts which were forming in their own minds, and perceived the marks of an original mind of the highest order. The ingenious and highly important inductions presented in the work on the coral reefs found general acceptance, and have remained the cur- rent doctrine until the present day, although essential modifications, suggested by Murray, seem likely now to supplant the original theory. The simple, yet intensely interesting, " Natu- ralist's Voyage round the World," the first edition of which was published in 1845, made him known to the reading public. Charles Darwin never recovered from the physiological disturbances produced by sea- sickness, from which he was almost a constant sufferer during the five years' cruise. It was only by the quietest mode of living, and the carefullest regimen, that he was able to keep himself in moderate health and working order. The periods of reconvalescence from the trou- blesome fits of indisposition with which he was afflicted he turned to account in pursuing his patient observations and ingenious experiments with nature. In the beginning of 1839, three years after his return, he married his cousin, Emma Wedgwood. In 1842 they took up their residence at Down, Beckanham, in the county of Kent, where he was a magistrate. His pecuniary circumstances were such as to place him above the material cares of life, and to re- lieve him of the necessity of devoting his ener- gies to supplying the daily wants of his family. About a year before he died he fell heir to the fortune of his elder brother, the faithful friend of Mrs. Carlyle. His tastes were almost purely scientific. In art, music, amusements, litera- ture, politics, or society, he took but slight in- terest. Charles Darwin's manners and feelings were simple and child-like. In his bearing he was altogether amiable and kind. His modesty and unconsciousness of his own greatness were remarkable. In sending a communication to a journal, he would ask for its insertion with doubting hesitancy. The influence of his kindly attention and sympathy upon young scientific men was incalculable. He was ever ready to listen, suggest, and assist. The influence of his writings, also, was powerful in promoting the modest, conscientious, and generous tone which distinguishes modern scientific discus- sion in England. His sons, George and Francis Darwin, aided him in the multitudinous re- searches which he continued without remis- sion to the close of his life. From the time when he went to reside at Down, Darwin devoted himself to elaborating and testing the theories of the evolution of species, of which hints had been thrown out in his journal of the voyage and other earlier writings. In 1851 and 1853 the Ray Society published a valuable and thoroughly systematic monograph on the family Cirripedia, the group of singular crustaceans known as barnacles and sea-acorns. In another monograph, published by the Philosophical Society, he described the fossil species of the same family. In the year 1859 was given to the world the memorable work in which the Darwinian theory was pro- pounded and elucidated, with its full title, " The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selec- tion ; or, the Preservation of Favored Races in the Struggle for Life." The doctrine of Darwin is, in general terms, that of the evolution of organic types through the operation of the law of natural selection, or the adaptation of the type to its environ- ment through the survival of the fittest indi- viduals. The elements of this evolution are de- DARWIN, CHARLES R. 185 fined to be the perpetuation through the prin- ciple of heredity and the accumulation through the principle of variation of the traits which are best suited to survive the destructive strug- gle for existence, in which the weaker individ- uals perish and the old traits brought down from former conditions of life disappear. Ideas of evolution were already penetrating the thought of the time, and were the outcome of the materialistic and utilitarian philosophy which dominated the younger minds of Eng- land, where it had its birth. Darwin was nat- urally not the first, nor the only one, to con- ceive this great theory, which harmonized with the reigning system of philosophy. Without seeking for the original enunciation of the de- velopment hypothesis in the writings of Aris- totle or Lucretius, in the philosophical theories of Kant or Laplace, in Goethe's scientific spec- ulations or Buffon's bold guesses, without iden- tifying it with the fantastic theories of Eras- mus, or assailing its originality on the strength of the similar views which had been put forth a generation before by the German scientist Lamarck, there were scientific thinkers of Dar- win's own time who were ruminating over the same conception. The idea was in the air; and one thinker, Alfred Russel Wallace, had independently arrived at conclusions almost identical. He generously waived the question of precedence when Darwin stepped forth as the teacher of the new. doctrine. To collect, systematize, and interpret the mass of evidence which Darwin brought to bear upon the theory, and to deduce those secondary laws which ex- plain the manner of the development of species, were feats which Darwin's genius for investi- gation and theoretical deduction alone could have accomplished. The theory was at once accepted by many of the leading minds in science. Others contributed additional proofs, particularly Haeckel, whose strong scientific imagination led him further than Darwin's cau- tious^ and conscientious spirit would allow his own vigorous theoretical powers to carry him. Haeckel brought valuable corroborative evi- dence from the science of embryology. New discoveries in paleontology added strength to the hypothesis year by year. But Darwin's own original observations on the production of variations in fowls, pigeons, and rabbits, on sports and hybrids in plants, on the relation of the habits of insects to the fertilization of plants, on the sexual attractions of animals, his work in co-ordinating a host of facts and phenomena, many of them before unnoted, with the terms of his theory, made up a body of proof which left little to be done in the elaboration or the demonstration of the doc- trine of natural selection. The discrepancies and inconsistencies in his theories were as clearly perceived by him as by his opponents. His mind was always open to doubts, and more ready to admit objections and accept modifi- cations and qualifications than his more ardent disciples thought right. The new doctrine was assailed in theological circles with a vehe- ment hostility which is known to all the world. His book on " The Descent of Man, and Selec- tion in Relation to Sex," in which the doctrine was applied to the development of the human species, published in 1871, raised this hostility to a higher pitch, and brought upon the pacific and gentle-souled author a storm of denunci- ation and angry objurgation. Many eminent men of science withheld their acquiescence in the theory, and were disposed, from religious and philosophical grounds, to give greater weight to the scientific objections. When the bulk of scientific authority ranged itself on the side of Darwin, the theologians admitted the compatibility of the theory of descent with the doctrines of revealed religion more readily than they have some of the fundamental laws of sci- ence upon their discovery in less scientific ages. Darwin published, at short intervals, a se- ries of works embodying his amazingly ex- tensive observations with reference to the de- velopment theories, and then, before his death, gave to the world, enforced by a wealth of ob- servations and illustrations, collected through long years, one or two other important scien- tific discoveries. The law of circumnutation in plants (see "Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1880) was elucidated in " The Power of Movement in Plants " (1881), and his theory of the influence of earthworms in fertilizing the soil (see " An- nual Cyclopedia " for 1881), in " The Forma- tion of Vegetable Mold through the Action of Worms, with Observations on their Habits" (1882). His most important work bearing on the theory of descent, besides those mentioned above, is " The Variations of Plants and Ani- mals under Domestication " (1867). The other works of this category are "The Various Con- trivances by which Orchids are fertilized by Insects" (1862); "The Movements and Habits of Climbing Plants" (1865) ; " The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals " (1872) ; "Insectivorous Plants" (1875); "The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilization in the Vegetable Kingdom" (1876); "The Different Forms of Flowers and Plants of the Same Species" (1877). Darwin's books were filled with an immense assemblage of facts. His method was to pile instance upon instance until the reader forms the conclusion in his own mind. It seems as though his mind had gone through the same process, and only reached the theo- retical conclusion after the accumulation of the host of facts. Really, his theories were thoughts of his youth, which he spent his whole life in testing and proving. The com- bination of such a genius for theoretical specu- lation, with the spirit of the most patient and exact scientific observer, is an example which has done as much to improve scientific method as his ideas have to stimulate scientific thought. A majority of the scientific world have adopted Darwin's views of the evolution of organic nature. A German bibliographer has enumer- ated, in a catalogue of 36 pages, embracing 312 186 DELAWARE. authors, the books which have been written about the Darwinian hypothesis. DELAWARE. STATE GOVERNMENT.— The State officers during the year were as follows : Governor, John W. Hall, Democrat ; Secretary of State, James L. Wolcott; Treasurer, Rob- ert J. Reynolds ; Auditor, John F. Staats ; Ad- jutant-General, J. Park Postles ; Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, James H. Graves ; Attorney-General, George Gray; Secretary of Board of Agriculture, Richard Harrington ; State Librarian, R. R. Kenney. Judiciary : Chief-Justice, Joseph P. Comegys ; Associate Justices, L. G. Wales, John W. Houston, and Edward Wootton ; Chancellor, Willard Sauls- bury. STATISTICS.— The State debt may be stated as follows : The bonds designated as " Series A," payable on the first day of July, 1886, but redeemable at the option of the State at any time after the first day of July, A. D. 18S2 $250,000 00 From which deduct amount redeemed January 1, 18S3 90,000 00 Balance due "Series A " $160,000 00 The bonds designated as " Series B," payable on the first day of July, 1891, but redeemable at the option of the State at any time after the first day of July, 1836 $300,000 00 The bonds designated as u Series C," payable on the first day of July, 1901, but redeemable at the option of the State at any time after the first day of July, 1891 165,000 00 Total amount of bonded debt of the State on the first day of January, 1883, exclusive of the school-fund bond 625,00000 Bond of the State to the school fund, bearing interest at the rate of six per cent per annum, payable on the first day of July, 1906 156,750 00 Certificate of indebtedness held by Delaware College 83,000 00 Total amount of State debt, January 1, 1883. . . . $864,750 00 ASSETS. The semi-annual interest-bearing investment is as follows, viz. : Mortgage on Junction and Breakwater Kailroad. $400,000 00 Mortgage on Breakwater and Frankford Kail- road 200,000 00 1,275 shares of Farmers1 Bank stock, at $50 63,750 00 20 shares of National Bank of Delaware stock, at $465 9,800 00 Total $673,050 00 The aggregate investments for the benefit of the school fund amount to $495,749. Total investments belonging to general fund .... $573,050 00 Aggregate investments for the benefit of school 495,749 00 76,884 88 Amount due the State from all sources January 1 , 1 883 Cash in the Treasury belonging to the general fund, exclusive of the amount required to pay interest and redeem bonds called for January M888 19,501 60 Total amount of assets ... $1,264 684~98 Total debt after January 1, 1883 864J50 00 Excess of assets over liabilities ..... $399,934~98 According to the report of the State Treas- urer, the receipts and expenditures, present and anticipated, for the year 1882, were as follow : RECEIPTS. Total amount of actual receipts $141,238 19 Total amount due the State from various sources, not payable until January 1, 1883. . . . 87,497 72 Amount due the State from the Breakwater and Frankford Railroad Company, January 1, 1882, arrears of interest on mortgage 38,886 66 Total $217,622 57 DISBURSEMENTS. Total amount actually disbursed $94,259 24 Amount set apart for the redemption of bonds called for January 1, 1883. 90,000 00 Amount set apart to pay interest on four per cent bonds, due January 1,1883 14,300 00 Amount applicable to school fund derived from investments for the benefit of said fund 14,991 50 Amount set apart to pay interest on certificate of indebtedness to Dela- ware College 2,490 00 Total $216,040 74 Balance of receipts, present and anticipated.. $1,581 83 The general balance in the Treasury, belong- ing to the general fund, including all moneys due the State, was $95,885.98. Of this amount, $56,999.32 was presently available. The school fund was augmented by the con- version of the certificates of loan to the Phila- delphia, Wilmington, and Baltimore Railroad Company into cash, $46,750. " Without increasing the present rate of tax- ation," says Governor Hall, in his message to the Legislature, "the school fund may be still further augmented by transferring to the same a certain portion of the revenues of the State belonging to the general fund. The rate at which the bonds of the State are being extin- guished warrants the conclusion that, on the first day of January, 1885, after defraying the ordinary expenses of the State government, and redeeming all the bonds embraced in ' Se- ries A,' there will be a surplus in the Treasury belonging to the general fund. The bonds em- braced in ' Series B ' will not be redeemable until July 1st, A. D. 1886, during which time the surplus will steadily increase by the semi- annual receipts. N"ow, in order to avoid the existence of an idle and inactive fund in the Treasury, and to utilize the moneys as they are received, I recommend that a portion of the revenues now belonging to the general fund be appropriated toward the support of the free schools of the State. This can be done with- out postponing the payment of the four per cent bonds beyond the period of their maturity or redeemability." The Legislature of 1880-'81 made an in- creased appropriation for colored schools, and during the year ending June 30, 1882, there was an increase of 33 per cent in the number of schools and of 1,124 in the number of pupils. There is a school for colored pupils in every hundred except one in the State. Excluding the city of Wilmington, the receipts for col- ored schools amounted to $5,329.02 ; number of schools, 65 ; of pupils~enrolled, 3,067. These schools are under the charge of the Delaware DELAWARE. 187 Association for the Education of Colored Peo- ple. The number of indigent deaf and dumb, in- digent blind and insane, and also the number of indigent feeble-minded children now main- tained in the various institutions outside of the State, the expense of which is apportioned to the different counties, are as follow : In the Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Dumb.. 1 In the Columbia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb 10 In the Pennsylvania Institution for the Instruction of the Blind 2 In the Pennsylvania Training-School for Feeble-minded Children 2 In the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane 2 Total IT The population of the State as finally returned in 1880, and as compared with the returns for 1870, is as follows : COUNTIES. 1880. 18?0. Kent 82874 29 804 New Castle 77716 63 515 Sussex 86018 8l'696 The State 146 608 125 015 Of the population in 1880, 74,108 were males and 72,500 females; 137,140 native and 9,468 foreign born; 120,160 white and 26,448 col- ored. Of the population, but 35,965 were not na- tives of the State. Of the foreign population, 5,791 are of Irish, 1,433 of English, 1,179 of German, 285 of Scotch, and 208 of Canadian birth. Of the native population born else- where than in Delaware, 11,059 were from Pennsylvania, 9,562 from Maryland, 2,238 from New Jersey, 1,321 from New York, 642 from Virginia, 264 from Massachusetts, 217 from Connecticut, and 1,194 from various other States of the Union. There were in the State 38,298 males twenty- one years of age and over, of whom 27,447 were native whites, 4,455 foreign whites, and 6,396 colored. Of persons ten years old and upward, 16,912 were unable to read, and 19,- 414 were unable to write, of whom 6,630 were native whites, 1,716 foreign whites, and 11,- 068 colored. There were living in the United States 155,517 natives of Delaware. According to the census, the State produced 3,894,264 bushels of corn, 378,508 of oats, and 1,175,272 of wheat. Accurate statistics of the yield of peaches and berries are not at hand. There were on farms 21,933 horses, 3,931 mules and asses, 5,818 working-oxen, 27,284 milch- cows, 20,450 other cattle, 21,967 sheep, and 48,186 swine. The following are statistics of Delaware's manufactures : Number of establishments, 746 ; capital, $15,655,822 ; males above sixteen years of age employed, 10,250 ; females above fifteen years of age employed, 1,426 ; children and youths employed, 962; yearly wages, $4,267,- 349; value of materials, $12,828,461 ; value of products, $20,514,438. Nine States are infe- rior to Delaware in manufacturing interests. The statistics of Delaware's cotton manu- factures are: Establishments, 8 ; capital, $874,- 570; spindles, 46,188; looms, 822; officers and operators, 797 ; bales of cotton consumed, 7,512; pounds, 3,236,184; cost of cotton, $427,855; pounds of product, 2,867,969; yards, 8,644,028; wages of operatives, $192,- 727 ; value of products, $871,007. POLITICAL CONVENTIONS. — Under the present Constitution each county has three Senators and seven Representatives in the Legislature, while the population of New Castle County is greater than that of Kent and Sussex together. This inequality furnished the chief local issue in the politics of the year. Both political par- ties pronounced in favor of a remedy, and Governor Hall, in his message, uses the fol- lowing language on this point : " The large growth of population and wealth in New Castle County since the adoption of the pres- ent Constitution has rendered an increase of representation from that county in the Legis- lature a necessity. It is your duty, therefore, to adopt such legislation as will result in the accomplishment of this needed change or re- adjustment of the basis of representation in, the General Assembly." The Republican State Convention met in Dover, on the 27th of July, and adopted the following platform : The Republicans of Delaware, in convention as- sembled, reaffirm their adherence to the cardinal doc- trines of Republicanism as enunciated by our National Conventions. We pledge ourselves anew to those great constitutional doctrines, the enforcement of which has made and continued a government " of the people, for the people, by the people." We demand a fair and full protection of all Ameri- can industries, believing that the working-men of America ought not to oe compelled, upon unfair termsj to compete with the pauper labor of Europe ; a fostering care of our shipping interests, that American commerce may have a living chance on the seas ; a just and wholesome reform of the civil service as against the Democratic " spoils " system ; a free bal- lot, fair count, and honest return, as against the shot- gun and tissue-paper ballot. We affirm our adher- ence to the doctnne of equal rights for all men, and local self-government, but declare that we are a na- tion and not a league ; and we believe that free schools and a common- school education are the only sure foundations of a free government. Deploring the untimely death of our chosen leader, the late President, James A. Garfield, regretting " the deep damnation of his taking off," and embalming him in tearful memory, we tender to President Ar- thur and his Administration our fullest confidence. Taking office under exceptionally adverse circum- stances, at a critical period, his coolness, courage, ex- ecutive ability, and devotion to the true principles of Republicanism, not only excite our warmest admira- tion, but demand our unqualified and continued sup - port. We declare the Democratic party of this State to be unworthy of the continued confluence of its people, because having been so long in power they have be- come utterly regardless of the wishes of the people, as expressed from time to time in their petitions to the Legislature ; they have been extravagant of the peo- ple's money, and by a system of accounts, both in State and county finances, have concealed from the people full and accurate knowledge of the public funds ; they have been profligate beyond parallel in 188 DELAWARE. their allowances to legislative attache's, attorneys, printers, etc., by which they have created and main- tained a Ring at the public expense ; they are opposed to the education of the poor man's children, believing that the ignorance of the many is necessary to the maintenance of a few ; throwing every obstacle in the way of immigration into this State, they have steadily opposed public improvements ; they have neglected to take advantage of the low rates of interest upon which money can be borrowed, and by a system of unwise and injurious taxation have crippled the ener- gies of our people and failed to protect the abundant supplies and advantages with which nature has blessed us ; in short, they have illustrated the Bourbon who, learning nothing new, ties us to the dead past, regard- less of the magnificent energies and improvements which everywhere surround us ; that while nature, climate, situation, proximity to markets, are all favor- in Itiued at. Interest. Sinking fund. Sterling. Sterling. Per cent. Per cent. Per ct. 1862. 1864. . £3,300,000 5,704,000 £2,640,000 4,864,000 83| 93 7 7 1 4 1865. . 8,387,000 2,750,000 90 9 8 1866. . 8,000,000 2,640,000 92 7 17 1867. . 2,080,000 1,700,000 90 9 3 1868. . 11,890,000 7,198,000 75 7 1 1870. . 7,143,000 5,000,000 75 7 2* 1873. . 82,000,000 17.810,000 70 7 1 1879. . 8,500,000 5,992.000 78 7 1 £77,004,000 £50,589,000 •• •• The loans were negotiated with English and French banking-houses at the exorbitant inter- est shown in the above table. It is calculated that £90,000,000 has been already drained from the country in interest, that the actual debt of Egypt has been entirely repaid in the interest received by the bondholders, together with interest computed at 6 per cent. The loans of 1862, 1864, and 1866, negotiated with Goschen, were secured by the railroads, telegraphs, etc., and drew only 8J per cent interest on the net amount ; but the bondholders, in their haste to be repaid, attached embarrassing sinking-fund conditions, as did the takers of the loans of 1865 and 1867, negotiated through the Anglo- Egyptian and Imperial Ottoman Banks respec- tively, for which also 11 per cent annual inter- est was charged. The annual interest and sink- ing-fund charges on the £32,923,000 owing in 1870 were about 12 per cent. To meet them Ismail was already reduced to ruinous shifts, and his credit rapidly sank, until he was hope- lessly enmeshed in the toils of usurers and spec- ulators. The wheat and sugar crops were pledged in advance, interest and compound in- terest were mounting up, and he was obliged to pay 18 and afterward 28 per cent per an- num for advances from the Anglo-Egyptian Bank. The contractors who were constructing the public works for which he had contracted the debts, took advantage of his difficulties to exact an extra margin of profit of 80 per cent. Concessions and contracts were obtained through the venality of officials by which small European capitalists rapidly became million- aires during the period of Ismail's reckless financiering.* In 1873 he might still have been rescued from bankruptcy, by suspending * An example of the exorbitant profits reaped by European contractors is seen in the Alexandria Harbor works, which Sir Kivers Wilson made out to be worth intrinsically £1,420,- 000, but for which Sir George Elliot was paid £2,542,000 in cash, besides the interest during construction. The railroads and all the other enterprises of Ismail afforded an equal margin to the contractors. EGYPT. 235 the sinking funds, but Sadyk Pasha found his own profit in his master's embarrassments, and plunged him in irretrievable ruin. In 1874 an attempt was made to raise £5,125,000 by a forced loan, the Kouznameh internal loan, but not one half of it could be obtained. In 1874 Sadyk proposed to convert the whole debt, and arranged to pay 15 per cent interest and 2 per cent commission to the Anglo-Egyptian Bank for funds for that purpose. In 1876, soon after Cave had given his encouraging report to Lord Derby of the finances of Egypt, Sadyk stirred up the British bondholders by proceed- ing to convert all the debts into one, called the Unified, and giving the bankers who had ad- vanced money an advantage over the old bond- holders. Goschen came as the agent of the bondholders and compelled the Khedive to re- verse this arrangement and give the holders of the earlier issues a bonus of 25 per cent of the capital and accrued interest, and a prior claim upon revenues of the railways and other public works. In 1877 the Viceroy handed over his Daira estates to meet the Daira coupons. The revenue from these, the Khedive's private estates, was $2,250,000 a year. Mr. Romaine, Baron Maloret, and Captain Baring had already taken in charge the state revenues. It was impossible to satisfy the Goschen arrangement, although the fellaheen were bastinadoed as they never had been before, and the taxes were collected in advance. When Mr. Romaine pro- posed to reduce the land-tax so that the people might live, Major Baring, on behalf of the bondholders, refused to allow it. In 1878 the International Courts levied on the Khedive's furniture, and he turned their officers out of his palace, alleging that it belonged to his mother. Sir Rivers Wilson and M. de Bli- gni£res carne at this crisis, and the Khedive handed over the whole direction of affairs to them, the first taking the role of Minister of Finance, the second of Public Works. They took away the only source of revenue which had not been given over to the bondholders — the domains of the khedivial princes, with a rental of $2,150,000. They cut down the army budget and other items, and proceeded to ne- gotiate a new loan with Rothschild on the security of this property. Baron Rothschild withheld the money when he found that the domains were already affected by a lien. In February, 1879, occurred in consequence the entente of unpaid officers. The European minis- ters were dismissed by Ismail, as the only way to save his life and prevent a massacre of Europeans. Lord Salisbury and Minister Wad- dington resented this act, and compelled the Sultan to depose Ismail, and appoint his son Tevfik to reign in his place by a hatt which was issued in June, 1879. In July, 1880, the International Commission made a new settlement of the debt, converting the floating debt into bonds, and fixing the total obligations of Egypt as given in the fol- lowing table : Unified £57,776,340 Preferred 22,587,800 Daira 9,512,870 Domain 8,499.620 Moukabalah 7,500,000 Total £105,876,630 According to the terms of this final settle- ment the unified debt was to draw 4 per cent interest; the preference debt, 5 per cent. The holders of the Daira and domain mortgage bonds were to have the net revenues from the lands. The Moukabalah debt belonged to a different category. It was a forced loan raised from the peasantry, who paid in the whole of the capital. For the payment in advance of six years' taxes they were promised the remis- sion of half the land-tax after 1885. The debt was nominally £17,000,000, of which certainly £10,000,000 had been paid in by the peasants. The Moukabalah law was a ruinous device of the Khedive, while he was floundering in the nets of the foreign usurers and contractors, to raise money to meet his present obligations by sacrificing the source of supply. The Control- lers and Sir Rivers Wilson, acting solely in the interests of the foreign creditors, not only re- pudiated the solemn engagement of the Khe- dive, whereby the peasantry were redeeming one half the land-tax in perpetuity, but boldly confiscated the millions which had been wrung from the peasantry. Ismail had himself re- voked the Moukabalah law in 1876, and de- creed compensation in the shape of 7 per cent annuities running sixty -five years ; but at the demand of Goschen, who wanted the £1,500,- 000 paid in annually by the peasantry on this account, in order to redeem certain of the short loans, he almost immediately re-estab- lished it. If it had not been for Nubar Pasha and some Greek capitalists, who had purchased land at the reduced assessments, the holders of the Moukabalah obligations would have lost everything ; but through the prayers of these individuals they were accorded £150,000 a year for fifty years. The preferred bond- holders were guaranteed — the net receipts of the railways and of the port of Alexandria be- ing reserved to meet the interest. If these sources were insufficient, they were given a prior claim upon the general revenues. The interest on the unified debt was to be paid out of the general revenues after the interest on the preferred bonds was paid up and the cost of Government within the limits fixed by the commission was provided for. Ismail did not squander the capital borrowed in Europe, as has been often represented, since he actually paid out more than the entire pro- ceeds of the loans on useful and productive public works. The total sum expended on public works during his reign was $231,320,- 000, while the entire net product of the loans was $210,000,000. The expenditures were as follow: On the Suez Canal, over and above the value of shares sold, $33,850,000; 8,400 miles of Nile canals constructed at $4,500 a mile, $37,800,000; 430 bridges built, averag- 236 EGYPT. ing $25,000 each, $10,750,000 ; 64 sugar-mills, built aud equipped with machinery, $30,500,- 000; for Alexandria Harbor improvement, Greenfield and Elliot contract, $12,710,000; to Dussaud Brothers for Suez docks, $7,000,000 ; to the Paris syndicate for the Alexandria water-works, $1,500,000; for construction of 910 miles of new railroads, $66,805,000 ; for 5,200 miles of telegraph, $4,265,000; for erec- tion of 15 light-houses on the Mediterranean and Eed Seas, $940,000. The value of the. improvements wrought by Ismail has been variously estimated. The Suez Canal has been of slight economical value to Egypt. The irrigation canals were the great work of his reign. If they had been constructed by hired instead of forced labor, they would have cost £28,000,000 at the rates paid for excavating the Suez Canal. They have reclaimed no less than 1,373,000 acres from the desert, representing a gross annual product of £11,000,000, and a rental value of £1.400,000. Only half the sugar-factories es- tablished by Ismail have been kept at work, and more than two thirds of their cost was a sheer loss. The harbor-works at Alexandria, including a new harbor of 1,400 acres, return only 1^ per cent in harbor dues on the exces- sive price paid the contractors ; but they are of great economical value to the country. The railroads and telegraphs constructed by Ismail yield 5 per cent on the outlay ; £8,600,000 was expended during his reign on the 4,632 public schools established by him, and £900,- 000 was lost in the village banks which he started to save the fellaheen from the usurers. In the Nile Steamboat Company's shares he lost £155,000. In building palaces and opera- houses, and in entertaining European poten- tates, he expended over £1,000,000. The ex- travagances of Ismail were the wonder of the world, particularly his lavish hospitality to travelers of diplomatic, scientific, or artistic note, and his expenditures in introducing the French opera in Cairo. The sums which he spent in getting the Sultan to grant him the title of Khedive instead of that of Viceroy, and to decree the Salic law of primogeniture for the succession, have never been computed. The reason for his embarking so imprudently on a career of dazzling Oriental magnificence and display, and in gigantic schemes of public improvements, without counting the cost, was because he thought that the cotton famine, which yielded such enormous profits for the cotton product of Egypt during the blockade of the American ports, would be permanent, and that the freed negroes of the Southern States would never again work in the cotton- fields. During the seventeen years of Ismail's reign Egypt certainly made great progress. The population increased from 4,833,000 to 5,518,- 000; the acreage cultivated from 4,052,000 to 5,425,000 acres ; the revenue from £4,937,000 to £8,562,000 ; the imports from £1,991,000 to £5,410,000, and the exports from £4,454,- 000 to £13,810,000 ; the mileage of railroads from 275 to 1,185 miles; of telegraphs from 630 to 5,820 miles; of canals from 44,000 to 52,400 miles. Yet the intrinsic value of Is- mail's improvements, the price for which they could be replaced, is not much more than £25,- 000,000, or one quarter the sum for which he gave his obligations, which are treated as the national debt of Egypt, to exact the payment of which France and England interfered, al- though there was no precedent for interna- tional intervention to enforce the payment of just and regular public loans. The three privi- leged loans, the domain, Daira, and preferred, which are secured by the most valuable assets of the Egyptian Government, amount to more than this sum, being £30,598,000 in all. For the £42,000,000 which the ex-Khedive actually received from the bondholders, the Egyptians have paid back in fifteen years over £60,000,- 000 in interest! Besides the debt which Ismail saddled upon Egypt, he agreed to double the tribute to Tur- key for the privilege of changing the order of succession ; so that the Egyptians have to pay £5,500,000 a year for the blessing of being ruled by Tevfik Pasha, instead of Halim. The financial system in Egypt rests on an enormous land-tax which can be collected, ow- ing to the great productivity of the soil. The tax averages £1 per acre on the arable area. The tax yielded £4,793,000 in the beginning of Ismail's reign. The Ouchory, or tithe-lands belonging to the rich proprietors, were taxed at the average rate of 7s. per acre ; the _ffa- radji, or lands of the fellaheen, at the rate of 23s. per acre; and the Abadieh, or special grants, consisting mostly of new lands re- claimed from the desert, yielded an uncertain revenue, said to average 16*. per acre. The product of the land-tax, at the time of the de- position of Ismail, was as follows: LAND. Acres. Tax. 1,329,000 £470 000 Karadi 3,514,000 8,850,000 Abadieh 620,000 500,000 Total . .. 5,468,000 £4,828,000 The corvee, or compulsory labor on public works, from which the Abadieh lands are ex- empt, is a heavy burden upon the Karadji. Each village has to contribute one fourth of its adult male population for one month yearly to work upon the roads, canals, etc. The zawats, or wealthy payers of tithes in charity, who hold the Ouchory, get their laborers exempted by paying twelve shillings per head annually. The customs duties in Egypt are light, yield- ing only about a million sterling. The import duties are 8 per cent, the export 1 per cent, ad valorem. The estimate of revenue made by Major Baring has been made good. The Egyptians have paid the interest on the public debt since EGYPT. 237 it was reduced to four millions sterling a year. The use of the bastinado in collecting taxes has diminished, and the peasantry have come of their own accord to pay their taxes. The value of land has risen 50 per cent, sellers are few, and the usurers, who used to lend at 60 per cent, have no customers. In 1881 there was a surplus of £321,265, nearly the same in amount as in the estimate. The surplus was calculated for to supply the deficiency in years of a bad Nile, and, when not thus needed, to be ap- plied to the reduction of the debt. Nearly half a million of bonds were canceled with the sur- plus of 1881. The expenses of the Government were limited to a total of £3,450,000 a year, all revenue above that amount to go to the reduction of the debt. The funded debt, divided into unified and preference bonds, was fixed by the Council'of Liquidation at eighty and a half millions. The Egyptian bonds, as reported in April, 1878, were held as follow : In England . . . . £12,200,000 In France 30,100,000 In Egypt 6,900,000 Total £79,200,000 The budget of income and expenditure was based on an estimate of £8,400,000, as follows : REVENUE. Land-tax £5,250.000 Railways and telegraphs 1,150,000 Taxes and customs 2,010,000 Total £3,410,000 EXPENDITURE. Consolidated debt £3,520,000 Suez shares 199,000 Moukabalah 155,000 Tribute to the Sultan 700,000 Administration 8,450,000 Surplus 386,000 Total £8,410,000 THE CONTROL. — The intervention of England and France to procure the deposition of Ismail was based upon a sort of protectorate which they had exercised over the dynasty of Me- heniet Ali since its establishment by the con- vention of 1841. The Council of Liquidation, which was appointed by the decree of March 31, 1880, was composed of commissions repre- senting all the powers which had participated in the creation of the Mixed Tribunals — Eng- land, France, Germany, Austria, Italy, and Egypt. The chief motive for interference in Egypt was to prevent the speculations in Egyp- tian credit by the astute creditors from failure through the extravagance of Ismail. The law of liquidation, sequestrating the revenues of the Egyptian Government to satisfy the de- mands of the creditors, was thoroughly carried out under the supervision of the two Con- trollers who were appointed for that purpose. To meet the semi-annual coupons the fellaheen were robbed of their cattle and implements, and flogged and bastinadoed as before. The Controllers secured the bondholders' interests, as they were appointed to do.. But, through the initiative of the French Controller, De Blignieres, they did more than this. On the strength of a provision which gave them a seat in the Cabinet with consultory powers, they took into their own hands the whole gov- ernment of the country. Their administration was in many respects better than the Egyp- tians had been accustomed to. Certain im- portant reforms were inaugurated. The kour- bash became a less necessary concomitant in the collection of the taxes. They replaced the Turkish caste, which monopolized the appoint- ments of the civil service, with European offi- cials. This course only substituted one abuse for another. The old officials were inefficient and corrupt, but the Europeans were, many of them, as inefficient, and those who were ex- perienced and capable administrators at home were incapacitated here by their ignorance of Arabic ; while all of them drew salaries which were in proportion to those customarily paid in Egypt, and greatly in excess of what they could have earned in their own countries. There were at the beginning of the year 1,272 Europeans holding offices in Egypt, whose sal- aries aggregated £373,000 a year. The placing of these foreign officials over them was natu- rally felt to be one of the greatest grievances, and had much to do with the national revolt against the Control.* EVENTS PRIOR TO THE REBELLION. — The Con- trollers were at the same 'time the attorneys of the foreign bondholders, agents of the Eng- lish and French Governments, and paid officials of the Khedive. They dictated the entire policy of the Khedive. Their action in taking the ad- ministration into their own hands, arid putting foreigners in charge of all the principal branches of the administration at enormously increased salaries, aroused the enmity of the displaced official class, and jarred against the sentiments of patriotism and independence which exist in every country, although their existence among the Egyptians was contradicted, even after they contemplated war and devastation in conse- * The salaries paid to foreign officials in the different de- partments were reported by Sir Edward Malet, to his govern- ment, on May 18, 1882, to be as follows in the different de- partments, in Egyptian pounds : Cabinet of the Khedive, £3,000; Maieh Sanieh, £696; Presidency of the Council of Ministers, £452; Teft of Gizeh and Gizereh. £436; Ministry of Foreign Affairs, £2,088 ; Ministry of Finance, £17,200 ; General Control, £14,101; Direction of the Cadastral Survey, £26,787; General Inspection of the Octrois. £2,770; Light- house Service, £10,239 ; Mint, £144; Ministry of War, £8,851 ; Ministry of Marine, £2,691 : Ministry of Public Instruction, £7,905 ; Administration of the Wakfi, £2,034; Ministry of the Interior, £3,978 ; Government of Alexandria, £780 ; of Port Said, £370; of Suez. £163 ; of El Arish, £84; Municipality of Alexandria, £540; Cairo Police, £1,567; Alexandria Police, ippression of the Slave-Trade, £2,052 ; Marine San- itary Council and Quarantine, £5.290; Council of Public Health, £6,084; Ministry of Justice, £6,848 ; Ministry of Pub- lic Works, £26,216 ; Eailroad Administration, £29,761 ; Tele- graph Administration, £6,193 ; Port of Alexandria, £3,681 ; Administration of Customs, £16,647 ; Administration of the Post, £19,509 ; Postal Steamer, £16,941 ; Salines, £162 ; Ad- ministration of the Public Domain, £25.042 ; Dairah Sanieh, £19,672 ; Public Debt, £16,227 ; Parquet Administration, £3,088 ; Court of Appeals, £14,971 ; Alexandria Court of the First Instance, £22.344 ; Court of the First Instance at Cairo, £14,212 ; Court of the First Instance at Mansourah, £8,869. Total, £373,491. 238 EGYPT. quence of these feelings. But there were suffi- cient grounds for disaffection already in the sudden revolution of the financial policy which the bondholders put upon Egypt in order to rescue their profits. The army was the first and the most powerful class to feel the press- ure. The fact that the officers had not been paid for a long time, and the foreign creditors allowed no provision to be made for their pay, was the cause of the disturbances which fur- nished the occasion for the dethronement of Ismail Pasha. The disbandment of a large portion of the army, reducing a great majority of the officers to half-pay, caused a profound and perpetual dissatisfaction among the influ- ential military class. Ismail's army had num- bered 200,000 men, so that there were as many as 2,000 officers for the little army of 12,000 men. Then the ousting of the native officers by the Turkish element, while complicating the situa- tion, rendered the discontent more acute, gave it a more national and patriotic character, and brought it to an issue between the dissatisfied native officers and the Khedive. The affair of February 1, 1881, when the Khedive laid a treacherous plot to seize the persons of the protesting colonels, caused an open rupture. The colonels were in constant fear of secret as- sassination, and the Khedive of a military revo- lution. At length the timid Mohammed Tev- fik mustered up courage to attempt to remove the incubus, but his order to one of the three regiments to march to Alexandria was answered by the rebellious demonstration of September 9, 1881. The mutinous colonels at the head of the troops demanded : 1. The increase of the army from 12,000 to its normal and maximum legal strength of 18,000 men;* 2. The dis- missal of Riaz, who they thought was aiming at their lives, and the appointment as chief minister of Sherif, whose known integrity pre- cluded the suspicion of a design to destroy them after their safety had been promised; * One of the principal demands of the military party, which was repeated by the Chamber of Notables, was that the army should be recruited up to its full lawful strength of 18,000 men. The dissatisfaction of the officers and men at the re- duction of the army in 1879 was the first breath of the revo- lutionary storm. The army had counted 50,000 men under arms, with 200 guns, without the irregular troops. The fir- man of Tevfik's investiture fixed the maximum strength at 18,000 men, and the pruning operations of the Controllers left only 12.000 men under arms. The Khedive was given the appointment of officers of the rank of colonel and under, but the Sultan reserved the right of nominating the general offi- cers. The practice of impressing recruits arbitrarily was done away with, and the principle of universal military- service was introduced by a law which went into force November 1, 1880. This law fixes the length of service at twenty years, four years of active service, six as Eedifs, and ten as veteran re- serves. As the military budget was kept down to the figure fixed by the Control, 878,000 Egyptian pounds ($1,840,000), no attempt could be made to carry out the military law. The military age commences with the twenty-first birthday. The annual recruit has partly been chosen each January by lot, but evasions by bribery have been frequent: partly it was ob- tained by volunteer enlistment of fresh recruits, or soldiers who had served out their term of active duty. The uniforms, equipments, and arms of the Egyptian army were of Euro- pean pattern. The infantry were armed with Remington rifles, the artillery with Krupp breech-loaders, most of them of2J-inchbore. 3. The convocation of a Chamber of Notables or National Parliament. The Khedive agreed to the change of ministers, and Sherif Pasha was prevailed upon to accept, with much re- luctance, the duties of the trying position. After coming to an agreement with the military party, according to which he was to carry out the recommendations of their military commis- sion and they were to allow one regiment to be sent away from Cairo, Tevfik would make no promise to raise the strength of the troops, as it was subject to the international engagements by which the budget was limited. The matter of convening a Chamber of Notables he agreed to take into consideration ; and finally, on the advice of Sherif, he decided to humor the newly-awakened national and popular aspira- tions which had been propagated by Arabi Key and his adherents. The sudden enthusiasm of the intelligent and patriotic Egyptians for parliamentary institutions was due to the fact that their constitutional ruler had sunk into the position of a servile instrument of the foreign emissaries, and they thought that the Governments of England and France would not refuse to restore the usurped national liberties if a body of the most judicious and respectable men who could be selected, fulfilling the con- ditions of representative government, stood ready to resume them. Arabi, after hesitating for some time, obeyed the orders of the Khedive, and retired to Wargla, near the canal. DIPLOMATIC CORRESPONDENCE. — At the pros- pect that the Egyptians would take the man- agement of their internal affairs out of the hands of the Control, the two protecting and the suzerain powers began to stir themselves. It became evident that harmony of action was difficult. England was willing at this time to have Turkey send a military force to Egypt under proper guarantees. France set her face against any action of Turkey; and England, who had thus far followed the lead of France, acquiesced in this also. The Sultan, in spite of protests, sent two commissioners to Egypt with " compliments and advice." They arrived at Cairo October 6, 1881. As a counter-move, at Lord Granville's suggestion, an English and a French ironclad were stationed in Alexandria Harbor, ostensibly to diminish the danger of a panic among the foreign population. The Sul- tan remonstrated, October llth, on the ground that the menace of the ships would cause an agitation among the Arab population which would " not unlikely lead to a general revolu- tion," while at the time, according to the re- ports of the Turkish emissaries, perfect order existed. Lord Granville replied that if disorder was at an end the recall of the Turkish envoys " would imply the termination of the incident, and would naturally be followed by the with- drawal of the ships." Hence the sudden re- turn of the commissioners to Constantinople on October 18th. The ironclads sailed away two days later. In a dispatch of Lord Gran- ville, dated November 4, 1881, in which " the EGYPT. 239 tie which binds Egypt to the Porte" was spoken of as a valuable safeguard against " for- eign intervention" and "rival ambitions," the first sign was given of an intention to abandon the policy of constant co-operation with France on which the dual Control rested, and to act in conjunction with the Porte. Finally, an ac- commodation was reached between the English and French Cabinets, and a dual note, composed by Gambetta, was dispatched. THE NATIONAL PARTY. — The programme of the National party embraced the following six points : 1. The National party accepted the existing rela- tions of Egypt to the Porte, acknowledging Sultan Abdul-Hamia Khan as suzerain and rightful Caliph, but would resist to the uttermost any attempt to in- vade national rights or to degrade Egypt to the state of a Turkish pashalik, relying also upon the protec- tion of the powers and particularly on England's guar- antee of administrative independence. 2. They de- clared their loyalty to the Khedive and pledged them- selves to support Mphamed Tevtik as long as he ruled in accordance with the laws and the principles of justice and in fulfillment of the promises made to the Egyptian people in September, 1881. 3. They ac- knowledged the services of the Governments of Eng- land and France to Egypt in furthering liberty and justice, and considered the European Control a neces- sity entailed by the financial situation, deeming its continuance the best guarantee for the welfare and of the land, and accepting the Egyptian the national honor. 4. They debt as binding upon the renounced every connection with those who, in the in- terest of the Powers, are jealous of the independence of Egypt and seek to disturb the land ; aware, how- ever, that it is impossible by a merely passive attitude to preserve the liberties of a land which is governed in part by a caste to whom liberty is odious, the Na- tional party confided their interests for the present to the protection of the army, which for that purpose should be brought up to its full effective force of 18,000 men. 5. They declared the Egyptian National party to be a political, not a religious, association, which. would receive into its ranks men of all races and creeds without distinction, Christians and Jews as well as Mohammedans, assuring equal rights to all. 6. They announced as the general object of the Na- tional party the moral and intellectual regeneration of the people through the better observance of the laws, the spread of intelligence and improved education, as well as through political freedom, which they esteemed the life-spring of the nation ; and in pursuing this aim they relied not only on their own strength but upon the sympathies of the European nations which enjoy the blessings of self-government. The National party complained particularly of the employment of strangers in the adminis- tration when there were Egyptians who would discharge the duties better at one fifth the cost. The exemption of Europeans from taxation and from obedience to the general law of the land were injustices which they requested to have abolished. The immunity of the fine residences of European merchants from all taxation, while the huts of their humble Egyptian neighbors were taxed 12 per cent on their valuation, was one of the international engagements estab- lished by the capitulations of the Sultan. The consuls-general possessed the power of con- ferring foreign nationality on Egyptians, and procuring thus their exemption from the tax on real estate and the tax on professions. The effect of the conflicting attributes of the local police and the consular authorities was that, while the slightest injury practiced upon a European by an Arab was severely punished, Arabs could be defrauded, plundered, assaulted, and even murdered with impunity. The classes which rallied around the national cause were : 1. The army, with the exception of the Circassian officers. 2. The learned Mus- sulman class, consisting of the doctors and scholars of the Azhar University. 3. The Arab and Egyptian merchants of the towns. 4. The native artisans who read, or had read to them, the Arabic journals. 5. The village sheiks and their representatives, the members of the Egyptian Parliament. 6. The Coptic Christians, numbering about half a million. 7. The small section of the fellaheen who lived within the influence of the thought of the towns. 8. The semi-nomadic Bedouins of the Delta. 9. The native and Levantine Jewish communities. 10. Most of the Syrian Chris- tians, who are the most active, progressive, and intellectual section of the Egyptian popu- lation. Opposed to the National party were : 1. The adherents of the vice-regal family, officials and courtiers, mostly Turks and Circassians, in- cluding the majority of the persons who speak French and mingle with European society. 2. The Circassians. The class called "Circas- sians " in Egypt are the descendants of the Cir- cassian beys and Mamelukes who ruled Egypt in the last century. The Circassians and Turks form a wealthy aristocracy, but number to- gether scarcely 15,000. 3. The Greeks, who are the financiers and money-lenders, and num- ber some 34,000. 4. A portion of the Syrian Christian community ; also money-lenders and speculators. 5. The European community. THE CHAMBER OF NOTABLES. — The outcome of the military revolt of September 9, 1881, was the convocation of a Chamber of Nota- bles, upon the advice of the new Prime Minis- ter, Sherif Pasha, in compliance with tbe de- mands of the military party. The delegates to the Parliament were elected ostensibly by popu- lar suffrage, every Egyptian over twenty-five years of age being entitled to a vote ; but out- side the large towns the sheiks, or head men of the villages in each district, chose the rep- resentative at an electoral convention. Officials were directed not to interfere with the free choice of delegates. The objects of the con- vocation of the Notables, as laid down by Sberif Pasha in the project submitted to the Khedive, and announced in the speech from the throne at the opening of the Chamber, December 26, 1881, were to consider generally the requirements of the provinces, the needed reforms in the various administrations — and more particularly the question of forced labor on public works — the collection of taxes, and the establishment of provincial councils. The tribute, the public debt, and all charges on the country arising out of the law of liquidation or 240 EGYPT. any international contract, were excluded from parliamentary discussion. The Chamber of Notables was made up from among the Omdes, or district magistrates, of whom there are five or six hundred in Egypt. The Omdes are elected by the Sheiks-el-Beled, or village chiefs, of each district, from out of their number. The Sheiks-el-Beled are usually the wealthiest and most influential land-owners of their communes. They obey the Omdes as blindly as the fellaheen obey them. The entire administrative system is in the hands of these two grades of local magistrates, who owe their position to the choice of the people, among whom they must permanently reside. The national movement was not set on foot by the military party, but was already in prog- ress. The best men in Egypt of both religions were studying over some practical means of escape from the grasp of the united dominion. The grievances of the half -starved officers of the army and displaced officials were only in- cidents of a movement which proceeded from a sense of wrong pervading all classes. The native merchants and the city population had murmured for years at the privileges secured by firmans, which enabled their foreign com- petitors to leave them behind, and the hearts of the fellaheen were full of sullen rage against the invading horde who fattened on their labor. The public debt, which consumed two thirds of the taxes that ground them to the earth, was known to be a usurious imposition; but it was of Ismail's making, ard its payment was required with unbending rigor by the Western powers. It was, therefore, accepted as a Ms- met from which there was no escape. The in- justice of the repudiation of the Moukabalah, however, rankled in their souls. The shrewd and prudent leaders of the National party based their appeal for self-government on the full satisfaction of the claims of the bondhold- ers as a prime condition. Sherif Pasha, the new Prime Minister, was, as the most dis- tinguished and respected statesman in Egypt, a fit representative of the national aspirations before the outside world, while Sultan Pasha, the President of the Assembly of Notables, was more distinctly a guide and intellectual leader of the movement. The project of organization, submitted to the Chamber by Sherif Pasha, embodied the usual forms of representative government, but did not permit it to trench upon the ground occupied by the Control. The members were to be elected for four years, to draw pay, and enjoy immunity from arrest. The sessions were to be annual, and opened by a speech from the Khedive or a delegated minister. Ministers or deputed officials could take part in the dis- cussion. Ministers were to be responsible for acts infringing on the rights of the Parliament, and to be bound to furnish explanations of matters within the jurisdiction of the Cham- ber. The Khedive could dissolve the Chamber, but must order a new election, to take place within four months. The Chamber should dis- cuss and vote upon every law submitted by the ministry, and could express an opinion upon the budget. They could pass no laws except those laid before them by the ministers. No new tax could be imposed without being voted by the Chamber. The Khedive and ministers could act without the Chamber in urgent cases, but must communicate their proceedings. The old Chamber, established by Ismail Pasha in 1865, was a merely advisory body. Sherif Pasha wished to revive the Parliament in 1879, and introduce the principle of ministerial re- sponsibility. The Chamber of Notables, upon assembling, prepared another project, which would give them full constitutional powers. They de- clared, as had Arabi and the National party all along, that the Control and the liquidation set- tlement were inviolable; but they demanded that the budget should be submitted to them. As the estimates for 1882 had been prepared, they did not ask to vote the appropriations for the current year, but insisted on the right to discuss and vote supplies thereafter. They de- manded full ministerial responsibility, requiring that the Khedive should not retain his ministers after they had lost the confidence of the Cham- ber. Also the initiative in legislation, to the extent that the ministry should consider laws originating in the Chamber; and, if it would not ratify them, that it should state good rea- sons for its refusal. They claimed, further- more, the right to investigate the conduct of officials. Sherif Pasha possessed the confidence of the English, and hoped to solve the difficulties of the situation. But the Nationalists insisted on giving the Notables the control of the admin- istration and of public expenditures. On the 4th of January Arabi Bey was taken into the Cabinet as Assistant Minister of War. Weeks were spent in trying to negotiate a compromise between the ministers' project of organization and that of the Notables ; but, the Controllers- General, instructed by their governments, set their faces firmly against all the demands of the Chamber. The identical note of the Western powers, in which they declared that they would defend the Khedive from all inner and outer dangers, was based only on a vague and fugitive agree- ment. It was presented January 7th, and con- tained the following menacing language, which was understood to veto the demand for consti- tutional government in Egypt, and to warn the Porte against taking independent action : The two governments are closely associated in their determination to ward off by their united^ efforts all causes of internal and external complications which might menace the order of tilings established in Egypt. They have no doubt that the publicly expressed as- surance of their intention in this respect will contrib- ute to prevent dangers which the Khedive's govern- ment might have to dread, which dangers, moreover, would certainly find England and France united to face them. EGYPT. 241 Lord Granville qualified his signature with the verbal explanation that he did not commit his country to any definite line of action. The Porte began, January 13th, to protest and to appeal to the European powers. Other pow- ers insisted that Egyptian affairs were the con- cern of Europe, Italy taking the lead. On Feb- ruary 2d the Porte received an identical com- munication from the Russian, German, Aus- trian, and Italian embassies declaring that the status quo could not be modified without the consent of the great powers and the suzerain power. Gambetta, spurred on by the prospect of European interference and Turkish inter- vention, pressed the English Cabinet to act upon the note when the Notables showed them- selves intractable. French marines were de- tailed for the expedition, and Great Britain was invited to co-operate with Indian soldiers. He urged that England's interest in the sea-route to India and France's position as an African power prompted them to speedy action, of which the powers could not justly complain. Lord Granville would not hear of a joint expe- dition, and, January 30th, proposed that Turkish troops should be employed to re-establish order in Egypt. Freycinet, on coming into the French premiership, was anxious to dispel the fears of an adventurous French policy which Gambetta had created. The attitude of France was imme- diately reversed. The new French minister op- posed intervention, and proposed that the Egyp- tian Nationalists should be allowed to attempt the reforms which they had at heart. In one point the French policy remained firm and con- sistent, in resistance to the armed intervention of the Porte, even as the mandatory of the powers. Any exhibition of the power of the Padishah in Africa was supposed to imperil the peace of the Algerian dominions of France, where dangerous religious passions were al- ready smoldering, and questions of sovereign rights had arisen which had created an es- trangement between the republic and the Porte. The joint note of the four powers gave England and France an excuse for inaction. The British and French Cabinets addressed an invitation to the four powers for an exchange of views. Freycinet, for the sake of pleasing the Gambettists, gave offense both to England and to the protesting powers by sending instruc- tions to Consul-General Sinkiewicz to maintain the preponderant position of France. The in- fluence of France was further enfeebled by a conflict which arose between the French Con- troller and the consul-general, in consequence of which the restless and ambitious De Bli- gnieres was retired and M. Bredif appointed in his place. The difficulty between the Government and the Notables came to a head February 3d.* A * Why the British Government, if they had no ulterior purposes in view, refused to allow the Notables to attempt constitutional government, is a question involved in Egyptian darkness. Sir Edward Malet, the British consul-general, when interrogated as to the effect of allowing the Notables to vote the budget, replied that they might cut off the salaries VOL. xxil. — 16 A deputation from the Chamber offered Sherif Pasha the alternative of accepting their project of the powers of the Legislature or resigning his office. Sherif referred them to the Khe- dive, and, when called into the conference by the Viceroy, handed in his resignation. The deputation then requested the Viceroy to name a Cabinet. Tevfik answered that he had per- fect confidence in Sherif, and that they must name their own Premier. After at first declin- ing to infringe upon the prerogative of the Khe- dive, the deputies returned and presented the name of Mahmoud Baroudi, who was invited to form a Cabinet. Arabi Bey, the popular leader of the revolt against the Europeans, emerged as Minister of War and Marine. The other appointments were: Mustapha Fehmi, Foreign Affairs ; Mahmoud Bey, Public Works ; Abdullah Fehmi, Public Instruction; Fetme, Justice; Ali Sadok, Fi- nance; Hassan Kerey, Wakfs (Mosques and Charities). On February 6th Mahmoud Ba- roudi presented the programme of the new ministry, a Constitution such as was demanded by the Notables, infringing in no wise on the rights of Europeans and the financial settle- ments which were secured by international engagements. In a few days he announced to the Chamber that the Khedive had delegated to them the right to vote the budget in virtue of the powers conferred upon him by the fir- mans of the Sultan. The Controllers, Colvin and De Blignidres, protested that the khedivial decree of 1879 gave them a seat in the Cabinet and a voice on all questions of finance. Their only legal argument was that the right to give advice implied that their advice must be fol- lowed. The resistance of the powers to the consti- tutional demands of the Egyptians, and their threats of military intervention, gave the mili- tary party the lead. Arabi and six other colo- nels were made generals with the title of pasha, and twenty officers were promoted to the rank of colonel. There were 500 promotions made in the space of three months. Arabi talked of raising the effective of the army to 20,000, projected an arsenal at Suez, and planned the fortification of the sea-coast to prevent the landing of European troops. The anti-Euro- pean feeling found vent in the dismissal of Eu- ropean clerks. The Chamber discussed the question of placing the cadastral survey under the direction of natives. On the llth of April Arabi Pasha arrested nineteen Circassian officers, and accused them of having formed a conspiracy to assassinate him and the other generals. No Circassian had received promotion, and Arabi was sup- posed to have formed the intention of sending them all to the Soodan. A number of Arab officers were subsequently arrested, among them Osman Zefki, former Minister of War, of the officers of the survey, which were not provided for in the capitulations ; so that it appears as though a question of salaries for some of the " locusts" led to war in Egypt. 242 EGYPT. on the charge of plotting in favor of the ex-Khedive. Arabi showed great fear of the machinations of Ismail. He had refused per- mission for his invalid daughter to land, and banished his business agent. There were fifty arrests made altogether, and on May 1st a court- martial condemned forty officers and two civil functionaries to loss of rank and banishment. Nualti Pasha, who was with Ismail at Naples, was condemned in contumaciam as the chief of the plot. The consuls protested. The Sultan was indignant that Circassians and officers whom he had decorated should be treated ignominiously. The Khedive with- held his signature to the sentence. He finally commuted it to simple exile, a decision which was displeasing to the ministers. They con- voked the Chamber for May 14th, without the authorization of the Khedive, to lay the matter before it. Mohamed Tevfik, in his at- titude toward the seditious ministers, showed unusual vigor. All intercourse was suspended between them and between the ministers and the Control. The English and French consuls and the Porte commended the course of the Khedive. The military threatened to depose Tevfik. The Notables disappointed them by refusing to sit illegally. Sultan Pasha declared that the Bedouins would march to Cairo to de- fend the Khedive, and Sherif Pasha and the Egyptian Sheik-ul-Islam came to his support. Finally, the President of the Notables and the late Prime Minister, with tbe assistance of the two consuls, arranged a reconciliation. Great Britain and France had by this time again composed their jealousies, and the Cabinets had agreed upon common action. They gave notice to the powers of a joint naval demon- stration, for the purpose of fortifying the au- thority of the Khedive and preserving the status quo. The Porte, which lost no oppor- tunity for asserting the authority of the Sultan in Egypt, addressed a reproof to the Egyptian ministry for summoning the Chamber uncon- stitutionally, and reminded them, in reference to their declaration that the landing of Turkish troops would be resisted with arms, that Egypt formed an integral part of the Ottoman Em- pire. This was oifset by the watchful powers in a dispatch from the Khedive, rebuking the Turkish Prime Minister for holding irregular communications with his Cabinet. ANGLO-FRENCH NAVAL DEMONSTRATION. — The English and French squadrons united in the Bay of Suda, off Crete. Mahmoud Pasha Ba- roudi appealed vainly to the consuls-general for assurances that the fleet would depart again at once when they entered Alexandria Harbor, protesting that all motive for a naval demon- stration was taken away by the reconcilement of the ministers with the Khedive. Arabi then determined to answer the naval demonstration with a demonstration of Egyptian independ- ence. He called on the provincial authorities to send the reserves to Cairo. They declined to do so without a formal command from the Khedive. On the 20th of May the Anglo- French squadron anchored in Alexandria Har- bor. The diplomatic representatives of the powers parleyed with the military party, and M. Monge, the French consul at Cairo, tried to bribe Arabi and the generals to leave the coun- try with tempting offers of a career and emolu- ments. The warlike preparations went on. Artillerists were sent to Alexandria and Da- mietta. Torpedoes were sunk along the coast. At a council of war, held in the Abdin bar- racks, at Cairo, the generals took an oath to defend the country against any foreign inter- vention, and the sheiks and Bedouins joined them as against European, but not against Ottoman, intervention. They applied to the Controllers for money to prosecute the defens- ive preparations, and were naturally refused. The idea of abolishing the Control was dis- cussed, but they reflected that it would render intervention inevitable, and would probably paralyze the action of the Porte and the East European powers which were opposed to the Anglo-French preponderance. The Minister of Wakfs had the disposal of a fund which was out of the reach of the Control. He at once handed over £300,000 sterling. On May 25th the French and English consuls made a formal demand that Arabi Pasha should undergo tem- porary expatriation, his coadjutor Ali Abdallah depart for the interior, and the ministry resign, promising their good offices to obtain amnesty for all who had rebelled against the authority of the Khedive. Lord Dufferin and the Marquis of Noailles at Constantinople took pains to explain to the Porte that the rights of the Sul- tan could not suffer through the dual interven- tion ; that Turkish co-operation was unnecessa- ry, since the sovereignty of the Sultan had not been called in question ; but that if it should become necessary later he should be invited to participate. Abdul-Hamid knew the worth of such promises, and foresaw that an Anglo- French military occupation of Egypt would deprive the Padishah of the last shred of his sovereign rights. Since he was excluded from participation in the intervention, he did his utmost to paralyze the action of France and England in Egypt by appealing to the European powers to check their belligerent designs, and by giving encouragement to the National party in Egypt. In obedience to the ultimatum of the two powers, the ministers handed in their resignations to the Khedive. Mahmoud Ba- roudi artfully explained that they had unani- mously advised the Khedive to return the Anglo-French note, on the ground that the foreign intervention was an invasion of the rights of the Sultan, but, since he had accepted it, their only course was to resign. Mohamed Tevfik accepted their resignations, and issued, at the same time, a proclamation declaring that the fleet had come for a peaceful purpose, ordering the enrollment of the reserves to be stopped, and announcing that those who had arrived at Cairo would be sent back to their EGYPT. 243 homes. He called to him a number of officers, among them AH Fehmi and Abdallah Pasha, and announced that he would exercise the command of the army in person. He called upon them to submit to the conditions imposed by the consuls-general. They answered flatly that they would submit to no foreign dictation but that of the Porte. Tevfik sought in vain for new ministers. Sherif Pasha could not be persuaded to take office at this time. Members of the Chamber of Notables came to the Vice- roy and begged him to retract his acceptance of the consular note, and retain Arabi as Min- ister of War. The whole corps of officers came on a like errand, and expressed themselves in forcible language. The military commandants at Alexandria sent word that they would take orders from no one but Arabi, and that they would not answer for the maintenance of order twelve hours if he were not reinstated. The deputies, the officers, and the ulemas met be- fore Sultan Pasha and united in a demand for the retention of Arabi Pasha, while the officers talked about deposing the Khedive. Tevfik was still firm, and told Sultan Pasha, who pre- sented the address, that the officers abused the name of the Porte, since the Sultan had sent a dispatch commending his conduct. Directly afterward he received another message from the Sultan, condemning the military party, and telling him to recommend moderation to all, so as to escape foreign intervention. Deputa- tions from the university, from the native mer- chants, from every respectable body, brought the same request to the Khedive that he had received from the officers, notables, and ulemas. Pressed by all Egypt, he at last gave way, and restored Arabi to the Ministry of War. At this time the Khedive received a telegram from the Porte, in which the Sultan offered to send a com- missioner to Egypt if the Khedive would make a formal request to that effect. Mohamed Tev- fik applied to the consuls for advice. Here again the discordant note in the Anglo-French concord destroyed the effect upon the Egyp- tians and upon the Porte of the ministerial declarations, the common ultimatum, and the united squadrons. Mr. Malet did not object to the coming of a Turkish commissioner if it would prevent disorders, while M. Sinkiewicz was unqualifiedly opposed. France was constrained to give way when the European powers unani- mously approved the Turkish mediation, and confined her efforts to preventing the inter- vention from taking a military form. A note of the dual powers, dated May 29th, demanded that the Sultan should confine himself to ex- pressing approval of the course of the Khedive, and should command Arabi Pasha and the other military chiefs to come to Constantinople and give an account of their conduct. The Sultan refused to serve as the instrument of the two powers ; so that they were restricted to demanding that the action of the Porte should not go beyond the sending of an envoy charged with the mission of inviting the army to submit to the Khedive. De Freycinet, in his efforts to preserve the preponderance of France and the anti-Mussulman ends of the Gambettist policy, while avoiding its perils and adventurous aims, was left in the lurch by the British Cabinet, and found France com- pletely isolated. Sustained by a vote of con- fidence against the objections of the Oppor- tunists, he abandoned the policy of exclusion and preponderance, to enter the European con- cert. He proposed a conference of the em- bassadors of all the powers at Constantinople, for the definite settlement of the Egyptian question. A dual note, based on Granville's declaration to the powers of the llth of Feb- ruary, invited the Porte to the conference. It premised the preservation of the status quo, and the existing international engagements, which was unacceptable to the Porte and scarce- ly met the views of the powers. The Porte did not hesitate about sending the commission. Dervish Pasha was intrusted with this delicate business, with Achmet Ratid, Lebib, and the Sheik Ali Metstad, for his associates, and at- tended by an aide-de-camp and a numerous suite. The Sultan then informed the powers of their mission to restore tranquillity, maintain the status quo, and sustain the Khedive. In a second circular on the subject Said Pasha as- serted that the regulation of Egyptian affairs was a prerogative of the Sultan, and that he saw no necessity for a conference. In Egypt, Arabi was still the only minister appointed, the master of the army, and the hope of the Na- tionalists ; while the Khedive was powerless, and despised as the slave of the Europeans. The French consul attempted to constrain Arabi to submit to the ultimatum, and pro- posed to the Khedive to make Ragheb Pasha Prime Minister, and Abdallah Minister of War. Arabi declared, contemptuously, that the threats of France and England were as false as their promises; that if they should venture to intervene they would meet with a vigorous resistance. The Turkish commissioner was received with open arms by the Khedive. The National party professed devotion to the right, of the Sultan, and seemed disposed to place all their trust in the action of the Porte and the conference. Ragheb Pasha formed a ministry which was in accord with the Khedive. The truce in the political conflict was complete. There was every prospect that the appeal of the Egyptians to Europe for administrative in- dependence would be eventually successful ; that the conference would insist on the restric- tion of the Control and the diplomatic agents of the two powers to their legitimate func- tions, as the only peaceful solution of the ques- tion. The popular passions, however, rose higher with the prospect of the deliverance of the Egyptians from their enslavers. The smoldering resentment, hatred, and jealousy of the populace of Alexandria, where the priv- ileges enjoyed by foreigners, their arrogance toward the natives, and the ostentatious display 244 EGYPT. of their extortionate accumulations were con- stantly seen and felt, were wrought up to a dangerous pitch, after long years of repression, by the sight of the ironclads in the harbor and Arabi's warlike preparations. The Europeans, who had all along clamored for intervention, were more overbearing and exasperating in their bearing than ever. On the llth of June the mutual animosity culminated in riot and bloodshed in the streets of Alexandria. ALEXANDRIA RIOTS. — In an ordinary street fight a Maltese stabbed an Arab. This inci- dent drove the native population into a fury, just as a few months before a riot was immi- nent when a soldier was murdered by a sup- posed Italian. The Arab population of Alex- andria collected in mobs and soon worked themselves into such a state of excitement that they began to break up the chairs and tables in the streets, and set upon every Euro- pean who was found abroad. They burst into shops and invaded the European quarter, but were kept aloof by a fusillade from every house. About seventy Europeans and six or seven hun- dred Arabs were slain. The following day the Khedive, at the suggestion of the Turkish com- missioner, imposed upon Arabi Pasha, who was the actual head of the military forces, the re- sponsibility of keeping order. This arrange- ment, which was announced to be only pro- visional, completed the consternation of the Europeans. They fled panic-stricken, and in a few days all the wealthy residents had left Egypt, while the streets of Alexandria were filled with their starving dependents. On the 13th the Khedive proceeded with Dervish to Alexandria. The powers sent more ironclads, and labored with the Porte to have Turkish troops sent to Egypt. The Sultan refused to enter Egypt to execute the behests of the West- ern powers, and still held aloof from the con- ference. On the 16th of June, through the in- tercession of the German and Austrian consuls, the Khedive accepted a new ministry, which, however, the dual powers refused to recognize. Ragheb was retained as President of the Coun- cil, and Arabi Pasha was again made minister. Business was at a stand-still after the flight of the Europeans. A large prpportion of the city population were left without food or shelter. The authority of the Khedive was effaced. He acted under the directions of Dervish Pasha, who was treated with respect. The Sultan's agent was secretly fomenting the rebellion. The only activity was in the bellicose prepara- tions of the military. The government, as far as it existed, was in their hands. The country was aflame with the spirit of war. Arabi Pasha by his speeches infused into the meek fatalists of the Delta a holy ardor for the over- throw of the foreigner. While he enlisted and drilled soldiers, the conference wasted its time in interminable negotiations with the Porte. The Sultan sent a decoration to Arabi Pasha at this time. Toulba Pasha, the commandant at Alexandria, mounted guns and trained them upon the ironclads. With boundless energy he constructed new forts and made thorough preparations to resist any attempt to land troops. MEETING OF THE CONFERENCE AT CONSTAN- TINOPLE.— The conference met June 23d, at Therapia, on the Bosporus, in the villa of Count Corti, the Italian embassador, and dean of the diplomatic corps at Constantinople. Their first act was to sign a self-denying pro- tocol, whereby each power promised not to be governed by its own interests, but to accept whatever solution of the Egyptian question the conference decided upon. The conference next approached the delicate question of the attitude of Turkey. They could not settle the affairs of Egypt without the assistance of the Porte, which had already formally declared the conference to be useless, and which met their overtures with the accustomed Fabian subter- fuges of Ottoman diplomacy. The next acts of the plenipotentiaries after the signature of the protocol of disinterestedness were a resolu- tion renouncing isolated action, and one ac- knowledging the sovereign rights of the Sultan. BOMBARDMENT OF ALEXANDRIA. — The Eng- lish and French Cabinets saw that the Egyp- tians and the Porte would succeed in ousting them from the direction of Egyptian affairs, and that the council of embassadors would ap- prove the new state of things which was being established in Egypt. Sir Beauchamp Seymour, the admiral of the British fleet at Alexandria, had instructions, dating from the 15th of May, to land a force if necessary to protect the Khe- dive. By the act of this commander, England evaded the self-denying protocol and com- menced a course of active intervention, while pretending not to have broken the European concert, nor to have departed from the engage- ments entered into at the conference. Egyp- tian soldiers to the number of 6,000, it was estimated, had been busily constructing earth- works and mounting guns since the 29th of May. On the 6th of July, Sir Beauchamp Sey- mour pretended to discover that the fortifica- tions constituted a danger to his ships, and sent an ultimatum demanding that the work upon them should cease, or the fleet would open fire. The Porte demanded through the Turkish em- bassador at London that the bombardment should be countermanded. Toulba Pasha, com- mandant of the garrison, protested that no hos- tile purpose was intended, and appealed to the "well-known humanity" of tbe English com- mander. The consuls of the foreign powers at Alexandria, surprised and alarmed at the sud- den belligerent announcement, begged the Brit- ish admiral to withdraw his menace until they had used their offices as mediators, but he held to the ultimatum. Promises were given that the works should be discontinued, and they were apparently deserted in the day-time, but it was seen that the guns were manned by flashing the electric light upon them on the night of the 8th, and a reconnoitering party EGYPT. 245 observed men mounting cannon in one of the minor forts. Declaring this a breach of the engagement, the commander of the fleet de- manded on the 9th that the forts should he temporarily surrendered to the English, to be The fleet was divided into two squadrons, one working inside the outer harbor, the other engaging the forts along the sea-front, while the Inflexible and the Temeraire placed them- selves in the Corvette and the Bourgas Passes, VICE-ADMIRAL SIR FREDEBICK BEAUCHAMP PAGET SEYMOUR, G.C.B., COMMANDING THE MEDITERRANEAN SQUADRON AT ALEXANDRIA. dismantled within twenty-four hours. All the foreign ships now left the harbor, while the British ironclads took position and cleared for action. The western harbor, divided by a mole into the outer and inner harbors, was defended by Fort Ras-el-Tin at the extremity of the penin- sula on which the town is built ; by Fort Mara- bout, five miles distant, at the western end of the outer harbor ; and hy the powerful Meks fort, with eighty-one guns, at the central point of the crescent-shaped shore. The latter was supported by a multitude of outworks along the shore. Marsa-el-Kanat fort, on the shore of the outer harbor, was unmanned. Along the sea-wall of the town were, besides the Kas-el- Tin fort, with twenty-four guns, Forts Aida and Castle Pharos on the other jutting arm of the peninsula, the latter overhanging the mouth of the eastern harbor. The western harbor is ap- proached through three passes winding among spits and shoals, called the Corvette, the Bour- gas, and the Marabout Passes. constituting a reserve squadron ready to sup- port either division. The strength of the eight ironclads which with the gunboats Bittern, Condor, Beacon, Decoy, and Cygnet, composed the attacking fleet, was as follows: VESSEL. Inches armor. Gong. power. Tons. Inflexible 16-24 4 81-ton. 8000 11,406 Superb 10-12 16 18-ton. 7,480 8,760 8-10 •! 4 25-ton. i- 7842 8322 Sultan . . 1 6-9 -I 2 6i-ton. 8 18-ton. I 8,629 9,286 Alexandra 8-12-1 4 12-ton. 2 25-ton. I 9,492 8,615 T6m6raire 8-11 J 10 18-ton. 4 25-ton. S [ 7,700 8,540 Invincible Penelope . . . 6-8 * 5-6 4 18-ton. 10 12-ton. 10 12-ton. 4,882 4,702 6,034 4,394 The British force counted altogether 3,539 men and 102 guns. No two of the ironclads were of the same design. The three broadside ships, the Alexandra, Sultan, and Superb, com- posed the outer squadron, which was given the 246 EGYPT. task of silencing the forts along the sea-front, beginning with Ras-el-Tin and ending with Fort Pharos. The Alexandra is of the box-battery type with deeply recessed bows for the purpose of securing end-on fire. The Sultan is of the same type, but less heavily armed and plated. The Superb, originally built for the Turkish Government, is of the type of the Hercules. The Inflexible and Te'me'raire steamed along the of men at once, dismount guns, and blow up magazines in the earthworks. Two of the broadside ships were at anchor from the first, and after a while all the ships of both squad- rons anchored to secure more accurate firing. The gunboats remained in motion, and escaped almost without a shot. The bombardment began at seven o'clock on the morning of the llth of July. It lasted ten HER MAJESTY'S SHIP INFLEXIBLE, CAPTAIN JOHN A. FISHEB. Tonnage, 11,400 ; armor, 16 to 24 inches ; men, 349 ; guns, four 81-ton, in two turrets. line out of range of the forts, pouring their heavy shells into Fort Meks from Central Pass, and into Forts Aida and Pharos, which they succeeded in silencing. The Inflexible is one of the most powerful turret-ships afloat. The Te'me'raire is the only existing example of the barbette type, which is coining in favor with naval authorities. She ran aground in the be- ginning of the action, and was only released after several hours by the aid of two of the gunboats ; but all the time her fire was par- ticularly effective. The Invincible, the Mon- arch, and the Penelope constituted the inside squadron, attacking the forts at the western end of the bay from within the outer harbor. These are vessels of the old class. The Pe- nelope, having the lightest draught of all, was able to work effectively at close range. The gunboats Condor and Cygnet could push up into closer quarters, and aided materially in the action. The plan of Admiral Seymour was to engage the enemy all along the line, and harass him with an incessant bombardment. The ships moved at first in oblique lines, so that the Egyptian gunners were unable to get their ex- act distance, as they had to constantly vary the range. The forts, on the other hand, presented a fixed target, into which the eight ironclads poured a ceaseless hail of shells weighing some 258, some 410, some 547, and those of the 81-ton guns, 1,704 pounds. The firing was very inac- curate ; but enough of it was effective to knock the stone forts into ruins, kill whole squads and a half hours. Most of the forts attacked were silenced. The fire from some of them was heavy and sustained. The discipline and fortitude displayed by the Egyptian cannoneers were admirable. Their fire was extremely ac- curate as regards direction, but in elevation they generally failed. The round shot which hit the vessels did little damage, while none of the coni- cal shells struck the ships. The bombardment would have been con- tinued longer if the commander had not landed a force to disable Fort Meks. It landed 900 strong and found the fort abandoned. Its two 10-inch guns were blown up and the rest spiked. The fortifications were destroyed by the shot, and the barracks and houses around shattered to pieces by the shells. Ras-el-Tin Fort was in the same condition, the adjacent palace greatly damaged and partly burned, and the light-house nearly destroyed. Fort Pharos was silenced, its magazine blown up, and guns dis- mounted. Fort Marabout was badly battered but not destroyed. A gallant incident of the battle was the dash of the gunboat Condor, com- manded by Commander Lord Charles Beres- ford, close under the guns of this fort, which was harassing the ships considerably, to si- lence them. The buildings of the city suffered much. Several shells from the Inflexible burst directly over the town, and shells from all the deep - draught vessels, which were obliged to engage the forts at distances of 3,000 or 4,000 yards, occasionally fell in the town. The Al- exandra was struck twenty-five times, and had EGYPT. 247 two gnns disabled. The Invincible was pierced by six shots. The Penelope had a gun disabled. The casualties on the British side were only six killed and twenty -eight wounded. The loss of life on the Egyptian side was very great. It was only by killing all the gunners that most of the pieces on the earthworks were silenced. The bombardment of Alexandria was an event of great technical im- portance, and of practical interest to the nations which have expend- ed huge sums on monster iron- clads. It proved that these float- ing fortresses are able to cope with shore-batteries, and will stand the fire longer. The conditions of the trial were, however, very favor- able to the ships. The Egyptian gunnery was too defective to show the amount of damage which can be inflicted upon the ships. Their ammunition was not of the most suitable kind. The British ships, on the other hand, were favored with an exceptionally still sea, and their artillerists had complete charts of the bay, so that the ele- vations could be calculated at once, without the necessity of experi- mental cross-ranging. The engage- ment at Alexandria taught one im- portant lesson regarding the de- fense against the heavy ordnance of modern ironclad frigates. It is, that earthworks afford an excellent protection. Shells from the 81 -ton guns, exploding among sand-bags, inflicted no injury. They threw up great clouds of dust, and it seemed as though the whole structure was leveled ; but when the air cleared the guns were seen to be in the same position. It was necessary to hit the guns themselves to si- lence these batteries. Masonry is useless against such guns ; the strongest granite walls were shiv- ered with a single shot. The next morning fire was opened upon Fort Aida and Castle Pharos. After a few shots a white flag was hoisted off Ras-el-Tin. Lieutenant Lamb- ton proceeded in the Bittern to demand the surrender of Forts Ajami, Meks, and Marabout. He saw Toulba Pasha on board the Khedive's yacht Mahroussa, who stated his inability to conclude terms without consulting the Khe- dive and his ministers at Ramleh. "When the time given for his an- swer had gone by, the British fired one shot, which was not returned. Another white flag was seen flying 248 EGYPT. that afternoon. The Egyptian troops during the day evacuated Alexandria, and retreated into the interior. Their silent withdrawal after opening negotiations was characterized by the English as an act of treachery. LORD CHARLE9 BERE3FORD, COMMANDER, R. K. Most of the population had fled from Alex- andria during the bombardment. When it was deserted by the troops, shocking scenes of pil- lage and destruction ensued. Some person in authority, probably Mahmoud Samy, gave the signal to plunder and fire the European quarter. The ragamuffins who abound in the Levantine cities reveled in the saturnalia of robbery and vengeance. Stragglers from the armv set the example. Finely-built streets in the European quarter wore burned to the ground. The richly- furnished shops were most of them gutted, and most of the merchandise was destroyed by the pillagers as soon as they reached the street. The conflagration lit the sky the night after Arabi's departure. Europeans who had re- mained in charge of the banks and offices bar- ricaded the houses, and kept the mob off with their fire-arms. When the scenes of fury abated they dashed down to the shore in bands, and were taken on board the ships. Admiral Sey- mour telegraphed that the town had been given up to " Bedouins " to plunder, and in a second dispatch that it was " convicts," who had been set loose to loot the city. On the morning of the following day the English ventured to dis- embark and take possession of the deserted town. The admiral on the 13th landed par- ties of marines to stay the wild havoc. Lord Charles Beresford was given the direction of the police measures, assisted by Major Tulloch, the chief of the landing party at Fort Meks. Commodore Nicholson, of the United States Navy, sent a detachment of marines, who stood guard at the American consulate, and assist- ed in maintaining order. The Russian, Ger- man, and Greek commanders followed the example, and landed small parties. The in- habitants soon flocked back to the city. Every Arab waved a white handkerchief as a signal of peace, or wore a red band in token of fidelity to the Khedive. When there was any evidence or appearance of their having joined in the looting, they were shot with little formality. The marines were particularly zealous in this hasty justice. By the 17th 5,800 soldiers and marines were ashore. The Tamar had arrived with nearly a thousand marines on board, and two regiments had been sent from Limasol, in Cyprus. The British Government were se- verely blamed, at home and abroad, for not having troops ready to land in time to save Alexandria from pillage and arson. Mr. Glad- stone explained that they were precluded from landing an army by the protocol of sole action. The damage was taxed by the sufferers in their claims, presented before the commission of in- quiry subsequently appointed by the Khedive, at a total of $30,000,000. * The Khedive remained during the bombard- ment in the palace at Ramleh, with Dervish Pasha. A force of 300 men was sent with orders to murder the Khedive, but Arabi came and countermanded the order, leaving the sol- diers as a guard. The English, as soon as they landed, sent a guard to Tevfik Pasha, who had come down to the Ras-el-Tin Palace. Mahmoud Baroudi, and all the ministers, except Arabi, presented themselves at the palace. NEGOTIATIONS AT THE CONFERENCE. — In the diplomatic discussions between the joint pro- tecting powers, England had the advantage of an untranimeled position, while France was fettered by difficulties on every side. England insisted upon intervention and the suppression of the national Government. This policy had been marked out by Gambetta, and the French Cabinet was in a situation where it could not reverse it, although Egyptian independence * The ancient capital of the Ptolemies remained down to the epoch of the Eastern Empire one of the largest and rich- est, and was also distinguished as one of the most turbulent cities in the world. After the Arab conquest it was eclipsed by the newly-founded Cairo, and steadily declined during the middle ages. It was entirely ruined by the Turkish conquest in 1517, and at the time of the French expedition in 1798 there was nothing but a cluster of Arab huts holding about 8,000 inhabitants. Mehemet Ali discerned the possibilities of the site, and revived its commercial greatness by clearing out the harbors and digging the Mahmoudieh Canal, which brings fresh water from the Eosetta branch of the Nile. Already prosperous as the sea-port for the overland commerce, the commercial capital of the Nile Delta underwent a prodigious expansion in wealth and magnificence when the American war brought on the cotton famine. The European quarter is in the eastern part of the city, near the sea. Around the Place Mehemet Ali, and in the streets leading out of it, were the consulates and other public buildings, huge blocks of offices, and magnificent emporiums. Sumptuous mansions lined the streets to the eastward in the direction of Ramleh. In this cool and delightful suburb on the sea-shore, four miles from the city, the English all resided, some of them in splendid villas. EGYPT. 249 found much sympathy in France, and would be more conducive to French interests than any form of intervention except an aggressive as- sertion of French preponderance, which would endanger the relations of the republic with Europe. England was shrewdly accommodat- ing and yielding. She had been the first to propose a reference of the Egyptian difficulty to the powers. She expressed a willingness to agree to an intervention by the Porte, or to undertake a joint intervention with France. Any action must result in a stronger assertion of England's paramount interests and the sac- rifice of the political preponderance of France, which had existed from the beginning of the century, and was strengthened by social influ- ence and moral prestige far outweighing those of Great Britain. The intervention of Turkey as the mandatory of the powers was Frey- cinet's final proposition. England agreed to that, as she agreed to every positive proposi- tion, although favoring most the interposition of the Sultan as sovereign lord. In order to safeguard French interests in Africa and make easier the acceptance of Turkish intervention in France, Freycinet imposed the condition that the expeditionary force should be com- manded by French and English officers. After the bombardment the conference agreed upon the sending of a Turkish force to restore order in Egypt. They were to act under the direc- tion of the Khedive, and to retire in three months, leaving all future arrangements to be decided upon by the powers. In this form the Bcheme was presented to the Porte in an iden- tical note on July 15th. The Sultan could have no possible interest in lending himself as an instrument to enforce the will of England and France in Egypt. With nothing to gain, he would have sacrificed at one cast the fruits of his laborious efforts to restore the influence of the Caliph. Any hostile action against Arabi would have been as unpopular in Tur- key as in Egypt. Arabi and his army were regarded as Moslem heroes. The softas and ulemas of Stamboul declared, with the pious doctors of Cairo, that Arabi would be bound by the Mohammedan law to disobey and resist the Caliph himself if restrained in his efforts to redeem the territory of Islam from the yoke of unbelievers. The Porte temporized as usual. It did not reject the principle of intervention, but objected to the conditions, which, between the jealousy of France and the ambitious de- signs of England, were so framed as to pre- vent the peaceful solution of the Egyptian difficulty by a simple demonstration of the au- thority of the Sultan, a solution which would have been as welcome to Egypt as to Europe. Great Britain was preparing as secretly as pos- sible but with all possible speed for war at the time when she signed the identical note. Frey- cinet, although he had abandoned the aggres- sive policy of Gambetta, and was desirous of having the Egyptian question settled by the European concert, was prepared to co-operate with England to the extent necessary to main- tain France's position as joint protecting pow- er. The deputies first granted the ministry a credit of 7,000,000 francs. On the 18th of July the announcement of the calling out of the reserves was made in the British Parlia- ment. On the 24th the Prime Minister asked for a vote of credit, which he placed at the absurdly small sum of £2,300,000, to be raised by adding l$d. to the income-tax. The dis- patch of an Indian contingent had been an- nounced on the 18th. The expenses of the Indian force it was proposed should be borne by the Indian Exchequer. On the same day that the military credit was voted by the Brit- ish Commons the French minister applied for an additional vote. It was stated that French action would be confined to the protection of the Suez Canal, since the powers had refused to sanction an Anglo-French military interven- tion. The French Chamber, appealed to on the one hand by Gambetta, who vigorously at- tacked the Government for their tame attitude, and on the other by the ministry with a fine- drawn and scarcely intelligible scheme for keeping up the Anglo-French alliance without leaving the European concert, concluded that it was safer and more dignified to assume no share of the responsibility of breaking the con- cert and coercing the Egyptians. Freycinet resigned upon the rejection of the supplement- ary credit, and Duclerc formed a Cabinet with the policy of passivity and expectance. When Gambetta first initiated the plan of dual inter- vention, a counter-alliance of the Eastern pow- ers— Russia, Austria, Germany, and Italy — was in the process of formation. Now that England proposed to take possession of Egypt alone, there was intense opposition in St. Pe- tersburg, and there were murmurs at Rome and Vienna, but no combined action was possible. Russia had no objections to the annexation even of Egypt by Great Britain, but it should be at the price, as was proposed by the Em- peror Nicholas, of the acquisition of the Bos- porus and Constantinople by Russia. Prince Bismarck held the key to the situation, through his influence over Austria and Italy. It was, perhaps, the frustration of this traditional scheme for Russian aggrandizement which now actuated him to turn a deaf ear to the frantic protests of his friend the Sultan. The Khedive had ordered the cessation of war preparations, and had summoned Arabi before him in vain ; but it was some time after the English obtained charge of the person of the Khedive before they could induce him to proclaim Arabi a rebel, and discharge him from the post of Minister of War. This was inevi- table, since Arabi, in order to rouse the people to resistance, and carry out the role of de- fender of the sacred soil of Islam against the infidel usurpers, was obliged to denounce Tev- fik as the slave of the Giaours, and assume the character of dictator. The Notables refused, however, to declare Tevtik a traitor. The 250 EGYPT. Khedive's proclamation appeared on the same day with one from Arabi Pasha, characterizing Tevfik as a traitor to his country and his re- ligion. Furnished with this proclamation of the Khedive, the British emhassador to the Porte, Lord Dufferin, announced to the con- ference the dispatch of a British expedition to Egypt, explaining that the Alexandrian forts were destroyed as a measure of defense, and that the expedition was necessitated by force majeure, aud was not to be construed as " iso- lated action" or a breach of the protocol de desinteressement, but was solely intended to re- store peace and order, to secure the free navi- gation of the Suez Canal, and to re-establish the authority of the Khedive. The Porte was the only Cabinet which was deeply interested in keeping the English out of Egypt. The proposition of the conference, that the Sultan should forcibly suppress the movement which he had encouraged, and take up arms against the defenders of Dar-ul-Islam, a Moslem land, as the mandatory of the powers, was an im- possible course. He sought to delay the pro- ceedings as long as possible, and looked in vain for a friendly combination in Europe to prevent the British occupation of Egypt. The Russian embassador, M. Onou, was instructed by his government not to attend the conference, which England by her isolated action had set at naught ; but in a few days he returned to the meetings. The Porte replied to the invita- tion to subdue the Egyptian rebellion with Turkish forces by declaring a willingness to enter the conference. Said and Assam Pashas appeared at the conference on July 26th. They announced that the Sultan did not reject the principle of a military occupation, but that the conditions contained in the identical note would have to be reconsidered. The announcement of the British expedition was now met with a declaration that the Sultan would send troops to Alexandria, in accordance with the terms of the identical note. The Conference, after ac- cord was re-established, only sat as a matter of form, remaining passive and neutral in the dis- cussion which ensued between Turkey and England. Great Britain pretended to accept Turkish co-operation, but demanded as a pre- liminary that the Sultan should proclaim Arabi a rebel. The ulemas of Stamboul, as well as of the Azhar Mosque at Cairo, protested that Arabi could not be regarded as a rebel when protecting a Mussulman country against the aggression of a Christian power. The highest authorities in Mohammedan law, the professors at Cairo, declared that it would cost the Sultan his caliphate if he took part with the infidels. The Sultan sent a force of 3,000 men to Suda Bay, ready to land in Egypt at a moment's notice. A military convention was submitted to the Porte by Earl DufFerin. The English desired the proclamation declaring the Egyptian army to be rebels, and would have liked to have a Turkish force posted in Egypt for the moral effect, but insisted on having it placed under their control. The conditions of the military convention were as follow : 1. That the Turkish contingent should be restricted to 5,000 men. 2. That it should land at Aboukir, Damietta, or Eosetta. 3. That its movements and operations should be regulated by a previous agree- ment between the English and Turkish command- ers. 4. That a Turkish military commissioner should be attached to the English headquarters and an Eng- lish commissioner to tne Turkish headquarters ; and, 5. That the English and Turkish troops should evacu- ate Egypt simultaneously. Said Pasha proposed modifications which would place Turkey in an independent and co- ordinate position. Lord Dufferin refused to submit the question to the conference. He resorted to Turkish evasion and procrastination to prevent a settlement, while the military operations were being pushed forward. At last, when the English had seized Port Said and were ready to strike the decisive blow, he obtained the desired proclamation from the Sultan in return for permission to send a Turk- ish force to Port Said. He then quibbled about the form of the proclamation, and, after accepting that, about the terms of the conven- tion, which were, he said, that the Turkish troops might " proceed to " Port Said, not that they might u land " there, until Arabi's force was crushed. The British embassador then announced that a military convention was no longer necessary, and broke off the negotia- tions. BRITISH INTERESTS IN EGYPT. — The British interests in the Suez Canal as the route of mili- tary communication with India and Australia were advanced as the all-sufficient ground for the Egyptian expedition. The neutrality of the canal is guaranteed by Europe. Its safety was not at all imperiled by the political changes in Egypt, whatever might have been their out- come. Except as being nominally within the dominions of the Khedive, as being touched by a railroad from Cairo at two points, and as de- riving its supplies of fresh water from the in- terior, it was entirely outside of the influence of events in Egypt. The main object of the war with the British Government was doubt- lessly to alter the status quo of the canal by a definite assertion of the paramount interests of England before Europe, and the assumption of a priority and predominance in Egypt which will prevent any hostile power from ever using its government to politically harass England or belligerently menacing the connection with India from Egyptian soil. Another political reason given was to maintain Tevfik Pasha on the throne on which England and France had placed him. There were various important pecuniary and commercial interests which, though seen to have been operative in the train of events through which Great Britain " drifted into the war," were not acknowledged as motives, except two or three of them in a secondary degree. The interest of the British Government in the solvency and good faith of Egypt was involved to the extent of the 5 per EGYPT. 251 cent annual interest on the Khedive's 176,602 shares, two fifths of the original capital trans- ferred to the British Government for the £4,000,000 in cash, which interest, amounting to £198,829 a year, is paid in lieu of the profits up to 1894, to which date the dividends were already alienated by the Khedive to the Suez Canal Company. Of the mercantile interests threatened or said to be threatened by the Egyptian im- broglio, the most important and the most de- serving of being defended were those of British commerce in the Suez Canal. Of the 17,207 ships with an aggregate tonnage of 33,244,452 tons which passed the canal from the time it was opened in December, 1869, till the end of 1881, 12,960, with a total capacity of 25,779,- 664 tons, were British. The French came next in the amount of tonnage, but it was only about one twelfth as much as the British. The ag- gregate amount of tolls collected in that period was about $64,370,000, averaging $1.90 a ton and $3,660 a ship, the average tonnage of the ships passing through being 1,932 tons. In the year ending in April, 1882, of the 3,006 ves- sels, aggregating 4,257,000 tons, which passed through the canal, 2,484, of 3,512,000 tons, were British. About one fourth of the total capital invested in British shipping is engaged in the Suez Canal traffic. THE CAMPAIGN.— The preparations for the war of occupation were entirely secret up to the time of the bombardment of Alexandria. Then the British forces in the Mediterranean MAJOR-GENERAL SIR ARCHIBALD ALISON. [He commanded a division. He was born in 1826, and served in the Crimea and in India, losing an arm at the relief of Lucknow. He was chief of the intelli- gence department at the War Office when he left for Egypt.] * began to move forward, and preparations went on more actively and openly in England and India. A force of about 6,000 men, under General Sir Archibald Alison, was collected gradually from the Mediterranean stations, which held Alexandria while the first reserves of the English army were being mobilized. The army reform in England is not yet com- plete, and although discipline and morale have deteriorated through the short-service system, mobilization is still sluggish. "While a thor- oughly appointed corps was getting ready in England and a body of Indian troops was being equipped to meet it in Egypt, the gar- rison at Alexandria made frequent reconnais- sances, but did not venture to engage Arabi, although they were strong enough to meet the force which he then had. A sharp skir- mish occurred on the 5th of August. The Egyp- tians intrenched themselves at Kafr-Dowar and strengthened the fortifications at Abou- kir. New recruits flocked to Arabi's camp by thousands. Before the arrival of the Eng- lish expedition he organized a military govern- ment which covered the whole country, had every point guarded, and animated the mild population of the Delta with the spirit of war. It was over a month after the bombardment before the English army arrived at Alex- andria. Arabi erected strong fortifications at Kafr- Dowar, a triple line of formidable earthworks. With the railroads of the Delta at his command he was able to concentrate at any point. All along the line from Meks to Tel-el-Kebir his garrisons confronted the invaders from behind powerful intrench ments. He had altogether about 70,000 men, with one hundred and fifty cannon. They were aided by the Bedouins, who might have proved formidable irregulars, and did harass the English wherever they had an opportunity. The Egyptian army was armed with Eemington rifles and Krupp guns of all calibers. They had an abundance of ammu- nition, their commissariat was amply supplied, their transport was unexceptionable. The bulk of the forces were at first at Kafr-Dowar ; and then, when the British established themselves on the Suez Canal, they were massed at Tel-el- Kebir. There were besides 3,000 men at Meks, 11,000 in the forts of Aboukir, 8,000 under Abdelal in Damietta and the neighboring forts, and a garrison of 11,000 at Cairo. The expeditionary force sent from England consisted of 1,010 officers and 21,200 men, with 54 field-guns, 5,600 horses, and 500 pack-ani- mals. The English authorities had sent orders to America and other countries to have mules ready to send on, but were precluded from buying them before Parliament granted sup- plies for the war. Their transport service was therefore crippled throughout the campaign. Ke- enforcements were sent on afterward of 10,800 men and 280 officers. The Indian aux- iliaries numbered 170 officers and 7,100 men. The British commander-in-chief, Sir Garnet Wolseley, arrived at Alexandria on August 15th. He ordered the troops who had landed to re-embark, and on the 19th the whole force 252 EGYPT. sailed away in five ironclads and sixteen trans- port-ships. General Wolseley gave out that he meant to force the enemy's stronghold at Aboukir, and from there assail his right at Kafr-Dowar. It would greatly simplify the difficulties of the campaign if the British should occupy a point on the Suez Canal, and advance from there upon Cairo. But they were supposed to be bound to respect the neutrality of the canal. They were especially bound, since they had given solemn assurances to De Lesseps that they would not extend their operations to the canal, and on the strength of these promises Arabi had been prevailed upon to spare the canal, when he would otherwise have closed ter by damming the Mahmoudieh Canal. The lowering of the water in the canal forced Sir Garnet to try the mettle of the enemy, although he had not sufficient force to take the field yet. On the 24th of August he advanced to Ramses with the Household Cavalry, a detachment of mounted infantry, two field-guns and two Gat- lings, and one thousand infantry, all under the immediate command of General Willis. The Household Cavalry, by a dashing charge, gained possession of the dam between Magfar and Ma- huta. The position of the small force became critical when re-enforcements, pouring in from Tel-el- Kebir, increased the Egyptian army to about ten thousand men, with twelve guns. Sir Garnet, as he reported boastfully in his the passage to prevent the British from making it their base. Accordingly, when the fleet left Alexandria and steamed into Aboukir Bay, neither the Egyptians nor any one else sus- pected any deception until, after this feint upon Fort Aboukir, Port Said and Ismailia were occupied, and the whole canal was in the hands of the British. The English troops and Sir Herbert McPherson's Indian contingent united at Ismailia. The Egyptians cut off the supply of fresh wa- dispatches, " did not think it would be in con- sonance with the traditions of the Queen's army that it should retire before any number of Egyptians." The English held their posi- tion all day against the persistent attacks of the enemy, and by skillful artillery-fire kept him from closing with them. With the re-en- forcements which came up in the night they were able to take the offensive in the morning, assailing the enemy's left and drove them to flight, while at the same time Drury Lowe, EGYPT. 253 who had flanked them by a wide detour, at- tacked the retreating troops and captured five Krupp guns, seventy railroad-cars, with large quantities of war material, taking Mahsameh Kailroad Station, and cutting oft' their line of communications. The English had landed in Egypt twenty-four thousand troops altogether, including the In- dian force which debarked at Ismailia. One LIEUTENANT-GENERAL WILLIS. [He commanded the First Division. He was born in 1832, and served during a part of the Crimean war.] brigade was left at Alexandria, while the others joined the Indian contingent on the canal. Sir Garnet Wolseley's situation in the desert before Tel-el -Kebir was gloomy. He was not able to advance upon the objective point for lack of transport facilities. Kassassin was seized on the 25th of August and held by Gen- eral Graham, but the transports were twenty miles behind. The blazing sun, the foul and tepid water of the fresh-water canal, and the malarial vapors caused prostration, dysentery, and fever. In a week four hundred men were sent home invalided. The horses of the Indian auxiliaries were disabled with glanders. While the army was waiting and suffering, mules were being purchased in the United States. Mules •which were on the way to the seat of opera- tions were stopped by an embargo of the Sul- tan of Turkey. The deluded Arabi, thoroughly alarmed at the change in the situation which brought an overwhelming British army close to Zagazig, the key of the Delta railway system, and within striking distance of Cairo, determined to strike quickly, as delay would only lessen his chances. He took command of the Tel-el- Kebir force in person, and massed his troops there as rapidly as possible. On the 28th of August he made an attack upon General Gra- ham, who, with a mixed body of about two thousand men, had advanced to occupy the Kassassin lock on the fresh-water canal. The Egyptians brought up their forces under cover of an artillery-tire, and in the afternoon ad- vanced, under the immediate command of Arabi Pasha, with the intention of turning Graham's right flank. The English had, for- tunately for them, thrown up field-works. They posted their artillery in a position to command the whole front of the line, and kept up such a steady fire that the Egyptians wa- vered after marching up very bravely, and re- fused to make the final dash. The English general seized the favorable opportunity and ordered a general advance. The horse- artil- lery took a position at close range. General Drury Lowe's dragoons, when the enemy were retreating in good order, rushed upon the Egyptian artillery and seized the guns, which they were unable to bring away, and then sa- bered their way through and through the infan- try, turning the retreat into a complete rout. Sir Garnet Wolseley had the forces on the spot to cope with the Egyptian army, but felt obliged to delay his advance while Arabi was strengthening his defenses, and his own troops and horses were suffering from the torrid cli- mate, because the departments were defective. While, during the next two weeks, he was or- ganizing a commissariat and transport service, and collecting railway material, preparatory to commencing operations in "the interior, Arabi made one more attempt to force the advanced position of the British at Kassassin, and crush MAJOR-GENERAL G. GRAHAM. [He commanded the Second Brigade. He served with distinction in the Crimea, and received several wounds in that war and in the Chinese war. He •• entered the army in 1850, and attained the rank of Major-General in 1880.] General Graham's command before the move- ment on Tel-el-Kebir, which he knew would not be put off much longer. At dawn on the 254 EGYPT. 9th of September he led up a force consisting of eighteen battalions of his choicest infantry, a considerable body of cavalry, and thirty guns. He occupied a rising ground commanding the British right, but his guns were badly served, and were silenced by the accurate aim of the English cannoneers. The cavalry were checked and rendered useless by the British cavalry. The infantry advanced boldly and steadily to within eight hundred yards of the English line, when a flank movement of Drury Lowe's cav- alry division caused them to hesitate, and the destructive infantry-fire of the English brought them to a stop. On the night of the 12th, the British camp broke up and the baggage was removed to the railway. A force of about 14,000 of all arms left Kassassin and marched in the dark and in silence toward Tel-el-Kebir. The horse-artil- lery and cavalry kept well to the right, so that they might in the engagement sweep around the left flank of the enemy and gain his rear in order to cut off retreat. The army halted be- fore dawn within a thousand yards of the forti- fications without having encountered a single vedette. The battle -line was formed in a semi- circle, threatening the front and both flanks of the enemy. They then marched upon the in- trenchments. The Highland brigade on the left was ordered to carry the first line of in- trenchments with the bayonet before firing. When eight hundred yards away they received a volley of musketry, the first sign of life within the fortifications, upon which they rushed for- ward, cleared the wall, and bayoneted the Egyptians. They encountered a severer fire from the next line of intrenchments, which they returned for a couple of minutes, and then ran forward and carried the works. From be- tween the redoubts they poured a flanking fire into the enemy which withered their ranks and paralyzed their action. The intrenchments on the right were forced with more difficulty by the Irish regiments of Graham's brigade. The outer work was in like manner won with the bayonet. The Egyptians stood their ground and fought well for a time, but at the repeated onsets of relays of fresh troops threw down their arms and fled in confusion. The artillery broke up the fleeing ranks, and the cavalry fol- lowed them up and completed their disorder. The British soldiery were merciless in their use of the victory, slaughtering the wounded in the trenches and the unarmed fugitives with frightful barbarity. The defeat of the Egyptians was very com- plete. The army was scattered, thousands were killed and about 3,000 made prisoners. The guns and camp equipments and vast stores of forage and provisions fell into the hands of the English. The English general acted promptly so as not to give Arabi any time to re-collect his forces. In a few hours Zagazig, where large quantities of locomotives and rolling stock were found, was occupied by Macpher- son, and Belbeis by Lowe, and on the 15th both generals entered Cairo. Here Arabi and several of his principal officers and associates were made prisoners. After Arabi's formidable power was thus crushed at a single blow, many voices in Eng- land called upon the Government to secure the fruits of victory notwithstanding ministerial pledges and protestations of "clean hands." If there were powers who would not begrudge some modification of the status quo ante by the right of conquest, Russia, who had been held by Great Britain under threats of war to the strictest interpretation of the Treaty of Paris, was not one. M. de Giers promptly reminded the English Cabinet of the terms of Lord Salis- bury's circular, and wrote: uThe status quo, territorial and political, must be maintained in Egypt as it has been established by treaties ; and if, as a result of the late events, changes are recognized as necessary, Europe alone is competent to decree and enforce them. The conference has never been contested by the English Government." The position of the Control was according to the promises of Eng- land stronger than ever, since the war had been undertaken to establish the rights which it claimed over the Government of Egypt. France protested when the British Government pro- posed to abolish the Control and rejected the substitute proffered of a debt commission. The Controllers sat in the councils of the ministers at first the same as before. After a while the English Controller absented himself, and was at last recalled. The Control was thus practically abolished. The actual administration fell again into the hands of the old official class, the Turks and Circassians, and exhibited the old vices of bribery and extortion, which were remedied under the Control. The reorganization of the military establish- ment of Egypt was claimed as the right of the victors, and it was understood that the English should settle upon a scheme for a gendarmerie to suit themselves, and which they could keep under their influence. Baker Pasha, a British officer, who was serving the Sultan as chief of the engineer department, was summoned to organize the new army. Although the Sultan refused to give him his discharge, he came and matured schemes for the replacement of the national army with foreign mercenaries. The Khedive called to himself a ministry, of which Sherif Pasha was chief. He took the portfolio of Minister for Foreign Affairs ; Riaz Pasha that of Minister of the Interior; Omar Pasha Lufti became Minister of War and Ma- rine ; Ali-Mubarek Pasha, Minister of Public Works ; Haidar Pasha, Minister of Finance ; Khairy Pasha, Minister of Public Instruction ; Fakhri Pasha, Minister of Justice ; Zeki Pasha, Minister of Wakfs ; Ismail Eyoub Pasha, Min- ister for the Soodan. The first act of the Government, on the advice of the Controllers, was to create an international commission to adjudicate upon the claims of foreigners for compensation on account of losses sustained EGYPT. EGYPTOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 255 from the insurrection. The claims were ap- praised at $10,000,000 for property plundered and destroyed at Alexandria, $7,500,000 for buildings burned in the city, and $5,000,000 for losses in other localities. Arabi Pasha and the other members of the provisional government were brought to trial before a military tribunal. Arabi was allowed English counsel and the English authorities in- terested themselves to save him from death, Avhich is usually the fate of the leaders of un- successful political movements within the Turk- ish Empire, after it was proved that he had no complicity in the June riots nor in the sacking of Alexandria. Moreover, it would have been inconvenient to the British Government to publish the correspondence which was discov- ered, showing the connection of the Sultan with the Egyptian revolution. Arabi, on the advice of his counsel, pleaded guilty to the charge of " rebellion." Sentence of death was pronounced against him and his colleagues, which, according to a previous understanding, was commuted by the Khedive to perpetual banishment. The British colony of Ceylon was designated as the place of exile, whither Arabi, Mahmoud Sahmi, and Toulba were con- veyed and maintained in safe retirement. THE FALSE PROPHET. — While the Egyptian revolution was being suppressed with British arms, another revolution was enacted in the remote provinces of the Soodan. The inhabit- ants of these provinces have suffered greatly under Egyptian rule from the oppressive taxes of the Government, and still more from the corrupt officials and* farmers of the taxes. They are negroes, with an occasional mingling of Arab blood. These dark races are fanatical Mohammedans. They make brave and hardy soldiers, and have furnished the only good ma- terial for the Egyptian army. A man named Mohammed Achmet, a boat-builder by trade, born in the region of Dongola, on the western bank of the Nile, proclaimed himself the ex- pected Mehdi, or successor to the Great Proph- et and deliverer of the people. He soon ob- tained a large following among these supersti- tious people who had felt oppression. A small force of soldiers attempted to dislodge him from the island of Abbas, 200 miles south of Khartoom, but were slain to the last man be- fore they fired a shot. The pretended prophet withdrew after this exploit to a safe position in a wild mountain about ninety miles north- west of the penal colony and military station of Fashoda. The Baggara Arabs, the former slave-hunters of the White Nile, joined his standard in great numbers. A new Governor of Fashoda attempted to distinguish himself by leading an expedition against the rebels. He and all but 70 of his 800 soldiers were killed. In June Giegler Pasha, who succeeded Raouf Pasha as governor-general, sent the largest force that he could muster, 3,500 Egyp- tian regulars, against the Mehdi. They met him at the head of 7,000 men near Kordofan. Although the rebels were mostly armed with spears, the Egyptian troops could not stand their onset. They threw down their arms and fled, the greater part of the force was destroyed, and the victorious Mohammed Achmet marched upon Sennaar. For several months he was sole master of the Soodan. After the British con- quest an expedition was organized and sent to the White Nile to put down the pretended Messiah. The strong places on the eastern side of the river were recovered. The Mehdi suffered a severe repulse with losses reported to be over 15,000, when attempting to besiege Obey ad, the capital of Kordofan. He then laid siege to the town, but afterward withdrew to Birkeh, where, in December, he was reor- ganizing his troops and awaiting re-enforce- ments from Bahr-el-Gazal and Darfoor. EGYPTOLOGICAL AND ASSYRIOLOG- ICAL RESEARCH. Our knowledge of re- mote antiquity and of the primitive condition of the historical nations has been vastly en- larged, and is still being enriched at a rapid rate, by the examination of the ruins of the ancient cities and monuments of Egypt and the Mesopotamian empires — resources which were wholly unknown to our ancestors, and the value of which had hardly begun to receive adequate appreciation a generation ago. These investigations have received a powerful im- pulse within the last two or three years by the publication of discoveries of great importance which have been made in Egypt, Assyria, Baby- lonia, and Syria, and are now prosecuted with more vigor and intelligence than ever before. The work was hardly interrupted by the war in Egypt, which, coining in the idle season, when active out-of-door operations were not practicable, caused at most a temporary appre- hension that the stores of relics and records accumulated at Boolak might be in danger of pillage by the insurgents. Happily, these fears were not justified ; and since the war was closed, the museum at Boolak has been reno- vated, enlarged, and rearranged, and now has double the capacity it had before, and a vastly increased value. Work in the cabinet has in the mean time gone on without intermission ; and excavations have been begun again, on a liberal and systematic scale, from which further dis- coveries of value may be anticipated. Before describing the results of the latest investiga- tions in the fields of prehistoric research, it will be proper to review the conclusions which had already been reached respecting the periods and conditions of the most ancient empires. EGYPTIAN CHRONOLOGY. — The results of the investigations in Egyptian antiquities are such as to establish, according to, the most moderate calculation, the existence of the Egyptian mon- archy 1,500 years at the least, but probably more than 2,000 years before the birth of Moses, which is placed at 1,571 years before the Chris- tian era. But 1,500 years before Moses, who was 1,571 years before Christ, who was 1,882 256 EGYPTOLOGICAL AND ASSYRIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. years before the present time, takes us back 4,952 years, or about 5,000 years ago. The materials for these investigations con- sist of the inscriptions on monuments, in tem- ples and tombs, and the writings on papyrus. The immense collection of these inscriptions or texts which has been made is only a fragment of those which exist. To copy those alone in the temple of Denderah, of which every square foot of the walls is covered with pictures or texts, would be the work of years. The in- scriptions of a single tomb are often as com- paratively abundant as those at Denderah. Nevertheless, the work of destruction has been going on for ages. Abd-el-Latif, a learned Ara- bian writer of the middle ages, tells, in his de- scription of Egypt, that the ruins of Memphis in his time extended half a day's journey in every direction. But of Memphis there is at present hardly a trace left. And other great cities known to ancient travelers have disap- peared with their monuments. Mummy-cases and coffins, with most interesting inscriptions, have for centuries been used for fuel, and in- numerable manuscripts have suffered the same fate. NATURE OF THE MATERIALS. — Most of the documents, according to the views of M. Re- nouf,* here presented very fully, which have come down to us, are of a religious character. The principal reason of which is, that all the ancient monuments of Egypt have perished except some which were necessarily of a re- ligious nature — the temples and the tombs. The palaces of kings and nobles have utterly disappeared. It should be stated that the system of reck- oning periods of the Egyptians was not by cen- turies, or eras and dates, but by reigns and dy- nasties ; thus the Exodus described in the Pen- tateuch took place in the fourth reign of the nineteenth dynasty, which was about fifteen hundred years before the Christian era; and in going back from the Roman conquest of Egypt to the first years of the seventh century before the Christian era, which is the advent of the twenty-sixth dynasty, the chronology is exact. But the principal defects in estimating the periods are various. The duration of a reign, or of a dynasty, is sometimes very far from being known ; they may also have been local or simultaneous, and until all these points are cleared up a complete Egyptian chronology is impossible. But the nature of the undisputed evidence upon which relative dates are assigned to the various periods of Egyptian civilization, and which imperatively demand that a very early date indeed should be assigned to the origin of that civilization, should be stated. There is not a single monument known which in its bear- ings upon chronology is liable to the charge of numerical exaggeration. They never speak of * " The Origin and Growth of Eeligion, as illustrated by the Religion of Ancient Esrypt." By P. Le Page Eenouf. (Hibbert Lectures for 1879.) contemporary events. Dates are given by the year of the reigning king. This is never so high as to justify a doubt. The manifest de- fect of such inscriptions for chronological pur- poses is, that the last monumental year, which happens to be preserved to us, of a king, is not necessarily the last of his reign. An error of several years is possible in each reign when there is no direct evidence to the contrary. But the error is not on the side of exagger- ated numbers. Still more important than the monuments which mention the year of a king, are those in which two or more sovereigns of the same period are mentioned, especially if their succession or other precise data are given. Such is the treaty made in the twenty -first year of his reign between Rameses II and the King of the Cheta, wherein Rameses II calls himself the son of Seti I, who in turn is called the son of Rameses I. There is a very large number of inscriptions belonging to personages who have been born in one reign and died in another, or who have served several kings in succession. And the inscriptions of the same period naturally confirm one another, or sup- ply details which are missing. SERIES OF INSCRIPTIONS. — The most remark- able series of inscriptions which have been utilized for chronological purposes consists of those relating to the Apis bulls, the wonderful tombs of which were discovered by M. Mari- ette. One of these sacred animals was born in the twenty-eighth year of King Sheshonk III, lived twenty years, and died in the second year of Pamai. Another Apis was born in the twenty-sixth year of Taharqa, and died in the twentieth year of Psammitechus I. A hun- dred and sixty-eight tablets in honor of this one Apis have been found, of which fifty-three are dated. Many other like instances could be mentioned. Documents of this kind bring us down past the time of Cambyses, and even into the Ptolemaic period ; that is, into a period of well-ascertained chronology. By means of these inscriptions alone it is possible to go back from Cambyses to the first year of Ta- harqa, about seven hundred years before Christ, the limit of possible error being two or three years at the utmost. With Taharqa — the Tir- haka of Scripture, who was the last king of the twenty-fifth dynasty — begins the latest period of the history of the Pharaohs. The first kind of monuments herein de- scribed is useful, as furnishing the highest at- tainable monumental year of a reign ; the second kind enables us, besides, to determine the order of succession of reigns. Both these kinds of monuments are contemporaneous with the persons and events mentioned upon them. But besides these there are monuments giving long lists of sovereigns, all of whom can not have been contemporaneous. Such are the famous tablets of Abydos, that of Saqara, the chamber of Karnak, and some others. In the chamber of Karnak, Thothmes III is repre- sented as making an offering to sixty-one of EGYPTOLOGICAL AND ASSYEIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 257 his royal predecessors, whose names are given. At Abydos, Seti I, together with his son Rame- ses, then heir-apparent, offers incense to no less than seventy-six kings. It will be remem- bered that the Israelites in bondage are said to have been employed in building the treasure cities, as the Hebrew meschenoth is commonly translated, or rather sanctuaries, of Pithotn and Rameses. It may be considered* abso- lutely certain that no place in Egypt ever had the name of Rameses till the appearance of the celebrated hero of that name, who is actually represented on this monument as the son and heir-apparent of Seti I ; neither will any instance or occurrence of the name ever be found, it is believed, more ancient than that of Rameses I, the grandfather of the great conqueror. Now, if this tablet of Abydos is correct, seventy-six kings — that is, very many more kings than can be counted in English history — must have reigned over Egypt before the first books of the Bible were written. But if we go back in English history to Ethelred II, in 976, we shall find that not more than forty-four sovereigns have reigned during a thousand years, and the average length of an Egyptian king's reign can not be shown to be shorter than that of an English sovereign. TABLET OF ABYDOS. — But are the names on the tablet of Abydos those of real personages or of imaginary ones? There is but one way of settling this question, and that is by looking out for evidence which will confirm or contradict these royal lists. As far as the test of verifi- cation has been applied to these lists, there is no reason whatever for distrusting them. In- stead of admitting the names of sovereigns who have never lived, they have, for certain reasons, omitted the names of many the exist- ence of whom is quite certain. The intention of the tablets was not historical or chronolog- ical, but simply devotional, and the selection and arrangement of names consequently vary, though the most considerable names are the same in all. M. de Rouge has carefully studied all the monuments which belong to the first six dynasties, t The earliest monuments that can be found belong to King Senefru, the twen- tieth on the list of Abydos; and from this king till the thirty-eighth on the list the evi- dence is complete, and the order of succession thoroughly established by independent inscrip- tions contemporaneous with the sovereigns of whom they speak. The same truth may be asserted of the twelfth dynasty, which in the tablet of Abydos is represented by numbers 59 to 65. The number of monuments accu- rately dated belonging to this period is very considerable. They are all perfectly consistent with one another, and leave no doubt as to the length of each reign, and of the whole dynasty. But it is important to notice the omissions of this tablet. The most beautiful monuments * Le Page Renouf on the religion of ancient Egrypt. t " Recherches sur les monuments qu'on peut attribuer aux six premieres dynasties de Manethon," Paris, 18G6. VOL. xxii.— 17 A of the eighteenth dynasty were constructed by the powerful queen Hatasu, sometimes called Hashop, daughter of Thothmes I, who asso- ciated her with him. She reigned for some years, either alone or in conjunction with her brothers, Thothmes II and III, successively; but her name and memory were persecuted by the latter, who resented her dominion over him during his minority. Her name does not appear in the tablet of Abydos. There is also an interval between the reigns of Amenhotep III and Hor-em-heb, which chronologically is filled up by the period of the sun-disk worship- pers. The former was followed by a king, the fourth of the same name, who dropped it when he assumed that of Chut-en-Aten, as the found- er of a new religion, which had a short-lived success. His attempts at reformation led to his exclusion from the lists of the legitimate kings. There is monumental evidence of one or two reigns of short duration before that of Hor-em-heb. The omission of the heretical sovereigns is easily accounted for. But no satisfactory explanation has yet been given of the omission of a large number of names be- tween the end of the twelfth and the begin- ning of the eighteenth dynasty. The immedi- ate passage on the tablet from one of these dynasties to the other can not mean that the king numbered 65 was followed by the king numbered 66, who is Aahmes I. King Sek- enen-Ra was his predecessor, and there were even three kings of that name, and their tombs have been found at Thebes. The tablet of Ameniseub, in the Louvre, belongs to the reign of a king anterior to the eighteenth dy- nasty, but later than the twelfth. The inter- val between these dynasties must have been very considerable. The time immediately pre- ceding the eighteenth dynasty was the period of the foreign domination, generally known as that of the Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings. But it is impossible to ascertain from Egyptian records when this period began, and how long it lasted. The 511 years ascribed to it by Manetho, as quoted by Josephus, must remain subject to future verification. The only evidence from Egyptian sources is a monument of Rameses II, dated from the four hundredth year of one of these kings of foreign origin. But a con- siderable number of native kings must have reigned between the last king of the twelfth dynasty and the beginning of the foreign in- vasion. Perhaps the most interesting monu- ment of this period is the colossal statue of the king Semench-ka-Ra (the eighteenth king of the thirteenth dynasty, according to the royal Turin papyrus), on the right shoulder of which one of the foreign kings has had his name en- graved in hieroglyphic characters. Of the kings of the eleventh dynasty only two, num- bers 57 and 58, appear on the tablet of Abydos. Very interesting inscriptions belonging to their reigns are still extant, but other kings of the same names are known not only by inscrip- tions, but by their coffins. Of one of them, 258 EGYPTOLOGICAL AND ASSYRIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. Mentuhotep III, dates have been found as high as his forty-third year. Evidence like this proves that there is no exaggeration in the list of Abydos, which does not aim to present a complete list of kings, but only mentions those know of the chronology of Egypt: 1. In go- ing back from the Roman conquest to the first years of the seventh century, the time of the advent of the twenty-sixth dynasty, the chro- nology is exact. 2. On ascending from that for whom Seti I had a special devotion. The date to the commencement of the eighteenth disappearance of Memphis and other great cities is sufficient to account for the absence of monumental evidence for some of the reigns. But a want of space will not permit us to con- sider further the nature of the evidence. SPLENDOR OF THE ORIGINAL MONUMENTS. — No correct ideas can be formed at the present time of the original splendor of the great pyra- mids. " The smooth casing of part of the top of the second pyramid," says Dean Stanley, " and the magnificent granite blocks which form the lower stages of the third, serve to show what they must have been all from top to bottom ; the first and second, brilliant white or yellow limestone, smooth from top to bot- DECAZ OP FIVE THOUSAND TEARS OX THE GREAT PYRAMID. torn, instead of those rude, disjointed masses which their stripped sides now present; the third all glowing with the red granite from the first cataract. As it is, they have the barba- rous look of Stonehenge ; but then they must have shone with the polish of an age already rich with civilization, and that the more re- markable, when it is remembered that these granite blocks which furnish the outside of the third, and inside of the first, must have come all the way from the first cataract. It also seems, from Herodotus and others, that these smooth outsides were covered with sculp- tures." * WHAT is THE AMOUNT OF THE TESTIMONY ? — The aggregate testimony of the Egyptian monu- ments, interpreted by M. de Rouge in 1865, warrants the following summary of all we * " SinailmdTalestine," p. 57. century, the period of the liberation of the country by the expulsion of the Asiatic con- querors, called Hyksos or Shepherd Kings, the approximate chronology becomes much less precise, in general, as one ascends upward, and is probably arrested near the eighteenth cen- tury before the Christian era. The end of the fourteenth and the beginning of the fifteenth centuries afford two points of data by coinci- dences of events, one astronomical and the other historical ; the first belongs to the sec- ond reign of the twentieth dynasty, and the second, that of the exodus, to the fourth reign of the nineteenth dynasty. The eighteenth dynasty is rich in monuments of every kind— historical and religious, literary and artistic. The same is true of the succeeding dynasty down to the time in which Moses probably lived. That period comprises the golden age of the later ar- chitecture and of Egypt- ian literature. A little poem, almost contempo- rary with the birth of the prophet, and of which there are three copies, can be put by the side of one of the most beautiful chants of the Iliad ; even then a series of magnifi- cent specimens of relig- ious lyric poetry had com- menced. The period of the domination of the Hyksos, during which the national kings were ban ished to the south, in humble situation, retai in the documents of Egypt, scarcely anythin^ that is edifying, and even the thirteenth dy nasty can be only most imperfectly resto: But, on going back to the twelfth * dynasty, such an abundance of contemporary texts are found that the history and duration of the dynasty, which was a little more than two hundred years, can be reconstructed with very great precision. Then comes another pe- riod that is very obscure, most probably one of division and anarchy, or of foreign invasion, the duration of which is unknown. But be- yond this is the series of the sixth, fifth, and fourth dynasties, of which the inscriptions and religious paintings and funerals manifest the constitution of the administration of affairs, and almost the etiquette of the court, also de- tails of the funeral rites and of domestic life, heTake~Mceri8 and the~Labyrmth. EGYPTOLOGICAL AND ASSYKIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 259 to the time when the chronological reckoning is lost. Beyond, scarcely anything is known more than that the third as well as the fourth dynasty had its seat at Memphis, and the first two their seats at This; perhaps the kingdom of Thinites was contemporary with the former dynasties. Thus, before Moses, were three very long periods, separated from one another by unde- termined intervals, each of which abounds in texts of every kind preserved in the original. There is also a great work on Egyptian theol- ogy of more than a hundred and sixty chap- ters, of which a part exists in manuscripts an- terior to Moses, some portions of which are engraved on one or more sepulchres anterior even to the twelfth dynasty. Concerning the value of the conclusions drawn from the hiero- glyphic writings, it is proper to say that though they often present subtilties hard to compre- hend, and grammatical difficulties, the princi- ples on which they are used and their general meaning have been carefully and intelligently studied out, and no room has been left for any serious mistake in the matter. Great aid has been rendered in the study and translation of the Coptic, the liturgical language of the na- tive Christians, which it has been found is hardly more different from Pharaonic Egyp- tian than Italian from Latin. Numerous monuments exist in the region of the Euphrates and the Tigris, the country of the Abrahamic ancestors of Israel, with in- scriptions in the cuneiform characters, and texts preserved on cylinders of clay, which, besides being of the greatest historical value, give important information concerning polit- ical conditions and the religious beliefs and rites of many centuries anterior to Moses. These texts present a doctrine remarkably different from the later Babylonian religion with which that of the Assyrians, or Nine- vites, was nearly identical. It is known by numerous texts and accordances during a long succession of centuries. The difference of the two doctrines does not represent the simple opposition of a sect, but rather a distinction of races marked by one of languages. The documents of that country which are not Babylonian are written in an idiom called Su- merian by M. Oppert and Accadian by M. Lenormant, or rather two dialects distinguished by those names, representing a language analo- gous to that of ancient Media. The preserved copies of the Suinerian or Accadian mythological texts came from a royal library (of clay cylinders) of the seventh cen- tury before the Christian era, where they were preserved with, and without, Assyrian transla- tions ; the texts themselves go back to an epoch very ancient, and far anterior to the fif- teenth century B. o. Among them also is a mythological epic poem in the Babylonian lan- guage, in which there is a recital of the Deluge nearly like that in the book of Genesis. Ascending further back into the pre-monu- mental periods from which these texts descend, we draw nearer to a monotheism of which the character is more or less exalted, or more or less gross, according to the races of men ; and which passes very easily into a real polytheism, but which, nevertheless, manifests itself as a point of departure, and not as a point of arrival. M. Pictet, in his "Origines Indo-Euro- pe>nes," establishes also the spiritualistic char- acter of the primitive civilization of the whole .Aryan race, by going back to the epoch when the Hindoos, Slavs, Iranians, Celts, Hellenes, and Germans, lived together and spoke only one language ; or, to express it more precisely, by ascending up to the epoch when the com- mon ancestors of all these people formed only one great Japhetic tribe. The common roots of different Indo-European languages, express- ing sensible objects, have enabled him to recog- nize very many elements, both material and intellectual, of the ancient civilization, which was that of our common ancestors; and the proper signification and etymological relations established by the comparison of words repre- senting moral and religious habits, offer a for- cible and solid answer to that hypothesis which assumes that the point of departure of the hu- man race was from a bestial state. There are extensive and numerous Egyptian texts ascending up to the epoch of the sixth, fifth, and fourth dynasties, and some lines whose date was at the end of the third dy- nasty. It was during the fourth dynasty that the great pyramids of Gezeh were built. The in- scriptions are most frequently funereal. There is found, also, in one of the tombs of that epoch, an autobiography of a high functionary, a real page of contemporary history. There is also, on papyrus, a book on morals and religion, composed a very few generations after the con- struction of the great pyramids ; and a copy of that book which has been traced to the time of the ninth dynasty, a number of centuries anterior to Moses. Religions and historical texts abound on the monuments of the twelfth dynasty ; and the eighteenth dynasty,which is wholly anterior not only to the writing of the Pentateuch, but probably to the birth of Moses, is one of the richest in monuments of every kind ; and these monuments have been deco- rated with a profusion of hieroglyphic texts. At the age of the pyramids, an epoch which nearly touches the cradle of the Egyptian mon- archy, probably but little separated from the first dispersion of the descendants of Noe, the fundamental principle of the religion of Egypt was monotheism, or one God. But very early also, the imperfect language of that theology, the figurative denominations by which it ex- pressed the attributes or the acts of the divin- ity, afforded an occasion for polytheistic and mythological interpretations which, without doubt, dominated the popular sentiment of an epoch very remote. Mythological polytheism grows toward the Graaco-Roman period. Monotheism becomes 260 EGYPTOLOGICAL AND ASSYRIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. enfeebled and obscured as the centuries from a more remote antiquity accumulate. In 1855, in a summary notice of the Egyp- tian monuments of the Louvre, M. de Rouge thus expressed himself : " It will be very in- correct to think that the multitude of divinities adored by the Egyptians had completely oblit- erated from their minds the knowledge of the Supreme God, whatever may be the local name which they gave to hirn. He is often desig- nated by expressions which do not permit a doubt on that point. * He is the only being in truth living,' said the sacred legends ; ' He has given birth to all beings and to all inferior Gods ' ; ' He has made all things, and he has not been made ' ; finally, ' He has begotten him- self.' " The Egypt which Menes united under his scepter was divided into nomes, having each a capital city ; each one of these regions had its principal deity, designated by a special name ; bat it is always the same doctrine that is ex- pressed by the different names. "God is the creator''; "He has made the heavens," " He has created the earth," " He has made all things which exist." "Thou art alone, and the millions of beings come from thee " ; " He is the Lord of beings and of non- beings." These texts are at least fifteen hun- dred years older than Moses. " God has regulated the order of nature." From him comes likewise the moral element. Murder, theft, adultery, fraud, are pursued in his name through all the details of social life. The sanction to that morality which is so com- plete is not wanting: it is the immortality of the soul. A treatise on morals, called by M. Ohabas the oldest book in the world, is the work of Phata-Hoteph, a son of King Assa. This be- longs to the fifth dynasty, and invokes Osiris ; but this Osiris, the only god of Egypt named in the manuscript, is the abstract idea of the divinity. It occurs frequently in the text. The same name Osiris signifies the seat of ac- tion, that is to say, he who made all things. A sarcophagus of the eleventh dynasty bears these words, which have been found in the seventeenth chapter of the treatise of Phata- Hoteph: " I am the great existence by myself ; I am the law of the existence of beings." In that chapter seventeen is also clearly ex- pressed the idea of purification necessary to a human being, and that of moral responsibility is very lengthily explained to the hundred and twentieth chapter, where are enumerated the faults of which the deceased should be inno- cent in order to be deified in the other world ; an enumeration which expresses, especially in the most ancient manuscripts, a very elevated moral sense. In the new Egyptian empire, which com- menced with the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, the mythology is more developed ; but the current of the ancient traditions con- tinues to struggle against the invasion of poetic or popular dreams. At the beginning of the nineteenth dynasty, the period of the youth and ripe age of Moses, is clearly seen the tradition of the sanctuaries still maintaining itself in the liturgic poetry. M. MARIETTE'S RESEARCHES IN EGYPT. — Extensive excavations were conducted in Egypt for several years previous to 1881, under the direction of M. Auguste Mariette, more re- cently known as Mariette Pasha, who, after spending four years on his own account in ex- ploring and laying open the remains of the Serapeum, or tomb of the Apis bulls at Mem- phis, was appointed by the Khedive Ismail Conservator of Monuments to the Egyptian Government, a position which he held for more than twenty-five years, till his death, in Jan- uary, 1881. His works were executed in dif- ferent parts of the country where objects of prominent interest could be looked for, and included the disinter in ent of the magnificent temples of Denderah and Edfoo, and the re- covery of thousands of valuable inscriptions ; the uncovering of the Sphinx, and the dis- covery of the mysterious building known as the Temple of the Sphinx ; extensive opera- tions at Karnak, Deir-el-Baharee, Medinet Haboo, and Abydos; the projection of a sys- tematic exploration of the pyramids, beginning with those at Memphis and Sakkara ; and the formation of the museum at Boolak, where it is designed to store and preserve, under the eye of the Government, all the portable antiquities that may be found. At the time of his death M. Mariette was contemplating, in further in- vestigation, the search for, and exploration of, the ruins of This or Teni, the seat of the foundation of the empire and of the royal house of Menes ; the examination of the wall- decorations of the tombs of the ancient em- pire, which, formerly supposed to represent actual scenes in the life of the deceased, he believed, from the uniformity of their charac- ter, and other evidences of their ideality, rather to shadow forth the views of the future life, and to be capable of affording valuable illus- trations of the ritual and theology of the Egyptians; and a more thorough examination of the Sphinx, to discover whether there be a tomb, or chamber, hidden within it. OPENING OF PYRAMIDS. — The work begun by M. Mariette was taken up where he left it by his successor, M. Maspero, who, with Dr. Brugsch, is continuing it on the same general plan, and with the same ultimate ends in view, that were entertained by him. Among M. Mariette's last work was the opening of three of the pyramids at Sakkara : those marked on Perring's Map of the Pyramids as numbers 5, 6, and 8. The last-mentioned pyramid was found to be bare. Of the other two, number 5 proved to be the pyramid of Pepi Rameri, and number 6 that of his son and successor, Me- renra, of the sixth dynasty, two of the most distinguished monarchs of the ancient empire, of whose reigns we have also in the biography EGYPTOLOGICAL AND ASSYRIOLOGIOAL RESEARCH. 261 of a high officer, Una, who served under them, the most satisfactory contemporary record yet discovered in the tombs. The pyramid of Pepi, who is supposed to be the Phiops II of Manetho, contained two chambers, only one of which is accessible. The walls of this one bore long and remarkable inscriptions, while fragments of other inscriptions were lying around on the floors. The sarcophagus, of basalt, had been partly destroyed, but was seen to be of extraordinary massiveness, being 106*5 inches in length, with the sides 12'2 and the bottom 20 inches in thickness. It con- tained a wooden coffin, with a body, not em- balmed, but wrapped in a cerement of very fine linen, steeped, probably, in cedar-oil, which was removed to Boolak. The sarcophagus bore the inscription, " The Life of the King of Egypt, Ra * * * i [Rameri], the Ever-living." Near the sarcophagus was a monolithic square box or well, of granite, with a lid of granite propped up, but without grooves or pin-holes. The inscriptions in the chamber relate entirely to the religion, and not at all to the history, of the king. In them he is always named Pepi, the second name not occurring in the chamber itself, but only in the passage, where it is un- mutilated, and may be read easily as Rameri. Many places are named, among them An (Heli- opolis) and Abood (Abydos), but not Thebes. Professor Maspero began his work, in Feb- ruary and March, 1881, with the opening of Pyramid No. 4, of Perring's map, which proved to be that of Unas, the last king of the fifth dynasty, a monarch whose name — erroneously, as it now appears — had been before associated with the flat-topped pyramid known as the Mas- tabat-el-Faraoon. The chamber had already been violated by the tomb -breakers of the Graeco-Roman period. The corridor was lined with polished granite and fine limestone, the latter covered with hieroglyphics filled in with green, and the ceiling was adorned with stars of the same color. This passage led into a chamber with inscribed walls, whence another corridor led to a chamber containing niches for funereal statues, and thence a passage next ending in the burial - chamber of the king. Three of the walls of this chamber were cov- ered with inscriptions, and the fourth wall with fine alabaster richly painted with decorative designs. The texts on the walls are almost identical with those upon the walls of the tomb of Pepi Rameri, and are similar to other texts found on certain little-known tombs at Thebes. The sarcophagus was of black basalt, with no inscription. The lid lay in one corner of the chamber, and the mummy had been pulled put and broken up, so that only fragments of it were recovered, though it is hoped that other parts of it may be found in the rubbish. M. Maspero next projected the excavation of the pyramid of Meydoum, which is associated with the name of Senefru, the next to the last king of the third dynasty, but his success here was anticipated by the discovery in July, 1881, of the mummies and relics of the kings, queens, and princes of the seventeenth, eight- eenth, nineteenth, and twenty-first dynasties at Deir-el-Baharee, near Thebes. Disco VEKT OF ROYAL MUMMIES AT THEBES. — The existence of an important deposit among the hills west of Thebes had been known for many years to the Arabs, who carried on a lively trade in the relics they took from it, and carefully kept the knowledge of its situation to themselves. The attention of Daoud Pasha and Herr Emil Brugsch was drawn to the matter by the appearance of an unusual number of relics in the market, and they secured the ar- rest of the Arab who appeared to be the lead- ing dealer, and extorted from him a revela- tion of the hiding-place. In a rock chamber hitherto unknown, behind an ancient temple, were found twenty-nine mummies, of which seven were of kings, nine of queens and prin- cesses, and five of persons of distinction, many of them with the flower-wreaths which were de- posited on them at their burial, still lying with- ered on their breasts, 3,700 mortuary statues, a large leather tent or canopy, and a number of papyri, four of which were very large and quite perfect. The mummies had evidently been brought to the place in haste, and had been deposited there in some confusion. Some of them were in cases not their own, and sev- eral cases were without occupants. The iden- tification of them was consequently difficult for a little time; but the following list, which is arranged by dynasties, was finally determined upon as correct. The asterisk indicates a mum- my-case from which the mummy which is pre- sumed to have been originally present, but af- terward removed or stolen, is missing. SEVENTEENTH DYNASTY. — (Approximate date) B. c. 1750 to B. o. 1703. King Rasekenen Taaken, Queen Ansera. EIGHTEENTH DYNASTY. — (Approximate date) B. c. 1703 to B. c. 1462. King Ahmes Ra-neb-pehti (who completed the expulsion of the Shepherd Kings), Queen Ahmes Nofretari, Queen Aah-hotep, Queen Merit -Amen, Queen Hotimoohoo, Prince Se Amen, Princess Set-Amen, King Amenhotep I, King Thothmes I,* King Thothmes II, King Thothmes III, Queen Sitka. NINETEENTH DY- NASTY.— (Approximate date) B. o. 1462 to B. c. 1288. King Rameses I,* King Seti I, King Rameses II (the Sesostris of the Greeks, and regarded by most Egyptologists as the Pharaoh under whom Moses was brought up). TWEN- TIETH DYNASTY. — Not represented. TWENTY- FIRST DYNASTY. — (Approximate date) B. o. 1110 to — ? Queen Notem - Maut, King and High- Priest Pinotem I, King Pinotem II, Prince and High -Priest Masahirti, Queen Hathor Hout Taui, Queen Makara, Queen Isi-em-kheb, Prin- cess Nasi Khonsu, Prince Tat-f-Ankh, Nebseni (a priest), Noi Shounap (a priest). It is sup- posed, and some hieratic inscriptions made on the mummy-cases of Seti I and Rameses II at the time of the removal confirm the sup- position, that the mummies and treasures were 2Q2 EGYPTOLOGICAL AND ASSYRIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. removed to this spot during some time of dis- order, for concealment and preservation. THE PYRAMID OF SENEFRU, AT MEYDOTJM. — The discovery of the entrance to the pyramid of Senefru, at Meydoum, was published at the beginning of 1882. This pyramid is called by the Arabs the false pyramid, because they be- lieve it to be formed of the rock itself. It is built in three stages, each of which is inclined excavations of them for the purpose of learn- ing their real significance. Dr. Brugsch Pasha and M. E. Revillout have begun a study of the demotic papyri of the times from the twenty- sixth dynasty down, of which several thousand documents exist in the European libraries. The demotic was the business and familiar hand of the Egyptians, and these papyri are expected to throw a flood of light upon their THE PYRAMID OP MEIDOUM. at an angle of 74° 10', and rises to a height of one hundred and twenty-two feet from the midst of a high hill of fallen masonry and rub- ble. The outer masonry is of admirable work- manship, and the general effect of the struct- ure is imposing. The pyramid proved to be formed, for at least half its height, around a core of natural rock. The entrance gave ac- cess to a steep descending passage leading down into the living rock, with chambers constructed on a plan reminding the explorers of that of the corresponding chambers of the great pyra- mid. No inscriptions were found except brief hieratic writings recording the visit of two scribes in the twentieth dynasty. This pyra- mid is considered to be nearly one hundred years older than the great pyramid of Gizeh. Its date would be, according to Brugsch's chro- nology, 3766, according to Mariettas, 4200, B. o. M. Maspero believes that the pyramids, beginning with those of the fourth dynasty at Gizeh and ending with those of the thirteenth dynasty at the Fayoom, represent the tombs in succession of the monarchs of those and the intervening dynasties, whose history is as yet wholly unknown ; and he has, since the conclu- sion of the recent war, resumed his systematic laws, social condition, and every-day and pri- vate transactions. RECENT ASSYRIAN AND BABYLONIAN RE- SEARCHES.— The investigations in the mounds of Assyria and Babylonia continue to furnish information of the highest interest and value. Copies of the records and literary works of hundreds and perhaps thousands of years were accumulated in the library of Assurbanipal at Nineveh, and are now recoverable, in a state more or less mutilated, it is true, but of ap- proaching completeness for many works. An- other library of still older date was discovered in 1881 at Sippara, in Babylonia. The Chal- dean narratives of the creation and the deluge, first brought to notice and translated by Mr. George Smith, from the library of Assurbanipal, have been restudied, retranslated and revised, with the result of depreciating some of the re- semblances which Mr. Smith thought he could trace between them and the Biblical record, but without essentially destroying their general parallelism with the Hebrew sacred narrative. The Assyrian historical narratives are clear and precise, and furnish definite statements of the chronological relations of events to each other, by which their dates according to our EGYPTOLOGICAL AND ASSYEIOLOGICAL RESEARCH. 263 notation can be accurately fixed in many cases to within a few years. In this respect they are of much .greater value than the texts of the Egyptians, who, so far as appears from any of their documents yet discovered, seem to have had no historical sense. The contract tablets, commonly known as the Egibi tablets, extend- ing from the first year of the reign of Nebu- chadnezzar II to the reign of Darius Hystas- pis, give an almost unbroken series of dates, which are in nearly precise agreement with the corresponding dates furnished by the canon of Ptolemy. Among the more recent discov- eries is a document containing a list of about two hundred of the earliest kings of Babylonia, beginning with the first kings after the flood, and apparently corresponding, to a certain ex- tent, with the first six or seven dynasties of Berosus. Investigations at Tel-loh, the Zirgul of antiquity, by M. de Sarzec and Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, working independently of each other, have brought to light relics of kings of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries before Christ, and statues and inscriptions indicating that the earlier period of Chaldean art was better than the later, or Assyrian period. A tablet found here, a copy of the original work, gives a synchronous history of Assyria and Babylonia, relating the occasions when, either for peace or war, the rival monarchies came into contact, and enables us to determine the dates of their kings and to reconcile some dis- crepancies that seemed to exist in other lists. The events treated of in this document occurred between 1400 and 891 B. c. At Aboo-haba, about sixteen miles southwest of Bagdad, Mr. Rassam has discovered the ruins of Sippara, the seat of the sun-god worship, one of the most ancient cities of Babylonia, and the place where, according to the story of the deluge as related by Berosus, Xisuthrus buried the tab- lets giving the account of the flood, and "the history of the beginning, progress, and end of all things." Here Mr. Rassam was so fortu- nate as to find, almost at the beginning of his investigations, the temple of the sun-god itself, and within it a memorial stone bearing figures emblematic of the sun-worship, and inscrip- tions, among which were the words, "To the Sun-god, the great lord, dwelling in Bit-Parra, which is within the city of Sippara." The stone is dated in the reign of Nabupaliddina, of the ninth century B. c., and speaks of the de- struction of the original temple by invaders called the Sutu ; then relates that Simas Sigu, the fortieth in the list of two hundred early kings already referred to, commenced its res- toration, and that the work was carried on by another monarch, E-Ulbar-Sakin-Sumi, or E- Ulbargarmu, but that it remained for Nabu- paliddina finally to destroy the Sutu and com- plete the building. The stone seems afterward to have been broken, and repaired and inclosed in an earthen box, in which Mr. Rassam found it, probably in the time of Nabpolasar, and the temple to have been subsequently repaired and adorned by Nabonidus, who placed in it clay cylinders recording the event. The monuments found here indicate the existence of another city of Sippara, called Sippara Anat, which Mr. Rassam also probably identified, and the twin cities are believed to correspond with the Se- pharvaim of the Bible. In the mounds of Hubi Ibrahim, or Tel Ibrahim, some ten miles east of Babylon, Mr. Rassam found the ruins of the city of Cutha, the chief literary and scholastic center of the Babylonians, whence came the " men of Cutha," who were placed in Samaria by the Assyrian conquerors (2 Kings, xvii, 24, 31), and identified there the great temple of the war-god Nergal, "the god of Cutha" of the book of Kings, and his consort Laz. One of the cylinders deposited by Nabonidus in the temple at Sippara, when he made repairs in it, as related above, bears inscriptions in which occurs a statement that when burrowing be- neath the temple, forty-five years after Nebu- chadnezzar had sought for the ancient cylin- ders in vain, he had had revealed to him "the cylinder of Naramsin, son of Sargon, which for 3,200 years no king going before me had seen." These 3,200 years added to the date of Nabo- nidus, say B. o. 550, would give for the date of Naramsin, B. o. 3750, two thousand years ear- lier than the date assigned to him by Mr. George Smith, and about 1,600 years earlier than the earliest date previously definitely specified in the cuneiform inscriptions. The inscriptions of the time of Gudea, one of the earliest monarchs whose statues were found at Telloh, or Zirgul, show that a lively intercourse al- ready existed in his remote time between Chaldea and Egypt. THE HITTITES. — Much advance has been made within three years in the knowledge of the Hittites, of whom little had been known except what was suggested in a few brief ref- erences in the Bible and in the Egyptian ac- counts of their Asiatic wars, where they are called the Kheta. The Hittites have been proved, however, to have been a very consid- erable nation in the ages previous to the Tro- jan war, who probably played as important a part in the history of the world as the Assyri- ans or Egyptians, and of whom Brugsch, call- ing them a " powerful and cultivated people," says that " their rule in the highest antiquity was of an importance which we can now only guess at." They were at times among the most formidable enemies with whom the Egyptians had to contend ; at other times their valuable allies. The first regular treaty of which there is a record, and of which a copy is preserved, was between their king and Rameses II, and contained provisions worthy of the highest civilization of modern times. The study of their monuments, of which the formerly puz- zling and wholly unintelligible inscriptions, called the Hamath inscriptions, were a part, and of other contemporary records, has shown that their empire, or their influence, formerly extended from their southern capital at Ka- 264 ELECTRICAL ENERGY, STORAGE OF. desh on the O rentes to the JEgean Sea; that from the seventeenth century to the twelfth century B. o., they were the leading power of Western Asia, holding the balance of power between Egypt on the one side and Assyria on the other ; and that it was through them that Assyrian civilization was transmitted to the Phoenicians and thence to the Western nations. Their capital, Carchemish, was identified by Mr. J. H. Skene and Mr. George Smith, during the last expedition of the latter gentleman to the East, at Jerablis, on the Euphrates River, a short day's journey south of the town of Bir- edjek. This city gave its name to the Mina of Carchemish, which was for centuries the stand- ard weight throughout Asia Minor, and is men- tioned in the Assyrian inscriptions. A second Hittite capital was identified by Lieutenant Conder in 1881 at Kadesh, on an island in the Orontes River, the present leading topograph- ical features of which are almost exactly re- produced in a representation of the siege of Kadesh on the Egyptian monuments. Two figures of a warrior carved in the rocks at the pass of Karabel, now known to have been es- tablished by the Hittites as evidences of their dominion, have been identified with the figures described by Herodotus as existing in that re- gion, and supposed by him to have been erected by the Egyptian Sesostris as memorials of his conquest. The Egyptian and Chaldean monuments and inscriptions, revealing purer religious no- tions and higher moral principles, and display- ing better taste in design and greater skill in execution the further back in antiquity we trace them, demonstrate that, among historical nations at least, the earliest generations were equal, if not superior, in spiritual discernment, intellectual capacity, and the essentials of civ- ilization, even if they had acquired less of the knowledge that comes from observation (which is not shown), to those which succeeded them. Not till the period of the bloom of the Greek intellect in the age of Pericles do we find evi- dences of as high a civilization as prevailed in the first six Egyptian dynasties and in the earli- est Chaldean empire. ELECTRICAL ENERGY, STORAGE OF. The importance of a thoroughly commercial secon- dary or storage-battery to the future industrial development of electricity can hardly be over- estimated. Without it, the current generated by the dynamo-machine must be used at the time and rate of production ; but with it, this is no longer necessary, as the energy stored up in it by the primary current may be utilized with- in certain limits at any time and rate desirable. Further than this, it allows of electricity being used under circumstances inadmissible with currents direct from a machine, and also en- ables the current to be generated by various sorts of motors which can not well be used when the current is to be directly applied. It en- ables us further to practically convert currents of high tension, which are the most economi- cal to transmit to a distance, into those of low tension suitable for domestic and indus- trial use, and thus becomes a very important factor in any extensive system of distribution, and in the transmission of power. The possibility of storing the energy of an electric current, by means of such a battery, depends upon the fact that the electric battery, like the dynamo-machine, is reversible. As is well known, a dynamo-machine may be used either to generate a current when mechanical power is spent in rotating its armature, or in producing mechanical power when a current is caused to circulate in the coils of its arma- ture. Similarly, a voltaic cell may be made to yield a current of electricity by the perform- ance of chemical work, and then to do chemical work by the expenditure of electrical energy upon it. In the ordinary voltaic cell, the cur- rent is due to the chemical changes undergone by certain materials, commonly zinc and acid. If we burn a piece of zinc in the air, that is, allow it to unite chemically with oxygen, its store of energy runs down and manifests itself as heat, just as the store of energy in coal is given out as heat when the coal is burned. In the electric battery, however, the zinc is burned indirectly, and a part of its energy be- comes available for the maintaining of an elec- tric current. When the zinc has united with the acid to form sulphate of zinc, its store of energy becomes exhausted, and further work can be obtained only by a continued supply of the metallic fuel. If there were no other way of renewing this supply of fuel except by the direct furnishing of more of the metal, such a battery would be useless for any purposes re- quiring a considerable expenditure of energy, owing to the high price of the zinc as compared with coal. There is, however, another way. In the case of coal, there is no way of sepa- rating the carbon from the oxygen with which it has combined in combustion, and our supply of energy can therefore only be maintained by keeping up the supply of the coal. In the case of an electric battery, however, it has been dis- covered that, after the zinc has combined with the oxygen of the liquid, it can be recovered from its solution and again deposited in the metallic form, so as to be again available as a source of energy. To recover this fuel, it is only necessary to send a current of electricity through the battery in the opposite direction to that taken by the current furnished by the battery, when all the operations of the battery will be reversed, and it will again be in a condi- tion to furnish a current. To separate the zinc from the oxygen with which it is combined, of course requires power, and if to exert this power it were necessary to consume zinc in another battery, there would be no gain. But we are not compelled to do this. We can use the vastly cheaper energy of coal to generate our current, through the medium of the dy- namo-machine, and thus produce our battery- current at a cost within the limits of economic ELECTRICAL ENERGY, STORAGE OF. 265 requirements. When we send a current through a battery in this manner, its energy is employed to tear away the zinc from the oxygen with which it is combined. This liberated zinc con- stantly tends to recombine with the oxygen, and in so doing sets up a current opposed to the charging one ; this latter current must, therefore, have a sufficient electro-motive force to prevent this recombination. The counter- electro-motive force manifests itself even in ordinary batteries while they are furnishing a current, resulting in its gradual weakening. In this case a portion of the zinc is separated from the solution by the action of the liber- ated hydrogen, and this zinc in reuniting with the oxygen sets up an opposing current. This action was noticed very shortly after the invention of the voltaic cell, and the im- provements successively made in this cell have been chiefly with a view of preventing, or at least minimizing, this counter-action. The phenomenon to which the name " polarization of the electrodes " was given, was studied by many eminent electricians, but it was not until taken up by M. Gaston Plant6 that it received a thorough and comprehensive treatment, or that a practical form of cell for utilizing the secondary current was produced. Ritter, of Jena, observed the phenomenon of polarization in 1803, while studying the chemical action of currents upon liquids, and later constructed a secondary pile consisting of a series of disks of copper separated by disks of cloth moist- ened with sal-ammoniac. The phenomenon of polarization was placed upon its true basis by the researches of Volta, Marianini, and Schonbein, some years after the experiments of Ritter, and our knowledge of it further enlarged by the labors of Davy, De la Rive, and Faraday. In 1842 Grove con- structed his now well-known gas -battery, which consisted simply of two plates of plat- inum dipped into acidulated water. A cur- rent being passed through this battery, the water is separated into its constituents, oxy- gen and hydrogen. Platinum possesses the property of condensing these gases upon its surface. One of the platinum plates becomes coated with oxygen, and the other with hydro- gen, as the decomposition of liquid proceeds. These gases constantly tend to reunite, and, when the charging current ceases, the energy stored in these separated gases is given out by their recombination — as heat if the gases are mixed and burned, as electric energy if the gases are allowed to recombine through the liq- uid. The subject was taken up in 1860 by M. Plante, who re-examined the whole question, and experimented with many different rnetals as electrodes and many different liquids as elec- trolytes. His experiments resulted in showing that the best results were given with lead elec- trodes immersed in dilute sulphuric acid. Such a cell can furnish no current before it has first been charged by means of a current, as there is no chemical difference between the plates. When, however, a current is sent through the cell, the liquid is decomposed, and the oxygen escaping at one electrode combines with the lead, covering its face with a film of peroxide. Plante found that to get this film sufficiently thick and also to get the other plate in the best form for effective action, the current had to be sent through the cell a great number of times, first in one direction and then in an- other. When the current is reversed, the hy- drogen liberated combines with the oxygen already on one electrode to form water, leaving this plate with a spongy metallic surface which facilitates its conversion into peroxide of lead when the current is again sent in the opposite direction. After being charged and discharged a number of times, the plates are in a shape for effective use, one plate being coated with peroxide of lead, and the other having a spongy, metallic surface. Upon then closing the circuit of the battery a current is produced which continues as long as there is a chemical difference between the two plates, the chemical action which takes place being the partial re- duction of the oxidized plate, and the oxida- tion of the metallic one. Plant6 applied his battery to various industrial uses, chiefly in surgical cautery ; but the time required to pre- pare the cells for use, as also that necessary to store up a charge, was too great, and the capacity was also too small to allow them to have any extended application in the rapidly developing electrical appliances of the present time. In 1880 M. Carnille A. Faure made a change in the Plant6 cell, which, though very simple in itself, was of great industrial impor- tance, as by it the storing capacity of the cell was largely increased, and the time necessary to charge it much reduced. M. Faure's im- provement consisted simply in coating both electrodes mechanically with red-lead. With this construction the oxide on one plate is re- duced, and the other plate further oxidized to the peroxide, when a charging current is sent through the cell. This battery, having an im- mediate commercial value, has been put very prominently before the public, and its merits examined into by a number of competent ex- perts. Since Faure showed that the secondary battery could become commercially service- able, the attention of inventors has been largely turned in this direction, and various different accumulators have been brought out, the object of the improvements being to reduce the weight of material as much as possible in re- lation to its storing power. To this end M. de Meritens has devised a cell in which the lead plates are constructed of thin, overlapping lam- inse arranged in a manner similar to the slats of Venetian blinds. It is more powerful than a Faure cell of the same weight. In another cell, devised by Messrs. Sellon and Volckmar, the lead plates are perforated and the red-lead forced into these perforations, thus giving a much greater amount of the oxide per pound of the metal than when oxide is on the surface 266 ELECTRICAL ENERGY, STORAGE OF. simply. In the accumulator of M. de Kabath, increased surface is obtained by the use of a great number of thin, corrugated plates. Mr. C. F. Brush, the inventor of the well-known arc lamp bearing his name, has also experi- mented extensively with lead accumulators, and has produced one which his company in this country intend to use for supplying incan- descent lamps. His improvements consist in various modes of constructing the plates, so as to render them durable, and increase their storage capacity. A storage-cell, which is in fact a reversible Daniell battery, was devised by Messrs. Thomson and Houston, of this country, in 1879. This cell consists of two sheets of copper placed horizontally one above the other in a solution of sulphate of zinc. The current, in charging, is sent through the battery from the top to the lower plate, when the upper plate dissolves, forming sul- phate of copper, which floats upon the sulphate of zinc. Metallic zinc is deposited upon the lower plate. This cell will yield a current as long as there is a chemical difference between the electrodes ; that is, until the zinc is all re- converted into the sulphate. This has been modified by M. d' Arson val, who makes use of an electrode of lead, or of carbon covered with lead shot, and one of zinc. When the cell is charged, the zinc is deposited upon the zinc plate and the lead peroxidized. A battery which has received very little at- tention, but which seems to be superior to any other yet produced, is one invented by Mr. Henry Button, of Ballarat, Victoria. It was described by him in a paper before the Royal Society, London, in December, 1881. Mr. Sut- ton experimented with both the Plante and Faure batteries, and tried many different com- binations. He finally found that positive elec- trodes of amalgamated lead produced the best results, and, in experimenting with a view to determining the best negative electrode, came to the conclusion that, "by having negative electrodes whose oxides should be soluble in the solution, and which could be redeposited from the solution, or by having metallic solu- tions from which metal could be deposited, the resulting solution being such that should, on the oxidation of the deposited metal, combine with the oxide and again form the original so- lution," he would obtain " a powerful and con- stant source of stored energy." To this end he tried cells in which the negative electrode con- sisted of zinc, iron, or copper, and the positive of amalgamated lead, the liquid being in each case the sulphate of the metal of the negative electrode. Zinc was abandoned, because of the necessity of amalgamating it to prevent local currents, and the iron because of its oxidation when the cell was not in use. The form of cell, therefore, finally adopted consisted of an amalgamated lead plate for the positive and a copper plate for the negative electrode, the liquid being sulphate of copper. The chemi- cal action in this cell, when a current is sent through it, consists in the combination of the oxygen of the decomposed solution with the lead, forming a coating of the insoluble perox- ide, and the replacement of the copper in the solution by the disengaged hydrogen, the cop- per being deposited on the negative plate. "When the action is complete, the positive elec- trode is oxidized, the negative coated with copper, and the solution converted into hydric sulphate and water. In discharging, the cop- per is dissolved in the solution and the lead plate reduced, the cell returning to its original chemical condition. A practical form of the cell consists of a series of amalgamated plates, fitted in grooves in a box, as in Cruikshank's trough-battery, the spaces between the plates being filled with a solution of sulphate of cop- per. The positive sides of the plates then be- come peroxidized, and the negative sides coated with copper. The inventor states that the cell is in every way superior to the Faure, and, wishing to preserve it free from any private claims, he has refrained from taking out any patents upon it. The value of the secondary battery as an element in industrial applications of electricity depends both upon its efficiency — that is, the percentage of the work expended upon it which can be utilized — and upon the cost of production. This latter, of course, depends directly upon the former, and both together determine the investment necessary in any case. It is chiefly as a question of investment that the efficiency has importance, as the item of fuel is a comparatively small one in com- parison with that of the investment in any considerable electrical plant. The Faure is as yet the only cell which has been experimented upon to any extent, but the results so far obtained by different experiment- ers are discordant, and it is not yet known what the efficiency of this cell is. There are certain conditions that must be observed, both in charging and discharging, and if these -are not fulfilled the results may fall very far short of the maximum. If the charging is done too rapidly, part of the energy is wasted as heat in the cell, and if the discharge takes place too quickly, energy is also wasted by the produc- tion of heat. Care must also be taken that the cell is completely discharged. A peculiar- ity of the secondary battery is that, after being rapidly discharged, it will yield, upon standing some time, one or more residual charges, which may be greater than that first given off. In order to charge such a battery with the least loss of energy, the charging current should be of ample quantity, and of an electro-motive force but slightly in excess of that which the battery can attain. The discharge should be made through a resistance that will prevent its being too rapid. The best rate of discharge must be found by experiment. The first care- ful experiments upon the Faure cell were made at the Conservatoire des Arts-et-Mdtiers, in Jan- uary of this year, by M. Tresca and his associ- ELECTRICAL ENERGY, STORAGE OF. 267 ates, the results of which were communicated to the French Academy in March. The ex- periments were undertaken to obtain — 1. The mechanical labor expended in charging the bat- tery. 2. The quantity of electricity stored up during the charge. 3. The quantity of elec- tricity given out during the discharge. 4. The electrical work actually eifected during the dis- charge. And they showed that of the total quantity of electricity introduced in the bat- tery, 90 per cent was given out again, and that 60 per cent of the total electrical work spent in charging was recovered during the discharge. The accumulator therefore absorbed 40 per cent of the electrical work that would otherwise have been available in the lamps through which the discharge was made. So great a loss as this would place the accumula- tor without the limits of commercial utility in most cases, if further experience shows that this is the utmost efficiency to be obtained. The results of various other experimenters, however, show the loss to be considerably less. Sir William Thomson concluded from his ex- periments that the probable loss in charging is 10, and in discharging 15 per cent, while Pro- fessor Ayrton states that this loss, in a well- constructed cell, properly charged and dis- charged, need not exceed 18 per cent, and, if the discharge be sufficiently slow, this may be brought down to 10 per cent. If so high an efficiency as 80 per cent can be ob- tained in actual use, it is very probable that the • accumulator will be found a thoroughly practi- cal apparatus, which can be used with advan- tage in almost all the applications now made of powerful electric currents. But whether its efficiency reach this figure or not, it may still be a valuable adjunct in many cases, for it must be borne in mind that its real value in a commercial sense is not determined solely by its own efficiency. If by its use the efficiency of other apparatus forming an element of an electrical system can be raised, the gain might in some cases be sufficient to nearly, if not quite, neutralize the loss due to the accumula- tor itself. In the case of incandescent lighting it is quite possible that the efficiency of these lamps may be considerably increased, as there is no danger of the lamps being destroyed by a sudden increase of current, and they may therefore be run nearer their breaking limit, and consequently more economically. The life of the lamp will probably also be found to be greater than when run direct from the ma- chine. The advantage of an apparatus in a sys- tem of distribution which increases the reliabil- ity of the supply is one of no small amount, and may rightly be considered to have an eco- nomic value. Too little is yet known, both of the first cost of accumulators and of their depreciation, to be able to judge whether their use will de- crease the investment necessary, in a system of distribution, below that required without them. In this country the Brush Electric Light Com- pany proposes to place accumulators in the houses of consumers, and charge them with the currents used for its arc-lamps. A large number of local Brush Companies are now en- gaged in furnishing arc-lamps, and have the plant for the purpose. These lamps are in use at the most from six o'clock in the evening until six the next morning, so that the plant is idle, or nearly so, twelve hours out of the twenty-four. By using accumulators, this plant can be run continuously, and a saving of course effected, so far as machines and street conductors are concerned. The company has as yet furnished no figures as to the investment required for the storage-batteries, and hence the economic feasi- bility of the plan can not be determined, though the company asserts that in this regard it is entirely satisfactory. The only figures yet given of the price of accumulators are those recently put forth by the Electrical Power Storage Company, of Eng- land, which has begun the manufacture and sale of the Faure-Sellon-Volckmar and the Sel- lon-Swan batteries. The company has issued a circular in which information is given as to E. M. F. of lamp in volts. Number of cells composing accumulator. Rate of discharge in amperes. Maximum charging capacity In amperes. PBICB OF ACCUMULATOR. Sellon-Swan. Faure-Sellon- Volckmar. 45 45 45 50 50 50 60 60 ' 60 100 100 100 110 110 110 22 one E. H. P 80-40 60- 80 150-175 80- 40 60- 80 150-175 80-40 60- 80 150-175 80-40 60- 80 150-175 80-40 60- 80 150-175 400 800 2,000 400 800 2,000 400 800 2,000 400 800 2,000 400 800 2,000 £ s. d. 110 0 0 220 0 0 550 0 0 125 0 0 250 0 0 625 0 0 150 0 0 800 0 0 750 0 0 250 0 0 500 0 0 1,250 0 0 275 0 0 550 0 0 1,375 0 0 £ s. d. 79 4 0 158 8 0 896 0 0 90 0 0 180 0 0 450 0 0 108 0 0 216 0 0 540 0 0 180 0 0 860 0 0 900 0 0 198 0 0 896 0 0 990 0 0 22 two 22 five 25 one 25 two 25 five 80 one 30 two SO five . . 50 one 50 two 50 five 55 one " 55 two " 55 five " the proper rate of charge and discharge, the one, two, and five horse-power — are at pres- size of the cells, and their price. From this ent manufactured; the rates of economical circular it appears that cells of three sizes — charge and discharge of which are : 268 ELECTRICAL ENERGY, STORAGE OF. ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. Charge. Discharge. One II P cell Amperes. 20- 25 Amperes. 30- 40 Two H. P. cells 40- 50 60- 75 Five " " 100-125 150-1T5 The electro-motive force when the cell is first charged is 2*15 volts, and this can be main- tained, the circular states, until three fourths of the charge is withdrawn, if the cell be used at the rate of discharge given above. The table on previous page gives the number of cells necessary with different lamps, the total electrical capacity, and their price. An examination of the above data will show that these cells are very far from answering the commercial requirements of a large elec- tric distributive system. Economy in the charging plant and in the street conductors is attained j nst in proportion as the time of charg- ing is great compared with that of discharging. The above figures, however, make the former rate two thirds of the latter, and hence, tak- ing into consideration the loss occasioned by the use of the battery, the charging machinery would have to be as large as would be required without it, and no material saving would be experienced in conductors. The battery would therefore appear to be an extra charge upon distribution without any special advantage be- ing gained. According to the above prices 6H Edison lamps requiring a current of 89 volts electro-motive force, and consuming each •65 of an ampere could be maintained 7| hours with a battery consisting of 45 one horse-power cells. This would make the investment per lamp with the cheaper cell about $13. For a plant capable of doing the work of a gas-plant fur- nishing 1,000,000 feet of gas a day, the invest- ment in batteries, at this rate, would be $520,- 000, since a maximum of 40,000 burners would have to be maintained at one time. This is about four fifths of the total investment re- quired for a complete direct plant to accom- plish the same work. The investment per lamp with the Swan lamp, which requires an electro-motive force of 47'3 volts and consumes 1'4T amperes of current, would be $15.84; the Lane-Fox, $18; and the Maxim, $17.28. On the basis of these figures the investment required in batteries is so heavy as to prohibit their use in any extended system of distribu- tion, though they could doubtless be employed in many special cases to advantage. These figures can not, however, be well taken as a basis on which to forecast the economic future of the storage-battery. The above rates of charge and discharge are not necessarily the ones which will have to be adopted, and the prices seem abnormally high. Doubtless these will become considerably lower as the manu- facture is improved and the demand increased, and it may not unreasonably be expected that they may be brought within the limits of eco- nomic requirements. Of course, whether the cost be brought down to the economic require- ments of a distributive system or not, there will always remain a considerable field for ac- cumulators, which will continually widen as im- provements are effected, and may in time be as extensive as the industrial domain of electricity. ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. The progress of electric lighting during the past year has been chiefly in the industrial devel- opment of the various systems, rather than in any striking novelties in the apparatus em- ployed, though a steady improvement has gone forward in this direction. The arc-lamp is con- tinually gaining ground as an out - door illu- minant and as a means of lighting large interior spaces, and the incandescent is as certainly making its way in house-lighting. "With the exception of the first station of the Edison Company in New York city, the incandescent lamp has not yet been furnished to consumers upon a large scale, but all the prominent com- panies are preparing to do so at an early date. The Maxim lamp is being supplied to consum- ers in different parts of New York directly from the various arc-light stations of the United States Electric Lighting Company ; while the Brush Company, heretofore occupied exclu- sively with the arc type of lamp, is about to go largely into incandescent lighting, using for this purpose the Swan incandescent lamp, which it is proposed to run from the Brush storage-batteries. In London the Edison lamp is being supplied over a limited district, as also at various points on the Continent, while active preparations are being made for its very general introduction. The Swan, Lane-Fox, and Maxim lamps are also being pushed forward by the various com- panies abroad interested in their success. "While it can not be said that the incandescent lamp has yet demonstrated its ability to com- pete with gas generally in the matter of cost, there is no longer any question about its ability to meet successfully all the other requirements of a genera] in-door illuminant. The arc-lamp of the form known as the reg- ulator— that is, the lamp in which the carbon electrodes are placed point to point and the distance between them maintained constant by means of mechanism — and the incandescent lamp, pure and simple, seem to be the only types which promise to survive. Electric can- dles seem to be making but little headway, while the lamps of imperfect contact or incan- descence in the open air, such as the Reynier and Werderman, which promised so well but a few years ago, appear to have been wholly abandoned. These latter lamps, though giving considerably less light for a given expenditure of power than regulators, were yet superior to them both in simplicity of construction and in the steadiness of the light yielded. Much as regulator lamps have been improved, their light is still far from steady, and it does not appear probable that any considerable advance can be expected in this direction. Aside from the unsteadiness due to irregularity of feeding ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. 269 and of inequality in the carbons, there is that due to the shifting of the arc from one point to another on the surface of the electrodes. If the carbons could be very thin rods, the arc would always form at practically the same points, and irregularity from this cause would be inappreciable. The electrodes must, how- ever, be of considerable size to avoid too rapid consumption, and this difficulty, therefore, ap- pears to be inherent in the practicable form of this lamp. The cost of lamps of this type is also very considerable, even with the quite sim- ple regulating mechanism now used in the best forms. In view of these considerations, it may be questioned whether the abandonment of this type of incandescent lamps has not been premature, and whether we shall not yet see a return to it. Though the amount of light yielded by regulators be greater for a given ex- penditure of power, it does not, therefore, fol- low that the equal illumination of a given area will be less costly by them, as it is very well understood that any quantity of light properly distributed gives a more effective illumination than a much greater amount at a few centers. M. Emile Reynier, one of the earliest invent- ors of this type of lamp, has recently returned to the sub- ject, and has succeeded in producing a lamp free from the objections of the older forms, and of such extreme simplicity as to leave noth- ing to be desired on this score. In his former lamp, a carbon pencil resting upon an abutment was fed con- tinuously, by means of a weight or spring, past a heavy carbon contact, the portion of the pencil be- tween this contact and the abutment being incandes- cent. This construction presented mechanical diffi- culties to the regular feed- ing that were not satisfac- torily overcome, and the contact interfered with the economy by conducting away the heat. In the present lamp two pencils are used, inclined but slightly to each other, so that they touch at a point a short distance from their points, which rest upon small abutments of copper. The contact which limits the incandes- cence is therefore a hot con- tact, and hence no heat is FIG. i. wasted by its means. The form of the lamp is shown in Fig. 1. The carbons, A B, are forced down- ward by the weights, P Q, sliding upon the me- tallic guides, C D. The abutments, E F, are of copper, attached to the bronze arcs, G II. The two halves of the lamps are connected by the insulated clamps, I and J. The weights, P and Q, are insulated from the carbons, which they impel by the caps, r and s. The current en- ters by the terminal, K, follows the brass guide, C, the arm, G, the abutment, E, and the pointed end of the carbon, A, to the contact, #, at which point it crosses over to the carbon, B, and descends through the abutment, F, and passes out by the arm, H, and guide, D, to the terminal, L. No thorough tests have yet been made of this lamp, but M. Reynier states that the results of experiments so far conducted are very satisfactory. The disadvantage of all lamps of this type is the necessity of using very large conductors, as, owing to the small resistance of the carbon-pencil, it requires a current of great strength to bring it to the proper incandescence. Such lamps can not, therefore, be worked economically upon long circuits, but in separate installations, such as the lighting of workshops, this objection is evidently of but small moment. The same inventor has also devised an incandescent lamp in which he has attempted to obtain a sufficient resistance without resorting to a filamentary conductor, such as is used in all the other well- known incandescent lamps. This increased resistance is obtained by cutting the carbon- rod, which serves as the light-giving portion, several times across, or by notching it. This conductor is inclosed in a glass globe, exhaust- ed or filled with a gas which does not unite chemically with the carbon. New arc-lamps continue to multiply, but nothing of special importance has made its appearance during the year. This lamp has now reached such a condition that improve- ments to be expected in it are of a kind hav- ing a manufacturing value chiefly — such as will decrease the cost of production, and increase its serviceableness in use. In the matter of generators two new dynamo- machines have lately been brought to the atten- tion of the public in England : one is the inven- tion of Mr. J. E. H. Gordon, and the other that of Sir William Thomson and Mr. Ferranti. This latter was very much talked of previous to being exhibited ; but the extravagant expec- tations in regard to it can hardly be said to have been realized. It is an alternating machine, as is also the Gordon, and on this account it is of but minor importance; for, it is quite safe to say that machines of this class will find but a limited use in the industrial development of electrical appliances. Its merit lies in the great simplicity of its armature, and consequent low cost of manufacture. The armature- wires, in- stead of being wound on a drum, as in the Siemens, or over a ring, as in the Gramme, are in the form of a zigzag on the face of a cen- tral disk, revolving in a magnetic field made up of a number of electro-magnets. The dis- position of armature and field is shown in Fig. 2, in which the dark line represents the arma- 270 ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. ture-wire, and the oval figures the field-bob- bins with their iron cores. One end of the ar- mature zigzag is connected with a ring attached directly to the axle, and the other with a similar ring insulated from it. The current is taken FIG. 2. off by two rubbers. The field-magnets are ex- cited by a small separate continuous-current machine. The machine exhibited weighed but 1,175 pounds, and yet was able to support 300 Swan lamps, stated to be giving 20 candles each, when driven at 2,000 revolutions per minute. The armature-coil weighed but 18 pounds. An armature of this form has evi- dently a good many advantages in practical use, one of the chief of which is its little lia- bility of becoming overheated. Its low first cost is also a very important advantage over FIG. 3. the armatures of present machines, and will secure it the preference in all those cases where an alternating-current machine is desired. The published descriptions of this machine do not indicate the part Mr. Ferranti has taken in its production. The only novelty about it is the armature, and that is the invention of Sir Will- iam Thomson. The Gordon machine is chiefly remarkable for being the largest dynamo yet constructed. It is designed to supply 7,000 incandescent lamps with adequate driving power, but it has so far supplied only 1,300. The machine con- sists essentially of a central. disk carrying elec- tro-magnets, and revolving between sets of similar electro-magnets on each side of it. The rotating portion is the field, and the stationary electro-magnets the armature. This latter con- tains 128 coils, 64 on each side — this being twice as many as in the rotating part. The object of this is to prevent the coils of the fixed series acting detrimentally upon each other by induction, a difficulty experienced in a former machine of Mr. Gordon's, where the coils in the moving and fixed part were equal. The coils of the revolving magnets are excited by a separate continuous-current machine, as is the field of the Ferranti. The total weight of the machine is 18 tons, that of the revolving part being seven tons. Its diameter is eight feet nine inches, and it is designed, when the machine is giving its maximum current, to be driven at 200 revolutions per minute. The tests so far made show a very high efficiency, and the alternating currents are found to work well with the incandes- cent lamps. Large as this machine is, Mr. Gordon regards it as a small af- fair compared to what should be used in supply- ing lamps from a central station, he having ex- pressed himself as desir- ous of constructing one with the magnet -wheel 18 feet in diameter. The engraving, Fig. 3, gives a sufficiently clear repre- sentation of this enor- mous dynamo to render any further description unnecessary. The feature of the year in incandescent electric lighting was the starting into operation of the first Edison district in New York city. While other ;: inventors have either had I no decided conviction as ^ to the best way of sup- ? plying incandescent light- ing to the consumer, or have not cared to ex- press themselves on the matter, Mr. Edison, from the outset of his ex- periments, was convinced that the only prac- ticable method was distribution direct from the machine from large central stations, without the interposition of intermediary apparatus, and ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. 271 all portions of his entire electrical plant have at L. The large steam-dynamo, of the type been designed from this point of view. The used at this station, and which is to be used in system is, in many respects, analogous to that in use with gas. This latter illuminant is dis- tributed from the works through large mains and under low pressure, suitable for direct is- suance from the burner. In Mr. Edison's sys- tem the current is of low electro-motive force, 110 volts between the terminals of the machine, and is distributed through large mains laid un- der-ground. The lamps are arranged in what is known as multiple arc, that is, on cross- wires between the house conductors, which them- selves form cross-wires to the mains. As the current passing through each lamp depends upon its resistance and the electro-motive force of the current, when this latter is maintained constant, each lamp draws its proper supply without regard to any other on the circuit. The generators at the central station are like- wise arranged in multiple arc, one pole of each machine being connected with the outgoing and the other to the return main. The dispo- sition of the machines, and the mode in which the circuits are actually arranged in practice, is shown in the diagram (Fig. 4). Each main consists of an iron tube containing two half- round copper conductors imbedded in a resin- ous insulator. A main of this kind is carried around each city block, and each one connected all similar installations, is shown in Fig. 5. The magnetic field is produced by twelve hori- zontal electro-magnets, united at their farther ends by a massive heel-plate, seen at the back of the figure, and terminating in the heavy pole-pieces seen in the front of the illustration. The armature, which is a long cylinder, is com- posed of a core of a great number of thin sheet-iron disks, insulated from each other and fitting over a central wooden cylinder. The copper is in the form of straight bars instead of wire, in order to make the resistance as low as possible. These bars are united at al- ternate ends to as many disks of copper, the connection being such that the current passes along one bar, across a disk at one end, along the bar diametrically opposite the first, across a disk at the other end, then along a bar next to the first bar, and so on, the effect being the same as would be obtained by a continuous copper coil of low resistance. The diameter of the complete armature is 28 inches, its length 5 feet, and its weight over four tons. It is driven at a speed of 350 revolutions per minute. Its resistance is only -00049 ohm. The field coils form a shunt circuit to that of the machine, and have a resistance of 21 ohms. The engine is a horizon- tal Porter -Allen of 130 horse - power, nominal. The entire machine, in- cluding the bed - plate, weighs over thirty tons. It has a normal capacity of 1,200 lamps of 16 can- dles each, but can supply 1,600 when necessary. There are at present six of these enormous dyna- mos in place at the cen- tral station, but the com- pleted installation will comprise twelve of them. The current used by each lamp is measured very simply by means of a meter, which consists of an electrolytic cell through which a small fraction of the current passes. The cell con- tains sulphate of copper, which is decom- with those of the adjacent blocks through the posed, and the copper deposited upon one of boxes B, as shown. The conductors in these mains are of uniform size, but by means of the auxiliary mains, termed feeders, shown in the dotted lines, the conducting capacity is in- creased to any desired extent throughout any portion of the district. The system can by this means be adapted to any increase of con- the electrodes, the amount so deposited being an accurate measure of the current which has gone through. A meter has been designed in which the amount of copper deposited is indi- cated on a dial, as the gas passing is registered on a gas-meter, but the meter at present sup- plied to consumers is without registering appa- sumers as occasion arises. The way in which ratus, the consumption being determined by the dynamos are arranged with regard to the the meter-inspector by direct weighing of the circuit is shown at G, and the mode in which electrode. This form of meter is shown in the lamps are connected with the mains shown Fig. 6. 272 ELECTEIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. FIG. 5 The present working of the station the com- pany regards as in every way satisfactory and fully up to its expectations. When the gener- ators are working up to their normal power, six lamps are obtained per indicated horse- Pio. 6. power ; and while, with the installation but partially completed, the number of lamps in use at the time of minimum consumption is below the normal number of one machine, this will not be so when the district is in full operation. Difficulties have been encountered in the working of this station, as was to be expected in a new undertaking of this magni- tude, but they have not been of a kind so con- fidently insisted upon by the opponents of the incandescent light. The lamps burn with per- fect steadiness, and the service is reliable, there having been no interruption of the electrical supply since the starting of the station. The only other possible method of supplying the incandescent light upon a large scale is that involving the use of storage-batteries. By this system storage-cells are placed in the houses of consumers, and charged by a cur- rent from dynamos at one or more stations. The advantage of this method over the direct one is the smaller investment in machines and street conductors requisite, as fewer machines, working continuously, can accomplish the work, and as high-tension currents, requiring smaller conductors, can be used for charging. The commercial feasibility of this system depends upon the investment requisite for the necessary storage-batteries, both in the matter of original outlay and depreciation. Very little has as yet been made public, or is, in fact, known on these points, and hence no judgment of the value of this method can at present be formed. This system readily allows of both arc and incan- descent lighting being accomplished with one set of street-conductors, which is not feasible with the direct system. The accumulators are charged during the day-time, when the arc- lamps are not burning, and the same current is then used to support the arc-lamps at night. This is the plan which the Brush Company in ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. 273 this country propose to carry out, using for this purpose the storage-battery devised by Mr. Brush, and the Swan incandescent lump, as in- dicated above. By means of an automatic de- vice, the batteries are placed in circuit when the electro-motive force falls below a certain point, and cut out again as soon as sufficiently charged. Combined with this is a register- ing instrument, which indicates upon a dial the current supplied to the battery. The street- wires, for the distance which they enter a house to make connection with the battery, will be thoroughly insulated, and so placed that they can not be handled, so that the danger apprehended from allowing conductors bear- ing powerful high-tension currents may be thoroughly provided against. The Brush-Swan Company expects to begin putting its system into operation in the course of a few months, and its progress will be watched with great interest, as having an important bearing upon the character of future electric instal- lations. The other considerable arc-electric lighting company in this country, the " United States," is also proposing to adopt the storage-battery system of incandescent lighting. This com- pany controls the Maxim incandescent lamp, which is being quite largely introduced at vari- ous points. In New York no considerable plant has yet been established, but the light is being supplied, to a limited extent, from the arc-lamp stations. It may be remarked here that the Weston arc-lamp, which is furnished by this company, differs from the other arc- lamps now on the market, in using a cur- rent of much lower electro-motive force, and nearly twice the volume. The arc is exceed- ingly short, being not more than one thirty- second of an inch, while that of the Brush is one sixteenth, and the Fuller three sixteenths of an inch. The light of the Weston, on this account, is free from the violet rays noticeable in lamps of longer arc, and is, therefore, more agreeable. The use of a current of such vol- ume requires larger conductors than are neces- rary with a smaller current, and it can not, therefore, be operated upon long circuits as economically as those of higher electro-motive force. Various tests have from time to time been made of both arc and incandescent lamps, as well as machines ; but the first thorough and complete examination is that made on the ap- paratus shown at the Paris Exhibition of 1881. Including, as these did, all the chief Lamps and machines now before the public, the re- ports, in which these tests are embodied, are comprehensive and authoritative statements of the commercial value of the present electric- lighting apparatus. The main committee consisted of MM. Allard, Joubert, T. Le Blanc, Pettier, and H. Tresca. The results obtained by these experts were communicated to the " Academie des Sciences " in four papers bearing the titles : VOL. xxii. — 18 A 1. Continuous-current machines and regu- lators. 2. Alternating- current machines. 3. Electric candles. 4. Incandescent lamps. Besides this committee, a sub- committee was appointed, specially charged with the exami- nation of incandescent lamps. As the report of this latter committee on incandescent lamps is much fuller than that of the chief one, it is alone reproduced here, and the report of the main committee confined to the first three of the above items. The unit of power adopted by the committee is the cheml-vapeur, which is equal to 75 kilo- grammetres, or 542J foot-pounds per second. This is slightly less than the English horse- power, which is 550 foot-pounds per second. The luminous intensity is expressed in carcels — equal to 9^ standard candles — and the results of the measurements in various directions are averaged so as to make the intensity the same in every direction, that is, at every point on the surface of a sphere of which the arc is the cen- ter. Even when measured in the best direction the results obtained by the committee are much under those stated by the various manufactur- ers, while the average spherical intensity is very much less. The table on page 274 gives the results with continuous-current machines and regulator lamps. An examination of this table shows that ma- chines transform on an average 85 per cent of the work expended on them into electrical energy, and of this electrical energy from 50 to 77 per cent appears in the arc, and that for each horse-power of energy expended in the arc there are obtained — 120 carcels, in lights of SCO to 1,000 carcels. 100 " " "250 71 " " " 40 " The experiments upon alternating-current machines and lamps were made with the ma- chines of De Meritens and Siemens, and with the Serrin, Berjot and Siemens lamps. In one case a Serrin light-house lamp was operated by a De Meritens machine, giving a light the mean spherical intensity of which was equal to 931 carcels, with an expenditure of mechanical power of 11 '7 horse-power. This was equiva- lent to 79'6 carcels per mechanical horse-power, while but GO carcels were obtained with lights of the same power operated with continuous currents. The superiority of the alternating current shown in this particular case was not, however, maintained in lights of lower candle- power, as the result fell to 59 '7 carcels in the Berjot lamps of 150 carcels (arranged in a series of five), and to 33 '3 carcels in the Sie- mens differential lamps of 39 carcels (12 in three circuits). The candles examined were those of Debrun, Jablochkoff, and Jamin. The Jablochkoff can- dle showed from 46 to 51 carcels per arc horse- power, and from 31 to 35 carcels per mechanical horse-power, while that of Debrun, the experi- 274 ELECTKIO LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. 'sdarai 88 -qsiug s g -qatug e »a t- o co T* o o oo o <0 '.O 00 •sdaref g a s s 1O «D CO IS S §S< <*o SS3 :8£®CO S § 53 -Bdurej 5 -dtnBi t •sittings • r £ s 'OCO S O 0000 MS ^ « ««« B S oo 01 -daref I oios« o» t- 00 t- •M Cfl OO <» eo 05 10 I III ECH rs, r mot of ge ve w CAL OBSEB hms ....... out lamps, ... peres ps, volt l||lfl 1 "j «H I IIS t 1 ^ll IIHI 1 lif i* ! 1 a f jBi » = M ^5^ f '111 ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. 275 ments on which were very incomplete, gave but 32 carcels in the former and 14 in the latter case. The following is the complete report of the 8uh-committee on incandescent lamps, with the exception of the detailed statement of the per- formance of each lamp, which is omitted, as not essential to a full understanding of the results obtained : I. DESCRIPTION or THE LAMPS. — The only lamps in the exhibition which were purely in- candescent in character were those of Edison and Maxim, in the United States Section, and those of Swan and Lane-Fox, in that of Great Britain. The idea represented in these lamps is essentially the same in all of them, the differ- ences being, for the most part, details of con- struction. They all consist of a glass envelope more or less spherical in form, in which is in- closed a carbon loop, made of carbonized or- ganic material, and supported upon wires of platinum sealed into the glass. The space in the interior of the lamp is very perfectly ex- hausted. A. The Edison Lamp. — The Edison lamp is pear-shaped in form. The carbon filament is long and fine, and is bent into the shape of a U. It is made from Japanese bamboo, cut to the requisite size in a gauge. In section it is nearly square, being about 0'3 millimetre on a side, the ends being left considerably wider. The fiber is carbonized in molds of nickel, and is attached to the conducting wires by copper, electrolytically deposited upon them. B. The Swan Lamp. — The Swan lamp is globular in form, the neck being quite long. The carbon filament is made from cotton-thread parchmentized before carbonization by treat- ment with strong sulphuric acid. The ends of this filament are very much thickened, and the loop has a double turn at the top. Its ends are clamped in a pair of metal holders, supported laterally by a stem of glass which rises through the neck to the base of the globe. Below, these holders are fastened to wires of platinum which pass through the glass. C. The Maxim Lamp. — The Maxim lamp is also globular in form, but it has a short neck. Within the neck rises a hollow cylinder of glass, supporting upon its summit a column of blue enamel, through which pass the conducting wires of platinum which carry the carbon. The filament is made from card-board cut by a punch into the form of an M. In section, there- fore, it is rectangular, and several times as broad as it is thick. It is carbonized in a mold through which a current of coal-gas is passed. After carbonization, the filament is placed in an at- tenuated atmosphere of hydrocarbon-vapor and heated by the current. The vapor is decom- posed, and its carbon is precipitated upon the filament. In this way not only are inequali- ties obliterated, but the resistance of the fila- ments may be equalized, and brought to any standard required. D. The Lane - Fox Lamp. — The Lane - Fox lamp is ovoid in shape, the neck being in length intermediate between the two lamps last de- scribed. The carbon is in the form of a horse- shoe, and is circular in cross-section. It is made from the root of an Italian grass, largely used in France for making brooms. After carbonization, the filaments are classified ac- cording to their resistances. They are then heated in an atmosphere of coal-gas, by which carbon is deposited upon them, as in the fila- ments of the lamps last described. The fila- ment in the lamp is supported by platinum wires, to which it is attached by sleeves of car- bon encircling both. These wires pass through tubes in the top of a hollow glass stem. Just below the extremities of these tubes are two small bulbs containing mercury, forming the contact between the platinum wire sealed into the glass above and the copper conductor which enters from below. These conductors are held in place by plaster which fills the base of the lamp. II. METHODS OF MEASUREMENT. — The ques- tion to be determined was simply the efficiency of these lamps. The efficiency of a lamp is the ratio of energy produced to energy consumed, i. e., the quantity of light given by the lamp for each horse-power of current which it con- sumes. The data required to calculate this efficiency may be obtained when the electro- motive force of the current, the resistance of the lamp when giving its light, and its illu- minating power have been determined. 1. Electro-motive Force. — The electro-mo- tive force, or fall of potential through the lamp, was measured by Laws's method. A suitable condenser was charged by being put in com- munication with a standard Daniell cell, and then discharged through a high-resistance gal- vanometer, the deflection of the needle being noted. This condenser was then connected to the two wires of the lamp, and again dis- charged through the galvanometer, the deflec- tion being made the same as before by means of a variable shunt connected with the galva- nometer. Since with a given condenser the charges it receives are proportional to the po- tentials of the charging currents, and since the discharge deflections of a galvanometer repre- sent the quantity of these charges, it follows that the electro -motive forces are proportional to these discharge deflections. If, however, as in the present case, the discharge deflections are made equal by means of shunts, then the electro-motive forces are proportional to the multiplying power of the shunts. 2. Resistance. — The resistance of the lamp, when giving its light, was obtained by making the lamp one side of a Wheatstone's bridge through which the main current was flowing. The second and fourth sides were formed of fixed resistances of known value, and the third side of an adjustable resistance. When the bridge is balanced, the product of the two fixed resistances, divided by the adjusted resistance, gives the resistance of the lamp at the given candle-power. 276 ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. 3. Illuminating Power. — The illuminating power of the lamp was measured on a Bunsen Ehotometer. 'At one end of the bar was the imp itself; at the other end two standard candles, placed nearly in line. The plane of the carbon filament was placed at 45° to the length of the bar, and each lamp was measured at 16 and 32 candles. III. APPARATUS EMPLOYED. 1. Condenser. — The condenser used in these measurements had a capacity of 1 microfarad, divided into sections of 0-4, 0*3, 0'2, and 0-1. The dielectric was paraffined mica, and the brass-work was supported on ebonite pillars. 2. Galvanometer. — The galvanometer was a Thomson double-coil astatic instrument, in- closed in a square case with glass sides. Meas- ured resistance, 6,550 ohms. Used with lamp- stand and scale, in the ordinary way. 3. Standard Cell. — An ordinary Daniell cell, the copper plate being immersed in a saturated solution of pure copper sulphate, contained in the porous cell, and the zinc plate amalga- mated, in a saturated solution of pure zinc sul- phate, in the outer jar ; one of a battery of ten cells forming a part of the Edison exhibit. 4. Resistance Coils. — A set of standard coils, measuring from 1 ohm to 5,000 ohms. All other resistances employed were standardized by these. A set of coils used in the "Wheat- stone's bridge. Compared carefully with set. 5. Wheatstone^s Bridge. — Four conducting wires of large size arranged on the table in the form of a rhomb. A test galvanometer was inserted between the obtuse angles of the rhomb, and a pair of shunt wires from the main conductors were attached at the acute angles. The first side of the rhomb contained the lamp to be measured, standing in its place on the photometer. The second side contained a fixed resistance of 5 ohms. The third side contained a variable resistance, and the fourth side a fixed resistance of 950 ohms. 6. Photometer. — The photometer employed was of the Bunsen form, having a double bar, eighty inches long, graduated in inches and in candles. The disk was of paraffined paper, with a plain spot in the center. The disk-box was movable on rollers, and contained inclined mirrors to facilitate the adjustment. The can- dles used were of spermaceti, made to burn 120 grains (7'776 grammes) per hour. The entire apparatus was surrounded with heavy black cloth. 7. Dynamo-electric Machine. — An Edison sixty-light machine was used to furnish the current required. In this machine the field - magnets, which are very long and heavy, stand vertically. The field is maintained by a shunt current, regulated by an adjustable resistance in its circuit. The bobbin is wound on a cyl- inder like that of Siemens, from which it dif- fers, however, in its details. Its resistance was only 0*03 ohm, and the current delivered, at a speed of 900 revolutions, had an electro- motive force of 110 volts. IV. RESISTANCE OF LAMPS COLD. — The re- sistance of the lamps cold was measured on a Wheatstone's bridge of the ordinary form and in the usual way. Twenty-four of each were taken (except the Lane-Fox, of which only fif- teen were furnished), and ten selected from these for the tests. V. METHODS OF CALCULATION. 1. Illumi- nating Power. — The standard candle should burn 7'776 grammes spermaceti per hour, or 0-1296 gramme per minute. The two candles used should burn 0'2592 gramme per minute. The corrected candle-power of the lamp, there- fore, is obtained by the proportion : As 0'2592 is to the amount actually burned per minute, so is the observed candle-power to the cor- rected candle-power. 2. Resistance (hot). — From the theory of the Wheatstone bridge, the resistance of either side is equal to the product of the adjacent sides divided by the opposite side. In the bridge used for the measurement, the resist- ances in the two adjacent sides were 950 and 5 ohms. Hence, by dividing their product, 4,750, by the reading of the variable resistance observed, the resistance of the lamp hot is ob- tained. 3. Electro-motive Force. — In Laws's method the electro-motive forces are proportional to the multiplying power of the shunts employed. Since with the Daniell cell no shunt was used, the multiplying power of the shunt used with the lamp - current represented directly the electro-motive force through the lamp, in terms of the standard cell. The multiplying power of a shunt is the sum of the galvanometer re- sistance and the shunt resistance divided by the shunt resistance. In this case the resist- ance of the galvanometer was 6,550 ohms. Hence, if S represent the resistance of the shunt, obtained by experiment — 6550 + S S will represent the electro-motive force. Since the electro-motive force of a Daniell cell is not 1 volt, as here assumed, but 1-079 volt, strict accuracy would require the figures given to be increased in that ratio. Moreover, the small error arising from the inductive action of the needle on the galvanometer coils has been regarded as unimportant. 4. Current. — By the law of Ohm the cur- rent strength is the quotient of electro-motive force by resistance. Dividing the electro-mo- tive force in volts by the resistance in ohms, the current strength is obtained in amperes. 5. Electrical Energy. — The work done by a current is proportional to the product of the square of the current strength into the resist- ance of the circuit. Or, since the electro-mo- tive force is equal to the product of the cur- rent strength by the resistance, the energy is represented by the product of the electro-mo- tive force in volts by the current strength in amperes. This gives the energy in volt-amperes. ELECTRIC LIGHTING, PROGRESS OF. EMERSON, RALPH W. 277 6. Mechanical Energy. — Since an absolute unit of work is done per second by an absolute unit of electro- motive force in a circuit of one absolute unit of resistance, 1 volt-ampere rep- resents 107 absolute units of mechanical work per second, or 0*10192 kilogramme-metres. By multiplying the volt-amperes by 0.10192, the product is the mechanical work done in the lamp in kilogramme-metres. 7. Lamps per Horse-power of Current.* — One horse-power is 75 kilogramme-metres per second. By dividing 75, therefore, by the num- ber of kilogramme-metres of work done in the lamp per second, the quotient:is the number of such lamps maintained by a horse-power of current. 8. Candles per Horse-power of Current. — The number of candle-lights per horse-power of current is obtained, of course, by multiply- ing the number of lamps per horse-power of current by the corrected candle-power of each. 9. Normal Lamps per Horse-power of Cur- rent.— Conversely, by dividing the number of candles per horse-power of current by the nor- mal value of the lamp in standard candles (in the present case 16 or 32), the number of nor- mal lamps per horse-power of current is ob- tained. SUMMAET OF RESULTS. (a.) At 16 Candles. Edison. Swan. Lane- Maxim. Candles 15- 3S 16'61 16-36 15-96 Ohms . 137-4 82-78 27-40 41-11 Volts 89-11 47-30 43-63 56-49 Amperes 0-651 1-471 1-593 1-380 57-98 69-24 69'53 78-05 Kilogramme-metres Lamps per horse-power Candles per horse-power. . . Lamps of 16 candles per horse-power 5-911 12-73 196-4 12-23 7-059 10-71 177-92 11-12 7-039 10-61 173-53 10-85 7-939 9-43 151-27 9-45 (6.) At 32 Candles. Edison. Swan. Lane- Fox. Maxim. Candles 31-11 83-21 32-71 31-93 Ohms 130-08 81'75 26-59 89-60 Volts . 98-39 54-21 48-22 62-27 Amperes .... 0-7535 1-753 1-815 1-573 Volt-amperes Kilogramme-metres Lamps per horse-power. . . Candles per horse-power. . Lamps of 32 candles per horse-power 74-62 7-604 9'8S 307-25 9-60 94-88 9-67 7-90 262-49 8-20 87-65 8-936 8-47 276-89 8-65 98-41 10-03 7-50 239-41 7-48 VI. CONCLUSIONS. — The following conclu- sions seem to be sustained by the results which have now been given : 1. The maximum efficiency of incandescent lamps in the present state of the subject, and within the experimental limits of this investi- gation, can not be assumed to exceed 300 candle-lights per horse-power of current. * This is the French horse-power, cheval-vapeur = 542$ foot-pounds per second, as stated abore. instead of 550 foot- pounds. 2. The economy of all lamps of this kind is greater at high than at low incandescence. 3. The economy of light-production is greater in high-resistance lamps than in those of low resistance, thus agreeing with the economy of distribution. 4. The relative efficiency of the four lamps examined, expressed in carcel-burners of 7*4 spermaceti-candles each, produced by one horse- power of current, is as follows: (A.) At 16 candles: Edison, 26-5; Swan, 24; Lane-Fox, 23-5; and Maxim, 20'4. (B.) At 32 candles: Edison, 41-5; Lane-Fox, 37*4; Swan, 35'5 ; and Maxim, 32-4. To double the light given by these lamps the current-energy was in- creased, for the Maxim and Lane-Fox lamps, 26 per cent ; for the Edison lamp, 28 per cent ; and for the Swan lamp, 37 per cent. EMERSON, RALPH WALDO. Born in Bos- ton, Mass., May 25, 1803. His father, Will- iam Emerson, was pastor of the First (Uni- tarian) Church in that city, and his grandfather also was a preacher. In his eighth year, on the death of his father, he was sent to the Grammar School, and was fitted for college at the Boston Latin School. He entered Harvard College in 1817, in his fourteenth year, and was graduated in 1821, having had among his instructors Edward Everett, George Ticknor, and Caleb Cushing. He was not at all dis- tinguished as a student, though he succeeded in carrying off prizes for dissertations and declamation, and was noted as a frequenter of the library and for knowledge of general liter- ature. He was also the poet of his class on "class-day." The five years following his graduation were spent in teaching school. As it was expected that Emerson should fol- low the family tendency to preaching, he studied divinity, chiefly under Channing, and was " ap- probated to preach," in 1826, by the Middlesex Association of Ministers; but, owing to general debility, he did not enter upon public work for some time. In March, 1829, he was ordained as colleague of Henry Ware, at the Second (Unitarian) Church of Boston, and in a year's time became sole pastor. This kind of labor, however, does not appear to have been quite congenial, and as his peculiar cast of mind led him to entertain and express grave doubts as to the sacrament of the Lord's Supper being a permanent institution, or of any value to any one in these latter days, he first brought the sub- ject before his congregation, and urged substitu- tion of some other rite of commemoration ; and when the people to a man refused to adopt his views, he quietly resigned, in 1832, and retired from any further connection with public preach- ing. Thenceforward he turned his attention largely to giving lectures, and writing in both poetry and prose. He traveled in Italy, France, and England, for a year. While in England he visited Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Carlyle, with the last of whom he formed a close friend- ship, despite Carl yle's cynicism and fixed habit of abusing his fellow-men, which was in marked 278 EMERSON, RALPH W. ENGINEERING. contrast with his own tolerant and fair-minded temper. On Emerson's return home, in the winter of 1833-'34, he began his career as a public lect- urer in the Boston Mechanics' Institute, taking "Water" as his first subject. Three others followed, two on Italy, and the last on " The Relation of Man to the Globe." In 1834 he delivered a series of biographical lectures on Michael Angelo, Milton, Luther, George Fox, and Burke, the first two of which were after- ward published in the " North American Re- view." In the same year, also, he read a poem at Cambridge before the Phi Beta Kappa So- ciety. The year following he was married for the second time — his first wife having died, of consumption, in 1832 — and took up his resi- dence in the " Old Manse," in the quiet little village of Concord, twenty miles from Boston, where he had his home until his death. From this time onward, for some thirty to forty years, Emerson continued to give courses of lectures, year after year, on such topics as " English History," " The Philosophy of His- tory," "Human Culture," "Human Life," " The Present Age," " The Times," etc. These lectures were delivered in all parts of the United States, and he always secured good attendance. In 1848, on a second visit to Europe, he lectured in England and Scot- land. He was well received, and had large audiences ; but how much of his reputation grew out of his peculiar way of present- ing and discussing important subjects, it is not easy to say. One further visit was made to the Old World in 1872, when he was ac- companied by his daughter, and renewed the intercourse of twenty years before with Car- lyle and other friends and admirers in Eng- land. Subsequent to this there are few events in Emerson's life on record. On March 30, 1878, he spoke in the Old South Church on "The Fortune of the Republic," and in 1880 gave his hundredth lecture before the Concord Lyceum, on " New England Life and Letters." Emerson died at his residence, in Concord, on the evening of April 27, 1882, without a stain upon his character as a man and a citizen, and esteemed by all his neighbors, and those who knew him best in these relations. In other respects, however, looked at as a philoso- pher, a guide, a poet, it is somewhat difficult to estimate aright his true position and rank. Some are as extravagant in laudation as others are in contempt and scorn. One set of men exclaim that there never was, and never will be again, such a philosopher, such a writer, such a poet, such a sage, before whose tran- scendent brilliancy and profundity all the fires of ancient and modern wise men and teachers pale into almost nothingness. Another set, angered at the difficulty of finding any sense or meaning in many of his writings, cast them all aside as little better than gibberish— as words, words, without being anything else ; as a profundity of nonsense and supposed wis- dom, without any reality. Doubtless both ex- tremes are to be avoided, and a fairer estimate sought somewhere between them. The Boston "Transcendental Club," of which Emerson was a member, in company with George Rip- ley, Theodore Parker, Margaret Fuller, and other kindred spirits, set out to do great things through its organ, " The Dial," and its remark- able attempt to carry out a fantastic theory of living together, in the "Brook Farm" com- munity (1841). Emerson was a chief contribu- tor, and for most of the four years of its exist- ence editor, of" The Dial " ; but he had common sense enough to see that aesthetic villages were not among the possibilities for the human family. Emerson's aim in the journal just named, as, indeed, in all his lectures and writ- ings, was to be a teacher of his fellow-men ; and it may be regarded as certain that he has largely influenced the minds of a select, appre- ciative few. He possessed imagination, wit, and a keen sense of beauty; but his style of writing and expressing himself is by no means always clear and pleasing. In his poetry, though he sometimes fully vindicates his claim to be a true bard, he is frequently as inartistic and harsh as the merest pretender to the divine faculty. There are many who doubt altogether the value of New England transcendentalism, and these will probably never be brought to acknowledge any special merit in Emerson or his writings. Others, whose proclivities lie in that direction, will, on the contrary, turn to the Sage of Concord, and will diligently study and feed upon the pabulum which Emerson's contributions to both poetry and prose afford. Possibly Emerson will be a power in the future, as in the past, and his admirers confidently pre- dict that his fame will endure while the world lasts. The works of Ralph Waldo Emerson are published by Houghton, Miiflin & Co. in various editions. The "Fireside Edition," in five vol- umes, 16mo, is a very neat and commodious one (1883). Vol. I contains the " Essays," first and second series (1841-'44). Vol. II contains " Representative Men," being essays on Plato, Shakespeare, Goethe, and others (1850), and " Society and Solitude" (1870). Vol. Ill con- tains " English Traits," being studies of Eng- lish life and character (1856), and "The Con- duct of Life " (1860). Vol. IV contains "Let- ters and Social Aims" (1876), and "Poems" (1876), being his last revision and selection of his poetical works. Vol. V contains " Miscel- lanies, embracing Nature, Addresses, and Lect- ures" (1836-'44). To these is to be added " Parnassus," a volume of " Choice Poems, selected from the Whole Range of English Literature, edited by Ralph Waldo Emerson, with a Prefatory Essay." ENGINEERING. The year 1882 saw the final completion of the St. Gothard Tunnel, a work of engineering so important as to mark an epoch in the progress of civilization, but which the narrow jealousies and chicaneries of ENGINEERING. 279 European diplomacy delayed for twenty years. The same year witnessed the indefinite post- ponement, from political motives equally false and retrograde, of another work of even bolder design, and of scarcely less importance to civ- ilization, which engineering art stands ready to execute. (See ENGLISH CHANNEL TUNNEL PANIC.) Among the ship-canals under discussion are one from Bordeaux to Narbonne to join the Atlantic and Mediterranean, one to connect the North Sea and the Baltic, the Nicaragua maritime canal, one through the Isthmus of Kraw, and the recently projected Manchester ship-canal. The protests of De Lesseps against the violation of the Suez Canal by the British army led to the discussion of a new canal be- tween the Mediterranean and the Eed Sea. As the concession to the Suez Company con- veys the exclusive right to the isthmus route, the construction of a ship-canal from Alexan- dria to Suez by way of Cairo was proposed. The Suez Canal is insufficient for the present traffic, and will have to be enlarged if a second canal is not constructed. The proposed canal through the Delta would be of great value to the irrigation system of Egypt, as it would be a sweet-water canal, fed from the Nile. The quantity of material to be excavated would be about 160,000,000 cubic yards, or double the quantity removed in the construction of the Suez Canal. The drainage-canals constructed by Ismail Pasha in the first ten years of his reign involved an equal amount of excavation. To efficiently irrigate the lands of the Delta it is found that about an average of seven tons of water per day are required for every acre. This, for the total area of 3,000,000 acres, would call for a constant supply of 250 tons per second, which is five sixths of the discharge of the river at lowest Nile. The Menoufieh and the Behera Canals are capacious enough to convey the whole quantity of water needed, but they carry off together not more than sev- enteen tons of water per second when the river is at its lowest stage. The present drainage system is constructed so as to keep the water stored in reservoirs formed by sluices in the canals. The removal of the sediment which settles in these reservoirs involves an enor- mous amount of labor. The proposed canal to Cairo and Suez would be able to supply the entire 250 tons per second without inter- fering with its function as a ship-canal. Half the surface of the Delta could be directly irri- gated from the canal, and the other half, com- prising the lands between the Rosetta and Da- mietta branches, could be supplied by means of large siphons or by reconstructing the bar- rage of Mehemet Ali. The final surveys for the Panama Canal have been completed, and the work is advancing at Colon, Gorgona, Bas-Obispo, Emperador, Cu- lebra, and Paraiso. Very heavy dredgers have been brought from Philadelphia, and a large quantity of other machinery will be employed. As the work progresses the belief is confirmed that less rock excavation will be necessary than was calculated. Rapid progress has been made on the Isth- mus of Corinth Canal. The material to be ex- cavated is alluvial earth, so that about 300,000 cubic yards can be removed per month by the aid of the Priestman excavating machine and with dredgers. The total amount of excava- tion to be done is estimated at 13,000,000 cubic yards, 1,000,000 of which is dredging, 1,700,000 mixed earth and rock, and 1,000,000 rock below water. The important Sirhind drainage-canal in the Punjaub, in British India, was completed with- in the year. The canal is 500 miles in length. It has subsidiary trenches of about 5,000 miles in aggregate length. It draws its water from the Sutlej, and distributes it over 750,000 acres of land. The docks at Milford Haven, in South Wales, are nearly completed. A fleet of fast mail- steamships has been projected in the United States, which will make the voyage from New York to Milford in six days, and there connect with a special train to London, on the Great Western Railway. Milford Haven is the finest natural harbor in England, being the largest, the most sheltered, and the easiest of access ; yet, since it was deserted by the Royal Navy- Yard and the Irish Steamship Line, it has had no commerce until it was taken hold of by the company which has been improving its harbor facilities and railroad connections for the last six or seven years. Vessels need no pilot, as the entrance is nearly two miles wide. The harbor is virtually landlocked, and has a mini- mum depth of eight fathoms. The new docks have an area of sixty acres. The entrance- lock is 500 feet long by 70 wide. The graving dock, which can also be used as a wet dock, is 710 feet in length and 96 in width. There is a small graving dock 270 by 46 feet. The depth over the sills at high water in the spring-tide is 36 feet, in the neap-tide 27 feet. The docks were made by closing the mouth of a creek with a wall and caissons, and dredging out the inclosed area. There are two locks to the dock, so that a vessel can be put upon the dry dock immediately upon coming in from sea. Both ends of the great dock and the entrance to the graving dock are closed by caissons of novel design. The end of the graving dock which opens into the wet dock, is shut by a floating caisson of the common type. The new cais- sons rise, when the water is removed from the flotation chambers, about nine inches above the floor between the sills, and pass into lateral chambers, their motion being controlled by a valve which closes a culvert, and by rollers on top running on girders extended over the re- ceiving chambers. Tb.e weights of the lock are 250 tons, and those of the graving dock 300 and 400 tons respectively. To remove the salt water from the large caisson which was used in putting in the sill of the graving dock at every 280 ENGINEERING. ebb-tide, seven powerful pulsometer pumps were employed. The length of the quay is 2,233 yards. Coal can be obtained at Milford 30 per cent cheaper than at Liverpool. The preliminary surveys for the proposed reclamation of the Zuyder Zee have been fin- ished. A dike about twenty-four and a half miles in length will be constructed of sand and faced with clay, reaching sixteen feet above the level of the sea, or about six and a half feet above the highest tide. The thickness of the dike will enable it to resist the heaviest seas. The calculation is to have it completed in from seven to ten years, at a cost of $46,- 000,000. The Belgian Government and the munici- pality of Antwerp have arranged for a consid- erable enlargement of the harbor, to meet the demands of the increasing commerce of that port. The excellence of the facilities for trans- shipment gives this port the advantage over all others on the west coast of the Continent. The harbor has always a depth of twenty-five feet of water. Its connection with internal navi- gation and with the railroad lines, over which it enjoys favorable tariffs, and the absence of vexatious formalities, have drawn to Antwerp a commerce which now reaches 5,600,000 tons a year. Since the opening of the St. Gothard Railway it commands the great freight move- ment between the North Sea and the Mediter- ranean. The harbor consisted already of seven basins, with a total area of one hundred acres, and two and a half miles of quays. The new works consist in the widening and deepening of the channel of the river Escaut and the con- struction of an additional basin. The contracts were awarded to Couvreux and Hersent. Their amount is 38,000,000 francs. The river will be dredged to a uniform depth of twenty-five feet and a width of three hundred and eighty -two yards. A quay is being extended along the en- tire river front of the city, two and a half miles, one eighth of which only was already built. The sea-wall of the mole is continued in a dike above, to conserve the rectified channel. The new basin is ten acres in area, and gives six thousand feet of wharfage. The great wall, built on foundations sunk from eight to sixteen feet, is thirty feet broad at the base, one tenth narrower at the top, and of an average height of forty-eight feet. Caissons are sunk for the foundations. They are about eighty feet in length. To the top of the caisson a movable iron bell, of the same form, and some forty-five feet high, is fitted, within which the masonry is built up to the surface of the water. The bell, which weighs about two hundred tons, is floated into position, hung in a scaffolding sup- ported by two barges. It is lowered by a sys- tem of jack-screws, very delicately adjusted, which are actuated by .a steam-engine. The same engine works the pumps which fill the caisson with compressed air, and furnishes power also for bringing the materials and the mortar on cranes into the bell. The iron bell is first floated to the spot when a fresh section of the wall is to be constructed. The bottom is a couple of feet above the level of the water. When the pontoons are firmly anchored, the caisson is floated under the bell and fitted to it, the joint being closed with India-rubber. A layer of leton is laid on top of the caisson, and the masonry is commenced on this. When the caisson touches ground at low tide, it is allowed to sink into place by withdrawing the pressure. If it does not settle squarely, men descend into the air-chamber, and excavate from the river- bottom until it assumes an upright position. When the caisson is enough charged to pre- vent its swaying at high tide, the water and silt are again removed from the working-chamber. Beton is poured into the chamber through four wells furnished with air-locks. When the ma- sonry is carried up to the level of the water, the four flumes are withdrawn with the bell, and the holes are filled in with leton. The mole is one hundred yards from the former bank, and the space between is filled in with earth. The St. Gothard Tunnel was opened to traffic in May. It was the most costly of the Alpine tunnels (see ALPS, TUNNELS OF THE), the cost of construction having amounted altogether to 227,000,000 francs, or $44,000,000. It is, how- ever, the straightest and shortest route over the Alps, and must receive the commerce of the whole Rhine Valley and all the adjacent re- gion of Western Germany, of a large section of Eastern France and of the ports of Holland and Belgium, and the Mediterranean trade of the North of Europe. It will make Genoa an outport for German commerce in the Mediter- ranean in the same manner as the Brenner and Semmering Railroads made Venice and Trieste German ports on the Adriatic. This, the most important of the five Alpine railroad routes, would have been completed long before, if in- ternational jealousies and the rivalries of the Swiss cantons had not stood in the way. The road was talked about before 1848, but it was only after the consolidation of Italy and the establishment of the North German Bund that the interests of those two nations prompted them to take up the scheme in earnest. There was a conference held at Bern in 1869, in which Switzerland, the North German League, Italy, Baden, and Wiirtemberg took part. The rival interests of Austria could be disregarded after her defeat at Sadowa, but the French Emperor would have forbidden the construction of a line which would break up the monopoly of the Mont Cenis route if a more convenient pretext for the war with Germany had not present- ed itself. The Swiss cantons were brought to the verge of civil war by disputes over their rival claims. Bismarck overcame their dissen- sions and the French and Austrian opposition, while Cavour pledged Italy to the payment of more than half the cost. Within ten years after the work was commenced the railroad was in operation. The Semmering and Breu- ENGINEERING. 281 ner roads cross the chain at comparatively low altitudes and their tunnels are much shorter. The fifteen tunnels of the Semmering aggregate together 4,469 metres, and of the twenty-seven tunnels of the Brenner, the largest is only 885 metres. The Mont Cenis Tunnel is 12,233 me- tres. The St. Gothard Tunnel is 14,944 metres in length, and besides the main tunnel there are fifty-three others, making altogether 40,- 718 metres of tunneling. The French, as stated in another place, are considering the project of a new railroad con- nection with Italy, either through the Simplon, Mont Blanc, or Little St. Bernard, in order to retain the through French traffic which the St. Gothard Railroad threatens to take away. The Government engineers reported in favor of the Mont Blanc route, the ground of their prefer- ence being that the mouth of the tunnel would be in French territory, while by the Simplon route it would be necessary to use Swiss rail- ways for 127 miles, and that it would preserve to Marseilles its Swiss trade, which would oth- erwise go to Genoa. The Simplon route does not present the same engineering difficulties as Mont Blanc, but still it would require sixty miles of mountain railway and a tunnel twelve and a half miles long, exceeding by more than three miles the great St. Gothard Tunnel. The high- est elevation would be 2,205 feet, which is much lower than that of the St. Gothard (3,693 feet), the Mont Cenis (4,043), or the Arlberg Tunnel (4,102); but the difficulty of cooling the tun- nel would be so much the greater. The tem- perature in the St. Gothard Tunnel is 31° Cen- tigrade, and under the Simplon would be three or four degrees hotter. Calculations as to the temperature of the projected tunnel under Mont Blanc indicate a temperature of 55° Cen- tigrade for the distance of two miles, but there are -better facilities for ventilation than in the St. Gothard Tunnel, since, for the dis- tance of about three miles, ventilation-shafts 640 feet deep will connect it with the outer air. The Mont Blanc railway would involve the outlay of about 179,000,000 francs, and the one over the Simplon would cost 145,000,000 francs. The Arlberg Tunnel, to connect Switzerland with the Austrian railway system, which was begun in June, 1880, will be 6'382 miles long. The summit-level, 4,998 feet above the Adriatic, is 2-611 miles from the eastern extremity. The Ferroux machine, which was employed in the St. Gothard Tunnel, is used at the eastern end, and the Brandt machine, which was tried with good results in the St. Gothard works, is em- ployed at the other end. The latter was guar- anteed by the inventor to advance six feet four inches a day. Its performance greatly exceeds the guarantee. It drills by boring, and is moved by water under pressure, while the Ferroux perforator acts by percussion and is propelled by compressed air. The comparison of the I • two, working under identical conditions, will enable engineers to determine which is the preferable system. The ventilation of the Arl- berg works will be accomplished by a separate apparatus, distributing air under low pressure through pipes at the point where the work is going on. With the ingenious machine of Colonel Beaumont a gallery seven feet in diameter has been driven for the distance of over a mile and a quarter from the English shore in the gray chalk underneath the English Channel. The Beaumont perforator consists of a powerful bar of iron rotated about its center, with seven short teeth or knives of steel on each arm which scratch away the chalk from the face of the heading. At each turn of the bar the machine is impelled forward on a horizontal axis through a distance of seven millimetres, or about a quarter of an inch. The heading driven by the perforator is 2'14 metres in di- ameter and perfectly cylindrical. The axle on which the bar that carries the knives rotates is a powerful bar of steel. The rotary move- ment is given to it by means of a system of cog-wheels which successively reduce the speed originally imparted by compressed air to the actuating crank and communicated to the cog- wheels by a pair of friction cylinders. The horizontal movements of the machine are pro- duced by a hydraulic apparatus, and are con- trolled by valves which allow the machine to be moved forward or backward, or to re- main on one spot. When the machine has advanced by hydraulic pressure through a dis- tance of. 6£ feet, the machine is lifted off its bed by a combination of levers, and the hy- draulic pressure is applied to the bed of the machine, moving it forward another stage. The rock is very finely divided by the knives of the perforator. The fragments fall to the floor of the gallery, and are gathered up by large scrapers and conveyed to cars at the back of the machine by buckets attached to an endless chain. The crank-axle makes 100 revolutions a minute, with a pneumatic pressure of two atmospheres, or 45 pounds to the square inch. The actual progress of the machine on the English side averaged 60 centimetres an hour and 15 metres a day. A more powerful ma- chine is used on the French side, which accom- plishes one metre an hour. The execution of the New York Tunnel in the soft, silty bed of the Hudson River, be- tween Jersey City and New York, is still prob- lematical, as the works have stopped for the second time. The erroneous idea that com- pressed air would act as a support instead of timbering resulted in the distressing accident by which a number of men lost their lives a short time after the tunnel was begun. After that a permanent bulk-head of masonry was constructed near the shaft, containing an air- lock, consisting of an iron tube large enough for the admission of a man. The ingenious plan on which the tunnel is constructed has been before described. The plate-iron shell, within which the arched masonry is built, has 282 ENGINEERING. a movable bulk-head at the end. The shell is of boiler-iron, in sections 15 feet long. One plate of the temporary boiler-plate bulk-head is removed and the earth dug away from behind it. A second plate is in like manner taken out, if no difficulty has been experienced. Then a seg- ment of the sheet-iron shell is bolted on to the completed part. The air-pressure, employed to keep out water, is 26 pounds to the square inch. When there is an escape of air, dry cement is applied to the hole and is carried in by the current until the hole is stopped. In the case of larger leaks much ingenuity is required, as also in getting in the shell- plates. The Severn Tunnel, which will carry the Great Western Railway into the heart of the coal and iron district of South Wales, will probably be completed in 1884, 7,000 feet hav- ing been dug and arched at the close of the year. Since the irruption of water from a land spring, which seriously delayed the works, no similar mishap has occurred. The work progresses at the rate of 500 feet a month. With 20 pumps of various capacities, only half of which are operated continuously, nearly 12,000,000 gallons of water are raised per diem. The tunnel will be 4| miles in length, 2£ miles under the Severn and 2 miles under the land. The strata under the river have been found sound and dry latterly. More water enters in the land-sections. The brick- work is made of vitrified brick set in Portland cement. There are 3,000 men employed and 14,000 pounds of explosives are used monthly. The tunnel passes through red sandstone under the river and hard pennant under the Glouces- tershire shore. The minimum thickness of the roof, between the tunnel and the river-bed, is 40 feet, and the depth of the tunnel below high water 163 feet. The shorter tunnel, which is being bored under the Mersey, resembles the other in being excavated in red sandstone. It is three fourths of a mile in length. The floor is 144 feet be- low high water. As in the Severn works, an enormous quantity of water has to be pumped out. The machine devised by Colonel Beau- mont, for excavating the Channel Tunnel, has been adopted. It is expected to advance the driftway 30 yards per week. The construction of the Brooklyn Bridge was first begun January 2, 1870. In 1877 the mak- ing of the cables was commenced, and in 1882 the approaches were nearly completed, and work begun on the superstructure. The cais- sons for the towers were 172 by 102 feet on the New York, and ]68 by 102 feet on the Brooklyn side. The New York caisson weighed 7,000 tons, and the concrete filling 8,000 tons. The tower on the New York side contains 46,- 945 cubic yards of masonry, the Brooklyn tower 38,214 yards. The span over the river is 1,595£ feet. The land-spans are each 930 feet long. The Brooklyn approach is 971, and the New York approach 1,562* feet. The total length of the bridge is 5,989 feet. The sus- taining cables, four in number, are 15| feet in diameter, and will each stand a strain of 12,- 200 tons. The wire which composes them is 12 feet to the pound. There are 5,296 wires in each cable. They 'are of galvanized steel and oil-coated. Each wire is 3,578£ feet long. The wires are not twisted, but closely wrapped to form a solid cylinder. The tower on the Brooklyn side is laid on a foundation 45 feet below high water, while the New York tower rests on a foundation sunk 78 feet below the high-tide mark. The towers have each a sec- tion at the high-water line of 140 by 59 feet. At the roof-course they are 136 by 53 feet. The height of the towers above high water is 278 feet. The clear height of the bridge above high water in the center of the river is 135 feet at 90° Fahr. The height of the floor at the towers is 119 feet at high water. The top of the towers is 159 feet above the roadway. The anchorages are in masses of masonry 129 by 119 feet at the base, and 89 feet high at the front, and 85 feet at the rear. At the top they are 117 by 104 feet. The anchor-plates weigh 23 tons. The depots at the ends of the bridge will be of glass and iron, the one on the New York side 260 feet long and 59 feet wide. The cars will be propelled by station- ary engines and wire-traction ropes. Besides the great suspension-bridge at New York, a second bridge over the East River has been commenced farther up. It is to cross in two suspended spans from Ravenswood, Long Island, to the upper part of Blackwell's Island, and from BlackwelFs Island to the New York shore. The bridge, with its approaches of iron trestle-work, will be 10,043 feet long. The suspension spans will be respectively 734 and 618 feet in length, and will have a clear height above the water at mean tide of 154 feet. There will be three chain-cables strung over iron towers, and holding up the iron trusses which support the floor of the bridge. The roadway will be 76 feet wide, giving room for double railroad-tracks, carriage-roads, and side- walks. The towers will be formed by twelve wrought-iron columns of 2^-inch iron about 24 inches in diameter, braced in every direc- tion. Each of the four towers will be 46 feet long at the top, 100 feet long at the base, and 260 feet high. The towers rest upon masonry piers 60 feet wide and 120 feet long. The ca- bles, one on each side and one in the middle, will be double, consisting each of two chain- cables, one above the other, crossing each other in the center of the bridge on a pin- joint, and joining each other by symmetrical curves. The two cables are braced together with diagonal braces and divide the load between them. The natural advantages of the location are un- equaled. At each abutment solid rock is found a short distance below the surface. The an- chorage on Long Island and in New York will be in 40 feet of natural rock, and on Black- well's Island it will be in 12 feet of rock re-en- ENGINEERING. 283 forced by 40 feet of masonry. The total cost is estimated at $6,000,000. A railroad-bridge has been erected across the Kinzua Valley, in Pennsylvania, for the New- York, Lake Erie, and Western road, which is the loftiest structure of the kind in the world, and so light that it appears as if made of wire. The highest pier is 297 feet in height, the av- erage height being 176 feet. It crosses the Kinzua Creek at an elevation of 2,100 feet above the sea. Engineers have for several years studied the best way to cross this deep ravine, which lies in the way of a railroad be- tween Pittsburg and Buffalo. The gigantic viaduct which has been constructed was planned by O. W. Barnes. Its length is 2,051 feet from abutment to abutment. The height of the rail- level above the bed of the small stream in the center of this chasm is 301 feet. There are twen- ty spans of 61, and one of 62 feet. The width of each tower is 38£ feet at top. The truss is 6 feet high and 10 wide. It is continuous. The braced columns which form the piers are one foot in diameter. They incline with a batter of two inches in a foot. Each column rests on a base of masonry. The iron shoes to which the columns are fastened are imbed- ded in the copings of the piers, and each one is anchored by two large bolts passing through the pier and fastened to iron plates at the bottom. These bolts are designed to add to the security against wind strains. Four mil- lion pounds of iron and seven thousand cubic yards of masonry were used in the construc- tion of the viaduct. The foundations are most- ly in solid rock, but for a few piers near the bottom they are on piles. The new bridge designed by the English en gineers, Fowler and Baker, to cross the Forth, which will be the widest-span bridge in the world, is of a new type, and will be the first bridge built of steel. The principle of the de- sign is to have enormous balanced cantalevers on two river-piers, and the space between them in the middle span, bridged by a long lattice girder, carried from the end of one cantalever to the other. The steel employed will be test- ed for a tensile strength of 30 to 33 tons to the square inch, with 20 per cent elongation, and for a resistance on compression of from 34 to 37 tons, with 17 per cent elongation. There are two spans bridged in the way described. The piers holding the cantalevers are iron frames, resting on foundations of rock and hard clay, each 350 feet high. The length of the central pier is 270 feet, that of the two others 150 feet. The spans are each 1,700 feet. The balanced can- talevers, or brackets, are about 675 feet long each. They are fastened at top and bottom to the iron frames of the piers. The two project- ing brackets bridge about 1,350 feet of the space between the piers. The remaining 350 feet are closed by a lattice girder, resting on the tips of the cantalevers. The weight of each bracket is about 3,360 tons. A suspension- bridge over the Forth was commenced, but the work was abandoned when the Tay Bridge dis- aster had awakened the minds of engineers to the magnitude of the wind-strains which such structures must undergo. The present design was intended to attain exceptional strength and rigidity, and to stand heavy freight and fast passenger traffic, as well as the heaviest gales which sweep the Scotch coast. The new Eddystone Light-house was set in operation on May 18th. The tower was de- signed by James N. Douglas, Chief -Engineer to the Trinity Corporation, which has charge of the British light-house system. It is as solidly constructed as the old tower, and firmer than if hewed out of a single block of granite, for the separate stones are without a flaw, and are so dovetailed together that it is impossible for any of them to be displaced. Every one is fitted into those above, below, and on each side, with projections and grooves, and the interstices are filled up with Portland cement. The curved contour of the old light-house is also retained, but with an important modification. Smeaton's famous design, which allows the waves to roll up the curved sides of the column, instead of dividing the stress of the seas, concentrated their force at the top of the tower, where they exercised a powerful leverage upon the base. The tower, with its interlocking blocks of granite, was as strong, when recently taken down, as when it was first erected, over a cen- tury before; but the reef on which it was founded, weakened by under- washing, had be- come insecure. The new light-house is placed on the southern rock, the middle one of the three main reefs, 127 feet from the old one, which stood on the western rock. The Eddy- stone group of rocks occupies about a square mile at low water. Their situation is nearly midway between Start Point, in Devon, and Lizard Point, in Corn wall, being about ten miles nearer the latter. The rocks are of gneissic formation. The new tower, instead of rising in a parabolic curve from below the high-water mark, is placed upon a cylindrical base of ma- sonry 44£ feet in diameter. The vertical sides of this solid granite base rise 2£ feet above high water. From this cylindrical base the curved shaft rises, leaving a terrace 4^ feet wide all around. The granite blocks of which it is built are some of them 6£ feet deep and 2 feet thick, with their outer curved face 3 feet 10 inches broad. The height of the focal plane of the light in the old tower was 72 feet above high water, while that in the new house is 133 feet, the former being visible 13 and the latter 17^ miles. The Tillamook light-house, placed by the United States Light-house Board on the coast of Oregon, eighteen miles south of the mouth of the Columbia River, is invaluable for the growing commerce of Portland and Astoria with all parts of the world. The coast is lined with precipitous basaltic cliffs. Tillamook Rock is a reef rising 90 feet above the water a mile off shore. The light is 136 feet above the sea. The 284 ENGINEERING. ENGLISH CHANNEL TUNNEL PANIC. dangers of this rock-bound coast are increased by the frequent fogs. The site was selected in 1878, but the sea was never calm enough to permit of lauding until June, 1879 ; and then the first men who landed jumped into the sea to escape a coming storm, and were rescued with life-lines. A man was able three days later to get the measurements, finding that a flat surface of 3,600 square feet could be ob- tained by leveling the rock to the uniform height of 90 feet. In September a mason land- ed to plan the buildings, but he was washed off and drowned. In October a party of quar- rymen were landed from the revenue- steamer Corwin, which was moored to a buoy in 25 fathoms of water. A cable was carried from the vessel to the rock, by which men could be landed in a breeches-buoy. It was many weeks before the tools and stores could be landed, and a shelter constructed. The work of excavation, which continued through the winter, was very dangerous. They held on to ropes while drill- ing the holes, and always kept on the leeward side to avoid being blown into the sea. In January there was a storm which carried away their store-house. The waves, breaking in a chasm which divides the rock into two parts, were dashed over the whole surface continu- ously for several days. The men were nearly starved before communication could be estab- lished again with the steamer. The leveling was completed in May, 1881. The excavated rock was thrown into the chasm for the pur- pose of closing it, but the largest fragments were soon swept out by the waves. Work was begun on the building in June. All the blocks of stone were squared and numbered at As- toria, and were landed from the steamer by a " traveler " over the cable. The main building is 48 feet by 45, with accommodation for four keepers. Above it rises a stone tower 35| feet high. In an adjoining building are steam fog- sirens. The light is a white flash-light of the first order. The recently constructed Darjeeling Tram- way or Himalayan Railway unites the steepest grades with the sharpest curves that are found in any existing railroad. The road winds like a serpent among the foot-hills of the Himalayas, and ascends to the region of clouds, the termi- nus, Darjeeling, being 7,700 feet above the level of the sea. Some of the curves have a radius of only 70 feet, while grades of 50 in 1,000 are encountered. The total ascent in the 50 miles of railroad is 7,400 feet, which gives a mean inclination of 28 in 1,000. The gauge is two feet. The rails are of refined steel. The ties are two feet eight inches apart, with extra ties tinder the joints, and for the sake of rigidity supporting plates under the outer rails of all the curves of 125 feet radius or less. The cars are open ones of the lightest construction pos- sible. The locomotives are reduced models of the ordinary engine with tender. The steam-heating of towns is making prog- ress in the United States, notwithstanding fre- quent and troublesome accidents which the use of so unmanageable an agent as steam entails. In the city of New York two companies have laid steam-pipes through the streets in the most thickly-built portion of the town. There, as in other places, numerous mishaps have oc- curred from the bursting of joints and break- ing of flanges. The pipes are fitted with screw- joints of wrought-iron. The system of fitting invented by the English engineer, Perkins, has not yet been tried. He surfaced the end of one of the tubes and bevelled that of the next one, so that when they were screwed together in a collar the two ends cut into each other and formed a metallic connection. ENGLISH CHANNEL TUNNEL PANIC. The demonstration of the feasibility and com- mercial profitableness of a submarine railroad tunnel under the Straits of Dover was promptly turned to account by the Southeastern Railroad Company, the French Compagnie du Nord, and other English and French capitalists. The in- genious tunneling machine of Colonel Beaumont (see ENGINEERING), and the experimental cut- tings which proved the continuity and imper- meability of the chalk stratum (see ENGINEER- ING in preceding volumes), solved the engineer- ing difficulties. Financial support beyond the requirements was assured to the Channel Tun- nel Company presided over by Sir Edward Watkin. The French were eager to co-oper- ate. When the work was already well under way, its success assured, and nothing was want- ing but the permission of Parliament, an agita- tion was started against the scheme which gained such strength that the work had to be suspended until more sober counsels prevail. The objections to the underground passage were purely strategic. The demonstration that with the advances in naval art the "silver streak," as the English Channel is figuratively designated, could easily be overstepped by mod- ern armaments, and an invading force landed on the southern coast of England without warning, at the rate of a regiment every five minutes, instead of obviating, had really pre- pared the way for the agitation of military alarmists against the Channel Tunnel. When the experimental operations proved to be a definite success, and the time came to receive the permission of the Government, orders were given at the instance of Sir Garnet Wolseley and other military authorities to stop the work until the subject had been examined by a com- mission. The Government had entertained no such fears when Lord Derby, as Foreign Min- ister, in a communication to the French Gov- ernment, cordially approved the scheme in 1874. The French Minister of Public Works, on the strength of the acceptance of the prin- ciple of the tunnel, signed the convention with Michel Chevalier, President of the French Channel Tunnel Company. The scare had already been started, but, when the note of alarm was caught up by the press, it spread among all ranks and conditions of men. Pro- ENGLISH CHANNEL TUNNEL PANIC. 285 tests were signed by people who had acquired distinction in every walk of life — poets and soldiers, clergymen, statesmen, judges, mer- chants, noblemen and trades-union officials. The people were exhorted to shut their ears against ridicule and close their minds to argu- ment in a matter on which the fate of England depended. Peers and members of Parliament who visited the works at Dover were warned against the conversational wiles of Sir Edward Watkin and the bribery of his " champagne lunches." The danger apprehended by the panic-mon- gers was that by a stealthy and treacherous stroke executed in the midst of profound peace the French might seize the English end of the tunnel and forward by train through the sub- marine passage a force which exceeds the ex- isting military strength of England. An army of one hundred and fifty thousand men would be able to sweep everything before it. It could be transported through the tunnel in a day or two, and march into London in four or five days. An expedition of two thousand men could capture Dover and hold it while the troops were coming by the railroad. It would require no stronger force to overpower the garrison after effecting an entrance into the fortress by surprise or by escalade. A body of two thousand could either come by trains after taking possession of the telegraph and using artifices which could not be detected, or they could be disembarked in the harbor on any dark night, or they could come in disguise and collect on the British shore, arming themselves from secret stores of weapons. The British navy would be powerless while the French were pouring their battalions into the heart of England. The temptation to an unscrupulous military adventurer, whose dire ambition might never be suspected under his perhaps " lawyer- like exterior," would be the richest and the easiest conquest which the world offers. In possession of the capital and of the arsenal at Woolwich, from which alone a fresh army could be equipped, the French might exact any terms, perhaps fifteen milliards of francs, the surrender of the British fleet, and probably the British end of the tunnel. The last loss would be irreparable. If Britain could ever hold up her head again among nations, it would only be by adopting the system of uni- versal military service. France with her whole population under arms need fear nothing from England, but bridging the " wet ditch " would destroy the independent position of the " tight little island," and entail the military system upon Great Britain under which the Conti- nental nations groan. These fears, springing rather from sentiment than reason, could not be understood by Moltke and other European strategists, but they pre- vailed among the soldiers and sailors of Great Britain. On the Continent, railroads cross every frontier in all directions. The nations are glad to have their mountain barriers pierced by tunnels, and do not even fortify the entrances. The Germans, when invading France, left the railway cars and marched around tunnels for fear of arrangements for their destruction. The French Government has favored every project for bridging the channel.* They have never felt any tremors. The English advocates of the tunnel have met the anxieties of the military alarmists by proposing plans for rendering the tunnel-mouth secure from the imaginary treachery and sur- prise. As long as the British ironclads hold the sea, a few well-directed shells from a frigate could close the mouth of the tunnel at any time. The Castle of Dover is considered a first-class fortress, and safe from capture by a coup de main. A strong outwork, or casemated batteries excavated in the cliffs, with guns con- stantly trained upon the entrance to the tun- nel, could be built and connected with the fort by a subterranean passage. A narrow gallery could be dug from the fort down to the tun- nel, and arrangements made by which the tun- nel could be flooded by having iron pipes pass- ing from the sea into the tunnel, closed by stop-cocks, which could be turned at any time by the officer of the guard. The ventilating engines could pump their smoke into the -tun- nel instead of air, and it would at once become impassable. Reservoirs could be opened, let- ting carbonic-acid gas flow into the tunnel. Colonel Frederick Beaumont suggested that trains should emerge from the tunnel by being lifted through a vertical shaft by hydraulic elevators, and that the inclined gallery con- necting the tunnel with the land lines should be blocked by a time mechanism, in such a way that it would require some definite time to open it to traffic, and that its entrance should be directly under fire from the batteries. The arrangement of a hydraulic lift was deemed a sufficient safeguard by Lord Dunsany and Gen- eral Wolseley, the leading opponents of the tun- nel, but one which would deprive the passage of its value for speedy transit. Two projects for a channel tunnel were sub- mitted to Parliament, and referred to a com- * Napoleon Bonaparte, when First Consul, took an inter- est in the plans of Matthieu for a tunnel. Thome de Gomond elaborated a scheme in 1856 which the third Napoleon pro- posed to put to the test. It was for a tunnel with ventilating shafts rising through thirteen artificial islands. Several en- gineers, fearing the danger of a tunnel's crossing fissures or quicksands, have proposed submerged tubes. Bateman, an English engineer, planned a cast-iron tube built out in sep- arate lengths, within a sliding cylinder. Zerah Colburn, the American engineer, suggested constructing one eighteen feet in diameter on a dry-dock, and hauling it out as each section was added, until the floating tube reached the opposite coast. Bradford Leslie, an engineer from India, worked out a plan for a tubular floating tunnel held down to a certain depth under the water by anchors. A visionary project for a bridge over the strait was considered by Louis Napoleon. Low's plans for a tunnel, approved by Sir John Hawkshaw, which were the basis of the present enterprise, were propounded about 186T. John Fowler has taken advantage of the recent controversy to revive his scheme for conveying railroad trains across on ferry-boats. Sir Henry Bessemer's ingenious ship with a swinging saloon, which knocked away a portion of the Calais pier, failed because its shallow draught rendered it un- steady. Captain Dicey's double-hulled steamers proved too slow. 286 EPIDEMIC DISEASES, SANITARY CONTROL OF. mittee of the House of Commons, which con- demned them both. The report of the commit- tee precludes the construction of any tunnel un- til other ideas control the minds of the military authorities. The Duke of Cambridge, command- er-in-chief, thought that the company should first of all be required to deposit in the treasury a sum sufficient to construct a first-class for- tress and maintain a garrison of 10,000 men. The absolutely necessary military precautions demanded by him and General Wolseley, and indorsed by the committee, were that the tun- nel's mouth should be beyond range from the sea, commanded by the guns of such a fortress, and provided with a portcullis. There should be arrangements at command from within the fort, and at different points outside, for filling the tunnel with asphyxiating gases, for tem- porarily flooding it by means of sluices, for closing the entrance with mines on the land, and for permanently flooding it by mines above the roof, opening communication with the bottom of the sea. Even these precautions would not satisfy the nervous warriors of Eng- land, who dread that the tunnel and its defenses might still be captured intact by a conquering army invading England by sea, and perma- nently held by the victors. EPIDEMIC DISEASES, SANITARY CONTROL OF. The sanitary control of epidemic disease in the United States, or, rather, its attempted control, is of so recent origin that at the pres- ent day but little other than the results of lim- ited experience which has been gained in the last few years can be recorded, leaving to the future the final collation of the accumulated evidence, and the settlement of the points in- volved. Enough has been learned, however, by that experience, and by the experience of foreign nations, to justify the assertion that the diseases now classed as epidemic may be placed under control. We say epidemic dis- eases, but, properly speaking, we should rather say that such diseases are of a specific nature, liable to be spread by certain material influ- ences. There is at this time no reason for going into the discussion of the contagious or non-contagious nature of a class of diseases known to invade certain localities at certain seasons of the year, and to affect large num- bers of the human family; for modern re- searches into the causation and origin of the class mentioned have proved beyond a doubt that they are produced by a certain germ or seed, capable, under favorable circumstances, of self-prdpagation, and communicable by cer- tain recognized agents. Among these agents, air, drinking-water, and food, in the order named, are believed to be the principal infec- tion-carriers. Researches of Pasteur, Koch, and others, have placed the germ or seed the- ory beyond dispute ; and, although some doubt has been expressed as to the demonstration of the particular bacillus of each specific disease, yet their existence, and the general agreement among sanitarians as to the essential correct- ness of the theory, that epidemics are con- secutive and not synchronous, is, we think, established. There are five specific diseases which have prevailed at different periods in the history of mankind, about which the ques- tion of transmission is pretty clearly estab- lished. These are the Oriental plague, cholera, measles, small-pox, and yellow fever. There are certain other specific diseases, highly infec- tious in their nature, which, although rarely taking on the form of general epidemics, are yet transmissible by some one of the vehicles mentioned. These are typhoid fever, diphthe- ria, and scarlet fever. It is common to speak of all the affections above enumerated as pre- ventable diseases, although it is best not to accept that term in its literal sense ; for, while it is true that they may be prevented from be- coming epidemic by means hereafter to be mentioned, yet it is doubtful if the germ can be swept from the face of the earth, except by a more united effort than has heretofore been made, or is likely to be made in the near fu- ture. It is, perhaps, scarcely in place to men- tion the diseases of animals belonging to this class, in this paragraph ; but the experiments of Pasteur in regard to the prevention of chick- en-cholera and silk-worm disease, and that of the veterinarians of this country in the preven- tion of pleuro-pneumonia and glanders, are directly corroborative of the prevailing theory regarding diseases peculiar to the human race. "Without dwelling further on this phase of the question, we pass directly to the consideration of the essential characteristics of one of the diseases named. The plague is a contagious specific fever, attended with an eruption of carbuncles, and swelling of the inguinal and other glands of the body. Hecker, who has written an extensive work on this disease, as- sumes that Europe alone has lost no less than twenty-five millions of its inhabitants in the various epidemics of the plague that have oc- curred. He says: "In regard to the nature of the contagion, every spot which the sick had touched, their breath, their clothes, spread the contagion ; and, as in all other places, the attendants and friends, who were either blind to their danger or heroically despised it, fell a sacrifice to their sympathy. The pestilential breath of the sick who expectorated blood caused a terrible contagion far and near ; for even the vicinity of those who had fallen ill of the plague was certain death, so that parents abandoned their infected children, and all the ties of kindred were dissolved." " The contagion of the plague appears to have frequently been conveyed by drinking water from the very inefficiently protected wells ; hence there arose a cry that the wells were poisoned, and suspicion fell upon the Jews, who were almost everywhere racked and tortured, burned and massacred." Dr. Russel states that " in the most destruc- tive forms the vital forces appear to be suddenly annihilated by a most intense and malignant EPIDEMIC DISEASES, SANITARY CONTROL OF. 287 blood-poisoning, and death is remarkably rapid, without external eruption of buboes, carbun- cles, or spots. In such cases the body has no time to show the 'tokens' before death. In the great majority of cases the disease is pre- ceded by lassitude, loss of strength, anxiety, and afterward by vomiting. The characteristic swellings in the arm-pits and groin follow, petechiaa and carbuncles appear, delirium suc- ceeds, and too frequently death. Pathology shows rather the effects of the poison on the tissues and organs, as shown by enlargement and congestion of the spleen, kidneys, etc., than anything especially characteristic. There are numerous haemorrhagic effusions, and dis- section shows that buboes always result from enlargement and suppuration of the lymphatic glands. It is probable that all the fluids and secretions of the plague - stricken body are contagious " (Dr. Blythe, " Dictionary of Hy- giene "). The symptoms of cholera, small-pox, and yellow fever, are so well known that no par- ticular mention need be made of them in this place. CONVEYANCE OF INFECTION BY AIR. — The atmosphere is essentially a diluent of all gase- ous poisons. It has practically this effect in relation to germ-diseases, for it is evident that, when the germs are scattered through a large quantity of air, the propagation is retarded; for the seeds being less numerous, their effects are not so apparent ; but the distance to which specific germs can be transmitted in the air can not at this time be definitely stated. The air, however, is always infected in the imme- diate vicinity of fomites, which is a rather vague term, meaning any substance which may retain germs from a plague- or fever- stricken patient. Thus there are included in this general term all textile fabrics which have been in contact with patients, such as clothes, rags, bedding, linen, and the like. It is reasonably certain that such fomites, having been in contact with the excreted or vomited matters, perspiration, or other exhalations from the skins of patients affected with some one of the specific diseases, afford a safe place of refuge for the germs ; and if fomites be placed in boxes or trunks, or in bales, they retain the power of propagation through an indefinite period of time ; and such fomites, when placed in favorable conditions, allow the transmission of the germs to the air surrounding them, and thus the contagion is supplied, to be dissemi- nated from one place to another. In the epi- demics of the plague in Asia, it has been dem- onstrated that rugs and the like, when carried to a place quite remote from the original place of infection, and opened out, have been a cause of the development of the disease in a new and before unaffected locality. This also accounts for the sudden outbreak of epidemics in remote points. In the cholera epidemic of 1873, in the United States, the Crow River settlements in Minnesota were free from cholera until the opening of baggage at Willmar, brought thither by immigrants from Europe (McClellan, u Chol- era Epidemic of 1873 in the United States," Washington, 1875, p. 441). It is believed to be a fact that the outbreak of yellow fever at Memphis, Tenn., in 1879, originated in the un- packing and airing of certain infected clothing that had been stored away since the terrible epidemic which had visited that city in the previous year ; and such cases have been of so common occurrence as to give cause for a well- grounded fear of retaining year after year, in any house, textile fabrics which have directly or indirectly been in contact with yellow-fever patients. In regard to the general infection of the air, it has been demonstrated that a strong current of air, blowing over infected articles, will convey the germs in sufficient numbers to develop the disease in persons inhaling the infected air; and it has even been known to affect animals. For instance, the widely-known Ceeley case, reported in " Transactions of Pro- vincial Medical and Surgical Association," quoted by Aitken ("Science and Practice of Medicine," vol. i, 1872, p. 400), as follows : " At the village of Oakley, about sixteen miles from the town of Aylesbury, small-pox had been epidemic from June to October, 1840. Two cottages, in which three persons resided during their illness, were situated, one on each of two sides of a long, narrow meadow, com- prising scarcely two acres of pasture-land. One of these three patients, though thickly covered with pustules of small-pox, was not confined to her bed after the full development of the eruption, but frequently crossed the meadow to visit the other patients — a woman and a child — the former of whom was in great dan- ger from the confluent malignant form of the disease, and died. According to custom, she was buried the same evening ; but the inter- course between the cottages across the meadow was still continued. On the day following death, the wearing-apparel of the deceased, the bedclothes and bedding of both patients, were exposed for purification on the hedges bound- ing the meadow. The chaff of the child's bed was thrown into the ditch, and the flock of the deceased woman's bed was strewed about on the grass over the meadow, where it was ex- posed and turned every night, and for several hours during the day. This purification of the clothes continuedfor eleven days. At that time eight milch-cows and two young heifers were turned into the meadow to graze. They en- tered it every morning for this purpose, and were driven from it every afternoon. When- ever the cows quitted the meadow the infected articles were again exposed on the hedges, and the flock of the bed was spread out on the grass and repeatedly turned. These things remained until the morning, when the cows were readmitted, and the contaminated arti- cles were supposed to be withdrawn. It ap- pears, however, that the removal of the in- fected articles was not always accomplished so 288 EPIDEMIC DISEASES, SANITARY CONTROL OF. punctually as had been enjoined, so that, on one occasion at least, the cows were seen in the midst of them, and licking up the flock of the bed which lay on the grass. These cows were in perfect health when first put out to grass in this meadow ; but in twelve or four- teen days, five out of the eight milch-cows showed symptoms of sickness, and the whole of the cows were certainly affected within three days of each other," with the general symptoms of small-pox. Immersion in water seems to have but little effect in destroying the germs of yellow fever and small-pox, for it has been noticed that an infected mattress thrown into the Mississippi River from a steamboat, and afterward recov- ered by persons living on the shore, communi- cated the contagion. The air is also infected by the presence of bodies dead of specific diseases. To such an extent is this the case that in many cities public funerals of persons who have died of certain specific diseases are forbidden. The so-called " sewer-gas " is simply air pol- luted by the various organic matters contained in the sewers ; and, as the diseases have their specific seed or germ, it follows that they can not be spontaneously generated from a gase- ous poison. Sewer-air, however, may be a car- rier of infection when the seed is sown, and it is certain that sewage itself, and the crypto- gamic growths on the sides of sewers and house-drains, afford a favorable field for the propagation and development of fever-germs, especially typhoid fever, scarlet fever, and diphtheria ; and, when the excreted matters from a typhoid-fever patient are conveyed into the sewer, they may then affect the air pass- ing through it, gain entrance into the house, and in this manner spread the infection. If it were possible to prevent the discharges from typhoid-fever patients, and expectorated matter from patients suffering with diphtheria, from gaining entrance to the sewers, it is doubtful, in view of existing theories, if sewer-air could ever be a means of propagating these infections. WATER AS A CARRIER OF INFECTION. — The most frequent means of propagation of typhoid fever as well as cholera is by water-carriage of the germ. The several outbreaks of typhoid that have occurred in England and this coun- try have been traced, without much possibility of error in the conclusion, to water used for drinking purposes having become infected with the excreta from typhoid-fever patients. In a recent epidemic in England it is believed that it was due to the washing of milk-pans with polluted water! Dr. MacNamara states: "The eighth char- acteristic of cholera is that the more explicit the examination the clearer the fact appears that the disease in the majority of cases spreads from one human being to another by means of the cholera fomes finding its way into drink- ing-water, and thus into the intestines of other people." Of the truth of this proposition there is abundant evidence. FILTH AND SEWAGE. — In consonance with the views expressed as to the specific origin of the infection named, it follows that no amount of filth, no amount of ordinary sewage, can pro- duce epidemic disease of its own accord, un- less the seed be previously sown. It is certain, however, that fever-germs are best propagated and attain their greatest malignity where filth is found in the greatest abundance. That it will not produce it is proved. An example illustrat- ing this fact was recently given by Minister John M. Langston in regard to the sanitary condition of Port-au-Prince, Hayti (" Bulletins of Public Health," Marine Hospital Service, 1881, page 114) : uThe streets (of Port-au-Prince) are ex- ceedingly foul, and police regulations of no sort are enforced. There is no regulation to oblige even the filthiest person to remove de- posits from the streets, or from the gutters and sidewalks ; and the harbor is also full of foul matter of every sort." Now, although this filthy condition had then existed for several years, in one of the hottest of climates, the filth itself saturated with moisture, and necessarily raised to the elevated temperature tending to develop the latent germs of yellow fever, if any were present, the city was free from it for a period of fifteen years up to 1879, although it raged in the adjacent islands. It is known that heat and moisture favor the development and propagation of specific fever-germs when once sown, with the exception of the small- pox virus, which attains its greatest malignity at a low temperature. SANITARY CONTROL. — From what has been said as to the general nature of infection and the means for its propagation, the measures to be adopted for the sanitary control of epidemic diseases are almost self-apparent. They are such, in the first place, as will destroy the germs ; and, in the second place, to enforce perfect cleanliness, so that the germs, although gaining entrance to the proper spot, shall not find a harboring-place for their propagation. One of the first things that should interest a municipal health officer is the sanitary history of his town or city. He should ascertain with especial care the periods at which epidemics of any kind have appeared in the city or vil- lage under his charge. Wherever possible he should ascertain by investigation the spot where the first case made its appearance, and, if pos- sible, trace the source of infection. Then the directions in which it spread from the initial cases should be noted. Other things being equal, the average meteorological conditions of the locality being practically unchanged from year to year; the introduction of the infection in a particular manner will usually lead to the same result in any given year, as in the past, favored on the one hand by increased population and diminished on the other by its decrease. Having mastered the details as to the past history, he should next ascertain the present sanitary condition of the locality by the inspection of the place, and an examina- EPIDEMIC DISEASES, SANITARY CONTEOL OF. tion of its vital statistics as reported to the proper officer, week after week ; its cleanli- ness or uncleanliness ; bearing in mind its his- tory and the sources from which infection is likely to be admitted. The natural influence of locality favoring the propagation and spread of certain diseases may be entirely changed by perfect cleanliness. The experience of the British in India, and the French in Africa, is on this point quite conclusive. Cholera is a disease believed to have originated in Asia (the banks of the Ganges being, perhaps, its native habitat, if, indeed, a place of nativity can be assigned to it). It is called Asiatic cholera, in recognition of the place of its nativity. Pro- fessor Blanc (" Cholera, how to Avoid and Treat it," London and Paris, 1873, p. 40) states: " While I was on special duty in Abyssinia, cholera gained the camp of the Emperor Theo- dore, where it was brought by recruits from Tigre, in May, 1866. This disease had been making havoc in Tigr6. We were not sur- prised, therefore, to hear that it had spread over other provinces, and that several cases had already broken out in Kourota, a town situated on Lake Tana. The King's camp was pitched in a very unhealthy situation, on low, swampy ground. Fever, diarrhcea, and dysentery had prevailed to a great extent. The Emperor, in the hope of arresting the spread of the epi- demic, moved his camp to the neighborhood of Kourota. A worse place he could not have selected. He first encamped on a low promon- tory south of Kourota, but the cholera had by this time broken out in the camp and hundreds were dying daily. He again moved his camp, this time to some high ground a mile or so north of the town. The church was so com- pletely choked up with dead bodies that no more could be admitted, and the adjoining streets offered the sad sight of countless corpses, surrounded by the sorrowing rela- tives, awaiting for days and nights the hal- lowed grave in the now crowded cemetery. At last the Emperor asked for my advice. I told him to proceed at once by different routes and follow the many small streams that flow from the highland of Begemder ; to protect from pollution the water used for drinking ; and, once on the plateau, to break up his army as far as possible, selecting a few healthy, iso- lated localities, where every fresh case that broke out should be sent. He acted upon this advice, and before long had the satisfaction of seeing the epidemic lose its virulence, and be- fore many weeks disappear entirely." Dr. Blanc shows by the above case how much may be done by isolation and scattering into camps, and separation of the sick from the well, and, to indicate how much better the dis- ease was managed in India, under sanitary con- trol, cites the following instance : " Cholera had been raging during May and June, 1872, in the Mahratta country, a well- populated district, stretching from the eastern slope of the Bombay Ghauts. The altitude of VOL. xxn. — 19 A this plateau averages 2,000 feet above the level of the sea. It is mostly composed of laterites, well cultivated, sparsely wooded, possessing a few running streams, more or less dried up in hot weather, and a moderate rain-fall for India. We had learned from the reports of the police and civil officers in charge of the districts that the epidemic was of a most virulent type. Some medical subordinates were sent to the localities most infected, and they confirmed the great extent and severe character of the outbreak. I was at the time civil surgeon of Sattara, a town of some 23,000 inhabitants. . . . Informed of the progress of the epidemic in the direction of Sattara, with the assistance of the civil authorities, the following sanitary measures were carried out : The whole town was thoroughly inspected, filth and rubbish were carted and burned to leeward of the town, drains were flushed, houses were whitewashed, gardens cleared out, and all excrementitious matters removed to trenches dug for that pur- pose near the city, and filled with earth. Po- licemen were stationed at the different roads leading to the city, provided with medicines to distribute to persons suffering from diarrhoea, and directed to accompany to a building set apart for the purpose any case of cholera that should be reported to them. The town fortu- nately receives an excellent supply of drinking- water from a small lake situated on a hill in the vicinity of Sattara. Policemen were post- ed at the reservoir which receives this water ; the place around was kept clean and dry, and no one was allowed to bathe or wash clothes at it or in its vicinity. The inhabitants were warned not to use the water of their wells for drinking purposes, but to fetch it from the res- ervoir. They were also told to apply for med- icine on the first appearance of diarrhoea, and that every case of cholera that declared itself in the town should be taken to the hospital, and that myself or my subordinates should be informed of the occurrence, when some one belonging to the hospital staff would visit the patients. In the beginning of July a few cases were admitted into the cholera hospital, one or two a day, during some eight or ten days. Every one of these cases had been contracted in the villages south of Sattara, the district where the cholera was at the time prevailing. All the discharges of cholera-patients were at once saturated with disinfectants, and buried in trenches dug for the purpose, and the clothes and bedding of all were destroyed. A good ventilation, fires, and disinfectants were used in and around the cholera- ward." Although Sattara was surrounded by villages, and in all of them the cholera raged for several weeks, not a case broke out in the city while under this management. About a mile from Sattara there was a military cantonment, composed of European civil and military troops. This can- tonment had a strict quarantine enforced around it as long as a single case of cholera remained under treatment at the hospital, and for some 290 EPIDEMIC DISEASES, SANITARY CONTROL OF. days afterward no communication was allowed between the town and the camp. It also es- caped the general infection. CONTROL AFTER AN EPIDEMIC HAS BROKEN OUT. — From the foregoing it will he seen that the most active measures should be taken to prevent the introduction of infectious or con- tagious diseases, preventive measures taking in all cases the highest rank, cleanliness and watchfulness being the most important. Dr. Blanc's plan at Sattara could not well be im- proved upon. Unfortunately, however, in the United States, a land of universal liberty, lib- erty is too often interpreted to mean license, and the people are impatient of sanitary regu- lations sufficiently rigid to prevent the intro- duction of specific diseases. It therefore fol- lows that it is only in great public exigencies that the reasonable and necessary means for their prevention can be carried into effect. We must, then, make up our minds to combat dis- ease after it has appeared and becomes epi- demic, rather than expect to prevent it, in the present state of popular information upon this subject. The common carriers of commerce are usu- ally the vehicles by which diseases are trans- mitted from place to place. Ships and steam- boats afford more favorable conditions for the growth and propagation of germs than railway- cars, on account of the ever-present moisture in the vessels, and the greater humidity of the air immediately surrounding them. Maritime quarantines, therefore, are essentially neces- sary to guard against the natural tendency of water-craft to spread contagion, but it would be more in accordance with the nomenclature of the day if the term " quarantine " were aban- doned and "inspection-station" substituted, for all vessels should be periodically inspected, whether infected or not. The sanitary inspec- tor should be not only well informed in re- gard to fomites and the sanitary condition of the port or place from which the vessel has arrived, but he should be sufficiently versed in marine architecture to enable him to thor- oughly examine every portion of the vessel. The crew and passengers should be mustered, and, if any are sick from contagious disease, they should be immediately removed from the vessel, and the state-room or berth, with the bedding therein contained, thoroughly fumi- gated and disinfected, or preferably burned, and the sick persons themselves removed to a hospital for contagious diseases, established for that purpose. If the vessel be otherwise thoroughly clean, she will be healthful, and may be allowed to pass without detention. On the other hand, should the vessel be found in an unclean state and the bilge-wa- ter foul, she should be pumped out as dry as possible, and thoroughly disinfected. It is always safe to pump out the bilge-water when- ever opportunity offers. Various kinds of dis- infectants have been recommended, but it has been found by experience that the one of most easy application in such cases is sulphurous acid gas. This is applied by placing a brazier in which charcoal has been lighted in the place to be fumigated, and throwing on the red-hot coals, or in a basin placed thereon, a quantity of crude sulphur. As the sulphur burns, sulphurous acid gas is thrown off, and per- meates every portion of the apartment in which it is placed. It is highly destructive to bacteroid growths. Before placing the brazier in the hold, the bilge-water may be replaced by new sea-water — itself a capital disinfectant — and again pumped out. When a case of small-pox or yellow fever is found to exist in a house in town or city, prac- tically the same measures should be taken — namely, removal of the sick to a special hos- pital, disinfection of the apartment, thorough fumigation of the entire house, and the pre- vention of well or unprotected persons gaining access to the apartment. If it be a house in a crowded portion of the city, it should be promptly quarantined, and the patient removed to a hospital for contagious diseases ; or, if this be not practicable, the patient should be effect- ually isolated. All bedding and clothing ex- posed to infection, carpets, window-hangings, wall-paper — if the room be papered — pictui backs, when covered with paper, and every- thing capable of retaining the disease-germs (fomites) should be burned or buried in trench. When a case of cholera has appeared, the discharges from the bowels should be cov- ered with chloride of lime, and, whenever prac- ticable, thrown into a furnace. No such mat- ters should be thrown upon the ground or allowed to gain access to the public sewer, and all persons should be warned to promptly check any attack of diarrhoea, however slight. By these means alone it is possible to prevent the spread of these epidemic diseases in town or city ; provided, however, that the sur- roundings of the infected house be cleaned and properly disinfected. Out-door disinfec- tants for use in such cases consist of copperas, ordinary quicklime, or chloride of lime — the latter being the most powerful, but objection- able to many on account of its giving off chlo- rine, which has a very pungent, acrid odor. Public funerals in all cases of death from small-pox, cholera, yellow fever, and diphthe- ria, should be prohibited and the coffins her- metically sealed ; when this is impracticable on account of the expense, the same result may be attained by coating the body with tar. The practice of cremation instead of the ordinary inhumation is to be commended, on sanitary grounds, in all such cases. SANITARY CORDONS. — Sometimes, however, cases of infectious disease have escaped con- trol by the ordinary measures. In order to prevent the spread of the disease to contiguous villages, towns, and adjoining districts, it has been found expedient to establish a sanitary cordon about the town or city, while, at the same time, sanitary measures are being carried EPIDEMIC DISEASES, SANITARY CONTROL OF. 291 on within it. A cordon consists of a body of police, militia, or military, patrolling a certain line, extending, according to the necessities of the case, a sufficient distance to completely in- vest the infected district. A better illustration can not be given of a sanitary cordon than the description of the manner in which it was managed in Russia, and more recently in the United States. The Oriental plague made its appearance in the district above Astrakhan, in Russia, about the middle of November, 1878. the owners, shall be reserved for a special com- mission, under the presidency of the Governor of Astrakhan, with the participation of mem- bers of the Cossack administration and of the Ministry of the Finances, the Ministry of the Domains, and the Ministry of the Interior, ac- cording to regulations which shall be prepared on the spot by the aforesaid commission. " (c.) This commission shall be charged with the execution of all the measures that may be necessary for the destruction by fire of the It prevailed along the river Volga, and upon colony of Wetljankaja, as likewise of all meas- its islands. The center of the malady was in ures necessary to supply the population trans- the village of Wetljankaja, with a population of ferred from that colony with food, undercloth- some seventeen hundred inhabitants. The Governor of Astrakhan telegraphed to the Minister of the Interior the report of the medi- cal supervisor of the Cossack forces in the dis- trict of Astrakhan, Dr. Depner. A few cases had appeared in the previous year, but the dis- ease had not become epidemic until, as before stated, November, 1878. From the 27th of November to the 9th of December, out of one hundred sick in Wetljankaja, forty-three died; and in less than a month two hundred and sev- enty-three persons died of the disease. It then spread from Wetljankaja to the surrounding vil- lages, and was declared epidemic. "Dr. Koch and six army-surgeons became victims to the ing, and warm garments — to provide for the treatment of the sick, etc. u 2. That the acting Minister of the Interior may be authorized to extend the measures re- ferred to concerning the colony of Wetljankaja, to other villages, as well as to isolated build- ings everywhere, to such extent as shall be deemed indispensable. " 3. That three regiments of Cossacks may be immediately placed at the disposal of the civil administration for the quarantine service. " 4. That all outlays necessary for the exe- cution of the measures above referred to, and to meet the expenses of all measures that may be required by the present epidemic, may be epidemic, the priest died, the Cossacks who charged to the account of the imperial treas- attended the sick or removed the dead died ; ury." almost all died who in any way came in contact with the sick or dead." Dr. Depner then arrived at the conclusion that the only means for suppress- ing the disease was quar- antining ; and on the llth of December Dr. Depner with Colonel Preibanow instituted measures. He could not prosecute fur- ther observations, how- ever, for he himself fell sick with the plague. These facts being tele- graphed to the Emperor of Russia, the imperial committee of ministers was convened, and the fol- lowing rules were adopt- ed, which received the imperial sanction : "1. (a.) The inhabi- tants of the colony of Wetljankaja shall be transferred and distributed as shall seem best after a careful examination of the local requirements, the limit of the quarantine not to be overstepped. " (5.) The appraisement of the movable and immovable property destroyed by fire, as like- wise the fixing of the indemnities to be paid to MAP OF THE DISTRICT INFECTED BY PLAGUE. [The lines a a represent the military cordon drawn around the infected villages; and b b the protective cordon maintained around Zarizin, an important com- mercial point and terminus of the Russian railway system. The village of Wetljankaja was the original and principal center of infection.— Bulletin of Public Health.] It was the unanimous conclusion that "the plan of burning the colony of Wetljankaja (the center of the infeetion) is proposed after a thor- 292 EPIDEMIC DISEASES, SANITARY CONTROL OF. ough examination of the question, and from a conviction of the indispensable necessity of so radical a measure for the extirpation of the disease in the locality where it first appeared — the committee having subsequently heard the opinion of the physicians present, both with regard to the measure in question, and in gen- eral in relation to the means which have been shown by science and experience to be best adapted to put a stop to an epidemic, and to prevent it from spreading." In addition to the irregular troops mentioned above, bodies of infantry were placed at the disposal of the civil establishments, and unlim- ited credit was opened to meet all expenses from the Treasury. His Majesty the Emperor sent a special commissioner plenipotentiary. A commission was appointed to act in the mat- ter, composed of medical specialists, whose duty it was to study the subject of the progress of the epidemic, and the proper means of stamping it out, and purifying the localities measures adopted against it ; and the instruc- tions were carried out as above outlined, under the direction of Aide-de-Camp General Count Louis-Melikoff, who was sent to the infected locality with the rights and privileges of a tem- porary governor-general. On the arrival of Count Louis-Melikoff, in March, 1879, an inter- national sanitary council was held, composed of the most distinguished sanitarians of Europe, Professors Hirsch, Besiadetsky, Cabiadis, Pe- trisco, and Eichwald. By the advice of this International Council, a general sanitary cordon was established all round the province of As- trakhan, with the object of protecting Russia and neighboring countries of the empire,* and Professor Eichwald advised that the sanitary cordon should be maintained around the in- fected region until the 2d of May. These meas- ures were entirely successful, and the plague did not spread to any other place outside of the originally infected district, nor has it reap- peared. MAP OF S, WESTERN TEXAS Infected District Quarantine Stations J3 and Guard Li then infected or those likely to become so ; and in view of the impression produced in foreign countries by the reports of the plague, they should furnish to the government reliable in- formation concerning the epidemic, and the The efficacy of this plan, although on a much smaller scale, has been sufficiently shown in this country. Space is not sufficient to go into details regarding it, but an opportunity * See map on page 291. EPIDEMIC DISEASES, SANITARY CONTROL OF. 293 occurred during the summer of 1882 to test it still further. A serious epidemic of yellow fever broke out iu Bagdad, Tampico, and Mat- amoras, Mexico, and soon spread to Browns- ville, in the State of Texas. There were in a short time, out of a city of some 5,000 in- habitants, between five and six hundred per- sons sick of yellow fever. A general panic pre- vailed throughout Southwestern Texas, and refugees were leaving that part of the State in great numbers, as it was believed the infection would rapidly and certainly extend to the sur- rounding country. In these circumstances, an appropriation of $100,000 having been placed at the disposal of the Treasury Department by the President, to prevent the spread of epi- demics, the Governor of the State of Texas ap- plied to the Secretary of the Treasury for assist- ance from the General Government ; and, as the exact area of the infected region was undeter- mined, at my suggestion a cordon was immedi- ately established from Corpus Christi, on the Gulf, to Laredo, on the Rio Grande, along the line of the Texas and Mexican Railway. No person was allowed to pass this cordon until after ten days' detention at some one of the quarantine stations (represented by flags upon the accompanying map),* that length of time being considered necessary to determine wheth- er or not the particular person would be at- tacked with yellow fever. Baggage was not allowed to cross the line upon any pretext. A hospital was established in the city of Browns- ville, a dispensary opened, and experienced physicians and nurses sent there, who were constantly employed in the treatment of the poor, and all persons unable to pay were treat- ed and cared for at the public expense. These physicians also aided the health authorities of the city in carrying out sanitary measures, in- cluding the fumigation of houses. As soon as practicable after opening the hospital, an inner protection cordon was estab- lished, thirty miles from Brownsville, the orig- inal cordon having been one hundred and eighty miles distant. Perfect liberty was al- lowed to the inhabitants of the infected city to leave at any time, and they were encouraged to scatter in camps ; but they were not allowed to cross the cordon until after personal deten- tion of ten days, and fumigation of their wear- ing-apparel; and, as in the case of the outer cordon, the crossing of baggage was positively interdicted. It was intended to remove the upper cordon between Laredo and Corpus Christi within ten days after the formation of the inner one, which extended from Santa Maria, on the Rio Grande, to the mouth of the Sol Colorado ; but it was retained for several days longer, as certain of the refugees who had left Brownsville prior to the establish- ment of the Colorado cordon developed yellow fever. They were quarantined in the camps where they were, and their infected bedding and baggage burned. The fever continued its * See page 292. spread and devastation on the Mexican side of the Rio .Grande, and Reynosa, Camargo, Mier, and Guerrero successively became in- fected. It was then found necessary to pro- tect the entire line of the Rio Grande, from Laredo to Santa Maria, a distance of nearly five hundred miles, by a cordon. The upper cor- don, from Laredo to Corpus Christi, was then removed, and the line re-established along the Rio Grande, and the crossing-places carefully guarded; and, although the towns in Mexico were greatly devastated by the disease, there was no extension of it in Texas : on the con- trary, it was confined to the limited district where it first appeared, bounded by the Colo- rado cordon on the one hand and the Gulf of Mexico upon the other. The Mexicans, see- ing the good effects of the sanitary cordon in the United States, followed the example, and established quarantine stations in Mex- ico, guarding against the infected towns ; and there, too, the quarantine proved successful, and arrested the spread of the disease. The Governor, the State Health Officer, and the State officers generally, assisted the work of the Government by all the means at their command. It was, however, opposed by the mayor of the city. In July, a few cases of yellow fever appeared in Pensacola, Fla., and later the disease became epidemic, and, as in Texas, a general panic .prevailed. The vil- lages and towns surrounding Pensacola estab- lished a rigid quarantine against it, no person from that city being allowed to enter except after proper detention and fumigation. In consequence of this, the towns that had thus protected themselves by the quarantine were not infected, and the disease did not spread, while the places adjoining, that did not quar- antine against Pensacola, had the fever. The Government also protected its navy-yard, which joins the city of Pensacola, by means of a sanitary cordon and non-intercourse with the city during the prevalence of the epidemic, and it, too, escaped. With these facts and this experience to guide us, it may be safely as- serted that with proper management it is pos- sible to prevent the spread of epidemic diseases from one locality to another. To prevent the recurrence of epidemics, it is necessary to adopt the same measures as those recommended in the beginning to prevent its original introduction. It is, that all fomites should be either carefully and well fumigated or destroyed, and the utmost cleanliness should be enjoined ; and if it were possible to do so, as in the case of Russia, houses that are noto- riously infected should be burned and their owners compensated from the public funds. It is greatly to be feared that the failure to burn infected bedding and clothing in Texas and Mexico may result in the reappearance of the yellow fever during the coming season. This disaster may be prevented if timely action be taken. It is, however, owing to 'the political constitution of the country, beyond the con- 294 EUROPE, AREA OF. trol or action of the officers of the United States. JOHN B. HAMILTON, Supervising Surgeon- General, U. S. Marine Hospital Service. EUROPE, AREA OF. A very comprehen- sive work on the area of Europe has been pub- lished, during 1882, by General Strelbitzky, of the Russian general staff, under the auspices of the Central Statistical Committee of Russia. It contains estimates not only of the land sur- face of the various countries, but also of the islands in the adjoining waters, the areas of the basins of the rivers, the areas covered by lakes both on the mainland and on the islands, also the areas of islands in the lakes, etc. In this work he estimates the total area of Europe at 10,410,486 square kilometres, or 8,865,210 English square miles, which are divided as follow among the twenty-three countries oc- cupying Europe : COUNTRIES. Square miles. Per cent of the total are of Europe. Russia 2,129,289 54-9 Sweden and Norway 299,625 7-8 241 563 6'3 208 802 5'4 France. ... 205 985 5-3 Spain 193,294 5- Turkey Great Britain 130,140 121,466 8-4 8'2 Italy 111 410 2'9 Denmark 54902 1'4 Roumania ... 50786 1-3 Portugal 84,420 •9 Greece 19,815 •5 Servia 18761 •5 15978 •4 Netherlands 13741 •3 Belgium 11,375 •3 Montenegro 8,630 •09 Andorra , 175 •004 61 •002 San Marino 33 •0008 Monaco 9 •0002 Of the total area of Europe, the continent contains 3,608,750 square miles. The surface of the islands, which is about one fourteenth that of the continent, is 256,560 square miles, and is divided as follows among the different waters of Europe : Islands in Sq. miles. Atlantic Ocean 168,574 Arctic Ocean 38,605 Mediterranean Sea .... 82,522 Baltic Sea 12,753 NorthSea 2,487 Islands in Adriatic Sea , "White Sea Sea of Marmora Sea of Azov , Black Sea , Sq. miles. 191 70 41 21 Great Britain, which, with an insular terri- tory of 121,464 square miles, possesses only two square miles of mainland, is followed by Den- mark with 45,401 square miles of islands and 9,501 square miles of mainland. The insular territory of the other countries is as follows : COUNTRIES. Sq. miles. Russia 42,370 Italy 19,338 Norway 8,583 Greece 3,871 Turkey 8,920 France 3,686 Sweden 8,040 The principal islands of Europe and their area are as follow : COUNTRIES. Sq. miles^ Spain 1,931 Austria 1,272 Germany 1,029 Netherlands 638 Portugal 17 Roumania 0'4 ISLANDS. In what waters. Belonging to Sq. miles. Great Britain Atlantic Great Britain 84 088 Iceland Nova Zembla.. . Ireland Atlantic Arctic Atlantic Denmark Russia Great Britain 89,545 35,164 32388 Sicily Sardinia Corsica . . Mediterranean.. . Mediterranean . . . Mediterranean Italy. . . Italy 9,860 9,095 8422 Candia Zealand Mediterranean... Baltic Turkey 8,317 2 686 Vaigats Eubcea Arctic Mediterranean . . . Russia Greece 1,429 1,380 Majorca Kalguev Gothland Fiinen Mediterranean . . . Arctic Baltic Baltic Spain Russia Sweden 1,352 1,350 1,151 1 136 Oesel. .. Baltic Russia 1,010 Hindoe Atlantic 847 Lewis . Atlantic Great Britain 838 Senien . . . Atlantic 612 Skye Atlantic 592 Faroe Atlantic 514 Aland Laaland Dagoe . . . Baltic . . . Baltic . . . Baltic Sweden Sweden Russia 510 444 371 Soroe.........:' Atlantic Norway . 867 Mainland Rugen Langoen Atlantic Baltic Atlantic Great Britain... Germany 362 343 842 Mull Atlantic . . Great Britain 302 Minorca. Mediterranean 293 Vaagoe Atlantic Norway 280 Islay Atlantic Great Britain . 278 Corfu Mediterranean. . Greece. 278 Ringvadsee Atlantic Norway 273 The length of the principal rivers (in English miles), and the area of their basins (in square miles), are as follow : RIVERS. Leneth. Area of bafin. Volga 1 973 563,302 Danube ... 1528 815,436 Dnieper 1,061 208,462 Don 978 166,127 Dwina 857 141,077 Petchora 919 127,225 Neva. 84 111,517 Rhine . ... 708 75,796 Vistula Elbe 595 611 73,905 65,341 Loire 543 46,755 The lakes of Europe cover an area of 84,829 square miles — that is, about 2 per cent of the total area of the continent. Of this number, 83,585 square miles are on the mainland and 1,244 square miles on the islands. The area covered by lakes in each country is as follows : COUNTRIES. On mainland. On islands. Total. Russia 58,660 106 58,766 Sweden 14276 18 14,294 8,951 3,951 Germany 2,198 2,198 Great Britain 1,011 1,011 Italy 775 89 814 708 708 Turkey 696 696 Roumania 589 589 580 530 Switzerland . ... 488 488 Portugal 201 176 8 201 179 Netherlands and Luxemburg. 166 94 "63 166 162 Montenegro 75 75 Belgium 2 2 These lakes contain 3,037 square miles of islands, of which 2,702 square miles are in Kus- sia, 322 square miles in Sweden, 12 square miles in Portugal, and 1 square mile in Montenegro. The largest lakes in Europe are as follow : EUROPE, AREA OF. 295 LAKES. COUNTRIES. S.i. miles. 7,000 Eussia 8,765 Sweden 2,408 1,356 Wetter Sweden 758 Saima Kussia 680 Maelar Sweden 651 609 549 Eussia 481 Beloc Eussia 434 Topozero Eussia Eussia. 411 854 Vonio1 Eussia 382 Eussia 329 Sineie 256 Balatony Austria- Hungary 245 225 Switzerland and France .... 221 Constance Germany, Austria, and Switz- 208 Sweden 202 Kunto, middle lake... Wodlo Kussia Eussia 19!) 181 Vallidi Commacchio Italy 167 Russia 165 Keret and Vargi Russia 156 Kubinsk Eussia 152 Garda Italy 141 Latcha 141 Neusiedl. . Austria-Hungary 187 Kunto, upper lake . . . Eussia 112 Virtz-Yaroi Kunto, lower lake Neufchatel. Russia Russia Switzerland 107 91 89 Seli^her Russia 84 Maggiore Como Italy Italy 81 59 Lough Neagh, in Ireland, is not enumerated above, as not being on the Continent. It con- tains 153 square miles, and ranks twenty-sixth in the list of lakes of Europe. Among the most important sea-basins, that of the Caspian embraces 724,571 square miles. It is followed closely by that of the Baltic, with 671,818 square miles. The basin of the Black Sea contains 621,946 square miles; that of the Arctic Ocean, including the White Sea, 494,- 272 square miles; of the Atlantic, 354,772 square miles; of the Mediterranean, 236,889 square miles; of the Sea of Azov, 201,467 square miles; of the North Sea, 195,280 square miles; of the Adriatic, 91,522 square miles; and of the Sea of Marmora, 1,636 square miles. The areas of the seas of Europe are esti- mated as follow, by General Strelbitzky: SEAS. Area inclusive of islands. Area exclusive of islands. Mediterranean, inclusive of the Ionian Sea and the Grecian Archipelago 9 r 5,003 915,743* Adriatic 52216 50918 4,497 4,427 Black . 163,712 163,691 Azov 14,520 14,479 Baltic, inclusive of Cattegat and Skager Rack . . 184496 171,743 North Sea t 207,037 204,550 White Sea 32472 32 281 Total. 1 613 958 1,557,832 The Baltic, of all the seas of Europe, pos- sesses the longest coast-line. The length of its coasts is 11,833 miles, of which Russia and Sweden possess nearly equal parts, 4,184 miles for the former and 5,731 miles for the latter. Germany possesses 1,366 miles, and Denmark 552 miles. The coast-line of the Mediterra- nean is not much less than that of the Baltic, being 11,272 miles long, of which number, however, 6,351 miles only belong to Europe. This number is divided as follows among the different European states: Greece, 1,841 miles; Turkey, 1,412 miles; Italy, 1,472 miles; Spain, 1,078 miles; France, 539 miles; Great Britain, 9 miles. The Adriatic has a coast-line of 2,396 miles, of which 1,243 miles belong to Austria, 874 miles to Italy, 249 miles to Tur- key, and 30 miles to Montenegro. The Euro- pean coast-line of the Black Sea is 1,776 miles long, of which 1,249 miles are in Russia, 376 miles in Turkey, and 151 miles in Roumania ; that of the Caspian is 2,094 miles, and that of the Sea of Marmora 252 miles. The Sea of Azov has a circumference of 913 miles. The North Sea has a coast-line of 4,418 miles, of which 3,033 miles belong to Norway, 647 miles to the Netherlands, 460 miles to Germany, 178 miles to Denmark, 53 miles to Belgium, and 47 miles to France. On the Atlantic, Europe has a coast-line almost equal in length to that on the Baltic, in all 11,724 miles, of which 7,104 miles belong to Norway, 2,265 miles to France, 1,579 miles to Spain, and 776 miles to Portugal. The Arctic Ocean and the White Sea together have a coast-line of 6,542 miles, of which 5,632 miles are in Russia and 910 miles in Norway. The entire coast-line of the different countries of Europe we find to be as follows : COUNTRIES. Miles. Sweden and Norway. . 1 6,773 .Russia 14,072 France 2,851 Spain 2,657 Italy 2,846 Turkey 2,289 Greece 1,841 Germany 1,S26 Austria-Hungary 1,243 Total ,. 48,299 The United Kingdom, which is not included in the above, has a coast-line of 7,986 miles, of which 4,978 miles belong to Great Britain, and 3,008 to Ireland. If we add to the 48,298 miles of coast-line the boundary between Rus- sia and Asia, 3,548 miles, we get for the entire perimeter of the continent 51,846 miles. The area of the principal gulfs and bays of Europe is as follows : * The figures given for the islands of the Mediterranean in another part of this article are 32.522 square miles. But this embraces the islands belonging to Europe only. This sea also contains 6,743 square miles of islands belonging to Asia and Africa, making a total of 89,265 square miles of islands in the Mediterranean. t As the North Sea has no natural boundaries, geographers are forced to fix arbitrary ones. Those assumed by General COUNTRIES. Miles. Portugal 776 Denmark 730 Netherlands 647 Roumania 151 Belgium 53 Montenegro 30 Great Britain 9 Gulfs and bays. Bay of Biscay Gulf of Bothnia.. .. Zuyder Zee Sq. miles. 68,318 43,276 16863 Gulfs and bays. Gulf of Tarento GulfofTcheskaya.. Gulf of Riga Sq. miles . 4,478 . 4,303 . 2,910 Gulf of Finland Gulf of Lyons Gulf of Onega 11,441 6,502 6,327 Gulf of Venice Gulf of Salonica . 2,S09 . 2,789 Strelbitzky are as follow : On the west, the Strait of Dover, the eastern coast of Great Britain, the Orkney Islands, and the Shetland Islands ; on the north, a straight line passing from the northern point of the Shetland Islands to the penin- sula of Stadtland, on the western coast of Norway ; on the east, the coast of Norway to the Naze, and from this point to Nissum Fiord, on the western coast of Jutland : and, on the south, the continent of Europe to the Strait of Dover. 296 EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION. EXPLOSIONS, BOILER. The narrowest strait is the Bosporus, the width of which at Constantinople is about 550 yards. The Little Belt, between the Island of Flinen and Jutland, is 880 yards wide. In the Dardanelles the European shore is three quar- ters of a mile distant from Asia. The sound between Sweden and Zealand has a width of If mile. The Calmar Sound, between Sweden and the Island of Oeland, is nearly 2 miles wide ; the Strait of Messina, 2 miles ; that of Jougar- sky Schar, between the Island of Vaigats and Russia, nearly 2£ miles ; that of Yenikale 2*6 miles; Pentland Firth, between Scotland and the Orkney Islands, 4 -3 miles. The Strait of Bonifacio, between Corsica and Sardinia, has a width of 7 miles ; the Great Belt, between Fli- nen and Zealand, a width of 10 miles; and the North Channel, between Ireland and Scotland, a width of 12 miles. The Strait of Gibraltar has a width of 20*4 miles at the fortress, but its least width is 10-5 miles. The Strait of Kara, between Nova Zembla and Vaigats, is 23 '8 miles wide, the English Channel 25 miles, the Mineh 26-5 miles, the Strait of Taranto 33 '6 miles, and St. George's Channel 48 miles. EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION. The following is a summary of the statistics of the Evangelical Association, as they are pub- lished in the " Christian Family Almanac " for 1883: CONFERENCES. l! 1 6 Members. East Pennsylvania 89 19U 14867 Central Pennsylvania Erie 76 81 198* 40 12,055 2998 Ohio 54 13C4 7746 Pittsburg 59 133 7746 Kansas 38 3G* 3,512 Platte Eiver 5 2 634 17 11 933 New York 38 58$- 4252 South Indiana 22 86 2250 Indiana 37 1011 5,792 Michigan .... 46 5,542 Illinois 87 125 10,571 Des Moines 84 2GJ 8,076 Iowa 49 60 3,724 Canada 40 73 5043 Wisconsin 65 139 10,355 Atlantic 21 21 2,339 Minnesota 60 69 4,818 Pacific 11 13 826 Germany 88 20 4,47 T Switzerland... . 19 18 8,471 926 1,576* 117,027 Number of Sunday-schools, 2,OOT, with 22,- 126 officers and teachers, and 133,361 scholars; number of baptisms during the year, 1,414 of adults, and 8,485 of children ; number of local preachers, 619 ; probable value of churches, $3,439,502 ; number of parsonages, 475, having a probable value of $480,161. Amount of "conference contributions," $5,641; of con- tributions for missions, $100,655 ; of contri- butions for the Sunday-School and Tract Union, $2,512. The tables show an increase of 3,156 members during the year. The mission in Ja- pan returns 1 itinerant preacher, 1 local preach- er, 2 chapels, 3 regular preaching-places, 51 native members, 117 scholars and 15 officers and teachers in four Sunday-schools, 72 schol- ars in two day-schools, and, during the year, 26 baptisms of adults, and 1 infant baptized. The church has a publishing house at Cleve- land, Ohio, where one English and one German general religious paper and papers for children and Sunday schools in both languages are pub- lished ; and two papers are published at Stutt- gart, Germany. The Ebeiiezer Orphan Insti- tute, Flat Rock, Ohio, cares for children till they are sixteen years old. EXPLOSIONS, BOILER. EXPERIMENTS OF D. T. LAWSON. — In the " Annual Cyclopaedia " of last year an account was given of the ex- periments of Mr. Daniel T. Lawson upon the explosion of boilers under conditions which have heretofore been considered as insuring safety. Since the writing of that account, Mr. Lawson has made further tests to demonstrate the value of his improvement in the construc- tion of boilers. The matter was considered sufficiently important by the United States au- thorities to warrant the appointment of com- missioners to witness and report upon the tests. These reports, indorsing very fully both Mr. Lawson's theory of the phenonenon and his improvement in construction, are given below, and furnish sufficient information of the sub- ject to enable the public to judge of it: PITTSBURG, PA., March 23, 1862. Eon. Charles J. Folger, Secretary United States Treas- ury, Washington, D. C. SIR : In an official letter from the Supervising In- spector-General of Steam-Vessels, dated Washington, D. C., February 10, 1882, we were informed of our appointment by you to witness and report upon ex- periments to be made at Munhall, near Pittsburg, Pa., by Mr. D. T. Lawson, illustrating his theory of steam-boiler explosions. In accordance with these in- structions, we proceeded to the scene of the experi- ments, February 14, 1882, three days prior to the first test, for the purpose of making a careful examination of the form, construction, and dimensions of the boil- ers, and to ascertain the thickness and tensile strength of the plates used in their construction. We found two cylindrical boilers, five feet and nine inches in length and thirty inches in diameter, one of which was a plain cylindical boiler without flues or tubes, with an iron rod one inch ha diameter, which served as a stay or brace, running through the center and fastened at either head by means of nuts. The thickness of the shell was three sixteenths of an inch, and the material was iron, with a tensile strength of 61-449 pounds per square inch of section. Two plates were used in the construction of the shell, with the longitudinal seams on opposite sides above the fire-line. The heads were made of the same ma- terial as that of the plates in the shell, but were three eighths of an inch in thickness. The other boiler was a duplicate of the above- described boiler, with the following exceptions:!. A man-head was put in one of its heads, necessitated by the manner in which the boiler was constructed. 2. An iron plate, three sixteenths of an inch in thick- ness, was flanged around its edges, and riveted along the entire length of both sides of the shell and across the heads on the inside of the boiler. The side flanges contained seventy -four five-eighths rivets each, and those across the heads contained thirteen five- eighths rivets each. The plate was semicircular in form and attached to the sides of the shell about the center, and curving upward to within eight inches of the top EXPLOSIONS, BOILER. 297 of the boiler. This plate was perforated with holes three sixteenths of an inch in diameter, at intervals of eight inches, for the purpose of admitting the steam from the water below gradually to the steam-space above. This plate is Mr. Lawson's invention, and he claims that it will prevent concussion in the boiler when the steam is drawn off suddenly by opening the throttle-valve, or suddenly cutting it off from the cylinder, and thus insure greater safety in the manage- ment of steam-boilers. The boilers used in making these experiments were manufactured expressly for that purpose, and had never been used before. The first boiler placed in position for the test was the one containing the plate, or "diaphragm," as it is called. To this boiler was attached a three-and-a-half-inch steam-pipe, sixteen feet in length, with a discharge-valve attached, six- teen feet from the boiler. A steam-pipe four feet in lenHh — including two elbows — and three and a half inches in diameter, formed a connection between the valve and a cylinder, the diameter of which was eight inches and length four feet. A steam-gauge, with a pipe twelve feet in length, was placed on the inside of a bomb-proof. From the inside of this bomb-proof the discharge-valve was operated by means of ropes. Fire was placed under the boiler, with nineteen inches of water to start with. When steam was generated, the discharge-valve was suddenly opened at certain intervals, discharging the steam into the cylinder. These operations were con- tinued until the pressure in the boner had reached 225 pounds to the square inch, when the discharge-valve was opened, and the material forming the joint be- tween one of the cylinder-heads and the cylinder blew out. The discharge-valve, at the same time, proved too weak, and began leaking so badly that the test had to be abandoned. This ended the first test, Feb- ruary 17, 1882. The second test took place March 7, 1882. This test was made with the plain cylindrical boiler, and the discharge-valve, steam-pipe, and all other outside attachments substantially the same as they were with the other boiler during the first test. A stronger discharge- valve, however, was employed, as were also two new steam-gauges. The latter^ were manufactured expressly for these tests by William Kirkup & Son, of Cincinnati, Ohio. Fire was started under the boiler, and steam raised slowly. At 12.02 p. M. the steam-gauge indicated 75 pounds. In four minutes thereafter the pressure had increased 25 pounds. At this point the discharge- valve was opened, and the needle of the gauge fell five pounds, but im- mediately rose again to 100 pounds. From this point the pressure increased to 125 pounds in six minutes, when an attempt was made to raise the valve, but the line broke ; the furnace-door was thrown open, and the fire drawn. The line was repaired, and the lever attached to the valve was lengthened, when the boiler was again fired up. At 75 pounds pressure the valve was raised, and the needle of the gauge showed the vibrations recorded in the following table : ter of the head through which the stay-bolt passed had been enlarged with a drift-pin, causing the iron in the head to crack in three places, beginning at the edge of the hole and running out into the body of the head. The defects were repaired, and on the follow- ing day, March 8th, the test was resumed, with the result as shown in the following table : Pressure at which tha Vibrations of needle of Vibrations of needle of discharge- valve gauge be ow pressure gauge above pressure wai raised. in first column. in first column. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 75 3 2 100 4 3 110 5 5 120 8 5 165 15 10 175 12 7 185 15 15 200 12 12 210 20 12 220 20 12 Pressure at which the discharge-valve was raised. Vibrations of needle of gauge below pressure in first column. Vibrations of needle of gauge above preisure in first column. Pounds. 100 125 130 Pounds. 5 12 15 Pounds. 5 5 7 At 130 pounds a leak in the back head of the boiler, which had started around the stay-bolt, checked the draught to such an extent as to render further efforts to increase the pressure futile. March 9th the boiler was repaired and put in good order. On the following day, March 10th, the experi- ments were resumed with 201 inches of water in the boiler, 5i inches above the fire-line. Steam was gen- erated slowly, but, contrary to our advice, the press- ure was run up to 200 pounds before the discharge- valve had been attempted to raise, and when an at- tempt was made to raise it, it was found that it had become fast to the seat : the lever attached to it broke, and practically ended the test. The steam, however, ran up to 275 pounds, when it began falling slowly, until the pressure reached a point of safety, when the fire was drawn and the boiler allowed to cool off. March 20th, the experiments were resumed. This time the boiler with Mr. Lawson's appliance was used. A steam-gauge was attached to the boiler above and one below the diaphragm. The boiler con tamed 18 inches of water. -Steam was generated slowly, and when the pressure had reached 50 pounds, operating the discharge-valve began with the follow- ing results : Steam pressure at Steam-gauge above the diaphragm. Steam-gauge below the diaphragm. which discharge- valve was Needle fell Needle rose Needle fell Needle rose raised. below. above. below. above. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 50 7 3 3 00 80 10 7 4 00 100 12 7 5 3 125 15 15 8 4 150 20 20 8 7 175 15 23 10 10 200 20 20 15 00 225 80 20 12 00 230 40 80 10 00 250 25 20 10 00 275 30 25 15 00 800 .40 35 15 00 At 220 pounds a leak, which had previously started around the stay-bolt in the forward head of the boiler, became so bad that the test had to be discontinued until the necessary repairs could be made. Upon ex- amination it was discovered that the hole in the cen- When the pressure in the boiler reached 300 pounds to the square inch, it was unanimously decided that the boiler had been sufficiently tested, as we intended to cut out the diaphragm and make the final test with the same boiler. The discharge-valve was then opened and the steam allowed to escape ; the fire was drawn, and when the boiler had cooled off sufficiently an examination was made. It was found that the water had been reduced to 11 inches, or 4 inches be- low the fire-line. The rivets, seams, and all the other parts of the boiler were critically examined, and no strain, rupture, or any other weakness, was discovered. The diaphragm was then cut out, leav- ing the flanges riveted to the sides of the shell and across the heads, with about three inches of the plate of which the diaphragm was constructed. The boiler was then placed in position for the final test, with 22 inches of water, 7 inches above the fire-line. When steam was raised, the discharge-valve was operated, with the following results : 298 FAKMS AND LIVE-STOCK IN THE UNITED STATES. Steam- pressure at which discharge- valve was raised. Pounds. 100 125 150 175 200 210 ?25 285 Steam-gauge attached to the boiler in the steam-space. Steam-gauge attached to the boiler in the water-space. Needle fell below. Needle rose above. Needle fell below. Needle rose above. Pounds. 3 2 5 4 5 3 5 Exploded. Pounds. 00 00 00 2 00 00 00 Pounds. 8 8 5 8 5 8 8 Pounds. 00 00 00 2 00 00 00 When the discharge-valve was opened at 235 pounds pressure it caused an instantaneous explosion of the boiler. An examination of what wras found of the wreck proved that the boiler let go at no particular place first, but that it simply blew into fragments at one and the same time. The iron which was found was torn and twisted into every conceivable shape — strips varying in size from half an inch to one inch in width, and from three inches to two feet in length, were found in every direction. This boiler, according to the tensile strength of the iron, would have carried a pressure of 430 pounds be- fore it would have ruptured, and when it exploded, although it had but 235 pounds pressure to the square inch in it prior to the opening of the discharge-valve at the moment of explosion, there must have been a force at least equal to 430 pounds to the square inch exerted. What seemed most singular about this explosion was that the boiler did not tear at the seams, the weakest parts, but the tearing was pretty much all done at the solid parts of the iron, and in no particular direction. In making the foregoing report, we have carefully refrained from obtruding any theories of our own. We have simply confined ourselves to the facts as they occurred, preferring to leave the world to draw its own conclusions. Kespectfully submitted : JOHN FEHKENBATCH, U. S. Supervising Inspector of Steam-Vessels. GEOKGE H. ATKINSON, U. S. Inspector of Boilers of Steam-Vessels. ALONZO S. BATCHELOE, U. S. Assistant Inspector of Boilers of Steam- Vessels. Having been requested by the Secretary of the Treasury to make a supplemental report, giving their opinion of Mr. Lawson's theory of boiler-explosion, the commissioners did so, indorsing not only the theory in question, but the mode of boiler- construction devised by Mr. Lawson. In this report the commissioners say: As to the merits of the claims made for Mr. Law- son's theory of steam-boiler explosions, in our opin- ion their validity was fully established. . . . We are convinced that the attachment to a boiler of a dia- phragm such as, or similar to, the one employed while making the experiments, will, in a great measure, remove the dangers which now surround the manage- ment and use of steam-boilers. A boiler with such an apparatus attached is safer, for the reason that no concussions can take place in it. A.side from this it strengthens the boiler, and in addition thereto it pro- duces dry steam, a great desideratum in the running of steam-engines. The experiments made have not proved the theory, held by many, that low water is the cause of boiler-explosions, to be correct. F FAEMS AND LIVE-STOCK IN THE UNITED STATES. The statistics of the num- ber of farms in the States and Territories of the United States, with the live-stock upon them, are shown by the following returns of the census of 1880 : FARMS. STATES. 1880. 1870. 1860. STATES. 1880. 18?0. 1860. Alabama 135 ^C4 673^2 55128 215,575 148,328 92,792 '767 172 Montana 1,519 851 94433 49424 89,004 Nebraska 63,387 12,301 2,789 California 85934 23724 18,716 Nevada 1,404 1,036 91 Colorado 4,506 1,788 New Hampshire 32,181 29,642 80,501 80 598 25 508 25180 84,307 30,652 27,646 Dakota 17435 1 720 123 5,053 4,480 5,086 Delaware 8749 7615 6658 New York 241,058 216,253 196,990 District of Columbia 435 209 238 North Carolina 157,609 93,565 75,208 Florida 23438 10241 6508 Ohio 247,189 195,958 179,889 Georgia 138 626 69956 62003 16,217 7,587 5,806 Idaho 1 885 414 Pennsylvania 213,542 174,041 156,357 Illinois 255 741 202,803 143310 Ehode Island 6,216 5,368 5.406 Indiana 194,013 161,289 131,826 South Carolina 93,864 51,889 83,171 Iowa 185 351 116 292 61 163 165.650 118,141 82,868 . Kansas 188 561 88202 10400 Texas 174,184 61,125 42891 166 453 118422 90 814 Utah 9,452 4,908 8,635 Louisiana 4S'292 28 481 17393 85,522 88.827 81,556 Maine... 64,309 59,804 55.698 Virginia 118,517 73,849 92,605 Maryland 40 517 27000 25494 Washington 6,529 8,127 1,330 88 406 26 500 85 601 West Virginia ... . 62,674 89,778 Michigan 154008 98786 62'422 Wisconsin 184,322 102,904 69,270 Minnesota 92386 46 500 18181 Wyoming 457 175 Mississippi 101,772 68,023 42,840 The United States . . 4,008,907 2,659,985 2,044,077 The great increase in the number of farms from 1870 to 1880 in the Northern, Western, and Pacific States, and the Territories, is ex- plained by the rapid settlement of those re- gions during the past decade. The great in- crease in the late slave States, especially in the FINANCES OF THE UNITED STATES. 299 cotton region, is accounted for by the sub- ' SIZE division of the large plantations of ten and ! 1_ twenty years ago, by reason of social and in- Under 3 acres 6,875 dustrial changes consequent on the war, and jftflSS JJ-;; ; ;; g|g} 254,749 also, in the case of Florida, Arkansas, and 20 and under 50 847,614 781,474 Texas, by immigration. 50 and under 100... . '.. 754,221 1,032,910 The average size of farms in 1880 was 134 JooSdXdS 1,000 lS8B ' wira acres; in 1870, 153 acres; in 1860, 199 acres. 1,000 and over 3,720 28,578 The number of farms of specified sizes in the United States in 1880, as compared with 1870, Important comparisons between 1880 and was as follows: 1870 are given in the following statement: 1870. 1880. Total land in farms, acres . . . 407,735,041 536,081,835 Improved land in farms, acres 188,921,099 ' 284,771,042 Unimproved land in farms, acres 218,818,942 251,310,793 Percentage of unimproved to total land in farms 53'7 46-9 Value of farms* $9,262,803,861 $10,197,096,776 Value of farming implements and machinery* 836,878,429 406,520,055 Value of live-stock* 1,525,276,457 1,500,464,609 The estimated value of all farm -productions £<>r jivU expenses ^W^ 42 (sold, consumed, or on hand) for 1879 was ?£ ^SSStmterommB J'SJw X $2,213,402,564. Forpensions 61,345>3 95 LIVE STOCK For. tne mil1tai7 establishment, including Horses ". '. 10,357,981 %£."* harb°r imProvements< and ar' 40570494 19 Mules and asses... . 1812,932 ^the DaVal 'establishment deluding VeV- ' ' ., 0 ^Q'ROQ sels. machinery, and improvements at navy- •JT? I S'lS'iSS yar(is 15,032,046 26 r cattle 22,488, 590 For misceiianeou8 expenditures, including ^eP ;IT ioanKi public buildings, light-houses, and collecting me 47,b8<5,951 the revenue 34,539,237 50 For expenditures on account of the District FINANCES OF THE UNITED STATES. of Columbia 8,330,543 87 In reviewing the financial operations of the For interest on the public debt , njnww Government during the year 1882, the absence Total $257,981,439 57 of congressional legislation affecting the na- Leaving a surplus of $145,543,810.71. tional revenues is a noticeable feature ; and, Compared with the previous fiscal year, the perhaps the freedom of action which naturally receipts for 1882 have increased as follows: followed has not been to the disadvantage of From custOms, $22,251,054.23 ; internal reve- the nation. By a faithful administration of nue, $11,233,209.94; sales of public lands, $2,- the laws already m force, and a judicious ex- 551 277.20; tax on circulation and deposits penditure of the public funds with strict regard of nati0nal banks, $840,678.73 ; and miscella- to economy there has been realized a surplus neoll8 $5,866,737.61 ; making a net increase revenue of $145,000 000-an amount hitherto in the receipts from all sources of $42,742,- unparalleled m our history. 957 ^j The receipts of the Government for the fiscal The* expenditures during the same period year ended June 30, 1882, were as follow: show a decrease of $20,343,982.30, as follows: From customs $220,410,73025 In the naval establishment, $654,625.40; in- From internal revenue 146,497,59545 fprpejr nn thp nnhlin riphr *?t™%% * :fishermeil) 275 . Bhoresmeni greater than that of any other of the States, 15 ; factory-hands, 15. 305 pYfpnr Maryland Virginia and New Jersey Vessels, 6 ; boats, 200— total 206 Maryland, Virginia, ana iey. c ital 'inv'ested (;.essel8 boats, nets factories etc.) ^m More soft-clams are here obtained than any- p0£Dd8 of products (including terrapin, crabs, where else: and in shad-fisheries she ranks etc.) 6,osi,667 third on the list. Value to fishermen $88,451 2. New Jersey is sixth on the list. Her tJ^^l^VXkert^«,t«;ito^wi oyster-products are exceeded only by Maryland 451 3,186 onrl Virginia PraK fi«liprip shad, 6,207,200 pounds. **fc Q- •Oy8t^;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; Fourteen other species are produced in quanti- Bushels of oysters rehandled 1,022,130 ties ranging from 1,000,000 tO 5,000,000 pounds Enhanced value by preparation for market $209,740 eacn< Total value as sold $2,218,376 GENERAL SUMMARY OF FISHINU INTERESTS OF THE ^ MIDDLE STATES. Pertonsemployedfishermen, 1,707 ; shoresmen, Persons employed 16,017 118 ; factory-hands, 25 1,850 Fishing-vessels 1,211 Vessels, 4; boats, 1,110— total 1,114 Tonnage of vessels 2?,576 Capital invested (vessels, boats, nets, factories, Fishing-boats 8^501 etc.1 $172,800 Capital dependent on fishery industries $4,5f 9,828 Pounds of products (including terrapin, turtle, Pound s of fish sold fresh for food 55,277,776 crabs, etc.) 10,167,300 Pounds of flah salted for food 2,484,000 Value to fishermen $220,745 FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES FOR THE YEAR 1880. 311 (&.) Kiver Fisheries : 1. Maryland's place in sea-fishery is unim- Persons employed: fishermen, 2,822 aen, ^ portant, but in oyster and river fisheries she Vessels,' 13; boats, 'i.204— total.......!! '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. i',2i7 ranks next to Massachusetts in the value of Capital invested (vessels, nets, shore-property, ^ products, and first on the list in the number Pounds of products '("ale wiVeV,' shad; mixed fish, of persons employed. The oyster interests are etc.) 2*'^H*A mol*e important than in any other State. More Value to fishermen >ob4,950 ^^ ^ are ^^ than in ftny other g^ PerCson?r4ioyeddUfScrmen, i,ooo; shoresmen, and she ranks second only to North Carolina 20 1,020 in the extent and value of her alewife (called Vessels, 90; boats, 800 890 v,prr:no.\ fiahprip^ Capital invested (vessels, boats, shore-property, e'tc.) ;..;..... $63,500 2. Virginia ranks seventh on the list of fish- Bushei's of oysters HJM^ producing States. In the oyster-fishery she Valueassold ... $60,000 J^ ^^ ^ Maryjand> Her menhaden. 4. South Carolina: fishery is much increased; and her river-fisli- pSn? emplohyeerde: 'fishermen, 629 ; shoresmen, ?™» are important, yielding shad and alewives 24 653 in large abundance. Vessels,' 10; boats, 287— total 247 3. North Carolina ranks first in alewife- Capital invested(vessels, boats, nets, factories,etc ) $42,175 , 11 j ^ • \ fiaharv the. nnt^i hmno- 1 ^ Pounds of products (including terrapin, crabs, (called heinng-) nshery, the catch being 15,- etc.)..... 4,749,400 520,000 pounds, worth $142,784. The shad Value to fishermen .153,125 taken neariy equaj tilose of Maryland, but bring Pe^'onf Impbyedi'fishermen, 287; shoresmen, higher price, owing to their early appearance 12 299 in Northern markets. In the mullet-fishery Vessels, 2 ; boats 217-totai 219 ^orth Carolina is second only to Florida, the S±£^a&S^b^^^"v::: iJSJS catch amounting to 3,368,000" pounds, worth Value to fishermen $39,357 $80,500. (c.) Oyster industry : 4. South Carolina is twentieth in the list of P7o^em^ 185 fish-producing States. Her shrimp-fisheries Vessels, ib ; "boat's, loo— total no are more important than those of any other gSKf?^^^:^::::::::::::::: $5§,S State. In 1880 her fishermen secured 18 OOO Valueassold $20,000 bushels, valued at $37,500. Alewives, shad, 5. Georgia: and sturgeon are the chief -fishes caught. (a.} Sea-Fisheries: 5- Georgia's sea-fisheries are as yet undevel- Persons employed: fishermen, 121; shoresmen, oped, and rank lowest on the list. Her river- Bo4aat-s Jj>J fisheries are better, shad and sturgeon being CaJitei\nVe8ted\"boatsVnets\'factories,'etc.y.".'.'.'.' $43,625 the principal fish caught. Pounds of products (including terrapin, crabs, ^ 6. Eastern Florida, on the Atlantic coast — Vahwta fishermen. '.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'. '.'.'."'.'.'.['..'.'.'.'.'.'.'. $19,220 fishing chiefly by hook-and-line and cast-nets. (6.) Kiver-Fisheries : Green-turtle were taken on Indian River Persons employed: fishermen, 488; shoresmen, amounting to 88,250 pounds, valued at $6,000. ve2sseis;v;boaVs;225:::::::::::::::::::.:::::: iie shad-fisheries are recent but extensive The Capital invested (boats, nets, etc.) $22,545 yield for 1880 was 251,700 pounds, valued at Pounds of products (including shad, mixed fish, ^20 136 Vahie^ofisherrnen^V/.V//.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'..'.'. '$65^68 7. Further, it appears that two fifths of the (c.) Oyster industry : product of fishery in the South Atlantic States Persons employed: fishermen, 300; shoresmen, are oyster-meats. Menhaden are the largest Boat's".'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' loo catch, being over 92,000,000 pounds. Next are Capitai'in vested (boat's',' gear,' etc.')'." .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' $is,500 alewives (called herring), about 32,000,000 Vaiteas°sfoMSter8 $K2 Pounds> and shad, nearly 11,000,000 pounds. j-, /™!"'.V" Mullet, crabs, blue-fish, perch, and striped-bass are taken in quantities exceeding 2,000,000 PeSnfe^pioytd6? 'fishermen, 223 ; shoresmen, Poun<^ ? and nine other species range between 15 . 288 1,000,000 and 2,000,000 pounds. Boats 245 Capital invested (boats, nets, etc.) $27,794 GENERAL SUMMARY OP FISHING INTERESTS OF THE Pounds of products (including terrapin, turtle, SOUTHERN ATLANTIC STATES. shrimps, etc.) 1,479,300 _ KO^IQ Value to fishermen $41,072 Persons employed 52418 ,, . T.. .,. , . Fishing-vessels 3,014 (b.) River- Fisheries : Tonnage of same . 60,880 Persons employed : fishermen, 170 ; shoresmen, Fishing-boats . . V. 13,381 -V' J°2 Capital dependent on fishery industries $8,951,722 Boats • Pounds of fish sold fresh for food 42,571,840 Capital invested (boats, nets, etc.) ..... . . $15,950 pounds of fish salted for food 80,579,500 Pounds of products (including shad, mixed fish, Pounds of products, other than fish, for food .... 129,719,527 „ , c' Y • x- • 667,450 pounds of miscellaneous products for fertilizers Value to fishermen $32,336 and other purposes 94,663,800 (c.) Oyster Indu stry : Value of products to the fishermen $9,602,737 Persons employed : fishermen, 50 ; shoresmen, 6. 56 Boats 60 It is estimated that some 30,000 families are gSetorovst'S0^' gear' etc') fo'oSo" represented in the fishing interests in this dis- Vaiue as sold .' .'.'..'.'.'.".'.".'.'.' $51,ooo trict, and that the total number of people de- 312 FLOKIDA. pendent on the fisheries scarcely falls below 200,000. Fully five eighths of these are Ameri- cans. Excepting a few foreigners, chiefly of Spanish descent, the remainder are mostly negroes. The $9,602,737 represent the sum realized by the fishermen as the result of their labor, and not the market value of the catch. Owing to the cost of transportation, icing, packing, etc., the values of many of the prod- ucts are greatly increased before they finally reach the consumer. Hence the market value of the products is not less than $16,600,000. FLORIDA. STATE Go VERNMENT.— The State officers during the year were as follow : Governor, "VV. D. Bloxham (Democrat) ; Lieu- tenant-Governor, L. W. Bethel; Secretary of State, John L. Crawford ; Treasurer, Henry A. L'Engle; Comptroller, W. D. Barnes; At- torney-General, George P. Raney ; Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, E. K. Foster; Adjutant- General, J. E. Yonge; Commissioner of Lands and Immigration, Hugh A. Corley. Judiciary: Chief-Justice of Supreme Court, Edwin M. Randall ; Associate-Justices, James D. Westcott, Jr., and R. B. Van Valkenburgh. INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. — The reclamation of lands in the southern portion of the penin- sula, by affording an outlet for the waters of Lake Okeechobee, has been much discussed for many years, but no decisive step was taken in that direction until January, 1881. At that date Colonel I. Cory ell appeared before the Board of Trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund, as the representative of Philadelphia capitalists, ;md negotiated a contract with the board for the drainage and reclamation of the lands lying south of township twenty-four, in consideration of receiving one half of the lands so reclaimed. The last Legislature chartered the " Atlantic and Gulf Coast Canal and Okee- chobee Land Company," who have succeeded to all the rights under the contract. This company immediately had a series of surveys made to test the practicability of the proposed undertaking, and from their surveys, as well as those made by the United States, under the direction of General Gillmore, it was shown that Lake Okeechobee has an elevation of twenty-two feet above the Gulf of Mexico, and that Lake Tahopekaliga, the head- waters of the Kissimmee River, has an elevation of six- ty-five feet above the waters of the Gulf. These facts being ascertained, the company assumed the entire practicability of reclaiming this vast area, amounting to many million acres, by draw- ing off the waters, and preventing the periodi- cal overflows. The work was commenced by building powerful steam-dredges on the Caloo- sahatchee River and Tahopekaliga Lake, the plan of operations being to open a canal from the Caloosahatchee River to Lake Okeechobee, and the cutting of a canal from Lake Taho- pekaliga through to Kissimmee Lake, then straightening the Kissimmee River, and the cut- ting of one or more canals from Okeechobee to the Atlantic Coast, as well as the construc- tion of subsidiary canals. The dredge upon the Caloosahatchee entered Lake Okeechobee on the 21st of December. Up to December 1, 1882, the company re- port that they had expended $93,777.40, and had constructed over twelve miles of canal, twenty-two to thirty-five feet wide and five to six feet deep. The early completion of the first series of canals is already assured, which, in addition to the reclamation of the lands, will afford a great inland system of steamboat navigation from Kissimmee City through the Caloosahatchee to the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of 180 miles. The feasibility of forming an inland water communication from the mouth of the St. John's River to Biscayne Bay, in the extreme southern portion of the State, a distance of some two hundred and seventy miles, by utiliz- ing the waters of Pablo Creek and North, Ma- tanzas, Halifax, and Indian Rivers, has long been conceded. It took practical shape when Colonel I. Coryell and Hon. John Westcott or- ganized, under the general incorporation act, the "Florida Coast- Line Canal and Transpor- tation Company," with a capital of $500,000. Active operations were commenced in Novem- ber, by the construction of a suitable steam- dredge, which was carried from St. Augustine to the south end of Matanzas River, where it commenced operations. In regard to railroads, the Governor, in his message to the Legislature of 1883, says: Florida has every cause of congratulation in having more miles of railroad construction in her limits, in the last two years, than in her entire former history. West Florida, that has for so many years been cut off from direct communication with the remaining por- tion of the State, has now practically rail connection with our system of roads ; and Pensacola, the queen of all Gulf ports, as well as the interior western coun- ties, will in a few weeks have direct communication with our Atlantic sea-ports. The rapidity with which the Pensacola and Atlantic road has been built, con- nected with its superior structure and equipments, speaks well for the company, as well as for the efficient superintendent. The time is not far distant when through trains of freight and passenger travel from the Golden Gate of the Pacific Avill find their exit by this line through the ports of Jacksonville and Fcr- nandina. The Florida Southern has also completed, and has in operation, one hundred miles of road, and I am informed has made arrangements for a further and greatly increased extension^ The road chartered from Live Oak to Eowland's Bluff has been finished to the latter point, and is vigorously pushing forward in the direction of South Florida. The roads from Wavcross to Jacksonville, and from Femandina to Jacksonville, have been completed. Jacksonville and St. Augustine will, in a short time, have a new road completed .and thus be furnished with direct rail con- nection. The road from Waldo has been pushed on to Silver Spring and Ocala, connecting there with the Tropical, whicn has been built and is in operation as far south as Wildwood, in Sumter County, with a branch graded and cross-tied from Wildwood to Lees- burg. The South Florida road has been built from Orlando to Kissimmee City, thus giving the Kissim- mee Valley direct communication with the St. John's. The St. John's and Halifax, Palatka and Indian River, Green Cove and Mel rose, and the Jacksonville, Tam- pa, and Key West roads, all have portions graded, and the former some eight miles of iron laid. While FLORIDA. 313 these improvements are unparalleled in the history of the State, yet it is a source of deep regret that neither of the several lines leading to Tampa and farther south have yet reached that desirable section. The Trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund, appreci- ating the great advantages of that highly favored sec- tion, and with an earnest desire to secure to it railroad facilities reserved lands for five different lines run- ning to Tampa and some farther south, through the counties of Hcrnando, Polk, Hillsborough, and Man- atee. From information received, however, I can but believe that the time is near at hand when these facil- ities, so long needed, will be secured. STATISTICS. — The total receipts into the State Treasury on account of general revenue (includ- ing interest taxes) for the fiscal year ending De- cember 31, 1882, amounted to $350,569.80, as follows : The estimated appropriations necessary for the fiscal year 1883 are $315,573, including $69,000 for expenses of legislative session and $80,000 for interest on bonds; for 1884, $243,- 573. The following is a statement of the bond- ed debt : 7 per cent bonds of 1871 $350.000 00 6 per cent bonds of 1873 925,000 00 8 per cent Convention bonds 1,500 00 Total $1,276,500 00 Of this indebtedness there is : In sinking funds $159,500 00 In school fund 285,600 00 In Seminary fund 87,400 00 In Agricultural-College fund 134,200 00 Total $666,700 00 State-tax proper, 1882 $14,21548 Leaving in the hands of individuals $609,800 00 •' " 1881 124,045 11 " isso 6,728 79 In relation to other bonds, the Comptroller ism .'!::!!!!!! ! !!!!!!!;." ! ! ! ! 120 il makes the following statement : u u 1 375 24 52 ^n Edition to the above bonds there appears to be " 1375'.'" 459 40 outstanding $4,000 of bonds issued in 1875, which " " 1874. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!! . . . 1,446 94 have never been presented at the Treasury for pay- License-tax 104,785 62 ment of either principal or interest. Auction-tax 641 73 There are also 7 per cent bonds of the State held by Criminal prosecutions (costs) 311 25 the Indian Trust Fund of the United States amount- CommfsS-ux 715 00 in= to S132*00^ but <* an offset the State has a claim Sale of Dio-est 774 00 against the United States for an amount more than sufficient to cover the face of these bonds with inter- Total $258,243 38 CSt. General sinkiu" fund and interest-tax, 1881 55 969 55 Upon coming into office, I receipted to my prede- 1880 1,247 49 cessor, the Hon. Columbus Drew, for $75,000 of the 1879 115 09 6 per cent bonds authorized to be issued under the > act of February 21, 1873, which had not been sold or 1877.... 5139 exchanged, as provided by said act. They numbered u Jo?* { from 2,951 to 3,700. These were destroyed on the ' ' 17th of February. 1881, by a committee of the Legis- Total $57,474 82 lature appointed for that purpose. Special sinking fund and interest-tax, 1881 27^54 68 The tab]e of assessment for 1883 sho W8 that 1879....! 5663 the taxable valuations amounted to $45,285,977, " ^ u *ps 22 H a large increase since 1880. But more than 1876.!!!! 50 $3,000,000 of this was upon railroad property 18?5 20 for which exemption is claimed. " It is deemed Total j23 669 31 safe, however," says the Comptroller, "to base General and 'special" sinking fund 'and 'interest- estimates for a revenue upon $42,000,000 of tax,i882 6,18229 tax-paying property, and if the income from •ofcn K^ on licenses is not diminished, a rate of four mills } on the dollar is thought to be sufficient to raise The following statement shows the amount the revenue required to defray the current ex- of warrants and coupons paid at the Treasury penses of the State government and meet the for the fiscal year ending December 31, 1882 : accruing interest on the bonded debt. This Salaries, Executive Department $18.787 oo estimate is not intended to include the consti- " judicial Department.... 83,02000 tutional tax of one mill for school purposes." fS^S^l^^e^,^^ 2S S , The question of the liability of the particu- Expenses of collection of revenue 22,566 14 iar railroads claiming immunity irom taxation, Expenses of Bureau of immigration 7,36740 has been submitted to the courts of the State Printin°rtei n8 619887 by suits brought in compliance with a resolu- Maintenance of lunatics .'!.'!.'!.'!.'..'!...! 27!i77 92 tion adopted at the last session of the Legisla- insurance of Capitol .'.*.'..'.'.'. ' 525 oo the cases are now pending in the Supreme Watchman at Capitol 28700 Court of the United States on appeal. Conveyin-^^^ 2?0 50 The State taxes in 1882 were as follow: Kaiiroad-tax litigation !.'!!!!!!.'!!! 13712 State tax, $200,827.28; sinking funds, $91,- CrTmi^rpSStion; ^sl 21 53L95 5 sch°o1 fund' $45,332.71— total, $337,- Expenses of printin^Di^est "" 293250 691.94. The county taxes were: County tax Legislative relief acts 45614 proper, $175,369.82: county school tax, $135,- Interest on coupon bonds of 1871 and 1873... . 118,123 72 |35P42; COlinty Special tax, $115,963.84-totai, Total $289,693 68 $426,569.08. 314 FLORIDA. The last Legislature (says the Governor in his mes- sage) passed an act to provide for the assessment and collection of taxes upon improvements on the public lands, and for the protection of occupying claimants of said lands. The object and intention of the law was to protect actual settlers, and furnish them some guarantee of securing the land upon which they had made improvements. The operation of the law, how- ever, has not been satisfactory, and in some in- stances has led to results foreign to those for which it was intended. Parties have been compelled to pay taxes upon their improvements on United States lands, and on lands previously granted by the Legislature to railroads, without any prospect of being protected by the State. Other cases of hardship have occurred, and, unless the law can be materially amended, I rec- ommend its repeal. There has been a large increase in school facilities and in the attendance of pupils. The number of schools in 1877 was 656, with 29,- 678 pupils; in 1880, 1,131, with 39,315 pupils; for the scholastic year beginning October 1, 1882, 1,326, with 51,945 pupils. The principal of the common-school fund has also increased, rising from $246,900 in January, 1881, to $323,535.42 at the close of 1882. It was re- cently ascertained that nearly 80,000 acres of school lands were due from the United States. Selections amounting to 43,745^^ acres have been approved, and the residue, it is expected, will be speedily located. There are 561,728 acres of land belonging to the school fund and 33,820 acres belonging to the seminary fund yet unsold. The Governor in his message calls the atten- tion of the Legislature to tho subject of deaf- mute education in the following language : I can not forbear in this connection calling your at- tention to the entire absence of any legislation for the education of that unfortunate class of our population known as deaf-mutes. There are in the State, as shown by the last census, 119 ; of these 58 are white and 61 colored. There are under the age of twenty- five, and now urgently requiring educational facilities, 78. Of this number 32 are white and 46 colored. I can imagine no class of our citizens who arc so entirely dependent upon education, and I sincerely trust that the subject may receive y our careful and favorable consideration. Some portion of the common- school fund should be set apart, under the direction of the State Board of Education, for this praiseworthy object. Under the Agricultural College grant Flor- ida received ninety thousand acres, which were sold for $81,000. The proceeds of the sale were invested in $100,000 of Florida bonds. The interest has since been invested, and the fund now lias an income of about $9,000 per annum. As no portion of the fund nor the interest can be applied to building purposes, no institution has been established. The trustees of this fund were to meet in Tallahassee on the 9th of January, 1883, to take into consideration the best means of utilizing the income for educa- tional purposes. On January 1, 1881, there were 95 inmates in the insane asylum. During the two follow- ing years there were admitted 112 ; discharged, 50 ; died, 26 ; escaped, 8 ; readmitted, 5 ; in the institution January 1, 1883, 128, of whom 36 were white males, 44 white females, 27 col- ored males, and 21 colored females. The East Florida Railway Company had the State convicts in charge during 1881 and 1882. It received the convicts at the several jails, paid all expenses after conviction, and, in addi- tion, paid into the State Treasury over $6,000 for their services during the two years. The convicts have been let for the years 1883 and 1884 to an individual for the sum of $9,200, the other conditions being the same as those in the railway lease. The number of convicts De- cember 31, 1880, was 129, which were handed over to the railway company ; delivered to it during 1881, 101; discharged, 49; pardoned, 4; escaped, 13 ; died, 14; sentence commuted, 1 ; remaining, January 1, 1882, 149; delivered to the railway company during the year, 69; discharged, 55; pardoned, 3 ; escaped, 5 ; died, 10 ; remaining at the close of the year, 135. Of the population in 1880 (269,493), 136,444 were males. 133,049 females, 259,584 of native and 9,909 of foreign birth; 142,605 white, 126,690 colored, 18 Chinese, and 180 Indians. There were 61,699 males twenty-one years old and over, of whom 34,210 were white (30,351 native and 3,859 foreign) and 27,489 colored. Of persons ten years of age and upward, 70,- 219, or 38 per cent, were unable to read, and 80,183, or 43 '4 per cent, were unable to write, including 19.024 native whites, or 20'7 per cent of that class, and 60,420 colored persons, or 70*7 per cent of that class. Of the native population, 173,481 were born in the State, 32,601 in Georgia, 18,522 in South Carolina, 12,023 in Alabama, 6,297 in North Carolina, 3,329 in Virginia, 2,375 in New York, 862 in Massachusetts, 855 in Pennsylvania, and 833 in Tennessee. There were living in the United States 194,518 natives of Florida. There were produced 54,997 bales of cotton, 3,174,234 bushels of corn, and 468,112 of oats ; live-stock on farms, 22,636 horses, 9,606 mules and asses, 16,141 working-oxen, 42,174 milch-cows, 409,- 055 other cattle, 56,681 sheep, and 287,051 swine. There were 426 manufacturing estab- lishments; capital, $3,210,680; hands em- ployed, 5,504; value of materials used, $3,040,- 119; of products, $5,546,448. The principal stock-raising counties, with the number of cat- tle in each, according to the tax-books of 1881, are as follow: Manatee, 53,273; Bre- vard, 39,632; Monroe, 24,710; Polk, 22,082; Hillsborough, 21,223; Sumter (1880), 16,276; Hernando, 14,882; Volusia, 13,635; total for eight counties, 205,714. In the case of Emily R. "Wilson, executrix, etc., vs. Phoebe Fridenburg, the Supreme Court decided the following points relating to the homestead exemption in this State : 1. Under the Constitution of this State the right of a wife as to the homestead is confined to a power to prevent alienation by her husband, the head of the family, without her consent made jointly with him. But. the Constitution does not, however, repeal the statute allowing dower in the estate of the husband, and this right exists as to the homestead. FLORIDA. FOOD-PRESERVATION. 315 2. The exemption is from the debts of the head of the family, the owner of the homestead. It accrues to the heirs of the party having taken or enjoyed the benefit of it. Where such owner dies, leaving surviv- ing him a widow and children, the right of the widow, if the estate is an intestate estate, is restricted to dower, and the benefit of the exemption as to the re- mainder of the estate in the homestead, after allowing dower, enures to the benefit of the children. 3. Ii the estate is a testate estate and the devise to the widow is inconsistent with dower, then the widow is put to her election between the will and dower, and, if she does not elect dower within one year alter the probate of the will, she is confined to the will, in which event the benefit of exemption as to the entire homestead enures to the children, as the homestead is not the subject of a testamentary disposition by the head of the family. 4. Where, in case of the wife surviving the hus- band, he dying testate, leaving her executrix with power of sale under the will, she executes a mortgage of the homestead under an order of court, the chil- dren surviving, not being parties to such proceeding, are not bound by it. 5. To all proceedings affecting the homestead upon the death of the head of the family, his heirs are ne- cessary parties. CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION. — The question of calling a Constitutional Convention is a prom- inent one before the people of the State. It seems to be generally conceded that one should be called, but upon the manner of calling it there are differences, some contending for the immediate submission of the question to the people, while others argue for the more dila- tory course marked out by the Constitution. On this subject the Governor says : The last Legislature passed a resolution looking to the calling of a Constitutional Convention for an entire revision of the organic law of the State. That the Constitution needs revision in many important par- ticulars is, I believe, conceded by all. Indeed, in all its departments, legislative, executive, and judicial, important changes are required in the interest of econ- omy, and to more properly conform it to the require- ments of the people and the true principles of repub- lican government. ELECTION RETURNS. — In November Congress- men, half of the Senate, and the entire Assem- bly, were elected. The new congressional dis- tricts consist of the following counties : 1. Cal- houn, Escambia, Franklin, G-adsden, Hernando, Hillsborough, Holmes, Jackson, Jefferson, La- fayette, Leon, Levy, Liberty, Manatee, Monroe, Polk, Santa Rosa* Taylor, Wakulla, Walton, Washington ; 2. Alachua, Baker, Bradford, Brevard, Clay, Columbia, Dade, Duval, Ham- ilton, Madison, Marion, Nassau, Orange, Put- nam, St. Johns, Sumter, Suwanee, and Volusia. In the First District, R. H. M. Davidson, Democrat, received 11,246 votes; Emory F. Skinner, Republican, 7,029 ; D. L. McKinnon, Independent, 3,547 ; Democratic plurality, 4,- 217; Democratic majority, 6,701. In the Sec- ond District, the vote was : for Horatio Bisbee, Jr., Republican, 13,069 ; Jesse J. Finley, Demo- crat, 12,813 ; Republican majority, 256. The Legislature has 6 Republicans, 17 Democrats, and 9 Independents in the Senate, and 27 Re- publicans, 34 Democrats, and 15 Independents in the House. YELLOW FEVER. — An epidemic of yellow fever existed in Pensacola during the autumn, but it did not assume serious proportions as on some former occasions. (See EPIDEMICS.) FOOD -PRESERVATION. The problem, of protecting meat from septic contamination, without alteration of the flavor and culinary qualities, is an important one with reference to the great waste of food in the ordinary ways of supplying communities. But its economical importance is so much greater, and the pros- pect of reward surer, since gre^at nations have come to depend largely on supplies brought from across the seas, that chemical inventors have applied themselves in earnest to its solu- tion. Refrigeration is a costly method of ar- resting putrescent decay, and one subject to accidents; but no better method of keeping dressed meat has been known, and vast quan- tities have been transported over the ocean in expensive cooling compartments. Carbolic acid and other substances used in antiseptic surgery can not be employed, as they would destroy meat for food. Boracic acid is the only chemical antiseptic which is tasteless and innocuous. It has come into use extensively for the preservation of milk, and as the basis of most of the antiseptic preparations sold. To give it the sufficient degree of solubility, bi- borate of soda and other substances not en- tirely innocent are added. It has been found that boracic acid is not an antiseptic by itself, bat acquires that quality by combination with some elements in the sub- stances to preserve which it is used. The char- acter and conditions of the union are undeter- mined, and its action as a preservative is some- what uncertain. Professor Barff has sought for a compound with original antiseptic properties, and has discovered it in boroglyceride, a com- pound of glycerine and anhydrous boric acid, with the formula C3HBBO3. The water of the glycerine is expelled and replaced by the acid, forming a new compound which is chemically analogous to a fat, being a combination of the base glyceril, or C3H6, with an acid. It is a hard and brittle mass at ordinary temperatures, but acquires a semi-fluid consistency when heated, and is then freely soluble in warm water. It is employed in solutions of one part of boroglyceride to from twenty to sixty parts of water, according to the requirements to be met. The solutions are almost tasteless, and substances treated with them acquire no foreign flavor. Their antiseptic efficacy is remarkable. Meat, oysters, poultry, etc., after immersion in the liquid, will keep for months without any trace of decomposition. Milk and soup are preserved by admixture. The finer gustatory flavor of meat is not retained long in perfec- tion, being probably dependent on volatile ele- ments. A gallon of the solution, in which many pieces of meat can be successively immersed, costs fifteen or twenty cents. The antiseptic which is considered the best is boracic acid, which alters neither the taste, 316 FOOD-PRESERVATION. FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. nor appearance, nor other quality of the meat. A method has been tested in England by which the antiseptic fluid is introduced into the living body of an animal, and distributed to all parts of the carcass by the natural action of the heart. The experiment was made with sheep hy Hauting, a veterinarian. The animal was first stunned by a blow from a mallet. The jugular vein was opened and a pint of blood drawn out. A rubber tube was then inserted, through which a quart of the preservative liquid was absorbed. This was a saturated solution of boracic acid in water of the tem- perature of blood. The instrument, one well known in veterinary practice, was then closed, and, two minutes after the liquid was taken up into the circulation, the sheep was slaugh- tered in the usual way. The acid is very slightly soluble in water. The cost is only half a cent per mutton. The meat thus treated re- mains fresh without ice two or three weeks in summer, and as many months in winter. To prepare this new antiseptic compound, glycerine is heated to a high temperature, and boracic acid is added as long as it will dissolve. The proportions are ninety -two parts of glycer- ine to sixty-two of boracic acid. The com- pound, if allowed to cool, takes a white, crys- talline form. Water is evolved during the operation, and, when steam ceases to be given off, the mass sets in a hard, glacial substance, which shows a loss of fifty-four parts in weight, corresponding to three molecules of water. The hydroxyles in the glycerine unite with the three atoms of hydrogen in the hydrated boracic acid, the anhydrous boric acid (BO3) taking their place. Its action is like that of a fatty acid, and the resulting compound is formed like the natural fats. M. Potel has invented a compound which he thinks will supplant sealed tin cans for the con- servation of meats. It is a simple mixture of gelatine, glycerine, and tannin. It is semi-liquid when heated ; and, when applied in that con- dition to the surface of the substance to be pre- served, it forms an air-tight coating. It is applied at the temperature of 50° Centigrade, which is sufficient to destroy the germs of putrefaction, and hardens into an apparently durable hermetic envelope. He calls the mixture poteline, after his own name. A depot for the storage of meat, fish, fruit, and vegetables has been established at Shore- ditch, in London, by the Great Eastern Storage and Refrigerating Company. There are dry-air refrigerating chambers, insulated with a new non-conducting material, which takes much less room than ordinary insulating substances. For the eight large chambers two refrigerators, ca- pable of cooling 100,000 cubic feet of air per hour, are driven by two double-cylinder gas- engines, indicating nearly two hundred horse- power. This company acts as agent and con- signee for shippers of dressed meat from America, Canada, and Australia, and expects to supply the London markets with a certain quantity daily, so that cargoes arriving simul- taneously will not cause losses to the ship- pers. FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. CONDITION OF AMEEICAN PINE-FORESTS. — A survey has been made, in connection with the compilation of the tenth census of the United States, of the forest resources of the whole country, with especial reference to the supply of pine-timber, the results of which have been published in a series of u Forestry Bulletins," showing for the several States the amount, by board-measurement, of timber yet standing, and graphically, by maps, the quantity of land still covered with timber available for use in each. To this is appended, in the tables, an estimate of the amount of timber cut in each State during the year of the census, and, in the maps, a representation of the area from which the timber has been removed. The principal source of supply for white- pine lumber is still in the Northwestern Lake States, including Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. In these States there were stand- ing, in the spring of 1880, 82,010,000,000 feet of merchantable pine, of which 41,000,000,000 were in Wisconsin, 35,000,000,000 in the two peninsulas of Michigan, and 6,100,000,000 in Minnesota. The amount of pine cut in these three States during the year was 7,035,507,000 feet. At this rate of destruction those States would be stripped of their pine-forests in less than twelve years. A rapid growth in con- sumption is, nevertheless, taking place ; for, while according to the returns of the ninth census 3,912,199,000 feet of lumber, including hard-wood, were manufactured in these States, the amount had increased, in 1880, to 7,145,- 969,000, or by 83 per cent, and this notwith- standing 1870 was a year of greater relative prosperity and production than 1880. Some allowance is due, however, for the greater thoroughness with which the statistics for 1880 were collected, in consideration of which the ratio of increase might be reduced to 70 per cent. There still remain 1,800,000,000 feet of white pine and 4,500,000,000 feet of hemlock in Pennsylvania, and 475, 000, 000 feet of white pine and 5,000,000,000 of spruce in Maine, with scattering small tracts of white pine in Penn- sylvania, and a considerable unestimated quan- tity of second-growth pine in Maine. The origi- nal white-pine forests of New Hampshire and Vermont are exhausted, but both those States have small quantities of second-growth pine available for use, and 2,265,000,000 feet of black spruce (Picea nigra.) The four Atlantic southern pine-growing States contain, of long-leaved pine (Pinus am- tralis) : North Carolina, 5,229,000,000 ; South Carolina, 5,316,000,000; Georgia, 16,778,000,- 000; and Florida, 6,615,000,000; in all, 33,- 938,000,000 feet. In the same States, 713,700,- 000 feet were cut during the census year. Much of the timber still standing has been injured in the manufacture of turpentine. FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 317 The Gulf States and the Southwestern States are still competent to furnish immense supplies of their native pines suitable for timber, from which comparatively little has as yet been drawn. The estimates are: Alabama, long- leaved and short-leaved pines (Pinus australis and Pinus mitis), 21,192,000,000 feet ; Missis- sippi, the same species, 23,975,000,000 feet; Louisiana, the same species, 48,213,000,000 feet ; Arkansas, short-leaved pine (Pinus mi- tis), 41,315,000,000 feet; Texas, long-leaved pine (Pinus australis), short-leaved pine (Pinus mitis), and loblolly pine (Pinus toda), 67,508,- 500,000 feet ; in all, 202,203,500,000 feet. The long-leaved pine, which forms the mass of the timber of the Southern Atlantic coasts, and constitutes about two fifths of the timber of the five States last named, is considered more suitable for heavy constructions than the white pine of the North, but is harder to work, and inferior to white pine for the uses to which that wood is so extensively applied on account of its fullness of resin. The short-leaved pine of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Eastern Texas, is regarded as a valuable building material, but not as desirable as either the white or the long-leaved species. The Southern forests are destitute of undergrowth, and have been peri- odically burned over ; and there is little prob- ability of their place, when they have been once removed, being taken by a natural second growth. Except in the case of the redwood-forests of California, no attempt has been made to esti- mate the amount, in feet, of the timber-supply of the Pacific States. The redwood (Sequoia, sempervirens), the best substitute for white pine, forms a strip of forests of gigantic trees along the coast of California, from the north- ern boundary of the State to below the Bay of Monterey, which contained in 1880, 25,825,- 000,000,000 feet of timber. From these forests 186,635,000 feet had been cut during the year. The forests of California, outside of the red- wood belt, and those of Oregon and Washing- ton Territory, are indicated by maps represent- ing their area, and coloring to show their rela- tive density, but not enough is known of the country they cover to make any estimate of their capacity possible. They are very dense, and consist chiefly of coniferous trees of dif- ferent species of very large growth, with chest- nut-oaks (Quercus densiflora) in the northern coast-regions of California, and chestnut-oaks in the southern part, and the Pacific white oak (Quercus Garry ana) in the river- valleys of Ore- gon. The most valuable and the prevailing tree is the red or yellow fir (Pseudotsuga Doug- lasii), which is the most important tree of the Coast Range forests of California, and forms seven^ eighths of the forests of Oregon and Washington Territory. It is a strong, resinous timber, hard to work, better suited for pur- poses of outside construction than for other uses, and is not regarded as equal to the long- leaved pine of the Southern States, while it is far inferior for general purposes to white pine and redwood. Except the oaks which have been mentioned, the Pacific forests contain no hard-woods. These reports of the Census Bureau give an accurate measurement of the waste of Ameri- can forests, which had previously been only a subject of vague estimate. They show that the States which were once the "timber States " of the country — the Northern New England States, New York, and Pennsylvania — can not be included in that class any longer; and that the States whence the present supplies are drawn will soon cease to furnish them. The whole amount of white pine cut in the United States during the census year was about 11,- 000,000,000 feet ; this, if continued, would ex- haust the total supply of the country in eight or ten years. The capacity of the Canadian forests has not been as accurately measured as that of the forests of the United States, but it is estimated that they can not be depended upon for more than about five years' supply at the rate of consumption prevailing in the Uni- ted States. The forests of the Southern States and the Pacific coast contain immense quanti- ties of other timber which might be substituted for white pine; but it is only a question of time when they will be as recklessly attacked as the forests of the North, and when they in their turn shall be nearly exhausted. AREA OF FORESTS IN EUROPE. — It is calcu- lated, by those who have devoted attention to the condition of different countries with re- spect to their forests, that the well-being of a country is best promoted when 25 per cent of its area is left in forest. In all Europe the percentage of woodland area is a little less than 30. In Russia and Finland, it is 40; in Sweden and Norway, 34'1 ; in Austria, 29*1 ; in Germany, 26*1 ; in Turkey and Roumania, 22-2; in Italy, 22; in Switzerland, 18; in France, 17'3; in Greece, 14'3 ; in Spain, 7'3; in Holland and Belgium, 7 ; in Great Britain, 4-1 ; and in Denmark, 3 -4. AMERICAN FORESTRY CONGRESS. — The rapid waste of the forests of the United States has been for several years growing in prominence as a subject of consideration, and an increasing degree of attention has been given to the study of means for preventing further destruction of woods and remedying that which has already been made. National and State laws have been enacted to encourage the planting of trees on the prairies, where the lack of them has been felt from the beginning of settlement; but the denudation of regions once well wooded, which threatens to bring complete ruin upon them as agricultural lands, has not been opposed by any efficient legislation. Much has been done, however, by voluntary effort and association to call attention to the matter, and to start a popular movement for the protection of the forests that may result in securing practical and efficient measures. The American Forestry Association was formed 318 FOKESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. in 1875, for the advancement of the purpose, and to collect and disseminate information on the subject; it was merged, in 1882, in the newly organized American Forestry Congress. The latter organization was formed at a pre- liminary meeting held in Cincinnati, Ohio, in April, and an adjourned meeting held in Mont- real, Canada, in August. At the Cincinnati meeting, George B. Loring was chosen presi- dent of the organization, and vice-presidents were designated for eleven districts represent- ing geographical and botanical areas in the United States and Canada. Sections were or- ganized on the " Use of Forests," " Conser- vation and Practical Forestry," "Influences," and "Education," in which eighty-tive papers on topics related to the main subject were read or filed. Committees were appointed to re- port upon forest experimental stations, forest- fires, and injuries to forests by cattle, the best methods of tree-planting, and forestry educa- tion, and also to present memorials to State Legislatures upon the establishment of State Forestry Commissions. The meeting closed with an "arbor-day," signalized by the plant- ing of "memorial trees " in the park, which it was hoped might help to enlist popular interest in the objects of the meeting. At the Mont- real meeting, a union was effected with the American Forestry Association ; the constitu- tion of the Congress was completed and adopted ; and fifty-eight papers were read or filed. The Congress, by resolution, declared it to be its duty to draw the attention of the national and State governments to the neces- sity of protecting effectually the forests against fires; and a committee appointed to carry this resolution into effect made arrangements for the preparation of especial papers on forest- fires and on the white pine. Action was taken to encourage the formation of local forestry associations. LEGISLATIVE ENCOURAGEMENT OF TREE- PLANTING.— By the " Timber Culture Act " of the United States, as amended in 1878f a head of a family, who is twenty-one years of age, may, upon the payment of fees amounting to about fifteen dollars, enter upon not more than 160 acres of prairie-land or land otherwise de- void of trees, for the cultivation of timber. He must then break five acres of the land and cultivate it, during the first year after entry ; five acres more during the second year, and in the third year must plant with trees, tree- seeds, or cuttings, the five acres first broken, and so on, till one fourth of the tract has been thus put under cultivation. At the end of eight years, or within five years afterward, upon showing that he has put the required amount of land under the cultivation contemplated, and has planted it with suitable trees not few- er than 2,700 to the acre, of which not fewer than 675 to the acre are living and thrifty, he is entitled to a patent for the whole tract he has entered, upon payment of an additional fee of four dollars. A list of trees suitable to be planted is specified in the law, which the de- partment has declared to be intended only as a general guide, and not designed to exclude any trees recognized in the neighborhood as of value for timber, or for commercial purposes, or for fire-wood and domestic use. Of the various State laws that have been enacted to encourage the planting of trees, that of Iowa is regarded as well adapted to the pur- pose. It provides that for every acre of for- est-trees planted and cultivated for timber within the State, the trees on which are not more than twelve feet apart, and are kept in a healthy condition, the sum of one hundred dollars shall be exempted from taxation. A law passed in Canada in May, 1882, provides that for every acre of land planted in trees the planter, being the owner or tenant thereof, shall be entitled, after the trees have been planted for three years, and shown to be in a vigorous and healthy state, and provided the land is securely fenced against both sheep and cattle, to receive a land-order for the purchase of other land, not exceeding twelve dollars in value. No land, however, can be acquired under this law, except it be of at least fifty and not more than a hundred acres in extent. If the plantations are not sufficient to fulfill this condition, the defect may be made up in money. A law of the Province of Quebec, passed in 1882, imposing restrictions upon the firing of wood in forests, limits the time in which brush may be burned for clearing lands to between the 1st of July and the 1st of Sep- tember. In the State of Maine the practice now prevails of cutting out only the large trees from the woods and carefully protecting the remainder. This allows the forests to be profitably worked at stated periods of from fifteen to twenty years, and insures their per- manence. A forestry commission has been ap- pointed in New Hampshire, and has already instituted measures for collecting information relative to the clearing of the forests of the State, and the injury caused thereby to the water-supply. A similar commission has more recently been appointed by the Legislature of Vermont, and is instructed to investigate the whole subject of the condition of the for- ests, and the measures needed for their pro- tection. SPECIES FOR FOREST-PLANTING. — The kinds of trees which it is found most profitable to plant vary with the localit}'. For the prairies and plains of Kansas and Nebraska the cotton- wood and black walnut are most in favor for general purposes, and next to these the box- elder and some kinds of maples. The cotton- wood fixes itself readily in the soil, grows with great rapidity, and is good for fire-wood and for general domestic purposes. It has also been found to be very useful in furnishing a shelter for the more delicate species which may be destined ultimately to be more valu- able ; and, at whatever age it is cut, it always makes a good return for the care that has been FORESTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 319 expended upon it. The black walnut grows well in the prairies, and is one of the most valuable timber-trees. In many of the older States, the undergrowth which springs up after the original woods have been cut away is found to be capable of becoming an excellent forest if it is taken care of and trimmed. A growth representing a large variety of hard-wood and coniferous trees is springing up in some parts of Michigan from which the forests have been cut, which might ultimately be made as valu- able as the original woods. Not all the land from which the trees are cut is, however, capa- ble of spontaneously producing a useful second growth. Replanting with white pine is recom- mended for Michigan. Among the less com- mon trees, the catalpa and the ailantus are recommended as good growers, and as furnish- ing durable wood, and wood suited to domestic uses. SUCCESSFUL AND EXPERIMENTAL PLANTA- TIONS.— Some of the most conspicuous exam- ples of successful forest-planting may be seen in the dunes and Landes of Southwestern France. The dunes, shifting sand-hills extend- ing for a hundred miles along the coast between the Gironde and the Adour, were planted toward the end of the last century with the maritime pine, and have now become fixed forests 148,200 acres in extent. The Landes, an extensive waste tract of swamps and sands, infested with miasmatic fevers, were subjected about thirty years ago to a process of drainage, and were planted with trees. They now con- stitute a million and a half of acres of mari- time-pine lands ; they furnish abundantly fire- wood, charcoal, staves, telegraph-poles, posts, railway-ties, mining props, hewed timber, and sawed lumber, and yield large supplies of tur- pentine under a system of collection that does not exhaust the trees ; and the former wretched, half- barbarous inhabitants have become an in- dustrious, enterprising, and thrifty population. At Larch wood, Iowa, a plan has been experi- mentally adopted of planting the central forty acres of each section of land with forest-trees, by which each tract of one hundred and sixty acres is given a wood-lot of ten acres, and promises well, both for the growth of the trees and the provision of the land. Another ex- periment has been made on the shores of Lake Michigan, near Waukegan, 111., of planting five hundred acres of waste, marsh, and sandy land, with Scotch, Austrian, and white pines, ailantus, and catalpa. LUMBER INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. — A table of statistics of the lumbering indus- tries of the United States for the year ending May 31, 1880, shows that there were produced during that year, at 25,708 establishments, 18,091,358,000 feet of lumber (board-measure), 1,761,788,000 laths, 555,504,000 shingles, 1,- 248,226,000 staves, 146,523,000 sets of head- ings, 34,076,000 feet of spool and bobbin stock (board measure), and other products to the value of $2,682,668. The value of the logs consumed in making these goods was $139,- 836,869; the total value of all the products was $233,367,729. The capital invested in the factories was $181,186,122. The business was most extensively carried on in Michigan, where $39,260,428 were invested, and the value of the products was $52,449,928, while the largest number of establishments (2,827) was in Penn- sylvania, which stood second ($22,457,359) in value of products. The third State in respect to value of investments and products was Wis- consin, where $19,824,059 of capital were em- ployed, and the total value of the products was $17,952,347. CONSUMPTION OF FOREST PRODUCTS AS FUEL. — A partial estimate of the consumption of forest products as fuel in the United States during the census year has been published by the Census-Office. The total amount of wood consumed is given at 145,778,137 cords, and its value is fixed at $321,962,373. The table shows, further, that 74,008,972 bushels of char- coal were consumed, the value of which was $5,276,736. Of the wood, 140,537,439 cords, the value of which was $306,950,040, were consumed for domestic purposes; 1,971,813 cords, valued at $5,126,514, by railroads ; 787,- 862 cords, valued at $1,812,083, by steamboats ; 1,157,522 cords, valued at $3,978,331, in the manufacture of brick and tile ; 624,845 cords, valued at $3,548,285, in mining and amalga- mating the precious metals, and other mining operations ; and the rest in the manufacture of salt and wool. FUEL-VALUE OF DIFFERENT WOODS. — A de- termination of the fuel-value of some of the more important woods of the United States, made by the Forestry Bureau of the Census Department, represents the results of analysis and experiments upon fifty-five species, natives of all parts of the country. The most valuable species for fuel by volume is the mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) of the Pa- cific coast, and it is followed by the Southern long-leaved pine (Pinm australis), shell-bark hickory, chestnut-oak, pitch-pine, and other varieties of hickory, pine, oak, and hard-wood trees. The different species of oak, however, vary widely in their value by volume. The most valuable tree, by weight, is the Southern pine, and it is followed by the pitch and yellow (mitis) pines, cypress, yellow pine (ponderosa), of the Pacific region, and other conifers ; and among the broad-leaved trees, the mesquite (11), sugar-maple (12), aspen (13), cotton-wood (15), and white ash (17). The least valuable Woods in volume, among the Atlantic species, are hem- lock, aspen, black spruce, white pine, tulip- tree, and yellow or white cedar {Thuja occi- dentals). The least valuable in respect to weight are the persimmon (50), black oak (Quercus tinctoria) (51), tulip-tree (52), water- oak (Quercm aquatica) (53), black-jack (Quer- cus nigra) (54), and the white oak of the North Pacific (Quercus Garry ana) (55). 320 FRANCE. FRANCE, a republic of Western Europe. The third republic was established by procla- mation September 4, 1870. By the law of February 25, 1875, the legislative power is vested in the two Houses of the National As- sembly, the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. The deputies are elected by universal suffrage for the term of four years. Under the law of the scrutin cParrondissement, passed November 11, 1875, each arrondissement of under 100,000 inhabitants elects one deputy. An additional deputy is allowed if the popu- lation exceeds 100,000, two if over 200,000, and so on. The Chamber of Deputies contains 557 members. The Senate is composed of 300 members, 75 of whom are appointed for life, the vacancies being filled as they occur by the Senate. The rest are elected for nine years, one third of them retiring every three years. They are appointed by an electoral college, to which each commune and municipality sends a member. The National Assembly meets annu- ally on the second Tuesday in January, unless summoned earlier by the President, and re- mains in session at least five months. An ex- traordinary session can be called by the Presi- dent on his own motion, or upon the demand of one half the members of each House. The President can order an adjournment for not more than one month and not oftener than twice in one session. The President of the Republic is elected for the term of seven years by a majority of the votes of both Chambers united in joint session. The President, as well as either Chamber, can initiate legislation. With the approval of the Senate the President can dissolve the House of Deputies. The President promulgates the laws and sees to their execution. He has control of the mili- tary forces, and makes all appointments, civil and military. The Ministers are collectively responsible for the general policy of the Gov- ernment to both Chambers. The President can only be removed for high-treason. The President of the French Republic is Jules Grevy, born August 15, 1808. He was elected January 30, 1879. AREA AND POPULATION. — In the census of December 18, 1881, the total population of France was found to be 37,672,048. The total area is 528,571 square kilometres, or 203,285 square miles. Before the separation of Alsace and Lorraine the area was 543,051 square kilometres, and the population, at the census of 1866, 33,067,064. In 1872 the population was 36,102,921 ; in 1876, 36,905,788. Of the total population, 36,069,524, or 97'74 per cent, are of French birth; 801,754, or 2-17 per cent, foreign citizens ; and the remaining 34,- 510 naturalized citizens. Of the foreign popula- tion 374,498 are Belgians, 165,313 Italians, 62,- 437 Spaniards, 59,028 Germans, 50,203 Swiss, 30,077 English, and 9,855 Americans. In re- spect to religion 35,387,703, or 98 per cent, are Catholics; 580,757, or 1-6 per cent, Protes- tants (Calvinists 467,531, Lutherans 80,117, other confessions 33,109); 49,439, or 014 per cent, Israelites; 3,071 of other non-Christian faiths; and 81,951, or 0'23 per cent, of no reli- gion. In the departments of Drome, Doubs, Deux-Sevres, Ardeche, and Lozere from 10 to 15 per cent, and in Gard 28 per cent of the population are Protestants. In 1880 the num- ber of marriages was 279,035, against 282,776 in 1879, 279,650 in 1878, 278,094 in 1877, and 291,393 in 1876; the number of births, including still-born, was 961,914, against 980,- 404 in 1879, 980,590 in 1878, 987,963 in 1877, and 1.011,362 in 1876; the number of deaths, including still-born, was 900,074, against 883,- 757 in 1879, 882,349 in 1878, 845,343 in 1877, and 878,754 in 1876 ; and the excess of births over deaths was 61,840 in 1880, against 96,647 in 1879, 98,241 in 1878, 142,620 in 1877, and 132,608 in 1876. The total emigration in 1877 was 3,666, of which number 917 de- parted for Buenos Ayres, 890 for Algeria, and 550 for the United States. The towns of over 30,000 inhabitants in 1881 were the following : Lyons . 876,618 Le Mans 55347 Marseilles. . . 860,099 Tours. 52 209 Bordeaux Lille 221,305 ITS 144 Tourcoing 51,895 51 ,371 Toulouse Nantes 140,289 124 819 Versailles Troves 48,324 46 067 St. Etienne... 128,813 105906 St. Quentin 45,838 44 842 Le Havre 105 b67 St Denis 43 *95 Eeims 93823 Clermont 43 033 Koubaix 91757 Beziers . . 42915 Amiens 74,170 Caen 41 508 73225 40 217 Toulon 70 103 Lorieut 37 812 Angers . . 68 049 Avignon 37657 Nice .. .. 66279 Dunkerque . . 87323 Brest 66,110 Poictiers 86,210 63 765 35681 Kimes 63,552 (Jette 35,517 Kennes 60,974 St. Pierre les Calais 832i*0 Orleans 57,264 Angouleme .. .. 82 567 Besancon 57,067 Perpignan 31,735 Montpellier . . 56,005 There were in 1881 6,158 post-offices. The mails carried 569,910,358 letters, 32,224,239 postal-cards, 11,327,262 letters with inclosures of declared value, 345,364,572 newspapers, and 378,075,770 samples and circulars. The re- ceipts amounted to 123,472,000 francs, and the expenses to 81,898,988 francs. The number of telegraph-offices in 1881 was 6,841 . The length of the state lines at the end of 1881 was 73,878 kilometres, of which 685 kilometres were under-ground, 3,452 subma- rine, and 103 pneumatic. The length of wires was 233,057 kilometres, 12,521 of which were under-ground and 3,663 submarine. The num- ber of dispatches sent in 1881 was 17,514,147 domestic and 1,952,017 international. The re- ceipts were in 1881 25,612,399 francs, expenses 32,222,642 francs. The number of kilometres of railroad in operation on the 1st of January was 1,999 be- longing to the Government, 21,753 belonging to unchartered companies, 1,515 to companies, and 2,152 of local lines. COMMERCE. — The special imports in 1881, that is, all non-dutiable goods and those on FRANCE. 321 which duties have been paid, amounted to 4,946,400,000 francs, as compared with 5,033,- 200,000 francs in 1880, 4,595,200,000 francs in 1879, 3,536,700,000 francs in 1875, an average of 3,342,500,000 francs between 1869 and 1873, and of 2,121,100,000 francs between 1859 and 1863. The special exports, that is, domestic products and foreign exports on which duty has been paid, amounted to 3,612,400,000 francs in 1881, 3,467,900,000 francs in 1880, 3,872,- 600,000 francs in 1875, 3,259,700,000 francs average between 1869 and 1873, and 2,271,- 000,000 francs between 1859 and 1863. The specie imports in 1881 amounted to 363,200,- 000 francs, the exports to 302,200,000 francs. Of the total imports of 1881, 2,188,982,000 francs were articles of consumption, of which 588,696,000 francs were cereals (against 844,- 343,000 francs in 1880), 383,424,000 francs fer- mented liquors, 288,534,000 francs colonial produce, 29,427,000 francs tobacco, 285,638,- 000 francs seeds, fruits, and vegetables, and 363,884,000 francs animal food articles and animals (against 419,987,000 francs in 1880). The exports of articles of consumption amounted to 915,856,000 francs, against 865,601,000 francs in 1880. The imports of raw materials in 1881 amounted to 1,893,130,000 francs, against 1,856,586,000 francs in 1880, the imports of textile materials in 1881 being 1,063,963,000 francs ; of woods, etc., 245,479,000 francs ; of hides, hair, and leather, 185,364,000; of raw metals, 140,724,000 francs. The exports of raw materials amounted to 554,125,000 francs, against 540,073,000 francs in 1880, the exports of textile materials making the chief item and amounting to 384,844,000 francs. The imports of manufactured articles amounted to 558,042,- 000 francs, against 490,957,000 francs in 1880, the principal items being textiles (241,577,000 francs), and machines and metallic products (131,002,000 francs). The exports of manufac- tured objects amounted to 1,787,313,000 francs, against 1,736,975,000 francs in 1880, the largest items being textiles and articles of dress (948,- 993,000 francs), leather manufactures, etc. (290,223,000 francs), jewelry and works of art (148,919,000 francs), and metallic products, machines, etc. (145,385,000 francs). The other classes of imports amounted to 555,673,000 francs, exports to 355,148,000 francs. The largest foreign trade is with England, amounting to 599,000,000 francs of imports and 830,200,000 of exports in 1879. The largest import trade is with the United States, from which 715,900,000 francs of imports were received, and to which 276,200,000 francs of exports were shipped. The total trade with the French colonies amounted to 227,100,000 francs of imports and 190,400,000 francs of exports. The number of vessels entering French ports in 1881 was 34,520, of 11,675,746 aggregate tonnage, of which 9,966 carried French colors, tonnage 3,721,714 ; the number departing was 23,373, tonnage 7,527,146—8,072 of 3,358,136 under French colors. The merchant marine VOL. xxn. — 21 A at the beginning of 1881 consisted of 14,406 sailing-vessels, of 641,539 tons, and 652 steam- ers, of 277,759 tons. Of the total number of 15,058 vessels, of 919,298 aggregate tonnage, employing 92,397 persons, 9,987, of 134,983 tons, crews 54,928 persons, were engaged in fisheries; 2,399, of 111,599 tons, in coasting; 1,743, of 643,406 tons, crews 24,843, in ocean commerce; and the remaining 929 were vessels employed in port service and yachts. COLONIES. — The principal colony of France is Algeria, having an area of about 430,000 square kilometres, and a population in 1877 of 2,867,626 souls. The population of the three civil departments in 1877 was 1,551,109, their area 41,599 square kilometres. In 1880 their boundaries bad been extended to include 73,835 square kilometres, and a population of 1,884,- 124 souls. The population of Algeria is di- vided in respect to nationality into 198,092 French, 33,506 naturalized Israelites, 2,477,641 native Mussulmans, and 158,387 from other countries, among them 94,038 Spaniards, 26,322 Italians, and 14,313 English. The three capital cities are Algiers, containing in 1880 64,714 in- habitants ; Oran, containing 59,429 ; and Con- stantine, containing in 1876 39,823. PRINCE NAPOLEON (JEROME). The area and population of the colonies and protectorates, exclusive of Madagascar, with an area of 691,901 square kilometres, and a popu- lation estimated at 5,000,000, and Tunis, with an area of 118,400 square kilometres, and a population of about 3,000,000, together with the exports and imports of the colonies other than Algeria, in 1879, and their budgets for 1882 (all in thousands of francs), are given in the following table : 322 FRANCE. COLONIES. Square, kilometrei. Population. Importi. Exports. Budgets. ASIA: French East Indies 508 285 022 8184 19919 1 721 Cochin-Ghina .... 59 457 1 597,013 46 196 58 349 16 563 831861 1,500,000 200 000 15 000 000 AFRICA : Algeria .. . 430 000 2,867 626 Senegal and dependencies 250 000 197,431 14 814 18 328 2856 2800 8 000 1 500 926 2 511 193 362 25775 27 228 4 950 366 12000 1 284 l'749 241 Nossi-B6 293 10,150 1 458 1 539 229 8te. Marie de Madagascar 174 7,135 116 85 AMERICA : 121 413 27082 7822 423 1 811 Martinique . .... 987 164 350 29 816 83928 8 £38 Guadeloupe and dependencies. ... 1 866 193883 28 621 23 348 4' 625 St. Pierre and Miquelon 235 5,224 9,469 11 137 298 OCEANIA : New Caledonia and dependencies 19 950 72134 9 010 8 S60 1 915 Tahiti and dependencies 9388 87,822 8 212 1 216 1 000 Total 753 811 19 305 608 186 727 207 035 89 052 Of the colonial expenditures of 1879, the French Government furnished in subventions 1,253,000 francs, leaving 37,799,000 francs as the amount raised in the colonies. TUNIS. — The Treaty of Kasr-el-Said, made May 12, 1881, provided for a French protecto- rate over Tunis, which was completed by the laws of April 22, 1882. The different depart- ments of the public service undertaken by the French Government in Tunis are placed under the direction of the corresponding ministries in France, which give their directions to the minister resident at Tunis. The Bey Moham- med-es-Sadok, who was born in 1813 and suc- ceeded his brother Mohammed September 28, 1859, died October 28th. He was succeeded by his younger brother, Sidi Ali, born in 1817. The French minister resident who succeeded to M. Eoustan is M. Cambon. The area of the regency of Tunis is 116,348 square kilo- metres, the population about 2,100,000, includ- ing some 45,000 Israelites and 25,600 Chris- tians. The public debt has been reduced by the European commission, which was given control of the finances, to about 125,000,000 francs. The revenue, derived from export duties, tax on olive-trees, salt and tobacco monopolies, etc., was, in 1875, 6,832,300 francs, nearly all of which was applied to the service of the debt. ARMY AND NAVY.— Universal military ser- vice was established by the law of July 27, 1872, by which every Frenchman is obliged to belong to the active army for five years, to the active army reserve four years, to the terri- torial army five years, and to the territorial army reserve six years. The effective of the army in 1882 was as follows : Infantry — 144 regiments of the line, of four active battal- ions, of four companies each, and two com- panies at the depot, numbering 288,464 men ; thirty battalions of rifles, or chasseurs, num- bering 17,730 men ; four regiments of zouaves, numbering 10,480 men ; three regiments of Al- gerian sharp-shooters, numbering 8,493 men ; the Foreign Legion in Algiers, numbering 2,526 men ; three battalions of light infantry in Al- giers, numbering 4,140 men; and fusileers and pioneers forming the corps of instruction, num- bering 1,330 men; altogether 283,163 officers and men, with 2,631 horses. Cavalry — twelve regiments of cuirassiers and twenty-six of dra- goons, and twenty regiments of chasseurs and twelve of hussars, of five squadrons each, num- bering altogether 58,240 men, with 51,800 horses; four regiments of Chasseurs d'Afrique, numbering 4,152 men, with 3,720 horses, and three regiments of Spahis, numbering 3,477 men, with 3,423 horses ; nineteen squadrons of scouts to be formed in time of war ; and eight companies for the remounting service, num- bering 3,038 men, with 80 horses; total effec- tive force 68,907 men, with 59,023 horses. Artillery — nineteen regiments organized in di- vision and nineteen attached to corps, together 57 battalions of foot, 304 of mounted and 57 of flying artillery, and 76 of mounted artillery at the depots, numbering together 55,717 men, with 30,381 horses; and the corps for pon- toon-service, repairing, the artillery train, etc., making the total effective force 68,762 men, with 33,298 horses. Engineers— 11,007 men, with 945 horses. Train— 9,540 men, with 8,918 horses. Staff and administrative troops — 27,- 990 officers and men, with 4,888 horses. Gen- darmerie— 26,511 men, with 13,013 horses. The total effective of the French army is 495,880 men, with 122,716 horses. The war effective numbers 2,423,164 men, organized in 24 complete corps in the first line, and 8 corps in the second line ; to which number may be added about 1,330,000 excused or non-com- batants. By a law introduced July 26, 1882, the African army is to be increased, by which the active army will receive an augmentation of 23 infantry battalions, 18 squadrons of cavalry, 15 batteries of artillery, and a cor- responding number in the auxiliary services. The French infantry is armed with the Gi rifle, a species of Chassep6t with metal car- tridges. The artillery has cast-steel breech- loading guns of 80 and 90 millimetres' caliber. FRANCE. 323 The French navy in 1881 numbered 356 vessels, classified as follows: 59 ironclads, comprising 20 of the first class and 12 of the second class for offensive and defensive warfare, and 27 for coast-defense, including 11 floating batteries; 235 steamers, compris- ing 57 cruisers, 17 dispatch-vessels, 22 fleet dispatch-boats, 21 gunboats, 61 transports, 26 small gunboats, 31 torpedo-boats, and 62 sailing-vessels. There were in construc- tion 8 first - class ironclads, 2 second - class ironclads, 2 ironclad gunboats, 11 torpedo- boats, and 22 other vessels. The navy is manned with 1,585 officers and 41,227 sea- men, 3,940 men in the special services, 18,- 870 marine infantry, and 4,661 artillery. The heaviest ironclads are the Devastation and the Foudroyante, each of 9,600 tons and 4,200 horse -power, carrying 14-inch armor and four 38-ton and two 25-ton guns. The Amiral Duperre has 12-inch plates and is armed with four 38-ton guns. Six new steel- clads with horizontal plates 11£ inches thick carry two 38-ton guns each, mounted in bar- bette. Five others of the ironclads are of modern types and heavily armed, while the rest of the vessels classed as ships of combat are of obsolete construction. FINANCE. — The sources of revenue at the disposal of the French Government have ex- panded remarkably in the last fifty years. After the Franco-German War, the augmenta- tion of the debt and the increased cost of the army necessitated a large increase in taxation. In the year 1869 the total revenue of the Gov- ernment amounted to 1,798,193,568 francs. In 1873 the total revenue was 2,467,470,630 francs; the expenditure 2,374,804,134 francs. In 1881 the budget of revenue was 3,214,534,- 789 francs, and of expenditure 3,213,806,317 francs. The budget estimates for 1883 place the total receipts at 3,561,977,092 francs, and the total disbursements at 3,573,349,646 francs. The following are given as the sources of reve- nue: Direct imposts, 378,100,500 francs, of which 175,500,000 is the estimated product of the land-tax, 63,765,000 francs of personal taxes, 43,772,400 of the tax on doors and windows, and 95,062,100 of patent dues; special taxes of similar character to direct taxes, such as taxes on mortmain property, on carriages, inspec- tion of weights and measures, etc., 24,723,840 francs ; registration fees, stamps, and domains, 771,661,000 francs, registration producing 593,827,000, stamps 159,607,000, and the do- mains, exclusive of forests, 18,227,000 francs; forests, 35,188,900 francs: customs and salt- tax, 404,142,000 francs; indirect taxes, 1,099,- 306,000 francs, of which 428,309,000 francs come from the tax on drinks, 101,548,000 francs from domestic sugars, 16,139,000 francs from matches, 12,841,000 francs from paper, 92,933,000 francs from railroad traffic, being 20 per cent of passenger receipts; sale of to- bacco, 360,437,000 francs ; of gunpowder, 15,- 236,000; post-office, 128,325,000 francs; tele- graphs, 30,629,000 francs; 3 per cent on in- comes from dividends, etc., 47,118,000 francs; revenue from Algeria, 31,380,008; tax on civil pensions, 21,262,000 francs; universities, 3,593,- 665 francs; fines, 7,534,181; various receipts, 49,866,998 francs. The following are the main branches of expenditure: Public debt, 1,317,112,874 francs, 'of which 741,070,255 francs are interest on the funded debt, 27,088,- 000 on temporary loans, 160,000,618 pensions, and 388,954,001 capital payments; dotations, 24,712,456 francs, of which 13,724,000 go to pension the invalids of the navy, and 9,788,456 to the members of the Legion of Honor ; legis- lation, 11,735,780 francs; Ministry of Justice, 35,944,642 francs ; of Public Worship, 52,929,- 306 francs; of Foreign Affairs, 14,348,900 francs; of the Interior, 68,813,655 francs, of which 14,661,550 francs are for expenses of administration, 13,763,537 for public safety, 20,690,961 for prisons, and 10,436,235 for charities; of Finance, 19,558,470 francs; of Posts and Telegraphs, 2,122,360 ; of War, 584,- 106,000 francs; of Marine and the Colonies, 237,187,470 francs, of which 204,898,519 francs are for the navy ; of Public Instruction and Art, 151,050,196 francs, of which 134,410,451 francs are for education, and 16,639,745 for the fine arts; of Commerce, 21,918,564 francs; of Agriculture, 24,397,350 francs; of Public Works, 139,488,541 francs, of which 89,725,681 francs are for the ordinary service, 49,762,860 for extraordinary works, 317,621,582 for the cost of the regie, collection of taxes, post- office, etc., and 21,15§,500 for drawbacks and restitutions. There are besides 529,146,000 francs of estimated revenues and expenditures treated of apart from the general budget as extraordinary. The public debt in 1879 stood at 19,862,035,- 983 francs, of which 12,101,352,167 francs bore interest at 3 per cent, 6,917,470,240 francs at 5 per cent, and the remainder at 4^ and 4 per cent. The number of holders was 4,380,933, of whom 2,432,574 held the 5 per cent rentes, and 1,788,114 the 3 per cent. The total cost of the war and foreign occu- pation of 1870-'73 amounted to 9,287,882,000 francs, of which 5,000,000,000 was the war in- demnity to Germany, 1,873,238,000 the war expenditures, 302,065,000 the interest on sums due to Germany, 631,168,000 disbursements in connection with the loans of 1870-'72, 364,189,- 000 loss from non-payment of taxes during the war, 248,625,000 the cost of maintaining the German army of occupation, 169,518,000 the cost of provisioning Paris, 61,708,000 re- payments of fines levied by Germans, 50,000,- 000 grants to soldiers' families, 38,807,000 cost of foreign occupation of 1871-'73, and 548,564,- 000 miscellaneous expenses. The indebtedness of the departments and municipalities was largely increased during the war. The budget of the city of Paris for 1880 estimates the revenue at 233,102,579 francs, of which 125,398,041 are from octrois, or tolls 324 FRANCE. on articles of consumption, and the expendi- ture at 231,041,489 francs, most of which goes for interest and sinking fund on the debt of 2,295,000,000 francs. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. — The history of the events of the year in France dates properly from the fall of the Ferry Ministry in Novem- ber, 1881. The Tunisian expedition had been conducted nearly to a successful termination, but at a terrible cost of lives and treasure. Suspicions of the influence of private specula- tions on the course of events in Tunis, rumors of personal differences and intrigues in the army, and, most of all, the sufferings of the troops and loss of life caused by the inefficiency of the hospital service and commissariat, had brought the Cabinet into actual odium. The public were alarmed for the republic when a Government, representing the republicanism which had trampled upon the sentiments and traditions of the religious community, and driven the clerical element over to the mo- narchical minorities, was unable to prevent corruption in high places, and when the army, which is the subject of the most anxious solici- tude with all parties, was found as disorganized and mismanaged as when the military forces of the empire collapsed in the German War. The time was come when Gambetta, who was looked upon as the guardian and guiding spirit of the republic, and who had overshadowed every ministry formed since the victory of re- publican principles in the presidency of Mac- Mahon, must assume the responsible direction of affairs. The hopes of France were centered upon the great orator and Republican leader, who, when he exerted his full political strength, was to compose the faction fights and personal rivalries of the Republican party, and, as the permanent head of the Government, pursuing a continuous policy, to enable France to assert her due position in Europe, which, with epheme- ral ministries and a constantly changing policy, When the Assembly met on October 28th, Gambetta tested his strength by again stand- ing as a candidate for the presidency of the Chamber, and was elected with the overwhelm- ing majority of 317 to 47. Jules Ferry him- self precipitated his fall by attempting an ex- planation of Tunisian affairs without waiting for an interpellation. In the debate which fol- lowed, the ministers were accused of deceiving the Assembly for electioneering purposes, and with weakening and disorganizing the army by allowing the generals to make up the first Tunisian expedition with troops selected from the different corps. Clemenceau charged Rou- stan with having instigated the Government to interfere in Tunis in order to further certain financial enterprises. The outcome of the long debate was the adoption, on the motion of Gambetta, of a neutral order of the day which simply approved the Bardo Treaty. Jules Fer- ry, having failed to obtain the desired expres- sion of confidence, resigned November 10th, and Gambetta was invited by M. GreVy to form a ministry. Gambetta at first set about forming the " grand ministry " that his organs had heralded, which was to unite the Repub- lican forces in a stable union. But Leon Say, De Freycinet, and Challemel-Lacour declined his overtures. He then made up a list from among his immediate supporters. Dismay and ridicule were excited by the production of the names. Except two retained from the last Cabinet — Cazot, Minister of Justice, and Co- chery, of Posts and Telegraphs — all were new men. The names of the other ministers were: Waldeck-Rousseau, Interior ; Allain-Targe, Fi- nance; General Campenon, Military Affairs; Gougeard, Marine; Paul Bert, Education and Worship ; Raynal, Public Works ; Deves, Agri- culture ; and Proust, Arts. Gambetta took the department of Foreign Affairs. The appoint- ment of Paul Bert, eminent as a scientific scholar, but best known as an exponent of skepticism, to the post of Minister of Public Worship, was deemed by many a direct insult to the Catholic Church, and regarded every- where with wonder. The ministerial declara- tion of principles given in the Assembly on November 15th aggravated the evil impression created by the appointment of M. Bert, and the prospect of a destructive campaign against the Catholic ideas of the function of the Church in the body politic. From the manner of the programme it was suspected that Gambetta had interpreted the national demand for the " for- mation of a united government, free from the conditions of internal weakness and dissen- sion," not by seeking the co-operation of the other lights of the Republican party, but by assuming the sole direction of the destinies of the nation. The conservative elements were disturbed by the announcement of indefinite constitutional changes, while the radical de- mocracy had long ceased to put their faith in Gambetta. He foreshadowed the reform of the Senate " by wisely limited alterations in the organic law, which would bring the politi- cal power into completer harmony with the democratic genius of French society." The reform of the judiciary, the extension of na- tional education, the completion of the military laws, the conclusion of commercial treaties, the strict application of the Concordat so as to insure respect for the political authority in the relations between the Church and the state, and the rigid preservation of order at home and maintenance of peace with dignity abroad, were the other articles of the profession of faith. The programme of the ministry was confidently declared to be that of France. An active opposition on the Extreme Left, and the uncertain attitude of other sections of the Re- publican party, boded ill for the ministry ; but the Chamber waited until their policy was de- veloped. In the departmental activity of the ministry, M. Proust's petty projects excited ridicule, while the new regulations announced by Minister Bert confirmed the gravest fore- FRANCE. 325 bodings. He admonished certain bishops who had visited Rome that they should obtain leave of the Government before absenting themselves from their dioceses. He announced that prel- ates ordained in the future would be required to subscribe to the oath prescribed by the Con- vention of 1801.* Prefects were requested to furnish reports of the character and antece- dents of prelates, and the office of Director- General of Worship was abolished. The Due de Broglie, in the Senate, accused the Repub- licans of dissimulation in their Tunisian policy, while, out-of-doors, the testimony in a libel- suit brought by the public prosecutor against Rochefort for his attack supon M. Roustan, and the acquittal of Rochefort, made a damaging impression. With Tunis still far from being pacified, with the question of Senate reform and other measures already announced yet to be settled, with a battle raging between the free-traders and the protectionists over the commercial treaty with England, and after taking a position in Egypt which would entail military intervention, Gambetta, as though aim- ing to be dictator or nothing, announced the re- introduction of the project of the scrutin de liste. Under this system Napoleon III kept up his majority in the Chamber. Instead of each arrondissement electing its own deputies, all the deputies for a department would be voted for on one ticket throughout the depart- ment. This favorite scheme of Gambetta's had been rejected by the Senate the preceding June. In the triennial senatorial election on January 8th, the Republicans gained twenty-five seats. Every one but Gambetta saw the difficulty of inducing the Chamber now to change the elect- oral law under which it had just been elect- ed ; yet his organ, the " Republique Francaise," declared that he would resign if the measure failed to pass. On January 14th it was intro- duced, coupled with the plan for the revision of the senatorial election law. Instead of al- lowing petty villages equal representation in the electoral college with the great cities, he proposed to give each municipality a delegate for every five hundred registered voters ; and, in the case of the life-Senators, that their term should be reduced to nine years, and that both Chambers should participate in their election. He also proposed to take away the right of the Senate to vote upon financial measures, except in the way of a protest. The committee of the Chamber reported against the scrutin de liste section of the proposed electoral law, and on January 26th the Chamber of Deputies rejected a resolution of M. Gambetta in favor of the revival of the collective ticket by two-thirds majority. Gambetta immediately -handed in his resig- * " I swear and promise to God, on the holy gospels, to re- main obedient and faithful to the Government established by the Constitution of the French Eepublic. I promise also to have no dealings, to attend no councils, to carry on no league, either at home or abroad, which are contrary to public tran- quillity ; and if, in my diocese or elsewhere, I learn that any- thing is being concocted to the prejudice of the state, I will inform the Government thereof." nation. M. de Freycinet was called upon to form a ministry. He obtained as colleagues the well-known and trusted statesmen of the party. He himself resumed the portfolio for Foreign Affairs, which he had resigned eighteen months before, mainly through Gambetta; Leon Say took the Ministry of Finance, and Jules Ferry that of Public Instruction and Worship ; Admiral Jaurr6guibery became Min- ister of the Marine, Varroy of Public Works, and Tirard of Commerce. The members of the new Cabinet who had not held ministerial positions before were Goblet, Minister of the Interior ; Humbert, of Justice ; Mahy, of Agri- culture ; and General Billot, of War. The Min- istries of Agriculture and of Fine Arts had been created by Gambetta, and the latter was now discontinued. The policy announced contrasted with the combative and disturbing departure of Gam- betta, the main aim being "to make peace pre- vail in the country, peace in men's minds as well as in the material order of things, peace both at home and abroad." The revision of the electoral laws was postponed, while the reforms in the magistracy, the military service, the laws of liberty of association, and in na- tional education, were to be prosecuted with energy. During the tranquil ministry of De Frey- cinet several important measures were carried through. The right of electing their mayors was restored to communes and municipalities, with the exception of Paris. The Radicals cried out against the exclusion of Paris, but the moderate men were not ready to make this concession, involving the patronage of 20,000 offices, to the oft repeated demands of the Parisian democracy for local self-government. A bill to abolish the Concordat was taken into consideration. The principal act of the ses- sion was the primary education law (see EDU- CATION AND ILLITERACY). The amendment added in the Senate the previous session by Jules Simon, requiring schoolmasters to in- struct pupils in their duty toward God and their country, which the Chamber had refused to accept, was now struck out by the Senate freshly recruited with Republicans. The policy of the Government, not being as pacific in re- ligious matters as in other fields, was subjected to sharp attacks from the clerical forces. Mon- seigneur Freppel, Bishop of Angers, the clerical leader, opposed a grant for the continued occu- pation of Tunis, and elicited an explanation to the effect that the troops had been reduced from 45,000 to 35,000, and that 5,000 more would soon be withdrawn. There was a strug- gle over a law allowing a witness objecting to the oath to make a declaration on his " honor and conscience." On the reassembling in May, the Chamber passed Naquet's bill establishing a law of divorce. To prevent the resignation of L6on Say upon the passage of a bill opposed by him, a special vote of confidence was passed. The Egyptian question found the country 326 FRANCE. FREE RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATION. unprepared in mind for any decisive course. The policy of the Government was consequently infirm and characterless. Preserving as long as possible the agreement with England, De Freycinet was warned by the exasperation and distrust produced in the country by the Tunis affair against a military intervention. He tried to shift the responsibility of the arbitrament to the councils of Europe. At the last moment he withdrew his objections to Turkish inter- vention. But the determining will in Europe was impelled, precisely on account of the inde- cision of France, to let Egyptian matters take their own course. Gambetta emerged from his retirement to urge determined action, but was unable to rally the warlike and ambitious spirit of his countrymen. Freycinet obtained a preliminary vote of credit to be used in the event of England and France being deputed by the European conference to intervene. He afterward announced that, as the powers had not invited England and France to intervene, he would not join England in reducing the re- bellion, but asked, July 24th, for an additional credit to enable French marines to land on the Suez Canal to protect it in conjunction with England. This vote was refused on July 29th by a majority of 416 to 75. The ministry re- signed, and the naval preparations were aban- doned. President GreVy was unable at first to find a statesman who would undertake the formation of a new Cabinet. After a delay of nine days Duclerc, a former minister, succeeded in the task. He took the portfolio for Foreign Af- fairs ; De Fallieres the Ministry of the Interior ; Tirard became Minister of Finance; Deves, of Justice ; Duveaux, of Public Instruction ; Gen- eral Billot, of War; Admiral Jaurreguibery, of Marine ; Coche'ry, of Posts and Telegraphs ; De Mahy, of Agriculture ; Pierre Legrand, of Com- merce and Public Works. The latter portfolio was afterward taken by Herisson. Duclerc in his programme promised to be bound by the vote against intervention, and, if events involv- ing the interests or honor of France intervened, to summon the Assembly. He expressed as his principal aim the union of the various sections of the Republican majority. The Chambers adjourned soon after the formation of the Cab- inet. Gambetta occasionally lifted his voice on be- half of the policy which he inaugurated in the three months of his ministry, and in his news- paper advocated personal rule by the popular leader of a democratic state, which he thought necessary for the security and greatness of France. To bring about the political order which he hoped yet to establish, he gave his 'attention to the development of his new party of the Pure Left. During the vacation of the Chambers, which commenced immediately after the appointment of the Duclerc Ministry, there occurred no event to disturb the political quiet except some excitement among the socialists incident upon strikes and lock-outs in manu- factories. At Montceau-les-Mines some idle workmen were instigated by politicians to vio- late a church because the employers with whom they were quarreling entertained clerical sym- pathies. At Lyons there was an equally aim- less demonstration. These trifling disturb- ances were exaggerated, for the lack of other excitement, into a veritable terror. Govern- ment officials were partly responsible for the belief which prevailed for a time that French society was honey-combed with secret societies which were ready to attempt a social revolu- tion. A sequel of the sensational excitement was a remarkable trial of a number of socialists who admitted spreading the doctrines called Anarchism, for which, among others, Prince Krapotkine, the leading journalist of the Rus- sian Nihilists, was sentenced to prison.' At the very end of the year the world of French politics was thrown not merely into momentary consternation, but the republic was apparently unhinged and in danger of disrup- tion, through the death of L6on Gambetta, whom the people mistrusted and turned against when in power. In Germany his death was welcomed as affording relief from the anxiety caused by the menaces of revenge to which he occasionally gave utterance. But the interior tranquillity of France was disturbed by the movements of the Bonapartist and royalist pretenders upon the departure of the strongest man of the republic, while the trepidation and divided councils of the Republicans illus- trated the need of the stable government which the ex-Dictator of Bordeaux wished to establish and which the monarchist factions promised. FREE RELIGIOUS ASSOCIATION. The receipts of the Free Religious Association dur- ing 1881 were $1,700, and its expenditures for the same time were $809. The report of the Executive Committee for the year gave ac- count of the efforts it had made to obtain infor- mation from various States regarding legal re- strictions on religious liberty, sectarian influ- ences in education, social conditions as affect- ing free thought, and the condition of liberal organizations in those States. Correspondents were appointed for twenty-one States, and re- plies more or less complete were received from sixteen States. The committee found that it was the intention of the State constitutions generally to guard religious liberty, and that they assert the rights of the individual con- science in all matters of religion ; but that the statutes show a conspicuous violation of the assertion, and in the Constitutions themselves it is common, in immediate connection with the assertion of the rights of private opinions and conscience, to find positive theological af- firmations which discriminate in favor of the opinions of one portion of the citizens as against those of another. In some of the re- cently organized States, freedom of conscience was better guarded, in form as well as in sub- stance ; but in most of the States, while it was FRIENDS. 327 meant to secure the equal rights of opinions and conscience, there were sections of the Con- stitution and laws that discriminated unfair- ly against the rights of some classes of citi- zens. These laws had, in many cases, been outgrown by public opinion and were not en- forced; but they were on the statute-books, and might be, and sometimes were, resuscitated in a way to work gross practical injustice. In regard to the condition of liberal thought, the committee observed that the reports were "favorable to attempts of some kind toward a more systematic organization of the liberal sentiment of the country, without, however, indicating the method for effecting this. IB a few of the States the conditions are repre- sented as thoroughly ripe for an organizing movement, and all that is wanted is a few leaders, to point the way and rally the people, who are all ready to supply the material of the new societies. The States where the condi- tions are reported as most ready for organiza- tion are, in the East, Maine, Massachusetts, and the western portion of New York ; and in the West, Michigan and Kansas. In the two latter States there appears to be a special re- ceptivity to religious ideas, and a good deal of activity is already awakened in the direction of religious organization ; in Michigan, largely under the auspices of a very liberal form of Unitarianism, and in Kansas under an associa- tion recently formed, called the Liberal Union, which is an attempt to solve the problem of uniting in local work and fellowship all the different phases of liberalism." FRIENDS. The reports of numbers in the Society of Friends continue to show an increase of members in some of the yearly meetings, and a decrease in others, and, as a whole, indi- cate only a moderate growth. In the New Eng- land Yearly Meeting the accessions by twenty- nine births and the reception of fifty-three new members were nearly balanced by eighty-three deaths. The reports of the Indiana Yearly Meet- ing, on the other hand, indicate a very rapid growth in numbers. In England the society has appeared to be declining for the past twenty years, except in London, where an increase of about one thousand members has taken place during that time. The New England Yearly Meeting met at Newport, R. I., in June. The whole number of members was returned at four thousand. The slow increase by births was accounted for in part by stating that as many as half of the members married persons who were not in the society, and the births from such marriages were not reported. A Friend, in speaking on this subject, said that his desire had been for many years that the persons thus married would ask the assistance of the Friends for their chil- dren. He thought the difficulties in the way of receiving converts into the Church ought to be removed. Now, when at any meeting con- verts came forward, they could not be received into the society till after a delay for presen- tation to the next annual meeting. Another Friend thought that the old method should give way to evangelizing processes. The Friends in Indiana held a series of revival services during the winter, which continued for upward of a month, and resulted in the conversion of a considerable number of persons. The " Friends' Review," in speaking of these and other simi- lar meetings, says that the results of the revi- val meetings in other churches had been scru- tinized for years ; and that, in the desire to revive the evangelizing power that character- ized the apostles, it was thought best to insti- tute revival services, and endeavor to teach the converts that they would stand firm when the warm influences of the meetings were with- drawn. The subject of evangelistic or mission work was also discussed with much pains at the Lon- don Yearly Meeting. The matter was intro- duced in the consideration of the results of a conference on home-mission work and First- day schools, which had been held in Novem- ber, 1881. It was shown at the conference that there were all over the country small, de- clining meetings, or closed meeting-houses ; but that where adult or ordinary Sunday-schools had been established, evangelistic work had followed, the neglected classes had been at- tracted, and various classes had joined the so- ciety. In one case the membership of a meet- ing had been doubled in a few years. The conference had decided that the work of ex- tending mission operations belongs to the Church, rather than to individual laborers or voluntary associations, and asked the yearly meeting to take upon itself the responsibility of doing it. It was also the judgment of the conference that some kind of missionary effort was really needed besides the purely voluntary labors of those who could afford to give their time to such work, and that when Friends could be found having a gift for the ministry, and will- ing to give up their time to the work, some provision should be made for their mainte- nance. The last recommendation excited much discussion in the yearly meeting. All the Friends expressed active sympathy with the mission-work ; but some feared to see the society taking the responsibility for practices which were not quite in accord with its usual customs, and the idea of making provision for ministers, or for persons doing any religions work, was strongly objected to by many. See- ing how easily " making provision " might slide into payment for preaching, and depreciate the ancient testimony of the society, that the min- istry is a gift of God, freely received and to be freely given, other persons viewed the proposi- tion as a very grave one. The Women's Year- ly Meeting, to whom the subject was referred separately, approved the appointment of a com- mittee to carry out the recommendations of the conference. The Men's Meeting, after consid- erable discussion, agreed to a proposition to appoint a committee for one year, with a charge 328 GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE. carefully to guard against depreciating any of the society's testimonies, and with provisions for keeping the whole matter, in case any diffi- culties should arise, under the control of the yearly meeting. The Associated Committee of Friends in the United States on Indian Affairs reported to the New England Yearly Meeting concerning its work among the ten thousand Indians of whom it has the supervision, that flourishing First- day schools and monthly meetings were main- tained, with six boarding-schools, which were attended by seven hundred pupils. Several native Indians were preaching, among whom was Steamboat Frank, once a famous Modoc warrior. More than half of the ninety-six re- maining members of the Modoc tribe had been converted from wild savages to quiet, peaceful Quakers. One hundred and forty- three con- versions were reported. The London Yearly Meeting met May 22d. The whole number of members was reported to be 15,113, including 435 scattered about in for- eign countries, and showed an increase of 138 during the year. The number of regular at- tendants on worship not in membership was given at 5,084, showing an increase of 43. The First-day schools included 1,400 scholars. The Tract Society has issued from London 127,834 tracts, including 12,641 in foreign lan- guages, and from Leominster 442,917 tracts. At the Foreign Missionary Meeting accounts were given of the progress of missionary work in Madagascar, Syria, and India. Agents of the society have also done missionary and evan- gelistic work in South Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. Meetings were held, during the sessions of the yearly meeting, of the Friends' Temperance Union, which had se- cured the delivery during the year of scien- tific temperance lectures in the public schools of the Friends and of the Friends' Good Templars; and a meeting was held to con- sider what Friends could do toward abating the prejudice in the United States against the negroes. G GAMBETTA, LEON MICHEL. (See OBITU- ARIES and ANNUAL CYCLOPAEDIA for 1881.) GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE, the leader of Italian independence, died at his home, on the Island of Caprera, June 2d. He was born July 22, 1807, at Nice, before it was incorporated in the French dominions. His family was of pure Lombard stock, bearing an old Lombard name which is common in Northern Italy. His fa- ther and his grandfather were seamen. His father had come from Chiavari, in the Riviera di Levante. His mother, Rosa Ragiundo, was a woman of fine, religious nature, to whose teachings he ascribed his patriotic feelings. His education was confined to irregular lessons from religious instructors. He followed the sea from his earliest youth, making many voyages to Constantinople, Odessa, Rome, and along the Mediterranean coast, in his father's brig and other vessels. He was once taken ill at Con- stantinople, and found employment daring his convalescence as a family tutor. Subsequent to the revolutionary movement of 1831 he fell in with Mazzini at Marseilles, and entered heart and soul into the band of Young Italy. The scheme of an invasion of Italy by sea was given up after Mazzini's ex- pulsion from Marseilles, in favor of an attempt to enter Savoy from Geneva. The complete failure of the Savoy expedition was attributed by Garibaldi to the treason of the Polish Gen- eral Ramorino. The young Garibaldi himself had embarked on the frigate Euridice, with the object of stirring the crew to mutiny. He left the ship to engage in an unsuccessful plot to capture the barracks of the Carabinieri at Genoa. He made his way to Nice, and escaped thence to Marseilles. An exile from home, he picked up a preca- rious livelihood by giving instruction in navi- gation ; then sailed on voyages to the Black Sea and Tunis, and finally entered into the ser- vice of the Bey of Tunis, as an officer on one of his ships. The sailors were so unmanage- able that he threw up the engagement, and embarked (in 1836) on the Nageur for Rio Janeiro. In South America he at first engaged in his old business of coast-trading; but on the revolt of the province of Rio Grande do Sul, and the proclamation of a republic, he transformed his little schooner into a privateer, which he called the Mazzini. The twelve years' career of Garibaldi in South America forms the most romantic tale of adventure and heroism of modern times. The extremes of good and ill fortune which he went through, his wonderful resources in ex- tricating himself from desperate perils and winning victories against fearful odds, his mag- netic power of chaining to him the hearts of his followers, and inspiring them with a daring equal to his own, were crowned with epic grandeur by his disinterestedness, his humane tenderness, his generosity, his courage in do- ing right, without regard to consequences. His services for the abortive Republic of Rio Grande were inaugurated by a brilliant suc- cess; then followed by a gloomy disaster. With his crew of twelve men he cut out an armed Brazilian vessel ; but sailing into the (as he supposed) friendly port of Montevideo, his prize was taken from him, and he was cast into a dungeon and tortured. By the intervention of the Governor of Gualeguay he was released from his tormentor. Escaping across the terri- tory of La Plata into Rio Grande, he fought with GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE. 329 better success, taking fortresses by storm and beating squadrons, until misfortune again over- took him. While going to the support of the inhabitants of the Island of Santa Caterina, who were about to take part in the revolution, his ship went to pieces on a rock off the coast. Half of his crew were drowned. Not one of his seven devoted Italian comrades was saved. On this island the ship- wrecked commander met the Brazilian woman, Ani- ta, who, through all the storms and perils of his subsequent career, was ever at his side, until she succumbed to the hard- ships and privations which she bore like a soldier. Taking command of one of three new vessels built for the republic, Garibaldi began a new series of dar- ing exploits. The fortunes of the republic waned at the time when Garibaldi's oldest son, Menotti, was born, on September 16, 1840. After the disastrous retreat of Las Antas, on which he was accompanied by Anita, carrying her new- born babe, Garibaldi lost heart in the ill-conducted war, and retired from the service of the Republic of Rio Grande. He settled in Montevideo as a general broker and a teacher of mathematics. War soon broke out be- tween the Republic of Uru- guay and Buenos Ayres. Garibaldi was solicited to take a command by the Uruguay Government. He had envious rivals, however, who plotted to have him assassinated, with his friend Anzani. Through their machinations he was given a small squadron on the Parana, which was anni- hilated, as was intended, by a superior Argen- tine force. Escaping, with everything lost but honor, Garibaldi, in the darkest hour of the republic, organized his famous Italian Legion, whose blood has sprinkled a hundred battle- fields in both hemispheres. The band of four hundred legionaries immediately won distinc- tion. Garibaldi was able to announce to the Government that the victories of Boyada and San Antonio were due to their valor. They refused grants of land after the war, and were given the place of honor in every review. In 1847, when the Pope was expected to head the cause of the deliverance of Italy from Austrian dominion, Garibaldi offered the ser- vices of his legion to Pius IX. On the 15th of April, 1848, he landed in Italy with his lieu- tenant Anzani, who died after landing, and eighty-five men, leaving the rest of his guard to follow as soon as they could. The Austrians had been expelled from Milan, and the Vene- tians had declared their independence. Pro- ceeding to the Sardinian King, Charles Albert, Garibaldi was coldly received. When, after the defeat at Custozza, Charles Albert accepted an armistice, abandoning Loinbardy to the Aus- GITJSEPPE OAKIBALDI. trians. Garibaldi cast his lot with Mazzini, and organized a force of five thousand volunteers, with which to engage in the " war of the peo- ple," who had been betrayed by their royal standard-bearer. The attempt to rally the peo- ple to the desperate cause was unsuccessful, and after a few skirmishes about Lake Maggiore, Garibaldi, with the remnant of his band, num- bering three hundred, and in broken health, withdrew to Lugano, in Switzerland. A few months later he was enlisted in an- other cause. The Romans had caused the Pope to flee, and proclaimed a republic, with Mazzini at the head. When the French troops came to re-establish the authority of the Pon- tiff, Garibaldi found plenty of Italians ready to engage with him in defending the national soil from the foreign invaders. He drove the French from Porta Pancrazio, April 29 and 30, 1849, and defeated the Neapolitans in the Velletri campaign. Then, in the terrible siege of Rome, many of his bravest soldiers lost their lives, and he was obliged to abandon the city to the 330 GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE. GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS. French on July 13, 1849. New volunteers gathered around his standard as he retired by way of Terni and Orvieto. With a force of 2,000 men he crossed the Apennines. Pressed by the Austrians in overwhelming numbers, he evaded them at San Marino, and embarked for the relief of the Venetians, who were still with- standing the Austrian siege. Intercepted by Austrian men-of-war, he was compelled to put back and land near Ravenna. In the disastrous flight through the forest, Anita broke down and died in the arms of Garibaldi. His compan- ions, Ugo Bassi and Ciceruacchio, fell into the hands of the Austrians, who shot them with- out a trial. Garibaldi made his way over to the Mediterranean coast, and, broken with grief, gave himself up as a prisoner to Sardini- an Carabinieri. When the hero was taken be- fore General La Marmora he met with fraternal sympathy. The General and the Liberal party shamed the Government out of their harsh treatment of the patriot. He was given a small pension and permitted to depart for Tu- nis, whence, finding no refuge there nor else- where, he departed for New York. Until he returned in 1854 to play his part in the last act of the drama of Italian independence, he kept a little workshop on Staten Island, where he supported himself as a tallow-chandler for a couple of years, and then went to Lima, and made a voyage to China. On his return to Italy, Garibaldi was honor- ably received by the Piedmontese Government, and held aloof from the Mazzinian revolution- ists. He remained in his peaceful retreat on the rocky islet of Caprera, near the Sardinian shore, until the war of Piedmont and France against Austria in 1859. Garibaldi took com- mand of the Alpine Chasseurs. He defeated the Austrians at Varese and San Fermo, be- wildering the hostile commander, Urban, by the rapidity of his movements, and advancing the line of the allies in the mountains as it advanced below by the victories of Palestro, Magenta, and Solferino. After the war, Garibaldi set about organiz- ing the expedition of the Thousand, with which, secretly encouraged by the Govern- ment, he was to accomplish the union of North and South Italy. Embarking at Genoa on the llth of May, 1860, he landed at Mar- sala, beat the Neapolitan troops at Calatafimi, and marched upon Palermo, where the Palerme- tans rose and aided in reducing the garrison. He routed the Bourbon troops also at Milazzo. All Sicily was soon in his power, except the citadel at Messina. Crossing into Calabria, he drove the King's troops before him, entering Naples on the 7th of September, 1860. The Piedmontese now hastened to reap the success which he had prepared for them. The royal troops crossed the Marches, beat Lamoriciere and the Papal troops at Castel Fidardo, crossed the Neapolitan frontier, and reduced the for- tresses of Capua and Gaeta. Through their co- operation, Garibaldi was able to deliver the two kingdoms of Sicily into the hands of Vic- tor Ernanuel. Then, declining all proffered honors and emoluments, he withdrew to his farm at Caprera. Garibaldi felt constrained to take part in parliamentary life to secure for his officers the rank which he had conferred upon them, and to discuss the question of ceding his native city, Nice, to France. Ratazzi encouraged him to undertake an unfortunate expedition for the expulsion of the Austrians from Venice. He engaged in the still more foolhardy enterprise of rescuing Rome from the French, which was suppressed by the Minister Ratazzi, who sent the royal forces against him. He was wounded and captured at Aspromonte, August 29, 1862, and sent back to Caprera. In 1866, during the Austro-Prussian War, Venice was finally deliv- ered from the Austrian yoke ; but Garibaldi's attempt to advance into Tyrol at the head of an army of volunteers was a failure. Beaten, wounded, and ill, he returned to his hermitage in Caprera. When Ratazzi, whose treatment of the Garibaldi expedition at Aspromonte had cost him his place, again returned to pow- er, he secretly set on foot another Roman ex- pedition. Garibaldi and his son Menotti entered into the plans of the minister ; but at Monte- rotondo and Mentana the Papal troops, with French auxiliaries which landed under De Failly, November 3, 1867, routed the patriot bands. Three years later, after the fall of Na- poleon, the French garrison left Rome without the aid of Garibaldi, He joined Gambetta at Tours, on the 9th of October, 1870, to rescue the French Republic. He was beaten by the German General Werder at Montbard, and was outgeneraled at Dijon. After the war was over, Garibaldi received nothing but insult and contempt from the reactionist party which was in the ascendant at Versailles, in return for his devotion to the cause of the country for which he had fought twice at Rome. Garibaldi took his place in the political coun- cils of Italy to the last years of his life. But the practical statesmen of Italy sought only to use him as a tool to work out their schemes of national aggrandizement. With his demo- cratic principles and dreams of a happier con- dition of society they had no sympathy, and treated him as an idle visionary. GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DIS- COVERY. The attention of explorers in 1882 was principally directed to the frozen re- gions of the Arctic Zone, to the interior of Africa, and to the unexplored parts of Asia. The latest expeditions to the polar regions have met with failure and disaster. The phys- ical features of the interior of Africa are now kcown, with the exception of one or two geo- graphical problems to be solved. It is also known through the journeys of Cameron and Stanley, and their successors, who have pene- trated to the center of the continent and trav- ersed it from side to side in various direc- tions, that the inner parts of Africa are re- GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY. 331 gions of great productiveness and commercial promise. The problem has changed from the exploration to the commercial development of Africa, as in Asia. THE OCEANS. — In recent hydrographical sur- veys contiguous areas with very different bot- tom temperatures have been found in various places. In every case the bottom layer in both of the adjoining areas commences at the same depth below the surface. The phenome- non has been ascribed to submerged ridges of land arresting the circulation of water between the two areas. In the Wyville Thomson expe- dition two such areas were found in the Faroe Channel. An elaborate theory was advanced of a wall of still water, separating the bodies of different temperature, formed by the impact of the Gulf Stream and the cold current from the Spitzbergen seas. During the Challenger's voyage the theory of submarine barriers was advanced. The submerged ridge in the Faroe Channel has been discovered by Murray and Commander Tizard. It rises up within 200 fathoms of the surface, which is precisely the depth at which the varying bottom tempera- tures begin, the surface layer above the crest of the ridge having the same temperature on each side. The ridge, which is named after Sir Wyville Thomson, rises 2,400 feet above the bottom of the ocean. It is supposed to be a glacial moraine. POLAR REGIONS. — The ill-fated Jeannette, which set sail from San Francisco July 8, 1879, under the command of Lieutenant De Long, U. S. N., with the object of seeking an entrance to the supposed open Polar Sea by a northeast passage near Wrangel Land, passed into the Arctic Ocean on August 29th. The, ship entered the ice within sight of Wran- gel and Herald Islands, which ice jammed and shifted dangerously, causing the vessel to spring a leak on January 10, 1880. Caught in the pack, the vessel drifted to the north- west. Bear, seal, and walrus were shot occa- sionally. The ice was comparatively quiet during the summer, but in October it began to grind and pile. On May 16, 1881, land was seen to the westward. This unknown land was named Jeannette Island. On May 24th another island was in sight. It was called Henrietta Island. A party landed on this latter. It was from 2,000 to 2,500 feet high, barren and rocky, with one large and two smaller glaciers, and a covering of snow and ice on the high parts from 50 to 100 feet in thickness. Guillemots and murres nest- ed in the cliffs in great numbers. The vege- tation consisted only of lichens and mosses, with one species of phanerogam. On the 9th the ice opened and left the vessel afloat, and on the 12th it came together again and crushed her. She had been under pressure ever since she was first caught in the floe. The boats and the greater part of the stores and provisions were got out before the ship went down. There were some 24 dogs, which could draw only the hospital-sled and a small one with extra stores. The retreat on the ice was directed toward the mouth of the Lena by way of the New Siberian or Liakhov Islands, which lay about midway in the course. The position of the Jeannette when she sank was about 600 miles from the Siberian coast, in a direct line. For twenty-one months the ship drifted helplessly with the pack, by the action of the winds and the currents. For the first five months after she was ice-locked off Herald Island the motion of the ice was cy- cloidal, the total result of the drift being only 45 miles. During the last six months the drift was very rapid to the northwestward. The soundings were 18 fathoms near Wrangel Land. The greatest depth was 80 fathoms, LIEUTENANT GEOKGE W. DE LONG. the mean depth 35 fathoms. The Jeannette became imbedded in the ice immediately after entering the Arctic. No vessel could have withstood the strain to which she was constant- ly subjected for over eighteen months. In the latter part of the drift the sea was very shallow, 20 fathoms or under. The bottom was blue mud. Shrimps and numerous algse were brought up in the dredges. The surface temperature of the water was 20° above zero. The tempera- ture of the air ranged from 58° below zero to 44° above. The mean temperature of the first winter was 30° below zero, of the first summer 40° above zero. Heavy gales were not fre- quent. The most violent shqwed a wind ve- locity of 50 miles an hour. The fluctuations of the barometer and of the thermometer were moderate. Disturbances of the needle coin- ciding with the auroras were observed. The winter's formation of ice was 8 feet thick. The 332 GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY. heaviest ice seen was 23 feet in thickness. Dur- ing their retreat over the ice, a third island was seen, which was named Bennett Island. The positions of the three islands discovered were as follows: Jeannette Island, latitude 76° 47' north, longitude 158° 56' east; Henrietta Island, latitude 77° 8' north, longitude 157° 32' east ; Bennett Island, latitude 76° 38' north, longitude 148° 20' east. The first was small, hut the others of considerable extent. On Bennett Island, hesides many birds, old deer- horns were found, and some lignite, with which Melville experimented. He found it suitable for steamers. Fossils and fine specimens of amethyst and opal were here collected by Dr. Ambler, but they were lost, as well as the daily rations per man. There was a large quantity of alcohol, intended for fuel, and a good provision of Liebig's extract. They were well equipped with rifles and ammunition. The tents were just large enough for all to sleep in, and they were further sheltered with deerskin sleeping-bags. Some of the party were lead- poisoned from tin cans or otherwise disabled. The ice was very rough, and the floes were in motion. The men over-exerted themselves the first day, and had to rest for several days. Afterward they advanced about one mile a day. All hands were required for each sled, so that they were obliged to march thirteen miles for every mile of progress. At the end of the first week the captain found by observa- Point where retreating , party was carried by' e^e ^e 3\V»e ' ^ JV drift, June 24X *$\ ^'HENRIETTA I. * "^ > I *>^ & Discovered May 24, 1881; e<^'4 / T ^M KOUTE OF LIEUTENANT DK LONG AND THE JEANNETTE. large collections of birds and deep-sea fauna made on the Jeannette. One result of the Jeannette Expedition is the establishment of the fact that the so-called Polynias, which ar- rested the sledge expeditions of Hedenstrom, Wrangel, and Anjou, are not permanent lanes produced by warm currents, but are simple openings such as have been observed in other parts of the frozen ocean. On the 13th of June, 1881, the ship sank. Three days afterward, they started on their march southward over the ice, drawing five sleds packed with provisions, and three boats mounted on runners, a total weight of 15,400 pounds for a working force of twenty-two men. A pound of pemmican and four biscuits, with a little coffee, tea, and sugar, were the tion that the drift of the ice to the northwest had been more rapid than their advance south- ward, and that they had really lost twenty- seven miles. They were in latitude 77° 42', the highest latitude reached. They turned their course toward Bennett Island, which they sighted on July 12th, and on which they made a landing on the 27th. It was a rugged island of trap rock and a lava-like soil. It took a party two days to cross the island. The south- ern extremity, where they landed, was a prom- ontory which they called Cape Emma. The tides were regular, with a rise of two or three feet. Millions of birds had their nests in the cliffs. On the eastern side were grassy valleys. They remained on Bennett Island a week. They discarded their sleds soon after leaving GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY. 333 the island, except the boat-sleds, which were necessary for the portages across the floes. They made sometimes ten miles a day in the boats, working between the floes, except when they had to haul their boats across. They were kept back ten days by the jamming of the ice, drifting on the pack along the north coast of Thaddeus Island. They landed on the south shore of this island, which they found to be composed of mud-hills, which were wearing away rapidly, with mossy tundra in the in- terior. They sailed southward over the shoals between Thaddeus and Kaltenoi Islands. On the latter, which is the largest of the New- Siberian group, and lies northeast of the Lena mouth, they encamped on September 6th, and on Semmoffsky Island on the 10th, where they ate venison after many days of short rations. When they set out on the 12th, and were ranging along the coast, the wind blew up a gale. The first cut- ter, twenty feet four inches in length, and drawing twenty-eight inches, contained Captain De Long, Dr. Ambler, Mr. Collins, the meteorol- ogist, Ninderman, Erickson, Gurtz, Noros, Dressier, Iverson, Kaach, Boyd, Machinist Lee, Ah Sara, and the Indian Alexei. The second cut- ter, sixteen feet three inches long, £ •'•>; was hardly seaworthy. It contained First -Lieutenant Chipp, Ice -Pilot -' ^ D unbar, Carpenter Sweetman, Staar, Warren, Kuehne, Johnsen, and Sharwell. The whale-boat was twenty-five feet four inches long and stanchly built. Lieutenant Dan- enhower being disabled by ophthal- mia, Engineer Melville took com- mand. Besides these two it con- tained Boatswain Cole, Dr. New- comb, the naturalist, Leach, Man- sen, Wilson, Bartlett, Lauterbach, Steward, and the Indian Anequin. In the gale the boats became sepa- rated. Lieutenant Chipp's boat was lost. None of the party has been seen or heard from. The whale - boat reached one of the eastern mouths of the Lena delta on the 17th of September, 1881. The boats were within sixty miles of land when driven apart by the gale. The whale-boat sailed up the branch of the river to the Lena proper. Here three native fishermen were encountered. The Tungus took them out of the way to their village on Cape Bikoffsky. They saw there the chief and a Russian convict. These two were sent to the station of Bulun with dis- patches. The Yakoot natives were not will- ing to guide the party to Bulun, as it was too late for navigation and too early for sledding. While they were waiting, Lieutenant Danen- hower made an ineffectual search on the Lena delta for the missing boat-crews. The mes- senger was absent thirteen days. On his way back he fell in with two men from the cap- tain's party who had been sent in search of assistance. Melville hastened forward to see these men, Ninderman and Noros, and to start out to find the captain and his party. After a short time he joined his party at Yakutsk, where he remained with Ninderman and Bart- lett to make a thorough search in the spring, while Danenhower with the rest of the crew made his way homeward. Melville in his first search came to some of the huts where De Long had staid, and certain of the records were brought to him by natives; but he lost the track and gave up the search, being disabled from the effects of freezing in the whale-boat, and unable to induce the Tungus to carry him farther with their dog-teams ; while it was al- ready too late to succor the captain's party if they had not found other relief. LIEUTENANT JOHN WILSON DANENHOWER, U. 8. N. While the whale-boat was driven by the gale of the night of September 12th far to the east- ward, De Long sailed in a westerly direction along the shore, and made one of the western mouths of the Lena on the 16th. After trying for two days to make a landing in the boat, they left her on the shoals, and waded ashore with the arms, records, and provisions. They had only four days' rations on reduced allow- ance. On the 19th they set out for the south, leaving the log-books, ship's instruments, etc., at the beach. Three of the party were dis- abled by frost-bites, so that it took two days to march twelve miles. Here they found two huts in which they remained until the 24th, waiting for the disabled to recover from their lameness. Two reindeer were shot here. They reached another hut on the 28th, where they waited until the 1st of October for the river to freeze over. They found more game, but when they 334 GEOGEAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY. advanced a few days farther in the tnndra des- ert they had eaten their last meat, and pro- longed their failing vitality on an allowance of three ounces of alcohol per man per day. Erickson, whose feet were frozen, died on the Tth. The captain chose Ninderman and Noros to advance by forced marches to Kumak Surka and seek succor from the natives. They set out on the 9th of October. In a starving con- GEOEGE M. MELVILLE, CHIEF ENGINEEB, XT. 8. dition they were found by a party of Tungus on the 19th in the huts at Bulkur, twenty-five miles north of Kumak Surka. After journey- ing one hundred and twenty miles without food they had only reached the locality where Captain De Long supposed that he was when they started. The natives fed and tended the exhausted sailors, but either did not under- stand them or were unwilling to go with them to the relief of their shipmates. They were taken to Kumak Surka, where they saw the Russian exile who acted as Melville's messen- ger, and then to Bulun. At the time when the Tungus rescued Noros and Ninderman from starvation in the huts of Bulkur, nearly all of their comrades had already breathed their last. De Long kept a journal to the last day of his life. On the 30th of October he and Dr. Ambler, with the Chinaman Ah Sam, were the only sur- vivors, and on that day they also succumbed to their privations. In the spring Melville ex- plored the delta thoroughly for traces of De Long's and Chipp's parties. At the end of March De Long and his eleven companions were found as corpses. They had consumed their boots and their skin-clothing to stay the pangs of hunger. The Eira, Leigh Smith's stanch Arctic cruis- er, in which the year before he had recon- noitred a long stretch of unknown coast in Franz Josef Land, set out in June, 1881, to continue the explorations and incidentally to aid in the search for the Jeannette. As noth- ing was heard from Mr. Smith and his party from the time they disappeared in the north until August, 1882, they were almost given up for lost. The Eira was provisioned for a year, but not equipped for winter. The last seen of her was by a Norwegian walrus-hunter off the southwest coast of Nova Zembla. She was headed off by the ice-pack and was waiting for the ice to open. In the summer of 1882 a whaling-vessel, the Hope, was fitted out and sent in search of her, under the com- mand of Sir Allen Young. After waiting for an opening in the ice several weeks, the Eira reached Franz Josef Land August Tth and steamed along the coast to within fifteen miles of Cape Ludlow, and then returned to Bell Island, having been headed off by the ice. Being unable to pass to the eastward of Barents Hook, they made fast to a land-floe off Cape Flora, where the vessel was nipped in the ice and sunk on August 21, 1881. A por- tion of the provisions were got out before she went down. Walrus and bear meat was obtained often enough to keep the officers and crew from starvation. A hut which they built of turf and stones shel- tered them during the winter. On June 21, 1882, the twenty-five men started for Nova Zembla in four boats. They carried provisions which they had prepared, sufficient for two months. After sailing eighty miles, they were stopped by the ice. In six weeks water was reached again. A gale drove them on their way, and they landed at Matochin Straits with- in twenty-four hours. The "William Barents was spoken the next morning, and from her they learned that the Hope was anchored in a neighboring bay. Sir Allen Young returned with the shipwrecked crew as soon as possible, reaching Aberdeen on the anniversary of the day when the Eira went down. In the cruise of the Eira in 1880 Leigh Smith reached Franz Josef Land at the small island called May Island to the west of Cape Tegethoff and south of Hooker Island. He passed in a southwest- erly course around Barents Cape and discov- ered a new land which he named Northbrook Island, and its extremity Cape Flora. Beyond here he found a haven between Bell and Ma- bel Islands, which was named Eira Harbor. From here he passed around Cape Grant and followed the coast of the mainland as far as a point which was called Cape Neale, where he was stopped by the ice-pack. He could see from here the land for a long distance trend- GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY. 335 ing to the northwest. His intention the fol- lowing season was to carry his explorations beyond the point reached in 1880. The ease with which the crew of the Eira crossed over to Nova Zembla in open boats confirms the be- lief held by many that in many years steamers could find a route in the autumn across the Barents Sea. None of the Arctic voyages of 1882 was successful. The Dutch exploring vessel Will- iam Barents was unable to enter Kara Sea on account of the ice. Sir G. Gore-Booth was not more fortunate in the Kara. Trading-ves- sels bound for the Yenisei were obliged to turn back. Captain Hovgaard, who was bound for Cape Tcheliuskin, in the Dymphna, was ice- bound near Waigat Island. The Varna, while carrying a party of Dutch meteorologists to establish an international station at Dickson's Harbor on the Yenisei, was caught in the pack in the same place. Captain Weyprecht's scheme of establishing permanent meteorological stations for taking simultaneous observations of atmospheric and magnetic phenomena at many different points around the pole has been carried out at last. There are about 200 observers, sent by the leading governments of the world, in 15 prin- cipal and 24 subsidiary stations, who will con- tinue their observations until the end of Au- gust, 1883. Upon their return they will all meet in London to compare their records and exchange views. The 15 main stations are as follow : two Russian, one on the Lena delta and one at Karmankuli Bay, in Nova Zem- bla ; one Dutch, at Dickson Harbor ; two Nor- wegian, one at Sodan Kylar, in Finland, and one at Bossekop, in Lapland ; one Austrian, on Jan Mayen ; one Swedish, at Cape Thordsen, in Spitzbergen ; one Danish, at Godthaab, in Greenland ; one German, at Cumberland Sound ; two American, one in Lady Franklin Bay and one at Point Barrow ; one British and Canadian, on the Great Slave Lake; one French, at Cape Horn ; one German, in South Georgia ; and one Italian, at Villa Colon, near Montevideo. The establishment of the two latter is the commencement of investigations around the south pole. The German international meteorological station at Cumberland Sound was established in August, at Kingawa Fjord, in 66° 37' north latitude, and 67° 15' west longitude. The ob- servers remain one year. They encountered an unusual amount of ice in Davis Straits and made their way through the sound with diffi- culty. The British charts were found to be worthless, nearly all the positions being wrong, the latitudes nearly a degree out of the way. Dr. Wilhelm Giese, of the Berlin Observatory, is the chief, with Dr. Leopold Ambroun as assistant meteorologist ; two physicians conduct naturalistic researches. The Austrian interna- tional expedition to Jan Mayen, recruited from the navy, and commanded by Lieutenant Wohl- gemuth, was unable to approach the island at the end of May ; but, returning in June, they reached Jan Mayen on the north side, and, after being retarded a fortnight by the shore-ice, anchored in Mary Muss Bay, and landed in the middle of July. The observatory was erected in 71° north latitude, and 8° 26' west longitude. Exploring the Beerenberg volcano to the edge of the crater, 5,000 feet above the sea, they perceived subterranean rumblings and saw sul- phurous smoke issuing from crevices in the sides of the mountain. ASIA. — The Russian commission which has been studying the problem of turning the Amu Darya into its old channel and making it flow into the Caspian instead of the Sea of Aral, have given up the task in despair. There is no doubt that the Uzboi was the ancient chan- nel of the Oxus ; but to deflect the river into its old bed would be to turn it into the old lake-basin of Sara Kamysh, which is greater in extent than the Aral Sea, and where the evap- oration is so great that the Oxus could never fill it again. The Russian engineer Lessar as- serts that there exist other lake-basins of the same kind, and that Serakhs and other places, visited by him in 1881-'82, lie considerably below the level of the Caspian Sea. AFRICA. — The French have displayed a fe- verish activity in Africa, as well as in Asia and other fields, for trade and colonization. One of the schemes which they have pursued with the greatest eagerness has been the commercial development of their possessions in Senegambia and the extension of French influence and commerce in the interior. The trans-Sahara Railway, with which it was expected to tap Timbuctoo and the Soodan, has been given up, and the scheme of conducting the Mediterranean waters through an artificial channel into the salt basins of Algeria has been abandoned. The only scheme which rivals the Senegambian project is De Brazza's for tapping the trade of equatorial Africa. In Northwest Africa, as everywhere, the French have rivals in the English, in whose colony at the mouth of the Senegal is the natural outlet for the trade of the interior. France has been strengthening her political position in these regions for sev- eral years. In 1881 Captain Gallieni induced King Ahmadu, of Sego, on the Niger, to place himself under French protection. Kita, a place which lies half-way between the Niger and the Senegal, has been occupied by the French mil- itary. An( expedition set out late in 1882, under Colonel Borgnis-Desbordes, to construct a fort at Bamaku, and launch a fleet of steam- boats on the Niger. Another expedition, of engineers and workmen, departed to build a railway between the Niger and the head of navigation on the Senegal. The emulation of explorers in equatorial Africa has given place to the bitter feelings of national and commercial rivalry since the re- sources of the vast elevated interior have be- come known. The two distinguished explor- ers, Stanley and De Brazza, have both devoted 336 GEOGRAPHICAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERY. their energies to establishing a commercial route from the coast into the productive and healthful interior. Stanley was first in the field. With abundant means furnished by the King of the Belgians, he, at great cost and with great difficulty, constructed a road, fifteen feet wide and solidly laid to withstand the torrents which descend the mountain-sides in the rainy season, from below the cataracts along the north bank of the river to the upper navigable waters above Stanley Pool. The length of this costly artificial route is 230 miles. He com- menced the work in August, 1879, with a force of fifteen Europeans, sixty-eight Zanzibar! s, and a number of Kabindas, besides the natives whom he engaged in the districts through which the road passed. The engineering tools and machinery were brought from Europe in an English steamer and a barge towed by their own steamer, La Belgique, of thirty tons burden. They were provided besides with four steam-launches and five other launches. Stanley gave substantial consideration to the five chiefs of Vivi for the right to build the road through their territories. He leveled the summit of a rocky hill upon which to erect the first station. By December, 1880, the turn- pike and bridges had been built as far as the second station, at Isangila, fifty-two miles from Vivi. Beyond was a mountain around which the road had to be carried by excavations and stone embankments. Beyond the mountain the road leads through a dense forest, in which the tall trees which they fell ed were piled on each side, and the roots dug out with much la- bor. The third station, Manyanga, was reached in May, 1881. The river is navigable between the two stations. Stanley fell ill at this stage of the work. When recovered he pushed for- ward to select a site for the fourth station on Stanley Pool. He had been obliged to pay a dear price for every privilege, and was prepared to offer high ground-rent for the site, but here he encountered unexpected difficulties. De Brazza had preceded him and bespoken the spot which he chose for the fourth station on the north bank of the river. It came almost to a bloody conflict between Stanley and the people at Mfiva, where De Brazza had acquired a cession of land on which to found the future French station of Brazzaville. A friendly chief intervened and offered Stanley another site on the opposite shore, where he erected the sta- tion of Leopold ville. In December, 1881, he launched a steam-yacht and boat on the Congo above the last of the Livingstone Falls. The site for a fifth station was selected at the con- fluence of the Coango with the Congo, about one hundred miles above Leopoldville. The soil is reported by Stanley to be of inexhausti- ble fertility and suited to all kinds of crops. The supply of caoutchouc in the forests is suf- ficient for the world's demand. The principal difficulty in the utilization of the river through- out its navigable length he considers to be the cannibal tribes beyond the farthest point reached, and Nyangin6, with whom he had many collisions in his original exploration of the Congo. Before returning to Europe, Stan- ley made a voyage of discovery in the steam- launch for four hundred miles above Stanley Pool. He steamed up a new river, entering the Congo from the south some distance above Stanley Pool. It led into a fine lake, which was covered with fishing-canoes. French explorers have usually chosen the Ogov6 River as the route of their expeditions in Central Africa. Its delta is only forty miles south from the Gaboon, on which there is a French colony. One of the more energetic and successful of the explorers of the Ogove is Sa- vorgnan de Brazza, an Italian, who holds a commission in the French Navy. In 1880 he discovered that a tributary of the Congo, the Alima, rises close to the upper course of the Ogove. He descended the Alima to the Congo. Between the navigable waters of the Ogove and of the Alima there are passable natural roads, and a railroad could be built over the short stretch at less expense than Stanley's wagon-road around the cataracts of the Congo. He unfolded a remarkable skill in African di- plomacy in his efforts to forestall Stanley and obtain for his country a priority in the com- merce of the Congo. On the upper Ogov6 he established a French station, Franceville. On the Congo he obtained the cession of a strip of territory fronting for nine miles on the Congo at Stanley Pool. A treaty was drawn and signed by the immediate chief of the territory and by all the chiefs of the Batekes and their head chief Makoko, who claims the sovereign- ty of all the region between the Lefini, or Law- son, and the Ncouna Rivers. They agreed to the grant, and accepted French flags in token of the protection of the French Republic, ac- cording to De Brazza's construction of the ar- rangement. The documents were signed on September 10 and October 3, 1880. De Braz- za then descended the Congo to where Stanley was engaged in his toilsome task near the sec- ond station, at Isangila. In a second journey, concluded in the summer of 1882, De Brazza explored the country north and south of Franceville, seeking some more favorable wa- ter-route by which the commerce of the Congo could be diverted. He explored the plateau between the source of the Ogov6 and the coast. He found it to be extremely fertile, and rich in copper and lead. He found also an- other promising water-route, the Niari River, which discharges only sixty miles north of the mouth of the Congo. The chiefs between the Ogov6 and the Congo seem to look favor- ably thus far on the development of a French protectorate. The rough methods of Stanley are the cause of his being more feared than liked in the region of the Congo. Since the re- turn of De Brazza, Dr. Ballay has departed for the upper Ogov6. Mizon, the head of the sta- tion at Franceville, has explored the plateau between the Alima and the Ogov6 several GEORGIA. 337 times, examining all the water-courses with a view to the discovery of navigable ways, and cementing the good understanding with the natives. The French Government felt at first a cautious reluctance to embrace De Brazza's scheme for the establishment of French prima- cy on the Congo, but on the 30th of November, 1882, pursuant to a law of the Chambers, the treaty with Makoko and his vassal chiefs was ratified. The Portuguese, who claim the sov- ereignty over the mouth of the Congo and the interior, raised a protest, although their rights in this region are merely nominal. De Brazza and his coadjutors look to the extension of French dominion from the Gaboon over the valley of the Ogove' and thence to the middle course of the Congo. AMERICA. — The researches of Charnay in Central America prove that the Toltecs and Mayas stood in a high stage of civilization at the period immediately preceding the coming of the Spaniards, but that this civilization was then of very recent development. The ruins of a large city, probably that referred to by Stephens as the "Phantom City," were dis- covered in Guatemala on the TJsumucinta. The city to which Charnay gave the name of Lor- illard City consists of a multitude of palaces, temples, and houses which resemble those of Palenque, which it resembles also in being built upon terraces cut out of natural hills. The hieroglyphics are as elaborate as those of Palenque and Comalcalco, and the bas-reliefs even finer. The houses are of varying and ir- regular construction, as at Palenque. The great temple stands on the summit of a pyramid 120 feet high. The frieze is ornamented with human figures. On the decorative coping once stood a colossal statue. Beside the temple is a large palace, and behind it a great pyramid on which stood six palaces. GEORGIA. Governor, Alexander Hamilton Stephens ; Secretary of State, N. 0. Baruett ; Treasurer, D. N. Speer; Comptroller-General, W. A. Wright; State School Commissioner, G. J. Orr ; Attorney-General, Clifford Anderson ; Commissioner of Agriculture, J. T. Hender- son ; Railroad Commissioners, James M. Smith, Campbell Wallace, L. N. Trammell ; Principal Keeper of the Penitentiary, J. W. Nelms. Uni- ted States Senators, Hon. Joseph E. Brown, Hon. Pope Barrow (till March 4, 1883), Hon. Alfred Holt Colquitt (after March 4th). Mem- bers of Congress, J. 0. Nichols, First District ; H. G. Turner, Second District; Charles F. Crisp, Third District ; Hugh Buchanan, Fourth District; N. J. Hammond, Fifth District; James H. Blount, Sixth District ; J. 0. Clem- ents, Seventh District; Seaborn Reese, Eighth District; Allen D. Candler, Ninth District; Thomas Hardeman, at large. FINANCIAL STATEMENT.— The report of the Treasurer for the fiscal year from October 1, 1881, to September 30, 1882, shows that the total amount received in the Treasury for the above period was $2,403,976.61, and that the VOL. xxii. — 22 A disbursements were $1,713,507.48, leaving a balance in the Treasury, October 1, 1882, of $690,472.15, in which are included $275,000 in bonds of the State of Georgia ($115,000) and in United States registered bonds ($160,000) paid by the purchasers of the Macon and Bruns- wick Railroad, and the suspended balances due from the Citizens' Bank of Atlanta ($83,218.- 51) and from the Bank of Rome ($22,206.42). Deducting this unavailable amount, $380,424.- 74, from the stated balance of $690,472.15, and the actual cash balance on October 1, 1882, is $310,047.41. The public debt of the State is $9,624,135, the annual interest on which amounts to $645,440. Of this debt, $100,000 mature in 1883; $100,000 in 1884; $175,635 in 1885; $4,000,000 in 1886; $2,098,000 in 1890; $307,500 in 1892; $542,000 in 1896; $2,298,000 in 1898 ; and $3,000 in 1932. The greater portion of this sum bears seven per cent interest. In addition to this' bonded debt, the State is liable absolutely and contingently as indorser on bonds of the South Georgia and Florida Railroad amounting to $464,000, and on bonds of the Northeastern Railroad amounting to $260,000. The property owned and possessed by the State consists of the Western and Atlantic Railroad, 138 miles, leased at an annual rental of $300,000, the lease having nine years to run ; Macon and Brunswick Railroad, 195 miles, sold for $1,125,000, of which $625,000 are yet due ; bonds of the Marietta and North Georgia Railroad, $66,233.62 ; 186 shares of the Geor- gia Railroad and Banking Company, $25,000; and 440 shares of the Southern and Atlantic Telegraph, guaranteed by the Western Union Telegraph Company, $10,000. The value of the public buildings owned by the State is not estimated. The estimated receipts at the Treasury for the year ending December 31, 1883, is $1,350,000, and the estimated dis- bursements for the same period $1,361,317.14. No State in the Union is in a sounder financial condition, or has a higher standing in the money markets of the world. In 1877 the public debt was $11,044,000, with an annual interest of $800,000. In 1876 the State had a floating debt of $256,000, all of which has been extinguished. For several years the State has not borrowed a dollar to meet the expenses of her government, but, on the contrary, she has been able to pay off nearly $1,500,000 of her debt, and reduce her annual interest account $150,000. In addition to this, she has covered in the Treasury nearly $250,000 from the col- lection of outstanding debts long due to her. At the close of 1881 the market for Georgia stocks and bonds was brisk at very high fig- ures, from seven to ten points above the pre- vious year. But, mainly owing to the short cotton crop, the year 1882 closed with lower prices. The following quotations of South Georgia, city of Savannah, and some railroad mortgage bonds and stocks, will illustrate the decline : 338 GEORGIA. STOCKS AND BONDS. 1881. 1882. Bid. 111# 111 1-24 88 119 1U7# 107 120 174 122tf 123 121 Asked. 112 HI* 125 88# 120 103# 108 121 175 123 124 123 Bid. 106 105 122 S3# U& 105 104 118 155 97>£ 118 116 Asked. 107 106 123 84# 112>£ 106 105 JB* S1 117 South Georgia 7 per cent bonds maturing 1886 South Georgia 7 per cent bonds, due 1896 City of Savannah 5 per cent bonds Georgia Railroad 6 per cent bonds Montgomery and Eufaula Kailroad 6 per cent indorsed bonds ... Western Kailroad 8 per cent second-mortgage indorsed bonds Georgia Kailroad stocks Central Kailroad stocks ..... Augusta and Savannah stocks . . . Southwestern Kailroad stocks The above prices are not nominal, as buyers are more eager to purchase than holders to sell at these figures. PROPERTY, TAXATION, ETC. — The report of the Comptroller-General presents a very en- couraging exhibit of the material condition of the State. 'The property of Georgia, as re- turned for taxation for the year 1882, shows an increase of $16,255,150; the whole amount of taxable property being returned at $287,- 249,403. The increase for 1881 was $18,977,- 611, making the total growth of wealth for the two years $35,232,761, yielding, at the existing rate of taxation (three mills on the dollar), additional revenue to the amount of $105,698. The following table shows in a consolidated form the aggregate value of the whole property in Georgia returned for taxation for the years 1881 and 1882; showing the increase and de- crease in values of each kind of property, and the total increase for 1882 : DESCRIPTION OF PROPERTY. Value, 1881. Value, 1882. Increase. Decrease. Improved lands .... $90 597,519 $94 462 914 $3 865 395 Wild lands 1,836915 2,373,827 536912 City and town property 65,622,801 60,453,987 4,881,166 256110 80S 496 59386 Bank-shares (value) . 4 518,637 8 939 086 f 579 551 Money and solvent debts 82 043,086 83,608,058 1 564 972 Merchandise 15,662,547 16,091,125 428,578 Capital in shipping 201,199 172,201 28 998 5 287 021 6 252 405 965 884 Cotton-factories 2,482 086 8543881 1 061 795 Iron-works 349 949 569.231 219 282 Capital in mining .... 101,675 127,622 25947 ...... Household furniture 9,983,209 10,157,645 174,436 Watches jewelry plate 1 168 469 1 183 327 19858 Horses, mules hogs etc .... 23 638 294 23 514 937 123 357 Plantation-tools etc 8.474,208 8,577,632 103 429 Cotton, corn, etc., April 1st 930,180 846,313 88867 5 107 859 5 940 789 882 980 Defaulters' property (single) 995 811 1,896 500 400 6^9 Kailroad property 16 741 258 18,729,427 1,988 169 Totals $270,993,888 $287,249,403 $17,071 288 $815 773 Total value of property 1882 $287,249,408 Total value of property' 1881 ... 270,993,888 $16255515 The number of polls returned by colored tax- payers for 1882 is 93,635, owning property, real and personal, of the aggregate value of $6,589,876. The relative wealth, real and per- sonal, of the five most populous counties in the State is shown as follows : COUNTIES. Value, 1882. Value, 1881. Increase. Decrease. Fulton $24 592 287 $22,989,780 $1,652,507 Chatham 20 361 788 17 580,590 2 781 198 Richmond 17989050 16,604,091 1,384,959 Bibb 9554007 9,043,318 510.694 Muscogee 8 705,054 8,108,719 596,335 The amount of fire insurance for the year ending April 30, 1882, was $118,048,367.05, the premiums on which amounted to $1,107,363.34, an average rate of less than one per cent. The losses amounted to $991,329.86. The amount of life insurance for the same period was $6,677,- 454, the premiums on which amounted to $183,- 277.75. The losses were $119,734.52. The report of the Comptroller- General, as to the increase of revenue and its assured perma- nence, induced the General Assembly, at its session in November and December, to reduce the rate of taxation from three to two and a half mills. The decrease in the State tax during the past six years affords gratifying evidence of the growing prosperity of the Commonwealth. In that time the tax was reduced first from six mills GEORGIA. 339 8,000 00 8,000 00 10,000 00 745,440 00 6,700 00 8,000 00 6,000 00 8,700 00 1,500 00 to five, then from five to three, and now from three to two and a half. This is the result of a steady increase in the value of property, and of a steady decrease in the expenditures and in the rate of interest. Ten years ago the State paid ten per cent ; now she can easily float a loan, should she need it, at five per cent. The purposes of the estimated disbursements for the ensuing year are as follows : On account of civil establishment $87,050 00 " contingent fund 10,00000 " printing fund 10,00000 " Academy for the Blind 12,000 00 " Deaf and Dumb Asylum. 15,000 00 Lunatic Asylum 100i°?9 ?? University of Georgia. Atlanta University (colored) .... Department of Agriculture public debt expenses of Penitentiary. State chemist inspectors of fertilizers Railroad Commission trustees of Asylum salary school fund 270,000 00 land-scrip fund 6,314 14 Legislative pay-roll 42,613 00 Total $1,361,817 14 STATE INSTITUTIONS . — The University of Georgia, at Athens, Clarke County, including the State College of Agriculture and the Me- chanic Arts, the Medical College at Augusta, and the branch preparatory colleges at Dahlo- nega, Milledgeville, Cuthbert, and Thomasville, shows a marked improvement as compared with previous years. The total number of students for the collegiate year ending July 19, 1882, was 1,103. In the current collegiate year this number will he largely increased ; that already in attendance at Athens being one third larger than in the past year. The departments of the university are : 1. The Academic Department, known as Franklin College. 2. The State Col- lege Department — the State College of Agricul- ture and the Mechanic Arts. 3. The Law De- partment. 4. The Medical Department. The faculty of Franklin College consists of nine pro- fessors ; that of the State College of Agricul- ture, etc , of eight professors ; that of the Law Department, of six professors and lecturers; and that of the Medical Department, of eleven professors and demonstrators, with eleven clin- ical assistants. The university degrees are: 1. Master of Arts. 2. Civil Engineer. 3. Bach- elor of law. 4. Doctor of Medicine. The Frank- lin College confers the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, and Bachelor of Phi- losophy ; and the State College of Agriculture, etc., confers the degrees of Bachelor of Agri- culture, Bachelor of Chemical Science, and Bachelor of Engineering. The standard of scholarship for each degree is as high as that of any other university in the Union. By the action of the Board of Trustees two years ago, tuition was made free in Franklin College and in the State College of Agriculture. The chem- ical, physical, engineering, and agricultural ap- paratus is complete and of the newest make. The income of the university for the past year was $49,213.30, and the expenditures were $40,- 510.67. At the last commencement, July, 1882, Senator Joseph E. Brown, one of the trustees, proposed to donate to the university $50,000, on condition that the State receive the sum in cash into the Treasury to be used in payment of the public debt, or in such other manner as may be for the best interests of the State, and will issue her bond or bonds to the university bearing seven per cent interest, payable semi- annually, the bonds to run for fifty years. The object of the donation was to establish a fund in the hands of the university, the interest of which ($3,500) was to be loaned to young men of good character in Georgia, who desire to obtain a liberal education, but who lack, wholly or in part, the means necessary to pay for their board and clothing while engaged in the pur- suit of their studies at the university. It was further conditioned that no young man should avail himself of the benefit of the fund until he was eighteen years of age ; that each sign a pledge of honor, when he enters college, to re- fund the sum received as soon as he can do so after he completes his course of study ; that he shall pledge himself that when twenty-one years of age he will give the university his legal obligation for the payment of the sum with four per cent per annum interest; and that not more than $200 per annum shall be loaned to any student, to be advanced to him monthly during the scholastic year. It was also provided that, in case of a large number of ap- plicants, the trustees should select the beneficia- ries by competitive examination or otherwise ; that the sums repaid by each student be added annually to the principal, and only the interest loaned in future, so as to increase the number of beneficiaries, and also to increase the prin- cipal sum, which in progress of time would grow to a large amount ; that if in any year there should not be a sufficient number of ap- plicants of good moral character and promise to consume the amount of interest accruing during the year, the unused interest should be added to the principal ; and that young men studying for the ministry should only be re- quired to refund half the amount borrowed. The fund was to be called the " Charles Mc- Donald Brown Scholarship Fund," in memory of Senator Brown's son, Charles McDonald Brown, a noble Christian youth of fine intel- lect and high honor and integrity, who had been a student in the university, and died in the year 1881. The trustees gratefully ac- cepted the donation on the proposed condi- tions, but the General Assembly refused to comply with the terms specified, on the ground that the State Constitution forbids any increase of the public debt of the State, except to repel invasion and to defend the State in time of war, and that the issue of the bonds would be a direct violation of the Constitution. Some of the ablest lawyers in the State hold a con- trary opinion, but the legislative action deprives the poor and meritorious young men who de- sire to obtain a liberal education, but can not 340 GEORGIA. do so from want of the necessary means, of a munificent provision for their benefit, unless Senator Brown thinks proper hereafter to modify the terms of his gift. It is proposed, if the Legislature will vote the necessary means, to provide the technologi- cal department of the university which now gives instruction in the four practical arts of physics, chemistry, agriculture, and engineer- ing, with a well-equipped workshop in which the object and use of tools in every kind of manufacture may be taught. Such an indus- trial school as is proposed, in connection with the educational advantages of the university, would be of great value to the number of young men whose necessities demand that their education shall be practical. THE LUNATIC ASYLUM. — The reports of the trustees and superintendent of this institu- tion represent considerable improvement in its management and administration, especially in the attention given to the mental and moral treatment of the patients. The number of these in the asylum on October 1, 1882 (the date of the latest report), is 979, against 906 the year before. Of these, 729 are white and 250 colored. The total number under treat- ment during the year has beeu 1,163. The trustees ask an appropriation for 1883 of $160,- 000 to cover all expenses, calculating the main- tenance of each patient per day at 35 cents, and including the repairs and improvements of the buildings. Several new buildings have been commenced during the year to provide adequate accommodation for the rapidly in- creasing number of lunatics and idiots, white and colored, among which is one new building of 500 rooms for the colored patients, which will be completed early in the spring of 1883. The cost of these additions, furniture, etc., will be $89,254.82, making a total appropria- tion for 1883 of $249,254.82. THE DEAF AND DUMB ASYLUM. — The twenty- second report of the Trustees of the Institu- tion for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb makes a satisfactory exhibit of its manage- ment. During fifteen months, to October, 1881, there were 64 pupils, all white, of whom 37 were males and 27 females. In the follow- ing year to October, 1882, there were 60 white pupils — males 35, females 25, and 20 colored pupils — males 12, females 8. The amount ex- pended for the year 1881 was $17,376.33, and for 1882, $14,773.68. An appropriation of $5,000 was made by the Legislature in 1881 for the erection of a school-building, but the trustees did not use it, because of its insuffi- ciency to provide such a building as is needed. They have, therefore, asked an additional ap- propriation of $15,000, and further sums of $3,000 for a laundry, and $1,500 for repairs and water-works. The estimated annual ex- penses of the institution are $20,000. THE ACADEMY FOB THE BLIND. — This insti- tution, established at Macon for the education of the young blind of the State, so as to enable them to sustain themselves in after-years by tbeir own industry, has had 66 pupils in at- tendance during the past year, being a few more than the highest number in any former year. The total expenses of the academy for the year have been $10,945.81, making the per capita expense of the pupils $165.84. The cost per capita at the Perkins Institution for the Blind at Boston, Mass., is reported to be $422.25. The academy is situated in a healthy locality, is spacious, well ventilated and drained, and well furnished with all the special appliances that are needed for the safety, comfort, and education of the pupils. The education is literary, musical, and indus- trial, and the results are exceedingly gratify- ing. A separate department, for the instruc- tion and care of blind colored boys and girls, has been recently organized and opened under authority of the Legislature, at an annual ex- pense of $4,000. A good, substantial brick building has been erected for this purpose on grounds three and a half acres in extent. The management, modes of instruction, discipline, and all other regulations, are the same as those followed in the department for the white pu- pils. The annual appropriation for the white department is $12,000 ; for the colored, $4,000, in addition to which, for finishing the building for the colored, improvements, repairs, etc., an appropriation of $9,000 is asked. The principal of both institutions is Professor W. D. Williams, who has been the manager of the academy for upward of a quarter of a century. THE PENITENTIARY. — The policy, wisdom, and humanity of the treatment of convicted criminals, under the existing punitive system, established by law in 1866, have been widely questioned. Instead of being confined in pris- ons at an immense cost to the State, the con- victs are now " farmed out " on the best and most advantageous terms that the Governor can make. This mode of dealing with them was inaugurated (May 11, 1868) by General Ruger, at that time Military Governor of Georgia. It was continued by Governor Ru- fus B. Bullock ; and the present lease, which will not expire until 1899, was executed by Governor James M. Smith, under the authority and by direction of an act of the Legislature. Under the provisions of that act, the convicts in control of the several lessees are kept and disciplined according to strict and humane rules provided by law. For instance : no one is allowed to whip or punish a convict unless authorized to do so by special appointment approved by the Governor. A violation of this rule subjects the offender to imprisonment in the Penitentiary for not less than six months and not exceeding two years. At the expira- tion of a convict's term of service, his lessee is compelled to provide him with transportation to his home and a suit of clothes worth not less than six dollars. It is made the duty of the grand juries of the counties in which the convict-camps are situated, to visit and inspect GEORGIA. 341 them, see that the prisoners are properly fed, clothed, and housed, and that they are not inhumanly worked or otherwise ill-treated. Adequate provision is made for the medical treatment of the sick, and it is the duty of the assistant keeper of the Penitentiary to visit each camp every month and make a detailed report, under oath, as to its condition. The average number of convicts thus leased is twelve hundred, eight tenths of whom are ne- groes. The death-rate is rather under 1 per cent ; of reconvicted criminals the rate is about 4 per cent. In two years only twenty-six have escaped. Their diet for the daily ration con- sists of | pound of bacon, two pounds of bread, one pint of sirup, with vegetables in their sea- son, and peas, turnips, and potatoes in winter, and beef and mutton when procurable instead of bacon. Their clothing consists of four suits of clothes — two summer and two winter — two pairs of shoes, and a hat or cap. They are compelled to bathe and change their under- clothing once a week. The bedding is a cotton mattress, with sufficient blankets. The build- ings in which they are sheltered are as good as the ordinary cabins on plantations. On October 20, 1882, the number of convicts was 1,243; of these, 112 are white males, 1 white female, 1,100 colored males, and 30 colored fe- males. The oldest convict is seventy-eight and the youngest twelve years. The annual income derived by the State from the lease of the con- victs is $25,000. Out of this sum are paid the salaries of the principal and assistant keepers of the Penitentiary, and of the physician, and the traveling expenses for the monthly inspec- tion of the camps. The principal keeper rec- ommends the expenditure of the entire rental for the religious and moral instruction of the convicts. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ETC. — This branch of the State government consists of a Commissioner, assistant, three clerks, a chem- ist, two Inspectors of Fertilizers at Augusta, one at Atlanta, one at Columbus, one at Macon, and one at Brunswick, and one Superintend- ent of Fisheries. Since its organization, and the establishment of the State College of Agri- culture, farming has received a surprising im- petus. The light of science and experiment has been shed upon the vital subject of soil- production, and the result has been an advance which the farmers of twenty-five years ago would have deemed impossible. In the in- creased use and demand for improved farm implements ; in the more systematic and eco- nomical management of the farms ; in the more thorough preparation of the soil, and in the cultivation and harvesting of crops; and in the largely increased acreable production, this advance within the past few years is as great as it is encouraging. The present sys- tem of inspection and analysis of commercial fertilizers has been of incalculable benefit in the protection it gives the farmer against the purchase of fraudulent and worthless com- pounds. During the season of 1880-'81 there were inspected 152,404 tons of fertilizers; and during the season of 1881-'82, 125,427 tons, a decrease of 26,977 tons, mainly attribu- table to the more intelligent and economical use of cotton-seed, and of the other manurial resources of the farm, and also to a closer study and practice of the art of agriculture, so long beneficially practiced in other countries. During the year 1880-'81, the net receipts in the State Treasury from the fees for the inspec- tion of fertilizers, after deducting all the ex- penses, were $64,060.23; and for the year 1881-'82, $50,251.32. The average of ammo- niated fertilizers for 1881-' 82 was: Available phosphoric acid, 10-20 ; ammonia, 2-48 ; pot- ash, 1*58 ; and the average of non-ammoniated fertilizers was: Available phosphoric acid, 12-48; and potash, T05. Previous to 1877, when the present system was established, the fees arising from the inspection were the per- quisites of the inspectors ; now the inspectors are paid a fixed salary of $1,200. One of the most noteworthy facts in the recent improve- ments in economical agriculture is the develop- ment of the value of cotton- seed. Its chief value as a fertilizer is the large percentage of the nitrogen it contains. This is all retained by the system of composting with stable-manure and acid phosphate ; the latter, from the large percentage it contains of sulphate of lime, pre- venting the escape of the ammonia evolved in decomposition. It is estimated that the cot- ton-crop of Georgia, raised on 2,617,138 acres, amounts to 814,441 bales, yielding, at 900 pounds per bale, 366,498 tons of cotton-seed. Deducting from this amount 78,464 for plant- ing, 288,034 tons remain for use as manure or for stock-food. These, at $10 per ton, are worth $2,880,340. The oil which could be ex- tracted from this number of tons of seed would sell for $3,528,416 ; the lint which remains on the seed is worth $443,572; the oil-cake, or meal, is worth $2,016,240, and the ash of the hulls, $60,480, making a total value of the whole surplus crop of seed produced in the State, after reserving a liberal quantity for planting, $6,048,888, showing the increase in value of the manipulated as compared with the green seed to be $3,168,548. Farmers who sell their seed to the oil-mills at $10 per ton are thus losing annually over $3,000,000. An effort is being made to induce the Legislature to appropriate sufficient money to equip and operate one or more experimental stations in the State, to conduct experiments in fertiliza- tion, culture, stock-breeding, stock - feeding, improvement of seeds, tests of machinery, and particularly to carry on purely scientific in- vestigations bearing upon practical agricul- ture. The State Agricultural Society has a large membership which represents the county societies. It meets in February and August every year, and exercises a great influence in the promotion of agricultural reforms and in the diffusion of valuable information. 342 GEORGIA. The general condition of the farmers through- out the State is said to be prosperous. The abandonment of the " all-cotton" policy, and greater attention to grain-crops and home sup- plies, make them hear more complacently the low price of cotton. The Commissioner of Agriculture estimates the corn-crop of the State at 36,963,940 bush- els, the wheat-crop at 3,284,960, and the oat- crop at 11,643,482. The estimated indebtedness of farmers in the whole State is 76 per cent of that of last year. According to this estimate the farmers of the State have reduced their indebtedness since last year 24 per cent. A majority of the correspondents in every section report an advance in farm-lands since December, 1881, as follows : In North Georgia, 13 per cent; in Middle Georgia, 11 -5 per cent ; in Southwest Georgia, 20 per cent; in East Georgia, 15 per cent ; and in Southeast Geor- gia, 40 per cent. The average advance in the whole State is 14 per cent. THE EAILROAD COMMISSION AND THE RAIL- KOADS. — When the Constitution of 1877 con- ferred the power on the General Assembly "to regulate railroad freight and passenger tariffs, preventing unjust discriminations and requir- ing reasonable and just rates," etc., and when subsequently, in the exercise of this authority, the General Assembly created a Board of Rail- road Commissioners, compelling the various railroad companies in Georgia, under heavy penalties, to accept and obay its orders as to charges for freight and passengers, it was thought that the opposition to the commission would be violent and uncompromising, espe- cially on the part of those roads with whose chartered or u vested " rights the commission might seem to interfere. Public opinion has so decidedly approved the legislation as a pro- tection against monopolies, and experience has so fully demonstrated its utility as well as its impartiality, that the railroad companies have generally acquiesced and conformed to its regu- lations, while protesting feebly in order, as they allege, not to surrender their chartered privi- leges. The Georgia Railroad, from Atlanta to Augusta, 171 miles, nominally leased in May, 1881, to the late William M. Wadley, President of the Central Railroad, from Savannah ma Macon to Atlanta, but really, as is universally understood and believed, to the Central Rail- road Company, has taken exception to some freight regulations of the commissioners issued in February, 1882, and applied to the Superior Court of Fulton County for an injunction re- straining the commissioners from prescribing rates of freight over the Georgia Railroad, al- leging that the act creating the commission is unconstitutional, and that consequently all its acts are null and void, and praying the court to so declare. The Superior Court having re- fused the injunction, though suspending the enforcement of the commission's order until the case shall be finally adjudicated, appeal has been taken to the Supreme Court of the State, where it is now pending. It will be heard in the spring of 1883, and deep interest is felt in the decision. The commission's cir- cular, No. 20, to which the Georgia Railroad so strenuously objected, and which caused the present controversy, is thus fully and clearly explained and justified by the commissioners in their answer to the complainant's bill : A Cincinnati or Louisville miller can ship a barrel of 200 pounds of flour from his place to Charleston. S. C., directly through Atlanta— a distance of 783 miles — for 30 cents per barrel. If an Atlanta miller shipped 300 pounds of wheat from Cincinnati or Louisville he paid therefor 93 cents freight to Atlanta— a distance of 474 miles. After grinding it into flour he then paid 60 cents per 100 pounds or $1.20 per ban-el of 200 pounds of flour freight from Atlanta to Charleston— a distance of 309 miles— making $2.13 per barrel freight that the Georgia miller really paid on a barrel of flour ground in this State as against 30 cents that the Cin- cinnati and Louisville miller paid freight on a barrel of flour ground there and transported over identically the same roads and the same distance, being a dis- crimination of $1.83 per barrel against the Georgia miller in favor of the Western miller, and against the farmer of our State in favor of the Western fanner. . . . Out of a rate from Cincinnati or Louisville to Charleston, S. C., the Georgia Eailroad for hauling 1V1 miles voluntarily accepted six and one fifth cents as tolls on a barrel of flour ; but the proportion of the rate on a barrel of flour shipped by a Georgia miller from Atlanta to Charleston, which that road trans- ported 171 miles, was about thirty-two cents. That is, over five times as great a rate was collected by the Georgia Eailroad on a Georgia miller's barrel of flour shipped to Charleston, S. C., as was voluntarily ac- cepted by that road on a barrel of flour shipped by a Cincinnati or Louisville miller the same distance over its road. And in addition the Georgia miller was re- quired to ship as much as a car-load of flour to get the benefit of even this rate, while the Cincinnati miller was permitted to ship any quantity, from one barrel up, at the greatly discriminating rates mentioned, granted him by the railroads. The question involved is of deep interest, not only to citizens of Georgia, but to the people of every State. The aggregate value of the taxable property of .railroads in Georgia, as returned by their authorized agents for the year 1882, is $18,- 729,429. Their business during the year, not- withstanding the reduction of their rates of freight and passenger fares by the Railroad Commission, and the increased and increasing competition, has been satisfactory. The roads generally are in good order; steel rails are being rapidly substituted for iron ; their equip- ment has . been much improved, and faster schedules as to running time between termini are being adopted ; 325 miles of new railroad have been constructed during the year, and a number of new roads, of both broad and narrow gauge, are projected, but it is by no means certain that they will be completed within a short time. An important decision as to the rights of railroad corporations was pronounced by the Supreme Court of Georgia in December, in the case of Chambers vs. the Cincinnati and Geor- gia Railroad Company. The road had been run through the land of Mr. Chambers, without GEORGIA. 343 any previous agreement as to the price to be paid for the right of way. When Mr. Cham- bers specified the compensation, the company considered it exorbitant, and Chambers re- fused to accept that oflered by the company. The matter was left to a board of appraisers, who fixed a sum which was unsatisfactory to Chambers, and he appealed from their award to the Superior Court of Floyd County, ask- ing for an injunction restraining the company from using the route through his land. The court having refused the injunction, he appealed to the Supreme Court, which reversed the decision of the court below, on the ground that the company having been organized under the Constitution of the State, which provides that k' private property shall not be taken or damaged for public purposes without adequate compensation being first paid," the company had no right to take the property of a citizen for its own use and convenience until it had paid just and adequate compensation. PUBLIC SCHOOLS.— The year 1882 shows a steady growth in the attendance of pupils at the public schools. The aggregate of school population which has been made the basis of apportionment in 1882 was 507,861. The commissioner's estimate is that the enroll- ment and average attendance will not be less, respectively, than 255,000 and 153,000; and taking these figures, and making the same cal- culations as in 1881, he gives the figures, 87 cents, $1.73, and $2.88, as the approximate appropriation per capita, on school population, enrollment, and average attendance, respec- tively. Thus: in the year 1881 the entire sum furnished for the support of schools was $363,677.32. Divide this sum by 433,444, the number of children of school age, and the re- sult will be 84 cents as the per capita appro- priation. If the same sum be divided by 244,- 197, the number of children that entered the schools during the year, $1.49 is the appro- priation on enrollment ; and if the same sum be divided by 149,908, the average attendance, $2.43 is the appropriation on average attend- ance. In 1882 the State fund, estimating the poll-tax which is paid in the several counties to the county commissioners as the same as in the previous year, amounts to $441,114.88. And if the sum raised under local laws in counties and cities prove to be the same, that is, $134,855.96, the whole sum raised in the State for the support of the public schools will amount to $575,970.84, or $77,000 increase as compared with the previous year. This, on the principle of calculation stated above, would give per capita on school population, $1.13 ; on enrollment, $2.25, and on average attend- ance, $3.76. The sources of the school fund paid out of the Treasury are as follow : One half rental Western and Atlantic Kailroad. . $150,000 00 Dividend on Georgia Kailroad stock 1,116 00 Net hire of convicts 19,192 20 Fees of inspectors of fertilizers 56,198 Tax on shows 5 J94 ?6 Tax on liquor-dealers 44.767 71 Total. . . $277,069 36 Brought forward $217,069 86 Less warrants for expenses 4,494 45 Total... $272,574 91 Net proceeds of poll-tax 168,539 97 Grand total $441,114 88 The school law requires that in every county arrangement shall be made for keeping the schools in operation at least three months of the year. This is an essential condition to a right to draw the pro rata of the school fund of the State. This was done in every county by the parents of the school-children agreeing to supplement the sum paid by the State, and thus the entire people enjoyed the benefits of the common schools, and every child of suit- able age had the advantage of entering and remaining for the term. The School Commis- sioner strongly recommends that the fund be increased so as to enable the schools to be kept open during six months ; that means be furnished to conduct teachers' institutes, and establish at least one normal school. In an enumerated school population — that is, chil- dren between the ages of six and eighteen — of 236,319 white and 197,125 colored, making in all 433,444, the number of illiterates between ten and eighteen years is, whites 22,323, colored 63,307 ; and over eighteen, the number unable to read is, whites 20,839, colored 148,494. Be- sides the public schools there are 1,080 private elementary schools scattered over the State, with 1,183 instructors, teaching whites 26,822, colored 6,671— total, 33,493 children. Of male and female colleges, including Mercer Univer- sity (Baptist), and Pio Nono College (Roman Catholic) at Macon, and Emory College (Meth- odist) at Oxford, and not counting the Univer- sity of Georgia and its branches, there are eleven institutions of high grades, where up- ward of 2,000 young men and women are instructed by competent teachers. The Lucy Cobb Institute at Athens, the Wesleyan Fe- male College at Macon, and the La Grange Female College at La Grange, are the most prominent institutions for the higher educa- tion of young ladies. The people of Georgia feel deeply grateful to Mr. George I. Seney, of New York, for his munificent donations to Emory College, the Wesleyan Female College, and the Lucy Cobb Institute. The Atlanta University, where colored students exclusively are educated, and for the support of which the State appropriates annually $8,000 — a sum equal to that paid to the University of Georgia in payment of her debt to that institu- tion— is well conducted, and is doing success- ful work. At the last General Conference of the Meth- odist Episcopal Church, South, held in Nash- ville, Tenn., May, 1882, plans were laid to build, furnish, and provide teachers for a school or college for the education of colored children, teachers, and preachers, the college to be the property of the " Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in America." The plan was formed in response to the appeal of Rev. L. H. Hoi- 344 GEORGIA. sey, colored bishop, for help to start an insti- tution for the preparation of colored teachers and preachers. The work is being actively pushed. The college will be situated at Au- gusta, Ga. Dr. James E. Evans, one of the oldest and most esteemed ministers of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, has been appointed commissioner, to raise the requisite funds; and Dr. Morgan Callaway, Vice- Presi- dent of Emory College, has accepted the presi- dency of the "Paine Institute," as the new college will be called, in honor of Bishop Paine, who, in 1870, organized the " Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in America." Part of the trustees of the institute are white, appointed by the bishops of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and part colored, ap- pointed by the colored bishop. This is a re- markable movement, proving that the relations between the whites and blacks are not as un- friendly as many suppose. MANUFACTURES, ETC. — The " New South " has made wonderful progress in manufactures during the past few years, and Georgia is in the lead in this respect. Cotton goods are necessa- rily the chief manufacture; but iron-foundries, oil-mills, shoe-factories, etc., etc., have sprung up in various parts of the State, and they are all prosperous. The Atlanta Cotton Exposition of 1881 has given a great impetus to manufac- turing industry. The principal cotton-factories are situated at Augusta and Columbus, the former using the water-power supplied by the canal, and the latter the water of the Chatta- hoochee River. The factories now in opera- tion at Augusta are: The Augusta Factory, capital $1,000,000 ; consumes annually 13,084 bales of cotton ; number of looms, 779 ; num- ber of spindles, 26,000; producing 15,500,000 yards of goods. The Enterprise Factory, capi- tal $650,000, consumes 12,000 bales ; number of looms, 900 ; number of spindles, 30,000 ; producing 13,000,000 yards. The Sibley Mills, capital $1,000,000, consuming 13,000 bales; number of looms, 800 ; number of spindles, 30,000 ; producing 1 2,000,000 yards. The Sum- merville Mills, capital $100,000, consuming 1,500 bales; number of looms, 150 ; number of spindles, 4,000; producing 2,250,000 yards. The Globe (private enterprise), consuming 2,000 bales; number of spindles, 5,800, producing warps and yarns. Riverside Waste-Works (private), consuming 2,000 bales; number of spindles, 2,400, producing warps and yarns. Sterling Mills (private), consuming 1,000 bales ; number of spindles, 2,800, producing warps and yarns ; and Goodrich (private), consuming 600 bales ; number of spindles, 2,000, producing warps and yarns. The John P. King Mills, in process of construction, and nearly complete, have a capital of $1,000,000, and will run 750 looms and 25,000 spindles. Total number of looms, 3,379 ; of spindles, 128,000 ; of bales of cotton consumed during the year, 57,100. As evidence of the prosperity of these facto- ries it is only necessary to see the profits which they have divided annually for several years. The Augusta Factory, the oldest and best known, has paid in cash dividends from 1865 to 1882, $1,467,000, or about two and a half times its capital. Besides this, it has a surplus of between $340,000 and $350,000, or over 50 per cent of its capital. Its stock is worth $170 per share. The Augusta Crescent and Excelsior Flour Mills manufactured during the year 140,000 barrels of flour, valued at $1,050,000, and 750,000 bushels of meal, valued at $637,500. Another large and growing industry at Augusta is the Georgia Chemical Works, with a capital of $200,000, for the manufacture of fertilizers. They made and sold during the year 15,000 tons, half of which amount was ammoniated and half acid phosphate. Kone but the high- est grades are made by this factory. A factory has been built and is in operation at Kirkwood, near Atlanta, where sulphuric acid is made out of the iron pyrites, thousands of tons of which are scattered over the rocky hills, and at a much less cost than it could be produced from the imported sulphur. In immediate prox- imity to these works are two fertilizer-facto- ries, a cotton-seed-oil mill, and works for the reduction of copper. The principal factories at Columbus are: The Eagle and Phoenix Mills, capital $1,250,- 000, running 45,710 spindles and 1,600 looms, making 100 varieties of goods ; the Colum- bus Manufacturing Company, capital $263,000, running 4,156 spindles and 136 looms, making sheetings and domestics; Muscogee Manufac- turing Company, capital $157,000, running 5,000 spindles and 240 looms, making cotton- ades and domestics ; the Steam Cotton Mills, capital $30,000, running 3,000 spindles, making yarn and thread ; the Excelsior Mills, capital $25,000, running 96 looms, making checks and plaids; and A. Clegg & Co., capital $10,000, running 48 looms, making checks and stripes. Besides the above, there are at Columbus a jute- factory, turning out 2,000 yards of bagging daily ; iron-works, plow-factory, two large flour-mills, a trunk-factory, a clothing-factory, a paper-box factory and a gas-light company, with an aggregate capital of $2,043,500. There is a cotton-factory at Atlanta, three at Athens, and other small mills in other parts of the State. From the large dividends paid to their stockholders by those that are well managed, and the large sums added annually to the sur- plus fund, after liberal expenditures for new buildings, machinery, repairs, etc., these in- dustries have proved unusually profitable dur- ing the year. A number of cotton-seed-oil mills have been started, or are being built. Broom-factories, works for the manufacture of wooden -ware, ice-factories, carriage and wagon factories, and a number of other indus- tries— some pretentious from large capital, others quite modest — have sprung into exist- ence, making Georgia's claim to be a manu- facturing State incontestable. GEORGIA. 345 A good deal is said and written as to the im- mensely profitable yields of the gold-mines in the northern part of the State. How far these statements are exaggerated, and how far true, can not be ascertained in the absence of dis- interested information. The State is said to contain 3,500,000 acres of gold-bearing land, interspersed with land containing 165 different minerals, among the most valuable and useful of which are gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc, iron, coal, mica, asbestos, graphite, marble, limestone, granite, corundum, soapstone, kao- lin, clay, marl, gypsum, as well as every spe- cies of precious stone, from the diamond to the agate. The iron industries in Northwestern Georgia have been very prosperous, and their produc- tion much increased. The close proximity to the iron-mines of inexhaustible beds of good coal makes the iron industry as profitable as it is. A large number of the Penitentiary con- victs are leased to the stockholders, and worked by the mining companies. The report of the Comptroller-General estimates the value of the iron-works in the State in 1882 at $569,231, an increase of $219,282, as compared with their value — $349,949 — in 18S1. His estimate of the amount of capital invested in mining in 1882 is $127,622, as compared with $101,675 in 1881. The lumber interest has grown immensely during the past year. The exports coastwise from the port of Savannah alone up to August 31st were 57,368,627 feet, and the foreign ex- ports 14,675,279, making a total of 72,043,906 feet. The production of turpentine and naval stores from the immense pine-forests of the southern portion of the State has also increased largely, and is a most profitable industry. The exports from Savannah for the year ending August 31st were : Turpentine, 1,635,250 gal- lons, worth $736,593 ; rosin, 168,408 barrels, worth $408,418. STATE ELECTIONS. — Elections were held this year throughout the State for Governor, members of the General Assembly, and other State officers, and for members of Congress, including the additional member to which the State is entitled under the late apportionment act of Congress, and who was to be elected by the " State at large," as the General Assembly had not yet defined the limits of the Tenth Dis- trict. Unusual popular interest was felt in these elections in consequence of the declared coali- tion of the Republicans and " Independents," with a view to defeat the organized Democratic party, and thus not only obtain control of the State government, but break the "solid South," by electing anti-Democratic representatives in the Lower House of Congress, and possibly a United States Senator. The Republicans were not quite harmonious. In their convention, which met in Atlanta, August 2d, one hundred and eighty delegates obeyed the call of W. A. Pledger, colored, the " Chairman of the State Central Committee " (since appointed collecter of customs at At- lanta), and one hundred delegates went into an- other and antagonistic convention, headed by the white Republicans, or the so-called " Geor- gia Syndicate," led by General James Long- street, United States Marshal, and H. P. Far- row, former District Attorney. Both conven- tions made nominations, but they subsequently agreed to support the opposition to the Demo- cratic candidate, although the differences be- tween the leaders were not adjusted. At one time the contending factions came to blows, and Pledger was arrested and obliged to give bonds for his appearance on a charge of assault and battery. The Democratic Convention, which met in Atlanta, July 19th, for the purpose of nominat- ing candidates for the offices of Governor, Con- gressman-at-large, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Comptroller - General, and Attorney - General, having decided by a vote of 194| to 164£ that a " majority only of the entire vote of this conven- tion (instead of two thirds) shall be necessary to nominate," nominated as follows : For Gov- ernor, Hon. A. H. Stephens, of Taliaferro Coun- ty; for Congressman-at -large, Thomas Harde- man, of Bibb County ; Secretary of State, N. C. Barnett, of Baldwin County ; Treasurer, D. N". Speer, of Troup County ; Comptroller-Gen- eral, "W. A. "Wright, of Richmond County ; At- torney-General, Clifford Anderson, of Bibb County. A. O. Bacon, the most prominent as- pirant for the nomination for Governor, having withdrawn before a ballot, the nomination of Mr. Stephens was practically unanimous, receiv- ing 325 out of 364 votes. The other State offi- cers were nominated by acclamation. For Congressmau-at-large, the names of Thomas Hardeman, George Barnes, Henry H. Carlton, and W. H. Dabney were presented. Mr. Har- deman having received 208 votes, his nomina- tion was then made unanimous. The Independent candidate for Governor, indorsed by the two factions of the Republi- cans, by the Greenbackers, and by those op- posed to the organized Democracy, as well as those who personally disliked Mr. Stephens, was Lucius J. Gartrell, a prominent lawyer of Atlanta, and prior to the war a member of the Federal Congress. After an energetic canvass, during which both candidates made several speeches, at the election in October the people elected Alexander H. Stephens by a majority of 62,357 out of a total vote of 152,949, elect- ing at the same time all the regular Democrat- ic nominees for subordinate State officers, and members of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives of the General Assembly. The Legislature met on the 1st of November. Hon. James S. Boynton was re-elected President of the Senate, and the Hon. Louis F. Garrard was chosen Speaker of the House of Representa- tives. The outgoing Governor, Alfred H. Col- quitt, in his last message to the Legislature, makes the following cheering statements as 346 GEOEGIA. to the material and moral condition of the State : In transmitting this my final message to the Legis- lative branch of the State government, in compliance with the requirement of law and custom, I perform the duty with the deepest of gratitude to the Giver of all good, and with elated feelings in view of the state of our beloved Commonwealth. We have never had better reason for congratulation at our present condi- tion or for hopefulness of the future of the State than we claim at this time. In our recent history our re- trospect lias often been of ^the saddest, while the pros- pect had but scanty promise. The strain to which our powers of endurance and recuperation were subjected was such as to dispirit the most hopeful and resolute, and our deliverance from the ordeal that threatened to overwhelm and de- stroy us seems to have been achieved by a wisdom above that of man. Without arrogance or vainglory let us rejoice that under the signal blessing of Providence we are press- ing on to take our place abreast of the most advanced states in Christendom, and with an intense love of the arts of peace and a generous emulation of older and more favored commonwealths, we are establishing and diffusing among our citizens the most potent and bene- ficial agencies and methods for the development of the highest civilization. We may justly claim for our State that in every de- partment of our industry our people are prospering and advancing. In pur agriculture — in our mining operations — in the introduction and multiplication of' mechanical establishments— in the wonderful ex- tension of our lumber interests — in the marked im- provement in the healthfulness of our State, we find the most substantial grounds for self-gratulation. And superadded to this cheering summary of mate- rial advantage and promise, we may felicitate ourselves upon the general peacefulness and good order which have prevailed throughout the State. With a very few, but unhappily marked, exceptions, the public tranquillity has been undisturbed by outbreaks of vio- lence, and there seems to be a pervading spirit of con- ciliation which has successfully resisted all unfriendly influences. Mr. Stephens was inaugurated Governor of Georgia on November 3, 1882. The following is his inaugural address : GENTLEMEN OF THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY, SENATORS AND EEPRESENTATIVES : Having received your official notification of my election to the chief magistracy of the State, I now appear before you, according to a joint resolution of your respective bodies, to take the offi- cial oath prescribed by the Constitution. Before taking this oath and assuming the discharge of the duties of the office thus conferred, in conformity with immemorial custom, it is doubtless expected that I shall present some remarks indicative of the general line of policy which will mark my administration. These views, concisely stated, I shall address not only to you, gentlemen of the General Assembly, but to the large and respected auditory of citizens, compris- ing ladies and gentlemen, who grace and honor these inaugural ceremonies. Indulge me, then, fellow-citizens, in saying that, being called to this high office by the voice of the people^ I shall enter upon its duties with no feelings of elation, but rather of deep depression, from a pro- found sense of the weight of responsibility attending this new position. I am entirely untrammeled; I have no promises or pledges to redeem, except faith- fully to discharge the duties of the office to the best of my ability ; I have no enemies to punish ; no per- sonal aims or objects to accomplish ; no partisan views to advance ; no purpose to promote the schemes or ob- jects of any combination or class of persons what- ever ; and nothing to serve but the interests of the people; the whole people of the State. With the co- operation of the legislative department of the govern- ment my efforts will be directed with an eye single to the advancement and promotion of the general peace, welfare, and prosperity of our beloved State. In the administration of the laws, as far as lies in my power, it will be my object to see that equal justice is done to all alike. All our industrial pursuits, agriculture, manufac- turing, mechanical, commercial, mining, shipping, and internal transportation, should be looked after with care. All those institutions, educational, be- nevolent, and others, which are provided for by our fundamental law, should be fostered and promoted to the extent of legislative ability, with like care and attention. In this way we shall be able to promote and add to the honor and glory and renown of our good old Commonwealth. As to general measures in practical legislation, I have nothing further to offer than my past public record, in a long and not uneventful life. This is the only guarantee as to the character of my acts in the future. As to those general political principles by which my administration, Providence permitting? "shall be governed, I can but repeat what was said in my ac- ceptance of the nomination tendered me for the office. I repeat these on this more solemn occasion with an emphasis, and especially because of an evident and growing disposition in many quarters of the country to neglect and ignore them. These are those essential principles of republican government which lie at the foundation of our whole system of free institutions, and which can be main- tained only by being deeply impressed upon the minds of legislators, and all other officials of whatever grade or character, as Well as upon the masses of the people, and especially the rising generation. These are the principles announced by Thomas Jefferson, and adopted by the fathers of the republic early after our complicated system of government was instituted. These principles apply as well to our Federal sys- tem as to the several State governments, and by their maintenance the harmony and success of the system can only be preserved ana perpetuated. They are as follows : " Equal and exact justice to all men of whatever state or persuasion, religious or political. " " The support of the State governments in all their rights, as the most competent administrators of our domestic concerns, and the surest bulwark against anti-republican tendencies ; the preservation of the General Government in its whole constitutional vig^or, as the sheet-anchor of our peace at home and safety abroad." " A jealous care of the right of election by the people." " Absolute acquiescence in the decisions of the ma- jority, the vital principle of republics, from which there is no appeal but to force, the vital principle and immediate parent of despotism." " The supremacy of the civil over the military au- thority." " Economy in the public expense, that labor may be lightly burdened." " Encouragement of agriculture, and commerce its handmaid." " Freedom of religion, freedom of the press, freedom of person, under the protection of habeas corpus^ and trial by juries impartially selected." " These are some of the principles.*' said Jefferson, " which constitute the creed of our political faith, the text of civil instruction, the touchstone by which to try the services of those we trust ; and should," said he, " we wander from them in moments of error or alarm, let us hasten to retrace our steps, and to regain the road which alone leads to liberty and safety." These are what constitute the essentials of the creed of Jeffersonian Democracy. They were proclaimed GEORGIA. 347 when there was a strong tendency to abandon the fed- erative feature in the Government, and to merge the State governments into consolidation or centralism, the inevitable end of which would have been empire and despotism. The object of the founders of the old Eepublican- Dcmocratic party, at the head of which stood Mr. Jefferson, was to check this tendency of the govern- ment, and to preserve that system from which alone springs all hope for the perpetuation of the entire fabric. These principles look as well to the preserva- tion of the Federal Union in its proper sphere as to the maintenance and preservation of the reserved rights of the several States, in their proper spheres, under the Constitution of the United States. This is the true doctrine of home rule on the part of the States under our novel and wonderful system of Federal Union. There is evidently now, my countrymen, a tend- ency to centralism as in 1798 and 1799, by the party now in power in the administration of the General Government, bearing the name of Kepublican. As Burke upon a memorable occasion appealed " from the new Whig party of England to the old Whigs of his earlier days," so we appeal from modern Kepublicanism to the ancient creed of our fathers. Those who have departed, or are departing, from that path under apprehension of danger, we and all friends of the Constitution, organized from one ex- tent of the Union to the other, should awake to " re- trace their steps, and to regain the road which alone leads to liberty and safety.'' I am now prepared to take the oath of office. Among the earliest and most important duties devolved upon the Legislature was the election of a Judge of the Supreme Court, vice A. M. Speer, whose term had expired, Judges of the Superior or Circuit Courts, and a Senator in the Federal Congress to fill the unexpired term of, and after March 4, 1883, succeed the late Benjamin H. Hill. To the first-named office, Hon. Samuel Hall, of Macon, a lawyer of high character and great learning, was elected. John D. Stewart was elected Judge of the Flint Circuit ; T. J. Sim- mons re-elected Judge of the Macon Circuit ; Allen Fort, Judge of the Southwestern Circuit; B. B. Bower, Judge of the Albany Circuit ; A. P. Adams, Judge of the Eastern Circuit ; John B. Estes, Judge of the Northeastern Circuit, and W. R. Hammond, Judge of the Atlanta Circuit. The contest for the senatorship was active and heated. The candidates for the un- expired term (December, 1882-March 4, 1833) were B. H. Hill, Jr., eldest son of the deceased Senator, and Pope Barrow, a former member of the Legislature from Clarke County. The candidates for the term of six years from March, 1883, were ex-Governor Alfred H. Col- quitt, Chief- Justice James Jackson, Hon. Clif- ford Anderson, and Hon. J. 0. C. Black. The result was the election, on the first joint ballot, of Pope Barrow for the short term, by a vote of 116, to 95 for Hill. For the long term ex- Governor A. H. Colquitt was elected on the second ballot, receiving 123 votes; necessary to a choice, 109. After a session of five weeks, the Legislature adjourned until the first Wednes- day in July, 1883. The election of judges and Senators, the passage of the appropriation and tax bills, the refusal to accept Senator Brown's donation to the University of Georgia, and the passage of a few bills of local interest, consti- tuted the legislation of the session. The redis- tricting of the State in conformity with the last apportionment act of Congress, the usury bill, and the question of building a new Capitol, have been postponed till next July. Resolu- tions were adopted asking Congress to repeal the tax of 10 per cent on the circulation of the State banks; the repeal or modification of the internal revenue laws; the repeal of the statute of limitation barring cotton claims ; the erec- tion of public buildings at Brunswick; the establishment of a local postal route; and aid to education in the State out of the proceeds of sales of the public lands. It is gravely questioned whether, under the Constitution of the State, the General Assembly has the right to adjourn for seven months, so as to defeat practically the provision of the organic law against annual sessions. The Constitution di- rects that the General Assembly shall meet " on the first Wednesday in November, 1878, and biennially thereafter, on the same day, until the day shall be changed by law.1' This seems to settle the time of meeting, and to limit the number of sessions to one, every two years. The Constitution further declares that " no ses- sion of the General Assembly shall continue longer than forty days, unless by a two-thirds vote of the whole number of each House." This provision, it is argued, is intended to sup- plement the provision already quoted, and pro- vide for cases in which forty days would not be sufficient time to transact the necessary business; but that it applies to a continuous session. The framers of the Constitution cer- tainly intended that the sessions of the Legisla- ture should be held only once in two years, and that they should be limited to forty days except in cases of emergency. The estimated expense of a legislative session of forty days is $42,613. The summer session will cost as much or more, making the whole expense not less than $85,226. With a view to obviate any necessity for the " adjourned sessions," a proposition has been made, and is now pend- ing, to amend the Constitution so as to take the election of judges and solicitors-general out of the hands of the Legislature and delegate their appointment to the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. Every Legislature, since the adoption of the Consti- tution, has held annual, or adjourned sessions, alleging, as excuse for the apparent violation of the law, that the election of judicial officers had consumed the regular fall session. The appointment of these officers by the Executive would involve no expense. The charge of mileage by the members of the General Assem- bly, amounting in the aggregate to $6,572, when most of them are known to hold and to use free passes over all the railroads, is the subject of much comment. The election of members of Congress to serve in the Forty-eighth Congress took place 348 GEOKGIA. GERMAN EMIGRATION. according to law on Tuesday, November 7th, and resulted as follows: First District, John C. Nichols, Democrat, 6,055 votes; James At- kins, Republican, 3,884. Second District, Henry G. Turner, Democrat, 7,794; Charles Wessolowski, Republican, 4,406. Third Dis- trict, Charles F. Crisp, Democrat, 4,121 ; D. B. Harrell, Independent, 329. Fourth District, Hugh Buchanan, Democrat, 5,583 ; J. F. Pon, Independent, 1,402. Fifth District, N. J. Ham- mond, Democrat, 10,788; A. E. Buck, Re- publican, 5,756. Sixth District, James H. Blount, Democrat, 3,514 ; scattering, 26. Sev- enth District, J. C. Clements, Democrat, 12,- 408 ; William H. Felton, Independent, 10,746. Eighth District, Seaborn Reese, Democrat, 4,384 ; no opposition. For unexpired term in Forty-seventh Congress of Alexander H. Ste- phens, resigned, Seaborn Reese, 4,282 ; no op- position. Ninth District, Allen D. Candler, Democrat, 14,521 ; Emory Speer, Independent, 11,915. At large, Thomas Hardeman, Demo- crat, 81,443 ; C. D. Forsyth, Republican, 24,- 930. The contests in the Seventh and Ninth Districts were warm and excited. They were the battle-ground on which was fought the contest between the regular Democratic party and the "Independents," the latter receiving the almost unanimous support of both white and colored Republicans. DEATHS. — Several distinguished Georgians have died during the year. Among the most prominent were Hon. Benjamin Harvey Hill, United States Senator; Colonel William Tap- pan Thompson, for thirty years editor of the "Savannah News," and author of "Major Jones's Courtship " and other works ; William M. Wadley, President of the Central Railroad ; William L. Mitchell, LL. D., Professor of Law in the University of Georgia ; and Colonel E. C. Anderson, ex-Mayor of Savannah. MISCELLANEOUS. — A singular question has arisen as regards the Southern Mutual (Fire) Insurance Company, of Georgia. The com- pany having accumulated a sufficiently large reserve fund to give ample security to their policy-holders, desire legal direction as to what shall be done with the annual interest on the reserve fund, if the surplus is not to be in- creased in future. The profits of the business, arising from premiums, are now divided annu- ally among the policy-holders, and the question is, how this interest is to be divided, whether exclusively among those who are now mem- bers as actual policy-holders, or those also who have held policies in the past, but have severed their connection with the company. The com- pany has filed a bill praying the court to give direction on these points. Edward Cox, who killed Colonel Robert Alston two years ago, and was sentenced to the Penitentiary for life, was pardoned by Governor Stephens on December llth, in an- swer to a numerously signed petition. The Art Loan Exhibition of the Young Men's Library Association, of Atlanta, was a great success. The receipts amounted to $4,400. Several Artesian wells have been bored in Southwestern Georgia, where hitherto the sup- ply of fresh water was neither abundant nor of good quality. The deepest is at Albany, 570 feet, yielding thirty gallons per minute, as clear as crystal and sufficiently cool. The tem- perance movement is rapidly gaining ground. Under the "local-option" law the sale of spirituous liquors has been entirely prohibited in over one hundred towns and villages, and the people are much gratified by the result. The law now requires all liquor-dealers in the State to register in the office of the ordinary of the county where they propose to do business, and immediately on registration to pay the col- lector the tax for the whole year. The question of paying the bonds pro- nounced to be illegal and void by the General Assembly, and the payment of which is ex- pressly forbidden by the Constitution, has been again mooted, but with no probability of any attempt to reopen the matter being successful. Nothing short of a change in the Constitution could enable the Legislature to entertain the question. Congress having made two United States Judicial Districts in Georgia, Judge Henry Kent McCay, former Associate Justice of the Supreme Court (appointed by Governor Bullock), has been made the judge of the new court by the President. The appointment has been approved by all parties. GERMAN EMIGRATION. The report of the Imperial Commissioner of Emigration for 1881 states that the emigration for that year exceeded the highest figures reached in former years by fully 100,000. The total number of emigrants from the ports of Hamburg, Bremen, and Stettin, was 247,346, of whom 184,369 were Germans. The total number from Ham- burg and Bremen alone was 245,898, who came from the following countries : COUNTRIES. Emigrants. Germany 182,935 Austria-Hungary 85,517 Bussia 9,409 Sweden and Norway 5,014 Denmark 4,711 Of this number, no less than 241,478 went to the United States, of whom 179,507 were Germans. Of other countries, Brazil received 1,654, including 1,211 Germans, and Australia 816 emigrants, of whom 745 were Germans. Of the German emigrants, 98,510 left by way of Bremen, 84,425 by way of Hamburg, and 1,434 by way of Stettin, in all 184,369, of whom 106,648 were males and 77,721 females. In addition to this number, 26,178 German emi- grants left by way of Antwerp, of whom 16,587 were males and 9,591 females. The largest number of emigrants came from the eastern provinces of Prussia, Pomerania furnishing 25,- 027; West Prussia, 23,045; and Posen, 21,315. Among other parts of the empire which fur- nished large numbers of emigrants are Hanover, 13,909 ; Schleswig-Holstein, 12,161 ; Mecklen- GERMAN RAILROADS. 349 burg-Schwerin, 3,731 ; and Oldenburg, 1,889. The total number of emigrants from Germany during the past decade was as follows : YEAR. Total emigrants. Germans. 1871 75912 73,816 1872 125 650 120,056 1873 103,638 96,641 1874 45412 42,491 1875 80773 27,834 1876 . 28,368 22,767 1877 21,964 18,240 1878 24217 20,373 1879 33 327 30,808 1S80 106,190 103,115 1881 210,547 206,189 Total 805 698 762,331 The report states, with regard to the condi- tion of the emigrants, that they appear to be- long to a much better class than in former years. In the latter part of the year large numbers of Hungarians and Russian Jews left the German ports. It is a notable fact that the thinnest popu- lated parts of Germany furnished the largest number of emigrants, notably, as stated above, West Prussia, Pomerania, Posen and Mecklen- burg. The reason for this is to be found, not only in the extremely low wages paid in these provinces, but principally in the fact that it is almost an impossibility for the poorer inhabi- tants to secure their own home, and that they therefore naturally turn to the United States, where it is easier to attain that end, which for these people is the principal aim of life. The real estate in these provinces is entirely in the hands of large landed proprietors, and manu- factures there are none, so that the laborers are compelled to submit to the conditions which the large proprietors can offer to them. The few small farmers are not able to compete with the great lords of the country on account of the absence of roads and markets for their produce ; and, in order to avoid having their property sold for debt, they embrace the first opportunity that offers, to sell their property, and to seek a new home beyond the sea. GERMAN RAILROADS. A strong move- ment has been on foot in Germany since 1876 to have the railroads throughout the empire become the property of the Imperial Govern- ment. The first step in that direction was taken by the Prussian Government, which in 1876 introduced a bill in the Diet providing for the sale of the Prussian railroads to the empire. In this bill stress was laid upon the long-needed reform of railway affairs in Prussia, and the dangers of further delay in attending to the matter were pointed out. The most remarka- ble passage in the reasons given for the urgency of the matter was the following: "In case the endeavors of the Prussian Government re- specting the transference of the Prussian rail- way property to the empire should fail, by the opposition of some influential parties in the empire, there would be no doubt that Prussia herself would try with the greatest energy to accomplish the task, and would have especially to consider, as the next step in the carrying out of her railway policy, the enlargement and consolidation of her own railway system. The consequence of this Prussian railway policy would then probably be that, by enlargement of the state railway system, and full develop- ment of the influence arising from the posses- sion and administration of the railroads, the ascendency of the interests of the Prussian lines would be felt far beyond the limits of Prussian territory." The bill was adopted by the Diet, but the necessary treaties were not concluded with the empire, as the opposition to the project was too great. The Prussian Gov- ernment has, however, carried out what it called its next step in its railroad policy, the consolidation and enlargement of its own rail- road system. On April 1, 1879, a special Min- istry of Public Works was created, for the particular purpose of inaugurating a vigorous railroad policy. The negotiations, which had been already begun, and were now entered into by the new ministry, led, as early as June, to the purchase of the Berlin and Stettin, the Mag- deburg and Halberstadt, and the Hanover and Altenbeken Railroads, and in August of the Cologne and Minden road. These purchases were ratified by the Diet in its next session, and were followed in 1880 by the purchase of several other roads, notably among them the Rhenish road, and the Berlin, Potsdam, and Magdeburg road, so that the total length of the Government roads in Prussia in 1880 was 6,910 miles. After these great purchases it seemed to be the opinion of the members of the Diet that a pause should be made in the process of changing private roads to Govern- ment roads ; and although the Government has proposed the purchase of a number of roads during the past years, it has met with but lit- tle success. The feeling that the results of the purchases of 1880 should be awaited, was too manifest. The Government declares that even now the results are not only of the most satis- factory character, but surpass all expectations. It has met the complaints made by its oppo- nents with the assertion that they were based on evils which were inseparable from a state of transition, such as the railroad system of the country was passing through at the present time, and which would disappear when the en- tire system had been permanently fixed. On the other hand, Herr May bach, the Minister of Public Works, referred to expressions of en- couragement which he had received from the business community. The year 1882 showed again a greater activity on the part of the Gov- ernment in adding more private roads to the Government railway system, and the influence of Prussia on the entire system of the empire has now become so great that the question is beginning to be discussed whether the time has not come to accept a possible offer of Prus- sia to transfer its railroads to the empire. This seems to be the point aimed at by Prince Bis- 350 GERMANY. marck, and there can be no doubt that it would be of greater advantage to the small German states to have the railway system of Germany controlled by the Imperial Government than by Prussia, as it is now. GERMANY, an empire in Europe, formed by the union of the German states, consum- mated on May 4, 1871, when the Constitution of the German Empire replaced the articles of confederation between the North German states and the treaties by which the Grand Duchies of Baden and Hesse and the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Wtirtemberg entered the League during the Franco-Prussian War. This war, and the previous one with Austria, prepared the way for the re-establishment of the Ger- man Empire under the Prussian head, thus realizing the cherished aspirations of the Ger- man people. King Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor from Versailles on the 18th of January, 1871, upon the successful termina- tion of the war with France. He was born March 22, 1797, and ascended the Prussian throne on the death of his brother, January 2, 1861. On May 6th a male child was born to his eldest grandson, making the fourth living Hohenzollern in the direct line of succession to the two thrones. The heir- apparent, Fried- rich Wilhelm, was born October 18, 1831. The sovereign powers of the confederation of states forming the empire are invested in the Prussian crown and the Federal Council, but the concurrence of the Parliament, or Reichstag, elected by universal suffrage, is ne- cessary to the exercise of certain functions. The popular assembly possesses, also, a limited right of control over the acts of the Government. STATISTICS. — The area and population of the twenty-five states composing the German Em- pire, and of the Reichsland of Alsace-Lorraine, as returned at the last two census enumerations, were as follow : STATES OF THE EMPIRE. Area in square miles. Population, Dec. 1, 1876. Population, Dec. 1, 1880. Prussia 137,0(56 29,292 7,675 6,777 5,851 4,834 2,866 2,417 1.526 1,421 9f)7 933 869 816 509 466 445 840 818 297 212 148 148 127 106 5,580 25,742,404 5,022,390 1,881,505 2,760,586 1,507,179 553,785 884,218 819,814 827,493 292,933 95,678 194,494 213,565 182,599 145,844 54,748 112,452 76,676 67,480 92,375 83,133 46,985 888,618 56,912 142,200 1,581,804 27,279,111 5,284,778 1,971,118 2,972,805 1,570,254 577,055 936,840 887,478 349,367 809,577 100,269 207,075 232,592 194,716 155,086 56,522 120,246 80.296 71,107 101,830 85,874 50,782 453,869 63.571 156,728 1,566,670 Bavaria . . ... "Wurtemberg .... Saxony Baden Mecklenburg-Schwerin Hesse Oldenburg Mecklenburg-Strelitz Saxe-Meiningen Anhalt Waldeck Lippe Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt . . . Schwarzburg-Sondershausen Reuss-Schleiz Schaumburg-Lippe ReuBS-Greiz Hamburg. . Liibeck Bremen Alsace-Lorraine Total 212,091 42,727,860 45,284,061 In 1816, at the end of«the Napoleonic wars, Germany had a population of 23,103,211. In 1837 it was 30,t)10,711, showing an annual in- crease in the thirty years of nearly 1^ per cent. The increase between that date and 1858, when the population stood at 35,334,538, was little more than three fourths of one per cent per annum. In 1867 the total was 38,495,926, showing an increase of only five eighths per cent per annum. Between 1867 and 1871, in which period the great war with France oc- curred, the rate of increase was -58 per cent ; but, in the period succeeding the war, between 1871 and 1875, it rose to 1-01 per cent. In the last census period, between 1875 and 1880, it was again about '58 per cent. Of the total population of the empire, 6 per cent belong to the Protestant confessions, 36 per cent are Catholics, 2 per cent are Chris- tians of other creeds, 1-J- per cent are Israelites, and 1 per cent of other beliefs. The number of Protestants and Catholics in the different states was as follows : STATES. Protestants. Catholics. Prussia 16 712 700 8625840 Bavaria 1,392,120 8,578 142 Saxony 2,674,905 73,849 Wurtemberg 1 296 650 567 578 Baden 517 861 958916 Alsace-Lorraine Hesse 285,329 602,850 1,204.081 251,172 Mecklenburg-Schwerin Oldenburg 548,741 245054 2,258 71 743 Anhalt 208 238 8473 Other states 2,284 375 89675 German empire 26,718,823 15,371,227 The movement of i reported as given in tl ;opulation i e table at a 1880 was ;he head of the following page. The total number of vessels entering German ports in 1880 was 55,282, of 7,775,559 aggre- gate tonnage: 40,045, of 3,657,638 tons, car- ried the German flag; 46,130, of 7,095,522 tons, were with cargoes; 13,923, of 4,899,648 tons, were steamships; of which 7,807, of 1,935,882 tons, were German. The total num- ber cleared was 55,021, of 7,763,037 aggregate tonnage: 39,569, of 3,633,628 tons, German ships; 39,097, of 5,475,721 tons, laden; 13,- 928, of 4,914,328 tons, steamers; of which 7,799, of 1,940,151 tons, were German. The German merchant marine consisted at the beginning of 1881 of 4,660 vessels, of 1,181- 525 aggregate tonnage; as against 4,777, of 1,171,286 tons, in 1880; 4,804, of 1,129,129 tons, in 1879 ; 4,805, of 1,117,935 tons, in 1878 ; and 4,809, of 1,103,650 tons, in 1877. The number of steam-vessels was 414, of 215,- 758 tons, having increased from 318, of 180,- 946 tons, in 1877. The crews of the 4,660 ships number 39,660 men. Of the total num- ber of ships, 2,749, of 738,260 tons, among them 213 of the steamships, registering 160,- 556 tons, belong in North Sea ports; while 1,911 ships, of 443,265 tons, including 201 steamers, of 55,202 tons, ply the Baltic. GERMANY. 351 STATES. Marriages. Births.* Deaths.* Still-births. Excess of births. 208 456 1 071 778 735 705 42 827 336 068 Bavaria 84,958 209,724 159 499 7010 50225 25,626 128,520 92300 5.148 86220 Wurtemberg 13,058 81,420 59896 8,056 22024 Baden 10070 57571 41 433 1 738 16 138 9 826 5: 888 41 609 1 867 10 279 6318 82,502 22521 1317 9981 Other states 29,030 180,698 88,668 4958 42035 837342 1 764 096 1 241 126 67921 622 970 The total value of imports of merchandise in 1880 was 2,835,600,000 marks, against 3,773,- 200,000 marks in 1879 (one mark = 23 '8 cents) ; the value of merchandise exports, 3,046,100,000 marks, against 2,775,700,000 marks in 1879. There were 320,700,000 marks of cereals imported and 194,200,000 marks ex- ported, against 687,700,000 marks imported and 194,200,000 marks exported in 1879; the imports of fermented liquors were only 39,900,- 000 marks, against 116,500,000 marks, the ex- ports 54,800,000 marks, against 62,600,000 marks; the imports of colonial wares, 172,- 300,000 marks, against 230,300,000 marks, the exports 144,000,000, against 122,400,000 marks; the imports of tobacco were only 23,900,000, against 110,200,000 marks, the exports 3,700,- 000, against 8,200,000 marks; the imports of seeds, fruits, and vegetables were 110,700,000 marks, against 125,300,000, the exports 52,100,- 000 marks, against 77,700,000 ; the imports of meat, provisions, and live animals, 317,600,000 marks, against 357,000,000, the exports 196,- 400,000 marks, against 262,800,000. The total imports of raw materials were 910,500,000 marks, against 1,249,600,000 marks, the falling off being distributed over textile materials, hides and leather, wood, metals, fuel, and the other articles of the list ; the exports of raw materials were 501,900,000 marks, against 685,- 800,000. The imports of manufactured arti- cles were about the same in both years, being 495,000,000 marks, against 491,700,000 in 1879 ; but the exports of finished products increased from 971,900,000 marks in 1879 to 1,436,700,- 000 marks in 1880. The miscellaneous class of drugs, fats, chemicals, colors, etc., showed a like increase in the exports, which rose from 234,300,000 to 462,300,000 marks, and the im- ports from 404,900,000 to 445,000,000 marks. Specie imports amounted to 40,800,000 marks, and exports to 53,300,000, against 119,600,000 marks imported and 45,800,000 exported in 1879. ARMY AND NAVY. — The Prussian system of universal military service was extended over the entire empire by the Constitution of April 16, 1871. Every German capable of bearing arms is obliged to serve seven years, three with the colors and four in the reserve, after which he is liable to service in the Landwehr for five years more. By the Landsturm Act, passed in 1875, all men capable of bearing arms who are not in the line, the reserve, or the Landwehr, are to be enrolled in the Landsturm, which is divided info two classes, the first class compris- ing all able-bodied men under forty-two years of age, and the second class the remainder of the adult male population. The first class only has been organized. The German army on the peace footing comprises 161 regiments of in- fantry of three battalions each, besides 20 jager or rifle battalions and 275 battalions in the Landwehr; 93 regiments, divided into 465 squadrons, of cavalry; 37 regiments, contain- ing 89 divisions and 341 batteries, of field ar- tillery; 14 regiments, divided into 31 battal- ions and 126 companies, of heavy artillery; 17 battalions, divided into 68 companies, of pio- neers; and 18 battalions with 41 companies in the train. The peace effective of the army is as follows: PEACE EFFECTIVE. Officers. Men. Horses. Guns. Staff division 2,014 4 Infantry : Line 9532 278 846 Ja'gers . 424 11 120 Landwehr 848 4,763 Total 10,304 294,709 Cavalry 2358 64699 62 581 Artillery : Field 1,801 84817 16591 1 874 Heavy 726 16,349 Total. . 2527 51 166 Pioneers Train 412 200 10,838 4,905 2457 Special corps 818 953 Grand total 18,128 427,274 81,629 1,374 The Bavarian contingent, which has pre- served a separate organization, although it stands under the absolute command of the Emperor like the rest of the army, numbers 2,214 officers and 50,224 men. The royal Saxon troops number 1,137 officers and 27,606 men; the Wurtemberg contingent, 773 officers and 18,815 men. The Prussian troops, in whose organization the contingents of the remaining states are entirely merged, number 14,004 offi- cers and 330,629 men. The strength of the army on the war foot- ing, exclusive of the Landsturm and special bodies, is 35,427 officers, 1,456,677 rank and file, 312,731 horses, and 2,808 guns. They are divided for purposes of mobilization into the field troops, mustering 19,391 officers and 744,- 031 men; the depot troops, 4,796 officers and 296,614 men ; and the garrison troops, 11,240 officers and 416,032 men. With the organiza- tion of the first class of the Landsturm reserve the war effective can be raised to nearly 2,000,- * The still-born are included in the returns of births and of deaths. 352 GEKMANY. 000 men. It is estimated that Germany can call into the field 2,500,000 armed men without calling out the last reserves. The empire is divided into seventeen military districts, each capahle of mobilizing a complete corps. The guard regiments, recruited from Prussia and Alsace-Lorraine, are not attached to the terri- torial divisions. In the remodeled system of fortifications there are 17 fortresses of the first class, with fortified camps, and 26 other fortresses, 10 of which are for coast-defense and 13 to guard the railroad approaches. The empire is di- vided into nine fortress districts: 1, Konigs- berg ; 2, Dantsic ; 3, Posen ; 4, Berlin ; 5, May- ence ; 6, Metz ; 7, Cologne ; 8, Altona ; 9, Mu- nich. The fortresses of the first class, which serve as fortified camps, in the different dis- tricts, are the following: 1, Konigsberg; 2, Dantsic and Thorn ; 3, Posen and Neisse ; 4, Ktistrin, Magdeburg, and Spandau; 5, May- ence, Kastadt, Strasburg, and Ulm ; 6, Metz ; 7, Cologne and Metz; 8, Sonderburg-Duppel ; 9, Ingolstadt. A wide circle of outer fortifi- cations has been recently built around the fortresses of Strasburg and Metz. The forts at Thorn, Posen, Kiistrin, and Mayence have also been enlarged. The forts for railroad protection and the districts in which they are situated are as follow : 1, Dirschau ; 3, Glogau; 4, Konigstein and Torgau; 6, Diedenhofen, Saarlouis, and Bitsch ; 7, Dtisseldorf and Wesel; 9, Germersheim. The coast fortresses are: 1, Memel and Pillau; 2, Kolberg, Stralsund, and Schweinemunde ; 8, Kiel, Trave-mouth, Elbe-mouth, Ems-mouth, Weser-mouth, Fried- richsort, and Wilhelmshaven. The remaining fortresses are: 1, Marienburg; 3, Glatz; 5, Neu-Breisach ; 7, Ehrenbreitstein. A number of old fortresses have been abolished in the reconstruction of the system of defenses car- ried out since the last war. The German navy consisted in 1882 of seven iron-clad frigates, five iron-clad corvettes, eleven iron-clad gunboats, with two more under construction, one monitor, fifty-eight other steamers, and four sailing-vessels. One addi- tional iron-clad frigate and one iron-clad cor- vette, with six torpedo-boats, besides the four- teen now existing, will nearly complete the naval reform scheme adopted in 1873. Two of the torpedo-steamers of the German navy, the Zieten and the Ulan, are sea-going vessels of remarkable speed, calculated to be not less than twenty knots an hour; they are protected in their vulnerable parts with steel armor. The German navy is manned with 15,196 men and officered by one admiral, one major-general, one vice-admiral, five rear-admirals, thirty ship- captains, and fifty-five corvette-commanders. (See NAVIES OF ETJBOPE.) FINANCE. — The revenues of the empire are derived from customs duties, the excise duties on malt, spirits, tobacco, etc., stamp-dues, the profits on the post and telegraphs, and certain other sources fixed by the Constitution, the deficiency between the expenses and the re- ceipts from these sources being made up by the matricular contributions, or quotas assessed on each state in proportion to its population. Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Baden receive the proceeds of the malt and liquor taxes, and Al- sace-Lorraine applies the receipts from beer to its own administration, while Bavaria and "Wurtemberg maintain separate postal and tele- graph establishments. In compensation these states must pay proportionately higher ma- tricular quotas. The budget for 1880-'81 states the total revenue at 539,252,640 marks (1 mark = 23'8 cents), and the expenditure at the same amount. The revenue and expendi- ture for the year 1881-'82 are placed at 596,811,- 409 marks. The budget for 1882-'83, approved by the law of February 15th, states the total receipts as 610,632,707 marks. For the states forming the Zollverein the customs revenue is taken as 186,466,150 marks; the impost on beet-sugar as 47,421,460 marks; on salt, 36,- 709,570 marks; on tobacco, 11,029,240 marks; on spirits, 35,517,630 marks; and on malt, 15,- 111,170 marks, except in the states which levy the duties on the last two articles themselves. The imposts collected in the states not forming part of the Zollverein are taken as 6,843,060 marks, making the total revenue from customs and excise 339,098,280 marks. The gross re- ceipts from the posts and telegraphs are given as 145,128,000 and the expenses 123,864,000 marks, making the net revenue 21,264,000 marks. The public railroads belonging to the empire are made to yield a net revenue of 12,- 686,400 marks out of 40,083,700 marks of total receipts. About 19,000,000 marks are derived from stamp-duties. The interest on the invalid fund is 30, 129,567 marks, the interest on capital funds 3,062,953 marks; the surplus carried over from 1881-'82, 10,558,350 marks. A sum of not quite 50,000,000 marks, included in the receipts, comes from the funds and loans for the building of fortifications, railroads, and other extraordinary expenses. The matricular contributions amount to 103,684,369 marks, 52,249,733 marks being assessed upon Prus- sia; 20,278,807 marks upon Bavaria; 5,598,007 marks upon Saxony ; 7,670,015 marks upon Wurtemberg; 5,359,876 marks upon Baden; and 3,838,381 marks upon Alsace-Lorraine. The expenditures are estimated at 610,737,707 marks, divided into 531,829,228 marks of per- manent and 78,908,479 of special expenses. The expenses are divided among the different departments as follow: Keichstag, 407,670 marks; Chancellor's office, 125,770 marks; foreign affairs and consulates, 6,676,775 marks permanent, and 183,800 marks special; Interior Department, permanent, 2,775,422 marks — special, 9,240,072 marks; post and telegraphs, special, 3,053, 000 marks; printing-office, special, 15,000 marks; army, permanent, 242,493,325 marks — special, 28,033,931 marks; navy, per- manent, 27,565,856 marks — special, 8,728,800 marks ; administration of justice, 1,707,667 GERMANY. 353 marks permanent, and 200,000 marks special ; treasury, 86,317,566 marks permanent, and 3,595,825 marks special; office of railways, 303,150 marks; debt of the empire, 13,702,500 marks permanent, and 227,300 marks special ; audit of accounts, 528,673 marks; administra- tion of railways, 4,400,000 marks special ; pensions, military, 18,266,829 marks; naval, 449,733 marks; civil, 378,725 marks; together, 19,095,287 marks; on account of the last war, 18,283 marks special; invalid fund, 30,129,567 marks permanent; deficit of!880-'81, 12,062,- 468 marks special ; capital investments, 9,150,- 000 marks special. The debts of the empire, contracted since 1877, amounted on October 1, 1881, to 298,951,- 500 marks, to which 29,674,405 marks were added by the financial law of February 15, 1882. Besides the funded debt, all of which bears interest at four per cent, there were treasury notes outstanding on April 1st to the amount of 152,164,210. The empire possesses various funds greatly exceeding its obligations in amount. At the end of November, 1881, the invalid fund amounted to 534,428,028 marks, besides 459,400 Frankfort florins in securities, and 2,609,350 in silver; the fund for the con- struction of fortifications, to 51,103,709 marks, besides securities to the amount of £404,950 sterling, and silver to the amount of 547,851 marks; the fund for building a Parliament House, to 29,603,350 marks; and the war treasure to 120,000,000 marks. FOREIGN RELATIONS. — The relations of Ger- many with Russia have been strained since the Berlin Treaty of 1878. Prince Gortchakoff made bitter complaints of the ingratitude of Germany in depriving him of the fruits of the Turkish victories after the moral support ex- tended to the Germans by Russia in the French War. The antagonisms arising from the rival interests and jealousies of race of the Russians and Germans, whose fields of activity are con- tiguous from the Baltic to the Mediterranean, constitute a perpetual danger to the peace between the two nations. The entire aim of Prince Bismarck, the supreme director of foreign affairs in Germany, has been, since the consolidation of the empire, to prevent the formation of a Russo-French alliance against Germany. On this account he has repressed the ambition for one of the richest provinces of Russia, and for German extension southward, For the same object the Austro-German alli- ance was concluded in October, 1879. The treaty was to continue until October 15, 1884, and arrangements have already been made for its renewal. The visit of the Russian Minister of Foreign Affairs, De Giers, to Berlin and Varzin, was regarded as a sign of peace, as the extravagant utterances of General Skobeleff and others, in the beginning of the year, were considered to be fraught with danger ; but Prince Bismarck places his hopes only in the powerful union of interests which he is trying to bring about in Central Europe, and in the VOL. xxii.— 23 A continuation of peaceful relations between nations throughout the Continent. LEGISLATION. — The first session of the fourth legislative period of the Reichstag opened omi- nously on the 17th of November, after a bitter electoral struggle. The Liberal factions, which had defeated the Government projects of social reform, returned victorious, with the indorse- ment of the country. Parliament was treated as though it were in disgrace. Instead of be- ing opened by the Emperor, as usual, the Chan- cellor read the imperial address, in which the schemes of accident insurance and annuities for aged laborers, with state aid, were coupled with the obnoxious demand for a tobacco mo- nopoly. At the final elections of 1881, out of 9,090,- 381 possible votes — the competent electors forming 20'1 per cent of the population of the empire, 62 '6 per cent of which belongs to the Evangelical Lutherans, and 35*9 to the Roman Catholics— 5,301,784, or 58'6 per cent, were cast. Of the total number of legal votes 21 -7 per cent were given to candidates of the Cler- ical, or Center, party ; 15'2 per cent to German, or pure, Conservatives; 13*6 per cent to Pro- gressists; 13'1 per cent to National Liberals; 8'8 per cent to candidates of the Liberal Union; 7'4 per cent to the Imperialists ; 6'3 per cent to Social Democrats ; 3'7 per cent to the Poles; 2-9 per cent to the Alsatians ; 2'7 per cent to unattached Liberals ; 2*3 per cent to the Peo- ple's party ; 1*8 per cent to Guelphs and Au- tonomists ; 0*3 per cent to Danes. The elected candidates received 64*5 per cent of the total votes cast. The Parliament was divided into 76 Conservatives, comprising 49 German Con- servatives, sitting on the Extreme Right, and 27 Free Conservatives, or German Imperialists, who formed the left wing of the Right Center; 107 in the Center, composed of the Clericals, with the Guelphs and the National Liberals or Benningsen party; 43 Secessionists, or Lib- eral Unionists, the party of Yon Stauffenberg, Forckenbeck, Lasker, and Bamberger, devoted to free trade ; 47 Progressists, led by Richter and Hanel ; 68 Democrats of both shades, the Volkspartei, or Popularists, and the Social Democrats ; 12 forming the Extreme Left; 15 Alsace-Lorrainers, 18 Poles, and 2 Danes, con- stituting the Particularists, who are opposed to the empire as now constituted ; and 8 Savages, or Independents. Bismarck's hardy determination to press the measures which he declared " postponed, not defeated," by the adverse votes of the Reichs- tag, after they had been expressly condemned at the polls, was understood, when the royal prerogative was suddenly intruded into the con- troversy. The social reforms were put forward this time with particular emphasis as the Emperor's policy, as if to lure the Liberals into a consti- tutional controversy. Indignant at Bismarck's disregard of parliamentary usage, in urging his economical solecisms upon a majority which 354 GERMANY. had rejected them, they blamed him bitterly for shirking his responsibility, and shielding himself behind the name of the Emperor. On the 4th of January a manifesto was issued by the King, which dispelled the illusion of the Constitutionalists, that they were already liv- ing in a state in which the King reigns but does not rule. It declared that the Prussian Constitution (of 1850) transferred a portion of the law-giving powers to the Legislature, but left the King the full power of initiation and approval. The policy of the Government is the King's policy, although it must be repre- sented by his ministers ; his royal acts are his own, although the countersigning minister be- comes responsible for them to the laws and the country. They express his will and pleasure, and should not be spoken of as emanating from the ministry, but from the King himself. The Constitution of Prussia, the rescript declares, is the expression of the monarchical tradition of this country, whose development is based on the living and actual relations of its kings to the people. These relations, moreover, dp not admit of being transferred to the ministers appointed by the King, for they at- tach to the person of the King. Their preservation, too, is a political necessity for Prussia. It is, there- fore, my will that both in Prussia and in the legisla- tive bodies of the empire, there may be no doubt left as to my own constitutional right, and that of my successors, to personally conduct the policy of my Government ; and that the theory shall always be gainsaid that the inviolability of the King, which has always existed in Prussia, or the necessity of a re- sponsible counter-signature of my government acts, deprives them of the character of royal and independ- ent decisions. In a passionate address in the Reichstag, Prince Bismarck said that the minister is a mere stop-gap, according to the Prussian Con- stitution, however ill that may accord with constitutional legends borrowed from other countries. It accords with Prussian traditions, for the kings of Prussia have always construed their duties as rulers seriously, in the spirit of Frederick the Great, who declared that he was the first servant of the Prussian state. We know how our present ruler lives, and occupies his time from morning till night. It makes itself felt that with us in Prussia, within the Cabinet, the King commands, and the ministers, as long as they think they can support the responsibility, obey. If they can take the responsibility no longer, a change of min- isters is not a difficult matter. We have an abundant variety of politicians of every sort in stock • and the King, unless he adopts some very eccentnc policy, will easily find ministers to assume the responsibility for what his present ones may decline to put their names to. Nothing eccentric, however, is required ot us ; but in the deep and steady grooves in which the policy of Prussia in the German Empire is laid, his Majesty the King decides on the principles of the course to be taken ; he decides how the Prussian rep- resentatives in the Federal Council are accordingly to be instructed ; he decides that drafts, made accord- ingly, shall be laid before the Diet and the Keichstag ; decides according to his own convictions, and the elaboration, the formal part of the matter, is the busi- ness of the ministers. The ministers may hold differ- ent opinions from his, and then a compromise is made. Constitutional government is made up of compro- mises ; and a king who does not wish to dismiss a minister outright will make some concessions to him which he would prefer not to make. Still oftener it happens that the ministers can not obtain the agree- ment of the Kin» to a work or a document which they think right. Then the minister must make up his mind whether he shall drop the matter, or make a Cabinet question of it, or resign, or whether it would be better for the country and the service to make con- cessions to the royal will. The royal will it is which alone decides. The actual minister-president in Prus- sia is his Majesty the King. I «an give no directions to my colleagues. I can only make requests, and write letters to them, which do not always convince. That is very exhausting, and on that account I do not always do it ; but when I think that a thing ought to be done, and I can not carry it through, I apply to the actual chief of the Cabinet, the King. If I find no accord there, I give the matter up. If I do find it, then a royal command is given that it shall be done so and so, and it is done, or else there follows a Cabi- net crisis, which is quietly got through with. The rescript, besides the plain legal defini- tion of the place of the King in the Constitu- tion, which the theoretical subtilties of Liberal politicians had obscured, contained vague and somewhat startling warnings to officials not to oppose Government candidates at elections. As explained by Bismarck, the holders of po- litical offices were declared liable to the for- feiture of their places under the disciplinary law, if they electioneered for the Opposition by spreading misrepresentations of the Govern- ment, or by exercising the influence or patron- age of their office; and non-political officials, as well as political, were expected to feel re- strained by their oath of office from engaging in active opposition at elections to the policy approved by the Emperor, though not to forego the liberty of ballot secured by the Constitu- tion. The Government was not ready to present its revised projects for accident insurance and the relief of infirm workmen. The clericals proffered their support for a scheme of labor reform which would protect the interests of religion and the family by restricting Sunday and female labor. In the academical discus- sions, Bismarck foreshadowed only moderate measures, but pleaded for the principle with unwonted power and passion. The Liberals were held up to scorn as a party of pure nega- tion, able only to carp and criticise, who neither now, nor when they were in power, proposed any relief for the poor. The cause of labor reform was declared to be dear to the Em- peror's heart. The King of Prussia was by tradition peculiarly the king of "the poor man." The "Manchester men" who opposed the reforms showed themselves heartless to the sufferings of the poor. The Government was undecided as to the forms which the meas- ures of "practical Christianity" ought to take. Parliament had denied it the assistance of an Economic Council. Bismarck had changed his opinion regarding the administration of acci- dent insurance, which he now thought should be placed on a corporative basis instead of under state management. Corporate societies of the laborers in the different trades might not only be intrusted with the control of the GERMANY. 355 proposed funds for accident insurance and the support of the superannuated, hut could help in working out regulations to govern the length of the hours of labor, the employment of wom- en, and Sunday labor, which would be better than the establishment of a, normal working- day and general prohibitive laws. Factory in- spection likewise would be more judiciously conducted under the supervision of such socie- ties. The cost of securing shorter hours of labor and of the other contemplated improve- ments in the condition of the toilers would seem to be more than the industries could sus- tain, and would necessitate the extension of state aid. The Government requested counsel and instruction in the elaboration of the pro- jects for realizing the desire of the Emperor, that " the defenseless in the state should grad- ually learn by practical experience that Gov- ernment is not entirely forgetful of them, ex- cept when it needs money or calls upon them to bear arms, but that it thinks also of protect- ing and sustaining them, so that with their fee- ble powers they may not be trampled down in the great highway of life." The session was not a barren one, notwith- standing the bitter conflict which was waged on high political and constitutional questions. The Government achieved a moral victory. Even the Liberals were caught in the socialistic current. The Liberal factions submitted con- jointly an employers' liability bill which was intended to be stringent enough to remove the necessity for accident insurance. They did not even refuse a measure for the collection of statistics of trades and callings on which to base the social legislation of the "new era"; although they again struck the appropriation for the Economical Council out of the budget. The resolution of Dr. Windthorst for the re- peal of the law of 1874, attaching penalties to the unauthorized exercise of ecclesiastical of- fices, gave the opportunity for some shrewd campaigning on the part of the Liberals, who hastened to announce their willingness to modi- fy the May laws in those portions which had led to religious scandals and privations, in order to thwart the prospective alliance be- tween Bismarck and the Clericals. A large section voted for the resolution, which was car- ried by a two-thirds majority, disclaiming the authorship of the law, and insinuating that the most grievous of the Falk laws were forged as weapons by Bismarck for his unscrupulous methods of political warfare. They still af- firmed, without defining, the general principles of the May laws, but declared themselves in favor of a truce in the Kulturkampf, although believing a permanent peace in the perpetual conflict between the state and the Roman hie- rarchy to be impossible. This particular law was used in the pursuit of the two bishops and in a score or so of other instances, but it had long been a dead letter. Its exercise was made discretional with the Government by a parlia- mentary resolve in 1880. A decided victory for the Chancellor's policy was gained by the passage of the measure for incorporating the city of Hamburg in the Cus- toms Union. The policy of the absorption of the two Hanse towns has met with strong op- position on the part of the free-trade elements in the Reichstag, and intense reluctance in the cities themselves. According to the Constitu- tion of the empire, the Hanse towns, Bremen and Hamburg, are to remain free ports until they petition to be taken into the Zollverein. This petition was wrung from the municipality of Hamburg by threats and promises. In ful- fillment of the compact finally extorted by the extraordinary "pressure" of the Government, the Reichstag voted forty million marks as an imperial contribution to the expenses of the inclusion. The right of free entry is limited to a new quarter, to be built on the left bank of the Elbe. No one is allowed to reside in the limited free port, nor can it be connected with the rest of the city by bridges. In time, for the separation of the imports traffic of the free port from that of the Customs Union, in order to simplify the customs regulations, a canal is to be dug along the left side of the river which will cost from fifty to sixty million marks. The merchants of Hamburg would not have given way thus far to the importunities with which the old Free City has been assailed for half a century, to join its economical fortunes with the rest of Germany, if it had not felt that its hope lies more in the growing export trade of Germany, than in its own manufactures and maritime trade in the products of other lands, and that even its present commerce, which is seriously threatened by the competition of other cities, particularly of Antwerp, can be better preserved with the subventions and other favors expected from the Government and the co-operation of the German manufac- turers, which are necessary for the transforma- tion of the city and harbor to meet modern requirements. Yet they would not have ac- quiesced so soon if they had not felt the weight of the Government's displeasure, and were not moved by the threat of Bismarck to erect a rival Hamburg just outside the gates. In the limited free port they can still make up cargoes of foreign goods and carry on the great indus- tries of rectifying foreign spirits, manufactur- ing foreign tobacco, etc. Among the various " ethical " advantages which are expected from the harmonizing of economic interests, the principal one is that the Hamburg commission- merchants will apply their talents more to sell- ing German goods at home and abroad, reliev- ing the manufacturers of the task of finding a market, and less to marketing foreign products in Germany.* * The original foundation of Hamburg's prosperity was the northern trade, with Scandinavia, Finland, and the Russian North Sea provinces— a trade which it still possesses. But it acquired its important position in the world's commerce in the beginning of this century, after the opening of the South American ports, through the liberation of the Spanish col- onies. The Hamburg ship-owners were obliged to carry English goods, for there were no German wares to export 356 GERMANY. Chief among the other positive results of the session was the agreement to the erection of a monumental Parliament building in Berlin. Among the treaties which were ratified — pure- ly a formal act — was one affecting consular relations with Greece, one supplementary to the Danubian navigation convention, and an international convention regarding precautions for the extinction of the phylloxera.* The budget was voted with but slight altera- tions. It showed a surplus of between 18,- 000,000 and 19,000,000 marks. Eugen Richter carried a resolve in the last hours of the ses- sion crediting something over 10,000,000 marks of the surplus of 1881-'82 to the next year's budget. The Federal Council accepted the measure, which relieved Prussia from financial difficulty by reducing her matricular contribu- tions. This shrewd manoeuvre of the Liberal leader confused the plans of the Government by rendering unnecessary a loan of nearly 5,000,000 marks which had already been pro- posed in the Prussian Diet. The session was closed January 30th. Although the Chancellor had spoken of the necessity of an extra session in the spring, when the Government projects for social re- form would be ready, there was great surprise, since the regular session had passed off smooth- ly. The prospects for the Chancellor's eco- nomical plans had not improved, when the Emperor called the Reichstag together again on the 27th of April. The opening address stated, as the objects of the session, the initia- tion of social reforms, and the continuation of tax reforms. The first measure proposed was the laborers' accident - insurance bill. The change in the scheme by which the adminis- tration is to be intrusted to corporations and trade associations instead of to state officials was expected to win the approval of the Lib- erals and the Ultramontanes for the project, which was designed to secure the co-operation of the industrial associations and of the work- ing-men's societies in preventing accidents, to localize the administration as much as possible, and on the other hand to distribute the finan- cial burdens over the broadest possible field. The passage of the measure would necessitate a change in the existing poor-laws, and would entail the extension of the sick benefit provis- ions. A change in the factory laws was also announced in the direction of more efficient except linen. The intimate commercial relations which sprang up between the Hamburgers and British manufac- turers, the employment of their capital in English enterprises, their preference for everything English, were a thorn in the Bide of the struggling German industrial interests which sprang up. The jealousies are not yet extinct, and no cor- dial relations exist between the Hamburg middle-men and the German manufacturers, whose stock complaint is that the exporters will not pay living prices, and that they are obliged to export on their own account; while the shipping- merchants aver that, when they give an order for some trans- atlantic place to a manufacturer, he will forestall them by sending goods there himself, and spoil the trade by competing with his own manufactures. * The disease has existed for some time on the Aar, where the vines originally affected have died out, and the parasite has reappeared in new centers of infection. regulations for public safety, order, and moral- ity. The social projects were referred to com- missions, in whose hands they remained during the autumn sittings. They will probably en- gross the attention of the Parliament in 1883, and give to the session its character. The extra session was really called for the purpose of settling the question of a tobacco monopoly. In the royal address at the open- ing of the regular session the abolition of the burdensome direct taxes of the German states, with the local taxes which add to the burden, was described as an urgently needed reform in the tax system. This object could only be ac- complished by raising the indirect taxes of the empire, so that the Federal Government could do without the matricular contributions, or pay over to the single states contributions which will enable them to reduce the state and muni- cipal taxes. Tobacco was designated as the most suitable article of consumption with which to commence the readjustment. All parties were agreed as to the propriety of in- creasing the tobacco-tax, but, regarding the form of it, there were various opinions. The Federal Council approved the form of a gov- ernment monopoly, and would only consider other projects when the impossibility of ob- taining the agreement of the representative Assembly became manifest. Bismarck has pursued none of his other legislative projects with such energy and tenacity. A ceaseless agitation had been kept up by his organs of the press. The Strasburg public tobacco fac- tory had been continued by the Government, and agencies were established in all large cities of Germany ; but the people showed such re- pugnance to see the royal arms on the pack- ages that the shopkeepers were ruined and the factory left without business. The Prussian Economical Council, selected by Bismarck himself, refused to approve the unpopular measure. The failure to secure an alliance with the Clericals, even at the price of the revocation of the May laws, sealed the fate of the measure. "When Parliament refused to pass the monopoly bill in the regular session the extra session was called in order to make a last effort to secure the financial independence which the tobacco monopoly would give to the Government. The committee of the Reichs- tag reported against the monopoly, and when Bismarck arose and went over the arguments again in two long speeches, it was only, as he said, to accompany the monopoly project to the grave. The vote, taken June 7th, was 276 against, to 43 for the bill. Certain vexatious tariff regulations were repealed. Protective duties were demanded on such articles as honey, asbestus, and slate ; but both free-traders and protectionists had agreed to a truce so as to let the tariff have a " fair trial." The session ended on June 16th with a simple adjournment, so that the unfinished business might be taken up in the regular session, which opened No- vember 30th. GERMANY. 357 The deputies were again confronted with the rejected proposal of biennial budgets im- mediately upon reassembling. The accounts which were laid before the Parliament, ap- proved by the Federal Council, contained the civil list for 1883-'84, besides that for 1882-'83. The budget debates in Germany are always confined to the business details, so the second appropriation was simply struck out, the Gov- ernment mustering again only 43 Conservative supporters. PRUSSIA. — The Prussian Ministry was com- posed in 1882 as follows: President, Prince Otto von Bismarck, Minister of Foreign Affairs and of Commerce ; Yice-President, Von Putt- kamer, Minister of the Interior; Minister of War, Von Kameke; of Public Works, May- bach; of Agriculture, Domains, and Forests, Dr. Lucius; of Justice, Dr. Friedberg; with- out portfolio, Von Botticher ; of Ecclesiastical Affairs, Von Gossler ; of Finance, Scholz. The latter succeeded Bitter, who was dismissed on account of a difference which arose between him and his chief with reference to the pro- jected reform of taxation. He persisted in the idea, which Bismarck had abandoned, of ex- tending the reform to the field of direct tolls and fees, while separating the capitalized or funded revenues from the unfunded. The Prussian budget never shows the fact of a surplus or a deficit, as the accounts are made to balance exactly, but in nearly every year of late there has been an excess of receipts over expenditures. The expenses for each year since the formation of the empire down to 1880 were as follow (1 mark = 23-8 cents) : 561,176,820 marks in 1872 ; 630,130,400 marks in 1873 ; 695,097,700 marks in 1874 ; 694,484,- 900 marks in 1875 ; 808,072,700 marks in 1877 (fifteen months, owing to the change of the date of closing the fiscal accounts from Decem- ber 31st to March 31st); 657,520,344 marks in 1878; 71 3,857,764 marks in 1879; 711,500,758 marks in 1880. The principal sources of rev- enue are direct taxes, the Government railways, customs and' excise duties, and the contribu- tions of the individual states. The income from the railroads, mines, and other state enter- prises has largely increased in recent years, and promises to exceed the revenues from taxation. The budget for 1882-'83 shows gross receipts of 934,589,917 marks, and, deducting the costs of administration and working expenses, net re- ceipts of 419,755,032 marks. The public debt amounted in 1882 to 1,975,687,248 marks, of which 1,357,897,238 marks were railroad loans ; the provincial debts to 83,994,182 marks, of which 64,899,171 marks were for railroads ; making a total public debt of 2,059,681,430 marks. The sinking-fund and interest charges for the year amounted to 109,489,348 marks. Political action in Prussia determines, in a great measure, the political development of the empire. Prince Bismarck, exercising the ini- tiative in both Governments, often takes the measures which he would carry for the empire to the Prussian Legislature, or goes to the Reichstag with plans which he entertains for Prussia, when the prospect of carrying them directly is unfavorable. He sought in vain in 1882 to obtain recognition in the Prussian Landtag for the reform projects which he en- deavored to carry out in the empire. The Catholic question, which was first broached in the Reichstag, belongs properly to Prussia, and must be settled in that arena. The Clericals were not disposed to enter into an alliance with Bismarck to enable him to strengthen the cen- tral power in the empire, and the ministerial rights and the royal prerogative in Prussia, un- less their demands were fulfilled and made se- cure f.or the future. They saw a better pros- pect of regaining the rights of the Church through the parliamentary institutions which Bismarck wished to emasculate with their aid, than of bringing him to Canossa. All that be could be.expected to give they saw would have to come in order to put an end to public dis- orders. The friendly attitude of the Liberals in the Reichstag encouraged them in their po- sition. The Prussian Landtag was opened January 14th with an address from the throne, read by the Vice-President of the ministry, von Putt- kamer, which dwelt upon the favorable finan- cial position of the monarchy and announced a reduction of taxes. At the same time, as in the preceding year, a new loan was proposed, this time for 5,000,000 marks. The nationali- zation of several private railroads and the con- struction of new lines was proposed, as well as a canal connecting the Rhine and Ruhr sys- tem with the Ems and the North Sea. The political schemes of the Chancellor occupied the first place in the programme by the renewed proposal of the bill providing for the applica- tion of any sums paid over by the Government of the empire as the proceeds of new or aug- mented taxes to the reduction of direct taxes and local dues. The lightening of the burden of the national schools by the abolition ^ of school fees, and the increase of official salaries, were also designated as objects for the appli- cation of the prospective revenues. The Cath- olic question was met by a proposal to simply extend the law of 1880 beyond January 1st. This made the execution of some of the most objectionable of the Falk laws discretionary with the Government. The exercise of these discretionary powers had, in the language ot the address, enabled the Government to restore to several Catholic dioceses a regular adminis- tration, and to relieve their pressing necessities in the matter of the cure of souls, and also to extend and facilitate the activity of the societies for tending the sick. " The friendly relations with the present head of the Catholic Church place us in a position," it was stated, uto re- sume diplomatic intercourse with the Roman Curia, which was required for the discharge of public business." The session commenced with favorable prospects for the Clericals and their 358 GERMANY. ultra-Conservative allies, who were warned by the gains of the Progressive and Liberal par- ties in the election of 1881 to secure the legis- lation they desired before another session. They were indignant at the proposal of Bis- marck to continue the arbitrary powers granted him respecting the exercise of the May laws instead of repealing the unbearable statutes at once. Von Schlozer returned from the post of embassador at Washington to take the em- bassy at the Papal Court, whither he departed on the 31st of January to win the assent of the Pope to the discretionary law. The pro- vision for the support of the new embassy, as well as the other items of the budget, passed through without friction. The proposal for the extension of the discretionary exercise of the May laws was killed in committee. Windt- horst moved a bill providing for the unre- stricted dispensation of the sacraments and reading of mass. The successor to Plittkamer in the Ministry of Worship, Yon Gossler, was not prepared to accept, but unwilling to oppose, the motion of the Clerical leader. He accord- ingly arranged with the Clerical party, and brought in as a revised form of the measure rejected by the committee, a bill which went almost as far as Windthorst's, and moreover provided for the restoration of the deposed bishops. It was passed over the votes of the Liberals, and signed by the King May 31st. After its enactment Bishop Herzog, of Breslau, took a bold stand on the question of mixed marriages, and the ecclesiastical authorities elsewhere showed a disposition to assert the old constitutional rights of the Church. This attitude prompted the ministry to postpone the recall of the recalcitrant bishops.* * The modern conflict between church and state in Ger- many began with the Cologne difficulty regarding mixed marriages and the religious instruction of the children. The Curia had officially ignored the regulations introduced in Prussia in 1803 ; but. when these were extended over the newly-acquired western provinces in 1825, local difficulties arose. The Prussian monarchy, in return for having made the church c, state establishment, again looked to Eome for the acceptance of the regulations. Leo XII died before Bun- sen could obtain from him the desired concession. Pius VIII sent a brief which recognized mixed marriages, but was not satisfactory with regard to the religious training of the chil- dren. Gregory XVI asserted the rights of the Church more vigorously than his predecessors, commencing the campaign in Hanover. Yet he reissued this brief, which hid been re- jected by the Prussian Government, after making formal al- terations. A convention was concluded with the bishops; but difficulties soon occurred, and representations were re- ceived from the Pope accusing the Prussian Government of evading their agreement and oppressing the Church. The hostility of the Archbishop of Cologne, and the quiescence of some of the other bishops to the Government, heightened the tension. There was danger of the Rhenish province be- ing taken away and incorporated in Belgium, on account of the religious troubles. In 1837 the archbishop was impris- oned. In the Papal allocution which was called out by this act the chasm between the Church and the Government was laid bare. About the same time occurred an altercation with the Archbishop of Gnesen and Posen on the same subject of mixed marriages, which led to his imprisonment. In 1839 Arnoldi was chosen Bishop of Treves, without the ap- proval of the Government, and therefore unusual. Diplo- matic intercourse with the Curia almost ceased. On the accession of Friedrich "Wilhelm IV an accommodation was achieved, after a year or two of negotiation. The Govern- ment had to concede every principle in order to re-establish peace and order, and to keep the determined Archbishop Droste, who was their own particular choice originally, away From a petty revolt of the Progressists against the " reptile fund " the National Liberals held back. Action on the proposition to allow the Guelph fund to accumulate for the benefit of the mediatized royal house of Hanover was postponed on the motion of Von Benningsen, leader of the remnant of Bismarck's old party and Hanoverian deputy, who hinted that the Duke of Cumberland might before long recog- nize the empire, and with propriety claim the indemnity awarded to his family.* The bill providing for the abolition of the four lower grades of the income-tax and of school-fees, the subvention of municipalities, and the improvement of the salaries of civil servants, made contingent upon the adoption of the tobacco monopoly, was intended to meet the objection that the Reichstag was ignorant of the manner in which the revenues from the monopoly would be used. The bill was reject- ed on the second reading by every vote except the Government Conservatives. The nation- alization of the railroads was approved. Ex- cept the new ecclesiastical law, this was the only result of the session, which closed May llth. The Liberal parties were disappointed in from Cologne. The bishops were given powers which they had not possessed before ; while the Government placet was to be construed as only the right of approval, not the right to nominate candidates to vacant sees, and direct communica- tions were allowed between the Prussian bishops and the Curia. According to the new understanding, the hierarchy was to supervise the theological studies at Bonn and in the Cologne Seminary, and could proceed at will against the con- demned Bermesian neology. The bishops were accorded full authority over the discipline of the clergy, and discretion to permit or refuse the celebration of mixed marriages. The result of the long conflict was therefore the abandonment of the claims of the state, a result which was embodied in the Prussian Constitution of 18EO. In the contest against the Church, which was commenced in 1870, and was apparently triumphant in the enactment of the Falk laws, it was not merely prescriptive rights, fortified by the sentiment of the affected population, but plain provisions of the Constitution •which were violated. * The fund was created by an act of February, 1868, in ful- fillment of an agreement between King William and the de- throned King George, by which the latter was to receive the indemnity of 16,000,000 thalers for the loss of his sovereign rights, the capital to be retained in trust by the Prussian Government, and the interest to be paid in perpetuity to the heirs of the Brunswick-Luneburg family. Count Bismarck was obh'ged to use all his powers of pei suasion to overcome the opposition among the Liberals to the grant, who objected not only on account of the magnitude of the sum, but be- cause the deposed King had not formally abdicated. By en- tering into the agreement, which was brought about through the mediation of the British Government, Bismarck argued that the exiled monarch had "in honor" renounced his claim to his dominions. Yet, a few days after the vote was granted, the blind King made a public speech in which his royal rights were vehemently asserted. The Government promptly im- pounded the indemnity fund, which proceeding was approved by the Diet. The problem of what to do with the accruing interest was finally solved by placing it at the disposal of the Government as a secret-service fund, with the understanding that it was to be used in frustrating the intrigues of the Guelph faction. "There is nothing of the sry in me," said Bismarck ; "but I think we deserve thanks if we follow evil reptiles into their hiding-places, to watch what they are do- ing." Hence the fund, which amounts to about 1,300,000 marks annually, came to be known as the "reptile fund." These moneys are supposed to have been used latterly in entertaining the semi-official organs, called Bneeringly "of- ficious," which were in derision named the " reptile press." These mysterious journals have been very serviceable in working public opinion, and feeling the way for the Chan- cellor's designs, and are a stumbling-block to his political opponents. GERMANY. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 359 their expectations by the result of the new elec- tions to the House of Deputies on the 19th and 26th of October. The Progressists lost many seats to the Conservatives, while they gained almost as many from the moderate Liberals. The new Landtag was opened in person by the King on November 14th. The speech urged that, while the other features of the tax reform were awaiting the development of more en- lightened opinions in the legislative assemblies, the relief of the poorer classes from the income- tax should be proceeded with immediately. The collection of this tax was stated to necessi- tate frequent legal executions and entail great distress. To supply the loss of revenue from the abolition of the four lowest grades of the class-tax, the imposition of license-taxes for the sale of beer, wine, spirits, and tobacco, was proposed. The Landtag showed little inclina- tion to accept this new project of the Govern- ment, its opponents proposing instead the re- adjustment of the income-tax. BAVARIA. — The liberal provisions of the Bavarian Constitution regarding change of domicile were not superseded upon the entrance into the empire. The monarchy retains also its post-office and telegraphs, and the separate organization of its army. The President of the Ministry is Dr. von Lutz. The ministry was retained by the King, although the Ultra- montane majority in the Chamber in 1882 sought to displace it. Von Lutz showed a willingness to make some concessions to the majority, but held firmly to the interpretation of the ecclesiastical provisions in the organic law, which, since the Kulturlcampf, has been made to conform to the construction put upon the analogous articles in the Prussian Consti- tution. The financial statement for the budget period of 1882 and 1883 shows 228,705,333 marks of gross receipts, and 137,718,537 of net receipts. The public debt, on the 1st of Janu- ary, amounted to 1,341,078,131 marks. The Chamber of Deputies reduced the obligatory school period from seven to six years. SAXONY. — The President of the Ministry is General von Fabrice. The Chambers celebrat- ed on the 1st of September the fiftieth anni- versary of the Constitution. The budget for 1882-'83 fixes the revenue and expenditure at 67,767,236 marks. Nearly two thirds of the receipts are from railroads, forests, etc. The debt stood, on January 1st, at 673,445,475 marks. WIJRTEMBERG.— The President of the Minis- try is Dr. von Mittnacht. Elections to the Landtag took place on the 20th of December, in which the Conservative-National party of the ministry obtained a decisive victory over their opponents, the Democratic Volkspartei. The National-Liberal party was merged with the Conservative upon the entrance of its lead- er, Von Holder, into the ministry in October, 1881. The budget for 1882-'83 fixes the re- ceipts at 52,303,615 marks. ALSACE-LORRAINE. — This province of the empire is administered under the immediate direction of the General Government. In vir- tue of the law of July 4, 1879, a lieutenant of the Emperor is placed over it, the adminis- tration of which is directed by a ministry, presided over by a secretary of state. The conciliatory intentions avowed since the ap- pointment of Baron Manteuffel as Lieutenant- Governor have not diminished the opposition of the protesting party in the Reichsland. A bill which was introduced in the extra session of the Reichstag, to allow the use of French in deliberative bodies under special circumstances, was defeated in the November session through the influence of the Government, and by the new law the deliberations of the provincial committee must be public and in the German language. The budget for 1882-'83 places the total expenses at 46,830,713 marks. The rev- enues are derived from imposts on wine, beer, etc., the public forests, and to a less extent than in other states from land and other direct taxes. The gross receipts of the tobacco mo- nopoly are stated at 5,688,000 marks, and the expenses at 4,631,562 marks. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, a constitutional monarchy of Western Europe. The supreme legislative power resides in Par- liament, which must be convoked annually. The prerogative of the crown, which the re- sistance of the feudal barons prevented from becoming as absolute as in Continental coun- tries, was greatly curtailed in the conflicts with the princes of the Stuart dynasty. During the last three reigns little has remained of the royal authority but the forms. During the same period the hereditary senate of the Peers has been driven to practically relinquish its share of the legislative authority, while the basis of representation in the House of Commons, or elective assembly, has been considerably ex- tended. By the Reform Bill of 1867-'68 the franchise was conferred upon all rate-payers and occupants of real estate of £10 annual value in the towns and cities, and £12 in the country. The executive authority and the initiative in legislation are virtually concen- trated in the hands of the Prime Minister, who is appointed as the leader of the dominant party, and who selects his associates to preside over the different departments and to prepare with him the schemes of legislation to be brought forward in Parliament. The Queen, Victoria I, was born May 24, 1819, and suc- ceeded her uncle, William IV, June 20, 1837. The heir-apparent is Albert Edward, born in 1841. The present House of Commons first met in April, 1880. It is the twenty-second since the Union, and the tenth of the reign of Victoria. Unless previously dissolved, it will last until 1887. The House of Commons con- sists of 187 members representing counties, 295 representing cities and boroughs, and 5 representing universities in England and Wales, together 487 members; 32 representing counties, 26 representing cities and burgh dis- 360 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. tricts, and 2 representing universities, together 60 members from Scotland ; and 64 represent- ing counties, 39 representing cities, and 2 representing the university, together 105, from Ireland; making 652 members altogether. There are 658 constituencies, but six have been disfranchised for bribery. At the beginning of the term the House was divided as to par- ties between 203 Conservatives and 286 Liber- als from England, 8 Conservatives and 52 Lib- erals from Scotland, and 24 Conservatives, 19 Liberals, and 60 Home-Rulers from Ireland ; together 235 Conservatives, 357 Liberals, and 60 Home-Rulers. The House of Lords consisted in 1881 of 537 members, of whom 5 were peers of the blood royal, 2 archbishops, 21 dukes, 20 marquesses, 128 earls, 32 viscounts, 24 bishops, 261 barons, 16 Scottish representative peers, and 28 Irish representative peers. Only 12 of the peerages are older than the seventeenth century, and 341 are not older than the present century, 165 having been created during the reign of Queen Victoria. The Prime Minister is William Ewart Glad- stone. Upon forming his Ministry in 1880 he took the office of Chancellor of the Exchequer in addition to his regular duties as First Lord of the Treasury. After the close of the extra session in the autumn of 1882, the Cabinet was reconstituted. Lord Derby entered the Cabinet as Secretary for the Colonies, Lord Kimberley taking Lord Hartington's place in the India Office, and the latter Mr. Childers's place as Secretary of War, while Childers re- ceived the Chancellorship of the Exchequer, relinquished by Gladstone. Sir Charles Dilke obtained a seat in the Cabinet as President of the Local Government Board, Mr. Dodson re- ceiving the Chancellorship of the Duchy of Lan- caster. AREA AND POPULATION-. — The total popula- tion of the United Kingdom in 1881 was found at the census taken on April 4th to be 35,246,- 562, of whom 17,253,947 were males and 17,- 992,615 were females. The area and popula- tion of the separate divisions were as follow : DIVISIONS. Area In square miles. Population, 1881. England 50.933 24,608,891 Wales 7,387 1,359,895 Scotland 80,685 8,784,370 Ireland 81,874 5,159,889 Isle of Man 226 53,492 Channel Islands 74 87,731 Soldiers and sailors abroad .... 242.844 United Kingdom 120,879 85,246,562 The population of England increased from 15,002,443 in 1841 to 16,921,888 in 1851 ; 18,- 954,444 in 1861 ; and 21,49d,131 in 1871. The increase between 1871 and 1881 was 1-35 per cent per annum. The population of Scotland increased from 2,620,184 in 1841 to 2,888,742 in 1851 ; 3,062,294 in 1861 ; 3,360,018 in 1861 ; and at the rate of 1-05 per cent per annum in the last census period. The population of Ire- land decreased from 8,196,597 in 1841 to 6,574,271 in 1851; 5,798,967 in 1861; and 5,412,377 in 1871. The rate of decrease be- tween 1871 and 1881 was 0-48 per cent. The density of population in 1881 was for the United Kingdom 291 to the square mile, being between that of Holland (320) and Italy (248), and exceeded only by Belgium and Holland among European countries. The density of population in England and Wales was 445 to the square mile, being inferior only to that of Belgium (486). The number of inhabitants to the square mile in Ireland was 161, being more than in Hungary (125) and Denmark (136) and less than in France (178) and Switzerland (178). The number to the square mile in Scot- land was 121. England contained 53-6 per cent of the population of the United Kingdom in 1831 and 69-8 per cent in 1881 ; Scotland, 9-7 per cent in 1831 and 10'6 per cent in 1881 ; Ireland, 31 -8 per cent in 1831 and 14'6 per cent in 1881. The population of London proper in 1881 was 3,814,571 ; of the suburban districts, 949,- 741 ; total population of the metropolis, 4,- 764,312. The average rate of increase in the last dec- ade was 16'9 per cent. The soil of Great Britain and Ireland is in fewer hands than that of any other country. The number of owners of land in the three kingdoms is returned as follows, the lands of the metropolis being excluded: UNITED KINGDOM. Number of owners below an acre. Nnmber of owners above an acre. Total number of owners. England and Wales Scotland . . 7C3.289 113 005 269,547 1ft 225 972,836 132 280 Ireland 36114 32614 68758 Grt. Britain and Ireland 852,408 821,386 1,178,824 The proportion of owners of property to the total number of inhabitants is 1 in 20 in Eng- land and Wales, 1 in 25 in Scotland, 1 in 79 in Ireland, and for the whole United Kingdom 1 in 24. The average quantity of land held by each owner is 33 acres, the average rental £102, in England; 143 acres, rental £141, in Scotland; 293 acres, rental £195, in Ireland; and 61 acres, rental £112, for the whole coun- try. The number of electors in 1879 was 2,999,- 229 in the United Kingdom, against 2,748,985 in 1874; in England and Wales, 2,459,999, against 2,245,108; in Scotland, 307,941, against 280,308 ; in Ireland, 231,289, against 223,569. The proportion of male to female children born in England is 1,048 to 1,000. At about the age of ten years the two sexes become equal in numbers, while in the whole popula- tion the females outnumber the males in the ratio of 1,000 to 949. In the total population of England and Wales, numbering 25,968,286, there were in 1881 803,126 paupers. The number of persons convicted of crimes in 1880 was 11,214. The number of births in 1880 was, GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 361 880,520; of deaths, 528,056; of marriages, 191,634. In Scotland three fourths of the surface of the country consists of mountains, marshes, and other waste lands. Among the total pop- ulation of 3,734,441, the number of males was 1,797,592 ; of females, 1,936,848. The num- ber of registered paupers and their dependents in 1880 was 98,608 ; the number of convictions for crimes 2,046. The number of births in 1880 was 124,652 ; of deaths, 75,795 ; of mar- riages, 24,489. The population of the eight principal towns, containing together more than one third of the total population of the coun- try, was as follows: Glasgow, 511,532; Edin- burgh, 228,190; Dundee, 142,454; Aberdeen, 105,054; Greenock, 68,897; Leith, 61,168; Paisley, 55,642 ; Perth, 29,755. Of the 5,159,839 inhabitants of Ireland, 2,522,804 were males and 2,637,035 females. The number of paupers reported in 1881 was 109,655 ; of convictions for crime, 2,383. The emigration of 1881, and the origin and destination of the emigrants, were as follow : EMIGRATION. To the United States. ll H To Australian colonies. To other coun- tries. I English... Scotch 90,527 18288 17,164 8182 15,704 2433 16,531 2973 139,976 26 S"6 Irish . . 67 339 3566 4545 '750 76 1>00 Foreigners 129 701 10619 1410 2 621 144 381 Unknown 2,168 1 2962 5131 Total 1881 807 973 34,561 24,093 25 887 392 514 COLONIES. — The colonial possessions of Great Britain cover about one seventh of the land- surface of the earth, and contain nearly one fourth of its population. They are divided into forty administrative divisions. The Dominion of Canada, Newfoundland, New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, South Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, and the Cape of Good Hope possess responsible government, making their own laws and administering their own govern- ment; the Bahamas, Bermudas, Leeward Isl- ands, Windward Islands, Natal, Ceylon, and Western Australia possess representative in- stitutions, but their legislation is more under the control of the home authorities, and the government is administered by crown officers ; while the rest are governed entirely by the crown. The cost of the colonies to Great Brit- ain was, in 1879-'80, about £2,338,252, more than half of which was expended upon the naval and military stations of Gibraltar, Malta, Cape Colony and Natal, Mauritius, Bermuda, St. Helena, Cyprus, and Hong-Kong. The area and population of each of the col- onies, dependencies, and occupied stations of the British Empire in Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, and America, consisting in all of forty- nine, and embracing the Dominion of Canada, and the immense country of India with over two hundred and fifty million inhabitants, are presented in the following table : COLONIES. ' Square miles. Population. Heligoland . V 1913 Gibraltar . . . 2 18881 Malta 124}£ 154892 Cyprus 3707 186084 Total Europe 3,838% 361 270 India : 908.350 252,541,210 Ceylon 24702 2 638 540 Straits Settlements 1350 423 384 Hong-Kong 82 160 402 Labuan . 30 6,298 Nicobar Islands Andaman Islands North Borneo 6S4 2,508 22 009 5,500 14,500 150000 Aden 7% 22 707 Perim . . ±% Total Asia* 959,677^ 255,962,541 New South Wales 309,175 751,468 Victoria 87 884 862 346 Queensland 667,615 213 525 South Australia 903,425 236,211 Western Australia Tasmania 975,920 26 375 31,000 115705 New Zealand ... . 105 342 489 691 Feejee Islands .... ... 8,034 124,999 Kotumah 2,500 Total Australasiat 8 083 770 2 877 440 Cape Colony 199,950 7SO 757 Basutoland 9,720 128,176 Griqualand, West 17,491 45,277 Transkai 15 573 409 944 Natal 18,750 413 167 Sierra Leone 1000 60,546 Gambia 69 14,150 Gold Coast 15000 408 070 Lagos 73 75270 St. Helena 47 5059 Mauritius 739 877,373 Ascension 34 27 Total Africaj 278446 2 717 816 Dominion of Canada 8,205,344 4,324,810 Newfoundland, 42734 179509 Bermudas 19 13,948 Honduras 7.562 27,452 Bahamas . 5390 43 521 Turks Islands 9 4732 Caicos Islands . . Jamaica 213 4,193 1,878 580,804 Cayman Islands 225 2400 Leeward Islands 706 119 546 Windward Islands 830 812 686 Trinidad 1 754 155 128 British Guiana . . . 85,425 248,110 Falkland Islands . . 4839 1 553 Total America 8 359 243 6,016,077 Total British possessions 7,684,970 267,935,144 The railroad mileage of the British Islands in 1881 was 18,180 miles, against 17,933 in 1880. The mileage in England and Wales was 12,810; in Scotland, 2,930; in Ireland, 2,440. The total cost of the railroads was reported as £745,519,000; the gross annual receipts £63,- 873,000; the net receipts £31,828,000. The length of the telegraph lines belonging to the Government was about 26,000 miles; the length of wires 121,000 miles. The num- ber of dispatches sent in 1881-'82 was 31,345,- * Not including the Kuria Muria Islands, Mosha, Kama- ran, and Keeling Islands, the total area of which is less than one hundred square miles. t Not including the Chatham Islands, Norfolk Island, and the Islands of Auckland. Lord Howe. Caroline, Starbuck, Maiden, and Fanning. The natives of Australia, estimated at 55,000. and the Maoris of New Zealand, numbering 44,000, are not included. t Not including Whale Bay, Tristan da Cunha, New Am- sterdam, and St. Paul. 362 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 861. The gross receipts were £1,633,884 ; ex- penses, £1,305,006. The number of post-offices in 1881 was 14,- 549. The number of letters delivered in the year 1881-'82 was 1,229,000,000: in England and Wales, 1,037,000,000 ; in Scotland, 110,000,- 000 ; in Ireland, 82,000,000. There were be- sides 135,000,000 postal-cards and 412,000,000 newspapers carried by the mails. The num- ber of postal money-orders was 14,900,000, amounting to £23,471,000,000, besides 200,000 sent to foreign countries, and 500,000 received from abroad. The total value of the exports and imports of Great Britain for the five years last reported was, in round numbers, as follows: YEAR. Imports. Exports of British products. Exports of foreign products. Total exports. Total commerce. 1881 £397 022 000 £234,023,000 £63 060 000 £297 088 000 £694105000 1880 411,230,000 223,060,000 63,354,000 286 414 000 697 644 000 1879 362,992,000 191.5i2,000 57,252,000 248 783 000 611 775 000 1878 868 771 000 192,?49,000 52 635 000 245 484 000 614 255 000 1877 394,420,000 198,893,000 53 453 000 252 346 000 646 766 000 The declared value of the imports and exports of specie for four years was as follows : YEAR. Gold imports. Gold exports. Silver imports. Silver exports. Total imports. Total exports. 1881 £9 963 000 £15 499 000 £6 901 000 £7 004 000 £16 864 000 £22 503 000 1880 9 455,000 11 829,000 6 799 000 7 061 000 16 254 000 18 890 000 1879 13,369,000 17 579,000 10 787 000 11 006 000 24 156 000 2S 5S5 000 1878 20,871,000 14,969,000 11,552,000 11,718 000 32 423 000 26 687 000 The value of the exports of British products per head of the population was £6 14s. in 1881 ; £6 9s. 5d. in 1880 ; £5 12s, 2d. in 1879 ; £5 14s. Id. in 1878; and £5 18s. lid. in 1877. The value of imports per head was £11 7s. 4d. in 1881 ; £11 18s. 7d. in 1880 ; £10 12s. 7d. in 1879 ; £10 18s. 3d. in 1878 ; and £10 15s. 10(7. in 1877. Articles of consumption made up £187,349,- 000 of the total value of merchandise imports, and £10,633,000 of the exports of British products. The largest articles of import are grain and flour, the principal part of which comes from the United States; raw cotton, chiefly from the United States ; wool, chiefly from the Aus- tralian colonies ; sugar, raw and refined ; wood and timber ; and tea. The leading exports are cotton manufactures, woolen manufactures, iron and steel, coal, linen manufactures, and machinery. The aggregate tonnage of vessels engaged in foreign commerce entering British ports in 1881 was 28,519,015: 20,437,035 under the British flag, and 8,081,980 under foreign flags. In 1860 the aggregate tonnage was 12,172,785 : 6,889,009 British, and 5,283,776 foreign. The aggregate tonnage cleared in 1881 was 29,430,- 530; 21,106,224 British, and 8,324,306 foreign. The tonnage of laden ships arriving was 23,- 224,708; departing, 26,336,693. The tonnage of arriving steamships was 19,268,327; 16,- 038,726 British, and 3,229,601 foreign. The aggregate tonnage of the coasting-trade was 40,364,392 for arriving, and 34,655,235 for departing vessels. The total number of ships registered in the United Kingdom in 1881 was 24,830, of the aggregate tonnage of 6,692,000 tons, as com- pared with 25,185 ships of 6,575,000 tons in 1880. The number of steamers was 5,505 of 3,004,000 tons in 1881, against 5,247 of 2,724,- 000 tons in 1880. The number of sailing-ves- sels 19,325, of 3,688,000 tons, against 19,938, of 3,851,000 tons, in 1880. The number of ships registered in the colonies was 13,922, of 1,844,000 tons, of which 1,732, of 236,000 tons, were steamers. Of the shipping of the United Kingdom, 4,163 sailing-ships, of 2,785,- 000 tons, and 2,546 steamships, of 2,619,000 tons, are employed in ocean-commerce. ARMY AND NAVY. — By the law of 1881, the duration of service in the army is fixed at twelve years, five active and seven in the reserve. The 109 regiments of infantry of the line and 131 regiments of militia, in most of which only one battalion exists, are united with the volunteers to form 68 territorial regiments, of from five to seven battalions, each with its re- cruiting depot. The first two battalions of each regiment are troops of the line. The bat- talions of the line take turns in the colonial service, each remaining twelve years, the in- dividual soldiers being replaced after eight years of service. The effective of the line battalions is from 562 to 1,040 men in the United Kingdom, 915 in India, and 895 in the colonies. The militia, after two months of in- struction, are only called out to drill for from four to eight weeks annually. In the army es- timates for 1882-'83, the strength of the regular army is fixed at 10,595 officers and 183,900 men, together 194,495, with 23,584 horses; the reg- ular army reserves at 500 officers and 35,600 men, together 36,100. The yeomanry cavalry and militia number 4,575 officers and 148,157 men, together 152,732, with 14,500 horses which they furnish themselves ; the volunteers number 8,192 officers and 238,168 men, together 399,092. The strength of the native forces in India is given as 3,212 English officers and 117,670 native officers and men, together 120,- 882, with 21,870 horses, elephants, and oxen. The total strength of the imperial forces is ac- GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 363 cordingly 27,074 officers and 723,495 men, to- gether 750,509, with 59,954 horses. In the regular army, mustering 194,495 officers and men, 16,618 are cavalry, 33,789 artillery, 5,703 engineers, 128,238 infantry, 2,475 in the colo- nial corps, and 7,672 in the departmental ser- vices. According to a parliamentary return, there were 5,738 English, 785 Scotch, and 1,386 Irish officers in the army in 1878, and of the rank and tile 124,708 were of English, 14,235 of Scotch, and 39,121 of Irish birth. Nearly all the colonies maintain militia and volunteer organizations. Separate from the army but having a military organization, are the armed police of Ireland, numbering about 14,000 men. India has a native military po- lice of 190,000 men, in which the superior commands are filled by Englishmen. The navy, unlike the army, of which the government is vested in the crown, is a per- manent establishment, governed according to a settled code, by the Board of Admiralty, which consists of five members. The first Lord of the Admiralty always has a seat in the Cabinet. The navy was composed in 1882 of 74 ironclads, including some not completed, about 300 other steam -vessels, and 120 sailing- ships. (See NAVIES OF EUROPE.) The British navy is manned by 45,300 offi- cers, engineers, seamen, boys, etc., and 12,400 marine troops, artillery and infantry, with their officers, besides 18,400 in the Royal Navy Re- serve, and 3,550 volunteer artillery, making a total effective force of 79,650 ; 21,513 more are employed in construction. FINANCES. — The finance accounts for 1881- '82 make the total revenue for the year ending March 31st, £85,822,282. The yield of the cus- toms duties, which are confined to tobacco, spirits, tea, wine, raisins, coffee, chiccory, cocoa, and some minor articles, is estimated at £19,- 278,000. The excise taxes produce £27,240,- 000, of which £23,522,922 comes from the ex- cise duty on spirits and malt, £2,024,619 from the license taxes on brewers and dealers in beer, spirits, wine, tobacco, etc.; £1,562,239 from the licenses for carriages, dogs, hunting, male domestics, coats of arms, right of carry- ing weapons, and various professions; £12,- 260,000 from stamp duties on contracts, wills, successions and legacies, receipts, marine in- surance, bills of exchange, banks, license cer- tificates, patents, gold and silver manufactures, playing - cards, and proprietary medicines ; £2,725,000 from the land and house taxes; £9,945,000 from 'the income-tax; £7,000,000 from the post-office; £1,630,000 from tele- graphs; £380,000 from the domains; £1,219,- 262 interest on advances for local improvements and on Suez Canal shares ; and £4,136,020 from other sources. The balance on hand April 1, 1881, was £5,923,661. Of the expenditures, £29,665,945 go to pay the interest on the pub- lic debt, the consolidated debt calling for £21,- 393,802 ; £1,664,438 for the civil list, courts of justice, and other charges on the consolidated fund; £16,419,038 for the civil service; £29,- 201,038 for military and naval expenses, of which £16,309,585 are for the army, £1,100,- 000 for the army on Indian account, £500,000 on account of the expedition to Afghanistan, £535,000 for wars in South Africa, and £10,- 756,453 for the navy, and £8,522,097 for the postal and other services; total, £85,472,556. The total revenues raised for local adminis- tration in 1879-'80 were £63,046,664: £30,- 971,396 from direct taxes, £6,244,327 from indirect, £1,666,227 from public property, £3,396,806 contributions from the national Treasury, £15,103,882 by loans, and £5,664,- 026 of other receipts. The local expenditures in the three kingdoms were as follow : LOCAL EXPENDITURES. England. Scotland. Ireland. Total. Public charity . £8 851 844 £918217 £1 060 74S £10 830 809 Municipalities, police, and public health 83,961,898 8 679 100 2.507.000 2 495 273 2,015,844 684 556 38,484.742 11 85S 929 Total . £51 492 S42 £5 920 490 £3 761 148 £61 174 4S0 FOREIGN RELATIONS. — At the close of the year the British expeditionary forces were still in Egypt. In a circular note, dated January 3d, Lord Granville announced the " desire " of her Majesty to retire them when the state of the country and the organization of the means to maintain the authority of the Khedive will permit. During the interval the position in which the British Government finds itself im- poses the duty of giving counsel so as to make sure that the order of things to be established will have a " satisfactory character and possess the elements of stability and of progress." For the future regulation of the Suez Canal, he pro- poses an agreement among the powers that the canal should always be free for the passage of vessels ; that in time of war naval vessels of a beUigerent should be subject to a detention, and should not be allowed to land troops or munitions of war; that no hostilities should take place in the canal or its environment, or anywhere in Egyptian waters, even when Tur- key is one of the belligerents ; but that the last two rules should not apply to measures neces- sary for the defense of Egypt. Another rule forbids the construction of fortifications on the canal or in its vicinity. The British minister speaks of a new scheme for the financial ad- ministration in the interest of the bondholders to be submitted later. He proposes to place foreigners on the same footing with Egyptians with respect to taxation. The army is to be reduced, and in compliance with the earnest wish of the Khedive will be commanded by English officers. For the maintenance of pub- lic order a separate body of police and gen- 364 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. darmes will be established. The request of the Egyptian Government for the abolition of the control is approved, its place to be taken by a financial adviser to the Khedive nominated by the Government of Great Britain. The reform of the administration of justice and the suppres- sion of the slave-trade are to be urged upon the Khedive. The note foreshadows finally the "prudent introduction of representative institutions." The reawakened desires for commercial ex- pansion by force of arms caused the English to be unusually jealous of like propensities on the part of other nations. The operations of Italy in Assab Bay tirst excited their susceptibilities ; but their eyes were turned most anxiously to the movements of France at Tonquin, on the Congo, and in Madagascar. France has long exercised an incipient protectorate over the parts of Madagascar visited by her traders, while English influence in the island has been mostly confined to that exercised over Queen Ranovolo by missionaries. The British public were prepared in advance to espouse a quar- rel of the Malagassy Queen with the French Government; but upon the arrival of her em- bassy, which made the tour of the European courts, it was discovered that she could conduct her own diplomacy. The commercial treaty with France, con- cluded in 1860, and several times renewed, ex- pired the 1st of March. The new commercial treaty, on which Sir Charles Dilke and Gam- betta worked for ten months, came to nothing at last. The French protectionists were deter- mined to be delivered from subjection to Man- chester, which was accomplished by substi- tuting specific for ad valorem duties, since in the finer textiles English competition was not feared. Concessions in the amount of the specific duties were not acceptable to the Brit- ish commissioners, because they would not materially alter the effect. England was will- ing to continue the Cobden treaty, or to abate the wine duties in order to secure one more favorable for her manufactures. Fiscal con- siderations stood in the way of offering France a fair equivalent for free access to her markets, for French wines and articles of luxury are taxed for revenue purposes. The exports from France to England have greatly exceeded the imports of British products under the treaty which the French refuse to continue.* * The general imports from Great Britain into France in 1878 amounted to 703,780.052 francs, in 1879 to 747,707.318 francs, and in 1880 to 721,465,519 francs ; the general exports to Great Britain amounted to 1,149,183,404 francs in 1878, to 1,056.957,635 francs in 1879, and to 1,090,890,223 francs in 1880. The special commerce returns give 582,288,80!) francs in 1878, 600,823,044 francs in 1879, and 601,861,156 francs in 1880, as the value of imports from Great Britain, against '.H'.i.l:;:!.30S francs of special exports to that country in 1878, 834,128,197 francs in 1879, and 845,463,215 francs in 1880. In the special commerce of 18SO, wool imports from England flprured for about 124,400,000 francs, woolen fabrics for 60.- 200,000 francs, coal for 59.100.000 francs, cotton manufactures for 29,200,000 francs, and silks for 19,400,000 francs. The chief French exports to Great Britain were : silks, 98,600,000 francs; woolens, 98,700,000 francs; refined susrar, 43.000,000 francs ; wine, 72,100,000 franca ; and butter, 60,400,000 francs. LEGISLATION. — The session of Parliament opened February 7th. As the whole of the preceding session had been given up to Irish matters, the attention of Parliament was in- vited by the Ministry to the arrears of home legislation. As many as ten measures were announced in the Queen's speech. Three of these— the bankruptcy, corrupt practices, and river conservancy bills — had been brought down from the previous session. The others included such important subjects as local gov- ernment, the organization of a municipal gov- ernment for London, a revised criminal code, and a new patent law. But, through a series of mistakes and mischances, none of the meas- ures enumerated in the royal message were carried except two Scotch bills, one amending the law of entail, and the other providing for the endowment of education. That important Government measures have expired in pro- tracted discussions is no new thing ; but that they should not even be introduced, that the main part of the ministerial programme should not be discussed at all, would have been deemed impossible before this session of derangements and surprises. It was not because great and unforeseen exigencies called away the attention of the House, nor because the Irish were more successfully obstructive. They were not, prop- erly speaking, obstructive at all, although they contributed to the delay, as did all of the par- ties ; and none contributed so much to make this, in the words of Gladstone, " a session of ruin and discomfiture " as did the members of the Government themselves. The question of the year was the reform in parliamentary procedure. The new rules were to take precedence of all other measures. As framed by the Government, providing for the cloture by a bare majority, they furnished an issue between the two sides of the House, and both parties were girded for a close strug- gle. The Irish chapter was to be considered as closed. The address spoke of signs of im- provement, of a diminution of intimidation, and a more efficacious administration of jus- tice, giving promise that the operation of the land act, and preliminarily the judicious exer- cise of the powers of coercion, would bring about " the happy results which are so much to be desired." The debate on the address was prolonged eleven days. The Irish party ar- raigned the Government for administration of the protection act. The curt and contemptu- ous replies which they received enabled them the more forcibly to denounce the tyrannies of Forster's administration, to defend the motives of the imprisoned Land-Leaguers, to show the defects of the land law, to justify boycotting, and to unfurl the banners of home-rule as the only deliverance from misgovernment. Mr. Gladstone dumfounded the Conservatives and perplexed even the most advanced Liberals by hinting at the future consideration of " the wider question of a separate Legislature," and challenging the Home-Rulers to draw a line of GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 365 demarkation between imperial and local inter- ests. Meanwhile the House of Lords had ap- pointed a select committee to inquire into the workings of the land act. Mr. Gladstone then suspended the reform of parliamentary pro- cedure, to carry through a resolution condemn- ing the inquiry as "tending to defeat the op- eration of the land act and injurious to the good government of Ireland." This retarded for weeks the serious work of the session. The budget, reports of the departments, and other business delayed action on the new rules of procedure; but when the House was ap- proaching the point of a decision on the first rule, which embodied the principle of cloture, by a bare majority, the uncertain attitude of many Liberals betokened that the best chance of success was in delay. Irish matters were taken up and engrossed the attention of Par- liament to the end of the session. The Gov- ernment in the mean time recovered the polit- ical strength which it was losing in the field of legislation by engaging in the war with Egypt. (See DISCIPLINARY POWERS OF LEGISLATIVE AS- SEMBLIES, etc.) The composure of Parliament was ruffled at the outset by a renewal of the Bradlaugh ques- tion (see " Annual Cyclopsedia " for 1881). Mr. Bradlaugh presented himself with the new members to take the oath. Sir Stafford North- cote again moved that he be not allowed to " go through the form of repeating the words of the oath," which was carried by a majority of 286 to 228, placing the junior member for Northampton in the same position in which he stood during the previous session. This time the Government opposed the motion, and Mr. Bradlaugh made a plea, in which he offered to take the Ohiltern Hundreds and stand again if the House would make an affirmation law. Three weeks afterward his colleague, Labou- chere, moved for the issue of a new writ of election for Northampton, but by a nearly unanimous vote the House refused to declare the seat vacant. Then Mr. Bradlaugh advanced to the table, drew out a copy of the New Testa- ment, recited the oath, and signed the formu- la, which he passed to the Clerk. Ordered by the Speaker to withdraw below the bar, he did so, declaring that he had taken the oath ac- cording to law and would now take his seat. He accordingly turned about after just stepping outside and occupied a seat until he was again ordered out. The next day, during the ad- journed debate on his case, while Sir Stafford Northcote's motion to render his position still more intolerable, by denying him entrance into the building, was under consideration, Mr. Bradlaugh took a seat within the House, from which he rose, though directed to withdraw, to assert his right to be heard as a sitting member, and then retired upon a repetition of the Speaker's order. Sir Stafford Northcote then made a motion of expulsion, which was carried by an overwhelming majority. The constituency of Northampton did not desert their champion. A large vote was cast, and Bradlaugh came out a third time at the head of the poll. Without waiting for him to pre- sent himself, Sir Stafford Northcote moved to reject an amendment in favor of an optional affirmation law, to which the House agreed. Several acts were passed relating to the de- tails of public administration, some of them of especial significance. The conveyance of pack- ages by the post-office, which has long been the practice on the Continent of Europe, but which in America is considered to be peculiar- ly a function of private enterprise, was author- ized in the parcels-post bill. The maximum weight of postal packages is seven pounds. The charges for forwarding and delivery range from 3d. to 9^., according to weight. The numer- ous functions of the British post-office are further increased by an act adding to the busi- ness of the postal savings-banks that of pro- viding old-age annuities, or life-insurance. De- posits made indifferently at any of the 6, TOO post-offices opened for savings-bank business are applicable, according to previous acts, to the payment of debts and transfer of money all over the United Kingdom, and, when they have accumulated to a certain amount, they can be invested by the Post Office authori- ties, at the desire of the depositor, in Govern- ment bonds. By the new law, the Post-Office undertakes the payment of deferred annuities and life-insurance policies ; and money to meet the annual payments on these may be depos- ited at any time in any post-office, the excess drawing the usual small interest. A measure which realizes free trade in land, for which the Radicals have vehemently agi- tated, was introduced in the House of Lords by Lord Cairns, the former Tory Chancellor, and passed the House of Commons without a debate. The settled-land bill, supplementing previous legislation on the subject, enables tenants for life to sell the estates under restrictions requir- ing the proceeds to be invested so as to secure the interests of the remainder-men. The mon- eys are placed in the custody of the trustees of the settlement, or of the court, but may be applied in any way the limited owner selects, and to his profit, so long as the interests of the heirs are not impaired. For the sale of the principal mansion and park, the consent of the trustees or the court is requisite. The married women's property act com- pletes the revolution of the common-law prin- ciple regarding the status of the feme-covert, by which her land passed into the possession of the husband for life, and her personalty became his absolutely. The new act is clear and thor- ough. All property, of whatever kind, be- queathed to a married woman, or acquired by her own efforts, is placed beyond all control of the husband, and belongs as absolutely to her as though she were single; but she is made responsible for her debts incurred before or after marriage, must support her children if the husband is unable, and must support hiin? 366 GEEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. to prevent his becoming a charge^ upon the public. Parliament guarded against the appropriation of the invention of electric lighting by monopo- lies inimical to the public interest by a gen- eral law on the subject. The electric lighting bill reserves the right to the Board of Trade to impose regulations and conditions on compa- nies licensed to supply the electric light, as to the limits and conditions of supply, safety, price, and with regard to public inspection. New conditions may be inserted when the prog- ress of knowledge shows them to be desirable. The bill also provides for the expropriation of the works of any company after the lapse of fifteen years, if the local or municipal authori- ties find it advantageous to take the business into their own hands. The price must be the actual value of the plant at the time of purchase, to be determined by agreement, or by arbitra- tion. If municipalities desire to establish pub- lic works for electric lighting originally, they are empowered to do so. IEELAND. — The " new departure " in Ireland, which was announced in the beginning of May, was a reversal of the policy of repressing Irish opinion, and a condemnation of all the ut- terances of the Ministry since the breaking up of the Land League in the previous October. Earl Cowper resigned the viceroyalty so as not to stand in the way of the new policy. He was replaced by Earl Spencer, who had been Lord Lieutenant twice before. As he retained his position as President of the Privy Council, he was the first ruler in Dublin Castle who had a seat in the Cabinet. His active duties as Privy Seal were transferred to Lord Carling- ford, Minister without a portfolio. Mr. Forster stood out against a change of policy, and, after a protracted Cabinet meeting, resigned his post. The following day, May 2d, Mr. Gladstone an- nounced to Parliament the release of the three imprisoned members of Parliament, Parnell, Dillon, and O'Kelley, without conditions or stip- ulations, the intended discharge of all the " suspects " not believed to be complicated in the commission of crimes, and the intention of the Government to take counsel with the Irish representatives on the amendment of the land act, and to rely on the ordinary law, fortified with some new enactments, after the lapse of the protection act. The ground of the release of the imprisoned members was stated by the Prime Minister to have been information received by the Govern- ment that if the question of arrears was settled on the basis of a bill offered by Redmond, one of the Land-League members, they would " range themselves on the side of law and or- der." A bitter wrangle followed, in which the Conservatives and their new ally, the late Chief Secretary, asserted that Gladstone had made a secret compact with Parnell, and the Government and the Irish members angrily repudiated the charge. Before this ques- tion of fact was fairly opened, the hopes of all who looked forward to peace and recon- cilement with the Irish people were dashed by a political murder in Dublin, which was apparently the work of conspirators, whose purpose was to prevent the prospective reconciliation, and keep alive the animosities between the two countries. The successor to Forster in the Chief Secretaryship was Lord Frederick Cavendish, a representative of the Whig section of the party, but one who had betrayed no prejudices or convictions in Irish questions. He was only known as a diligent official, esteemed by the men of all parties for his genial qualities (see OBITUABIES). On May 6th, the day after his arrival in Ireland, while the new Secretary and Under- Secretary Burke (see OBITU ABIES) were walking together in Phoenix Park, they were assassinated by four men, who were driven up rapidly in a jaunting-car. They leaped out, stabbed their victims several times with long knives, and drove away. The crime plunged the minds of the Irish representatives into a gloom of despair, and excited in the minds of many Englishmen a ferocious spirit of revenge. A bill for the prevention of crime, more stringent by far than the protection act, was introduced by the Home Secretary, Sir William Harcourt. The Irish party, assisted by Mr. Cowen and a few other English mem- bers, contested stubbornly the harsher enact- ments of this, the severest measure of repres- sion since Lord Grey's coercion act. They openly resorted to obstructive tactics, but con- ducted them so artfully that no plain instance of obstruction could be singled out. On the 29th of June, when the bill had been twenty- three days in committee, Mr. Gladstone rallied his followers for an all-night sitting. The next morning, when Lyon Playfair, chairman of the committee, returned to the House, he pro- ceeded to name Parnell and fifteen of his fol- lowers as guilty of systematic obstruction (see DlSCIPLINAEY POWEK OF LEGISLATIVE AS- SEMBLIES, etc.). The sixteen members were suspended en bloc, although it was shown that several of the members named were not then in the House, and others had been absent dur- ing the night. Mr. O'Donnell. who was under- stood to speak of the " infamy " of punishing him for obstruction when he was at home asleep, was suspended for two weeks. Later in the day nine other Irish members were named and suspended. By this illegitimate proceeding the bill was carried through com- mittee, and the urgency rule was revived to prevent any further stoppage. George Otto Trevelyan, who succeeded the murdered Chief Secretary, vigorously urged the passage of the measure as one which would be welcomed by the Irish people. The crimes bill was ostensibly directed against secret societies and illegal combina- tions, but its provisions were shaped to para- lyze the Land League, to destroy the right of meeting and of newspaper discussion, and to make boycotting and resistance to eviction GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 367 penal. In districts which may be proclaimed by the Lord Lieutenant, trial by jury is abol- ished in political and agrarian cases. Those of greater magnitude are tried by a tribunal composed of three judges of the Supreme Bench selected by the Lord Lieutenant, whose verdict must be unanimous, and from which an appeal lies to the Court of Appeals for criminal cases, called the Court of Criminal Cases Reserved, composed of five judges, of whom a majority decide. Cases of a lower category, which embraces boycotting, intimi- dation, etc., are triable by a court composed of two stipendiary magistrates, which possesses unlimited judicial powers and summary juris- diction. The police are armed with the power of search and arrest by day or night. The Government struck out the paragraph author- izing nocturnal domiciliary visits, but it was restored in a significant division in which the Whigs joined the Conservatives. The alien act was revived; and, contrary to the wish of the Government, the power to banish sus- picious foreigners was extended to Great Brit- ain. Intimidation (including boycotting), in- citement to crime, secret conspiracies, and illegal assemblies, were defined as criminal of- fenses. A censorship of the press was estab- lished, with the right to prohibit the impor- tation of foreign publications. The Irishmen opposed most strenuously the suspension of jury trial and the intimidation clauses, and one which punishes the districts in which crimes of murder and maiming are committed without detection, by levying compensation. Such districts are, moreover, burdened with the cost of maintaining an extra police force. It was the struggle over these provisions which re- sulted in the indignation against the Irish members. The system of a special commis- sion of judges who decide on questions of fact as well as of law was modified by allowing the alternative of a change of venue and trial be- fore a special panel. The bill authorizes the arrest and detention of witnesses, and allows judicial inquiries to be prosecuted while the suspected criminal is still at large, or after he has fled the country. The minor offenses over which summary jurisdiction is given to infe- rior magistrates, sitting in couples and ap- pointed from the Castle, are punishable with six months' imprisonment, with or without hard labor. Any person found outside of his home between sunset and sunrise, or any stranger found in a proclaimed district, can be arrested, and if they fail to give satisfactory explana- tions can be committed to prison for six months. The prevention act remains in oper- ation three years. The "information," on the strength of which the Cabinet had ordered the release of the imprisoned members, Parnell produced after the Premier had refused to disclose it. It was contained in a letter written by Parnell to another Irish member, which was brought to the notice of the Ministers. This letter, commonly alluded to as the "Treaty of Kil- mainham," became the subject of scornful re- proaches leveled against the Government. Parnell declared that the settlement of the arrears on the principle adopted in the bill afterward passed, together with the extension of the fair-rent clauses to lease-holders, the amendment of the tenure clauses, and altera- tions which would render the purchase clauses effective, would be regarded as a practical settlement of the land question, and would enable the Irish representatives "to co-operate cordially for the future with the Liberal party in forwarding Liberal principles." The latter clause of the declaration was omitted from the copy read by Paruell, who, on the chal- lenge of the ex-Secretary, called upon his cor- respondent, Captain O'Shea, to read the entire letter, which he did from a copy furnished by Mr. Forster. The letter also expressed the confidence of Parnell and his colleagues, that if the arrears were wiped out the exertions which they would "be able to make strenu- ously and unremittingly would be effective in stopping outrages and intimidations of all kinds." The remedial legislation to which the Gov- ernment had pledged themselves was linked with the repressive measure. The arrears bill was introduced almost at the same time with the crimes bill, and promised the first place after the latter had been disposed of. It fol- lowed the lines of Redmond's bill, and relieved tenants who were unable to pay off the whole of the arrears of rent for the bad years. Start- ing from the abortive clause relating to arrears in the land act, but adopting the principle of " gift and compulsion " instead of the principle of "loan and voluntary arrangement," advo- cated by the Irish Liberals and Moderate Home- Rulers, the ministerial measure proposed to give either landlord or tenant power to apply to the Land Court, under certain conditions, for carrying out a composition with the aid of public funds. The conditions were, that the tenant should have satisfied the landlord as to the year's rent due for 1881, that he should prove his inability to pay the arrears, and that the holding should be under £30 rent, Griffith's valuation, subject to which the state would pay the landlord half the remaining arrears, not in any case exceeding a year's rent, the remainder to be wholly canceled. The Irish Church surplus was appropriated for the state contribution ; in case it proved insufficient the excess was charged upon the Imperial Treasury. Prominent Liberals joined with the Conserva- tives in contending that farmers who possessed a valuable property in their tenant-right ought not to* be relieved of their debts by a free gift from the state, and the extinguishment of the landlord's claims by legislative fiat. A pro- vision was inserted that the commissioners "may, if they think it reasonable," take the tenant-right into account in estimating inability to pay. By an amendment tenants of hold- 368 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. ings above £30 and below £50 valuation were granted relief on the plan of state loans and voluntary agreement with the landlords. An- other amendment provided for a system of state-aided emigration. The Lords amended the act so as to require the consent of the landlord to the prescribed composition, and to enjoin the commissioners to count the value of the tenant-right as an asset in estimating the solvency of tenants. Gladstone refused to give up the principle of compulsion, but compromised the question of charging arrears upon the tenant-right, accept- ing the Duke of Abercorn's substitution of " shall " for " may " in the amendment, tacked on in the Commons with limitations as to time and amount, and with the qualification "so far as the commissioners think it reasonable." Lord Salisbury was determined to precipitate a crisis, but the Conservative Peers refused to follow him. The Ministers could have reas- sembled Parliament, and, while demanding the assent of the Upper House to the measure once more, could have dissolved with a " good cry " by announcing a new reform which they still hold in reserve. This is a county franchise bill, extending the borough suffrage to the rural population. The Land League, as an organization, was destroyed by Forster's application of the rigors of the coercion laws. The force of the move- ment in the form which it had taken spent it- self with the settlement of the arrears question. While Parliament was in debate over the ar- rears bill, Michael Davitt, who had been re- leased from Portland Prison a few days after the enlargement of the " suspect " members, propounded a new settlement of the land ques- tion, which removed it, except so far as the principles already embodied in legislation would solve it, into the sphere of speculative politics. His solution was the "nationalization of the land," * a scheme deduced from the theories of Henry George, the American economist, who was at that time in Ireland as correspond- ent for the "Irish World." This New York weekly journal from the beginning of the land agitation has circulated widely in Ireland, clandestinely when its open sale was pre- vented by the police. It was the medium for to have the Imperial Government expro- priate the landlords, indemnifying them by the payment of one half the former money value of the land, taking that to be their equitable share in the ownership, according to the principles of " conventional justice and prescriptive right." At twenty years1 purchase of the present rental, this would be about £140,000,000. An annual revenue collected in Ire- land of £7,000,000 would pay the interest at three per cent, and wipe out the principal in fifty years. The annual agri- cultural product of the country is now about £30.000,000 in crops, and £30,000.000 more in live-stock. Fully twenty-five per cent of the total is drained out of the country in the rents paid to the absentee landlords. Under the more favorable conditions which would result, the out-turn of vegetable products would be at least doubled. He proposes to have the state remain the universal landlord. A rent equal to ten per cent of the value of the annual agricultural yield would amply pay the entire costs of general and local government. Apart from this moderate rental there would be no taxes to pay by any class in the community, after the debt for the landlords1 indemnity has been extinguished. the appeals for pecuniary assistance to the American Irish, and its editor, Patrick Ford, acted as agent in the remission of large sums. Already powerful through its passionate advo- cacy of the aims of the Land League, and for- merly of the revolutionary designs, and the subsequent constitutional agitation for the re- peal of the Union, this Irish-American news- paper, which has always represented extreme views, became the organ of the Land League after the authorities had gagged the Irish press. The representative organ of Irish sentiment in America and the purveyor of American sup- port, and swaying opinion in Ireland more strongly in the absence of other outspoken journals, the " Irish World "* sometimes dic- tated, rather than voiced, the policy of the Irish leaders. This influential organ now em- braced Davitt's scheme for realizing the ideas of the "abolition of landlordism" and "the land for the people." The Ladies' Land League had been, except the Prisoners' Aid Society, since the suppression of the Land League, the only outward symbol of the large organization which had rallied under its banner the entire population of three provinces, and the majority of the fourth. Mr. Forster had done all he dared to destroy the ladies' association. Their practical work of providing food and shelter for evicted families was prohibited, and gentle- women were cast in jail for erecting huts for the roofless sufferers. These harsh measures only aided the high-spirited Irish ladies, under the leadership of Miss Anna Parnell, to keep in fresh remembrance the Land League and its aims. The Ladies' Land League also now de- clared in favor of Davitt's project. Parnell, with the other leaders, pointed out that the Irish people would have to be educated in en- tirely new ideas to relinquish their hopes of a peasant proprietary for this theoretical scheme, and that its realization would make them the serfs as well as the subjects of the "alien" * Rossa's "United Irishman," the organ of the "dynamite faction,'' was frequently quoted from in the House of Commons in justification of repression; the arguments based upon the extravagances of this sensational sheet were answered by the Irish representatives with contemptuous sarcasms. They de- clared that it found its readers chiefly among the Tory party, and that " O'Donovan Eossa was as necessary to Mr. Forster as Mr. Forster was to O'Donovan Eossa." They did not re- pudiate the " Irish World." The " Irish Nation," founded in the winter of IfcSl by John Devoy, a well-known Fenian, is as revolutionary in its tendency as the " United Irishman," and much more ably and eloquently written. It reflects the most advanced doctrines of Irish nationalism, and condemns Da- vitt's land ideas, deeming that Ireland should gain her inde- pendence by physical force, but not undertake the task of reforming civil society. The "Irish World" was a vehicle for the teachings of German socialism before it took up Henry George's agrarian theories. It has always striven to har- monize its social theories with the doctrines of the Catholic Church. By means of the " Spread the Light Fund," which was collected in connection with the revolutionary " Skirmish- ing Fund," it has been circulated gratis extensively in Ireland. The Boston " Pilot," conducted by the accomplished John Boyle O'Reilly, is the most moderate of the Home-Rule and Land-League journals, and perhaps the ablest and most in- fluential, having a circulation second to no other Catholic paper in America. It advertised a reward of $5,(iOO for the detection of the assassins of Lord Frederick Cavendish and Mr. Burke. Its editor was formerly a participant in the at- tempted Fenian revolution, and is still a nationalist, but looks to Home Rule ae the stepping-stone to independence. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. GREECE. 369 Government from whose misrule they had fondly hoped to escape for ages. After their manful resistance to the crimes bill, they re- laxed the intensity of their efforts, recognizing the need of Ireland for a repose from agitation in the fruition of the results already attained, especially the substantial benefits of the arrears bill which averted instant distress. The schism of Davitt was only one additional sign of the exhaustion of their mandate. The decisions of the Land Commissioners at the same time be- came less favorable to the tenants, the judg- ment in Adams versus Dunseath marking the turning-point. On August 16th, E. Dwyer Gray, High-Sheriff of Dublin and member of Parliament, was sen- tenced to three months' imprisonment, by Jus- tice Lawson, for contempt of court. The of- fense consisted in the publication of a letter in the influential "Freeman's Journal," of which he was the responsible editor, charging the jurors in a political murder trial with intoxi- cation, and of an editorial comment calling for an investigation. Several witnesses testified to the misconduct of which the jury was ac- cused, when an inquiry was held later. The arrest of Mr. Gray provoked an outburst of indignation throughout Ireland, and was de- nounced by a portion of the Liberal press in England ; and when the sentence had half ex- pired, the judge made repairs for the odium his hasty act had brought upon the Govern- ment by releasing him again. On the 22d of March, Queen Victoria, while passing from a railway-train into her carriage, at Windsor, was again subjected to one of those attempts or feints to assassinate her, seven of which in all it has been her strange fate to experience.* It is, perhaps, because no pre- cautions are thought necessary to protect the person of a constitutional sovereign whom no one can have any motive in wishing dead, that Victoria has been set upon so many times by crack-brained desperadoes. The last assailant was a demented person named Rod- erick Maclean, who had been a clerk. His trial for high-treason took place with much pomp and circumstance on April 19th. A single day was sufficient to establish his insan- ity in the minds of the jury, and he was ac- quitted on that ground. The youngest of the royal princes, Leopold, Duke of Albany, was married April 27th, to the Princess Helen, daughter of the reigning Prince of Waldeck and Pyrmont, and sister to the Queen of the Netherlands. The usual grant of £10,000 a year in addition to the an- nuity of £15,000 voted to the younger sons of * The first and most determined attempt on the Queen's life was made by Edward Oxford in 1840. In 1842 John Francis fired a pistol at her, and later m the same year Beau took aim at her, with a pistol, but did not succeed in dis- charging the weapon. In 1849 an Irish bricklayer named Hamilton fired a pistol at her, but it was charged with pow- der only. In 1850 an ex-lieutenant of hussars struck the Queen with a cane. In 1872 a boy thrust before her a petition for the release of Fenian prisoners, and with the other hand presented an unloaded pistol. VOL. xxii. — 24 A the Queen upon coming to age was opposed by a radical faction in the House of Commons, of which Mr. Labouchere was this time the spokesman. A working-class member, Mr. Storey, created an unpleasant sensation by re- peating, in direct terms, the arguments which are familiar to the democratic classes outside, against the cost of royalty, and of sinecures provided in the royal household and in the state departments for members of the aristoc- racy. GREECE, a kingdom of Southern Europe. The present Constitution was elaborated by a Constituent Assembly in 1864. The legislative power is exercised by a simgle Chamber of Deputies elected for four years by direct vote. George I, King of the Hellenes, is the second son of the King of Denmark, born December 24, 1845. He was offered the crown by the National Assembly in accordance with a proto- col providing for the annexation of the Ionian Isles, signed June 5, 1863, at London, by the three protecting powers, France, England, and Russia, and began his reign October 31st of that year. The Ministry, which was formed March 15, 1882, is composed as follows: Tricoupis, Presi- dent of the Council and Minister for Foreign Affairs, also of the Interior ad interim; Rallis, Minister of Justice ; Kalligas, of Finance ; Lom- bardos, of Worship ; Karaschakis, of War ; and Rufos, of Marine. AREA AND POPULATION. — The population, according to the census of 1879, was 1,679,470, of which number 880,952 were males and 798,- 518 females. The area was 51,319 square kilo- metres. The new territory in Epirus and Thes- saly, acquired by the convention of May 24, 1881, has an area of 13,369 square kilometres and a population of 299,953 persons, making the total area of the Hellenic kingdom 64,688 square kilometres, or 24,880 square miles, and the total population 1,979,423. Of the popu- lation given in the census returns of 1879, 20,523 were soldiers and seamen, and 5,180 sailors abroad. The rest were divided as to religion into 1,635,698 Greek Orthodox, 14,677 other Christians, 2,652 Israelites, and 740 of other faiths. The number of foreigners resid- ing in Greece was 31,969, of whom 23,133 were Ottoman subjects, 3,104 Italians, 2,187 English, and 534 French. The population of the principal towns was as follows : Athens, 63,374; Patras, 25,494; Hermoupolis, 21,245; PiraBa, 21,055; Corfu, 16,515; Zante, 16,250; and Tripolis, 10,057. The number of marriages in 1878 was 8,603, births 44,921, and deaths 30,588,not including still-born; excess of births, 14,333. The population has increased since 1870 at the annual rate of 1'69 per cent. The Albanian race forms a large part of the popu- lation, furnishing the greatest number of culti- vators, and a large and active section of the maritime population. The special commerce in 1875 amounted to 114,486,000 drachmas of imports (about $20,- 370 GEEECE. 000,000), the exports to 75,764,000 drachmas (about $13,000,000). The following were the principal imports: cereals, 28,851,000 drach- mas; manufactures, 23,531,000 ; hides, 9,760,- 000 ; sugar, 5,546,000 ; wood, 5,297,000 ; iron, 3,358,000 ; cattle, 2,959,000 ; salted meats, 2,913,000; coal, 2,659,000; coffee, 2,411,000; rice, 1,941,000; sulphur, 1,851,000. The chief articles of export were the following : Zante raisins, or dried currants, 37,813,000 drachmas ; olive-oil, 12,933,000; hides, 5,274,000; lead, 4,214,000; figs, 4,009,000; gall-nuts, 1,749,- 000; wines, 1,197,000; tobacco, 1,178,000; cotton, 971,000 ; silk, 964,000 ; soap, 856,000. The following table shows the extent of the trade with different countries : COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports. Great Britain Drachmas. 31,291 Drachmw. 40,584 Turkey 23011 7,546 Austria 15863 9,887 15,831 4,882 France 18,770 2,542 Italy 6 856 3348 3364 6,975 Total, 1875 114 436 75,764 The number of vessels entering Greek ports in 1875 was 10,089, of 1,783,180 tons, engaged in foreign commerce, and 63,465, of 2, 2 10, 9 68 tons, in the coasting-trade. The merchant navy num- bered 5,437 vessels, of 262,032 tons, employing 26,760 seamen, including 4,303 vessels of less than 60 tons, and 27 steamers aggregating 8,241 tons. ARMY AND NAVY. — By the law of 1879 every able-bodied man of the age of twenty-one or over is required to serve three years in the active army, six in the reserve, and ten in the militia. The strength of the army on the peace footing was fixed at 24,076, and on the war footing at 35,188 men. The force provided for in the budget for 1879 was 14,061 of all arms. By the royal decree of January 8, 1881, the effective was raised to 82,077 men. After the evacuation of the ceded provinces by Turkey, it was reduced to 27,500 men, by the decree of August 31, 1881, but the enlarged organization was preserved. The fleet consisted in 1880 of fifteen vessels, two of which were small iron-clad turret-ships carry ing 12-ton guns, two were steam- corvettes, and six gunboats. There were added in 1881 two wood-sheathed iron gunboats and an effi- cient torpedo service. FINANCES. — The budget for 1880 was in- creased by extraordinary votes from 52,655,- 455 to 105,056,618 drachmas. (Greece be- longs to the Monetary League, the coined drachmas being identical with francs; but they have been driven out by an inconvertible paper currency, which is at a discount, usually about 10 per cent.) The war budget was in- creased from 11,100,586 to 54,280,101 drach- mas, and the navy budget from 2,111,230 to 11,361,879. There was, consequently, a defi- cit which, on the basis of the budget of receipts, amounts to 58,368,761 drachmas. The budget for 1881 places the total revenue at 49,051,560 drachmas, and the expenditures at 124,155,- 139, leaving a deficit of 75,103,579 drachmas. The military expenditures are 71,323,580 drachmas, the naval expenditures 5,282,680 drachmas. The domestic debt requires 19,- 751,000, the foreign debt 1,272,000 drach- mas. There were 3,800,000 drachmas voted for the construction of roads. Of the esti- mated revenue, 10,596,000 drachmas are de- rived from direct taxes, 6,011,000 coming from the land-tax and tithes, 1,900,000 from a tax on live-stock, 1,300,000 from licenses, and the rest from a house-tax, a tax of 3 per cent on joint-stock companies, and one on pastures. The indirect taxes yield 24,800,000 drachmas, of which 18,620,000 come from customs, and 5,300,000 from stamps. The revenue from the post-office and telegraphs is 1,350,000; from the domains and public property, 2,780,360 ; from sales of public property, 4,128,000 drach- mas. Keceipts of arrears are estimated at 3,000,000 drachmas. The public debt in March, 1881, amounted to 490,407,309 drachmas. The foreign debt was made up as follows : FOREIGN LOANS. Drachmai. Loans of 1824 and 1825, compromised in 1878. . . . 26,462,826 Loan of 1832, 60,000,000 francs, guaranteed by England, France, and Eussia 93,457,458 Indemnity to heirs of King Otho 3,751,792 Loan of 1879, 60,000,000 francs 62,543,600 Loan of 1 881, 124,000,000 francs 134,000,000 Total foreign debt 320,215,176 The domestic debt of 170,192,133 drachmas was contracted since 1862, except 18,000,000 drachmas given as indemnity to the inhabi- tants of Hydra, Spezzia, and other isles, for sac- rifices in the revolution. Loans amounting to 119,980,000 drachmas were negotiated with a syndicate of French and Greek bankers in 1880 and 1881, to provide for a probable war with Turkey, of which something over 80,000,000 drachmas had been raised at the end of March. POLITICS. — Politics in Greece have hereto- fore been of a personal character, hinging upon the rivalries and coalitions between the leaders of factions which were attached to their chiefs from personal considerations. De- bauchery of the public service, nepotism,bribery and peculation were the inevitable concomi- tants of this low stage of political development. The accession of Tricoupis to power in March was the result of a national revolt against the old methods. The educated youth aspiring to better ideals, the more intellectual and patriot- ic elements, under the leadership of Tricoupis, Lombardos, Kehaya, and Petmezas, first or- ganized a reform party in 1870. The late Prime Minister, Coumoundouros, was a skill- ful political tactician, not without claims to statesmanship; but the scandals which oc- curred during his ministry were no longer condoned, and his influence had greatly de- clined long before his retirement. The Oppo- sition dictated the foreign policy of the late GREECE. GREGORIAN CALENDAR. 371 Government, and insisted on the extreme pre- tensions of Greece in the boundary dispute with Turkey. Coumoundouros sacrificed the remainder of his popularity by breaking his promises during the vacation of the Legisla- ture, in yielding more to the pressure of the powers than the temper of the country would suffer. He used the patronage and influence of the Government in the January elections to the fullest extent, in order to preserve his posi- tion ; but the Opposition secured a majority of 60 in a House of 245, though the pressure used by the Government resulted in the invalidation of twelve candidates returned on the Govern- ment side. The resignation of Coumoundou- ros depended only on his choice as to the time and manner. When the Chamber met at the end of January, the King's speech was received in absolute silence. In March Coumoundouros took the occasion of a defeat in the election of the Speaker to resign, and Tricoupis formed his Cabinet. TURKISH BOUNDARY. — The new Prime Min- ister was less disposed than his predecessor to agree to any compromise of the disputes with Turkey, and insisted on the fulfillment of the final award of the Delimitation Commission. The Turks still held three places which lay within the Greek boundary drawn by the commission in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin. These were the strategi- cal points which the Porte represented to be invaluable for the defense of the Turkish terri- tory, but which were of still greater defensive value to Greece. The points retained by Tur- key were Karalik Dervend, the point on the coast of Thessaly where the boundary was to begin, Kotzoukhero, or Zarcos, and Kritzo- vali. At Nezeros, Analipsis, or in Turkish Godaman, the Turkish Government also de- sired a variation of the boundary ; but it had evacuated this point with the rest of the terri- tory the preceding year. The Greeks finally concluded that the only way to obtain the dis- puted points was by the means which were successful in obtaining the award. A collision between the military of the two nations was threatened for some weeks before, finally, August 27th, the Greeks marched into Zorbas, a place near Karalik Dervend, lying within the awarded boundary, and had a pitched battle with the Turkish garrison. Fighting was re- sumed the next day. Skirmishes took place at other points. Both governments concentrated troops on the frontier, the Greeks collecting at once an army of over 10,000 men on the spot. There were 400 or 500 killed on both sides in the engagements. Then the powers took cognizance of the question, which entered, upon an armistice being arranged, into the diplomatic phase. Tricoupis dispatched a tru- culent circular to the powers. An informal conference of the embassadors was held at Constantinople, on September 24th. The ef- forts of the powers were directed to obtaining a compromise. The Porte offered to give up the three positions it still held in consideration of the retrocession of Nezeros. Tricoupis kept up his menacing attitude. Finally, the Porte gave way, and yielded up the disputed districts to the Greeks. Greece has strong motives to assert herself in the Eastern question, and put forward her traditional claims upon Europe, however in- convenient they may be in the momentary diplomatic situation. There are good reasons why these demands should be accompanied by a movement for the purification of Greek poli- tics. In the beginning of the century Greece was treated as the natural heir to the "sick man." The Roumanians, Bulgarians, Albani- ans, and all the rayas of the Turkish Empire were then dominated by Greek thought, called themselves Greeks, and partook of the aspi- rations for the establishment of the Byzan- tine Empire. The political incapacity and corruption displayed by the Hellenes after they obtained their independence, and the gradual development of national aspirations among the Roumanians and Bulgarians, en- couraged by the Russians and often by the Ottomans, narrowed the prospects of Greece. The ecclesiastical separation of Bulgaria from the Phanas, and the bestowal of self-govern- ment on the two divisions of Bulgaria, have finally brought the Hellenes to a point where they must either display extraordinary vigor and virtue to preserve their succession to Byzantium, or sink forever into the position of a third-rate power. GREGORIAN CALENDAR. The 15th of October, 1882, was the tercentenary of the aban- donment of the Julian Calendar, and the in- troduction of the calendar named after Pope Gregory XIII. It seems fitting, therefore, in noting the events of the year, to make this the occasion of recalling the main features of these systems of time-computation. The history and origin of both calendars are worth looking into, as being of common interest to all civilized peoples. Both the Julian and Gregorian systems have their roots in times far older than the eras of their commencement. The Julian can not be considered apart from the earlier Roman calendar or calendars ; the Gregorian is not only based, as to the solar year, upon the Julian, but borrows its lunar calendar from the system of the Greeks Me- ton and Calippus. But, before entering upon a comparison of these, it is desirable to obtain a clear idea of what we mean by a calendar. The scientific sense of the word (in which we here use it) is not affected by the starting-point whence it begins, whether Jewish, Christian, Mohammedan, or any other; properly it de- notes any one of the modes in which time is divided by the different peoples of the earth — in short, the punctuation of time. It is clear that time can be punctuated both naturally — i. e., in conformity with celestial phenomena — and artificially. There is nothing which would absolutely prevent the framing ot 372 GREGORIAN CALENDAR. a calendar regulated by the relative positions of the earth and any one of the planets ; but, of course, no one would think of calculating time by the motions of any other heavenly body than the sun and moon. The year, therefore, the principal division of every calen- dar, is either solar or lunar, or a compromise between both. Our civil year is an example of the first. The length of our civil month has now no reference to the duration of the moon's revolution round the earth. It is purely a matter of convenience, a division of the 365 days of the solar year into twelve periods, as nearly equal as possible. The Mo- hammedan year, on the other hand, is entirely lunar. Its twelve lunations only amount, on the average, to 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, so that it falls short of the solar year by 10$- days, and consequently retrogrades through all the seasons in about thirty-four years. But even the lunar year, in its origin, was luni-solar, for it was always probably a rude attempt to punc- tuate the solar year by lunar divisions. Of the luni-solar the Jewish year is an example. Like the Mohammedan, it consists of twelve lunar months, but by means of intercalation it is brought every nineteen years into renewed correspondence with the solar year. Besides the solar year, the lunar month and the astro- nomical day are the other natural divisions of time. The conventional divisions are the week, the civil day, hour, minute, and second. The week of seven days is one among other methods of approximately dividing the month. Its origin is not very clear. The seven-day week, it is true, was widely known by Greeks and Romans, yet for the most part it was used as a measure of time by astrologers, Chaldean and Egyptian. The planetary names for each day of the week came to the Romans (proba- bly before the Christian era) from Alexandria, as an astrological not religious institute. Ac- cording to this, each of the twenty-four hours of the day, beginning at sunrise, was assigned to one of the seven " planets," taken in the then received order, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Mercury, Venus, Moon, continued without in- terruption from day to day.* The Teutonic races, though borrowing the week from the .Romans, adopted in place of Latin names of deities those with which they were more familiar, as Tiw, Woden, Thor, Fraya; the other days' names were simply translations, as Sun, Moon. Saturn. Among the early Romans the mode of dividing the month was cumbrous in the extreme, and it seems surprising that such a system as that of calends, nones, and ides, should have held its place so long as it did. The Greeks divided their months into decades of days; and the decade, too, was strongly urged for adoption in the calendar framed at the time of the French Revolution, so as to have ten months instead of twelve in the year. The more natural division, however, * For a full explanation of this curious scheme, see Smith's " Dictionary of Christian Antiquities," article " Week." into lunar months proved too convenient to be Above, the Christian in comparison with the Jewish and Mohammedan calendars has been spoken of; but there is yet a noticeable point to be mentioned. It is, that the Christians alone have two calendars, a purely solar and a luni-solar, a civil and an ecclesiastical, exist- ing side by side. The Gregorian civil calendar is the direct bequest of the Romans, modified in a few respects, but still preserving the features of its progenitor. Passing by the traditional calendars of Romulus and Numa, it is tolerably certain that, until the decemvirs, who threw the calendar into hopeless confu- sion by a clumsy attempt to introduce Greek methods of calculating the year, the Roman year was exclusively lunar. The early Roman calendar-makers seem to have known of the nineteen years' cycle,* and the decemvirs employed it by instituting a luni-solar year, supplementing the lunar with intercalations. They bungled, however, in their calculations, and they lengthened or shortened the interca- lations, whenever they chose, so as to affect the time of the elections, in the interest of the aristocratic party. Hence, when Julius Caesar took the matter in hand (in B. o. 46), he found the year in a state of chaos ; and, in order to make things straight, he made the "last year of confusion" to consist of no less than 445 days, whereby he was enabled to start fair and square on his own system. The first Julian year began January 1st, B. o. 45. It was purely solar, consisting of 365 days, with an additional day every fourth year, thus making the average length of the year 365 days, 6 hours. This period was divided into twelve parts, called months as heretofore. In Cassar's arrangement the months had 31 and 30 days alternately, except February, which had 29 days in common years and 30 in leap-years. Augustus Caasar, however, meddled with this arrangement; for, being resolved to have place in the calendar, he had the month Sextilis named after himself (just as Julius Caesar had named Quintilis after himself), and added another day to it, so as not to be inferior to the month of July in any respect. This led to February being deprived of one of its days, and in order not to have three months of 31 days each following one another, a day apiece was taken from September and November and given to October and December. Hence the irregular order of our long and short months. The average length of the Julian year, as above stated, was fixed at 365 days, 6 hours ; but the actual length of the solar year is 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 48 seconds. The Julian year, therefore, gained upon the true * That is, in brief, if the new moon happens on the first day of the solar year, it happens on the first day of the twentieth solar year next following ; so that the lunar and the solar year after nineteen solar years, or two hundred and thirty-five rev- olutions of the moon round the earth, start level on the first day of the twentieth. Though not absolutely correct, this cycle is extremely convenient. GREGORIAN CALENDAR. GUATEMALA. 373 solar year at the rate of 11 minutes, 12 seconds a year. In the course of centuries the dis- crepancy hence arising began to show itself very inconveniently, and the popes were often urged to eifect a reform. This was pressed chiefly on the ground that Easter and the Church festivals depending on the time Easter is celebrated were all thrown out of their proper seasons. Reiterated remonstrances at last had their effect. Pope Gregory XIII, in 1582, as- sisted by Aloysius, Lilius, Clavius, and others, took up the work and carried it out thoroughly. The equinoxes at this date appeared seven days earlier than in 325, when the Council of Nice was held, and the prevailing rule as to Easter was established. The mode adopted of reform- ing the civil year was simple and effective. The Julian year was gaining on the true solar year at the rate of three days and three hours in 400 years. All that was necessary was to drop three days in that period. Therefore every centenary year which was not divisible by four was made for the future a common instead of a leap- year. The years 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, 2000, were to have been bissextile or leap-years ; but, by the regulation of the Pope and his helpers, the years 1700, 1800, and 1900 were to receive no intercalation, while the years 1600 and 2000 were to be leap-years, as before. As by this process the Gregorian year is only twenty- four seconds longer than the mean tropical, it will take 3,600 years (if the world last so long) before posterity will find themselves a day in advance. The bull of the Pope ordering this reform was issued February 24, 1582, and as the year was now ten days in the wrong, it was made right by requiring the 5th of Oc- tober to be the 15th. This brings us to the date in 1882 which is the tercentenary of the birthday of the Gregorian Calendar. As was stated above, there is a lunar calen- dar for the use of those churches in Christen- dom which follow the rule of the Council of Nice in regard to the great festival of Easter. A lunar cycle is of course a necessity for this purpose, and at different dates different cycles have prevailed. The cycle of Meton, improved by Calippus, introduced at Athens, in the fifth century B. o., obtained much favor, and was adopted at Alexandria, and subsequently at Rome. As revised by Dionysius Exiguus, it was still to a certain extent in error, amount- ing to a day in excess after 308 years. Hence some method was to be devised of bringing the lunar year into harmony with the Gregorian solar year. A compendious table was wanted to find the new moons for any date in the past or future. The simplest plan was to adopt the tables for finding the new moons which had been previously in use, applying to it the ne- cessary correctives. The " Golden Number," the "Epact," the "Dominical Letter," are the names applied to the Prayer-Book tables in connection with this subject. Our limits do not admit of details. It is sufficient to say that the united devices furnished by these in- dicate the date of Easter in each year. The Golden Number gives us the place of the year in the cycle of 19. The Epact supplies the age of the moon at the beginning of the first year of the cycle, and by inference its age at the beginnmg,of the other eighteen years, regard being always had to the century. The Domin- ical Letter informs us upon what days of the year in question Sunday falls. But these methods do not determine Easter with entire accuracy, according to the rules laid down by the Council of Nice. The vernal equinox is assumed to be the 21st of March, at which time it happened to fall A. D. 325, the date ot the council. Owing to what is called the "precession of the equinoxes," the vernal equi- nox is found to vary from year to year, being sometimes on the 20th, and even the 19th of March. But as this one date was fixed, for the purpose in view, on the 21st, it enables calcu- lations to be made on a settled basis for the movable feasts ; and certainly, in so far, the laying down the rule by the council was a good thing for the Church and Christian world. The Gregorian Calendar was introduced into the greater part of Italy, as well as into Spain and Portugal, on the day named in the Pope's bull. It was adopted in France two months after, and, by an edict of Henry III, December 9th was followed by the 20th. The Roman Catholic parts of Switzerland, Germany, and the Low Countries, adopted the correction in 1583, Poland in 1586, Hungary in 1587. The Protestant parts of Europe resisted, for more than a century, the change, mainly owing to an unwillingness to receive anything from the source whence it emanated. At last, in 1700, Protestant Germany, as well as Denmark and Holland, put aside their prejudice in this mat- ter, and the Protestant cantons of Switzerland copied their example the following year. In England, an attempt was made, as early as 1584, to introduce the new style ; but it failed of success. Finally, however, in 1751, an act was passed regulating the beginning of the year for the future, and correcting the calendar now in use. The old year began on the 25th of March. The act provided that the ne w year, 1752, should begin January 1st; and, as the year was now eleven days out of the way, it was enacted that the 3d of September should be reckoned the 14th. Sweden adopted the Gre- gorian Calendar in 1753. Russia, however, and those countries where the Greek Church is predominant, adhere to the Julian year, or " old style," as it is called. GUATEMALA (REPFBLIOA DE GUATEMALA), one of the five independent states of Central America. According to recent census returns, the population* of the republic in October, 1882, was 1,226,602, against 1,200,000 esti- mated in 1875. Of the number given for the year first mentioned, 381,828 (185,536 males and 196,292 females) were classified as "not In- * For statistics relative to area, territorial divisions, popu- lation, etc., see " Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1ST5 and 1880. 374 GUATEMALA. dians " ; the Indian population stood at 844, 774 (421,518 males and 423,256 females). The gen- eral movement of the population in March, 1882, was as follows: births, 4,564; deaths, 2,298; and in April, births, 4,779; deaths, 2,482. The number of civil marriages regis- tered in these two months was 165 and 155 respectively. Livingston, on the Atlantic coast, has been declared a free port, and made the capital of the Department of Izabal, in lieu of the town of the latter name. The President of the Republic is General Rufino Barrios, elected May 7, 1873. His term of office was prolonged by decree of the Con- stitutional Assembly, under date of October 23, 1876, and he was re-elected March 15, 1880, for a period of six years. The Cabinet was composed of the following Ministers: Foreign Affairs, Dr. F. Cruz; In- terior, Dr. C. Diaz M6rida; War, General J. M. Barrundia; Public Instruction, Sefior Del- fino Sanchez ; Agriculture and Public Credit, Sefior A. Pefia; Public Works, Sefior M. Her- rera. The Guatemalan Minister Plenipotentiary to the United States was Dr. Lorenzo Montufar,* and the Consul-General (for the Union), at New York, is Sefior Jacobo Baiz. The United States Minister Plenipotentiary to the live Central American Republics (and resident in Guatemala) is Hon. H. 0. Hall, and the United States Consul at Guatemala City, Dr. F. H. Titus. The armed force of the country comprises some 2,100 men in active service, and about 33,000 militia. The results of the annual school examinations testified, as in preceding years, to the healthy progressive development of the admirable sys- tem of public instruction adopted in Guatemala, and now established on so firm a basis as to warrant the presumption that government aid may soon be in a great measure dispensed with in that direction. " Forty years ago," writes a native journalist, " the estimated annual ex- penditures of the University of Guatemala did not exceed $6,600 ; at the present time upward of $30,000 are disbursed yearly for the several professional schools in which are taught the branches that formerly comprised the univer- sity course. Among the schools just referred to are not included the schools of arts and trades, of agriculture and of commerce, the annual government outlay for which is $20.490, $5,900, and $1,920, respectively. In the report of the Minister of Finance, for 1881, the total expendi- ture for public instruction figures at $360,039, against but $245. 695. Measures had been taken for extending the scope of the National Library ; an additional librarian had been appointed, and a catalogue of the volumes contained in the in- stitution was in course of preparation. STATISTICS. — The amounts and branches of the national revenue and expenditures for the * Resigned in August, 1882. fiscal year 1880-'81 were as shown in the sub- joined table : REVENUE. Balance from the preceding year $121,477 Custom-house, wharfage, etc 2,143,161 Spirit, milling, slaughter-house, and salt taxes 1,339,835 Stamped paper 102,460 Other indirect imposts 49,176 Direct taxes &5 045 Monopolies (saltpeter, tobacco, etc.) 889,130 Eeimbursements and interest 157,390 Loans 1,901,980 Deposits 435,872 National Bank 171,981 Sundries 532,212 Total $7,479,719 EXPENDITURE. Administration '. $2,539,875 National debt, etc 3,418,649 Monopolies (exclusive of spirits and tobacco) 163,243 Eeimbursements 43,638 Deposits 322,040 Sundries (including the spirit and tobacco monopo- lies, Post-Office and telegraphs, Mint, charitable institutions, police force of the capital, etc 826,944 Balance 165,830 Total $7,479,719 The balance in this table represents, of course, a computed surplus, whose presence it is hard to explain where deficits are the almost invari- able rule. In the budget for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1883, the revenue was estimated at $5,158,- 096, and the expenditure as follows: Executive power $30,000 Legislative power. 15,370 Ministry of Foreign Affairs 77,480 " Interior and Justice 278,660 " Finance and Credit 450,000 " War 1,443,175 " Public Instruction 500,000 " PublicWorks 553,857 Payments guaranteed by import duties 567,992 Payments guaranteed by export duties 797,798 National debt (home branch) 189,021 National debt (foreign branch) 230,804 Total $5,134,157 The Minister of Finance calls attention to the circumstance of a conditional indebtment of the Government to the unfinished branch of the railway between Escuintla and Guatemala, in the sum of $500,000, and to the line from Charaperico to Retalhulen, now in process of construction, in the sum of $700,000, and adds: " These eventualities have not been included in the estimated expenditures. Were the corre- sponding bonds emitted, the redemption of these would in all probability interfere with the equilibrium of the budget ; but what mat- ters a deficit representing a step forward on the road of progress ? " According to official reports, the national debt on January 1, 1880, stood as follows: Foreign debt ... $3,304,966 Home debt 4,029,892 Total $7,334,358* By January 1, 1882, it had been reduced to $7,139,169. In 1882 an arrangement was entered into between the Government and the holders of * See " Annual Cyclopaedia " for 1881, p. 380. GUATEMALA. 375 home-debt bonds, for the gradual redemption of these. The interest, meantime, was reduced from 9 to 6 per cent; and the bondholders agreed to advance to the Government 10 per cent on the bonds, whereby the national Treasury would benefit by an accretion of $200,000. As a proof of the stringency of the times in Guatemala, however, it may be stated that the payment of the monthly drawing of the National Lottery for August was post- poned until September 15th, a circumstance up to that time unprecedented in the four years of the existence of the institution. The exports from Guatemala for the year 1881 were of the total value of $4,084,000 ; and the imports of the total value of $3,665,- 000. The coffee sent out of the country was of the value of $3,645,220; and other minor staples were represented by the following fig- ures: hides, $106,879; wool, $48,000; India- rubber, $75,271; cochineal, $45,077; specie, $117,187. On comparing these results with those for 1878,* a marked decrease in some of the shipments will be observed in the later of the two years. The cochineal exported in 1881, for instance, shows a value of but $45,- 077; while that shipped in 1878 was of the value of $220,000. Again, in 1878, there were sugar and indigo exports of the respective val- ues of $110,600, and $1,300; and these com- modities do not figure at all among the exports for 1881. Indeed, a period of general commer- cial depression seems to have set in for Guate- mala, in common with other Spanish- American countries. In regard to coffee, for example, the chief staple of export, Guatemalan shippers exclaim that the present low price of that ar- ticle in all the markets of the world has com- pletely demoralized business, causing the ruin of many and hampering all. Until either coffee returns to its normal value, or other agricul- tural products now being cultivated begin to bring in fresh wealth, there is little hope of a return to really prosperous times. In 1881 the number of vessels entered at the several ports of the republic was as fol- lows : 133 steamers, of an aggregate of 202,242 tons ; and 73 sailing-vessels, of an aggregate of 16,991 tons. The clearances were approxi- mately of an equal number. The railway from San Jose1, the principal port of the republic on the Pacific coast, to the capital, has been in operation for nearly two years from the first- mentioned point to Escuintla ; and work on the remainder (from Escuintla to Guatemala city) has been carried on, though not uninter- ruptedly, ever since. The Guatemala Central Railroad Company has been succeeded in its property and franchises by a new corporation, organized in the United " States under a law * See " Annual Cyclopedia" for 1879, p. 463. passed at Albany on June 6, 1882, and called the "Central American Pacific Railway and Transportation Company." A project is talked of to connect the Salvador port of La Union with the Guatemala system of railways, and another of extending the latter system from Guatemala city to the Atlantic port of Santo Tomas, thereby completing railway communi- cation between either ocean, to the incalculable advantage of the two republics thus united. A line of horse-car railroad from Guatemala city to the suburb Jocotenango was to be completed in September. Branch lines were to be extended through the principal thorough- fares of the capital. There were in 1881 up- ward of 3,600 miles of telegraph established, with sixty-three offices. The number of dis- patches was 222,456, of which 56,608 were on official service, and the receipts and expendi- tures were $51,493, and $98,230, respectively. The vexed question of limits with Mexico has at last been settled, to the mutual satisfac- tion of both countries. President Barrios, ac- companied by some of his Cabinet ministers, visited the United States in July, for the pur- pose of obtaining the good offices of President Arthur as arbitrator. A convention was signed by the representatives of the negotiating re- publics (Sefior Romero representing Mexico), the main articles of which preliminary docu- ment are briefly as follows : 1. The Republic of Guatemala relinquishes her claim to the State of Chiapas and its De- partment of Soconuzco. 2. The definitive treaty of limits between Mexico and Guatemala will be concluded on the ground that Chiapas and Soconuzco form an integral part of the United States of Mexico. 3. The Republic of Guatemala, satisfied with the expressed appreciation of its conduct on the part of Mexico, and the acknowledgment by the latter that the ends held in view by Gua- temala on agreeing to the terms of the pre- ceding articles were noble and honorable, will claim no pecuniary indemnity or compensation for the surrender of rights as above stipulated. 4. In the event of disagreement as to the line of demarkation, and the necessity of ap- peal to a third party, Mexico and Guatemala will jointly request the arbitration of the Presi- dent of the United States. 5. In fixing the dividing line, the general rule of the uti possidetis will be observed, save where it may be desirable to follow natural lines. And, pending the final determination of said line, each of the contracting parties will respect the present possessions of the other. 6. The Governments of the United States of Mexico and Guatemala bind themselves hereby to sign, in Mexico city, and not later than six months from this date, the final trea- ty, on the bases herein expressed. 376 HARVESTS OF THE WORLD. H HARVESTS OF THE WORLD IN" 1882. A volume published annually by M. Estienne, of Marseilles, France, contains reports of the harvests of the year from fourteen countries in all, thirteen of these being corn-growing coun- tries of Europe. FRANCE naturally receives fullest attention. Reports are given from 89 departments against 90 of the year preceding, accompanied by a colored map marking the state of the wheat- crop in each. In 20 departments the wheat- crop is marked very good; in 47 it is good; in 11 it is fairly good; in 10 it is middling; and in 1 only it is lad. The year preceding the crop was very good in 3 departments, good in 30, fairly good in 23, medium in 24, and bad in 10. In 1880 the figures were: 5 very good, 17 good, 26 fairly good, 16 medium, and 6 bad. From these figures it plainly appears that the reports of 1882 are better than those of either 1881 or 1880. Oats are reported on from 88 departments. In 22 the crops are very good, in 56 good, in 2 fairly good and 1 passable, and in 7 medium. In 1881 the reports gave only 6 very good, 21 good, 18 fairly good, 26 medium, 10 bad (81 departments). Thus, the oat-crop, 1882, is more largely reported and generally superior to the previous year. Maize is not largely grown, there being reports from only 36 departments, chiefly in the south of France, against 25 departments in 1881, and 33 in 1880. In 2 departments it is very good, in 25 good, in 3 fairly good, in 5 medium, in one very medium. This is much better than was reported in 1881. The crop, however, was a very good one in 1880, there being 3 depart- ments very good, 19 good, 5 fairly good, 6 me- dium. Reports on rye are given from 77 de- partments ; of these 6 are very good, 52 good, 10 fairly good, 1 passable, 7 medium, 1 bad. In 1881 this crop was very good in 6 depart- ments, good in 19, fairly good in 17, medium in 16, bad in 5, very bad in 2. In 1880 in 11 departments it was very good, in 53 good, in 6 fairly good, in 3 medium. Thus the crop in 1882 is superior to that of tbe two preceding years. Barley is reported upon from 76 de- partments, as against 70 in 1881 ; of these 15 are very good, 46 good, 9 fairly good, 4 medi- um, 1 bad, 1 very bad. The report of 1881 gave 8 departments very good, 33 good, 13 fairly good, 1 passable, 14 medium, 1 bad. In 1880 the crop was very good in 26 depart- ments, good in 40, fairly good in 5, and medium in 3. Thus, as it appears, the crop is good, but hardly equal to that of two years ago. The whole of the figures on the various crops show that the harvest of 1882 is superior, taken all round, to either of the two previous years. With the one exception of barley, all the crops are better, while wheat is superior to that of any year yet reported on. GEEAT BBITAIN. — In estimating the harvest of 1882 in Great Britain, inquiries on the state of the crops were sent largely to farmers actu- ally engaged in growing them, and they were asked to give their opinions by numbers, 100 being taken as representing an average. In all, 414 answers were sent in, and these show the following picture of the crops, the figures from a similar return last year being given for comparison : Wheat. Barley. Data. Beam. Peas. 1882 92-2 90 95-4 110 105-1 80 108-1 101-6 1881 Rooti. Potatoes. Gnus Hay. Clover Hay. 1882 107-1 80 96-4 98 112-6 65 118-4 65 1881. So far as the English counties are concerned, the following are the figures representing the three leading cereal crops, 100 representing an average : COUNTY. Wheat. Barley. OaU. Bedford 90-1 90-5 100-8 Berks 95-2 100-2 100-6 97-4 97-3 95-0 100 -0 95-3 115-0 Chester . 95-2 90-1 100-0 Cornwall 85-4 98-1 104-3 Cumberland . 88-2 92-1 104-0 92-5 88-4 100-2 85-2 94 2 105-6 Dorset . 85-0 90-0 95-3 100-0 110-2 104-8 Essex 88-2 103-1 110-4 104-6 96-2 103-0 Hants 99-4 102-3 115-4 91-2 98-8 99-7 Hertford 90-0 100-0 105-0 96'8 94-1 106-2 Kent 100-4 105-6 85-4 85-4 98-3 86-2 94-2 100-4 101-3 103-0 108-8 Middlesex 95-0 85-0 115-6 Norfolk 92-0 110-0 115-3 75-0 60-0 90'0 87-1 93-2 106-4 lOO'O 98-1 105-0 95-2 100-4 100-2 80-0 90-0 95-0 100-0 105-2 120-2 95-1 90-3 96-0 Suffolk • • 90-0 100-2 104-3 85-0 100-0 110-0 110-0 107-5 110-0 Warwick • • • • 90-0 76-4 105-8 88-3 84-2 102-1 Wilts loo-o 95-2 100-0 85-2 95-0 102-5 York East Riding1 101-3 92-5 98-4 108-2 102-5 100-0 York' West Hiding 102-3 101-5 99-5 Allowing that the wheat-crop for 1 882 is one of 10,000,000 quarters for consumption, this leaves England (if the wants of the country for the forthcoming year be put at 24,000,000 quarters) dependent upon foreign supply for 14,000,000 quarters. The crops generally are described as HARVESTS OF THE WORLD. 377 the best for the last seven or more years. Re- ports from Scotland give the wheat as vigorous, and heyond the average for quality and quan- tity. Barley suffered for lack of dry and warm weather. A larger than usual acreage of oats was sown, and the yield is considerably be- yond an average. Potatoes were fine every- where, and yielded an abundant harvest. In Ireland cold and damp weather diminished the yield for the year. As at the blooming-time the weather was cold and rainy, and as rust made its appearance in many fields, the wheat- crop is decidedly under average. Oats and barley give a fair average, and potatoes about the same. The acreage planted was one third less than in 1881, which was perhaps the largest and best crop ever obtained. SPAIN. — The reports stated that the harvest of oats was bad. Barley was poor on the dry lands, but elsewhere good. The reason given is the dry season, and the lack of water for ir- rigation. For the same reason it was impossi- ble to sow any wheat on the dry lands, and on other lands the crop was poor. All crops in this country for the year were poor, from drought. BELGIUM. — The weather and temperature in Belgium were very favorable and the harvest abundant. There was an average acreage of wheat, and the yield was good. Oats and rye were reported to be good. Barley yielded well, but the color was bad and the grain light. Potatoes were abundant, and no re- ports are given of disease anywhere. HOLLAND. — Elaborate tables are given of the crops in the various provinces. Wheat is re- ported to be good both for quality and quan- tity. Rye, though poor for quantity, is very good for quality. Barley, according to the re- ports, varies for quantity in different prov- inces, but everywhere quality is pronounced good. Oats are about the same, being slightly better for quality. The colza bean (graines de colza) is a varied crop, as is also that of hemp (graines de liri), good and bad reports being about equal as regards quantity and quality. Potatoes, on the whole, yielded a poor crop. GERMANY. — Very favorable reports come from Germany. The acreage sown was about the same as in preceding years. Wheat, oats, barley, and rye were each and all good, both for quantity yielded and for quality and weight of grain. The potato-crop was also good. ITALY. — The reports from Italy on the ce- reals describe them as excellent both for quali- ty and weight. The yields also were satisfac- tory. Wheat is reckoned as superb, and weight heavy. Oats and barley were very good ; but the bean-crop did not prove so abundant as was hoped. SWITZERLAND. — On the whole, the weather this year was unfavorable. There was no snow or severe frosts in the winter of 1881- '82, it is true, but in the summer there was too much rain, and before that it was far too dry. Of most crops an average acreage was sown. Potatoes yielded a fine crop. Wheat was be- tween good and middling, with rust which showed itself in certain areas. Rye and oats gave a good yield. AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. — In the early part of the year the weather was unfavorable, but during the blooming and earing time it was very fine. There was a smaller acreage under cereals than usual, but potatoes and beans yielded excellent crops. Wheat was good both in quality and quantity, the weight being 78 to 82 kilogrammes per hectolitre (i. e., 170 to 180 pounds avoirdu- pois per 2f bushels). Oats are described as a fair harvest, both for quantity and quality, the grain showing a weight of 47 to 48 kilogrammes per hectolitre (i. e., 104 to 106 pounds per 2£ bushels). Maize yielded well. Rye was mid- dling as to quantity, quality good, weight 70 to 72 kilogrammes per hectolitre (i. e., 154 to 158 pounds per 2f bushels). Barley was good, so far as quantity goes, but of middling quality, weight varying from 61 to 67 kilogrammes per hectolitre (i. e., 134 to 146 pounds per 2f bushels). TURKISH PROVINCES ON THE DANUBE. — The reports from this region are very satisfactory. After seed-time the temperature was regu- lar, though previously it had been very dry. A larger than usual acreage was planted, and the result has been excellent. Wheat is very good for quantity, while the grain is of fine quality and heavy. Oats are a good average crop, but the acreage is a little less than in 1881. A good crop of maize was gathered in. Rye was very good, and of a more satisfactory quality than the previous year; weight also good. Barley was very fine for quality, with, heavy grain, though a little lighter than in 1881. The reports just given were chiefly from Salonica. Reports from other provinces agree with these in the main. In some places rains caused slight damage at harvest-time, but the result in substance is the same. Maize and beans yielded an abundant supply. RUSSIA. — Several reports came from Russia. One from Odessa declared the harvest to be generally an average one. Oats were good, and wheat heavy. Rye was mostly middling; in some cases bad. Barley was reported mid- dling, but in many districts (Kherson and Southern Bessarabia being especially men- tioned) none at all is grown. Other reports, however, were generally more satisfactory, and one from Taganrog stated that no com- plaint could properly be made in respect to the harvest of 1882. Taking these reports altogether, it is plain that never before (at least during the period that these reports have been collected) has the harvest in Europe been so uniformly good. Usually there has been a deficiency, but in 1882 there is no deficiency reported, and no apparent danger of lack of food-products. UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. — Looking at the country as a whole, the year 1882 has proved to be one of the most abundant, if 378 HARVESTS OF THE WORLD. HILL, BENJAMIN H. not the most abundant, year on record. In 1881 there was a deficiency east of the Rocky Mountains, when the yield of Indian corn fell off more than 500,000,000 bushels as against the previous year's yield. The wheat- crops also fell off 118,000,000 bushels. But the crops of 1882 exceeded in abundance. The yield of wheat is reported to be over 500,000,000 bushels. Corn is estimated by the Agricultural Bureau at 1,680,000,000 bush- els, and by other authorities as high as 1,800,- 000,000 bushels. From the most reliable sources it is ascertained that the United States have produced 440,000,000 bushels more of corn, and 130,000,000 bushels more of wheat, in 1882, than in 1881. It may not be out of place to mention, in this connection, that American flour, made from the choice grades of spring wheat, has of late years become an important item among exports from the United vests of 1882 are good beyond all previous record, and that there is no likelihood of any deficiency in the food-products needful for the support of life throughout the world. HILL, BENJAMIN HARNEY, American states- man and jurist, was born in Jasper County, Ga., September 14, 1823 ; and died at his resi- dence, in the city of Atlanta, August 16, 1882, having almost completed his fifty-ninth year. He received his early education at the school of the Rev. Mr. Corbin, at Corinth, Heard County, Ga. He entered the University of Georgia in 1841, and graduated there in 1844, taking the first honor, and delivering the valedictory ora- tion, in which he gave promise of his remark- able power as an orator, receiving the en- thusiastic applause of William C. Preston, of South Carolina, and of Judge Berrien, of Georgia, who happened to be present. Soon after he left college, he was admitted to the BENJAMIN HARNET HILL. States. The shipments grew from 2,000,000 barrels in 1868, to 4,000,000 in 1876, and 8,000,000 in 1881. In 1882 they reached from 9,000,000 to 10,000,000 barrels. Thus it appears true of America, as well as of Europe, that in this great continent the bar- bar, and in a very short time rose to a place in the front rank of the profession. In 1851, being then twenty-eight years of age, he was elected to the Lower House of the General Assembly, from Troup County. From that time until 1860 he was regarded as the leader HILL, BENJAMIN H. HURLBUT, STEPHEN A. 379 of the Whig party in Georgia, and as one of the most earnest champions of the Union cause, opposed to slavery agitation and secession. When his State seceded, in 1861, he acquiesced in her action, and from that time to the close of the war he was prominent and active in his support of the Confederate Government, and in opposition to reunion. From 1865 to 1870 he took every proper occasion to expose the injustice and impolicy of the " reconstruction measures," publishing his famous " Notes on the Situation." For two years, from 1870 to 1872, he withdrew from public life, advising the people to " accept the situation," resistance being no longer possible. In 1 872 he supported Mr. Greeley for the presidency. In 1875 he was elected to Congress as Representative of the Ninth District. In 1876 he was re-elected, and, while occupying a seat in the House of Representatives, was elected United States Senator, defeating Hon. Thomas Norwood and ex-Governor James M. Smith. As an orator and constitutional lawyer he had few equals and no superior in either branch of the Federal Legislature. His fame as a jurist and as an advocate before a jury was fully equal to his fame as an orator ; and some of his speeches in important cases in the courts are often cited by members of the bar as masterpieces of power. While intensely Southern in his feel- ings, and ever ready to enter the lists in de- fense of Southern honor or Southern rights, he was not sectional in his views. The Union under the Constitution strictly construed, a union of co-equal States enjoying all the rights of self-government, were the bases of his po- litical creed. His speech in the House in reply to Mr. Elaine's attack on the South as respon- sible for the alleged " atrocities at Anderson- ville," and his speech in the Senate in denun- ciation of Mr. Mahone's coalition with the Republican party, are probably the most re- markable forensic efforts of his congressional career. In 1878-'79 he experienced some un- easiness from what was thought to be a little pimple on the left side of his tongue. For upward of a year he paid little attention to it ; but as the sore became more aggravated, he sought medical advice and was treated at first by a homoeopathic physician, who pronounced the sore a " benign ulcer." After eight months of this treatment, and finding the affection was becoming rapidly worse, he consulted the fa- mous Dr. Gross, of Philadelphia, who pro- nounced the disease cancer of the tongue. He was operated on with the knife three times, between July 21, 1881, and March 20, 1882, and after the last operation, by which the whole gland was removed, in the hope, which proved vain, that thereby the whole cancerous taint could be eradicated, Dr. Gross declared the case to be hopeless. The sufferings of the distin- guished patient were at times excruciating, but he bore them with the patience and fortitude of a true Christian. He went to Eureka Springs, whose waters are said to be marvelously cura- tive in cancerous affections, but they failed to benefit him. He then determined to return to Georgia, saying: " Whatever God may have in the future, I am willing to bear without a mur- mur. But, if I must die, I will go back to the old State that gave me birth, and die on her soil, and among my own people." From the day of his return to Atlanta he gradually sank. For a month before his death his power of articulation was almost gone. He was obliged to resort to a writing-pad to make known his wishes. When his throat became so constrict- ed that he could no longer swallow nourish- ment of any kind, he realized that his end was near, made his will, and prepared to bid farewell to all earthly things. A few hours before his death, when he was rapidly sinking, and had not spoken a word for many days, or written a word for many hours, his pastor, Rev. Clement A. Evans, reports that " the light of life came full into his eyes once more, and with a slight effort he spoke out in clear, full, and even triumphant accent, the deathless legend of a soul conquering in Christ, and in full view of heaven — ' Almost home ! ' rl His death, on the 19th of August, was felt as a personal be- reavement in every part of the State. Never was a public man more sincerely or universally lamented. His funeral at Atlanta, on the 20th of August, was attended by an immense con- course of people — by all the State officials, by a large delegation from both Houses of Con- gress, by the Chancellor and Faculty of the University of Georgia, and by delegations from the bar and from all the principal cities and towns in the State. The houses along the route to the cemetery were draped in mourning, the flags were at half-mast, the business houses closed, the bells of all the churches tolled at intervals, and the silence in the thronged streets, and the sorrowful countenances of the people, showed how truly they loved and mourned the illustrious dead. HUNGARY. (See AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.) HURLBUT, Major-General STEPHEN A., United States Minister to Peru, died on April 3d. He was born at Charleston, S. C., Novem- ber 29, 1815, and was the son of a Unitarian clergyman, from whom he received his educa- tion. He studied law, and practiced his pro- fession in his native city until the breaking out of the Florida War, in which he served as adjutant in a South Carolina regiment. He removed to Belvidere, Boone County, 111., in 1845, and resumed the practice of the law. He represented his district several times in the Legislature, and was a member of the Illinois Constitutional Convention in 1847. At the commencement of the civil war he was ap- pointed a brigadier-general, and was in com- mand at various points in Missouri from May, 1861, to February, 1862, when he was appoint- ed commandant of Fort Donelson. He was in command of the Fourth Division when the army moved up the Tennessee, and was the first to land at Pittsburg Landing, which he held 380 ILLINOIS. for a Week alone. He was promoted to major- Fourth Illinois District, and was re-elected to general for meritorious conduct at the battle the Forty-fourth Congress. In 1881 he was of Shiloh, and filled various important mili- tary positions in the West and South through- out the war. In 1869 he was made Minister to Colombia, in which position he was retained until 1873, when he was elected, as a Republi- appointed Minister to Peru, in place of J. P. Christiancy. In this position he came promi- nently before the public for a time in connec- tion with the Peruvian and Chilian policy of Mr. Elaine. He was a brother of Mr. W. H. can, to the Forty-third Congress from the Hurlbut, of the New York " World. ILLINOIS. STATE GOVERNMENT.— The fol- lowing were the State officers during the year: Governor, Shelby M. Cullom, Republican ; Lieu- tenant-Governor, John M. Hamilton ; Secretary of State, Henry D. Dement ; Treasurer, Edward Rutz ; Auditor, Charles P. Swigert ; Attorney- General, James McCartney ; Adjutant-General, J. H. Elliott ; Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion, James P. Slade ; Secretary of Board of Agriculture, Samuel D. Fisher ; Railroad Com- missioners, William H. Smith, George M. Bogue, and William H. Robinson. Judiciary : Supreme Court, Chief Justice, Pinkney H. Walker; As- sociate Justices, Alfred M. Craig, John Schol- field, T. Lyle Dickey, John M. Scott, John H. Mulkey, and Benjamin R. Sheldon. LEGISLATURE, SPECIAL SESSION. — The Legis- lature was convened in special session on the 23d of March by the Governor, for the follow- ing purposes : 1. To apportion the State into senatorial districts. 2. To apportion the State into congressional dis- tricts, and to provide for the election of Representa- tives therein. 8. To provide for submitting to a vote of the people of the State, at the next general election, the proposi- tion for the transfer of the Illinois and Michigan Canal to the United States. 4. To provide for the appointment of a commission to report to the next General Assembly a revision of the law in relation to criminal jurisprudence. 5. To appropriate one half of the interest of the College and Seminary Fund for the ordinary expenses of the State Normal University. 6. To make appropriations for the expenses of the special session of the General Assembly. It remained in session until the 6th of May. Six acts and three joint resolutions were passed, the chief of which were the congressional and senatorial apportionment acts, the act appro- priating one half of the interest of the College and Seminary Fund for the ordinary expenses of the Illinois State Normal University, at Nor- mal, the act ceding the Illinois and Michigan Canal to the United States, and the memorial to Congress in regard to the Hennepin Canal. The fourth proposition was not acted upon. The congressional districts are as follow : First District : the First, Second, Third, and Fourth Wards in the city of Chicago, and the towns of River- side, Hyde Park, Lake, Lyons, Calumet, Worth, Palos, Lemont, Thornton, Bremen, Orland, Bloom, and Rich, in the county of Cook. Second District: the Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Wards in the city of Chicago, and that part of the Eighth Ward in the city of Chicago which is south of the center of Polk Street and the center of Macalester Place. Third District: the Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, Twelfth, Thirteenth, and Fourteenth Wards in the city of Chicago, and that part of the Eighth Ward in the city of Chicago which is north of the center of Polk Street and the center of Macalester Place. Fourth District : the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, Seven- teenth, and Eighteenth Wards in the city of Chicago, and the towns of Lake View, Jefferson, Leyden, Norwood Park, Evanston, Niles, Maine, Elk Grove, Schaumburg, Hanover, New Trier, Northfield, Wheeling, Palatine, Barrington, Cicero, and Proviso, in the county of Cook. Fifth District: the counties of Lake, McHenry, Boon, De Kalb, and Kane. Sixth District : the counties of Winnebago, Ste- phenson, Jo Daviess, Ogle, and Carroll. Seventh District : the counties of Lee, Whiteside, Henry, Bureau, and Putnam. Eighth District : the counties of La Salle, Kendall, Grundy, Will, and Du Page. Nintn District ; the counties of Kankakee, Iroquois, Ford, Livingston, Woodford, and Marshall. Tenth District : the counties of Peoria, Knox, Stark, and Fulton. Eleventh District : the counties of Rock Island, Mercer, Henderson, Warren, Hancock, McDonough, and Scnuyler. Twelfth District : the counties of Cass, Brown, Adams, Pike, Scott, Greene, Jersey, and Calhoun. Thirteenth District: the counties of Tazewell, Mason, Menard, Sangamon, Morgan^ and Christian. Fourteenth District: the counties of McLean, De Witt, Piatt, Macon, and Logan. Fifteenth District : the counties of Coles, Edgar, Douglas, Vermilion, and Champaign. Sixteenth District: the counties of Cumberland, Clark, Jasper, Crawford, Clay, Richland, Lawrence, Wayne, Edwards, and W abash. Seventeenth district: the counties of Macoupin, Montgomery, Shelby, Moultrie, Effingham, and Fay- ette. Eighteenth District : the counties of Bond, Madison, St. Clair, Monroe, and Washington. Nineteenth District : the counties of Marion, Clin- ton, Jefferson, Franklin, Hamilton, White, Saline, Gallatin, and Hardin. Twentieth District : the counties of Perry, Ran- dolph, Jackson, Williamson, Union, Johnson, Pope, Alexander, Pulaski, and Massac. For senatorial purposes the State was di- vided into fifty-one districts, each entitled to one Senator and three Representatives, of which ten districts are in Cook County, which includes the city of Chicago. The following are the principal provisions of the act ceding the canal : That the Illinois and Michigan Canal, its right of way and all its appurtenances, and all right, title, and interest which the State may now have in any real estate ceded to the State by the United States ILLINOIS. 381 for canal purposes, be and are hereby ceded to the United States for the purpose of making and main- taining an enlarged canal and water-way from Lake Michigan to the Illinois and Mississippi Kivers, and this cession is made upon the condition that the Unit- ed States shall, within five years from the time this act takes effect, accept this grant, and thereafter maintain the said canal and water-way for the purpose aforesaid. In case the United States shall accept this grant, it is upon the express condition that the canal shall be enlarged in such manner as Congress may determine, and be maintained as a national water-way for commercial purposes, to be used by all persons, without discrimination, under such rules and regulations as Congress may prescribe ; and the real estate aforesaid, hereby conveyed to the United States, shall be usea, and the avails thereof applied, to carry out the objects of this grant, and for no other purpose, in such manner as Congress may determine. This act shall not take effect until it shall first have been submitted to a vote of the people of the State of Illinois at the general election to be held on Tuesday, the fifth day of November, A. D. 1882, and have been approved by a majority of all the votes polled at such election. The memorial relating to the Hennepm. Canal asked " the Congress of the United States to authorize, provide for, and direct, at its present session, an early construction of a canal for commercial purposes from Hennepin, on the Illinois Eiver, westward to the Missis- sippi Eiver, on the most feasible route." FINANCES. — The following statement will give a clear idea of the cost of the State gov- ernment in all its departments — executive, legislative, and judicial — and of the State in- stitutions, educational, charitable, and penal — since the adoption of the present Constitution. These aggregates include every disbursement except for public schools, payment of State debt, and the Military Fund : From December 1, 1870, to December 1. 1872. . .$4,102,978 84 From December 1, 1372, to December 1, 1874. . . 4,158,061 00 From December 1, 1874, to October 1, 1876 (22 months) 2,895,319 34 From October 1, 1876, to October 1, 1878 8,502,409 48 From October 1, 1878, to October 1, 18SO 3,462,534 27 From October 1, 1830, to October 1, 1882 8,673,446 12 The receipts and disbursements at the State Treasury, omitting local bond fund and other trust funds, for the two fiscal years ending October 1, 1882, were as follow : There was in the State Treasury, October 1. 1880, deducting all out- standing warrants — General Revenue Fund $1,401,827 42 State School Fund 816,841 81 Military Fund 13,105 05 Illinois Central Eailroad Fund 198,001 61 $1,929,775 89 The receipts for the two years end- ing October 1, 1882, were : General Revenue Fund— taxes $4,442,832 49 Illinois Central Railroad 774,845 92 Fees of State offices 69,880 92 Miscellaneous ... ... 8,930 37 State School Fund 2,082,298 46 Military Fund 143,392 92 $7,522,181 03 Total $9,451,956 »7 The disbursements for the two years ending Oct. 1, 1882, were : General Revenue Fund and Illinois Central Railroad Fund- On account of State debt $265,853 88 Revenue Fund 3,681,370 51 State School Fund 2,132,125 64 Military Fund 138,931 88 ! $6,218,381 91 The balance in the State Treasury October 1, 1882, deducting all warrants outstanding, was : General Revenue Fund $2,949,094 84 State School Fund. 267,014 63 Military Fund 17,566 09 Total balance. , ......... $3,233,67506 " There is," says the Governor in his mes- sage to the Legislature, "a considerable bal- ance of General Revenue Fund in excess of what will be needed to pay existing appropria- tions, some of which will be available to re- duce the amount to be raised on the levy of 1883 for general revenue purposes." The Governor estimates the amounts re- quired to be raised by taxation for all pur- poses, for the two years 1883 and 1884, as fol- low: FOR GENERAL STATE PURPOSES. Expenses of the several departments not enu- merated below — Legislative ................................... $272,000 Executive ................................... 450,000 Judicial ..................................... 571,000 $1,293,000 Ordinary expenses, repairs, improvements and con- struction of State charitable institutions ......... 1,750,000 Expenses of universities .......................... 145,000 Expenses and construction of prisons ............. 225,000 Canal Contingent Fund ........................... 60,000 For conveying convicts, arresting fugitives, and for transfer of insane patients ...................... 98,000 Printing, binding, stationery, and paper for General Assembly and Executive Departments .......... 110,000 Total ........................................ $3,681,000 FOR STATE SCHOOL PURPOSES. One million dollars per annum .................... $2,000,000 FOR MILITARY PURPOSES. Seventy-five thousand dollars per annum .......... $150,000 From this aggregate may be deducted the payments of the Illinois Central Eailroad to the General Revenue Fund, estimated for the next two years at $800,000, and the available surplus of General Revenue Fund, remaining after payment of existing appropriations, and after the payment of all appropriations to be made chargeable to the levy of 1882, in excess of the $1,500,000 which that levy is estimated to yield. EDUCATION. — During the year ending June 30th, there were 11,529 public-school districts in the State. Out of this number, there were 77 districts in which there was no school, 113 in which the school term was less than 110 days, and 11,339 in which school was kept for over 110 days. These schools were in session 85,423 months, or an average of 7'15 months. The total attendance was 713,431 pupils, of whom 364,043 were males and 349,388 were females. There were 22,301 teachers em- ployed, 8,076 of whom were males and 14,225 females. The highest monthly wages paid to any male teacher was $250, and the lowest $13.50. The maximum wages paid to female teachers was $120, and the minimum $10. The average wages paid to male teachers was $46.86, and the average wages of female teachers was $37.76. The total amount earned by the 382 ILLINOIS. teachers of the State during the year was $4,991,070.87, of which sum $2,013,606.98 was paid to male and $2,977,463.89 to female teachers. There were 893 of the school districts which had libraries, the total number of volumes be- ing 59,278, 5,285 of which were added during the year. There were 1,003 private schools in the State during the year, with a total attendance of 67,380 pupils, 32,614 male and 34,766 female. The number of teachers was 1,789, of whom 698 were males and 1,091 were females. The financial statement shows the total bal- ance and receipts to be $10,537,296.23. The total expenditures were $8,043,430.61, and the amount of loans of district funds was $89,- 710.53, leaving a balance of $2,404,155.09 on hand. The Supreme Court, in a case decided dur- ing the year, holds that colored children, under the Constitution and laws of the State, can not be excluded from the public schools provided for white children. RAILROADS AND CANALS. — The report of the Board of Railroad and Warehouse Commis- sioners, for the year ending June 30, 1882, shows an addition during the year of over 493 miles to the aggregate of railroad lines in the State, of which the largest amount (83 miles) was constructed by the Wabash lines. The aggregate length of main lines and branches of roads operated in Illinois is 27,475*81 miles, of which 8,541-38 miles are in the State, mak- ing, with 394-65 double-track and 1,527-67 side-track, a total of 10,463-70. This is largely in excess of any other State in the Union, Pennsylvania coming second with 6,690 miles, followed by Ohio, New York, and Iowa, each with over 6,000 miles, all other States falling below that amount. The forty-six roads operated in the State did an aggregate business during the year of $189,- 362,978 — an increase of over thirteen and a quarter millions since 1881, and nearly $84,- 000,000 since 1878. Of the aggregate receipts, $42,782,977.63 was from the passenger depart- ment and $126,767,839.73 from freights. The gross earnings from Illinois business amounted to $57,396,287.58, while the total expenses for operating, taxes, etc., were $37,628,704.77— for- ty-one companies making a profit of $18,879,- 058.63, and five sustaining a loss of $111,475.82 —net profit, $18,776,582.81. The aggregate operating expenses of all the roads doing busi- ness in the State were $119,757,996.06, against a gross income of $189,362,997.63— a net in- come of $69,357,001.57. Over $30,000,000 was paid for interest on bonded debt, and be- tween eleven and twelve millions for rentals and other extraordinary expenses, leaving a balance of nearly $29,000,000 applicable to the payment of dividends, of which 14 roads paid out $21,203,335.07. The whole number of passengers carried by Illinois roads was 45,953,045, of which 13,088,- 032 were through and 32.865,013 were local — about half the latter being in Illinois. The tons of freight were 78,093,592—17,694,769 being through and 60,398,823 local; the Illi- nois business comprised 10,250,946 tons, and of the through freight 24,783,811 tons were carried in Illinois. The leading roads show a material increase of freights during the year. A noteworthy feature of the report is the evidence which it presents of the gradual sub- mission of the roads to the schedules of freights and fares prescribed by the commission, and the moderate though steady reduction in each, amounting in the aggregate to millions of dol- lars— the result in large part of putting the railroads under judicious control. The report of the Canal Commissioners sets forth the operations of the Illinois and Michi- gan Canal, and the Illinois and Little Wabash River improvement, for the year ending Novem- ber 30th. The commissioners state that the canal was opened for navigation March 13th, and closed N ovember 30th. The receipts for the year exceed the disbursements by $4,177.56. In 1880 the expenditures exceeded the receipts $13,646.73, and in 1881, $5,601.63. The re- ceipts and disbursements for the several years the present commissioners have had charge of the State works have been as follow : YEAR. Receipts. Disbursements. 1877 $120 868 70 $126662 39 1878 108 804 21 90379 82 1879 111 742 97 103 669 40 1880 115,685 37 129,282 80 1881 106,640 57 112,242 20 1882 117 245 80 113071 52 Total $680941 10 $677307 63 Balance on hand December 1, 1876 $46,489 49 Keceipts for the six years 680,941 10 Disbursements for the six years 677,307 63 Amount on hand December 1, 1882 50,122 96 In regard to suits, the commissioners say the suits for 1881 that were brought by the St. Louis and Peoria Packet Company, and by Huse, Loomis & Co., for the collection of tolls at the Henry and Copperas Creek locks, are still pend- ing. The plaintiffs aver that the Illinois River is a national highway, and should be free from tolls. The commissioners claim that, by virtue of powers vested, they have a right to collect tolls levied. Both of these suits are of the greatest importance, not alone to the State of Illinois, but to the commerce of the West. STATISTICS. — The publication of the results reached in the tenth census reveals an astound- ing increase in the number of deaf and dumb, the blind and the insane, in this State, as in the country at large. For the latter the State has four asylums, which do not contain one half. It may be said that no former enumeration of the afflicted classes has been so complete, and that the increase referred to has been more ap- parent than real. However this may be, the numbers reported in Illinois in 1870 and in 1880, respectively, are as follow : ILLINOIS. 383 18TO. 1880. 1 625 5134 Idiots . . . 1 244 4 170 Deaf-mutes 833 2,202 Blind 1,042 2,615 Total. 4744 14,121 For the deaf and blind, all that the State undertakes to do is to educate such as are of school age. With respect to the deaf, the Superintendent of the Institution for the Edu- cation of the Deaf and Dumb reports that there are as many deaf-mutes of school age within the State, who have never been at any school designed especially for their benefit, as there are pupils present in the institution at Jackson- ville. Of the 5,000 insane reported, not more than about 2,000 are provided for in State in- stitutions. The number of insane men and women in county almshouses is very great, and constantly increasing, and in several of the larger counties the question what to do with them is a very important and pressing one. Below are the reports of the wardens of the Illinois Penitentiaries for the month of Decem- ber, 1882 : JOLIET PENITENTIARY. Convicts on hand December 1st 1,435 Eeceived from courts 48 Keturned on habeas corpus writ 1 Total on hand December 1st 1,484 Discharged during month 87 Pardoned during month 2 Died during month 1 Sent to Insane Asylum 2 Out by order of Supreme Court 1 Total out 43 On hand December 31st 1,441 Males 1,418 Females 23 CHESTER PENITENTIARY. Convicts on hand December 1st 560 Received during month 25 Total 585 Discharged during month 5 On hand December 31st 580 Males 572 Females 8 The following facts, relating to the charitable institutions of the State, are taken from the re- port of the State Board of Public Charities for the first quarter of the year : INSTITUTIONS. Average number of inmates. Average cost per capita. Northern Insane Hospital 501 • 78 $57 34 Eastern Insane Hospital 290-77 77 69 Central Insane Hospital 675-96 51 17 Southern Insane Hospital 479-22 57 19 Institution for the Deaf and Dumb Institution for the Blind 501-53 116-00 51 96 74 10 Asylum for Feeble-Minded Soldiers' Orphans' Home 295-48 802-24 55 21 47 50 Charitable Eye and Ear Infirmary State Reform School 70-65 209-84 6490 41 81 Total. 3,403-48 55 S3 YEAR. Number of acrei. Average yield per bushels. Bushels produced. Total value. 1860... 1861 3,889,150 3,889.159 80 30 115,174,770 115,174,770 $78,944,277 27,641,944 1862... 3,458,903 40 188,856,135 82,821,911 1863... 1864 1865 3,773,349 4,192,610 5,023,996 22 33 85$ 88,013,681 138,356,185 177,095,852 51,479,442 103,767,101 51,800,536 1866 4,931,783 81-6 155,844,340 67,013,070 1867 4,583 655 23- 8 109 091 000 74,281,880 1868 1869 1870... 1871... 1872.... 1873... 3,928,742 5,237,068 5,720,965 5,310,469 5,468,040 6,839,714 34-2 23-2 85-2 38-3 39-8 21 134,363,000 121.500,000 201,378,000 203,891,000 217,628,000 143 634,000 57,776,090 69,255,000 70,482,300 65,085.120 52,230,720 45,962,880 1874 7,421,055 18 133,579,000 74,804,240 1875 8,168,265 34-3 280,000,000 95,200.000 1876... 1877 1878 1879... 8,920,000 8,935,411 8,672,088 7,918,881 25 80 29 88 228,000,000 269,889,742 250,560,810 305,913,377 69,130,000 77,562,879 56,035,842 97,483,052 1880 7 574 545 83 250 697 036 83,757,039 18S1 7,157,384 24 174,491,706 93,328,977 The acreage, yield, and value of the rye-crop of Illinois, during the past ten years, are as fol- low: YEAR. Acres. Bushel.. Value. 1871... 123,033 2,170,000 $1,122,400 1872 122,154 2,211,000 1,105,500 1873 134054 2 078 000 1 205 240 1874 132 064 2,036 000 1 445 560 1875 137,572 2.600,000 1,586,000 1876 161,250 2,580,000 1,496,400 1877... 231,972 8,825,091 2,103,8CO 1878 252 478 2,915 910 1,195 535 1879 235 073 4,238,824 1,991,404 1880 149,742 2,737,159 1,518,586 1881 465 418 2 955 411 2 403 954 1882... 182.187 The 1882 crop of winter wheat was the largest, with one exception (1880), ever har- vested in the State, and amounted to 50,951,- 529 bushels. The spring wheat-crop made the aggregate yield a little over fifty-two million bushels. The average yield was not far from eighteen and a half bushels per acre, which is but little below that of 1879, when the largest average yield per acre was obtained. The area of the crop — 2,752,108 acres — has been exceeded but twice (1880 and 1881). The quality of wheat was much better than an average, and has seldom if ever graded more uniformly high throughout the State. The crop was saved in good condition, and either thrashed or stacked immediately after harvest. The 1882 crop returned the producer more money than any crop harvested during the past fourteen years. The following table shows the number and value of live-stock returned by the assessors in 1881: The following table gives the acreage, yield, and value of the corn-crops of the State for the past twenty-two years : LIVE-STOCK. Number. Value. Horses 981,909 $25,418 310 112.361 8,539,418 Cattle 2 045 866 20 528 846 Sheep . 1,088,344 1 403 352 Hogs 2,872,074 8,354,800 Total 7,000 254 $59 244,726 384 ILLINOIS. POLITICAL CONVENTIONS. — The Eepublican State Convention met in Springfield on the 28th of June, and nominated General John 0. Smith, of Cook County, for State Treasurer, and Charles T. Stratton, of Jefferson County, for State Superintendent of Public Instruction. The following platform was adopted : Whereas, The Eepublicans of the State of Illinois, in State Convention assembled, recognize now the ne- cessity for the continued and continuing perpetuation of the [Republican party ; the best interests of civil lib- erty upon this continent, the highest considerations of national honor and integrity, the freedom of the ballot and the purity of the ballot-box, and the pros- perity of our industries all demand this : therefore — Resolved, 1. That the policy of the Eepublican party of the nation and State is unchanged, and to that pol- icy the Bepublicans of the State of Illinois commit themselves. Fair elections and honest counts, North and South ; the honest treatment of the public debts and the public creditors ; a reduction of taxation ; the encouragement, fostering, and protecting of all Ameri- can industries, and a hearty approval of the policy of the Tariff Commission, which shall regard all inter- ests, and conserve them all ; such a practical reform of the civil service as shall relieve the Executive from the pressure of hordes of office-seekers, and as shall, by providing some intelligent method for appoint- ments to office, enable our Eepresentatives in both branches of the national Congress to turn their atten- tion to matters of national concern ; such a system of internal improvement by great water-ways, either natural or artificial, as will afford cheap and easy out- lets to the sea of the enormous products of the Great West ; the encouragement of friendly and cordial re- lations between all sections of the country. These are among the great national doctrines of the party in its past, and to these it is committed still. 2. Under the wise and patriotic administration of our State affairs, the debt of the State has been hon- estly paid, and its credit stands unquestioned and un- challenged everywhere. By that wise administration, the Eepublican party of the State of Illinois is entitled to the confidence of the people of the State, and will receive that confidence. 3. That, with all liberty -loving men and women of the world, we deplore the death of our late President, James A. Garfield, and with all patriots we renew our devotion to the principles of liberty which the foul hand of assassination can never reach ; and we extend to President Arthur our hearty support in all efforts to conduct the affairs of state in the interests of good government. 4. Believing that all divisions and dissensions among Eepublicans can be honorably and satisfactorily healed, we also believe that now is the time to bury our past differences and unite again under the old flag. Such a union means the triumphant success of the party, now and in 1884 ; and that success means the con- tinued prosperity and happiness of the country. 5. That the Eepublican party, now as in the past, is in favor of such just laws as shall protect the agri- culturist, the manufacturer j and the working-man from the oppression of monopolists. The following resolution was also adopted : Resolved, That we extend our hearty sympathy to the oppressed of all nations in all honest efforts to es- tablish liberty and a republican form of government, and that our especial sympathy is extended to all law- ful efforts now being made to establish republicanism in Ireland. The Greenbackers, at their State Convention, in Peoria, on the 2d of August, nominated Dan- iel McLaughlin, of Braidwood, for State Treas- urer, and Frank H. Hall, of Kane County, for State Superintendent of Public Instruction. They reaffirmed their Chicago platform of 1880, and added clauses in favor of female suffrage and prohibition. The Democratic State Convention met in Springfield, on the 7th of September, and nominated A. Orendorff, of Sangainon County, for State Treasurer, and Henry Kaab, of St. Clair County, for State Superintendent of Pub- lic Instruction. The following platform was adopted : Resolved, 1. That the Democratic party of the State of Illinois, in convention assembled, reaffirm the great principles which are the foundation of free govern- ment, among which are equal rights to all and exclu- sive privileges to none, protection of the weak against the encroachments of the strong, equal taxation, free speech, a free press, free schools, and first of all a free and incorruptiole ballot. 2. That we favor honest reform in the civil service, and denounce the extortion of large sums of money from office-holders to corrupt the ballot and control elections as the most threatening as it is the most in- sidious danger that besets a free government ; and the shameless resort to such methods by the National Ee- publican Committee, and by the Eepublican repudia- tion coalition in Virginia, evinces utter abandonment of principle, and meets our unqualified condemnation. 3. That we denounce the reckless extravagance and profligacy of the Eepublican party in the appropria- tion of the public Treasury, as manifested during the late session of Congress, which increased the appro- priations for the current fiscal year over those of the past year made by a Democratic Congress to the enor- mous extent of $78,000,000. 4. That we extend our heartiest sympathy to the Irish people in the struggle for their rights, in which they are now engaged, and recognize in their persist- ent efforts to obtain their freedom, despite the dun- geon, the scaffold, and all the other infamous appli- ances characteristic of British rule over Ireland, a love of liberty which is unparalleled in history, and sheds a ray of glory upon the Irish national character, com- mending it to the respect, admiration, and support of freedom-loving people throughout the world. 5. That it is incumbent upon our Government to protect its citizens, native-born and naturalized, at home and abroad, and we denounce and condemn the present Eepublican Administration for its neglect of duty toward those lately imprisoned as " suspects " in the jails of Ireland, by the arbitrary action of the British Government. 6. That we are in favor of the reduction of Federal taxation to the lowest point consistent with the wants of the Government under an honest and economical administration of its affairs, and that such taxes be so adjusted as to secure an equitable distribution of these burdens. 7. The Eepublican party of the State has proved false to the pledges it nas made to the people. With not a cent of bonded debt against the State, taxes for the past year have been one third greater than the E receding year. The various boards of the various tate institutions have been used more to advance the interests of the Eepublican party than for the care and comfort of the unfortunate men, women, and children committed to their charge. The various radical State officers are surrounded by numbers of unnecessary clerks and attendants, whose salaries are paid from the State Treasury. The humiliating spectacle is presented of the Governor of the State saying, in his annual message, that the sum of $3,000,000 would be ample to pay" all the expenses of the State for two years, and the same Governor approving bills passed by the Eepublican Legislature appropriating nearly $7,000,000 for such expenses ; and the large sum re- ceived annually from the Illinois Central Eailroad Company under the wise provisions of a law enacted by a Democratic Legislature, instead of being utilized ILLINOIS. 385 to relieve the people from taxation, has been misused as a stimulus to increased extravagance and increased taxation. 8. That the offices of Warehouse and Railroad Com- missioners, now filled by appointment of the Govern- or, should be filled by election by the people. 9. That we demand a revision of the present unjust and in many respects prohibitory tariff, which is framed in the interest of capital ; and while it favors and fosters iniquitous monopolies, is unjust and op- pressive to the laboring man in all the relations of life. The Constitution confers on Congress the power to raise revenue by duties on imports, and as a just and proper exercise of that power we favor a tariff based on the principle of revenue, which will deal justly with existing business relations and with all legitimate industries ; and at the same time discour- age monopolies and remove the burdens imposed by the present tariff upon all the laboring people of the country. And we hereby declare that there is no power given by the Constitution to Congress to levy a tariff or tax on the people for the purpose of protec- tion without reference to revenue. 10. That while we have no purpose to interfere with just laws in force in Illinois for the regulation of the traffic in intoxicating liquors, and conceding the right of the people to an amendment, if necessary, of such laws to prevent or correct the evils to society growing out of abuses in the use of intoxicating liquors, this convention declares that it is not the legitimate prov- ince of government to control the habits, tastes, appe- tites, and liberties of the people as long as they are peaceable and orderly, and do not encroach upon the rights of others or of society ; and we therefore declare that the prohibition by the Constitution, or by general laws, of the manufacture or sale of vinous, spirituous, or malt liquors would be in violation of individual and personal rights, and contrary to the fundamental prin- ciples of free government. 11. That we appeal to the people of this State, with- out regard to former political affiliations, to unite with us at the ensuing election in carrying into effect the foregoing principles. The third annual convention of the Liquor Dealers1 and Manufacturers' Protective Asso- ciation of Illinois met in Rock Island, on the 19th of September, and adopted the following resolutions : Whereas^ The danger arising from the prohibition movement is steadily increasing in this State ; and Whereas, The thorough organization of all busi- ness-men directly interested in the liquor-traffic is now, more than ever, a matter of imperative neces- sity • and W hereax, The ensuing election of members of the Legislature will, to a great extent, determine the issue of prohibition against personal liberty in our State : be it Resolved, That we consider the maintenance and further development of our present State Association as one of the most effective means of protecting our- selves in our rights as business-men, tax- payers, and citizens, and that the Board of Trustees spare no efforts at once to secure the co-operation of all the various branches of the liquor interest in this State ; and be it further Resolved, That we will use our best endeavors to defeat, at the next election, any candidate, for any office, who can not be fully relied upon as being un- compromisingly opposed to all attempts at sumptuary or prohibitory legislation ; and be it further Resolved, That we are decidedly in favor of abol- ishing all the abuses incident to the liquor-traffic, by a proper system of licensing and regulating the busi- ness in such manner as to protect our interests and welfare. Resolved, That the manly, outspoken declaration against a prohibitory amendment to our State Con- VOL. xxn. — 25 A stitution? as adopted by the last Democratic State Convention at Springfiefd, is deserving of the high- est praise on the part'of this convention. In January the Illinois State Christian Tem- perance Union and the Illinois State Temper- ance Alliance met in Springfield, and the two organizations were consolidated under the name of the Illinois State Temperance Union. .The Prohibition State Convention met in Bloomington, on the 9th of August, 158 dele- gates, representing twenty-nine counties, being present, and adopted the following platform : We, delegates assembled, representing the voters of the State of Illinois, having determined to organize a political party and place in the field candidates for various offices to be filled by the electors of the State, declare the following reasons, based on the funda- mental principles of this Government, to be the basis of our action : 1. The people having for vears and in large num- bers exercised the sacred right of petition, asking for submission to the vote of the people of a constitu- tional amendment prohibiting the liquor- traffic, were refused this right of self-government at the dictation of twelve thousand liquor-dealers, with the excuse that it was not in their party platform. 2. The people, believing that these legislators mis- represented their parties, sent a committee to the Re- publican State Convention, the dominant political party of the State, asking it to place in its platform a plank affirming the rightf of the people to amend their Constitution by the only method provided in that in- strument, the exercise of which right had been re- fused by the Legislature. The convention refused to consider this most reasonable request by a vote of 613 to 133. The Democratic party having, by a larger majority of its representatives, in a legislative declara- tion of its party platform in the past year and the ut- terance of its well-known leaders, courted the sup- port of the liquor-traffic and opposed even the submis- sion of an amendment to a vote of the people, we can not hope for favorable action by them. 3. All governments must grow with the develop- ment of mankind, and must meet new problems as they arise, or the onward march of civilization will overthrow them. The founders of our Government recognized this law, and provided in the Federal and State Constitutions for their peaceable amendment. Consequently, the submission asked for was in accord- ance with the genius of our institutions. 4. The plank which the dominant party refused to consider is as follows : " Resolved, That the Repub- lican party is in favor of submitting to a vote of the people of the State of Illinois a constitutional amend- ment, prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxi- cating liquors as a beverage." 5. Political parties being a controlling power in our Government, constitutional changes can only be ef- fected by the reorganization of the people as sov- ereign, and voluntarily submitting amendments for their adoption or rejection, as in Iowa, or on their re- fusal to do so, as in Illinois, to build up a political party pledged to these principles ; and this action is rendered necessary by the fact that this betrayal of the people, if left unrebuked, establishes a dangerous precedent for future party action. 6. All political power is in the people. To deny this is a subversion of the fundamental principles of the Government. The liquor-power, by fighting the submission of the amendment asked for, and seeking, through boycotting and bribery, to prevent the elec- tion of men to the'Legislature favorable to such sub- mission, and by intimidating and corrupting those already elected, compel aggressive action and thorough organization of all men who love their country, and who favor a free ballot and fair count. For these reasons we ask all lovers of our free in- stitutions to disregard old party lines, and unite with 386 ILLINOIS. the Prohibition party, which not only affirms the gov- ernmental principles herein enunciated, but which is ready to engage in the most important contest of the day, the overthrow of the liquor-traffic. Whereas, The manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors as a beverage are a sin against God, and a crime and a curse to man, which no human enactment nor usage can make right, and that Christianity, hu- manity, and patriotism demand its prohibition : there- fore we favor — 1. The adoption of an amendment to the Constitu- tion of the State of Illinois, prohibiting the manufac- ture and sale of alcoholic beverages in the State. 2. Whereas, The people have petitioned the Legis- lature to submit an amendment to the State Constitu- tion, prohibiting the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages, we are in favor of its submission ; and Whereas, The people have also petitioned the Legis- lature to submit an amendment enfranchising women, we are therefore in favor of its submission.' 3. That while we favor all proper legislation in the interest of common schools, yet we are decidedly op- posed to applying funds raised from the liquor-traffic for that purpose, thereby giving such traffic a degree of respectability to which it is not entitled. The following was also adopted : That we require of all candidates for legislative offices a pledge not to go into a caucus of either of the two old parties. The following nominations were made : State Treasurer, Judge J. J. Irwin, of Madison ; State Superintendent of Public Instruction, Profess- or Andrews, of Galesburg, for whom another candidate was afterward substituted. Twenty-three counties in the State grant no license for the sale of spirituous liquors. An Anti-Monopoly State Convention met in Springfield, on the 15th of March, about one hundred delegates being present, and adopted the following resolutions : 1. That w_e believe in the doctrine embodied in the railroad legislation of Illinois, and confirmed by the highest courts of the nation, viz., that corporations are subject to the control of the legislative bodies that created them. 2. We believe in the strict enforcement of the pres- ent railroad laws of Illinois, and urge our Governor and Railroad Commissioners to more prompt action in prosecuting the almost constant violations of said laws. 3. That we condemn the giving of passes, as an in- direct system of bribery ana a mode ot compelling the public to contribute to the railroad corruption fund, and that in the future we will not support any candi- date for any office, whether legislative, executive, or judicial, who will take such a bribe, and who will not use his influence in favor of the enactment and en- forcement of a law making the giving or taking a pass bribery, and an offense which will disqualify any man guilty thereof from holding office. 4. That this convention select, as far as possible, a State Committee composed of one or more from each county to detect, report, and prosecute every viola- tion of the laws by the railroad corporations of the State. 5. That this State Committee be recommended to proceed against railroad corporations for the violation of our laws, either through quo warranto or the Rail- road Commissioners, and that the Attorney-General be notified of the commencement of such proceedings and be requested to prosecute the same. 6. That our commission will not do its duty unless it shall at once give us a passenger rate of two cents a mile on the leading roads of the State, and shall also reform its schedule and cut down the freight rates to an amount at least equal to that now charged to the people of other States over our railroads in cases where competition compels them to just rates ; and that we emphatically condemn the failure of the com- mission to make a just reduction of the rates of freight on short hauls, in which the people of this State are chiefly interested. 7. That in our judgment the theory and policy of our railroad laws require that the Railroad and Ware- house Commission shall itself, on its own motion, and without formal complaint, begin and prosecute proper suits to punish abuses brought in any way to its no- tice ; that the course heretofore taken by the Railroad and Warehouse Commission, requiring the complaint of the shipper to be filed, exhibited to the railroad, and then answered and heard, unless by terrorism or purchase he is silenced, is the surest way of prevent- ing and suppressing complaints and defeating the en- forcement of the law. 8. That while we regard our railroad laws as the most useful known and only needing proper execu- tion and enforcement to fully protect our people in the use of the public highways, and had a right to expect from the Railroad Commissioners protection from railroad extortion and unreasonable charges, these expectations have thus far only resulted in failure and disappointment ; that instead of guarding the inter- ests of the people, as duty required, these reputed servants have oftener acted as servants of the rail- roads. ELECTION RETURNS. — The election in Novem- ber resulted in the choice of Smith, Republi- can, for State Treasurer, by a plurality of 5,484 ; and of Raab, Democrat, for State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, by a plurality of 2,869. The vote was as follows : Treasurer. Superintendent. Republican 254,551 250,276 243,061 253,145 15,520 14,306 Prohibition 11,844 11,202 The Legislature, to meet in January, 1883, will consist of 31 Republicans and 20 Demo- crats in the Senate, and 77 Republicans, 75 Democrats, and 1 Independent in the House. The proposition to appropriate $531,712.18 for the completion of the State-House was de- feated, not receiving a majority of the total vote cast at the election (532,583), though 231,- 283 votes were cast for it and only about 153,- 000 against it. For the act ceding the Illinois and Michigan Canal, 363,855 votes were cast, and against it 59,675, and it was ratified. Eleven Republican and nine Democratic Con- gressmen were elected, as follow : First District, Ransom W. Dunham, Repub- lican ; Second District, John F. Finerty, Inde- pendent Democrat ; Third District, George R. Davis, Republican; Fourth District, George E. Adams, Republican; Fifth District, Reuben Ellwood, Republican; Sixth District, Robert R. Hitt, Republican ; Seventh District, Thomas J. Henderson, Republican ; Eighth District, William Cullen, Republican; Ninth District, Lewis E. Payson, Republican ; Tenth District, Nicholas E. Worthington, Democrat; Eleventh District, William H. Neece, Democrat ; Twelfth District, James M. Riggs, Democrat ; Thirteenth District, William M. Springer, Democrat ; Fourteenth District, Jonathan H. Rowell, Re- publican; Fifteenth District, Joseph G. Can- IMMIGRATION, CHINESE. 387 non, Republican; Sixteenth District, Aaron Shaw, Democrat ; Seventeenth District, Sam- uel W. Moulton, Democrat; Eighteenth Dis- trict, William R. Morrison, Democrat; Nine- teenth District, Richard W. Townshend, Dem- ocrat; Twentieth District, John R. Thomas, Republican. IMMIGRATION, CHINESE. The " Bur- lingame treaty," concluded between the United States and China in 1868, secured to Chinese the right of immigration into the United States, and stipulated that " Chinese subjects visiting or residing in the United States shall enjoy the same privileges, immunities, and exemptions in respect to travel or residence as may there be enjoyed by the citizens or subjects of the most favored nation." The right of naturalization was excepted from the privileges guaranteed by the treaty. The provisions of this treaty relating to immigration were modified by the treaty concluded between the two govern- ments November IT, 1880. The first two arti- cles of this compact are as follow : ARTICLE I. Whenever in the opinion of the Gov- ernment of the United States the coming of Chinese laborers to the United States, or their residence therein, affects or threatens to affect the interests ot that country, or to endanger the good order of the said country or of any locality within the territory thereof, the Government of China agrees that the Government of the United States may regulate, limit, or suspend such coming or residence, but may not ab- solutely prohibit it. The limitation or suspension shall be reasonable, and shall apply only to Chinese who may go to the United States as laborers, other classes not being included in the limitations. Legis- lation taken in regard to Chinese laborers will be of such a character only as is necessary to enforce the regulation, limitation, or suspension of immigration, and immigrants shall not be subject to personal mal- treatment or abuse. ART. II. Chinese subjects, whether proceeding to the United States as teachers, students, merchants, or from curiosity, together witn their body and house- hold servants, and Chinese laborers who are now in the United States, shall be allowed to go and come of their own free will and accord, and shall be accorded all the rights, privileges, immunities, and exemptions which are accorded to the citizens and subjects of the most favored nations. ACTION OF CONGKESS. — Early in 1882 an act was passed by Congress suspending Chinese immigration to the United States for the period of twenty years. The representative of the Chinese Government, at Washington, protested against the provisions of this measure, and President Arthur vetoed it, mainly on the ground that prohibition for twenty years was not a " reasonable " suspension within the meaning of the first article of the treaty of November, 1880. The President also pointed out other objections to the bill, among others one mentioned in the protest of the Chinese representative that the act prohibited Chinese from passing through the United States on their way from one foreign country to another. This act originated in the Senate. Another bill was then brought forward in the House, fixing the period of suspension at ten years, but in other respects being substantially the same as the first one. The second bill was signed by the President May 6th. THE SECOND ACT. — This law is entitled " An act to execute certain treaty stipulations relat- ing to Chinese." The preamble recites that "in the opinion of the Government of the United States the coming of Chinese laborers to this country endangers the good order of certain localities within the territory thereof." Section 1 enacts that after the expiration of ninety days after the passage of the act the coming of Chinese laborers to the United States shall be suspended for ten years, and that dur- ing such suspension it shall not be lawful for any Chinese laborer to come to the United States, or, having come after the act takes ef- fect, to remain here. The ninety days expired August 4th, and the law went into operation August 5th. Section 2 declares that the mas- ter of any vessel, knowingly bringing within the United States and landing or permitting to be landed any Chinese laborer from any for- eign port or place, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and punishable by a fine of not more than $500 for every Chinese laborer so brought, and may be also imprisoned not ex- ceeding one year. Section 3 provides that the two foregoing sections shall not apply to Chi- nese laborers who were in the United States November 17, 1880, the date of the amended treaty with China — or who shall have come here before the act takes effect, "and who shall produce to such master before going on board such vessel, and who shall produce to the collector of the port in the United States at which such vessel shall arrive, the evidence hereinafter in this act required of his being one of the laborers in this section mentioned ; nor shall the two foregoing sections apply to the case of any master whose vessel, being bound to a port not within the United States, shall come within the jurisdiction of the United States by reason of being in distress or in stress of weather, or touching at any port of the United States on its voyage to any foreign port or place; provided that all Chinese la- borers brought on such vessel shall depart with the vessel on leaving port." Section 4 is as follows : That for the purpose of properly identifying Chinese laborers who were in the United States. on the 17th of November, 1880, or who shall have come into the same before the expiration of ninety days next after the passage of this act, and 'in order to furnish them with the proper evidence of their right to go from and come to the United States of their free will and ac- cord, as provided by the treaty between the United States and China, dated November 17, 1880, the col- lector of customs of the district from which any such Chinese shall depart from the United States shall, in person or by deputy, go on board each vessel having on board any such Chinese laborer and cleared or about to sail from his district for a foreign port, and on such vessel make a list of all such Chinese labor- ers, which shall be entered in registry-books to be kept for that purpose, in which shall be stated the name, age, occupation, last place of residence, physical marks. or peculiarities, and all facts necessary for the identification of each of such Chinese laborers, which 388 IMHIGKATIOX, CHINESE. books shall be safely kept in the custom-house ; and every such Chinese laborer so departing from the United States shall be entitled to, and shall receive, free of any charge or cost, upon application therefor, from the collector or his deputy at the time such list is taken, a certificate signed by _the collector or his deputy and attested by his seal of office, in such form as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe, which certificate shall contain a statement of the name, age, occupation, last place of residence, per- sonal description, and facts of identification of the Chinese laborer to whom the certificate is issued, corresponding with the said list and registry in all particulars. In case any Chinese laborer, after having received such certificate, shall leave such vessel before her departure, he shall deliver his certificate to the master of the vessel, and if such Chinese laborer shall fail to retum to such vessel before her departure from port, the certificate shall be delivered by the master to the collector of customs for cancellation. The cer- tificate herein provided for shall entitle the Chinese laborer to whom the same is issued to return to and re-enter the United States upon producing and deliv- ering the same to the collector of customs of the dis- trict at which such Chinese laborer shall seek to re- enter ; and upon delivery of such certificate by such Chinese laborer to the collector of customs at the time of re-entry in the United States, said collector shall cause the same to be filed in the custom-house, and duly canceled. CHINESE LABORERS. — By section 5 any Chi- nese laborer mentioned in section 4, being in the United States and desiring to depart by land, is entitled, free of charge, to a certificate of identification similar to that provided for in section 4 in case of such lahorer desiring to leave by water. Section 6 is as follows : That in order to the faithful execution of Articles I and II of the treaty in this act before mentioned, every Chinese person other than a laborer who may be en- titled by said treaty and this act to come within the United States, and who shall be about to come to the United States, shall be identified as so entitled by the Chinese Government in each case, such identity to be evidenced by a certificate issued under the authority of said Government, which certificate shall be in the English language, or (if not in the English language) accompanied by a translation into English, stating such right to come, and which certificate shall state the name, title, or official rank, if any, the age, height, and all physical peculiarities, former and present person - , - - ... . _. treaty in this act mentioned, to come within the United States. Such certificate shall be prima facie evidence of the fact set forth therein, and shall be produced to the collector of customs, or his deputy, of the port in the district of the United States at which the person named therein shall arrive. Section 7 subjects to a fine not exceeding $1,000, and imprisonment for not more than five years, any person who shall make or knowingly use a fraudulent certificate. Section 8 requires lists of Chinese passen- gers on vessels arriving at ports of the United States to be kept and delivered by masters of such vessels to collectors of customs. By section 9 collectors are required to exam- ine and compare certificates and lists. Section 10 provides for the forfeiture to the United States of vessels violating the provis- ions of the act. Section 11 declares that "any person who shall knowingly bring into or cause to be brought into the United States by land, or who shall knowingly aid or abet the same, or aid or abet the landing in the United States from any vessel of any Chinese person not lawfully entitled to enter the United States, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall, on conviction thereof, be fined in a sum not exceeding $1,000, and imprisoned for a term not exceeding one year." Section 12 is as follows: That no Chinese person shall be permitted to enter the United States by land without producing to the proper officer of customs the certificate in this act re- quired of Chinese persons seeking to land from a ves- sel. And any Chinese person found unlawfully within the United States shall oe caused to be removed there- from to the countrv from which he came, by direction of the President of the United States, and at the cost of the United States, after being brought before some iustice, judge, or commissioner of a court of the United States, and found to be one not lawfully en- titled to be or remain in the United States. Section 13 exempts from the provision of the act officers of the Chinese Government traveling on business of that Government, and makes their credentials equivalent to the pre- scribed certificate. The servants of such offi- cers are also exempt. Section 14 declares that no State court or court of the United States shall admit Chinese to citizenship. By section 15 " Chinese laborers " as used in the act shall be taken to mean " both skilled and unskilled laborers, and Chinese employed in mining." JUDICIAL INTERPRETATION : CASE OF An SING. — The provisions of this law have been the subject of judicial interpretation in several important cases. In the case of Ah Sing, heard in the United States Circuit Court in California in August, 1882, by Justice Field, of the United States Supreme Court, and Circuit Judge Saw- yer, it was held that the prohibition of the act does not apply to a Chinese seaman who shipped on an American vessel leaving the United States before the passage of the act, and returning from a foreign port after the act went into effect. The facts proved were that Ah Sing, a subject of the Emperor of China, had come to this country six years ago. On May 5, 1882, he shipped as a cabin waiter on the American steamer City of Sydney, which left San Francisco for a voyage to Australia and returned to San Francisco August 8th. The Act of Congress being then in force, the master of the vessel refused to land Ah Sing, whereupon the case was brought before the Circuit Court on a writ of habeas corpus. The law on this point was interpreted by Justice Field as follows : We do not, however, find any difficulty in arriving at the meaning of the act. Its provisions are plain. The master of a vessel is prohibited from bringing within the United States, and landing or permitting to be landed, any Chinese laborer from any foreign port or place; and that means, from bringing any Chinese laborer embarking at a foreign port or place. The prohibition does not apply to the bringing of a laborer already on board of the vessel when it touches at a foreign port. When we speak of merchandise as IMMIGRATION, CHINESE. 389 brought from a foreign port, the port of shipment is always understoodj and not any intermediate port at which the vessel bnnging the goods may have stopped. This is the common understanding of the terms by merchants, and is the interpretation given to them by the courts. They must be held to have the same meaning when used with reference to the importation of persons from a foreign port, as when used with reference to the importation of goods. The eighth section of the act confirms this view, if it needed any confirmation ; that requires the master of the vessel to deliver a list of Chinese passengers "taken on board his vessel at any foreign port or place." It is the laborers thus taken on board that the master is pro- hibited from bringing into the United States. Any other construction would compel a master of an American vessel, leaving a port of the United States with a Chinese seaman or waiter, to send him adrift at a foreign port, at which the vessel might touch, and prohibit the master from bringing him back in accordance with the bond which he is required by existing law to execute. (U. S. Kevised Statutes, section 4,576.) The object of the act of Congress was to prevent the further immigration of Chinese laborers to the United States, not to expel those already here. It even pro- vides for the return of such laborers leaving for a temporary period, upon their obtaining certificates of identification. It was deemed wise policy to prevent the coming among us of a class of persons, who, by their dissimilarity of manners, habits, religion, and physical characteristics, can not assimilate with our people, but must forever remain a distinct racet creat- ing oy their presence enmities and conflicts, disturb- ing to the peace and injurious to the interests of the country. But it was not thought that the few thou- sands now here, scattered, as they must soon be, throughout all the States, would sensibly disturb our peace or aifect our civilization. This case is reported in 13 "Federal Report- er," 286. CASE OF AH TIE. — In the case of Ah Tie and others, brought before the court at the same time, the facts were substantially the same, with one exception, as in the case of Ah Sing. Ah Tie and others were seamen on the same steamer during the same voyage. The distinc- tion between the two cases was, that at Syd- ney the petitioners on several occasions, by permission of the captain, went ashore, and remained a few hours, without, however, in- tending to leave the service of the steamer. "This fact," said Justice Field, "is the only one distinguishing this case from that of Ah Sing. We there held that the prohibition upon the master of a vessel, contained in the Act of Congress, to bring within the United States from a foreign port or place any Chinese la- borer, was intended to prevent the importation of such laborers from the foreign port or place — laborers who there embarked on the vessel — and did not apply to his bringing a Chinese laborer already on board of his vessel touching at the foreign port or place. We also held that, while on board the American vessel, the laborer was within the jurisdiction of the United States, and did not lose, by his employ- ment, the right of residence here previously acquired under the treaty with his country. " The status of the petitioners, and their re- lation to the vessel, were not changed in any respect by the fact that they were permitted by the captain to land for a few hours at the port of Sydney. They were bound, by their contract of shipment, to return with the ves- sel ; and the captain was bound to bring them back. He could not have forced them ashore in a foreign port; nor could he have aban- doned them there. Had he done either of these things, he would have rendered himself liable to criminal prosecution. ... A Chinese laborer on an American vessel can not be held to lose his residence here, so as to come within the purview of the act, by such temporary en- try upon a foreign country as may be caused by the arrival of the vessel on her outward voyage at her port of destination, or her touch- ing at any intermediate port in going or re- turning, or her putting into a foreign port in stress of weather. And we should hesitate to say that it would be lost by the laborer passing through a foreign country in going to different parts of the United States by any of the direct routes, though we are told by the counsel of the respondent that a Chinese laborer having taken a ticket by the overland railroad from this place to New York, by the Central Michi- gan route, which passes from Detroit to Niag- ara Falls through Canada, was stopped at Ni- agara and sent back, as within the prohibition of the Act of Congress, and on attempting to retrace his steps was again stopped at Detroit. A construction which would justify such a pro- ceeding can not fail to bring odium upon the act, and invite efforts for its repeal. The wis- dom of its enactment will be better vindicated by a construction less repellent to our sense of justice and right." (13 "Federal Reporter," 291.) CASE OF Low YAM CHOW. — In the case of Low Yam Chow (13 " Federal Reporter," 605), the essential facts were these : The petitioner was a Chinese merchant, and not a laborer. He was for ten years engaged in business in Peru, and afterward established himself at Panama. For the past five years he has also been a mem- ber of the mercantile firm of Chow, Kee & Co., in San Francisco. On July 31st he left Pan- ama by steamer for San Francisco, where he arrived August 17th. He was not allowed to land, because he had no certificate. These facts raised two questions: First, whether Chinese merchants, who resided, on the pas- sage of the Act of Congress, in other countries than China, on arriving on a vessel in a port of the United States, are required to produce cer- tificates of the Chinese Government, establish- ing their character as merchants, as a condition of their being allowed to land ; and, second, whether their character as such merchants can be established by parol proof. The Circuit Court of the United States in California de- cided the first of these questions in the nega- tive, and the second in the affirmative. It holds that only laborers, and not merchants, are prohibited from entering the United States, andthat a certificate is required only of those coming from their "place of residence in. 390 IMMIGRATION, CHINESE. China," as is prescribed by section 6 of the Act of Congress. After quoting this section, Jus- tice Field says: "The certificate mentioned in this section is evidently designed to facili- tate proof by Chinese other than laborers com- ing from China, and desiring to enter the United States, that they are not within the prohibited class. It is not required as a means of restricting their coming. To hold that such was its object, would be to impute to Congress a purpose to disregard the stipulation of the second article of the new treaty [November, 1880], that they should be ' allowed to go and come of their own free-will and accord.' Nor is it required, as a means of proving their char- acter, from merchants and others not labor- ers, domiciled out of China when the law was passed, and coming here from such foreign ju- risdiction. The particulars which the certifi- cate must contain show that it was to be given to those then residing there, for their place of residence in China, is to be stated. Independ- ently of this consideration, that Government could not be expected to give, in its certificate, the particulars mentioned of persons resident — some, perhaps, for many years — out of its jurisdiction. Neither the letter nor the spirit of the act calls for a construction imputing to Congress the exaction of a condition so unrea- sonable. . . . Its purpose will be held to be, what the treaty [of November, 1880] author- ized, to put a restriction upon the immigration of laborers, including those skilled in any trade or art ; and not to interfere, by excluding Chi- nese merchants, or putting unnecessary and embarrassing restrictions upon their coming, with the commercial relations between China and this country. Commerce with China is of the greatest value, and is constantly increasing. And it should require something stronger than vague inferences to justify a construction which would not be in harmony with that treaty, and which, would tend to lessen that commerce. It would seem, however, from reports of the ac- tion of certain officers of the Government — possessed cf more zeal than knowledge— that it is their purpose to bring this about, and thus make the act as odious as possible. " We are of opinion that the section requir- ing a certificate for Chinese merchants coming tothe United States does not apply to those who resided out of China on the passage of the Act of Congress, and that proof of their occupa- tion may be made by parol." CASE OF GEORGE MONCAN AND AH KEE. — In the case of George Moncan and Ah Kee (14 " Federal Reporter," 44), United States District Judge Deady, of the Oregon District, held that a Chinaman who had shipped as a seaman on an American vessel, in a foreign port, before the passage of the Act of Congress, and reached a port of the United States after the act went into force, had a right to enter the country and remain; and he interpreted section 3 of the act which excepts from its prohibitory provis- ions a vessel "touching at any port of the United States on its voyage to any foreign port or place; provided, that all Chinese laborers brought on such vessel shall depart with the vessel on leaving port." It appeared that Mon- can had shipped as cook on the American ves- sel Patrician, at London, in March, 1882, which was before the passage of the act. The ves- sel went to Yokohama, Japan, where, on Sep- tember llth — after the law went into effect — Moncan was made steward and Ah Kee was taken on as cook. It then proceeded to Asto- ria, Oregon, which port it reached in October, and there took on a load of wheat for Europe. Moncan and Kee, being forbidden to land, ap- pealed to the court to define their rights. On these facts the law Was interpreted by Judge Deady as follows : Counsel for the Chinese contends : 1. That under the circumstances the Patrician is a vessel " touching " at a port of the United States "on its voyage" to a foreign one, and therefore within the exception con- tained in section 3 of the act ; and, 2. That the crew of a vessel arriving at a port of the United States from a foreign port or place, in the ordinary course of com- merce and navigation, are not " laborers" within the meaning of the act. When the Patrician entered the Columbia River, the terminiis ad quem^ or place of termination of her voy- age, was not definitely known. It might be either 'in Europe or the United States ; and, so far as now- known, it is in the former. But even so long as it might be in either country, I think she ought to be for the purpose of this act considered as on a voyage to a foreign port. But it is certain that her port of final destination was not Astoria, at which place she merely called for orders. Nor had the voyage then terminated as to the steward and cook, whose engage- ments were for twenty-four months each from the date of signing the articles, unless sooner discharged. The word "touching" is evidently used in the act to signify the opposite of "staying." And it does not apply to the case of a compulsory entrance on ac- count of distress or stress of weather, for that is spe- cifically provided for. A vessel does not ordinarily touch at her home port, but remains there until a new voyage is undertaken. But in course of a trading- voyage, from England to Asia and back to Europe or the United States, she may touch at many ports and for many purposes. Calling at a port for orders is, in my judgment, a plain case of "touching" at such port ; and if, in pursuance of the order obtained, or being there, the vessel remains long enough to take in a cargo for a foreign port, I see no reason, under the circumstances, for concluding that she is hence- forth "staying" but not "touching" at such port. Upon this view of the case, the Patrician has simply touched at this port. Her stay here is only tempo- rary and for an object necessary to enable her to pros- ecute her voyage to a foreign port with profit to her owners. Nor do I think that the Chinese members of the crew of the Patrician are laborers within the meaning of this act. True, their vocation is labor ; but they are not brought here to remain and enter into competition with the labor of the inhabitants of the country. . . . It is not to be supposed for a moment that Congress intended by the passage of this act to impede or crip- ple commerce with China by_ prohibiting, in eft'ect, all vessels engaged in the carrying-trade to and from the United States, and particularly those on the Pacific coast, from employing Chinese cooks, stewards, or crews, when for any reason it is necessary or conven- ient to do so ; for such would necessarily be the re- sult of holding that the Chinese crew of a vessel com- ing from a foreign port to one of the United States IMMIGRATION, CHINESE. 391 are " laborers " within the meaning of the act. . . . Of course a Chinese seaman, although allowed to come into the ports of the United States as one of the crew of a vessel from a foreign port, does not thereby obtain the right to remain in the country and become a laborer therein ; and if the master allows him to go ashore permanently, the latter would be liable to re- moval, and the former to the punishment prescribed in section 2 of the act. But such seaman would have the same right to be on the shore temporarily and not otherwise employed than in the business of the vessel during her stay in port, as those of other nationalities. As to Moncan, the court held that he had a right not only to land, but to remain perma- nently, for the reason that he had joined an American ship prior to the passage of the act, and remained on her until his arrival here. This was in accordance with the view expressed by Justice Field in the case of Ah Sing, that " an American vessel is deemed to be a part of the territory of the State within which its home port is situated, and as such a part of the territory of the United States ; the rights of its crew are measured by the laws of the State or nation, and their contracts are en- forced by its tribunals." CASE OF Ho KING. — It was held by Judge Deady, in the case of Ho King (14 " Federal Reporter," 724), that a Chinese -actor is not a laborer, and is therefore entitled to enter the United States on satisfactory evidence of his professional character. "The term ' laborer,' " said Judge Deady, u is used in the supplement- ary treaty with China, of November 17, 1880, and also of the act of May 6, 1882, by sec- tion 15 of which it is made to include ' both skilled and unskilled laborers,' in its popular sense, and includes only persons who perform physical labor for another for wages. It does not, therefore, include an actor any more than it does a merchant or teacher. . . . Neither the treaty nor the act has in view the protection of what are called the professional or mercantile classes, or those engaged in mere mental labor, from competition with the Chi- nese. No grievance of this kind was ever com- plained of, and the language of the remedy provided plainly indicates that it was not con- templated by either of the parties to the treaty, or the Congress that passed the act." In this case Judge Deady further decided that any Chinese non-laborer entitled to come to this country may enter without the certifi- cate prescribed by section 6 of the act, pro- vided he gives satisfactory proof that he is not a laborer, and a satisfactory explanation why he has no certificate. On this point the court said: In the case of Low Yam Chow [13 " Federal Eeport- er," 605, also given above] it was held by Justices Field and Hoffman that Chinese not laborers, who, at the passage of the act, did not reside in China, were not required to produce this certificate to prove they were non-laborers prior to being allowed to land. 1 he reasoning by which this conclusion is reached, would justify the conclusion that the certificate is not absolutely necessary in any case. The non-laboring classes of Chinese are still entitled by treaty stipulation to come to and reside in the United States, and to en- joy all the " rights, privileges, immunities, and ex- emptions" which may be accorded to "the citizens and subjects of the most favored nation" (treaty of November 17, 1880). If section 6 of the act of 1882 is construed to abso- lutely require the production of the certificate therein provided for, before a Chinaman who is not a laborer can come within the United States, then it will oper- ate as a serious restriction upon the right and privi- lege given him by the treaty, because in this respect no such condition or restriction is imposed upon the subject of any other nation. Indeed: the fact of being compelled to make proof of his condition or character at all is a burden and inconvenience upon the Chinese coming to the United States, which is not required of any other immigrant or visitor coming to this coun- try. But probably this much is unavoidable under the circumstances, and must be submitted to as a ne- cessary incident of the right of the United States, un- der the amended treaty, to exclude from the country Chinese laborers. . . . Eead, then, in the light of the treaty, and considered as an aid rather than an impediment to its enforce- ment, section 6 ought to be construed as a declaration tificate of the Chinese Government that the bearer is not a laborer, and is prima fade entitled under the treaty to come into the United States at pleasure; but that, in the absence of such certificate, a China- man claiming the right to enter and reside in the United States must establish the fact that he is not a laborer by evidence, as in ordinary cases of the ex parte proof of a fact. But the non -production of a certificate, un- less satisfactorily explained, may raise the pre- sumption that the claimant is one of the pro- hibited class. In the case under consideration, Ho King explained that, when he left China, it was his purpose to go to Honolulu, and that he had no intention of coming to the United States. This was considered by the court as a satisfactory explanation of why he had no cer- tificate. This view of the law was also taken by Chief-Justice Greene, of Washington Territory, in the case of Lee Yip, decided near the close of 1882. TRANSIT OF CHINESE LABORERS. — The impor- tant question was raised during the year, but was not brought before any court, whether Chinese laborers are entitled to enter and pass through the United States on their way from one foreign country to another. It was repre- sented that there were from 40,000 to 50,000 Chinese laborers in the West Indies whose contracted term of service there was about to expire, and who wanted to return to China by way of the United States. On this ques- tion Attorney- General Brewster gave two con- flicting opinions. In the first, dated July 18th, and given to Secretary Folger, he held that the coming of all laborers to the United States was prohibited by the act, whether they came to remain or simply to pass through the country. In the second, dated December 26th, and given to Secretary of State Frelinghuysen, he held that the prohibition of the act does not extend to Chinese laborers desiring to cross the United States from one foreign country to another. " My first opinion on this subject," writes Mr. 392 IMMIGRATION", CHINESE. INDEBTEDNESS OF THE U. S., ETC. Brewster to Mr. Frelinghuysen, "was given under circumstances somewhat too urgent, pressed as I was by your department, because it was pressed by others, and I am gratified to have an opportunity to reconsider my former conclusions with care." The Attorney-General then proceeds as follows : The preamble of the act is in these words : " "Whereas, in the opinion of the Government of the United States, the coming of Chinese laborers to this country en- dangers the good order of certain localities within the territory thereof." The first section enacts "that from and after the expiration of ninety days next after the passage of this act, the coming of Chinese laborers to the United States be, and the same is hereby, sus- E ended ; and during such suspension it shall not be iwful for any Chinese laborer to come, or, having so come after the expiration of said ninety days, to remain within the United States." The treaty stipulations referred to in the title of the act are those contained in the treaty between this country and China, bearing date the 17th of Novem- ber, 1880, which is twice referred to in the body of the act. The preamble of the treaty recites that the necessity for " a modification of existing treaties " has arisen in consequence of the increasing immigration of Chinese laborers, and the embarrassments caused by such im- migration. The first article provides that " whenever in the opinion of the Government of the United States the coming of Chinese laborers to the United States, or their residence therein, affects or threatens to affect the interests of that country, or of any locality within the territory thereof, the Government of China agrees that the Government of the United States may regu- late, limit, or suspend such coming or residence, but may not absolutely prohibit it. The limitation or sus- pension shall be reasonable, and shall apply only to Chinese who may go to the United States as laborers, other classes not being included in the limitations. Legislation taken in regard to Chinese laborers will be of such a character only as is necessary to enforce the regulation, limitation, or suspension of immigration ; and immigrants shall not be subject to personal mal- treatment or abuse." There can be no doubt that the Act of Congress now under consideration was intended to carry into effect the stipulation in this article that the Government of the United States might suspend immigration of Chi- nese laborers to this country. But, in applying the statute, a serious doubt has arisen as to whether it was the intention of Congress to prohibit all persons answering to the description of Chinese laborers and not embraced by the exceptions in the third section, who should come to our shores merely for the purpose of going through the country on their way to China, or only such portions of that class, not coming within the said exceptions, as should come here to seek occu- pation as laborers. The preamble of the act, stating that in the opinion of the Government "the coming of Chinese laborers to this country endangers the good order of certain localities within the territory thereof," would seem to have exclusive reference to the Chinese laborer as a dweller in our midst and a competitor with our own laboring classes, for it is in this way only that he is a disturbing element, and not to him as a passenger over our territory, in which character he has never been objectionable. The statute, being in pursuance of the treaty, must be construed as in harmony with it: and as intending to suspend only the coming of Chinese laborers in the way contemplated by the treaty. Upon reference to the provisions of the treaty already re- ferred to and quoted, we find that it is as immigrants into this country that Chinese laborers are dealt with, and that the right of the United States to suspend the coming of such persons is confined to cases in which they come as " laborers." Looking, then, at the mis- chief to which the act was directed and the language of the treaty, I do not think that a Chinese laborer coming to this country merely to pass through it can be considered as within the prohibition of the law, he being neither an immigrant nor a laborer coming here as a laborer. As the prohibition of the act applies to Chinese la- borers coming into the country to stay as laborers, and as the regulations touching certificates of identifica- tion prescribed by the fourth and sixth sections are ancillary to that end and intended to prevent frauds upon the act, and applicable therefore to Chinese com- ing here for permanent or temporary residence, I am of opinion that Chinese passing through the country to other countries are not required, before crossing our borders, to produce the specified certificates of identi- fication, provided they competently prove, in some other manner, their status as mere transient passen- gers ; of course, the certificates would dispense with the proof. The character of such proof may very properly be regulated by the Secretary of the Treas- ury. OTHEE IMMIGRATION ACTS. — Two other im- portant laws relating to immigration were passed by Congress during the year. The act of August 2d regulates the carriage of alien passengers by sea with the view of promoting their health, comfort, and safety. It pre- scribes regulations as to their food, drinking- water, treatment, etc., and as to the space, light, ventilation, etc., of immigrant- vessels. The act of August 3d imposes a tax of fifty cents on every immigrant brought to the United States. The tax is to be paid to the collector of the port by the master or owner of the vessel bringing the immigrants. The money thus collected is to be paid into the Treasury of the United States, and " shall be used, under the direction of the Secretary of the Treasury, to defray the expense of regu- lating immigration under this act, and for the care of immigrants arriving in the United States, for the relief of such as are in distress, and for the general purposes and expenses of carrying this act into effect." The Secretary of the Treasury is empowered " to enter into contracts with such State commission, board, or officers, as may be designated for that pur- pose by the Governor of any State, to take charge of the local affairs of immigration with- in said State." Pursuant to this law, arrangements were made by the Secretary of the Treasury, with the N"ew York Board of Emigration, for con- tinuing at the port of New York the work which the board has carried on at the expense of the State since the head-tax levied by the State was declared unconstitutional by the United States Supreme Court. INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, AND OF THE WORLD. It is not a rash assertion to declare that the political organizations of the world are bankrupts, and that civil government on the part of mankind is at the present moment a financial failure. The population of the earth is estimated at 1,433,887,600, and the national debts of the principal countries of the world amount to$23,286,414, 753, which is near- ly twenty dollars for every man, woman, and child now living on the earth. This immense MAP OF THE UNITE3J STATES, SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF STATE AND LOCAL INDEBTEDNESS PER CAPITA, Compiled from the Returns of the Tenth Census, 1880. INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. 393 sura of indebtedness is to be raised by taxation of the inhabitants of the indebted countries, and paid out through the national treasuries. Of this vast sum, the total net indebtedness of the United States is $2,997,000,000, of which $1,942,000,000 is public debt, and $1,055,000,- 000 belongs to the States, counties, townships, school districts, and municipalities. A want of space will only permit here some brief notes of the origin, progress, and present condition of these classes of indebtedness of the United States, and of the indebtedness of the other countries of the world. The full de- tails belong to the census of 1880, and have been very carefully compiled by Rafael A. Bay- ley and others, under the direction of Robert P. Porter. FIRST LOANS. — The indebtedness of the United States began with the war of the Rev- olution. The sympathy of France with the American cause led both the Government and people to contribute to its success. As early as September, 1775, Caron de Beau- marchais, an ardent patron of the cause, ad- dressed a memorial to the King on the sub- ject. This was followed by others, in which he urged that it would be impossible for Great Britain to subdue the colonies, if they were assisted in their struggle; that if not assisted, they might succumb, join the English, and turn their arms against France. He says : " We are not in a fit state for making war. We must prepare ourselves, keep up the contest, and, with that view, send secret as- sistance in a prudent manner to the Ameri- cans." These memorials led the Government to determine to give the assistance, and to em- ploy their author as its agent. In the spring of 1776 he was sent to London to make the arrangements, as there was no American agent in France. In London he was introduced to Arthur Lee, a law-student in the Temple, who bore some kind of commission from the se- cret committee of Congress. Beaumarchais informed him that the French Government wished to send 200,000 louis-d'or (equal to $816,750) in arms, ammunition, and specie, for the assistance of the Americans, but in a secret manner, and that all they wanted was to know through what source it was best to make the remittances. Beaumarchais then returned to Paris, and about July 1, 1776, Silas Deane ar- rived there, with full powers as a political and commercial agent for the United States in France. His instructions were to obtain, if possible, one hundred cannon, with ammuni- tion; also arms and uniforms for 25,000 men. These Beaumarchais contracted to furnish from the arsenals of France, in addition to a large amount of other articles thought needful for the supply of the colonies. Deane, on his part, agreed that the United Colonies should pay for them by remittances of American produce, the business to be transacted by Beaumarchais, under the name of the Spanish firm of Rode- rigue, Hortales & Co. This contract, with its accompanying letters, appears on its face to be perfectly regular ; an ordinary commercial con- tract, by which the United Colonies were to receive 'the supplies they needed, and to pay for the same within one year by shipments of produce to the imaginary firm of Roderigue, Hortales & Co. Had it been what it appears to be, the United Colonies would have been bound in common honesty not only to pay in full for the stores, but to pay dearly for the risks to which the contractor would be ex- posed. But there is evidence that both parties knew the contract as it stood to be but a sham, drawn up to mask the fact that it was the Gov- ernment of France which was to supply Eng- land's rebellious colonies. The first million of livres was then advanced from the French treas- ury, and a few days afterward another million was received from the Spanish treasury, as both countries were united in their foreign policy. As shipments went on, and remit- tances came slowly from America, a third mill- ion was contributed by the King of France. Subsequently two million livres more were granted by France in 1777, and in 1781 six millions, making a total of ten millions, of which Beaumarchais received two, and the rest was paid through Benjamin Franklin. Thus the French and Spanish subsidy amounted to eleven million livres, equal to $1,996,500. As this money was a free gift, it has not been re- paid, unless the sums paid to Beaumarchais be taken as a partial reimbursement. The first loan negotiated by the Continental Congress was obtained in the year 1777 from the " Farmers-General of France." It amounted to 1,000,000 livres, and was partly repaid with tobacco, and finally settled with the French Government. The next loan was 18,000,000 livres from the French Govern- ment. It is probable that it was, in its incep- tion, not so much a loan as a subsidy, a pay- ment of 750,000 livres every three months to the American commissioners in France, to enable the colonies to keep up the unequal struggle with Great Britain. The money was advanced without an expectation of repay- ment, though with a stipulation that it should be repaid. A loan from Spain in 1781 is mentioned, but little is known of it. In making up a statement of the foreign debt after the adop- tion of the Constitution, it appeared that a small sum was due Spain for advances of money, which amounted to $174,011. FINANCIAL SITUATION. — The financial situa- tion of the Continental Congress was at its worst in 1779 and 1780. Over $200,000,000 in Continental currency had been issued, and this currency, at first circulating readily at its face value, had depreciated as the amount issued increased, until it only passed at forty to one. Even at this discount it soon ceased to circu- late at all, and in the year 1780 "it quietly expired in the hands of its possessors." The army was reduced to extremity. In 1778 394 INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. nearly 4,000 men were returned as unfit for duty from want of clothes. In January, 1780, the army had been nearly three months on a short allowance of bread. It was determined to attempt to negotiate a loan in Holland. Applications for loans in that country had hitherto been unsuccessful. The Hollanders either distrusted the security, or were unwill- ing to incur the resentment of Great Britain by lending the Americans money to enable them to carry on the war. The King of France had, through his minister at the Hague, offered his assistance to the Americans in pro- curing loans in that country, but without effect. He now engaged to become, himself, responsible for the sums which might be fur- nished. In consequence of this, and the exer- tions of Mr. Adams, a loan of 10,000,000 livres was obtained in Holland. Although intended solely for the United States, this money having been obtained on the credit of France, became a debt due to that country. The loan of 10,000,000 livres obtained from France in 1781 was soon exhausted ; very little of it in cash ever reached the United States; one half of it was immediately paid into the French Treasury for supplies previously fur- nished. So utterly exhausted was the Ameri- can Treasury that in 1782, when, peace having become a certainty, it was determined to re- duce the army, the utmost difficulty was expe- rienced in obtaining a small sum to pay the discharged soldiers enough to take them to the places of their enlistment. Congress therefore resolved to make new efforts for a loan, both in France and Holland. As a result, the King of France determined, "notwithstanding the pressing necessities of his own service, to grant to Congress a new pecuniary assistance, which he fixed at the sum of 6,000,000 livres Tour- nais ($1,089,000). This was in February, 1783, and the money was advanced in twelve monthly payments. THE AID OF FRANCE.— On the settlement of the account with France, it appeared that the amount received from her during the war ot the Revolution, in the way of loans and sub- sidies, was 45,000,000 livres, equivalent to $8,167,500. "If the gold of France aided the United States through the war in which independence was obtained, it was from Holland that the money came which assisted the Government through the difficult years of peace that fol- lowed."* An attempt to negotiate a loan in Holland was commenced in 1780, but continued unsuc- cessful until the result of the war was apparent, and the independence of the country had been acknowledged in Europe, when 5,000,000 guil- ders ($2,000,000) were obtained in 1782. Another loan, of 1784, was rendered neces- sary by the slow progress made in realizing on the previous loan. A "bonus and gratifica- * " National Loans of the United States from July 4, 1776, to June 80, 1880." By Kafael A. Bayley, Treasury Department. tions" were given in this instance, by which the United States agreed, for a principal of 2,000,000 guilders received, to return 2,891,- 800. Although Mr. Adams, the American agent, thought the contract " involved an enor- mous sacrifice," yet it amounted to less than 6f per cent annual interest. He had been authorized by Congress to pay 6 per cent. EFFECTS OF THE FINANCIAL CONDITION ON THE GOVERNMENT. — The next loan, that of 1787, ap- pears to have been contracted in order to raise money with which to pay the interest on the previous loans in Holland made in 1782 and 1784. The interest which had before fallen due had been paid, partly by remittances from America, and partly by some portions of the amount received on the original loans. Al- though the vast amounts of paper money which had been issued had become greatly depreciated, yet a new emission had been made, which, on its face, was redeemable by the different States individually, but indorsed by the United States, and was by act of March 18, 1780, to be issued at a not greater rate than one dollar of the new for each twenty of the old. Such imposts and duties as the Continental Congress was able to command or persuade from the States, were mostly paid in this new currency, which, being worthless abroad, rendered the payment of debts due in foreign countries by Congress a diffi- cult matter. " It was the financial difficulties experienced under the old system of government that, more than anything else, brought about the calling of the convention which, in 1787, framed the present Constitution of the United States. The Continental Congress possessed sufficient authority to carry on war, to make peace, to conclude treaties, and to carry on most of the functions of government ; but to do all this required a revenue, and for this they were dependent on the will of the States. It was evident that such a system could not last. At the time Mr. Adams began the nego- tiations for the loan, delegates to the Consti- tutional Convention had been chosen in most of the States, and the convention was in ses- sion before the loan was completed." * This loan was for 1,000,000 florins for ten years at 5 per cent. The United States received ninety- two guilders for each hundred of obligation. THE NEW CONSTITUTION. — The next loan, of 1788, was to meet the expenses in Europe, and to afford a financial basis on which to start the new government at home. It was known in Europe, early in 1788, that the new Constitu- tion would be ratified, and as the Continental Congress was entirely without funds to turn over to its successors, money must be provided in some way. This loan was for one thousand guilders for ten years, at 5 per cent. At this period, the Government of the Unit- ed States was reorganized under the present form, and went into operation on April 30, 1789. The 4th of March is the constitutional * "National Loans of the United States from July 4, 177f>. to June 80, I860." By Kafael A. Bayley, Treasury Department. INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. 395 day, but at this time it was found impossible to get the members of Congress together on that day. A Treasury Department was created, and Alexander Hamilton appointed the secre- tary. There was a debt of millions to be pro- vided for, and not a dollar on hand even to meet current expenses. The measures by which to raise a revenue from an exhausted country were to be devised and put in opera- tion, and a financial system prepared which should promise to conduct the Government to independence and financial strength. SYSTEM ADOPTED. — The first step taken was to lay duties on imports, which was approved on July 4, 1789, but no revenue was obtained until September. The next step was to ob- tain temporary loans from banks in New- York. For the year 1789 the expenditures were estimated at $8,285,603, the greater por- tion of which was for principal and interest due on the foreign and domestic debt. The current expenses of the year were estimated at $630,101. No payments on the debt were made during the year, except interest on the Holland loans. No way of relief was open but to audit or adjust the details of the debt and fund them on longer bonds. For this object money was required. Congress, therefore, passed an act appropriating any surplus rev- enue to payment of the debt, and authorizing a loan of $12,000,000 to apply on the foreign debt, and a further loan of $2,000,000 to be applied to purchase the debt. THE DEBT. — The following is a statement of the debt of the United States at the organ- ization of the present form of government, including arrearages of interest to January 1, 1790: French loan of 18,000,000 livres .......... French loan of 10,000,000 livres .............. French loan of 6,000,000 livres ............... Loan from Farmers-General of France, balance due ...................................... Loan from Spain in 1781 ..................... Holland loan of 1782 ......................... Holland loan of 1784 ......................... Holland loan of 1787 ......................... Holland loan of 1788 ......................... $8,267,000 00 1,815,000 00 1,089,000 00 153,688 89 174,017 13 2,000,000 00 800,000 00 400,000 00 400,000 00 Total principal of foreign debts ......... $10,098,706 02 Balance due France for military supplies ..... 24,832 86 Arrearages of interest to January 1, 1790 ..... 1,760,277 08 Debt due foreign officers who had served in the war of the Revolution ................. 186,988 78 Arrearages of interest to January 1, 1790 ..... 11.219 32 Principal of the domestic debt, estimated ____ 28,858,180 65 Arrearages of interest to January 1, 1790, esti- mated .................................... 11,898,621 80 Add to this arrears and claims against the late government outstanding and subsequently discharged 450,895 52 Making the total debt of the United States, January 1,1790 $52,788,722 03 To this should be added the individual debts of the several States, the precise amount and character of which was then unknown, esti- mated by Hamilton at that time to aggregate about $25,000,000. There were two kinds of debt in the adjust- ment of which there seems to have been no difficulty: One was the undisputed foreign debt, where the lenders had paid for their bonds in gold, on the faith of the Continental Congress ; the other was the paper money is- sued by Congress and the several States. Authorities vary much as to the amount of paper money issued during the struggle for independence. Possibly Mr. Jefferson's state- ment in his writings may be taken as approxi- mate to the truth, and it affords, at the same time, a striking exhibit of the effects of the inflation of our paper currency : * On the commencement of the late Revolution Con- gress had no money. The external commerce of the States being suppressed, the farmer could not sell his produce, and, of course^ could not pay a tax. Con- gress had no resource then but in paper money. Not being able to lay a tax for its redemption, they could only promise that taxes should be laid for that pur- pose, so as to redeem the bills by a certain day. They did not foresee the long continuance of the war, the almost total suppression of their exports, and other events which rendered the performance of their en- gagements impossible. The paper money continued for a twelvemonth equal to gold and silver ; but the quantities which they were obliged to emit, for the purpose of the war, exceeded what had been the usual quantity of the circulating medium. It began, therefore^ to become cheaper, or, as we expressed it, it depreciated, as gold and silver would have done had thev been thrown into circulation in equal quantities. But not having, like them, an in- trinsic value, its depreciation was more rapid and greater than could ever have happened with them. In two years it had fallen to two dollars of paper money for one of silver ; in three years to four for one ; in nine months more it fell to ten for one ; and in the six months following, that is to say, by Septem- ber, 1779, it had fallen to twenty for one. Congress, alarmed at the consequences which were to be apprehended should they lose this resource alto- gether, thought it necessary to make a vigorous effort to stop its further depreciation. They therefore de- termined, in the first place, that their emissions should not exceed $200,000,000, to which sum they were then nearly arrived, and though they knew that twenty dollars of what they were then issuing would buy no more for their army than one silver dollar would buy, yet they thought it would be worth while to submit to the sacrifice of nineteen out of twenty dollars if they could thereby stop further depreciation. They, therefore, published an address to their constituents, in which they renewed their original declarations that this paper money should be redeemed at dollar for dollar. They proved the ability of the States to do this, and that their liberty would be cheaply bought at this price. The declaration was ineffectual. No man received the money at a better rate. On the contrary, in six months more, that is, by March, 1780, it had fallen to forty for one. Congress then tried an experiment of a different kind. Considering their former offers to redeem this money at par as relin- quished, by the general refusal to take it but in pro- gressive depreciation, they required the whole to be brought in, declared it should be redeemed at its present value of forty for one, and that they would give to the holders new bills, reduced in their denom- ination to the sum of gold or silver which was actual- ly to be paid for them. This would reduce the nomi- nal sum of the mass in circulation to the present worth of that mass, which was five millions, a sum not too great for the circulation of the States, and which they therefore hoped would not depreciate fur- ther, as they continued firm in their purpose of emit- ting no more. This effort was as unavailing as the former. Very little of the money was brought in. It continued to circulate and to depreciate till the * Jefferson's "Works," vol. ix, p. 248., 396 INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. end of 1780, when it had fallen to seventy-five for one ; and the money circulated from the French army being, by that time, sensible in all the States north of the Potomac, the paper ceased its circulation' alto- C'ler in those States. In Virginia and North Caro- it continued a year longer, Avithin which time it fell to one thousand for one, and then expired, as it had done hi the other States, without a single groan. Not a murmur was heard on this occasion among the people. On the contrary, universal congratulations took place on their seeing this gigantic mass, Avhose dissolution had threatened convulsions which should shake their infant Confederacy to its center, quietly interred in its grave. Mr. Jefferson estimates the value of the two hundred millions of Continental currency at the time of its emission at $36,367,719 in spe- cie, and says : * " If we estimate at the same value the like sum of $200,000,000 supposed to have been emitted by the States, and reckon the Federal debt, foreign and domestic, at about $43,000,000, and the State debts at $25,000,000, it will form an amount of $140,000,000, the total sum which the war cost the United States. It continued eight years from the battle of Lexington to the cessation of hostilities in America. The annual expense was therefore equal to about $17,500,000 in specie." The foreign loans now contracted, practically to pay and to refund portions of the debt, were as follow : Holland loan, 1790 ; the same, March, 1791 ; the same, September, 1791 ; the same, December, 1791 ; the same, 1792 ; the same, 1793; the same, 1794; Antwerp loan, 1791. Of the $9,400,000 thus borrowed, over $3,000,000 was paid into the Treasury of the United States and used in buying up the domes- tic debt, under the operations of the sinking fund ; the balance was used to pay the debt due to Spain, debts due to foreign officers who served in the armies of the Revolution, and a large portion in paying off a part of the debt due to France. ASSUMPTION OF STATE DEBTS. — The indi- vidual debts of the several States were con- tracted partly in defending themselves against the common enemy, partly in carrying on their governments, or in undertakings with which the rest of the country had nothing to do. A proposition was now made for the Federal Government to assume these debts, and thus add them to the amount of its indebtedness. The following considerations were urged by the Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamil- ton, as inducements to the assumptions : 1 1. To consolidate the finances of the country and give an assurance of permanent order in them; avoiding the collision of thirteen different and inde- pendent systems of finance under concurrent and co- equal authorities, and the scramblings for revenue which would have been incident to so many different systems. 2. To secure to the Government of the Union, by avoiding those entanglements, an effectual command of the resources of the Union for present and future • exigencies. 3. To equalise the condition of the citizens of the several States in the important article of taxation ; rescuing a part of them from being oppressed with * Jefferson's " Works," vol. ix, p. 260. burdens beyond their strength on account of extraor- dinary exertions in the war, and through the want of certain adventitious resources which it was the good fortune of others to possess. "When the bill to authorize the assumption of the State debts was before Congress, it be- came combined with a bill to fix a seat of gov- ernment. Each had failed by small majorities. There was a strong sectional party for each, but not a majority. The Eastern and Middle States were for the assumption, but the South- ern States were against it. These latter were for the Potomac for the seat of government, and the former for the Susquehanna. The dis- content was extreme on each side at losing its favorite measure. At last the measures were combined. Two members from the Potomac who had voted against the assumption agreed to change their votes ; a few from the Eastern and Middle States who had voted against the Potomac agreed to change in its favor, and so the two measures were passed. But the ac- count of this arrangement, by President Jeffer- son, omitting his strictures, deserves to be stated : This measure (the assumption) produced the most bitter and angry contest ever known in Congress, be- fore or since the union of the States. I arrived in the midst of it : but a stranger to the ground, a stranger to the actors in it. so long absent as to have lost all familiarity with the subject, and, as yet unaware of its object, I took no concern in it. The great and trying question, however, was lost in the House of Repre- sentatives. So high were the feuds excited on this subject that, on its rejection, business was suspended. Congress met and adjourned from day to day without doing anything, the parties being too much out of temper to do business together. The Eastern mem- bers threatened secession and dissolution. Hamilton was in despair. As I was going to the President's one day I met him in the street. He walked me back- ward and forward before the President's door for half an hour. He painted pathetically the temper into which the Legislature had been wrought — the disgust of those who were called the creditor States— the dan- ger of the secession of their members, and of the sep- aration of the States. He observed that the members of the Administration ought to act in concert— that though this question was not of my department, yet a common duty should make it a common concern — that the President was the center on which all admin- istrative questions ultimately rested, and that all of us should rally around him, and support with joint efforts measures approved by him ; and that the ques- tion having been lost by a small majority only, it was probable that an appeal from me to the judgment and discretion of some of my friends might effect a change in the vote, and the machine of government, now suspended, might be again set in motion. I told him that I was really a stranger to the whole subject ; that not having yet informed myself of the system of finances adopted, I knew not how far this was a ne- cessary sequence ; that undoubtedly, if its rejection endangered a dissolution of the Union at this incipi- ent stage, T should deem that the most unfortunate of all consequences, to avert which all partial and tem- porary evils should be yielded. I proposed to him, however, to dine with me the next day, and I would invite another friend or two, bring them into confer- ence together, and I thought it impossible that reason- able men, consulting together coolly, could fail, by some mutual sacrifices of opinion, to form a compro- mise which would save the Union. The discussion took place. I could take no part in it but an exhorta- tory one, because I was a stranger to the circumstances INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. 397 which should govern it. But it was finally agreed that whatever importance had been attached to the rejection of this proposition, the preservation of the Union, and of concord among the States, was more important, and that therefore it would be better that the vote of rejection should be rescinded — to eifect which some members should change their votes. But it was observed that this pill would be peculiarly bit- ter to the Southern States, and that some concomitant measure should be adopted to sweeten it a little to them. There had before been propositions to fix the seat of government either at Philadelphia, or at Georgetown on the Potomac ; and it was thought that by giving it to Philadelphia for ten years, and to Georgetown permanently afterward, this might, as an anodyne, calm in some degree the ferment which migh't be excited by the other measure alone : so two of the Potomac members (White and Lee, but the former with a revulsion of stomach almost convulsive) agreed to change their votes ; and Hamilton undertook to carry the other point. Thus, on August 4, 1790, an act, making provision for the payment of the debt of the United States and embodying provisions for assumption of the State debts, was approved. The following statement, taken from the offi- cial reports, shows the amount authorized to be assumed in the redemption of the debt of each State, and the amount which was as- sumed : STATES. Amount authorized. Amount assumed. New Hampshire $300,000 00 $282,595 51 Massachusetts Rhode Island 4,000.000 00 200.000 00 8,981,733 05 200000 00 Connecticut 1,600,000 00 1,600,000 00 New York 1,200,000 00 1,183,716 69 New Jersey 800,000 00 695,202 70 Pennsylvania 2,200,000 00 200,000 00 777,983 48 59,161 65 Maryland Virginia and Kentucky.. North Carolina South Carolina 800,000 00 8,500,000 00 2,400,000 00 4000,000 00 517,491 03 2,934,416 00 1,793,803 85 3 993 651 73 Georgia 300,000 00 246,030 73 Total $21 500 000 00 $18,271,786 4T U. S. BANK. — The public debt on January 1, 1791, was about $75,250,000. A portion of it having been funded, and payable at future dates, the next step was taken to make additional provision for temporary emergen- cies. Accordingly, on December 14, 1790, Secretary Hamilton, with his annual report, transmitted to the House of Representatives a plan for a National Bank with a capital of $10,- 000,000, divided into 25,000 shares, at $400 each. The bill of incorporation passed the Senate on January 20, 1791. Debate on it in the House began on February 1st, and con- tinued until February 8th, when the bill passed by yeas 39 to nays 20. The corporation was allowed to sell the evidences of the public debt subscribed to its stock, but was not to purchase any public debt whatever. Notes were al- lowed to be issued, payable to any person or persons, assignable and negotiable, or to bearer, assignable by delivery. The directors were to establish offices, for discount and deposit only, wherever they should think fit in the United States. The President of the United States was authorized to subscribe to the stock of the corporation ,$2,000,000, borrowing an equal sum of the bank, the money to be paid out of that which should be obtained under previous acts of Congress. relating to the public debt. The charter was to expire March 4, 1811. The bank was of great benefit to the Government. More than $100,000,000 of Government money was received and disbursed by it, without the loss of a dollar. It made semi-annual divi- dends, averaging about 8^ per cent, and its stock rose to a high price. At the close of 1792 the condition of the Treasury was unsatisfactory. The expendi- tures had increased in consequence of Indian troubles, the large amounts required for inter- est, and the growing current expenses seemed likely to exhaust the revenues. The House, therefore, referred to the Secretary of the Treasury the subject of a plan for the redemp- tion of the public debt, and for the reimburse- ment of the subscription loan made to the bank. He replied by recommending for the first, temporary loans and additional revenues by taxation as the only resources remaining ; and, for the second, that power be given to borrow the sum due, to be applied to the re- imbursement of the loan. WAR MEASURES. — A series of loans followed. Trouble arose with the Barbary powers on the north coast of Africa, in 1794, and an attempt was made to create a small navy of six frigates, four of forty-four guns and two of thirty-six guns each, for the protection of American commerce in the Mediterranean. These frig- ates were begun under many disadvantages — one each at the ports of Portsmouth, in New Hampshire, Portsmouth, in Virginia, Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. The timber from which they were to be constructed was still standing in the forest, the iron was still in its native ore, the seed for the flax and hemp was yet to be sown. Copper could not be procured in the United States. The Gov- ernment possessed neither navy- yards nor can- non-foundries. It was resolved to build the ships of live-oak, and agents, with a force of lumbermen, were sent to Georgia to obtain it. They met with so many discouragements from the unhealthiness of the climate, the constant rain, and other causes, that little progress was made. In January, 1796, the frigates remained unfinished, and peace had been concluded with. the Barbary powers. In 1797 the vessels were still on the stocks, but, owing to troubles with France, it was resolved to complete the frigates, to build galleys for the defense of the coast, and to purchase not more than twelve merchant- vessels adapted to naval service. In payment for these stock was to be issued. "War, although not formally declared, was carried on by France, upon the ocean, with virulence. Constant captures were made of American vessels, on the ground of having property of the enemy on board. Full prepa- rations were set on foot to resist a French invasion, and, for the management of naval affairs, a naval department was now created. 398 INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. The debt had now increased to $83,000,000. In 1803 fifteen millions more were added to it by the purchase from France of the province of Louisiana. TKEASUEY NOTES. — No special emergencies arose or unusual measures were taken until 1812, when the second war with Great Britain was declared by the Congress of the United States. This closed in 1815, and increased the debt to $127,300,000 ; a higher figure than it had ever touched before, or afterward, until 1862. The only new measure adopted at this time was the issue of Treasury notes. The bill to authorize the issue was opposed in Congress on the ground that " it was ingrafting on our sys- tem of finances a new and untried measure." The measure, however, was successful, and it has since been one of the occasional aids of the Treasury Department. The embarrassment of the Government at the close of the war fur- nished a basis for an irresistible argument in favor of the recharter of the United States Bank. No less a person than Mr. John 0. Cal- houn, of South Carolina, introduced, from a special committee of the House of Representa- tives, the bill for its incorporation on January 8, 1816. The constitutional question relating to it received little attention on its passage. Thus, by means of revenue from imports, and other domestic sources, temporary loans, Treas- ury notes, and five, six, and seven per cent loans, the financial affairs were honorably con- ducted until 1821, when the Secretary of the Treasury reported an expected deficit of over four and a half millions to be provided for by taxation. At this period the country was suffering from the effects of a financial crisis in 1819. A com- mittee from the House of Representatives, in a report, thus described the general distress : It is not a matter of very great consolation to know that, at the end of thirty years of its operation, this Government finds its debt increased $20,000,000, and its revenue inadequate to its expenditure ; the national domain impaired, and $20,000,000 of its proceeds ex- pended ; $35,000,000 drawn from the people by inter- nal taxation, $341,000,000 by impost, yet the public Treasury dependent on loans ; in profound peace, and without national calamity, the country embarrassed with debts, and real estate under rapid depreciation ; the markets of agriculture, the pursuits of manufac- tures diminished and declining ; commerce struggling, not to retain the carrying of the produce of other na tions, but our own. There is no national interest which is in a healthful, thriving condition • the nation at large is not so ; the operations of the Government and individuals alike laoor under difficulties which are felt by all. . . . The sea, the forest, the earth yield their abundance ; the labor of man is rewarded ; pes- tilence, famine, or war commit no ravages ; no calam- ity has visited the people ; peace smiles on us ; plenty blesses the land. Whence, then, this burst of uni- versal distress ? STATE DEPOSITS. — An improvement soon came; higher taxes followed, under which South Carolina denied its constitutionality, owing to the extreme protective form given to it at that time. This supplied the Treasury, and enabled the Government to dispense with the aid of the United States Bank, the charter of which was allowed to expire about 1835. The final result was that, in 1834, the Government of the United States was, for the first time in its history, practically out of debt, for the last installment of the debt had been paid. Nay, so abundant was the money in the Treasury that the Government returned over $28,000,000 back to the people, under the form of a u de- posit," made proportionally to the States. All of the States accepted the unasked deposit at the time, and generally appropriated it to edu- cational purposes. The following statement shows the amount of money thus u deposited " with the several States under the act of June 23, 1836. The fund originally proposed to be distributed among the States was $36,000,000, and $28,101,644.91 was really distributed, in three quarterly installments, the first in Febru- ary, 1837, the second in April, and the third in July. The fourth and last installment was not paid. A series of disasters, ending in the panic of 1837, so disordered the finances of the Gen- eral Government that a new act of Congress was passed, on October 2d, postponing the transfer of the fourth installment until January 1, 1839. By a subsequent act it was postponed indefinitely ; and it was further provided that the amount deposited should remain with the States until otherwise directed by Congress. Here the matter has remained : Maine ...................................... $955,838 25 New Hampshire ............................ 669,086 79 Massachusetts .............................. 1,338,173 58 Vermont ................................... 669,086 79 Connecticut ................................ 764,670 60 Ehode Island .............................. 382,33530 New York .................................. 4,014,520 71 New Jersey ................................ 764,670 60 lvania ............................... 2,867,514 78 286,751 49 Pennsyl Delaware Maryland Virginia .................................... 2,198,427 99 North Carolina .............................. 1,483,757 39 South Carolina .............................. 1,051,422 09 Georgia ... ................. 1,051,422 09 Alabama .................................... 699.086 79 Louisiana ............................. 477,91914 Mississippi ................................. 882,835 30 Tennessee .................................. 1,433,757 89 Kentucky .................................. 1.438,757 39 Ohio.... ................................... 2,007,26084 Missouri .................................... 882,835 80 Indiana ..................................... 860,254 44 Illinois ..................................... 477,919 14 Michigan ................................... 286,751 49 Arkansas ................................... 286,751 49 Total ................................ $28,101,644 91 Now followed the memorable contest on the question of sub-Treasuries, located in different places, as depositories of the money of the Government, a service which had been ren- dered by the branches of the defunct United States Bank. At the same time (1837) com- menced a state of extraordinary financial de- pression, which continued for some years. Is- sues of Treasury notes and loans were resorted to for relief; so that, in 1846, when war with Mexico was declared, the public debt had reached $15,500,000. It immediately mounted up to $63,000,000 on the final closing up of the expenditures. There were some incidental expenditures which resulted from this conflict. A bill was INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. 399 passed by Congress in September, 1850, to pay $10,000,000 to the State of Texas, if the State should consent that her boundary on the north should commence at a point at which the me- ridian of one hundred degrees west from Green- with the channel of said river, to the Gulf of Mexico, and should cede to the United States all her claim to the territory exterior to tbese boundaries, and relinquish all claim on the United States for liability for her debts, and YEAR. AMOUNT; OAN.J 1781 El HL 75 82 77 83 80 B4 78 85 80 88 j 83 87 82 88 79 89 78 ISOO |~ 82 3 t T 7? » F 3 6 75 7 I 69 8 65 9 57 . 1810 1 -63. II 12 45 . 13 J. 55 . 14 1 61 . 15 89 . 18 127 . OUTSTANDING PRINCIPAL » E 1 i 1 ='370 MI.LUONS. OF IB. ™ F 22 -J 9B, 3 s Amounts are-givcnin millions and tenths of millions.. PUBLIC DEBT H t 3 FROM 1791 TO 1881. 2° F J s 27 n J 73 28 t 67 29 68 t ,830 48 32 24 33 7 34 4 35 37. 7 36 37. 5 37 n 36. 9 3 39 r 10 1840 3 41 6 42 13 JAN.I, 43 20 JULYII. 43 32 44 45 15 48 15 47 £ 38 48 47 49 1 63 I860 63 51 f G8 62 L 66 63 t T 69 64 r 42 65 35 68 31 87 £ 28 68 r 44 53 . I860 | 64 . 61 ~] 90. 162 524. 1 63 «_, 1| dB^ 1 1 H 1 1 69 1 1870 1 71 248O . 2353 . 1 }72 2253 . ,1 74 — *£?ai '. 6 'l 75 2232 . 2 | 76 2,80 . 3 | r 2205 . 3 | 2256.2 1 — r — — isio — I 8. 2053 . 3 | wich is intersected by the parallel of 36° 30' north latitude, and run thence due west to the meridian of one hundred and three degrees west from Greenwich, then south to the thirty- second degree of north latitude, then on said parallel to the Kio Bravo del Norte, and thence, for compensation for the surrender of her ships, forts, custom-houses, public buildings, etc. These terms were accepted, and the "Texas indemnity " stock was issued. LEGAL TENDERS.— In 1860 the debt of the Government was $64,800,000. The war com- 400 INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. menced in the following year, and the wants of the Government were so great that it was obliged to resort to almost every conceivable form of loan to obtain money. The first loans were on Treasury notes of various denomina- tions, and at various rates of interest, with seven per cent thirty-year and five per cent twenty-year bonds, which were known as " seven-thirties " and " five-twenties." The demand for money, however, was so great that as early as January 22, 1862, a bill was intro- duced into the Lower House of Congress for the issue of a hundred million Treasury notes, with the proviso that there should be printed on the back of the notes the following words : ''The within note is a legal tender in payment of all debts, public and private, and is exchange- able for bonds of the United States bearing six per cent interest." With some amendments, the bill was passed by Congress, and approved February 25, 1862. It authorized the Secre- tary of the Treasury to issue, on the credit of the United States, Treasury notes to the amount of $150,000,000, bearing no interest, and pay- able to bearer, of such denominations as he might deem expedient, not less than five dol- lars each. These notes were to be " receiva- ble in payment of all taxes, internal duties, ex- cises, debts, and demands of every kind due to the United States, except duties on imports, and of all claims and demands against the United States, of every kind whatsoever, ex- cept for interest upon bonds and notes, which shall be paid in coin, and shall also be lawful money and a legal tender in payment of all debts, public and private, within the United States, except duties on imports and interest as aforesaid." They were to be exchangeable in sums of $50, or any multiple thereof, for bonds of the United States, bearing interest at the rate of six per cent, payable semi-annually, the bonds to be redeemable at the pleasure of the United States after five years, and payable twenty years after date. The notes were made re- ceivable the same as coin, at their par value, for any loans that might thereafter be sold or negotiated by the Secretary of the Treasury, and when received for such loans, or for public dues, might be reissued from time to time, as the exigencies of the Government might re- quire. An act of July 11, 1862, authorized an ad- ditional issue of $150,000,000 in legal-tender notes, of such denominations as the Secretary of the Treasury might deem expedient ; but no note was to be for the fractional part of a dol- lar, and not more than $35,000,000 of lower denominations than five dollars. An act of March 3, 1863, authorized another issue of $150,000,000 in legal-tender notes, including the amount authorized by resolution of Janu- ary 17, 1863, of such denominations not less than one dollar as the Secretary might pre- scribe. Under these acts legal-tender notes have been issued amounting, in the aggregate, to $1,640,- 559,947. The difference between the amount authorized and the amount issued is accounted for by reissues from time to time, as author- ized by law. Thus originated, under the form and effect of a loan, the "greenback" cur- rency, so called from the color of back of the notes. It continues in circulation to this day, and is exchangeable for gold, in ordinary trans- actions, at dollar for dollar. On July 9, 1864, gold was quoted at 266| and 267, as compared with legal-tender notes. The question of the constitutionality of these notes has an interesting history, which may be found in earlier volumes of this " Cyclopedia." The Secretary of the Treasury (Chase), who issued the notes, relied entirely for their justification on the ever-serviceable doctrine of necessity. He said : " It is not unknown to the commit- tee that I have felt — nor do I wish to conceal that I now feel — a great aversion to making anything but coin a legal tender in payment of debts. It has been my anxious wish to avoid the necessity of such legislation. It is, how- ever, at present impossible, in consequence of the large expenditures entailed by the war, and the suspension of the banks, to procure suffi- cient coin for disbursements ; and it has, there- fore, become indispensably necessary that we should resort to the issue of United States notes." Certificates of indebtedness were another form of loan, issued, in satisfaction of audited accounts, in amounts not less than $1,000, at 6 per cent interest, payable in one year, or sooner at the option of the Government. The amount issued of these certificates was $561,753,241. Still another and a novel form of loan was the fractional currency. A bill "to authorize payments in stamps, and to prohibit the circu- lation of notes of less denomination than one dollar," was introduced in the Lower House of Congress on July 17, 1862, and was passed and approved on the same day. A letter from the Secretary of the Treasury urged the following reasons for the passage of the bill : " The de- preciation of the currency, resulting, in great measure, from the unrestricted issues of non- specie-paying banks and unauthorized associa- tions and persons, causes the rapid disappear- ance from circulation of small coins. To sup- ply the want of these coins, tokens and checks for sums less than one dollar are being issued by hotels, business houses, and dealers gener- ally ; and the most serious inconveniences and evils, are apprehended unless these issues can be checked and the small coins of the Govern- ment kept in circulation, or a substitute pro- vided." The amount issued of this currency was $368,720,079. STATE BANKS. — In his report of December 4, 1862, the Secretary advanced the idea that banking associations should be formed for the improvement of the public credit, and to sup- ply a safe and uniform currency to the people. This was approved by Congress, and resulted INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. 401 in the adoption of a system of State national banks, and a tax of 2 per cent was laid on the issues of State banks above a certain percent- age of their capital. The object was to tax them out of existence. The circulation of the national banks was to be secured by bonds of the United States, with a small sum in specie. BONDS. — On March 3, 1863, an act passed authorizing the issue of $900,000,000 of 10-40 bonds, payable in coin, and in denominations of $50 and upward, and exempt from taxation by State or municipal authority. The same act authorized the issue of $400,000,000 in Treasury notes of not less than $10, bearing 6 per cent interest, and payable within three years, and exempt from taxation; also $200,000,000 in Treasury notes, bearing 7T3g- per cent interest. Of the first notes, $44,520,000 were issued re- deemable in one year, and $166,480,000 re- deemable in two years. They were known as " one- and two-year notes of 1863." Of the latter notes, $248,601,680 were issued. On March 3, 1864, a further issue of $500,- 000,000 of 10-40 bonds was authorized ; and on June 30, 1864, an issue of $400,000,000 of 5-30 bonds was authorized. Both classes of bonds were to be exempt from State and muni- cipal taxation. Subsequent loans of a similar nature were made until the close of the war. One year afterward, in July, 1866, the debt was stated at its largest amount, $2,773,200,000. A recapitulation, showing the amount of the principal of the public debt of the United States, annually issued and redeemed from July 4, 1776, to June 30, 1880, presents the follow- ing results : THE HOLDERS OF THE BONDS, AND AMOUNTS. — The bonded debt of the United States con- sists of two classes of bonds— the registered bonds and the coupon bonds. Of the regis- tered bonds there are four species — the 4 per cent, 4^ per cent, 5 per cent, and 6 per cent and they are held as follow : LOANS. No. ofholdert. Amount!. 4 per cent 55278 $334 742 800 4£ per cent 10745 125,631,300 5 per cent. . . . 7091 134616300 6 per cent 7688 180 926 7UO Total 80802 $825 917 100 Omitting the 6 per cent bonds from the cal- culation, the total number of holders of the oth- er species is 73,114, of whom 42,262 are males and 29,325 are females, and 1,527 are corpora- tions ; and of the amount held, the males own $327,185,500, the females $90,353,350, and the corporations $227,451,550. Of these holders, also, 51 per cent, or 37,256, reside in 117 cities of the United States; and they hold 85 per cent of the amount, or $549,200,600. The number of holders of registered bonds of 4, 4J, and 5 per cent, who live in different sections of the Union, is shown by the follow- ing table : $10,690,055,96832 Redemptions 8,569,664,230 85 Unadjusted, over. . , $2,120,891,737 47 92,815 46 $2,120,484,552 93 Unadjusted, short 69,182 30 Outstanding June 30, 1880 $2,120,415,870 63 LOCATION. Male. Female. Corpo- rations. Total. 14,633 11,986 26619 Middle States 18,723 12,580 31,303 Southern States 1,721 914 2,635 Western States Banks, insurance compa- nies, trust companies, etc. 7,185 8,845 1,527 11,030 1,527 42,262 29,325 1,527 73,114 The amounts of the 4, 4|- and 5 per cent bonds held in the different sections of the Union by the above-mentioned holders are shown in the following table : Male. Female. Corporation. Total. New England States $50 142 500 $20 829 550 $70,972,050 Middle States 223 225 150 55 783,100 279,008,250 Southern States . . . 10 241,250 2,898,550 13,139,800 Western States 43,576,600 10,842,150 54,418,750 Banks, insurance con $227,451,550 227,451,550 Total $327,185,500 $90,853,350 $227,451,550 $644,990,400 These tables show that while over 36 per cent of the holders reside in the New England States, not more than 11 per cent of the ag- gregate amount of bonds are credited to New England. On the other hand, over 42 per cent of the holders have their residence in the Middle States, and upward of 43 per cent of the aggregate amount of bonds is held in that section. Over 3£ per cent of the holders reside in the Southern States, and about 2 per cent of the bonds are owned there. In the Western States are 15 per cent of the holders, and nearly 8| per cent of the bonds. The VOL. xxn. — 26 A banks, insurance companies, and other corpo- rations, representing in number only 2 per cent, own about 35 per cent of the bonds. The District of Columbia contains more bond- holders, in proportion to its population, than any of the States of the Union. The Middle States take high rank in the proportion of bond- holders to their population, while in the West- ern and Southern States a small percentage of the population is represented in the total num- ber. The number of the holders of these bonds residing in the different States of the Union is as follows : 402 INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. Light represents amounts held by males. Dark, by females. STATES, ETC. Number. Per cent of bondholders. Per cent of population. STATES, ETC. Number. Per cent of bondholders. Per cent of population. Massachusetts New York. 16,855 14,803 10,408 4,130 3.101 2,939 2,715 2,367 2,357 1,909 1,711 933 920 906 833 698 621 458 453 451 411 23-04 20-24 14-23 5'64 4-23 4-02 3-70 8-22 3-21 2-61 2-34 1-27 1-26 1-25 1-24 i-oo 0-85 0-63 0-62 0-61 0-56 8-56 10-14 8-54 6-37 6-14 0-69 2-25 1-24 0-36 0-67 1-29 4-32 1-86 Tennessee 8C9 342 32tJ 283 262 194 157 142 139 137 126 111 100 94 78 64 61 58 55 18 14 0-51 0-47 0-46 0-39 0-35 0-26 0-20 0-19 0-19 0-19 0-16 0-14 0-18 0-12 0-09 0-09 0-09 0-08 0-07 0-03 0-02 3-07 2-62 1-99 3"23 1-87 1-24 2-25 2-79 3-17 1-95 2-52 1-27 0-29 1-55 1-60 0-53 8 06 0-90 0-14 0-34 100-00 Wisconsin Pennsylvania Ohio Iowa Illinois New Hampshire .... West Virginia New Jersey Mississippi Connecticut North Carolina District of Columbia Vermont Texas Maine Missouri Territories Maryland Banks Rhode Island . . 0-55 8-96 8:02 3-26 8-29 1-72 Arkansas Florida Indiana Insurance companies, etc.. Virginia. . Colorado Michigan Nebraska Nevada Kentucky . . . California Total... 78,114 100-00 From this table it appears that Massachu- York, with over 10 per cent of the total popu- setts, with only 8£ per cent of the total popu- lation, has 20 per cent of the bondholders, lation of tho country, has 23 per cent of the Ohio has over 6 per cent of the total popula- total number of bondholders ; while New tion and over 5£ per cent of the bondholders. INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. 403 REGISTERED BONDS. Illinois and New Hampshire each has over 4 per cent of the bondholders, while the former has over 6 per cent of the total population, Light — male holders. Dark— female holders. and the latter has only T87 of 1 per cent. The amounts of these bonds held in the different States are shown by the following table : STATES. Amounts. Per cent of amounts held. Per cent of popu- lation. STATES. Amounts. Per cent of amounts held. Per cent of popu- lation. New York $210 264,250 82-60 10-14 Virginia 1 749,750 0-27 8-02 Massachusetts 45,188,750 6-99 3-56 Wisconsin. . . . 1,881,400 0-21 2-62 Pennsylvania . . 40 223 050 6-23 8' 54 1 285450 0-20 8-28 Ohio/... 16 445,050 2-55 6-37 1 188 800 0-18 1-99 District of Columbia 12,419,050 1-93 0-36 Mississippi 1,014,800 0-16 2-25 California. 11 601 100 1-80 1'72 1 008 150 0'15 0-29 Illinois 9 119 950 1-41 6-14 The Territories 887550 0'13 1-27 Connecticut 8 894,400 1-38 1-24 South Carolina 760,200 0-12 1-95 New Jersey 8,104,150 1-26 2-25 West Virginia . . . 661,500 o-io 1-24 Maryland. . 6 989 600 1-08 1'86 North Carolina 639000 0'09 2-79 Ehode Island 4 Tl 7,100 0'73 0-55 Texas 528.450 0-08 8-17 New Hampshire 4,658,150 0-72 0-69 Alabama 474,100 ' 0-07 2-52 Indiana 3 980 800 0-62 8-96 420 250 0-06 1'55 Maine 8 968 500 0'61 1-29 812,400 0-05 1-60 Missouri .... 8 788 600 0*58 4-32 Florida 253850 0*04 0-53 Vermont 8 595 150 0-56 0'67 248750 0'04 0'90 Louisiana 2 458'000 0'38 1-87 Nevada 211,000 0-03 0-14 Tennessee 2,341 200 0-87 8-07 181,400 0-03 8-06 Michigan 1 941 200 0'30 8-26 126 300 0'02 0'84 Colorado 1 897 550 0*29 0*89 Kentucky 1 770 150 0'28 3-29 an 's, insurance CO™P ' 227 451 550 85'30 * ' .... Total $644,990,400 100-00 100-00 404 INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. The 6 per cent registered bonds, which are not included in the preceding tables, amount to $180,926,700, and were held by 7,688 corpora- tions and private individuals. Of these holders 4,239 received their interest in New York city; 1,611 in Boston; 1,306 in Philadelphia; 243 in Baltimore ; 42 in Chicago ; 54 in Cin- cinnati; 169 in Washington; 5 in San Fran- cisco; 10 in St. Louis; and 9 in New Orleans. Thus it appears that the whole number of TERRITORIES OREGON NEVADA WEST VIRGINIA MISSISSIPPI DELAWARE F L.O R I D A COLORADO VERMONT NEBRASKA ARKANSAS JOWA NORTH C.AROLINA "MINNESOTA MICHIGAN tfE.W HAM.-PSHIRE MARYLAND TEXAS W I S C 0 N SI N RHODE ISLAND SOOTH CAROLINA ALABAMA KENTUCKY KA N S A S' CALIFORNIA INDIANA GEORGIA CONNECTICUT MAINE 'DIST. OF COLUMBIA T"E N fl E S S E E n •VIRGTNIA f^ LOUISIANA ILLINOIS OHIO j_ NEW JERSEY MISSOURI holders of registered bonds is 80,802, and the aggregate amount held is $825,917,100. COUPON BONDS. — These bonds are of differ- ent species, like the registered bonds, and on June 30, 1880, they amounted to $537,532,250. The coupons of the bonds are often used as cash, and are presented for the interest on the bond by the holder. It is thus impossible to trace the ownership of the bond with the same accuracy as that of the registered bond. RELATIVE INDEBTEDNESS OF STATES, INCLUDING STATE AND LOCAL INDEBTEDNESS. I'- 30 MILLIONS. MASSACHUSETTS - NSYLVANIA NEW YORK INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. 405 The following table shows the amount of each class of bonds as represented by the coupons paid at the U. S. Treasury, and the nine sub- Treasuries, for the date nearest the census year : AMOUNT. 4 per cant. 4* per cent. 5 per cent. 6 per cent. Total. Total amount outstanding June 30, 1880 $210,272,850 $78,892,650 $190,278,400 $58,088,350 $537,532,250 New York. . . . .foreign holders . $46 428 885 $87 191 882 $122 891 608 $14,596 550 $221 108 425 New York .... domestic holders . 82'S04,'815 27,488,032 41 001 032 25,531,550 176,325,479 Total $128 733 700 $64 679,464 $163 892 640 $40 128 100 $397 433,904 "Washington United States Treasury . Boston . domestic . 11,109,475 28 558 200 853,644 10,091,822 '67l',520 4 565 440 * 1 48e;<)88 9,110,700 14,170,672 47,326,162 Philadelphia 9 461 350 1 554632 5 243 998 8 800 699 19 560 679 2'665'775 744,016 5 043 009 2 060 128 10 512 928 14 939 450 175,287 l'848'495 791,800 17 755 032 8 491 000 819,348 4 536 129 902,112 14,748,589 St. Louis 5 586 600 220,303 4 203 609 239,978 10,250,490 New Orleans 1,430,900 153,512 53400 27,000 1,664.812 8 696 400 100,622 220 160 91,800 4,108,982 $163848965 $41,701,268 $67,386,792 $43,491,800 $816,423,825 Total foreign 46.428,885 37,191,882 122,891,608 14,596,550 221,108,425 DEBTS OF THE STATES. — The assumption by the United States Government, in 1790, of the debts of the States which were contracted during the War for Independence, is related on a preceding page. Subsequent to that date until 1820, only a small amount was contract- ed. It was after the latter date that public improvements were undertaken. In 1812 a small war debt was contracted by some States. The following table shows the amount of stocks issued by the several States named, from 1820 to 1838: STATES. 1820 '35. 1825-'80. lS80-'85. 1885 '88. Total. Alabama $100 000 $2,200 000 $8 500 000 $10 800 000 Arkansas 8,000,000 8.000 000 Illinois 600,000 11,000,000 11,600,000 1 890 000 10 000 000 11 890 000 Kentucky 7 869 000 7 369 000 Louisiana 1 800000 7,885 000 14 000,000 23 135,000 Maine 554,976 554,976 Maryland 57,94f $576,689 4,210,311 6,648,088 11,492,980 4.290 000 4 290 000 Michigan 5 340 000 5 840 000 Mississippi 2,000,000 *5,000,000 7 000 000 Missouri 2,500,000 2,500,000 New York t6 872 781 1 624 000 2 204 979 12 229 288 22 981 048 Ohio 4,400,000 1,701,000 6,101,000 1 680 000 6,300,000 16,180,000 3,166,787 27,276,790 South Carolina $1,250,000 810,000 4,000,000 5,560,000 Tennessee 500,000 6,648,000 7 148 000 Virginia §1 030 000 469,000 686,500 4,182,700 6,318,200 Total... $12.790.728 $13.679.689 $40,012.769 $107,823.808 $174,306,994 * It is claimed by the people of Mississippi that the debt of $5,000,000 was contracted in violation of the Constitution, and that the State was not liable therefor, t $4,500,000 redeemed. $ South Carolina had a Revolutionary debt of $198,770. § Virginia had a war debt contracted before 1820 of $843,139. The following table shows the amount and the purpose of each State debt in 1838: STATES. For banking. For canal. For railroads. For turnpikes. Miscellaneous. Total. Alabama $7,800 000 $3 000 000 $10,800,000 Arkansas 3 000 000 8 000,000 Illinois 8 000 000 $900 000 7 400 000 $300 000 11,600,000 Indiana 1 390'000 6 750 000 2 600 000 $1 150 000 11,890,000 Kentucky 2 000 000 2 619'000 350000 2,400,000 7,369,000 Louisiana 22 950 000 50000 500000 235 000 23,735,000 Maine 554,976 554,976 Maryland 5 700 000 5 500 666 292,980 11,492,980 Massachusetts 4 290 6oO 4 290 000 Michigan 2 500 000 2 620 000 220 000 5,340,000 Mississippi 7 obo 666 7,000,000 Missouri 2 500 000 2,500,000 New York... 13 316 674 8,787,700 1,158,032 18,262,406 Ohio 6 101 000 6,101,000 Pennsylvania 16 579 527 4 964 484 2 595 902 8 166.787 27,306,700 South Carolina 1 550 000 2 000,000 2,203,770 5,753,770 Tennessee 8 000 000 800 000 3 730 000 118 166 7,148 166 Virginia 3 835 350 2 128 900 354,800 343 139 6,662,189 Total $52,640,000 $60,201,551 $42,871,034 $6,618,868 $8,474,684 $170,806,187 406 . INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. Early in 1840 the question of the United States assuming the States' debts, contracted during the period described, was agitated in Congress. The first figures that bear evidence of authenticity, as showing the amount and the purposes for which the State debts had been contracted, appear in the speech of Sena- tor Benton, made before the Senate in January, 1840, the figures being supplied by Mr. Flagg, the Comptroller of the State of New York. From these tables it seems that $170,000,000 of debt had actually been contracted or author- ized by the eighteen States previous to 1840. without counting the $28,101,644.91 received from the surplus revenue funds of the Federal Government. Taking into the calculation the amount probably incurred in the period be- tween the report of Mr. Flagg and the speech of Senator Benton, together with the Florida debt of $5,000,000, and making allowance for possible omissions from Mr. Flagg's table, the whole debt might then have been estimated at more than $200,000,000. Eight of the States of the Union at that time, viz., New Hamp- shire, Vermont, Khode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Delaware, North Carolina, and Georgia, had no debt. Maine and Missouri were only nominally in debt, the former hav- ing created but half a million of debt. The tenth census of the United States con- tains not only a statement of the amount of the debt of each State, but a history of the details of each, showing the purpose for which each sum was incurred, and the progress of its payment. Previous to the war there was little change in the amount of these debts, except in those States which engaged extensively in internal improvements. But in the period from 1860 to 1870 there was a large increase of war debts. For the purpose of showing the aggregate of 1880, it is presented separately for each division of the Union. NEW ENGLAND STATES. — There was but little fluctuation in the debts of the New England States from 1839 to 1860, when there were slight changes in those of Maine, New Hamp- shire, and Massachusetts. Vermont had con- tracted a debt for a new State-House. Ehode Island and Connecticut continued to be free from debt. The following table shows the debts of the six New England States at six different periods : 1848. 1858. 1860. 1870. 1880. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Maine $554 976 $1 734 861 $471 500 $699 500 $8 067 900 $5 84S 900 New Hampshire * 74899 60'()87 2'752'200 8,501 100 Vermontt . 175 000 1 002 500 4000 Massachusetts:}: 4,290,000 5,424,137 6 445 000 6,817,127 27 128 1 64 88 020 464 Ehode Island 2 913,500 2534500 Connecticut 7 275 900 4 ggj goo Total $4,844,976 $7,158,998 $6 991 399 $7,741 714 $49 140 164 $49 876 564 * In 1870 New Hampshire had an extra debt of $65,000. t In 1860 Vermont had an extra debt of $24,636 ; and in 1880, of $135,000. $ In 1860 Massachusetts had an extra debt of $315,000 ; and in 18SO, of $9,360. .MIDDLE STATES. — Under the title "Middle States," New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Maryland are included. Of these five States, New Jersey and Delaware have no debt excepting that incurred for war purposes. The former had in its Constitution of 1844 a provision which prohibited the State from aid- ing or in any way loaning its credit to public improvements. New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland were among the first States to aid in the construction of canals and railroads, and in loaning their credit to State banks. As early as 1839 these three States were indebted to the extent of $54,984,389. In 1842 Pennsylvania and Maryland were obliged to suspend interest, and New York was on the verge of bank- ruptcy. The following table shows the amount of the debt of each of the Middle States at six differ- ent periods : 1841. 1858. 1860. 1870. 1880. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. New York* New Jersey .' $18,262,406 $17,561,567 $24,823,888 $27,064,584 $32,409,144 2 996 200 $8,988,360 1 996 800 Pennsylvania t 25 229 003 83 801 013 40 272 285 87 849 125 81 111 662 21 561 000 Delaware 'SSO'750 Maryland \ 11 492,980 10 000 000 10 000 000 14,876 958 18 317 475 11 277 111 Total $54 984 889 $60 862 5Q0 $74 596 073 $79 790 667 $79 834 481 $44 704 511 * In 1841 New York had an extra debt of $4,235,700 ; and in 1860, of $6,505,654. t In 1860 Pennsylvania had an extra debt of $180,721. % In 1841 Maryland had an extra debt of $5,214,761 ; and in 1853, of $5,356,224.— The debt of the District of Columbia, located in the Middle States, is $21,688,823. SOUTHERN STATES. — The following table shows the amount of the debt of each of the Southern States at six different periods : INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. 407 1841. 1853. 1860. 18?0. 1880. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Virginia West Virginia. $6,662,089 $4,037,200 $12,089,382 $33,248,141 $39,298,225 $29,345,226 North Carolina 2 224 000 9 129505 29 900 666 5 006 616 South Carolina 5 753 770 8,691,234 1,925,893 4 046 540 7 665,900 6 639 171 Georgia 1,309,750 2,802,472 2 670 750 6,544,500 9951,500 Florida* 100,000 383,000 1,012,372 1,280 500 Alabamat 10 800 000 15 400 000 4 497 666 8 445 000 6 882 800 9 008 000 Mississippi}: . 2 000 000 2,000,000 2 271,000 753 413 100 000 879 485 Louisiana§ 23,735,000 23,985 000 9,589,207 4 031 000 22 560 233 22,430 800 Texas 1 Not a State. Not a State. 5,341,528 5,566,928 Arkansas^ 3 000 000 2 676 000 2 488 839 8 092 692 8 050 000 2 813 500 Tennessee** 7,148 166 8,398,000 3 653 856 20'S981606 81 892 144 20 991\00 Kentuckytt. .. ... 7,369,000 8,085,500 5,571,297 5 479 244 8 076 480 1 858 008 Total $66 468 025 $59 682 684 $52455 140 $87 177 821 $150 482 663 $115 271 434 * In 1841 Florida had an extra debt of $3,900,000 ; in 1870, $276,325; and in 1880, $4,480. t In 1870 Alabama had an extra debt of $3,095,218 ; and in 1880, $63,765. % In 1870 Mississippi had an extra debt of $1,696,230. § In 1860 Louisiana had an extra debt of $530,108 ; in 1870, $2,461,501 : and in 1880, $1,006,840. | In 1870 Texas had an extra debt of $508,641. ! In 1853 Arkansas had an extra debt of $1,614,217 ; in 1S70, $409,557 ; and in 1880, $2,232,905. ** In 1870 Tennessee had an extra debt of $6,647,658 ; and in 1880, $6,448,731. tt In 1870 Kentucky had an extra debt of $816,000. WESTERN STATES. — The following shows the debt of Western States at different periods : 1841. 1858. 1860. 1870. 1880. 1889. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Funded debt. Ohio $6,101,000 $10,924,128 $15,542,549 $16,927,884 $9 732 078 $6 474,805 Indiana 11 890000 12 751 000 7,712,880 10 179 267 4 167 567 4 998 178 Illinois 11 600 000 13 527 292 17,000,000 10,277 161 4 890 987 Michigan* Wisconsin , 5,340,000 5,611,000 2,359,551 100,000 2,214,235 2,385,028 68200 905,150 11000 lowat 55000 322 295 584 498 870485 Minnesota:):. 250000 350000 2 565 000 Missouri§ 2,500 000 842261 802,000 602,000 438 000 16259000 Kansas ||. . . . 1 341 975 1 181 975 Nebraska! 4,000 36,300 499 26T Colorado** ... . Nevadatt 500 000 56400 Oregon Jt 106 583 856,508 California§§ 2 997 488 8 824 000 8 311 500 8 408 000 Total $37 431 000 $43 655 676 $46 569 468 $44 600 792 $27 862 606 $37 080 218 * In I860 Michigan had an unfunded debt of $102,093. t In 1860 Iowa had an unfunded debt of $29,637. J In 1860 Minnesota had an unfunded debt of $68,686. § In 1860 Missouri had an unfunded debt of $25,350,000; and in 1870, of $17,428,000. || In 1870 Kansas had an unfunded debt of $251,331. T In 1860 Nebraska had an unfunded debt of $48,960 ; and in 1870, $211,000. ** In 1880 Colorado had an unfunded debt of $212,814. tt In 1870 Nevada had an unfunded debt of $142,894 ; and in 1880, $18,996. # In 1880 Oregon had an unfunded debt of $154,868. §§ In 1853 California had an unfunded debt of $269,812; and in 1870, $117,527. STATE AND LOCAL INDEBTEDNESS. — The following table shows the aggregate of State and local indebtedness in the United States : STATES AND TERRITORIES. Bonded. Floating. Gross debt. Sinking fund. Net debt. Total United States $1,117,821,671 $84,159,444 $1,201,981,115 $145,396,969 $1,056,584,146 NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine $22 999 503 $2 3°9 062 $24 628 565 $2 221 715 $22 406 850 New Hampshire 8665059 2'l31 375 10 796 434 72 264 10 724 170 Vermont 3'218'S63 1 189 778 4 408.641 56,478 4,352,168 Massachusetts 109'933'948 11,695,938 121,629,886 30,345,973 91,283,913 Ehode Island . 14 075 250 1 066 117 15 141 367 2 088 577 13 102 790 Connecticut 2o'462'354 3 083 618 23 545 972 1,544 311 22,001,661 Total $178,654,977 $21,495,888 $200,150,865 $36,279,313 $163,871,552 MIDDLE STATES. New York $250 483 281 $8 155 367 $258 638 598 $39,915,284 $218,723,814 New Jersey 51 558 613 3,699,538 55 258 151 5,711,049 49,547,102 Pennsylvania Delaware 128,880,578 2 297 300 5,410.237 49285 134,290,815 2 346 585 20,256,056 114,034,759 2,346,555 Maryland 83 719 369 214 679 83 934 048 28,038,042 10,896,006 District of Columbia 21 699 564 1,187,205 22 886,769 211,810 22,675.459 Total $488,638,655 $18,716,811 $507,354,966 $89,131,741 $418,323,225 408 INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. STATES AND TERRITORIES. Bonded. Floating. Gross debt. Sinking fund. Net debt. SOUTHERN STATES. Virginia $42,177,694 $883,814 $42,561,508 $461,706 $42,099,802 West Virginia 1,473,338 104,162 1,577,500 64,076 1,513,424 7,201,883 1,029,978 8.231,861 37,255 8,194 606 13,419,958 655,161 14,075,119 729,181 13,845,938 Georgia 19,670,625 161,528 19,832,153 150,250 19,681,903 Florida 2,566,880 209,729 2,776,609 150,100 2,626,509 14,517,445 211,100 14,728,545 14,728,545 Mississippi 1,719,241 293,949 2,013,190 2,018,190 38,648,462 4,226,473 42,869,935 3,988 42,865,952 Texas 11,001,228 653,165 11,654,393 49,480 11,604,913 Arkansas 5,045,616 8,903,513 8,949,129 1,010,345 7,938,784 19,112,158 1,368,182 20,475,335 5,497,454 14,977,881 28,338,282 9,051,275 37,889,557 1,657 87,387,900 Total $204,887,805 $22,247,029 $227,134,834 $8,155,487 $218,979,347 WESTERN STATES. Ohio $53 652 007 $823 086 $54 475 093 $5 721 139 $48 753 954 Indiana . 16'794'078 1 750 413 18 544 491 190754 18 353 737 Illinois 41 660 369 4,228,303 45,888,672 707 750 45180922 Michigan 9 802 293 454 735 10 257 028 1 453 884 8 803 144 Wisconsin 9 118 403 2 871 820 ll'990 223 'll4'281 11 875992 7 862*302 536242 8 398 544 435,777 7'962767 Minnesota 8 295 196 278 523 8,573 719 97655 8 476 064 Missouri 55 446 001 2 666 879 58,112,880 681 558 57 431 322 15 407 686 717 997 16 125 683 119 830 16 005 853 Nebraska 6114836 1 573 553 7 688 389 262632 7 425 757 Colorado 2 159 100 1 435 196 3 594 296 8 594 296 Nevada 863 025 236 894 1,099,919 75396 1 024 523 459 908 889 494 848502 848502 California 16 849 879 2 338'910 18683789 1 928 101 16 755' 688 Total $243,984,183 $20,297,045 $264,281,228 $11,788,707 $252,492,521 THE TERRITORIES. Arizona .... $188,200 $189,301 $377,501 $377,501 Dakota 827 823 184842 1 012 665 13805 998 860 Idaho 71,749 163 570 235 319 235 319 Montana 400,100 387,741 787,841 27,916 759,925 New Mexico 46,179 38,693 84,872 84,872 Utah 116,251 116,251 116,251 Washington 75 000 164311 239311 239 311 47,000 158 462 205,462 205,462 Total . . . $1,656,051 $1,403.171 $3.059.222 $41,721 $3,017,501 DETAILS OF LOCAL INDEBTEDNESS. — In the cities and towns of the United States contain- ing a population of 7,500 and upward, the total population in 1880 was 11,600,768. The num- ber of the cities and towns was 311 ; the total bonded debt, $682,096,460 ; the total floating debt, $28,439,464; the gross debt, $710,535,- 924; the sinking fund, $117,191,506; and the net debt, $593,344,418; the net debt per capita, $51.15. The debt of the municipalities having less population than 7,500 is as follows: bonded, $41,995,999; floating, $14,380,858; total, $56,- 376,857; sinking fund, $559,731; net debt, $55,817,126. The amount of the debts of the counties in the United States is as follows : bonded, $106,- 767,946; floating, $18,703,609; total, $125,- 471,555 ; sinking fund, $1,593,869 ; net debt, $123,877,686. The amounts of debts of townships in the Middle and Western States, where this civil division exists, are as follow : bonded, $30,120,- 048; floating, $1,789,597; total, $31,909,645; sinking fund, $308,401 ; net debt, $31,601,244. The amount of school-district debt in the States and Territories is as follows : bonded, $9,869,242; floating, $7,638,169; no sinking fund. The purposes for which the outstanding bonded State and local debts of the United States were contracted are briefly stated in the report as follow : Bridges $24,853,388 Cemeteries 283,816 Fire Department 2,514,082 Funding floating debt 153,949,095 Improvement of harbors, rivers, wharves, canals, and water-power 36,224,548 Parks and public places 40,612,536 Public buildings 48,493,952 Railroad and other aid 185,638.948 Eefunding old debt 138,743,730 Schools and libraries 26,509,457 Sewers... 21,370,586 Streets 86,674,860 Miscellaneous 130,374,758 War expenses 75,154,400 Water-works 146,423,565 Total $1,117,821,671 Of this total indebtedness, there is due from the Eastern States, $178,654,977; from the Middle States, the sum of $488,638,655 ; from the Southern States, $204,887,805; from the Western States, $243,984,183 ; and from the Territories, $1,656,951. ASSESSED VALUATION. — The following table presents the population of the United States and of the five geographical sections, the as- sessed valuation and the per capita valuation, the bonded debt, and the per capita bonded debt, and the amount of the annual charge, with the per capita annual charge : _J Under $i per Capita. d! $i to $5 " I l$io to $20 " " I I$2Q to $34 " " $34 " « ^ I MAP OF THE ° SD STAT SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF EBTEDNESS PER CAPITA, :he Returns of the Tenth Census, 1880. -p . TJTsTITED STATES, SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF LOCAL INDEBTEDNESS PER CAPITA, Compiled from the Returns of the Tenth Census, 1880. - INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. 409 SECTIONS. Population. ASSESSED VALUATION. BONDED DEBT.* ANNUAL CHAKGB. Amount. Per capita. Amount. Per capita. Amount. Per capita. New England States 4,010,529 11,756,053 15,257,393 18,524,989 606,819 $2,651,555,822 5,564,578,488 2,370,923.269 6,187,484,625 128,213,629 $661 15 473 34 155 40 834 00 211 29 $178,654,977 488,638,655 204,887,805 243,984,183 1,656,051 $44 54 41 57 13 43 13 17 2 73 $9,918,143 29,450,866 12,452,792 17,013,352 154,043 $2 47 2 51 82 92 25 Middle States Southern States Western States Territories The United States . 50,155,783 $16,902.755,893 $337 01 $1,117,821,671 $22 28 $68,989,196 $1 88 * Floating debt more than covered by sinking funds. TOTAL NET DEBT BY SECT!ONS-j<0— 24 MILLIONS TOTAL NET DEBT BY KINDS-X0= 24 MILLIONS NEW ENGLAND STATES MIDDLE STATES Bonded STATE COUNTY SOUTHERN STATES Bonded WESTERN STATES __ VALUATION AND TAXATION IN THE STATES. — taxation on this property, by States and geo- The following tables show the assessed valu- graphical groups, 1880 ; they show the total ation of real estate and personal property in taxation to amount to the sum of $302,- the several States and Territories of the 200,674, and the total valuation, $16,902,- Union, and also the State, county, and city 993,543: STATES AND TERRI- TORIES. ASSESSED VALUATION. TAXATION. Real estate. Prsonal property. Total. State. County. Civil diTisions lees than counties. Total. NEW ENGLAND STATES. Maine . . . $173,856,242 122,733,124 71,436,623 1,111,160,072 188,224459 228,791,267 $62,122,474 42.022,057 15,370,152 473,596,730 64,812,214 98,386,118 $235,978,716 164,755,181 86,806,775 1,584,756,802 252,536.673 827,177,385 $1,063,510 395,872 403,286 1,501,182 394,238 489,125 $324.401 483,978 15,344 1,125,901 145,707 $3,794,224 1,818.290 1.326.481 21,699,794 2,298,477 4,730,907 $5,182,135 2,697,640 1,745,111 24.826,877 2.692,715 5,365,739 New Hampshire . . Vermont Massachusetts Rhode Island . . Connecticut Total.. $1,896,201,787 $755,809,745 $2,652,011,532 $4,246,713 $2,095,331 $35,668,173 $42,010,217 MIDDLE STATES. New York $2,329,282,359 442,632,638 1.540.007,957 50,302,739 868,442.913 87,980,356 $822,657.647 129,885,723 143,451,059 9,648,904 128,864,762 11,421,431 $745,929,526 $2,651,940,006 572,518,361 1,683,459,016 59,951,643 497,307,675 99,401,787 $5,564,578,488 $7,880,803 1.283,711 485,578 86'd,977 1,469,254 $11,980,323 $6,160,119 1.938,318 4,612,165 248,275 1,893,084 $42,352,053 5,736,036 23,506,591 355,982 2,688,401 $56,892.975 8,958,065 28,604.334 604,257 5,487,462 1,469,254 New Jersey Pennsylvania.. Delaware Maryland District of Columbia Total . $4,818,648,962 $14,801,961 $74,634,068 $101,466,847 410 INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. STATES AND TERRI- TORIES. ASSESSED VALUATION. TAXATION. Real estate. Personal property. Total. State. County. Civil divisions less than counties. Total. SOUTHERN STATES. Virginia $233,601,599 105.000,306 101,709,326 77,461,670 139,983,941 18,885,151 77,374,008 79,469,530 122,362,297 205,508,924 55,760,388 265,085,908 195,644,200 $74,853,536 34,622,899 54,390,876 56,098,465 99,488,653 12,053,158 45,493,220 81,158,599 87.800,142 114,855,591 80,648,976 85,478,063 16,184,888 $308,455,135 139,622,705 156,100,202 133,560,135 239,472,599 30,988,809 122,8(57,228 110,628,129 160,162,439 320,364,515 86,409,364 350,563,971 211,778,538 $1,918,492 581,202 706.903 743,710 1,075,099 236,930 990.346 553,870 1,771,084 2,188,540 715,238 1,595,067 656,087 $1,170,413 769,138 986,956 554,164 1,076,421 266,306 682,851 1,595,444 710,578 1,685,907 734,974 1,628,118 1,488,126 $1.553,297 .06,689 222,273 542,109 1,055,488 101,944 888,781 235,661 1,914,219 694,269 888,878 1,982,882 644,568 $4,642,202 2,056,979 1,916,132 1,839,983 3,207,008 605,180 2,061,978 2,384,475 4,395,876 4,568,716 1,839,090 5.201,017 2,788,781 West Virginia North Carolina South Carolina Georgia Florida Louisiana. Kentucky Total $1,677,047,248 $698,076,021 $2,370,923,269 $13,732,068 $13,344,391 $10,480,958 $37,507,417 WESTEEN STATES. Ohio $1,093,677,705 538,683,239 575,441,053 432,861,884 344,788,721 297,254,342 203,446,781 381,985,112 108,432,049 55,073,375 85,604,197 17,941,030 82,584,966 466,273,585 $440,682,808 189,131,892 211,175,341 84,804,475 94,188.030 101,416,909 54,581,906 150,810,689 52,459,640 85,512,407 88,867,496 11,350,429 19,937,118 118,304,451 $1,534,360,508 727,815,131 786,616,394 517,666,359 433,971,751 898,671,251 258,028,687 532,795,801 160,891,689 90,585,782 74,471,693 29,291,459 52,522,084 584,578,036 $4,480,489 2,493,963 8,195,042 1,683,560 457,453 827,285 726,399 2,125,278 888,139 855,465 872,359 161,101 464,229 8,215,177 $6,131,502 4,031,029 5,278,956 1,804,512 1,995,990 4,280,091 1,251,888 2,885,503 2,060,878 1,522,229 1,209,808 619,169 454,699 4,059,471 $15,144,667 *4,318,638 *10,809,415 5,139,877 *3,384,882 *5,1 54,229 *1, 735,420 5,253,955 *1,470,804 914,786 569,841 91,403 195,014 5,353,357 $25.756,658 *10,843,630 *19,283,413 8,627,949 *5,838,325 *10,261,605 *3,713,707 10,269,736 *4,414,821 2,792,480 2,152,008 871.673 1,113,942 12,628,005 Illinois Michigan Wisconsin Minnesota Missouri Kansas Nebraska Colorado . . Nevada. ... Oregon California Total $4,584,047,039 $1,603,218,586 $6,187,266,625 $21,440,939 $37,585,725 $59,541,288 $118,567,952 TERRITORIES. Arizona $3,922,961 13,333,918 2,297,526 6,077,162 4,788,76* 14,779,844 11,335,923 4,485,291 $5,347,253 6,987,612 4,143,350 13,532,640 6,574,642 9,995,935 12,474,770 9,136,538 $9.270,214 20,321,530 6,440,876 18,609,802 11,363,406 24,775,279 23,810,698 13,621,829 $55,620 101,G09 48,456 55,829 56,223 148,650 71,796 81,729 $220,471 296,692 139,088 817,837 70,719 155,706 893,150 136,000 $1,729,163 $16,945 79,765 8,843 10,781 130,882 40,471 12,499 $299,656 $293,036 478,066 195,887 883,947 126,942 435,238 505,417 230,228 Dakota . Idaho Montana New Mexico Utah Washington Wyoming Total . $60,020,889 $13,036,766,925 $68,192,740 $128,213,629 $619,912 $2,648,761 $302,200,694 Grand total $3,866,226,618 $16,902,993,543 $52,019,955 $69,606,571 $180,574,168 * The taxes of townships are not included in this sum. Township officers, in so many cases, combined the school-dis- trict taxes with those of the township proper, that it was found necessary to ignore the reports made by them. The taxes of the township proper thus omitted in the detailed exhibit of States and in the above summary are estimated as follow : Indiana, $1,500,000; Illinois, $5,302,605; Wisconsin, $1,750,000; Iowa, $800,000; Minnesota, $540,349 ; Kansas, $564,829. These amounts being added to the taxes of corporations exhibited in the tables give the following sums as the total taxation of minor civil divisions for local purposes: Indiana, $5,818,633; Illinois, $16,112,020; Wisconsin, $5,134,882 ; Iowa, $5,954,- 229; Minnesota, $2,275,769; Kansas, $2,035,633; and for the group of Western States, $69,999,071. The total taxation of the States under consideration is thus increased to the following amounts (the total of Minnesota being further enlarged as explained afterward) : Indiana, $12,343,630 ; Illinois, $24,586,018 ; Wisconsin, $7,588,325; Iowa, $11,061,605; Minnesota, $4,- 346,300; Kansas, $4,979,650; and the grand total of the group of Western States to $129,117,979. The total taxation for the United States of minor civil divisions for local purposes is thus increased to $191,031,951, and the grand total of all taxation for the United States to $312,750,721. It is to be noted in regard to Minnesota that a special State tax (not shown in the tables) laid in the census year upon certain counties, known as the "seed-grain" tax, amounting to $92,244, is likewise in- cluded in arriving at the total taxation of that State. It thus appears that the amount of the as- sessed valuation is $16,902,993,543; and the total amount of State and local taxation is $302,200,694. If to this amount of taxation there is added the taxation by the Government of the Uuited States, which is laid entirely on personal property, and consists of the re- ceipts from internal revenue for the fiscal year ending June 30, 188] ($135,234,385), and the receipts from customs for the same period ($198,159,676), the gross amount of money drawn from the people in 1880-'81, to defray the expenses of their civil and political insti- tutions, was $635,624,755. This taxation is about three fourths of one per cent of the val- uation, and amounts to $10.81 for every man, woman, and child in the country. NATIONAL DEBTS OF THE WORLD. — A very large proportion of the debts of the civilized world have accumulated since 1848, at which date the aggregate was placed by the best au- thorities at $7,627,692,215. In 1860 they had increased to $10,399,341,688 ; 'in 1870 to $17,- 117,640,428; and, in 1880, to $23,286,414,753. DEBT OF FRANCE. — France has the largest national debt, which amounts to $3,829,982,- 399. At the fall of the first Napoleon it amount- ed to $141,635,200. It has chiefly increased by expensive wars. The Crimean War cost France about $450,000,000. INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. 411 The following statement shows the progress of the debt during the last thirty years : Fixed and floating. 1 850 $978,166,500 185t-'68 1,167,960,000 1854--55 1,333,421,000 1 856 1,640,010,500 1857 1,713,008,000 ^ 858 1,829,804,000 1859. I860 1870.. 1880.. 1,849,270,000 2,277,522,000 DEBT OF ENGLAND. — According to the state- ment of Mr. Dudley Baxter, one of the best authorities on national debts, the debt of Eng- land commenced after the Revolution of 1688, and passed the debt of France about 1750; advanced during the wars of the elder Pitt; made a longer stride in the eight years of the American War, and finally the great French "Wars, from 1793 to 1815, made it tower over the debts of all other nations. The funded 412 INDEBTEDNESS OF THE UNITED STATES, OF THE STATES, ETC. debt in 1700 was, exclusive of annuities, $61,- 317,900; but in 1763 it had reached nearly $647,244,500. After a reduction of $27,252,- 400 during the eleven years of peace that fol- lowed the American War, in ten years it doubled in amount, and with 1145,885,000 capi- talized value of terminable annuities, left it in 1784 at $1,328,554,500. During the next ten years a second reduction of $16,546,100 was made, when the French War that followed, in twenty-one years, added $3,022,096,500, and made the total debt and terminable annuities amount, in 1815, to $4,389,583,000. Thirty- nine years of peace now diminished it $496,- 383,000. The Crimean War of two years raised it with annuities, in 1856, to $4,058,761,000. A reduction has since ensued, so that in 1877 the amount of the debt was $3,879,368,565. The amount of this debt added by three wars was as follows : Seven Years' War, 1756-'63 $291,990,000 American War, 1775-'33 486,650,000 French and American War 2,919,900,000 DEBT OF BUSSIA. — The debt of Russia has been made up largely of deficits arising during the issue and depreciation of paper money. The depreciated currency under one form has been removed by the forced issue of similar currency under another form. Nevertheless, the Government has never failed in its obliga- tions to foreign creditors. The progress of the debt has been as follows : 1853 $6(18,312,500 1854 642,878,000 1855 579,113,500 1856 802,972,500 1857 1,004,932,250 1858 1,167,960,000 1859 1,124,161,500 1870 1,070,630,000 1880 3,318,953,000 DEBTS or OTHER COUNTRIES. — The lack of space will not permit a further relation of the details of the debts of the other countries of the civilized world. The gross amounts are, however, presented in the following tables, with percentage of increase or decrease, from 1848 to 1880 : COUNTRIES. 1848. 1860. 18?0. 1880. Per cent 1848-'80. Amount. Amount. Per cent 1848-'60. Amount. Per cent 1860-'70. Amount. Per cent 1870-'80. I I I j ! 1 | 5-0 21-8 75-0 11-0 France $885,703,000 3,990,530,000 1 486,650,000 549,914,500 145,995,000 47,044,862 608,312,500 $1.854,136,500 3,893,200,000 1,124,161,500 525,582,000 43'. ,985,000 64,842,288 1,163,093,500 160,594.500 136,262,000 1093 "f>'-\ $2,277,522,000 8,883,467,000 22-8 ' 163-8 333-8 3,725-7 42-3 275-7 114-8 0-25 4-76 a$3,829,982,399 8,766,671,000 8,818,953,000 2,579,245,000 2,540,313,000 t2,120,41 5,371 al,881,115,350 1,876,486.500 457,451,000 442,851,500 889,320,000 175,194,000 §118,742,600 97,330,000 §94.361,435 a49,317,59S 48,665,000 68-1 210-6 85-9 33-7 13-7 128-1 56-6 1459 5-3 111-7 8S-5 233-3 57-3 3-6 14-5 98-2 23-0 332 '582 369 1,640 4,407 209 ±757 453 '445 3,233 94 Great Britain Russia 131-0 200-6 87-8 91-2 '4-4 1,070,630,000 1,886,952,500 *1,900,000,000 2,480,672,428 1,654,610,000 603,446,000 291,990,000 180,060,500 Spain Italy ^United States Austria-Hungary . . Turkey Portugal Australia 82,730,500 64-7 Holland 497,821,590 32,118,900 442,851,500 11-0 869,854,000 82,730,500 16-48 Canada Eoumania 63,000,000 Sweden & Norway. Greece German Empire f. . Denmark Total 2,919,900 48,665,000 194,660,000 54,626,463 29,199,000 1160,000,000 720,242,000 63,264,500 "M-I 45-7 I 38,932,000 494,436,400 63,264,500 154-6 15-8 20-0 $7,627,692,215 $10,399,341,688 $17,117,640,428 $23.286,414,753 86 ... * Debt in 1868 by Baxter given as $1,776,272,500; no authorities for 1870; amount stated approximately, t The debt November 30, 1881, waa $2,009,704,370.18; but, as no data could be obtained from other countries for that date, it would not be a fair comparison. ± From 1860-'80. § Debt of 1878, Kolb ; no authority for 1880. If Debt in 1868 by Baxter given as $53,898,000 ; no authority for 1870; amount stated approximately. •f The debt given for the German Empire in 1880 does not include any of the debts of states comj empire proper. The amounts given for this country in 1870, and previous, represent the debt of the old German federation, which debt having been pro-rated among the different states since 1870, and in greater part paid off by the new empire, has thereby been reduced to the amount given in 1880. NOTE.— 1848 taken from Baxter's figures; 1860 taken from Levf s figures; 1870 taken from Mulhall's figures: 1880 taken from Mulhall's figures and report of Secretary of the Treasury. Amounts marked a are from Treasury report as being correct; balance are Mulhall's, Treasury report not being definite enough. The following table presents an imperfect statement of the debts of certain other coun- tries, from which the information is incomplete : COUNTRIES. 1848. I860. 1868. 1870. 18Z8. 1880. Morocco *$2,433,250 Japan *$42 070,892 Cuba *$2 676 575 *8 711 035 Mexico *48 665 000 t$14 599 500 *384 458,500 South America (republics and Brazil). . . *572,983,045 $$681,310,666 1*1,094,962,500 §5 850,644 Switzerland... §5,710,870 South Africa ±9' 733 666 ±58 H!>-> IHII) Egvpt §449 920 578 indi£ :::; §243,325,000 §708]497!434 * Baxter. tLevi. ± Mulhall. § Treasury reports. INDIA. 413 TOTAL INCREASE. — The total increase of the national debts of the world, from 1848 to 1880, is shown in the following figures: 1848, $7,- 628,000,000; 1860, $10,3,99,000; 1870, $17,118,- 000^1880, $23,287,000. This is an increase of sixteen thousand millions in a period of thirty-two years, or five hundred thousand millions in each of the thirty-two years be- fore 1881. INDIA, an empire in Asia, subject to the British crown. The government is carried on in the name of the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland, who in 1877 assumed the title of Em- press of India. The legislative and executive powers are unitedly under the control of the Secretary of State for India, in the British Cabi- net, who is responsible only to the British Par- liament. Under his directions or supervision the executive authority is exercised by the Governor-General, or Viceroy, and the laws are elaborated by the Governor-General in council. The council of the Governor-Gen- eral consists of five ordinary members and the commander-in-chief of the military, appointed by the crown, who preside over the depart- ments of Foreign Affairs, Finance, the Interior, Military Administration, and Public Works; but their functions are simply administrative. The governors of presidencies and provinces are appointed by the crown, the lieutenant- governors of provinces by the Governor-Gen- eral, subject to the approval of the Secretary of State for India. The Secretary of State for India was the Marquis of Hartington, until the latter part of 1882, when he was succeeded by Earl Derby. The Governor- General of the British Indian Empire is the Marquis of Eipon, who succeeded Lord Lytton upon the accession of the Glad- stone Government in 1880. AREA AND POPULATION. — The preliminary results of the enumeration of February, 1881, as compared with the first general census, taken between 1868 and 1876, with the area of the states of British India, were as follow : PRESIDENCIES AND PROVINCES. Square miles. Population, 1868--76. Population, 1881. Under the Governor-General: 2,711 17,711 24,744 1,572 8,285 140.333 126,445 155,997 81,748 107,010 24,218 84,20S 87,220 45,308 902,500 396,889 2,227,654 5,055,412 168,312 81,672,613 16,349,206 60,502,897 80,781,204 17,611,498 11,220,232 8,201,519 2,747,148 4,162,019 453,076 2,670,982 4,186,899 178,283 25,945 80.839,181 16,388,422 68,829,920 32,699,436 18,794,260 11,407,625 8,173,824 8,707,646 4,815,157 Berar Mysore Coorg Andaman and Nicobar Isl- ands (1880) Under Governors : Madras Bombay (including Sind) . . . Under Lieutenant-Governors : Bengal Northwest Provinces Punjab Under Chief-Commissioners : Oude Central Provinces British Burmah Assam Total British administration. 191,096,603 203,159,156 NATIVE STATES. Square miles. Population. Under Governor-General of India Under the Lieutenant-Governors of— Bengal 312,070 37988 81,754,651 2 328 440 Northwest Provinces 5125 745 675 Punjab 114 742 8853282 Central Provinces 29 112 1 049?712 Under the Governors of— Madras 9818 3 001 436 Bombay 66408 6'94l'631 575 193 49 674 827 The area and population of the native states were as follow: Berar and Mysore, included in the first ta- ble, were only temporarily under British ad- ministration. Mysore was handed over to the native government in March, 1881. The na- tive states exceed 450 in number. Some of the frontier states, like Nepaul, merely ac- knowledge British protection. The Afghan war brought Afghanistan, with an area equal to that of the British Islands and a popula- tion estimated at 4,000,000, under a British protectorate. The other native states are feudatory, paying tribute or furnishing a mili- tary contingent. The British-born population of India, ex- clusive of the army, numbered, in 1871, 64,061 persons, of whom 38,946 were males and 25,115 females. The European community is mainly confined to Lower Bengal and Bom- bay. It has received large accessions of late years from British workmen brought over to labor on the railroads and other engineering and manufacturing enterprises. The result has been the growth of a degraded class of Europeans and Eurasians, who, unable to compete with native labor, and without the education for employments which would af- ford them subsistence, are driven to infamous occupations, or sink into pauperism. An in- vestigation, instituted by the Marquis of Ripon, shows that of about 26,000 European and Eurasian children in India nearly one half are growing up without any education. The religious statistics of British India, as ascertained by enumerations taken in the years 1868-'76 and verified by the returns of the general census, were as follow : CREEDS. Numbers. Hindoos 139,248,568 Mohammedans 40,882,537 Buddhists 2,832,851 Sikhs 1,174,436 Christians 897,216 Other creeds 5,102,823 Not known 1,977,400 Total 192,115,831 ^ The classification of the adult male popula- tion of British India, as to occupations, is as follows : OCCUPATIONS. Adult males. Officials and the professions 2,404,855 Domestic service 4,137,429 Agriculture 87,462.220 Commerce 3,440,951 Industries 8,746,503 Laborers 8,174,600 Independent and non-productive 2,264,858 Total 66,681,416 414 INDIA. The population of the principal cities was as follows in 1881 : Calcutta, 683,458 (without the suburbs; with which the population, at the former enumeration, was 794,645); Bom- bay, 753,000 ; Madras, 405,948 ; Lucknow, 261,485; Benares, 207,570; Agra, 137,908; Allahabad, 150,378 ; Cawnpore, 119,603; Ba- reilly, 101,688 ; Rangoon, 132,004. COMMERCE. — The total imports of the Indian Empire increased, with considerable fluctua- tions, from £39,913,942 in 1871 to £52,821,- 398 in 1880. The fluctuations are mostly in the importation of treasure. In the last five years the specie imports varied between £5,000,000 in 1876, £11,000,000 in 1877, £17,- 000,000 in 1878, £7,000,000 in 1879, and £11,- 000,000 in 1880, the exact figures for the lat- ter year being £11,655,395. The merchandise imports increased in the ten years from £33,- 348,246 to £41,166,003. The total exports in- creased from £57,556,951 to £69,247,511. The exports of treasure averaged something over £2,000,000 a year. The growth in the mer- chandise export trade was from £55,336,186 in 1871 to £67,212,363 in 1880. The imports of bullion and coin in 1880 consisted of £2,- 050,393 of gold and £9,605,002 of silver. The exports were £299,889 of gold and £1,735,259 of silver ; but in the preceding three years over £4,500,000 of gold were exported, being more than the imports and nearly equal to the ex- ports of silver. The exports from India to Great Britain in 1880 amounted to £30,117,980, and the imports of British products to £30,451,314. The consumption of British products has in- creased over 50 per cent in ten years; but the exports to England, owing to the de- cline in quantity and price of the cotton ex- ports, have not increased in value. The ex- ports of raw cotton were 3,843,491 cwts. in 1871. Cotton is still the largest article of ex- port to Europe, the quantity in 1880 being 1,841,059 cwts., valued at £4,781,541. The next most important is jute, of which 4,633,- 327 cwts., valued at £4,014,699, were shipped in 1880. The exports of rice were 6,563,849 cwts., of the value of £3,134,556; of tea, 45,138,111 pounds, value £3,072,922; of hides, 463,764 cwts., value £1,616,634. Two thirds of the British imports into India consist of cotton goods, iron being the next largest arti- cle. Next to Great Britain, the countries hav- ing the largest trade with India are China, the Straits Settlements, and Ceylon. The total value of imports in 1880-'81 rose to £62,114,000, £53,117,000 of which were mer- chandise and £8,997,000 precious metals ; the exports to £75,995,000, of which £74,555,000 were merchandise and £1,^40,000 precious metals. The exports of rice, paddy, and ce- reals were £12,335,000; of textile materials, £20,295,000; of opium, £13,600,000, against £14,323,000 in 1879-'80. The number of vessels arriving in the ports of India in 1877-'78 was 6,353, of 2,877,649 tons, classified as follows: British, 1881, of 2,157,155 tons; Indo-British, 1,572, of 219,786 tons; foreign, 777, of 393,913 tons; native, 2,123, of 106,795 tons. KAILROADS. — The contracts under which the Indian railroads were built, on the plan insti- tuted by Lord Dalhousie, were exceedingly ad- vantageous to the companies. Under this sys- tem 6,122 miles of road were constructed, for which nearly £100,000,000 was raised. Their net revenue is £6,210,775. During the vice- royalty of Lord Lawrence the system of state lines was inaugurated. On these the narrow gauge of 3 feet 3f inches was adopted, instead of five feet six inches, as on the existing lines. The capital was mostly raised by state loans bearing from 3 to 4f per cent interest. The construction and management have been in- trusted to Government oflicers. As these lines were built purely for the object of developing the country and supplying the people with the means of communication, while all the profit- able routes had been taken up by the compa- nies which had built the first roads under state guarantees, they could not be expected to yield such returns as the guaranteed lines. Their cost, including 1,583 miles not yet constructed, was over £34,000,000, while the net revenue in 1881-'82 was only £741,939. The Govern- ment have recently returned to the policy of having the railroads built by private compa- nies, although they do not grant as valuable privileges as formerly. The railroad network built on the two different plans is very exten- sive. It extends from Peshawer, in the ex- treme northwest, to Assam and the confines of China in the east, and from the foot of the Himalayas to Tutikorin, at the extremity of the peninsula. With the purchase of the East Indian line by the Government, the state rail- roads are equal in length with the guaranteed. Of the total mileage in 1880, aggregating 9,179 miles, 4,587 miles belonged to the state, and 4,592 miles to the guaranteed companies. The number of passengers carried vastly increased in ten years, being 48,040,940 in 1880, against 15,999,633 in 1869, during which period the mileage has about doubled. The gross receipts of all the lines in 1880 amounted to £12,099,- 593. The expenses were 51*17 per cent of the receipts. The total mileage in operation July 1, 1882, was 9,875 miles. About 500 miles have been laid out by native rulers. A line is un- der construction in Assam from Dibrugarh, on the Brahmapootra, which has steamboat com- munications with Calcutta, to Sadiya, the last British post in the direction of China. With the line from Attock to Peshawer now com- pleted, the only link wanting in railroad com- munication between Calcutta and the north- west frontier is the projected bridge over the Indus, which will be a massive structure with two girder spans of 300 and three of 250 feet. A railroad system has been sanctioned which will open up new districts in the west of India. POSTS AND TELEGRAPHS. — The number of let- INDIA. 415 ters carried by the mails in 1880 was 128,567,- 058; of newspapers, 11,251,021. The postal traffic nearly doubled in the course of the dec- ade. The number of messages sent by tele- graph was 1,569,907. The number of miles of telegraph line was 20,468; of wire, 51,834, against 22,834 in 1871. The total receipts in 1880 amounted to £422,463, the working ex- penses to £292,291. ARMY. — The strength of the European army in India in 1880 was 64,520 officers and men. In the estimates laid before Parliament for 1881-'82, 62,575 were provided for. The na- tive army in 1880 mustered 124,978 officers and men, making a total force of 189,498. In- dians impugn the truthfulness of the official statements regarding the native army, con- tending that it has been enormously reduced since 1856, and that a reduction of 9,000 men has taken place since 1878. The armies of the native princes of India in 1879 aggregated 305,- 235 men, with an artillery of 5,252 guns. The maintenance of the armed force necessary to uphold British rule in India is the heaviest branch of the Government expenditure, con- suming more than the combined revenues from opium and salt. The cost of the army in 1877- '78 was £16,639,761 ; in 1879-'80, £21,712,862. The cost of the Indian contingent which fought in the Egyptian war under General McPherson is, like the expenses of the Afghan war, to be defrayed out of the Indian revenues. Several of the native princes made offers of men and money to assist in the Egyptian expedition. Among these were the chiefs of Nepaul and Cashmere, the Begum of Bhopal, the Nawab of Bhawulpur, and the Rajahs of Patiala, Ka- purthala, and Malerkotla. Similar assistance had been offered, and in some cases accepted, in the Afghan war. The motives were princi- pally to escape the reduction of their military forces which the British authorities are press- ing. The native rulers are exceedingly sensitive on this point, while the British live in constant fear of these large armaments. NATIVE DISTURBANCES. — A sanguinary con- flict broke out in the spring in the chiefship of Kalahandi, or Karond, on the western slope of the East Ghauts, between the Khonds, who are the aboriginal inhabitants, and the Kultas, a class of Hindoo cultivators who perform most of the agricultural work of the country. The two races have long entertained hostile feel- ings for each other. In January the Khonds commenced depredating the Kulta villages. In May the troubles took the serious form of wholesale massacres. As many as 100 Kultas were put to death with shocking barbarity. The energy of the civil magistrate in charge of the district prevented the outrages from being much worse. A regiment of Madras infantry arrived soon and put an end to the violence. The Khonds attempted to face the troops only on one occasion, when they were speedily dis- persed with a loss of about twenty. In Nepaul, a border state which is nominally independent, a serious conspiracy was discov- ered at the beginning of the year. The new King is a mere puppet in the hands of Sir Rundip Singh, the Prime Minister, and Shum- shere Jung, commander-in-chief, both of which posts were filled by the late Sir Jung Bahadur, a distinguished Indian statesman. The com- mander-in-chief was unpopular in the army, which desired to be commanded by General Juggut Jung, the son of Sir Jung Bahadur. A conspiracy was concocted, which was betrayed by one of the conspirators, to throw a bomb into a room where the council of the com- mander-in-chief and other sirdars were assem- bled, and cut down all who attempted to escape. There were eighty- five persons arrested, of whom twenty-one boldly avowed their com- plicity, and were immediately put to the sword. Salem, in Madras, was in July and August the scene of riot and violence, arising out of the antipathies between the Mohammedans and the Hindoos. The Mohammedans constitute only about one twelfth of the population. They have often been annoyed in their religious ob- servances. Toward the end of July a Hindoo funeral procession, with music, was stopped while passing the mosques. A riot ensued, in which a couple of lives were lost. The fray was quickly stopped by troops from Bungalore. About the middle of August an organized at- tack was made by the Hindoos upon the Mo- hammedan community. Acts of hideous atro- city were committed. The streets were filled with corpses. The principal mosque was razed to the ground, and its splendid furniture de- stroyed. Dead pigs were thrown into wells with corpses of Mohammedan children. Mili- tary precautions were taken against another outbreak, and one hundred and sixty-three rioters were arrested and brought to trial. The original cause of the troubles was due to the action of the Municipal Council of the city, which purposely incited the funeral procession to take a route specially obnoxious to the Mo- hammedans. The councilors are chosen on the elective system. No Mohammedan had been elected a member. FOREIGN RELATIONS. — Russia continues to strengthen her position and extend her influence in Central Asia. From her late enemies, the Tekke Turkomans, a military contingent, 5,000 strong, has been recruited. A railroad has been constructed f rom Krasnovodsk, on the Caspian, to Bami, and is to be continued to Sarakhsand Gorian. A treaty changing the boundary be- tween the Russian Empire and Persia not only gives Russia ingress into the Persian plains, within the otherwise impregnable mountain barriers on the north and east, but brings her within striking distance of Herat, and would enable her forces to overrun Afghanistan and advance upon India without breaking the prom- ise that Merv should not be occupied. The British endeavor to keep alive the loyalty of Abdurrahman, whom they placed on the Af- ghan throne, by liberal supplies of treasure out 416 INDIA. of the Indian exchequer. Their agent in Ca- bool, Mohammed Afzul Khan, is, through his birth, education, and character, persona grata with the Ameer. The small but important province of Maimanah in Northern Afghan- istan, which has often before attempted to throw off the yoke of the Ameer, has entered into relations with the Russians through the Turkomans, and with arms supplied by them rebelled against Abdurrahman. The approach- ing dissolution of the Khan of Bokhara, far- ther east, furnished the British embassador in St. Petersburg with new material for diplo- matic questionings and protests, which are usually treated by the Russians as empty for- malities. With Bokhara a Russian province, the dominions of the Czar will extend to the Oxus from its source to its mouth, the limit prescribed by Lord Clarendon in 1872. The dissipated King Thebaw of Burmah still holds out against the aggressive designs of the British. As the present home Government is not inclined to gratify the traders, eager for a new field of exploitation, and the military thirst- ing for action in India by new aggressions on the frontiers, the matter has hung in suspense since the hasty flight of the British embassy from Mandalay. An embassy was sent by the King to arrange the subjects in dispute, which ranged from the question of the British embassador's wearing shoes at the Mandalay court to that of maintaining a fortified residency and guard, and forcing the Burmese Government to abol- ish its trade monopolies for the benefit of Brit- ish merchants. The last question furnishes the key to the situation. It was this which called out vigorous representations from Lord Ripon to the court of Ava, that led to the sending of the Burmese envoys. When the Burmese Gov- ernment sounded the position of the British authorities, it immediately recalled their em- bassadors. LEGISLATION AND FINANCE. — The most im- portant sources of revenue are the land-taxes, the opium monopoly, and the salt-tax. Of the total revenue in 1880, amounting to £68,484,- 666, £22,463,548 came from the land, £10,- 319,162 from opium, and £7,266,413 from salt. The East India Company, in drawing more than half of the revenues of the Government from the land, continued the practice of former con- querors. The English found the ryots en- slaved by rulers who treated the land as their own. There was no basis for peasant pro- prietorship but the ancient communal owner- ship. This was equally repugnant to their ideas as the plan of assuming the title to the whole country and the direction of all agri- cultural operations. They accordingly en- deavored to abolish both the village commu- nities and the overlying rights of the princes by cutting up the land into large estates, like those to which they were accustomed in Eng- land, and granting them in fee simple to the former tax-gatherers. The class of land- lords thus created have not, however, been treated as absolute owners. In the tax sys- tem and in the schemes for agricultural im- provement, the idea of joint state owner- ship is retained, except in Bengal, where a permanent settlement was made in the last century; and in Benares, where the land was permanently settled about the same time. In the temporary settlements made in the other provinces, usually for thirty -year periods, the Government takes as its share about two thirds on the average of the annual profits from the land. The proportion grows less during the period of the settlement as the land improves in value. In some parts of India, as in Bom- bay and Madras, there are no zemindars, or large proprietors. In those provinces the ryots stand in the position of tenants from the Government, which can eject them when they fail to meet their annual assessments. In some districts village proprietorship still prevails. The Marquis of Ripon, pursuing the policy of decentralization inaugurated by Lord Mayo, has assigned additional heads of revenue to the unfettered control of the provincial govern- ments, and also a fixed proportion of the land revenue, varying from 22 per cent in the Northwest Provinces to 50 per cent in Bom- bay, and averaging about 33 per cent. The reform is to be carried still further by placing the receipts and expenditures in the charge of local bodies, composed of non- official and elec- tive members. These local boards are ex- pected to aid in devising the system of tax- ation best suited to the character of the people. The smallest administrative divisions will be the taluka or the tahsil, not larger than coun- ties. These bodies, municipal and rural, will be composed for the most part of representative, non-official natives, whose action will be re- vised, but not inspired, by the bureaucratic authorities. The employment of natives in the civil service is increasing. Major Baring reports that, out of 4,082 appointments in the covenanted and uncovenanted services, 2,024, or as nearly as possible one half, are held by natives. The financial estimates for 1882-'83 place the revenue at 664,590,000 rupees, and the ex- penditure at 661,740,000 rupees. The railway receipts are counted at 4,680,000 rupees less than in 1881-'82; the loss by exchange at 5,190,000 rupees less, the rupee being calcu- lated at Is. 8d. The military expenditure is estimated at 155,920,000 rupees, being less than in any year since 1877. The Government car- ries out this year two bold and somewhat hazardous measures of fiscal reform — the re- peal of the import duties and the reduction of the salt impost — in addition to further steps in the direction of decentralization and local self- government which involve losses to the Im- perial Treasury. The Indian Government have made the ex- pected clean sweep of the remaining import duties in obedience to the desires of British manufacturers and in defiance of public opin- INDIA. INDIANA. 417 ion in India. The resentment against this un- popular measure was embittered by the reflec- tion that English pressure had brought about a condition of affairs in which England was actually protected against Indian products, since Indian silver-work, for instance, must pay a heavy import duty in England, while the Indians must admit British silverware free, and in which Indian tea and tobacco must pay high duties in England, while free entry is given to China teas and foreign tobacco in India. The chief of the custom imposts was the duty on cotton fabrics, which yielded in its curtailed form but little revenue, yet pro- tected the Indian manufacturers from Man- chester competition. The only duties retained are those on wines and spirits, opium and salt, and those on arms and ammunition ; the first to balance internal imposts, and the latter for political reasons. A more important fiscal re- form is the reduction of the salt-tax. This oppressive impost is lowered to two rupees per maund (82 pounds), and is made uniform all over India. The reduction amounts to 30 per cent in Bengal, and 20 per cent in the other provinces. The tax per capita is about ten cents, which is equal to two days' wages for field-labor. The duty in Burmah and in the Punjab districts was already lower than this, and has not been altered. The Government wisely granted this relief to the poorer classes instead of removing the obnoxious license-tax imposed on traders. This objectionable tax has encountered vehement opposition from the beginning, and the Government has lessened its evil effects by exempting all whose incomes are less than 500 rupees ; but it insists on keep- ing it in force, not only because it is an indis- pensable source of revenue at present, but as a precedent which will render easier the intro- duction in the future of an extensive and more rational system of direct taxation. The Indian authorities refuse to entertain the notion of giving up the Bengal opium monopoly. It is in reliance upon the increased receipts from this source that a revenue, estimated for 1882 -'83 at 11,080,000 rupees, or half that many dollars, from the import duties, has been aban- doned, and a reduction to the amount of 14,- 230,000 rupees made in the salt-tax. The only evil in the opium revenue in official eyes is the uncertainty of the yield. The contingency of a bad year has usually been guarded against by purposely underestimating the income from opium in the financial statements. To make up for the remitted taxes, the estimate must be placed for the present at higher figures than have been customary in the future Indian bud- gets. This is perhaps warranted by the in- creased gross revenue and the diminished cost of collection. In the budget for 1882-'83, Major Baring estimates the net receipts from opium at 72,500,000 rupees, whereas in 1881 -'82 they were entered in the estimates as 65,000,000 rupees. The present estimate is 6,000,000 rupees less than the probable re- VOL. xxn.— 27 A ceipts in 1881-'82, and less by twice that amount than the actual receipts in 1880-'81. The danger of relying solely on this one source to make good the surrendered revenues is seen from the fact that in the preceding ten years (1871-'80), the average net annual re- ceipts from opium were only 68,100,000 ru- pees, and that for three years together (1875 -'77) they never exceeded 63,000,000 rupees. Short crops for the last three years had obliged the Government to draw heavily upon the re- serve stock, and doubts were expressed whether they can continue to supply 56,490 chests of Bengal opium per annum. Meanwhile the na- tive Chinese and the Persian production are in- creasing, and the prices must sink ; so that a permanent reduction in the opium revenue may be looked for before long. Some elasticity in the general finances can undoubtedly be counted on; for grievously as the people are ground down by taxation and many oppres- sions, war or famine may not visit them again soon, and capitalists are slowly improving the productive resources of the land. The abate- ment of the salt duty will aid in the process of recuperation. INDIANA. STATE GOVERNMENT.— The State officers during the year were as follow : Governor, Albert G. Porter, Republican ; Lieu- tenant-Governor, Thomas Hanna ; Secretary of State, Emanuel R. Hawn ; Treasurer, Roswell S. Hill ; Auditor, Edward M. Wolfe ; Attorney- General, Daniel P. Baldwin; Superintendent of Public Instruction, John M. Bloss ; Secretary of Board of Agriculture, Alexander Herne; State Librarian, Mrs. Emma Winsor ; Judiciary, Supreme Court: William E. Niblack, James L. Worden, George V. Howk, Byron K. Elli- ott, Horace P. Biddle, and William A. Woods. The general condition of the State during and at the close of the year was prosperous. The Governor, in his message to the Legislature, says: The circumstances under which you assemble could not well be more satisfactory. The condition of the State has never been more prosperous. During the year just ended the products of our fields havel)een unusually abundant. Our manufacturing and mining industries have yielded good returns. Within the past year 560 miles of railway have been built within the State— a larger number than in any previous year. Of the ninety-two counties in the State, there are only four through which railroads do not pass, and three of these, happily, border on the Ohio River. More than 225,000 acres of land have during the year been brought for the first time into cultivation. The prac- tice of underdraining soils charged with an excess of moisture has never been so energetically prosecuted. Along with it has come increased productiveness, and a lessening of all malarial diseases. Our common schools, under the careful superintendence of a dili- gent and capable officer, have increased in usefulness and in public favor. FINANCES AND RAILROADS. — From the report of the Auditor of State for the year ending October 31, 1882, it appears that the cash in the Treasury November 1, 1881, was $740,650.- 72. Add to this the net cash receipts during the year, amounting to $3,067,843.50, and the 418 INDIANA. aggregate, from all sources, is $3,808,494.22. Deducting the cash disbursements, $3,110,424.- 74, there is left, making a cash balance charge- able to the Treasury, at the date of the report, $698,069.48. The foreign and domestic debt of the State, as it now stands, is as follows : Foreign — five per cent stock outstanding, $16,469.99 ; 2|per cent stocks outstanding, $2,355.13 ; 5 per cent bonds due December 1, 1889, $200,000 ; 5 per cent bonds, $385,000 ; 5 per cent non-negotia- ble bonds, due April 1, 1901, $340,000; twen- ty-four internal improvement bonds, past due, $24,000 ; six 5 per cent internal revenue bonds, due July 1, 1886, $6,000. Domestic debt— six per cent non-negotiable bonds, due the common- school fund, $3,904,783.22. Total debt of the State, $4,876,608.34. The Auditor estimates that the expenses of the executive and administrative government in 1884 will be $68,170, and in 1885 $68,770. The judiciary expenses are estimated at $187,- 200 for each year. Other expenses are esti- mated as follow, for each of the two years: Educational, $28,500 ; benevolent, $317,000 ; penal and reformatory, $211,500 ; public print- ing and advertising, $12,000 for 1884 and $24,- 000 for 1885 ; interest on non-negotiable school- fund bonds and temporary loan, $281,000 ; gen- eral expenses, $8,500 ; legislative expenses for 1885, $120,000. Total for 1884, $1,113,870. To- tal for 1885, $1,246,470. The value of the real and personal property of Indiana in 1881 amounted to $805,202,792, of which $261,775,350 was personal. The to- tal amount of taxes on the different county duplicates of the counties of the State for all purposes was $10,627,014.75. The aggregate of county expenditures was $4,070,589.07. The table in the next column shows the number of miles of railroad operated in the State by each company named, together with the rate of assessment per mile, and the total assessment fixed by the State Board of Equal- ization. The total assessment given includes the main and side tracks, improvements, and rolling-stock of each company ; but only the miles of main track are given. The whole number of miles of side-track in operation is 802*09, and the assessment upon it reaches $2,- 256,713. The rolling-stock includes 4,764-26 miles, assessed at $9,179,082, and the improve- ments on the right of way in daily use by all railroads are taxed at $1,073,781. EDUCATION. — The number of persons in the State of school age, viz., between the ages of six and twenty-one years, is 709,424. The number admitted to the schools was, in 1882, 498,792. The average Jaily attendance of pupils last year was 305,513. The number of school-teachers is 13,259. The number of school-houses in the State is 9,556, of which 48 are log, 83 are stone, 2,481 are brick, and 6,944 are frame. The amount of the public-school fund is NAMES OF ROADS. Miles. Per mile. Total. A., L. and St. Louis 19-37 $2,000 $43 463 A., C. and Southern 14-47 2,500 67538 Baltimore, O. and Chicago. . Bedford, 8. and B . .' 146-32 41-36 9,000 1 200 1,656,612 65802 Belt K.E. and 8. Y'd Bloomfield N G 12-10 84-00 25,000 1 200 382,130 56 550 Cairo and Vincennes Chicago, Cincinnati and L — Chicago and Block Coal Chicago and Eastern Illinois. Chicago and Grand Trunk. . . Chicago and W. Michigan. . . . Cincinnati, R. and Ft. Wayne Cincinnati, L. and Chicago.. . C., I., St. L. and C Law'burg branch . . C., H. and I 6-92 71-75 19-75 8-57 80-63 7-00 85-77 23-77 153-75 2-57 78'28 4,500 4,000 2,000 4,000 9,000 4,000 4,500 7,500 9,500 4,000 7,000 45,845 452,709 42,568 50,670 964,485 28,000 446,142 279,146 2,198,854 28,171 730984 C., W. and Michigan 180-21 4,000 615 725 C.,C.,C.andI 83-84 11,500 1545007 Eel River 98'92 5500 796555 E., T., H. and C 62'68 6500 52o'416 Evansville and Terre Haute.. L. and P. branch 108-40 12-00 8,500 8,500 1,345,670 50,260 F F and M 35-30 2 000 94140 Fort Wayne and Jackson. . . . Fort Wayne, C. and L Frankfort and State Line. . . . Grand Rapids and Ind Havana It and E 52-90 102-49 89-45 53-11 g-50 5,000 3,000 500 6,500 1 500 848,205 413,692 19,725 455,888 24225 I. B. and W 78-61 8500 893 824 Springfield extension 52-86 4500 235 720 I., D. and S 76-26 5000 542568 L, Peru and Chicago Indianapolis and St. Louis. . . Indianapolis and Vincennes. . Indianapolis Union Railway. . Jefferson, Mad. and Ind Madison branch C. and S. Branch 72-84 79-42 116-44 3-23 114-41 44-90 23-86 7.500 9,500 4,000 36,950 8,500 8,500 8,500 756,828 953,251 601,106 145.849 1,266,511 242,790 124,026 8. and R branch 18'83 3500 96138 Cambridge City extension. Joliet and Northern Ind Lake Erie and Western Lake Shore and Mich. South. Louisville, Ev. and St. L Louisville and Nash Louis., N. A. and C Michigan City and Ind Michigan Air Line Michigan Central New Castle and Rush N. Y., C. and 8L L 20-85 15-47 157-94 167-71 173-85 27-75 374-07 17-75 5-62 42-41 24-17 150-90 8,500 10,000 6,000 18,000 2.500 6,500 5,000 4,000 6.000 18,000 8,000 5,000 108.210 163,580 1,280,107 4,345,400 602,425 249,429 2,438,524 91,393 86,595 120,760 79,397 828,622 Ohio and Mississippi 171-05 9,000 1,960,222 Louisville branch 53-25 6,000 425,775 Peoria, D. and Evans Pitts., Cin. and St. Louis Pitts., Fort Wayne and C 37-75 416-64 152-57 4,200 8,250 18,000 237,303 4.498,792 8,706,920 Terre Haute and Ind Terre Haute and Log Terre Haute and S'n. 79-90 109-64 40-00 13,000 8,000 4000 1,874,816 461,285 202,099 Toledo, Cincinnati and St. L.. Ver., G'g and Rush 92-4S 44-89 2,000 3.000 224,197 175,398 Wabash, St. Louis and P "White Water 166-00 62 '25 18.000 2500 2,869,950 228,970 White River (King) •46 5,000 4,700 Richmond and Miami 7-96 6,000 75,655 Total 4885-64 $47,855,702 $9,138,408.31. The addition made to it an- nually, taking as a basis an average of the past five years, exceeds $54,000. This sum does not include the large sum (about $260,000 a year) received from particular licenses and other sources, and applied each year to tuition. The amount of tuition-money derived from interest on the school funds in 1882 was $650,- 173.41. The whole amount received from State and local tuition taxes was $2,059,616.44. The proportion of the entire expense of tuition paid from taxes, State and local, was 75 per cent. During the year ending October 31, 1882, INDIANA. 419 the average enrollment of students in the State Normal School was 320. Seventy per cent are the children of farmers, ten per cent of me- chanics, four per ceut of merchants, six per cent of professional men, ten per cent of labor- ers, railroad men, etc. Since the organization of the school, in 1870, it has been attended by 3,500 students. The General Assembly has invested all the endowment funds of Purdue University in one Indiana State bond of $350,000, which yields annually $17,000, an amount that is sufficient to pay the salaries of the members of the faculty. During the year ending October 31, 1881, the students were classified as follow: Post-graduates, 2 ; college classes, 90 ; school of chemistry, 11; industrial art, 25; agricul- tural, 2 ; mechanics, 10 ; academic, 141. To- tal, 254. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. — The report of the trustees of the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, for the fiscal year ending with October, gives the fol- lowing facts : The appropriation for the sup- port of the institution was $55,000, and of this amount $52,816.87 was expended, leaving $3,181.33 in the treasury. The appraised value of the property of the institution is $457,782 in real, and $35,527.05 in personal, making the total appraised value $493,837.05. The num- ber of pupils during the year was 383. Of these 44 were dismissed from the institution, and 342 remain. The cost per capita, exclusive of clothing, was $156.30. The necessity for more buildings is urgent, and repairs upon the present property are needed. An appropria- tion of $62,000 for annual expenses is asked for the next two years. Of the pupils now in attendance, 206 are males and 177 are females. The number of counties represented is 84, the largest number being 33, from Marion. Vander- burg County has 13 pupils, and Wayne, Tippe- canoe, and Montgomery, each 11. During the year fifty-six applicants for admission were re- fused, for want of room to accommodate them. In their twenty-sixth annual report the Trus- tees of the Blind Asylum state that the total re- sources of the institution during the year were $29,210.80, and the total expenditures $28,- 906.86. The cost of maintenance per capita was $206.48, exclusive of clothing, for the year. The total number of persons now under the care of the asylum is 128. Additional room, for the accommodation of one hundred more pupils, is urgently needed. In the Asylum for Feeble- Minded Children and Soldiers' Orphans' Home, an average of 235 children were cared for during the year, at $127 per capita. The thirty-fourth annual report of the Indi- ana Hospital for the Insane shows a total value of the property of the institution, real and personal, amounting to $1,430,003.15. During the last year the revenue was $245,000 for maintenance, $12,000 for clothing, and $7,500 for repairs, making a total of $264,500. Dis- bursements amounting to $233,519.84 were made, $216,690.52 being for maintenance, $7,- 490.84 for repairs, and $9,338.48 for clothing. During the year the daily average number of inmates was 1,085, who have been maintained at a per capita expense per annum of $194. The Legislature is urged to complete the de- partment for women, to meet the demand for greater accommodations. The number of cases refused admittance was 79, and over 200 chronic patients were discharged for this reason solely. The number of patients treated was 1,827. Of those discharged 378 were restored to rea- son, 121 improved, 116 not improved, 10 were not insane, 2 were idiotic, and 105 died. The ratio of recoveries is 48 per cent, and of deaths 5T6Tr per cent. The superintendent recom- mends the construction of a central hospital, with a capacity of about four hundred patients, for the recently insane ; and the use of the present institution, by slight alterations in the buildings, for the 1,800 chronic cases solely. The annual report of the Superintendent of the House of Refuge shows that the current expenses of the institution were $45,000. The State Treasurer received $20,000 from counties, which was placed to their credit, and the earnings were $3,000, leaving about $22,000 to be paid by the State. There is an enrollment of 372 boys confined at the house, forty-nine of whom are colored. During the year 200 boys were refused admittance on account of lack of room for keeping them, and 182 were released. Of this number 95 per cent are doing well, and four former inmates have been sentenced to imprisonment in the Penitentiary. During the year a new laundry and new gymnasium have been added. In the system of conducting the school the boys are divided into eight families. One half of each day in the week is devoted to school duties, and the remainder to work. The mode of punishment is deprivation of privileges, slow promotion, and extension of term of confinement. Homes were found for sixty-nine, one was made an officer for exem- plary conduct, and thirty-two boys, out on tickets-of-leave, were returned to the institu- tion. The annual report of the Board of Managers of the Indiana Reformatory for "Women and Girls states that there are fifty -five convicts in the penal department, and thirty-three were received during the year. Twenty-two were discharged upon the expiration of their terms, and one released for a new trial. The number of girls in the reformatory department is 144. During the year fifty-one were committed and seven returned from tickets-of-leave. Twenty- one were discharged, forty released on tickets- of-leave, and one died. The average number of inmates during the year was 192, five more than in any previous year. The expenditures, including salaries, repairs, and improvements, amounted to $28,000. The cost of maintain- ing and educating the inmates of the institu- tion is $2.39 a week each. The girls are in- structed in the rudimentary branches, and, 420 INDIANA. where practicable, the illiterate prisoners are taught to read and write. The superintend- ent reports that, out of the number of in- mates who were discharged during the year, 88 per cent are doing well. The average cost of maintaining infants committed to the institu- tion is estimated at $136 a year. The average sentence of the convicts received during the fiscal year is one year and six months. The oldest life-prisoner is now seventy-six years of age, and has served twenty-six years of the sentence. In summing up the condition of affairs the managers state that "the results of the work of the six years since the institution has been entirely controlled by women will, we think, compare favorably with those of the initial years of the movement when under the control of men." The State Prisons at Jeffersonville and at Michigan City are more nearly self-supporting than they have been for several years. The average number of prisoners at the former prison during the past year was 564. The average number of prisoners at the prison at Michigan City was 621. STATISTICS. — According to the report of the State Bureau of Statistics, the agricultural productions of the State in 1881 and 1882 were as follow: CROPS. 1881. 1888. Acres. Yield. Acres. Yield. Wheat, bushels Corn, bushels .... 3,201,547 3,135,178 15,839 26,296 30,625,668 71.387,075 14,898,617 208.912 526,361 3,063,348 3,812,683 684,822 36.695 44,242 137.814 17,234 984,982 46,928,643 115,699,797 19,615,516 584,405 1,138,717 905,451 13,593,486 1,599,948 20,180,683 2,063,630 7,264,830 696,245 Oats, bushels Eye, bushels Barley, bushels.... Flax-seed bushels Tobacco, pounds . . . Hay, tons Apples, bushels Peaches, bushels... Irish potatoes, bush . Sweet-potatoes, bush 13,615 988,560 6,565,782 1,303,217 2,396,350 239,511 72,934 10,596 There are 233,082 pear-trees of bearing age in the State, 112,222 plum-trees of bearing age, and bearing quince-trees 52,933. Taking the average prices of these produc- tions as a basis for estimating their value, it would stand about as follows : LEADING PRODUCTIONS OF 1882. Home value. Wheat $44,582,211 00 Corn 57,849,898 00 Oats 4,492,34448 Rye 411,803 75 Barley 910,973 60 Flax-seed 950,723 25 Tobacco 2,718,697 20 Hay 22,399,286 00 Apples 12,108,40980 Peaches 3,095,454 00 Irish potatoes 8,632,415 00 Sweet-potatoes 696,245 00 Total $153,847,961 OS Tile-drainage is now largely resorted to. The reports from thirty-one counties to the State Bureau of Statistics show that there was a reduction of the mortgage indebtedness on real estate during the year then expired of $600,000. The counties embraced represent about one fourth of the State, and will give a proportionate average for the entire State. Re- ports from twenty-three counties, just one fourth of the State, show an increase in the number of owners of real estate in the aggre- gate of 8,649. According to the reports of the township assessors, the number of acres of timbered land in the State is 4,585,012. Benton, Starke and Newton Counties show the smallest acre- age, and Harrison County has the largest in the State. Indiana is now the fourth coal-producing State in the Union. It is expected that the new mines in Pike and surrounding counties will largely increase the supply. Pike and two of the adjoining counties are underlined with two immense beds of coal, extending under the whole section of that country. One of these seams runs from three to four feet and the other from seven to ten feet in thickness. The coal of this new district is not of the best quali- ty, but will compare very favorably with other coals of the State. The seam is generally level. Most of the openings are drifts. The seams are reached in some places by slopes, and in a few places shafts are sunk. The region is crossed by the New Albany and St. Louis Air- Line and the Evansville and Indianapolis Rail- roads, and some of the coal has already been shipped to St. Louis markets. The Bureau of Statistics has compiled a very full report upon the mineral resources of Indi- ana, from which the following comparative summary for the years 1881 and 1£82 is taken : MINERALS. 1881. 1888. Sandstone, cubic yards 615,927 %1,7S3 1,128,289 836,628 144,599 82.938 Coal mined tons . . 2,128,977 1,418,520 Gravel sold, cubic yards . 281,722 190,433 Fire-clay, tons Limestone, quarried, cubic feet. . . 202,838 2,743,459 2,7C9 8,034,750 A remarkable decrease is shown in the quantity of coal and fire-clay produced, and the amount of sandstone quarried is largely in excess of the year previous. The following statistics of poultry are given : POULTRY. 1880. 1881. 1888. Chickens, dozen Turkeys, dozen Geese, dozen 662.840 58,713 48,348 558,491 28,067 26,408 628,286 44,089 25,403 21,885 14,068 15,OC4 4,748 » 2,410 2976 Peafowls, dozen 2,329 17,150,661 6,125 19,188,783 Feathers, pounds 518,787 846,681 310,733 The statistics of eggs include the production from all kinds of fowls ; the feathers are only those picked from geese. The Bureau of Statistics has also completed some interesting figures as to the churches of the State. The total number of church-build- ings in the State is 4,462, and of church or- ganizations 4, 921. The number of members ad- INDIANA. 421 mitted to all denominations during the year was 43,839. The salaries paid to the pastors of these churches annually amount to $1,246,913, and the other expenses aggregate $295,965. The amount of money collected through the vari- ous religious organizations and expended for benevolent or charitable purposes amounted last year to $187,227. There are 24,003 Sunday-school teachers, and they have 257,673 pupils. The average attendance on public religious services reaches 428,812. The value of church property is $10,825,553. The Methodist Episcopal denomination leads, with 1,547 organizations and 118,949 members. The Christians follow, with the Baptists third, the United Brethren fourth, and the Catholics fifth, with 286 organizations, but the latter ranks second in number of members, having 86,872. A report made by the same bureau shows the advance of manufactures in the State. The statistics show 12,088 different establish- ments, $50,169,061 as the capital employed, and $167,067,443 as the value of manufactured products. The value of the products is about $19,000,000 more than reported by the census of 1880. The value of raw material used was $94,296,477. The average number of males employed was 69,273, and of females 3,698, making a total of 72,971. The aggregate amount of the wages paid these employes was $28,944,- 894. THE KANKAKEE SURVEY. — In December, Professor John L. Campbell, appointed by the Governor, submitted his report upon the straightening of the channel of the Kankakee, and the drainage of the swamp-lands. The Kankakee region is chiefly within the counties of St. Joseph, Laporte, Starke, Jasper, Porter, Newton, and Lake. The number of acres which may be recovered in the marshy re- gion is estimated as follows: In St. Joseph County, 39,633 acres; Laporte, 124,253; Por- ter, 75,544; Starke, 153,625; Jasper, 90,459; Newton, 79,854 ; Lake, 61,438 ; total, 624,806. Estimating the increase in value at $20 an acre, the aggregate addition to the wealth of the State will be $8,000,000, while the general increase of the entire section of the Kankakee region will make it not less than $10,000,000. There are 2,000 bends in the Kankakee River between South Bend, Indiana, and Momence, Illinois, and the length of the stream is 240 miles. The cost of drainage is estimated at $600,000, and the national and State Legisla- tures will be asked to undertake the work, so far as straightening and lowering the bed of the river is concerned, leaving to land-owners the work of lateral drainage. PARTY CONVENTIONS. — Two amendments to the State Constitution were proposed by the last Legislature, one for the prohibition of the liquor - traffic, and the other to confer the right of suffrage upon women. The prohibi- tion amendment was adopted by the folio \ving vote : Yeas— Senators— Eepublican 20 Senators— Democratic 6—26 Representatives — Republican 44 Representatives — Democratic 11—66 Nays— Senators— Democratic 17 Senators— Republican 3—20 Representatives — Democratic 28 Representatives— Republican 8—36 This amendment formed the chief local issue in the fall campaign, the Republicans pro- nouncing in favor of its submission to the peo- ple at a special election, while the Democrats, pronouncing against it in principle, demanded its submission at a general election. The Democratic State Convention, consist- ing of 1,121 delegates, met in Indianapolis, on the 2d of August, and adopted the following platform : The Democratic party of Indiana; in convention assembled, renews its pledge of fidelity to the doc- trines and traditions of the party as illustrated by the teachings of Thomas Jefferson, its founder, and exem- plified in the administration of the Government under Democratic rule. And we insist upon an honest and economical administration on the principles upon which it rests — conceding to the Federal Govern- ment its just rights and full powers as delegated in the Federal Constitution, and claiming for the States and the people respectively the powers therein re- served to them. ^ We arraign the Republican party at the bar of pub- lic opinion for its long ana continued course of usurpation and misrule. It has disregarded the rights of the people and the States. It has held on to its ill-gotten power in defiance of the popular will, by the corrupt use of money in the elections, and it has corrupted the public morals by elevating to high places men who are known to be dishonest. We condemn the Republican party for enacting and enforcing laws designed to place the elections under Federal control, in violation of the rights of the State. We condemn it for the fraud and perjuries of 1876, by which the will of the people was set aside, and a usurper placed in the presidential office for four years. We condemn it for having kept up and maintained in time of peace an onerous and unjust system of taxation, by means of which large sums of money have accumulated in the Treasury, which ought to have been left in the pockets of the people ; and we condemn it for its wasteful extravagance in the expen- diture of the public money. We condemn it for its shameless disregard of its pledges in favor of " civil - service reform," and its corrupt use of the public patronage under the " spoils system." We condemn it for its systematic levy of black-mail upon the clerks and minor office-holders of the United States, in violation of law, to raise a fund for the corruption of the ballot-box ; and we call especially upon the voters of Indiana to vindicate their honor and to erase the stain that was placed upon them by the " Dorseyites" in 1880. We demand that the present wasteful and unneces- sary expenditure of the public money shall be stopped, and that the surplus revenue shall be faithfully ap- plied to the payment of the national debt. We demand that Federal taxes be reduced to the lowest point consistent with the wants of the Govern- ment under an honest and economical administra- tion of its affairs, and that such taxes be so adjusted as to secure an equitable distribution of these burdens. We demand that there shall be such reforms in the civil service as will again result in the employment in the public service of those only who are honest and capable, and that no assessments or exactions of any kind shall be required of them for political purposes. We demand protection to our citizens, native and 422 INDIANA. adopted, at home and abroad, and we denounce and condemn the present Republican Administration for its neglect of duty toward those lately imprisoned as " suspects " in the jails of Ireland by the arbitrary action of the British authorities. We demand a revision of the present unjust tariff. The Constitution of the United States confers upon Congress the power to establish a tariff for revenue, and, as a just and proper exercise of that power, we favor such an adjustment of its provisions, within the revenue standard, as will promote the industries of the country and the interests of labor, without creating monopolies. The Democratic party is now, as it has always been, opposed to all sumptuary legislation, and it is especially opposed to the proposed amendment to the Constitution of Indiana known as the prohibitory amendment, and we are in favor of the submission of said proposed amendment, as well as other proposed amendments, to the people according to the provisions of the Constitution for its own amendment, and the people have the right to oppose or favor the adoption of anv or all the amendments at all stages of their consideration; and any submission of constitutional amendments to a vote of the people should be at a time and under circumstances most favorable to a full vote, and therefore should be at a general election. That we freely indorse and approve the laws passed pursuant to the demands of former Democratic Con- ventions, making provision for the safety and protec- tion of laborers and miners, and providing for the collection of their wages, and are in favor of all other enactments to that end which may be necessary and proper. The free schools of Indiana are the pride and glory of the State, and we will see to it that they are not poisoned by the breath of sectarianism , nor destroyed by waste and extravagance in their management. In the relations between capital and labor we favor such policies as will promote harmony between them, and will adequately protect the rights and interests of labor. We esteem Daniel W. Voorhees as an able and faithful representative of our State in the Senate, and specially commend him for his active sympathy kibe- half of the soldier. The following is the ticket nominated : For Secretary of State, William R. Myers, of Mad- ison : for Auditor of State, James H. Rice, of Floyd County; for Treasurer of State, John J. Cooper, of Marion; for Attorney-General, Francis T. Hord, of Bartholomew ; for Clerk of Supreme Court, Simon P. Sheerin, of Cass ; for State Superintendent, John W. Holcombe, of Porter ; for Judge Supreme Court — First Dis- trict, William E. Niblack, of Knox ; for Judge Supreme Court — Second District, George V. Howk, of Floyd; for Judge Supreme Court — Fourth District, Allen Zollars, of Allen. The Republican State Convention, consisting of 1,157 delegates, met in Indianapolis, on the 9th of August, and adopted the following plat- form: The Republican party of Indiana, represented in delegate convention, recalls, as an incentive to further exertions for the public welfare, the achievements of the party in restoring the national Union: in over- throwing slavery • in securing to disabled soldiers and to the widows and. orphans of those who fell in battle, or died from wounds or diseases contracted in the ser- vice of the Union, laws providing for liberal bounties and pensions : in building up an unexampled credit upon the simple foundation of an unchangeable public faith ; in reducing the great debt necessarily incurred for the suppression of the rebellion one half, and the interest on the remainder to so low a rate that the na- tional debt is no longer regarded as a burden • in es- tablishing a currency equal to any in the world, based upon the convertibility of greenbacks and national- bank notes into gold or silver at the option of the holders ; in increasing the value of agricultural pro- ductions and the wages of labor, by building up home markets on the policy of reasonable protection to do- mestic industries ; in exalting the value of our natu- ralization laws to pur foreign-born fellow-citizens, by securing to American naturalization everywhere the full rights of American citizenship ; in founding Amer- ican citizenship upon manhood, and not on complex- ion, and in declaring that citizenship and the ballot shall ever go hand-in-hand ; in maintaining and cher- ishing as a chief safeguard of liberty our system of free schools, supported by a tax imposed upon all property for the education of all children ; and in the submission, from time to tune, in the respectful obedi- ence to what has been deemed the popular will, of amendments to the national Constitution and the Con- stitution of the State. Animated by these recollec- tions, it is resol ved — 1. That, reposing trust in the people as the fountain of power, we demand that the pending amendments to the Constitution shall be agreed to and submitted by the next Legislature to the voters of the State for their decision thereon. These amendments were not parti- san in their origin, and are not so in character, and should not be made so hi voting upon them. Recog- nizing the fact that the people are divided in sentiment in regard to the propriety of their adoption or rejec- tion, and cherishing the right of private judgment, we favor the submission of these amendments at a special election, so that there may be an intelligent decision thereon, uninfluenced by partisan issues. 2. That we feel it due to the memory of President Garfield to express our sense of the great loss suffered by the nation in his death. We recall with pride the fact that, springing from the humblest conditions in life, Lincoln and Garfield arose, step by step, without any help but the force of their abilities and exertion, to the front rank among Americans, and were chosen by the Republican party to bear its banner in its struggles to maintain the supremacy and glory of the national Union. 3. That lapse of time can not efface from the grateful recollection of the Republican party its memory of the brave soldiers, from whatever section or party ranks they may have come, who offered their lives in sup- port of its policy of restoring and maintaining the union of the States. 4. That a revenue greatly reduced in amount, being all that is now needed to pay the interest on our pub- lic debt and the expenses of the Government, econom- ically administered, the time has arrived for such a reduction of taxes and regulation- of tariff duties as shall raise no more money than shall be necessary to pay such interest and expenses. We therefore ap- prove of the efforts now making to adjust this reduc- tion, so that no unnecessary burdens upon the con- sumers of imported articles may exist, and that no injury be inflicted upon our domestic industries, or upon the industrial classes employed therein. 5. That we arc gratified to observe that the laws for the protection of miners and securing their wages, un- der the constant administration of them by Republi- can mine-inspectors, has done much for the comfort of the workers in mines, and that we hope to see im- portant suggestions of the present inspector for amend- ments further to promote their comfort adopted by the next Legislature. 6. That the relations between capital and labor should be so adjusted that the rights of laborers shall be fully protected. 7. That the fees of all State and county officers should be so regulated as to give a fair compensation to them, but not so great as to tempt applicants to corrupt methods to obtain the same, or to impose un- just burdens upon the people. INDIANA. 423 8. That we join with our Irish fellow-citizens in sincere sympathy with the efforts of their brethren in Ireland to break up, by means of just legislation, the large landed estates in that island, and to introduce upon these lands, for the general good of the people, peasant proprietorship. We join with them, also, in the hope that efforts for home-rule in all matters of local concern will prove successful. 9. That it is the duty of Congress to adopt laws to secure a thorough, radical, and complete reform of the civil service, by which the subordinate positions of the government should no longer be considered rewards for their party zeal, which will abolish the evils of pat- ronage, and establish a system making honesty, effi- ciency, and fidelity the essential qualifications for public ^position. 10. That the industry, wisdom, and firmness of President Chester A. Arthur meet the cordial in- dorsement of the Republicans of Indiana. E. K. Hawn, Secretary of State ; Edward H. Wolfe, Auditor of State; Roswell S. Hill, Treasurer of State ; D. P. Baldwin, Attorney- General; Jonathan W. Gordon, Clerk of the Supreme Court ; and John M. Bloss, Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, were renomi- nated. For Supreme Judges, Judge William P. Edson, from the First Judicial District ; Judge J. G. Berkshire, from the Second Judicial Dis- trict ; and Judge John F. Kibbey, from the Fourth Judicial District, were nominated. The Greenback State Convention met in the spring, and made the following nominations : For Secretary of State, Hiram Z. Leonard, of Cass County ; for Auditor, J. N. Armantrout, of Clinton County ; for Treasurer, John Stude- baker, of Wells County ; for Attorney-General, M. W. Lee, of Muncie County ; for Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Carleton Bull, of Howard County; for Clerk of the Supreme Court, Jared Saiter, of Clark County. The Woman's Christian Temperance Union held a session in May, and put forth the fol- lowing platform : Whereas, By the action of the last Legislature of Indiana amendments have been prepared to the Con- stitution for the prohibition of the liquor-traffic, and for conferring the right of suffrage upon the women of the State, subject to the concurrence of the next Legislature and a submission thereby to a vote of the people ; and, whereas, we believe that both of these proposed amendments are of vital necessity to the ends of good government and the interests of human- ity : therefore— Resolved, That we will put forth our utmost endeav- ors and use all our talents and influence to secure the election of men to the next Legislature who will submit the question of the adoption of those amend- ments to the people for decision, and will use our utmost influence, after such submission, to secure a favorable result at the polls. Resolved, That we will not intermit our moral work meanwhile, especially among the children, scattering temperance literature, presenting our cause to reli- gious and educational bodies, holding gospel temper- ance meetings, helping the fallen, and encouraging the weak and tempted. Resolved, That we cordially and earnestly indorse "Our Herald," and believe that we greatly need, in the peculiar phase of the work in our State, a home organ, and that we will do all we can, by reports of work done and soliciting subscribers, to make it fully what it ought to be, as an agent to put forward our cause to the final adoption of both amendments, which we consider of equal value. That as money must supply "the smews of war," we, as workers of the local unions, pledge ourselves to use every available means to raise money for the State Treasury, and promptly forward it. Resolved, That as we have no wish to add to the already large list of ignorant and thoughtless voters, we recognize the expediency of establishing a depart- ment of franchise in our State work, in accordance with the action of the last National Convention, having a superintendent with whom local workers can corre- spond, and who can supply information and literature bearing on the duties of woman toward the Govern- ment, and the relation of the home to the Govern- mentj that we may be well qualified to act as becomes intelligent citizens, legislating for the home. In October the Grand Temperance Council of Indiana issued an address recommending temperance people to support the Republican ticket. On the other hand, those interested in the liquor-traffic organized for the support of the Democratic ticket. ELECTION RETURNS. — The election resulted in the success of the Democratic ticket. The following is the vote : For Secretary of State — Hawn, 210,234; Myers, 220,918; Leonard, 13,520; Myers's plu- rality, 10,684. For Auditor— Wolfe, 210,540 ; Rice, 220,639; Armantrout, 13,439 ; Rice's plurality, 10,099. For Treasurer— Hill, 210,499 ; Cooper, 220,- 378; Studebaker, 13,359; Cooper's plurality, 9,879. For Supreme Court Clerk — Gordon, 208,- 802; Sheerin, 220,246; Saiter, 13,284; Sheer- in's plurality, 11,444. For Attorney-General — Baldwin, 210,032; Hord, 221,011 ; Lee, 13,438; Hord's plurality, 10,979. For Superintendent of Public Instruction — Bloss, 210,634; Holcombe, 219,177; Bull, 13,- 264; Holcombe's plurality, 8,543. Supreme Court Judges — Edaon, 212,213: Niblack, 229,550 ; Niblack's majority, 17,337 ; —Berkshire, 212,345 ; Howk, 228,053 ; Howk's majority, 15,708;— Kibbey, 217,474; Zollars, 222,625 ; Zollars's majority, 5,151. The official vote for the congressional candi- dates is as follows, Republicans being elected in the Sixth, Seventh, Eleventh, and Thirteenth Districts, and Democrats in the other nine : First District — Heilmann, Republican, 16,- 399; Kleiner, Democrat, 18,048; Nesbit, Na- tional, 512. Kleiner's plurality, 1,649. Second District— Cobb, Reg. Dem., 16,339; Hostetler, Ind. Dem., 13,288. Cobb's majori- ty, 3,051. Third District— Walker, Rep., 12,538 ; Stock- slager, Dem., 17,123 ; Green, Nat., 788. Stock- slager's plurality, 4,585. Fourth District — Holman, Dem., 16,640; Johnson, Rep., 13,146; Thomas, Nat., 250 (?); Holrnan's plurality, 3,494. Fifth District— Matson, Dem., 16,851 ; Wal- lingford, Nat. Rep., 13,298. Matson's majority, 3,553. Sixth District — Brown, Rep., 19,562; Pen- der, Dem., 12,249; Smith, Nat., 739. Brown's plurality, 7,313. 424 INSURANCE. Lamb's Ward, Ward's 16,223; fat., 1,377. Seventh District— Peelle, Rep., 17,451 ; Eng- lish, Dem., 17,364; Medkirk, Nat., 535. Peelle's plurality, 87. Eighth District— Peirce, Rep., 17,823 ; Lamb, Dem., 18,110; Copner, Nat., 1,859. plurality, 287. Ninth District— Orth, Rep., 16,482; Dem., 17,357; Jacks, Nat., 1,114. plurality, 875. Tenth District — De Motte, Rep., Wood, Dem., 17,237; Moore, Nai Wood's plurality, 1,014. Eleventh District — Steele, Rep., 19,863; Daily, Dem., 19,539 ; Thompson, Nat., 1,456. Steele's plurality, 333. Twelfth District— Glasgow, Rep., 14,223; Lowry, Dem., 16,986; Butler, Nat., 615. Lowry's plurality, 2,763. Thirteenth District— Calkins, Rep., 17,478 ; Winterbotham, Dem., 17,087 ; Shiveley, Nat., 1,935. Calkins's plurality, 391. The new Legislature consists of 28 Demo- crats and 22 Republicans in the Senate, and 58 Democrats, 41 Republicans, and 1 Greenbacker, in the House. Prior to the election there was some discus- sion whether the whole number or only half of the Senators should be voted for, some prom- inent Democrats contending that all must be then chosen, but this position seems to have been abandoned. PROHIBITORY AMENDMENT.— Since the elec- tion it has been alleged that the Democrats have been seeking for grounds upon which to avoid submitting the prohibitory amendment to the people. The Constitution provides that an amendment must be proposed by one Legis- lature and set out on the record with the yeas and nays, and referred to the succeeding Legislature. The pending amendments were not set out as required, and it is therefore claimed that they are void, and that there is nothing for the next Legislature to act upon. On the other hand, the Republicans argue that the same defect existed in the case of the Wabash and Erie Canal amendment, that Gov- ernor Baker took the ground that it did not invalidate it, and that the amendment was adopted and went into effect. There is also a decision of the Supreme Court of the State upon an appropriation bill, that it is not com- petent for a court to go beyond the attest- ing signature of the President of the Senate and the Speaker of the House, and that the bill being properly enrolled and attested, the courts are precluded from attacking the measure collaterally by showing a faulty record. Another alleged defect, which is not thought to be of serious consequence, is, that the amendments were not expressly " referred " to the next General Assembly. INSURANCE. Statistics relating to the various insurance companies of the United States are reported for the first time by the Federal Government in the census returns for 1880. The year covered by the statistics is that ending December 31, 1879. The chief re- sults for the United States are here given. LIFE INSURANCE. — The number of companies in the United States is 59. The names of the companies, the place of principal office, and the year of beginning business are shown in the following table : NAME. Principal office. Commenced business. Alabama Gold Life Insurance Company Mobile Ala 1868 1871 1868 1850 1&50 1865 1846 1864 1867 1851 1864 1868 1869 1866 1867 1666 1S67 1863 1849 1865 1870 1851 1862 1851 1843 1845 1*67 1853 1^58 1845 1875 1S64 1859 1860 1860 1868 Mobile, Ala. Pacific Mutual Life Insurance Company . . Sacramento, Cal JEtna, Life Insurance Company .... Hartford, Conn Hartford Conn Hartford, Conn . Hartford, Conn . . Connecticut Mutual Life Insurance Company Continental Life Insurance Company of Hartford Hartford, Conn Hartford Life and Annuity Insurance Company. . . . Hartford, Conn Hartford, Conn Hartford, Conn Travelers1 Insurance Company National Life Insurance Company of the United States of America Washington, D. C Macon, Ga Cotton States Life Insurance ^Company Franklin Life Insurance Company Indianapolis, Ind Des Moines, Iowa Louisville, Ky Southern Mutual Life Insurance Company of Kentucky Missouri Valley Life Insurance Company Leavenworth, Kans New Orleans, La Louisiana Equitable Life Insurance Company ... . . Union Mutual Life Insurance Company Maryland Life Insurance Company of Baltimore Augusta, Me Baltimore, Md Mutual Life Insurance Company of Baltimore Baltimore, Md Berkshire Life Insurance Company .... . Pittsfield, Mass Boston, Mass Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company Springfield, Mass New England Mutual Life Insurance Company Boston, Mass Worcester, Mass The Michigan Mutual Life Insurance Company Detroit, Mich Covenant Mutual Life Insurance Company of St Louis St. Louis, Mo St Louis Mo Mutual Benefit Life Insurance Company Newark N. J Prudential Insurance Company of America . Newark, N. J Brooklyn Life Insurance Company Equitable Life Assurance Society of the United States New York N Y New York, N. Y.. . . Germania Life Insurance Company New York, NY. Home Life Insurance Company .. .... Brooklyn, N.Y New York, N. Y Homoeopathic Mutual Life Insurance Company INSUKANCE. 425 NAME. Principal office. Commenced business. Knickerbocker Life Insurance Company New York, N. Y 1858 Manhattan Life Insurance Company New York, N. Y 1850 Metropolitan Life Insurance Company New York, N. Y 186T Mutual Life Insurance Company of New York New York, N. Y 1843 New York Life Insurance Company New York, N. Y 1845 Provident Savings Life Assurance Society New York, N. Y 1875 United States Life Insurance Company in the city of New York New York, N. Y 1850 Washington Life Insurance Company New York, N. Y 1860 Universal Life Insurance Company New York, N. Y 1865 Western New York Life Insurance Company Batavia, N. Y 1868 North Carolina State Life Insurance Company Ealeigh, N. C 18T8 Toledo Mutual Life Insurance Company Toledo, Ohio 1872 Union Central Life Insurance Company Cincinnati, Ohio 1867 American Life Insurance Company Philadelphia, Pa 1S50 Girard Life Insurance, Annuity, and Trust Company of Philadelphia Philadelphia, Pa 1886 Penn Mutual Life Insurance Company of Philadelphia Philadelphia, Pa 1847 Presbyterian Annuity and Lite Insurance Company Philadelphia, Pa 1759 Provident Life and trust Company of Philadelphia Philadelphia Pa 1865 National Life Insurance Company Montpelier, Vt 1850 Vermont Life Insurance Company Burlington, Vt 1869 Life Insurance Company of Virginia Richmond, Va 1871 Piedmont and Arlington Life Insurance Company* Richmond, Ya 1869 Northwestern Mutual Life Insurance Company Milwaukee, Wis 1858 The figures given below are the aggregate fjj Smut^tion'of commissions :::.\'::::::.";: statistics for all of these companies : For advertising 416,143 Miscellaneous disbursements 8,194,893 CAPITAL STOCK. Total disbursements 76,089,188 Authorized maximum $15,770,000 Paid up in cash 8,634,190 ASSETS. Subscribed, but unpaid 864,209 Net ledger assets at close of year $426,584,115 mrmurv Cost value of real estate 63,820,691 Loans on real-estate security 184,758,300 Ledger assets at beginning of year $419,868,468 Loans on bonds, stocks, etc 14,107,158 Decrease of capital 564,071 Loans on companies' own policies 563,067 Ledger assets at beginning of year as valued at Premium notes or liens 80,527,151 closeofyear 419,284,896 Cost value of bonds and stocks owned 115,285,674 Gross cash premium receipts 48,395,558 Cash on hand and in bank . . 14,792,121 Premium notes and liens 2,618,208 Bills receivable 841.777 Premiums paid by dividends and by surrendered Due from agents and miscellaneous 1,898,173 insurance 5,843,639 Total ledger assets by inventory 426,584,115 Cash received for annuities 757,635 Depreciation of assets from cost value to mar- Gross premium receipts in cash and notes 57,615,102 ket value 3,483,267 Less paid out for reinsurance 166,750 Total ledger assets less depreciation '.'... 423,100,849 Net premium receipts in cash and notes 57,448,352 Accrued interest on bonds, mortgages, etc 7,262,812 Interest on mortgage loans 14,045,973 Accrued interest on premium notes and liens 1,232,170 Interest and dividends on bonds and stocks Accrued rents 211,084 owned 6,728,856 Market value of real estate over cost. . . '. '. 886,038 Interest on premium notes and liens 2,045.887 Market value of bonds and stocks over cost 5,447,085 Interest on other debts 775,704 Deducted by company on account of loading 1,059,447 Discount on claims paid in advance 79,280 Uncollected and deferred premiums, less deduc- Rent of companies' property 1,564,643 tion on account of loading 4,466,278 Profit on bonds, stocks, and real estate sold 82,341 Miscellaneous 1 66,154 Total interest, etc., receipts 25,322,092 Total assets ... . . 442,272,471 Miscellaneous receipts 618,412 Total income 88,388,857 LIABILITIES. DISBURSEMENTS. American 4} per cent reserve, December 31, 1879.$355,51 7.437 Reserve for reinsurances 527,411 Gross ledger assets at close of year $508,678,954 Reserve after deduction of preceding 354,990,026 Cash paid for losses^ . 23,015,899 Premium obligations in excess of net reserves. . . . 83,927 Premium notes and hens used in settlement of Unpaid claims for death-losses due 734,211 losses 725,524 Unpaid claims for matured endowments 339,769 Cash paid for matured endowments ... 8,959,859 Claims for death-losses not due or in process of Premium notes and hens used in settlement of adjustment 4 501 570 matured endowments 1,005,969 Policy claims 'resisted.'.'. '.'.'.'.'. l'.200',223 Gross amount paid for losses and matured en- Total policy claims 6,809,701 dowments 33,707,252 Unpaid dividends due policy-holders 1,008,694 Less amount received on reinsurances 97,540 Unpaid dividends due stockholders 19,988 Total policy payments, less reinsurances 33,609,712 Unpaid taxes .. 27,759 Cash paid to annuitants 275.869 Unpaid salaries, rents, etc 18,571 Cash paid for surrendered insurance 9,906,333 Borrowed money. 472,185 Premium notes or liens on surrenders and lapses. 2,626,9*9 All other liabilities'. ."".'.'" ......"...".' 2,322^050 Premiums paid by surrender of other insurance. 2,459,999 Liabilities as to policy-holders 865,668,976 Cash dividends to policy-holders 12,229,583 Excess of assets over liabilities as to policy- Dividends to policy-holders by cancellation of holders . 76,603,494 their notes or liens 1,840,039 Total returned to policy-holders in cash, and by The number of policies written in 1879 Was cancellation of their cash indebtedness 62,439,310 100 QCQ V o™™-,™* 483 ? number in force December 31, 1879, Formedical examination 'fees'.".". '."!.'.'.'"" '..'."! 39^833 725.560; amount, $1,560,756,437. For compensation of officers and office employes. 2,193,755 FIRE AND MARINE INSURANCE. — The total For taxes and licenses 1,467,370 nnm^er of fire and marine insurance compa. * Receiver appointed December 23, 1880. uies in the United States in 1879, as returned 426 INSURANCE. IOWA. by the census of 1880, was 1,647. Of these 1,462 were doing a fire business only, 140 a fire marine business, and 45 a marine business only. Of the whole number, 424 were doing business with a joint-stock capital, and 10 with a guarantee capital ; 235 were doing a general business on the mutual plan, and 978 were do- ing a farm or local business on the mutual plan. The aggregate amount of joint-stock or guar- anteed capital was: authorized, $144,939,200; paid up in cash, $99,090,788; paid up in notes, $2,691,051. The aggregate assets of all com- panies were returned as follow : Market value of real estate owned, less all in- cumbrances $18,477,914 Amounts loaned on bond and mortgage (first liens) 44,859,286 Market value of United States bonds and secu- rities actually owned 75,035,442 Market value of State, county, city, and town bonds and securities actually owned 21,020,352 Market value of all other bonds, stock, and secu- rities actually owned 86,484,707 Amounts loaned on collateral securities 11,138,471 Amounts of cash or available assets not previous- ly specified 39,761,595 Total amounts of cash or available assets 247,184,208 Contingent assets 645,137,343 Total cash or available and contingent assets (ledger assets) 892,271,556 The aggregate liabilities of all companies were as follow : Amount due for unpaid losses $10,358,906 Miscellaneous cash liabilities 12,525,268 Total cash liabilities 22,884,174 Contingent liabilities 48,297,127 Total cash and contingent liabilities (liabilities as to policy-holders) 71,181,301 Excess of cash or available and contingent as- sets over cash and contingent liabilities (policv- holders' surplus) ". . 821,090,225 Capital and scrip liabilities 757,451,984 Excess of cash or available and contingent assets over cash, contingent, capital and scrip liabili- ties (stockholders' surplus) 63,699,959 Excess of all assets over all liabilities (net assets). 869,387,382 The aggregate income and expenditures of all companies were as follow : CASH INCOME. Net amount of fire premiums and assessments re- ceived in cash $65,763,600 Net amount of marine and inland premiums re- ceived in cash 16,037,163 Total amount of premiums and assessments re- ceived in cash 81,800,763 Cash received from investments 11,619,592 Cash received from increased capital and calls on capital 788,022 Cash received from miscellaneous sources 1,378,602 Aggregate cash income and receipts during the year 95,586,979 CASH EXPENDITURES. Net amount paid in cash for fire-losses $37,887,240 Net amount paid in cash for marine and inland losses 10,551,745 Total paid in cash for losses 48,438,985 Amount of stockholders' dividends paid in cash and (mutual companies) cash returned as prof- its or surplus 14,288,11* Amount paid in cash on account of expense 26,321,943 Miscellaneous cash expenditures 1,655,188 Aggregate cash expenditures during the year. . . . 90,699,234 The risks of fire, fire-marine, and marine companies written during 1879, and in force at the end of the year, were as follow : Fire-risks written $8,139,453,076 Marine and inland risks written 1,975,687,446 Premiums charged on marine and inland risks written 13,339,078 Total -amount of all risks written 10,115,140,522 Losses incurred during 1879 48,128,564 Fire risks in force December 81, 1879 10,000,828,643 Marine and inland risks in force 2S3,S24,213 Total amount of risks in force 10,284,652,856 The following summary shows the ratios of the business of fire, fire-marine, and marine companies for the year 1879 : RATIOS OF LOSSES. Fire-losses paid to fire premiums and assessments re- ceived in cash 0 '5736 Marine and inland losses paid to marine and inland premiums received in cash 0 • 6580 Total losses paid to total premiums and assessments received in cash 0-5901 Total losses paid to total cash income 0-50E3 Total losses paid to total cash expenditures 0-5341 Fire- losses paid to fire-risks written 0 • 0047 Marine and inland losses paid to marine and inland risks written 0-0053 RATIOS OP DIVIDENDS. Dividends paid to paid-up capital stock 0 • 1 605 Dividends paid to ledger assets 0-0404 Dividends paid to total cash income 0'1850 Dividends paid to total cash expenditures 0-1904 Dividends paid to income from investments 1*8807 RATIOS OF EXPENSE. Expenditures on account of expense to cash received from premiums and assessments 0'3090 Expenditures on account of expense to total cash in- come 0-2746 Expenditures on account of expense to total cash ex- penditures 0-2902 RATIOS TO CASH INCOME. Cash received from premiums and assessments to to- tal cash income Income from investments to total cash income Total cash expenditures to total cash income RATIOS TO LEDGER ASSETS.* Paid-up capital stock to ledger assets Cash and contingent liabilities to ledger assets Cash, contingent, and capital liabilities to ledger as- sets Cash, contingent capital, and scrip liabilities to ledger 0-8562 0-1212 0-94C1 0-4876 0-0798 0-9156 0-9287 The ratio of liabilities as to policy-holders to cash or available assets was 0*2880. The ratio of net assets to risks in force was 0'0845 ; amount of risks in force to each one dollar of net assets, $11.83. IOWA. STATE GOVERNMENT. — The State officers during the year were : Governor, Buren R. Sherman, Republican ; Lieutenant-Govern- or, O. H. Manning ; Secretary of State, John A. T. Hull ; Treasurer, E. H. Conger ; Auditor, William V. Lucas; Attorney-General, Smith McPherson ; Adjutant-General, W. L. Alex- ander; Superintendent of Public Instruction, John W. Akers ; Register of Land -Office, James K. Powers ; Railroad Commissioners, A. R. Anderson, Peter A. Day, and M. 0. Woodruff; State Librarian, Mrs. S. B. Maxwell. Judi- ciary— Supreme Court : Chief-Justice, William H. Seevers ; Associate Justices, Austin Adams, Joseph M. Beck, James G. Day, and James H. Rothrock. LEGISLATURE. — The Legislature met on the 8th of January, and remained in session until the 17th of March. On the 12th of January the Governor and Lieutenant-Governor were inaugurated. On the 17th United States Sena- * I. e., total cash or available and contingent assets. IOWA. 427 tors were elected for the full term of six years, commencing "March 4, 1883, and for the term ending on that day, to fill the vacancy occa- sioned by the resignation of Samnel J. Kirk- wood, appointed Secretary of the Interior in President Garfield's Cabinet. For the full term James F. Wilson, Republican, was chosen, re- ceiving thirty-five votes against three in the Senate, and fifty-nine against twenty-four in the House. For the vacancy, James W. McDill was chosen, receiving thirty-six votes against three in the Senate, and sixty-five against twenty-four in the House. The following are the most important of the measures passed at this session : Acts reapportioning the State for members of the Senate and House. An act to authorize incorporated cities and towns to procure and donate to railroad com- panies sites for depots, machine-shops, and other buildings. An act to increase the number of circuit judges in each circuit of this State containing a city having a population in excess of 22,300, and to provide for the election of said judges. Provides for the election of an additional cir- cuit judge in all circuits situated as above, at the general election in 1882, said judges to hold their offices four years from January, 1883. An act to provide for the levy of a half-mill State tax for the years 1882 and 1883, to reim- burse the general revenue fund of the State for money paid on account of war debts, and for the completion of the new Capitol, and other purposes. Provides that the State tax shall be two and a half mills for 1882 and 1883. An act providing for the cancellation of taxes voted to aid in the construction of railroads. Provides that where aid has been voted for the construction of a railroad, and the company neglects or refuses to receive such taxes for a period of six months, the company shall for- feit all its right to such aid or tax. The Board of Supervisors shall give such railroad com- panies due notice before such cancellation can be made. An act to amend chapter 114, laws of Six- teenth General Assembly, in relation to the submission of amendments to the Constitution of the State to a vote of the people. This act authorizes the submission of amendments to the Constitution to a vote of the people at a special election, as the General Assembly may provide. An act to resume all the lands and rights conferred upon the Sioux City and St. Paul Railroad Company, by or under an act of Con- gress, approved May 12, A. D. 1864, to lands not heretofore owned by said company. By act of April 3, 1866, the State of Iowa granted to the Sioux City and St. Paul Rail- road Company certain lands ; and by the terms of said grant, if said road was not completed within ten years from the date of acceptance, and the railroad accepted said grant on the 20th day of September, 1866, and has failed to complete said road, therefore the State resumes the lands. An act granting additional powers to cities organized under the general incorporation laws of the State ; provides for taxing itinerant doc- tors and junk-dealers ; prohibits second-hand dealers purchasing from minors without consent of parents ; requiring all buildings to be num- bered ; to change the channels of water-courses ; to control the construction of chimneys, ovens, stove-pipes, and, in general, to have supervision of all chimneys, boilers, and heating apparatus of whatsoever kind or nature, as well as de- posits of ashes, lights in stables, shops, and factories, to provide for the inspection of all steam-boilers ; in short, to have full and com- plete charge of all things which will promote the safety and health of the inhabitants. An act to amend chapter 110, acts of Thir- teenth General Assembly, and chapter 35, Acts of Fourteenth General Assembly, and making an additional appropriation for completing the Capitol building. This act appropriates the sum of $525,000, in order to complete the new Capitol, to be drawn as follows : $75,000 to be drawn in the year 1882 : $275,000 in the year 1883 ; $175,000 in the year 1884. It provides for the completion of the Senate-chamber, hall of House of Representatives, library-room, and as much more as may be found practicable. An act to authorize cities of the first and second class to change their corporate names, and to prescribe the manner in which such change may be made. This act authorizes the council of any city of the first or second class, or of any incorporated town, to change its name by resolution of said council, said resolu- tion to be ratified by a vote of the qualified electors, provided that the name shall not be the same as that of any other city or town in the State. An act to repeal section 487 of the Code, and to enact a substitute, in relation to poll-tax. This act repeals section 487 of the Code, and re-enacts the greater portion thereof, changing the age for liability to poll-tax from fifty to forty-five years, and increases the penalty for each day's failure to attend and perform labor from two to three dollars, and makes all prop- erty and wages of the defendant liable to exe- cution in payment of poll-tax, judgment to be obtained before the mayor of a corporation or justice of the peace of a township, the money so collected to be expended upon the streets of the corporation. An act to amend chapter 143 of the acts of Sixteenth General Assembly, entitled an act to provide for establishing superior courts in cities of a certain grade. This act repeals the words 5,000, and inserts 8,000 ; changes two-thirds into a majority ; provides for change of name to circuit court ; judgments to be made liens on real estate by filing transcripts ; does not affect any actions already commenced in any superior court. An act to repeal part of section 521, title 4, 428 IOWA. chapter 10, of the Code, and enact a substitute therefor in relation to the election of aldermen in cities of the first class. Provides for the election of aldermen for each ward, and two at large, in the year 1882, and arranges for the term of office of one alderman to expire each year. An act to legalize the sale and transfer by the St. Paul and Sioux City Kailroad Company of its railroads in Iowa to the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Omaha Railway Com- pany, and to legalize the issue of its stock and bonds thereon by the last-named company. An act to submit to a vote of the people the proposed amendment to the Constitution pro- hibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxi- cating liquors as a beverage within this State, fixing Tuesday, June 27, 1882, as the date upon which to submit said proposed amendment to a vote of the people. An act was also passed to divide the State into eleven congressional districts. These dis- tricts are constituted as follow : First District: the counties of Lee, Des Moines, Henry, Van Buren, Jefferson, Wash- ington, and Louisa. Second District : the counties of Jones, Jack- son, Clinton, Cedar, Scott, and Muscatine. Third District : the counties of Dubuque, Del- aware, Buchanan, Black Hawk, Bremer, But- ler, and Grundy. Fourth District: the counties of Clayton, Fayette, Winneshiek, Allamakee, Howard, Mitchell, Floyd, and Chickasaw. Fifth' District: the counties of Marshall, Tama, Benton, Linn, Johnson, and Iowa. Sixth District : the counties of Jasper, Powe- shiek, Mahaska, Monroe, Wapello, Keokuk, and Davis. Seventh District: the counties of Guthrie, Dallas, Polk, Adair, Madison, Warren, and Ma- rion. Eighth District: the counties of Clarke, Lucas, Ringgold, Decatur, Wayne, Appanoose, Union, Adams, Page, and Taylor. Ninth District: the counties of Pottawat- tamie, Cass, Mills, Audubon, Crawford, Mont- gomery, Shelby, Fremont, and Harrison. Tenth District : the counties of Boone, Story, Hardin, Hamilton, Webster, Franklin, Wright, Humboldt, Hancock, Cerro Gordo, Worth, Winnebago, and Kossuth. Eleventh District : the counties of Lyon, Os- ceola, Dickinson, Emmet, Sioux, O'Brien, Clay, Palo Alto, Plymouth, Cherokee, Buena Vista, Pocahontas, Woodbury, Ida, Sac, Calhoun, Mo- nona, Carroll, and Greene. The prohibitory amendment to the Consti- tution was agreed to. The following joint resolutions, among oth- ers, were adopted : Joint resolution, proposing to amend section 1? of Article II, of the Constitution of Iowa, by striking therefrom the word "male" (female suffrage). Joint resolution? proposing amendments to the con- stitution and providing for their reference and publi- cation. This resolution proposes four separate amend- ments to the Constitution, to wit: t. To hold the general election for State, district, county, and town- ship officers on the Tuesday next after the first Mon- day in November. 2. That at any regular session of the General Assembly the State may be divided into the necessary judicial districts for district court pur- poses, or the said districts may be reorganized and the number of the districts and the judges of said courts increased or diminished, but no reorganization of the districts or diminution of the judges shall have the effect of removing a iudge from office. 3. The grand jury may consist ot any number of members, not less than five nor more than fifteen, as the General Assembly may by law provide, or the General Assem- bly may provide for holding persons to answer for any criminal offense without the intervention of a grand jury. 4. That section 13, of Article V, of the Constitution be stricken therefrom and the following adopted as such section: "The qualified electors of each county shall, at the general election in the year 1886 and every two years thereafter, elect a county attorney, who shall be a resident of the county for which he is elected, and who shall hold his office for two years, and until his successor is elected and qualified." By a congressional act the State was divided into two Federal districts for judicial purposes. The Southern District will have court at Des Moines, Council Bluffs, and Keokuk, and the Northern at Dubuque, Fort Dodge, and Sioux City. PROHIBITORY AMENDMENT. — The temperance campaign was opened early. On the 26th of January a State Convention was held in Des Moines, with a view to influencing legislative action, in which sixty-five of the ninety -nine counties were represented by 200 delegates. The following preamble and resolutions were adopted : Rejoicing in the patriotic recognition of the funda- mental principles of republicanism and democracy as expressed by the Legislature of Iowa in 1880, by their action proposing to submit to a vote of the people the pending prohibitory amendment, and relying upon the fidelity of the majority in the present General Assembly' to both these principles, and their pledges already made, we hail the near approach of the day of decisive battle for the happiness, prosperity, and future glory of Iowa, and do inscribe upon our ban- ners the constitutional amendment passed by the Eighteenth General Assembly, and based upon Arti- cle I, section 2, of the Constitution of the State of Iowa, which declares that " all political power is in- herent in the people. Government is instituted for the protection, security, and benefit of the people, and they have the right at all times to alter or reform the same, whenever the public good may require it." We, the representatives of the temperance senti- ment of the people, do therefore make the following declaration of principles and purposes : Resolved, That the saloons and other places where intoxicating liquors are sold as a beverage, now ex- isting under the law and tolerated in this State, add nothing to the health, peace, prosperity, and happi- ness of the people, but on the contrary are the chief source of crime, lawlessness, poverty, and wretched- ness, and their effectual suppression can only be effected by the adoption of the principle and policy of constitutional prohibition. Resolved. That we ask the Legislature to provide for the holding of said special election on the first Saturday of September, 1882, being the 2d day of said month. Resolved, That the selling of intoxicating liquors as a beverage by many hundreds of drug-stores, under the cover and protection of the pharmacy laws of Iowa, is an infamy more base than ordinary saloon- IOWA. 429 keeping, because it seeks to hide its piratical hypoc- risy under the guise of a legitimate business. And we would encourage our Eepresentatives in the pres- ent General Assembly to push forward the proposed amendment to the pharmacy laws, so as to correct the abuses now existing, and to prevent the druggist from selling intoxicating liquors except for strictly medicinal purposes, as contemplated by the proposed constitutional amendment. Resolved, That we condemn the bill recently in- troduced into the national Senate, proposing to con- vert the revenues accruing from the traffic in intoxi- cants into a fund for the education of our youth. We join the virtue-loving legions of the nation in most emphatic denunciation of any attempt to ally educa- tion, which involves our most cherished hopes for the nation's future prosperity, with drunkenness and drunkard-making, the notorious, wanton, and pro- lific mother of the nation's crimes, impoverishments, and woes ; and we earnestly request our Senators and Representatives in the council of the nation to voice the sentiment of Iowa; that the consummation of such an illogical and unnatural alliance would im- peach the virtue and insult the intelligence of the American people. Resolved, That while we commend the papers of our State directly devoted to the cause of temperance, to the earnest support of all, we hail with satisfaction the action of a large portion of the political press of the State who are ranging themselves on the side of prohibition and good government in this contest, and commend all such papers to the hearty and liberal moral and pecuniary support of all the people, and especially the merchants and tradesmen whose busi- ness is invariably robbed by the expenditure of money in saloons that ought to be expended for the necessaries of life. floor our invaluable and invincible allies to this great struggle— the representatives of the Woman's Chris- tian Temperance Union of Iowa, and other lady- workers for the promotion of the public good. The work already accomplished by them is above all praise. Deprecating any attempt to impede their work, or to impugn the motives or actions of any member of this noble army of Christian workers, we bid them Godspeed and pledge them every possible assistance, only regretting that they are powerless to help us at that one point where, could they only strike one blow, it would exterminate this monster in- famy at once and forever. Resolved, That we do now appeal to the intelligent and virtue-loving people of the State of Iowa, and in particular to the parents of the children soon to come into the inheritance we are preparing for them by our institutions and our laws, to improve this golden oppor- tunity to transmit to the generations following an in- heritance of indemnity against drunkenness and con- sequent crime which shall be to them an occasion for thanksgiving and everlasting rejoicing. To the ac- complishment of this noble and patriotic endeavor let every Christian, every parent who loves his child every patriot, and every lover of his fellow-beings, unite in one persistent and tireless struggle until the legal prohibition of the traffic in intoxicating bever- ages is finally and fully assured. Resolved, By this largest State Temperance Con- vention ever held in Iowa, that all the churches in the State, of whatever name, both Catholic and Protes- tant, be hereby most respectfully and earnestly urged to devote one Sunday evening in each month to union and other meetings especially in the interest of tem- perance and the success of the prohibition movement now going on among the people. The twenty -third annual meeting of the Iowa brewers was held in Des Homes on the 12th of April. This meeting, which was at- tended by over one hundred delegates from every city in the State and a number of towns, issued an address to the people of the State against the proposed amendment, and adopted the following resolutions : Resolved, That the proposed prohibitory amend- •ment to the Constitution of this State, which now threatens the complete destruction of the brewing in- terest, so entirely overshadows all other subjects as to demand the undivided consideration of this associa- tion. Resolved, That we appeal to the candid, thinking, and intelligent voters of Iowa to do us the simple justice ^of looking into and investigating the merits of our objections to this measure before voting, anaon^ which objections are the following : 1. The only practical effects of the said proposed amendment will be to substitute distilled liquors in the place of beer as a beverage. 2. Beer is comparatively a harmless beverage, con- taining only about 4 per cent of alcohol, and experi- ence has shown that its use tends materially to dimm- ish the amount of distilled liquors required, and thereby decreases drunkenness and promotes temper- ance. 3. Experience has taught us, beyond all contro- versy, that men will use some stimulating drink as a beverage. Since men have any knowledge of history such has been the case. If we are to admit that any- thing can be settled by the uniform concurrence of ages, then this fact must be considered as established. It necessarily follows that the use of all stimulating beverages can not be prohibited, and that the good of the people is best promoted by encouraging the use of the milder beverages instead of the stronger. 4. In the year 1858 the Legislature of this State voluntarily enacted that henceforth in Iowa the mak- ing and vending of beer should be a valid and legal business. This necessarily implied that property in- vested in that business should be recognized and'pro- tected the same as any other property. It has been so recognized, has paid its full share of taxes, and borne its full part of the burdens of government. We, hav- ing confidence in the honor and good faith of the btate, have invested all our means in the business, and now it is proposed to change all this, and enact that pur said business shall be unlawful, and the prop- erty invested therein a nuisance ; and that no compen- sation shall be made to us for our property thus de- stroyed. We insist that this is unjust, oppressive, and unworthy of a free government. f 5. The said proposed amendment to the Constitu- tion is in no sense a constitutional law, but is in the nature of a police regulation, over which the Legisla- ture should have full and immediate control. It does not belong to the fundamental law of the State. 6._No State has had such a constitutional provision, but it has been found to increase drunkenness, pau- perism, and crime: and consequently taxation, and in every such State it has been repealed, or steps are now being taken to that end, and a license law en- acted. 7. The said amendment, if adopted, will destroy not less than four million dollars of permanent prop'- erty, will deprive of employment a very large number of laborers, who must seek work in other avocations already supplied ; and will largely increase deception, hypocrisy, and contempt of law. 8. Said proposed amendment is of doubtful mean- ing, and must necessarily produce strife and litiga- tion ; and in voting for it no one can know with a cer- tainty what he is voting to make a part of our consti- tutional law. Resolved. That we will use all honorable means to defeat said proposed amendment at the polls, and, if we are unsuccessful, will resist its unjust and oppres- sive provisions by every method known to law. Resolved, That we will never knowingly support for any office or place of trust any one who shall vote for this proposed outrage upon our propertv and rights. 430 IOWA. Resolved, That the recent elections in Ohio, which followed the passage of the Fond bill, is only a fore- runner of what will occur in this State if the Eepub- lican party adheres to its policy of favoring fanaticism as against the liberal element. At the election on the 27th of June, 155,436 votes were cast for the amendment and 125,677 against it — majority for the amendment, 29,759. Of the counties, 74 gave majorities for it, 24 against it, and one county (Van Buren) gave a tie- vote. The amendment thus ratified reads as follows : No person shall manufacture for sale, sell, or keep for sale as a beverage any intoxicating liquors what- ever, including ale, wine, and beer. The General Assembly shall by law prescribe regulations for the enforcement of the prohibition herein contained, and shall thereby provide suitable penalties for violation of the provisions thereof. Discussion immediately arose as to the time when the amendment went into operation, and as to the necessity of legislation to enforce its provisions. A State Convention of the friends of the amendment was held in Des Moines on the 27th of July, to which a committee, pre- viously appointed, reported that the amend- ment was in force from the day of its adop- tion (June 27th), that the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors, including ale, wine, and beer, became illegal from that time, and that contracts relating thereto could not be en- forced ; but that existing laws affixed no pen- alties to the manufacture and sale of ale, beer, and wine from native fruits, and that further legislation hi that behalf was necessary. This convention adopted the following resolutions: Resolved, That it is with feelings of profound grati- tude we recognize the hand of God in the victory achieved by the adoption of the prohibitory amend- ment to the Constitution of Iowa. And,'wTiereas, The existing laws of the State are now uncertain and inadequate to secure the due enforce- ment of said amendment ; therefore — Re-solved, That^ it is the sense of this convention that an extra session of the General Assembly should be called at the earliest practicable day to enact such laws, with suitable penalties, as will certainly secure the speedy enforcement of said amendment. ^ Resolved, That the general officers of the State Pro- hibitory Amendment Association of Iowa be charged with the duty of conferring with the Governor of this State, and secure the calling of an extra session of the General Assembly, as contemplated by the above reso- lution. Resolved, That the thanks of this convention are due, and are hereby tendered, to the Legal Committee for their very able and exhaustive reports, which they have submitted to this convention, and we recommend that said reports be published in the proceedings of this convention for the information of the public. Resolved, That the Legal Committee above named be appointed a committee on legislation, to represent the temperance people of Iowa before the next term of the General Assembly. Resolved, That said committee be instructed to pre- sent to the General Assembly, also, the necessity of more stringent penalties than have heretofore existed, for the certain suppression of intemperance within the Resolved, That we express to the friends of temper- ance in other States our sincere appreciation of their great interest in our recent conflict, and their often expressed congratulations on the grand result. Resolved, That we are profoundly thankful to those members of the press, both within and without the State, who rendered aid to the temperance cause in the advocacy of the constitutional amendment. Resolved^ That we appreciate the careful and effi- cient work of the State Central Committee in their conduct of the campaign, and hereby express to them our sincere thanks tor the same. Resolved, That while we rejoice in present success, and realize in some sense its magnitude, we are pro- foundly impressed that, to conserve these results, and to increase their beneficent influence, we will in no measure abate our efforts along the old lines of tem- perance work. We will still educate the children, circulate temperance literature, offer the total-absti- nence pledge, and give succor and aid to the victims of strong drink. Thus shall the union of legal and moral suasion secure the absolute banishment of the evils of intemperance throughout the Commonwealth of Iowa. On the 10th of October the Woman's Chris- tian Temperance Union held a State Conven- tion in Des Moines, which resolved to carry on the work by efforts to enforce the amend- ment by educational work among the young, and by enlightening public sentiment. It also pronounced in favor of female suffrage, against the use of tobacco, and in favor of a special session of the Legislature. The Governor, how- ever, did not see fit to call a special session. In December the case of Koehler and Lange vs. Hill, involving the question of the legal adop- tion of the prohibitory amendment, was ar- gued in the Supreme Court. This case arose in Davenport, the plaintiffs suing for the value of beer sold to the defendant, who defended on the ground that such sale was illegal under the amendment. The chief contention of the plaintiffs was that the amendment had never been legally adopted, having passed the Senate in one form and the House in another. The court upheld the claim of the plaintiffs, and declared the amendment void. (For details, see "Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1883.) RAILROADS. — The report of the Railroad Commissioners for the year ending June 30, 1882, shows that 911 miles were added during that period. The total number of miles of railroad in Iowa, reported by the various companies to the board, is 6,337^o3o- miles. The commissioners' estimate of the stock of these roads representing the parts of them in Iowa, added to the stock of the roads entirely in Iowa, amounts to $121,- 160,084.81, or $19,117.54 per mile. The total number of stockholders in the State is returned at 734 ; the total amount of stock reported as owned by persons living in the State is $2,096,- 341.41. The total debt of the roads in Iowa, as re- ported and estimated by the commissioners, is $118,657,183.16, or $18,628.40 per mile. Of this amount $112,637,966.05 is funded debt — $5,419,217.11 is unfunded or floating debt. The stock and debt of the roads in Iowa amount to $239,217,267.97, or $34,745.94 per mile. The report says: It is difficult to arrive at the cost of the Iowa roads, as many of them came into the hands of the present IOWA. 431 holders by purchase at foreclosure, consolidation, or through the medium of construction companies ; the amount reported is $215,979,324.81, or $23,237,943.16 less than the reported stock and bonds. It is hardly probable that the commissioners will ever be able to arrive at more than an approximation of the cost of the roads. The entire earnings for the roads in Iowa are: Passenger, mail, and express $8,646,470 83 Freight and miscellaneous '23,377,495 20 Total earnings for the year ending June 30, 1832 ? * Total earnings for the year ending June 30, 1881 Increase of earnings over previous year The total operating expenses returned for the Iowa roads for the year 1882 were Total operating expenses for 1881 28,452,181 91 3,751,774 12 20,512,393 05 10,788,404 30 Excess of operating expenses over previous year . . $8.728,988 66 Excess of earnings over previous year 3,571,774 12 Making the net earnings less than previous year $152,214 54 The mileage was increased 911 miles, but the net earnings show but a slight increase for so large an increased mileage, the mileage being much greater than any year since the establish- ment of the board. The operating expenses per mile of road were $3,552.64. The earnings for these roads for the 11,- 739.59 miles reported in 1880 were $64,433,- 179.53, or $5,491.23 per mile; the operating expenses for the same year were $35,624,124.- 79, or $3,036.51 per mile. The earnings for the 14,109.37 miles reported in 1881 were $76,530,- 450.99, or $5,083.73 per mile ; the operating expenses were $46,043,845.22, or $3,346.87 per mile. The earnings for the 16,544.46 miles reported in 1882 were $92,757,206.22, or $5,606.66 per mile; the operating expenses were $58,776,474.53. or $3,552.64 per mile. Forty-nine per cent of the entire roads of the State, exclusive of sidings, is steel rail. For the year 1881 there was reported 40 per cent; for the year 1880, 32 per cent; for the year 1879, 27£ per cent; for the year 1878, 22 per cent. This indicates, what is the fact, that wherever the traffic is heavy, steel rails have been put down. The percentage of steel to iron rails will not increase as rapidly in the fu- ture as it has in the last four years. The board finds that the average rate of freight per ton per mile varies from 9 cents on the Crooked Creek road ; 4*24 on the Bur- lington and Northwestern; 3'08 on the Des Moines and Fort Dodge, to 1*60 on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul; 1*47 on the North- western; 1-24 on the Rock Island; and -96 on the Wabash. The rates are a little higher than last year. The total number of persons regularly em- ployed in operating the roads of the State is 28,397, the amount paid them for their services is $14,071,612.54, or two and one half millions more than the earnings of the roads of the State above operating expenses and the taxes. During the year 165 persons were killed ; of these 7 were passengers, 89 employes, and 69 others: 5 by derailment, 2 by collisions, 4 caught in frogs, 16 coupling cars, 31 falling from train, 19 getting on and off trains, 4 at highway crossings, 41 from miscellaneous causes, 10 stealing rides, 21 while intoxicated, and 33 while trespassing on track. Of this number, 3 were reported as suicides. There were 635 persons injured during the year ; 61 were passengers, 502 were employes, and 72 others: by derailment 59, collisions 37, caught in frogs 4, coupling cars 182, falling from trains 57, getting on and off trains 56, at highway crossings 10, miscellaneous 192, overhead obstructions 6, stealing rides 8, tres- passing on track 24. The report states that one great sonrce of accident, resulting in a very large percentage of injury and death to the railroad employe1, is the present method of coupling cars. While we believe the theory is, and most of the time- tables require, the use of the coupling-hook, in practice men go between the cars, and if for any cause the dead-woods of the different cars fail to meet, they are crushed. Others are caught in frogs, the car-wheel catching them before the foot can be removed. In the report for this year, 4 employes were killed, being caught in frogs, and 16 in coupling cars; 4 were injured, being caught in frogs, and 82 in coupling cars. The following is a classified statement of the tonnage carried during the year : ARTICLES. Tons. Per cent. 2 471 936 35-89 Flour 199 405 2'04 Provisions 115 18(5 1-18 Animals 980 518 10-03 Other agricultural products Lumber and forest products . . Coal 160,608 1,551,515 1 767 044 1-65 15-87 18-07 Lime, cement, etc. . . . 108,'265 1-11 Salt 110646 1-18 Oil petroleum etc 81 453 •33 Iron and castings . . 139 707 1-43 Stone and brick 207 906 2-13 Manufactures. . . 109,362 1-12 Merchandise and other articles not 1 820 215 18-62 Total 9 777,415 100-00 Add to this amount an estimated tonnage for the Chicago, Burlington, and Kansas City; the Kansas City, St. Joseph, and Council Bluffs; the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Omaha ; the Min- neapolis and St. Louis; Keokuk and North- western ; the Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific ; and the Fort Madison and Northwestern roads (whose officers were unable to separate their Iowa tonnage), 1,198,427 tons, and we have a total of 10,975,642 ; deducting from this the freight twice reported, that is, the freight deliv- ered to and received from the smaller roads by the trunk lines (as estimated by the commis- sioners), 380.688 tons, and we have the Iowa tonnage as 10,595,184. RAILWAY LAND GRANTS. — The net amount realized from congressional land grants by the railroad companies to date of report : 432 IOWA. The Chicago, Burlington, and Quiacy The Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul The Chicago, Rock Island, and Pacific The Iowa Falls and Sioux City The Des Moines and Fort J)odge The Cedar Eapids and Missouri Kiver (950,- 597'40acres) The Sionx City and Pacific The Sioux City and St. Paul (report of 1878).. Total $10,186,879 02 PAETY CONVENTIONS. — The Republican State Convention met in Des Moines, on the 2d of August, and renominated J. A. T. Hull, for Secretary of State ; E. H. Conger, for Treas- urer; Smith McPherson, for Attorney-Gen- eral; and William H. Seevers, for Judge of Supreme Court. J. L. Brown, of Lucas Coun- ty, was nominated for Auditor ; G. B. Pray, of Hamilton County, for Clerk of the Supreme Court, and E. C. Ebersole, of Tama County, for Supreme Court Reporter. The following is the platform adopted : The Eepublican party of Iowa, reaffirming its sup- port of the national platform of the party of 1880, and its own declaration in the past, submits the following as its platform for the present year : 1. In reaffirming the platform of 1880. and insisting upon its enforcement in its relation to the several al- fairs of the nation, the State, and the Territories, in order that sound policies shall prevail in the nation, and ample protection be afforded to its citizens in all of their rights of citizenship, we especially commend the present Congress in its course in vindication of an honest ballot and fair count by its action in seating the members legally elected to that body. 2. That the personal and official bearing of Presi- dent Arthur, in his succession to the lamented Gar- field, is worthy of all respect and commendation, and the general administration of the duties of his office meets with the approval of the Eepublicans of Iowa. 3. We commend with equal pleasure and pride the faithful and efficient administration of the affairs of our State. 4. We favor the creation by Congress of a depart- ment of industry and the taking of prompt measures to protect Western cattle from contagious diseases. 5. We favor an equitable revision of the tariff, and Cjt so as to encourage home industries and protect bor. 6. We are in favor of and demand a modification of the patent laws to prevent reissues, and to protect inno- cent purchasers of patented articles in open market. 7. We favor national legislation regulating inter- State commerce, to the end that the system of pooling by parallel and competing lines of railway, and unjust discrimination against non-competing points, may be so controlled as to afford healthy competition to all sections of the country in the carrying-trade. 8. We also favor, as a further solution of the ques- tion of transportation, the renewed efforts looking to the practical and judicious improvements of the water- ways which Nature has afforded for cheaply trans- porting the commerce of the States. The Democratic State Convention met in Marshalltown, on the 16th of August, and nominated T. O. Walker, for Secretary of State; John Foley, for Treasurer; William Thompson, for Auditor; J. H. Brennerman, for Attorney-General; H. T. Bonarden, for Clerk of Supreme Court; A. L. Palmer, for Reporter ; and C. G. Bronson, for Judge. The following is the platform adopted : 1. The Democratic party, in convention assembled, declare for the great principles which are the founda- tion of free government, among which are equal rights to all, special privileges to none ; the protection of the weak against the encroachments of the strong ; equal taxation, free speech, free press, free schools, and, first of all, a free and incorruptible ballot. 2. Resolved, That we favor reform in the civil service, and denounce the extortion of money from office-holders to corrupt the ballot and control the elections as the most threatening as it is the most insidious danger that besets the Government this day. 3. Resolved, That we denounce the reckless extrav- agance of the Eepublican party, and demand an im- mediate reduction of taxes to the lowest figures which will enable the Government to meet all its obligations. 4. Resolved, That no special industry should be fostered to the injury of another ; that no class of men should be taxed directly or indirectly for the benefit of another : that every description of industry should stand or fall on its own merits ; that the existing pro- tective tariff is an outrageous scheme to plunder, and in principle and detail violates every principle of right and justice. 5. Resolved, That the late amendment to the phar- macy law of the State has made the same burdensome and is unjust, and we favor the repeal thereof. 6. Resolved, That the Democracy of Iowa are op- posed to all sumptuary enactments. While we deplore the passage of the prohibition amendment to the Constitution, we are resolved by every legal measure to eliminate the obnoxious measure from the Consti- tution of the State. 7. Resolved, That the right of the State to regulate the railways of the State in their charges for the trans- portation of freight and passengers having been fully established and declared by the courts, we demand the exercise of this right by our State Legislature, and we arraign the Eepublican party of this State for their failure to give the people relief. The establishment of that principle entitles to a large amount of public lands and subsidies these corporations have received from the Government, and the people demand that they should be regulated by law ; that the Constitu- tion confers on Congress complete power to give the people redress in control for carrying from one State to another. Possessing such power ? it is the duty of Congress to compel these corporations to perform their duty to the public as common carriers for a rea- sonable compensation. The following additional resolution was adopted : Resolved, That we tender our sympathy to the op- pressed of all nations, and to Ireland especially, in her present struggle to attain her freedom. The Greenback State Convention was held in Des Moines on the 7th of June. The follow- ing nominations were made : For Secretary of State, William Gaston; for Auditor, D. A. Wyantt; for Treasurer, George Derr; for Attorney-General, James A. Rice ; for Judge, W. H. Jones; for Clerk, E. M. Clark; and for Reporter, J. H. Williamson. The platform adopted is as follows : 1. That we reaffirm the principles of our party as declared at our State Convention in 1881. 2. We are opposed to the monopoly of money through the national banking system, and favor the General Government issuing all currency, making it a full legal tender, and keeping its volume uniform with the requirements ot increasing business and population. 3. We are opposed to all refunding of the interest- bearing national debt, which places it beyond the power of the national Government to pay at will ; and we demand that said debt be paid as rapidly as pos- sible. 4. We favor the unlimited coinage of gold and sil- ver on equal terms. 5. We are opposed to the present system of allow- IOWA. ITALY. 433 ing railroad and telegraph monopolies to determine the rates for transporting persons or property over railroads or for the use of telegraphs, and hold that all corporations created by law should be governed by law in the interest of the people, and we regard the Iowa Kailroad Commission as a willful and inten- tional hindrance to that end. 6. We are opposed to the monopoly of land, and demand that all public lands, including those forfeit- ed by non-compliance with law, shall be held for actual settlers. 7. We hold that the representatives of labor have the right to combine, to protect all their constitutional rights, and that they should be protected by law in the exercise of that right. 8. That our present laws for the granting of patents should be so amended as to prevent the courts from assessing damages against innocent purchasers, who in open market purchase any patented article, which may be an infringement on any other patent. 9. We are opposed to all monopolies, and are in favor of equal rights, equal taxation, and equal bene- fits for all, with special privileges for none? and we hold that that is the best government wherein an in- jury to one concerns all. 10. We favor a revision of the tariff laws in the interest of American labor, and not in the interest of corporations and monopolies. 11. We urge upon all anti-monopolists of this State to consider the utter hopelessness of obtaining the relief by them demanded at the hands of either of the old parties, and request them to unite with us to assist in gaming these ends, and we pledge them to make that question one of great prominence, and that our candidates shall constantly labor to secure these de- sired reforms. ELECTION RETURNS. — The election in No- vember resulted in the choice of the Republi- can ticket. The following is the vote : Secretary of State : J. A. T. Hull, 149,051 ; T. O. Walker, 112,180; William Gaston, 30,- 817 ; scattering, 350. Auditor of State : John L. Brownj 148,396 ; William Thompson, 112,211; D. A. Wyantt, 30,830 ; scattering, 342. Treasurer of State: Edwin H. Conger, 148,- 329; John Foley, 112,561; George Derr, 30,- 209 ; scattering, 340. Attorney-General : Smith McPherson, 148,- 344; J. H. Brennerman, 112,427; James A. Rice, 30,867; scattering, 329. Judge of Supreme Court: William H. Seevers, 149,220 ; Charles E. Bronson, 112,- 060 ; M. H. Jones, 27,865 ; scattering, 347. Clerk of Supreme Court : Gilbert H. Pray, 148,648; H. F. Bonarden, 112,087; E. N. Clark, 29,514; scattering, 375. Supreme Court Reporter : Ezra C. Ebersole, 148,710; L. A. Palmer, 112,494; J. H. Will- iamson, 27,175; scattering, 28. Eight Republican Congressmen were elected, two Democratic (Second and Ninth Districts), and one Greenback (Fourth District). TORNADO. — On the 17th of June, one of the most destructive tornadoes on record swept over central Iowa. Its greatest devastation seems to have been wrought at Grinnell, where a considerable part of the town, including the buildings of Iowa College, was destroyed, and many persons were killed and wounded. Throughout its course over one hundred per- sons are said to have been killed^ while the loss VOL. xxii.— 28 A of property was estimated at $2,000,000 to $3,- 000,000. ITALY, a kingdom of Southern Europe, constituted in 1861, when Victor Emanuel as- sumed for himself and his descendants the title of King of Italy, and proclaimed the Consti- tution granted by his father, Charles Albert, to Sardinia in 1848. The executive power is vested in the sovereign, and is exercised through responsible ministers. The legislative power belongs jointly to the two Houses of the Legislature and the King. The Senate is composed of an unlimited number of members, nominated by the King, the conditions of their nomination being the occupancy of an impor- tant office, distinction acquired in literature, science, or other honorable occupation, or the payment of 3,000 lire, or francs, in taxes annu- ally. In the Chamber of Deputies a member is allowed for every 40,000 inhabitants. The Deputies are elected by ballot, every citizen over twenty-five years of age who pays taxes amounting to forty lire yearly being entitled to vote. The lower ranks of officials and the ordained clergy are ineligible. Senators and Deputies serve without indemnity. The num- ber of Senators in 1880 was 270, and the num- ber of Deputies in 1881, 508. Legislation can originate in either House, but the Chamber of Deputies has the exclusive right to vote money. The King, Humbert I, born March 14^ 1844, the eldest son of Victor Emanuel, succeeded to the throne January 9, 1878. The Ministry, formed May 29,. 1881 r is com- posed as follows : President of the Council and Minister of the Interior, Agostino Depretis; Minister of Finance, Agostino Magliani ; Min- ister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs, Gi- acomo Zanardelli ; Minister of Foreign: Affairs, P. S. Mancini ; Minister of War, General Edu- ardo Ferrero; Minister of Marine, Vice- Ad- miral Baron F. Acton; Minister of Public Works, Antonio Baccarini; Minister of Agri- culture, Industry, and Commerce, D.. Berti, successor to Carlo Miceli ; Minister of Public Instruction, Giambattista Baccelli. STATISTICS. — The total population of Italy, according to the census of December 31, 1881, and of each of the main political divisions, with their areas in square kilometres (one square kilo- metre = 0-386 square mile), were as follow :; POLITICAL DIVISIONS. Area. Population. Piedmont 29 494 3 070 379 Liguria ; . . 5407 892 373 24205 8 6SO 615 Venetia. 24025 2 814 178 • Emilia 20749 2 183 391 Umbria . . . 9474 572 060 The Marches 9 835 939 279' Tuscany. . . . 24062 2208'516 Home 12170 903472 The Abruzzi and Molise 17,008 1 317 315 Campagna 16556 2 896 579 Apulia 20510 l'587'713 Basilicata 10,354 524 886 Calabria 15048 1 257 907 Sicily . .... 25798 2'928'841 Sardinia 23 842 6S2 002 Total 288,539 28,459,451 434 ITALY. The population of the principal cities was as follows : CITIES. Commune. Town. Naples 494 314 468172 Milan . 821 S39 214 004 300,467 272,010 Turin 252 832 226 307 Palermo 244 991 205 712 Genoa 179515 138 081 169 001 122 039 Venice . 132 826 129*276 126497 76982 Bologna 123 274 103 998 Catania 100 417 97*355 97*615 77781 Ferrara ... 75513 28814 Padua 72174 47384 68 741 60 768 68 063 2o'421 Alexandria 62464 30*761 Brescia . . 60630 48354 Bari 60 575 58 266 6o'573 12 100 Modena. 5g'o58 81*053 Pisa 53924 26857 Pistoja 51 552 12224 51 354 17895 Reggio 50 651 18 634 Ancona ... 47 729 28 557 Parma 45?21 7 44*492 The emigration in 1881 amounted to 135,832 persons, against 119,901 in 1880, 119,831 in 1879, 96,268 in 1878, 99,213 in 1877, and 108,- 771 in 1876. The number of marriages and births and deaths, including still-births, for the last five years reported, was as follows: YEAR. Marriages. Births. Deaths. Excess of births. 1S76 225 453 1.116,790 829 489 287 301 1877 214 972 1,060.443 819 223 241 220 1878 .. 199 885 1 043 780 844855 198 9'^5 1879.... 213 096 1 097 778 870 307 227*471 1880 196 738 988 305 900 397 87 908 The Roman Catholic faith is nominally the state religion ; but since the establishment of the kingdom and the subsequent suppression of the temporal government of the Pope, the church and the clergy possess no authority in the state that is not regulated by the Govern- ment, which has placed all creeds on practi- cally the same footing. There have been fu- tile attempts, under the new laws, to propagate Protestant creeds. Of the total population in 1871 of 26,801,154 souls, 26,658,679, or 99| per cent, were Catholics, 58,651 Protestants, 35,356 Israelites, and 48,468 of other faiths and professed non-believers. There are 45 archiepiscopal and 198 episcopal sees, many of which, during the conflict between the Gov- ernment and the Church, have been left vacant, owing to the refusal of the Government to accept the nominees of the Pope, the royal consent being necessary for their installation. The number of religious houses was reported in 1865 to be 2,382 ; the number of religious persons, 28,991, of whom 14,807 were men and 14,184 women. The proportion of priests to the general population was reported in 1869 to be 7 per thousand, the average proportion in other Catholic countries being 4£ per thou- sand. The Siccardil aw, passed by the Sar- dinian Chamber in 1850, and extended over the rest of Italy in 1861, had the effect of di- minishing the number of the clergy by cutting off a great part of their incomes. In 1866 a law was passed abolishing the corporate exist- ence of the religious orders and confiscating their property. A large part of the confiscated property of the monastic establishments was applied to popular education. In 1882 there were pri- mary schools maintained in 7,533 of the 8,276 communes. The number of teachers employed was about 41,000, of whom one half were women. The annual appropriation for the schools is 31,000,000 lire.* There were also 7,422 private elementary schools, employing 7,422 male and 4,444 female teachers, and at- tended by 63,000 male and 92,228 female pu- pils. There are besides 11,161 evening schools for males and 492 for females, the former with 439,624, the latter with 16,063 scholars. In the twenty-two universities there were 12,580 students in 1878. An inquiry into the illiteracy of conscripts called into service at the age of twenty-one, in 1868, revealed the fact that 64'27 per cent at that time were without the rudiments of education. From statistics col- lected in 1871, the proportion of totally illit- erate above six years of age was 42 per cent of the males and 53 per cent of the females, throughout Italy. In 1882 the proportion was found to have diminished to 35 per cent of the males and 47 per cent of the females. Be- tween the ages of twenty and twenty-five there were 28 per cent fewer totally illiterate persons than ten years before. The propor- tion of illiterate conscripts decreased to 52 per centt in the conscriptions of 1879 and 1880, about the same as in Hungary. The lines of railroad in operation at the be- ginning of 1881 had an aggregate length of 8,713 kilometres. The receipts in 1880 were 180,106,819 lire. The total cost of their con- struction was 2,616,737,000 lire. The post-offices in 1880 numbered 3,328 ; the number of letters and postal-cards sent, 165,824,944; ofprinted inclosures, 155,218, 754; of postal-orders, 3,972,418. The receipts were 28,189,618 lire, and the expenses 24,357,935 lire. The length of telegraph lines at the begin- ning of 1882 was 26,880 kilometres ; of wires, 89,150, besides 185 kilometres of submarine cable. The number of dispatches sent was 6,250,496, of which 5,015,005 were private do- mestic, and 517,599 private international mes- * One lire = 19'8 cents. t Austria has made more rapid progress than Italy in edu- cation. In 1867 the proportion of illiterate conscripts was about the same in both countries ; but it has been reduced to 89 per cent in Cisleithan Austria. In France the propor- tion is only 14 per cent, in Belgium 19. In Germany, the levy of 1880 showed 1'57 per cent. In Wurtemberg there were virtually no illiterates arriving of age, in Bavaria only 0-47 per cent, and in other provinces low percentages; but in Slavic Fosen the proportion rises to 11 per cejit. ITALY. 435 sages. The receipts amounted to 12,051,308 lire. COMMERCE. — The special imports in 1881 amounted to 1,225,600,000 lire, the exports to 1,192,300,000 lire, as compared with 1,225,- 600,000 lire of imports and 1,132,300,000 of exports in 1880; 1,261,700,000 lire of imports and 1,170,000,000 of exports in 1879; 1,070,- 600,000 lire of imports and 1,045,300,000 of exports in 1878 ; 1,156,300,000 lire of imports and 953,200,000 of exports in 1877 ; and 1,327,- 200,000 lire of imports and 1,216,800,000 lire of exports in 1876. The falling off of exports in 1876 was due to a deficient harvest, the second in three years. Of the imports of 1881, cereals stood for 70,400,000 lire, which were nearly balanced by the exports ; while in the preceding year the imports were 163,400,000 lire, and the exports 76,200,000 lire. The ex- ports of wines, etc., amounted to 64,900,000 lire, against 51,000,000 lire the year before; the imports to 7,200,000, against 17,200,000 lire. Tropical produce was imported to the amount of 85,800,000 lire, against 65,000,000 lire the year before ; tobacco to the amount of 17,700,000 lire. The exports of fruits, etc., amounted to 59,900,000 lire. The exports of animal-food products amounted to 85,300,000 lire, a decrease of 17,600,000 lire; the imports to 90,700,000 lire, an increase of 11,400,000 lire. The total imports of articles of consump- tion amounted to 290,000,000 lire, a decrease of 76,600,000 lire; the total exports to 286,- 600,000 lire, a decrease of 9,400,000 lire. The total imports of raw materials amounted to 341,900,000 lire, a decrease of 56,700,000 lire; the exports to 418,800,000 lire, a decrease of 3,300,000 lire. The coal imports, which amounted to 60,700,000 lire in 1880, almost ceased, and the metal imports declined from 57,900,000 lire to 36,200,000 lire. Textile ma- terials, of the value of 194,600,000 lire, showed slight, and minerals, hides, etc., larger incre- ments. The export of silk makes up the bulk of the exports of raw materials, the exports under the head of textile materials amounting in 1881 to 351,800,000 lire, being 6,800,000 lire more than the preceding year. The imports of manufactured articles amounted to 262,500,- 000 lire, a decrease of 23,500,000 lire ; the ex- ports to 118,200,000 lire, a decrease of 62,100,- 000 lire. There was a smaller importation of plant and partly manufactured articles, and an increased importation of articles for consump- tive use. The imports of the miscellaneous class amounted to 344,500,000 lire, an increase of nearly 200,000,000 lire, and the exports to 340,900,000 lire, an increase of nearly 66,000,- 000 lire. The efforts to return to a specie basis increased the imports of precious metals from 39,500,000 to 93,100,000 lire, while the exports were 27,800,000 lire, against 28,900,000 lire. ^ The commercial intercourse with the princi- pal foreign countries is shown in the following table, giving the imports from and the exports to each in millions of lire : COUNTRIES. IMPORTS. EXPORTS. 1880. 1881. 1880. 1881. France 804 259 181 84 84 75 8T 42 35 119 864 361 218 87 30 62 66 37 27 126 5(13 83 166 102 18 54 7b 26 14 84 551 82 150 184 27 57 68 32 17 70 England Austria Switzerland Russia . ... United States and Canada German Empire South America Turkey, Servia, and Eoumania. . Other countries Total 1,225 1,332 1,132 1,192 The total number of vessels engaged in for- eign commerce entering Italian ports in 1881 was 16,294, of 4,781,130 tons, of which 10,015, of 1,463,644 tons, sailed under the Italian flag; 12,911, of 3,881,172 tons, were laden; and 4,508, of 3,539,879 tons, were steamers, among them 979 Italian steamers, of 663,535 tons. The number departing was 15,663, of 4,429,872 tons, of which 10,860, of 2,980,280 tons, were laden, and 4,251, of 3,169,703 tons, steamers. The number of arrivals in the coasting-trade was 93,890, of 11,334,633 tons ; the number of departures, 93,751, of 11,525,069 tons. Of the arrivals, 90,153, of 8,676,214 tons, were Italian, and 20,516, of 8,990,990 tons, steamers. The above returns do not include 352,235 vessels which put into port from necessity. The num- ber of vessels registered in Italy was, in 1881, 7,815, of 989,057 tons, against 7,980, of 990,- 196 tons, in 1880. The sail-ships decreased from 7,822, of 922,146 tons, to 7,639, of 895,- 359 tons ; the steamers increased from 158, of 77,050 tons, to 176, of 93,698 tons. ARMY AND NAVY. — The Italian army is con- stituted on the system of universal liability to arms. Enough young men to keep up the act- ive army are called into the service every year. The rest are drilled for forty days and enrolled in the reserve. The time of service in the standing army is three years in the infantry and five years in the cavalry. The carabinieri and certain of the administrative troops have the option of prolonging their time to eight years, which releases them from further lia- bility to service. The time is reduced to one year, as in Germany, for such as are able to pass the requisite examination. By a law passed June 9, 1882, the war effective was augmented by 100,000 men. The army is now organized as follows : STANDING ARMY. — Ninety-six regiments of infantry of the line and 12 regiments of bersa- glieri, each regiment with 3 battalions of 4 companies and a depot, besides 6 regiments of Alpine troops, and 98 companies distributed over 87 military districts ; 22 regiments of cav- alry, each of 6 squadrons and a depot, besides 5 depots of remount; 12 regiments of field- artillery, each of 10 batteries, with 3 compa- nies of train and a depot, 2 brigades of new flying artillery, of 2 batteries each, 5 regiments of heavy artillery, of 12 fortress or coast bat- teries and a depot each, and 2 brigades of 436 ITALY. mountain-artillery of 4 batteries each, besides 5 companies of artificers and 1 of veterans ; 4 regiments of engineers, comprising 2 of sap- pers, 1 of pontonniers, and 1 of railroad and telegraph troops ; and 1 1 territorial legions of carabiuieri, besides 1 ofettves. There are in the departmental services 4 companies in the in- valid corps, 12 in the sanitary corps, and 12 in the commissariat, besides the personnel of the paymaster's department, the veterinary corps, the corps of administration, and the establish- ments and institutions of instruction, with 15 companies and 2 houses of correction connected with the penitentiary establishments. MOBILE MILITIA. — Forty-eight regiments of line infantry, with 3 battalions of 4 companies each, 18 battalions of bersaglieri, of 4 compa- nies each, and 36 companies of Alpine troops; 13 brigades of field-artillery, of four batteries each, 32 companies of artillery for fortress and coast service, and 4 batteries of mountain-artil- lery ; 25 companies of engineers, formed into 5 brigades of sappers, 1 of pontonniers, 1 of railroad troops, and 1 of telegraphists ; 12 com- panies in the sanitary service and 12 in the commissariat ; and the special militia of Sar- dinia, consisting of 3 regiments of line infantry, 1 battalion of bersaglieri, 1 squadron of cav- alry, 1 brigade of field-artillery, etc. TERRITORIAL MILITIA. — Three hundred and twenty battalions of infantry, of 4 companies each ; 30 battalions of Alpine troops, forming 72 companies; 100 companies of heavy artil- lery, and 30 of engineers. The territorial mili- tia is required to drill only thirty days every four years, but may be called into camp for a portion of this time every year. The nominal war effective of the Italian army was 1,990,000 men; 690,000 in the standing army, 300,000 in the mobile militia, and 1,000,- 000 in the territorial militia. The new law adds 100,000 by increasing the annual contin- gent of the standing army. The effective on September 30, 1881, was as follows : Standing army : Infantry 251,1 52 Military districts 264,007 Alpine companies 16,050 Bersaglieri 42,741 Cavalry 86,012 Artillery 62,544 Engineers 14,763 Carabinieri 19,637 Subsidiary services 12,096 Officers 14,710 Total 733,712 Mobile militia : Line and bersaglieri 267.067 Artillery 22,606 Engineers 8,068 Officers 2,340 Total 295,081 Territorial militia 825,084 Total war footing 1,856,036 The navy consisted in 1881 of 72 vessels. (See NAVIES OF EUROPE.) ^ FINANCES. — There have been annual deficits since the establishment of the kingdom, aver- aging nearly 500,000,000 lire, or francs, be- tween 1863 and 1868, and over 200,000,000 lire from the latter year down to 1876. The deficits have been much smaller of recent years, and shown a tendency to decline, the accounts for 1878 actually exhibiting a small surplus. The financial estimates have almost invariably overstated the revenue, while the expenditures turned out to be greater than was calculated, mainly on account of the excessive disburse- ments for the army. There was a saving on the estimated expenditures of 6,000,000 lire and an increased productiveness of the taxes of 43,- 000,000 beyond the estimated amount. The income tax, the register and stamp duties, the grist-tax, the building-tax, and the customs, all showed augmented receipts, the increase in the custom-house receipts amounting to nearly 19,- 000,000 lire. The tobacco duties and the oc- trois, in which the state shares, showed, on the other hand, a falling off. The budget estimates for 1882 place the ordinary receipts at 1,360,842,338 lire, the or- dinary expenditures at 1,321,405,359, and the extraordinary receipts at 837,061,690 and ex- penditures at 857,998,509 lire; total receipts 2,197,904,028, and expenditures 2,179,403,868 lire, leaving an estimated surplus of 18,500,160. The large increase over the receipts and ex- penditures of the foregoing years is due to the raising of a loan of 650,440,000 lire and its ap- plication to the resumption of specie payments. The product of direct taxes, embracing the land, -building, and personal property taxes, is estimated at 381,627,451 lire; of stamps, regis- try and succession duties, tax on railroad re- ceipts, etc., 169,021,900 lire; of state and ec- clesiastical funds, 27,228,750 lire ; of customs duties, imposts on the manufacture of beer, powder, etc., monopolies of tobacco and salt, octrois, and grist-tax, 472,199,245 lire ; of the state lottery, 72,500,000 lire ; of the railroads, telegraphs, posts, and other public services, 116,201,825 ; from other sources, 17,823,559; compensatory, or repayable receipts, 94,237,- 608. Of the extraordinary receipts, 28,957,305 lire come from the sale of ecclesiastical prop- erty, domains, etc., 28,886,688 from the recov- ery of debts, 668,077,185 from new loans, and 102,188,317 from funds for the construction of new railroads. The interest on the consoli- dated debt consumes 428,393,509 lire of the ordinary expenditures; interest on the tem- porary debt, 42,077,218 ; liquidation of debts, 41,915,039; annuities for the purchase of rail- roads in Upper Italy, 28,981,095 ; the floating debt, 42,869,714; pensions, 21,374,024; civil list and appanages, 15,250,000; expenses of col- lection and administration, 133,233,800. The annual dotation of 3,225,000 lire, granted to the Supreme Pontiff, has been refused by the present as well as the late Pope, and is paid over to the ecclesiastical fund. The public debt amounted to 2,439,000,000 lire in 1860, the year before the consolidation of the monarchy. The constant deficits had ITALY. 437 increased it to 9,750,000,000 lire in 1878, made up as follows : Lire. Funded debt 7,091,829,661 Redeemable debt 1,642,773,101 Treasury bonds 183,010,500 Paper currency 840,000,000 Total 9,757^613,268 The consolidated debt, except a small por- tion, bears interest at 5 per cent. The interest on most of the redeemable loans is also 5 per cent, though some bear 3 per cent interest. The total expenditure on account of the public debt in 1881 was 527,611,000 lire. The gradual reduction of the enormous defi- cits of twenty years, and the final attainment of a surplus, notwithstanding heavy incidental expenses and considerable remissions of taxes, has occurred during Magliani's ministry, and is to some extent his work. The Minister of Finance, in presenting the most satisfactory financial statement ever heard in Italy, ex- pressed the belief that the forced paper cur- rency would be abolished in accordance with the law, and that the remaining grist-tax would be removed by 1881, the date set, but that it would be unsafe to exceed the limit of military expenditures agreed upon with the Minister of War, which is 200,000,000 lire a year, besides the extraordinary army expenditures for pro- jects which will take 324,000,000 between 1880 and 1885. FOREIGN" RELATIONS. — The progress made by Italy in the direction of good government and well-ordered finances has not occupied the thoughts of the Italians as much as foreign af- fairs. Besides the differences with the Pope, which have been aggravated recently, the vol- atile Italian public has been in a constant fever over questions of foreign policy. The Govern- ment, of which Bismarck made the famous speech, that one step further to the Left would plunge Italy into the abyss of republicanism, has been prudent enough when it came to final action ; but to court the popular favor it has endeavored to secure the extension of Italian power in various ways, and been repeatedly obliged to withdraw from an untenable posi- tion, while at home it has allowed the Irre- dentist and Anti-Clerical Radicals to com- promise it by their inadequately rebuked excesses. At the beginning of the year the irritation over the French seizure of Tunis was still acute. The Italians, in their desire for external expansion, had first cast their eyes on Albania, where their consular agents were long busy preparing the way for Italian an- nexations on the opposite shore of the Adri- atic. When the Berlin Congress commissioned Austria to take possession of Bosnia and Her- zegovina, the idea of " compensation " for Italy was suggested in the press, while the Irreden- tist longings for the acquisition of the Trenti- no, Istria, and Dalmatia, were agitated afresh. Count Corti, the then Minister for Foreign Affairs, was wise enough to avoid exposing his country to the certain rebuff which the advocates for compensation would have risked, although he sacrificed his popularity by his de- cision. The Italians next turned their atten- tion to Tunis. The Italian diplomatic agent, Maccio, and the French agent, Roustan, en- gaged in a conflict for predominant influence in the regency, which the republic ended by invading the territory of the Bey, on the pre- text of punishing the Kroumirs, and reducing him to the condition of a French vassal. The helpless position in which they stood when their prize was wrested from them, led the Italians to abandon their policy of keeping their "hands free," and sinking their differ- ences with Austria, to seek an understanding with the German powers. The Papal question was another element in the situation. At the beginning of 1882 Bis- marck was seeking to arrange a modus vivendi with the Vatican, and courting the support of the Clerical party for his internal schemes. Simultaneously, the Pope for the first time took a firm and vigorous stand for the rights of the Church. The alarm of the Government circles was not justified by any immediate in- terposition of foreign influence ; but the ques- tion seems to be arriving at a phase where, if Italy does not assure to the Church a tolerable status, other powers will intervene. The European situation forbade anything further than a platonic friendship with the German powers, which would be the last in Europe to support Italy in any schemes for im- mediate territorial aggrandizement. When the Egyptian question arose, Italy relied on this alli- ance and the European concert to secure her the position in Egypt which she has long demand- ed, and refrained from seizing the opportunity to co-operate with England after the retire- ment of France. The stand which she took in the negotiations was a more dignified and im- portant one than had before fallen to her share in the European concert (see EGYPT). The bold and rapid action of England produced an outburst of angry denunciation in Italy similar to that called forth the year before by French operations in Tunis. If the apathy of Germany continues, and England is permitted to take full possession of Egypt, Italy will perhaps awaken from her dream of empire and dis- cover that, in spite of her expensive arma ments she is a great power only on sufferance. By the settlement of the Papal question, without the sacrifice of unity or liberal institutions, by calling all her citizens into her political coun- cils, and by reducing the burden of military expenditure, Italy can not only develop her internal resources and improve the material condition of her people, but extend her com- merce in the undeveloped parts of the world without the aid of cannon and protectorates. There is no people in Europe with equal facul- ties for endurance, economy, application to de- tails, and all the practical elements of success, when not misled by impracticable illusions. 438 JAMES, HENRY. JAPAN. The Government has pursued a scheme for extending Italian commerce in East Africa, ever since the opening of the Suez Canal. In 1870 the head of the Kubattino Steam Navi- gation Company purchased a strip of coast in the bay of Assab, in the Bed Sea, on the east- ern coast of Africa, north of the Strait of Bab- el-Mandeb. In June the Chambers passed a bill authorizing the Government to acquire the territorial rights purchased by Rubattino from the native chiefs, and establish a colony there. The law exempts the colony from taxation for thirty years, makes the port free to all the world, and empowers the Government to grant concessions of land to Italians, natives, or strangers. The Mussulman laws are to be ad- ministered to Mohammedans, and Italian laws to Europeans. The Government proceeded to establish the trading colony. England raised a question as to the rights acquired by the Ital- ian Government. The Porte claimed suze- rainty over the African shores of the Red Sea, and the Khedive asserted these powers by del- egation from the Porte. England had herself purchased territorial rights in these regions from the native chiefs, but afterward, when the Khedive, Ismail, seized upon territories of the Sultan of Zanzibar, she recognized the as- sumed sovereignty of Egypt over the east coast of Africa, as far as the ninth parallel of lati- tude. After taking possession of Egypt, Eng- land induced the Khedive to revive his claim of jurisdiction over this region in order to ex- act conditions from Italy with respect to this, her first colonial establishment. The extent of the territory acquired was also called in question. Italy was fain to agree to the de- mands of the British Government, which were that no fortifications or military forces should be maintained in the colony, that a large por- tion of the acquired territory should be relin- quished, and a corollary with reference to the suppression of the slave-trade. The commercial treaties with England, Ger- many, Belgium, Spain, and Switzerland were extended until June 30, 1883. A resolution was adopted recommending that they should not be prolonged after that date, and that, if arrangements could not be made like those with France and Austria, retaliatory duties should be imposed on imports from countries which subject Italian products to differential treatment. LEGISLATION. — The extension of the suffrage which was passed in 1881 was supplemented before the close of the session by the change of the mode of elections to the scrutin de liste, or collective ticket, which was adopted by a vote of 286 to 133. The completion of the Government project for electoral reform was the only important result of the session. With this accomplished, and the arrangements for the return to specie payments made and for the needed revision of the tax system under way, Mancini announced in the royal ad- dress at the reopening of Parliament the in- auguration of important projects of social reform. PUBLIC EVENTS. — The death of Garibaldi in June called forth an exhibition of national re- gret and gratitude which has not been equaled upon the departure of any man of modern time. In obedience to the will of the nation, the body of Garibaldi was not burned, as he requested, but was given a state funeral. The celebra- tion, on March 31st, of the anniversary of the Sicilian Vespers, was the occasion of another of these demonstrative exhibitions of patriot- ism. The Republicans and Irredentists were un- usually noisy in 1882. The crime of Overdank, which he expiated in Trieste (see AUSTKIA), was made the subject of political demonstra- tions in the latter part of the year. The press and the public elevated the executed conspira- tor into a national hero. The Austrian envoy to the Papal court, Count Paar, was attacked in the street by a man named Valeriani. Though the Radicals applauded this double insult to Austria and to the Church, the Government proceeded more vigorously to suppress these dangerous manifestations, confiscating news- papers and arresting agitators. Northeastern Italy was visited in the au- tumn by devastating floods like those which occurred on the other side of the Alps in Tyrol. Verona and the whole valley of the Adige were inundated. The sufferers were relieved by aid sent from all parts of the kingdom; but the crops, the mills, and houses of large tracts of country were destroyed. JAMES, HENEY, died at his home in Cam- bridge, Mass., on December 18th, at the age of seventy-one years. He was a graduate of Union College, and studied at the Prince- ton Theological School, though he never en- tered the ministry. He is chiefly known as an able and brilliant writer upon theological and allied themes, his chief works being "Mor- alism and Christianity," " The Church of Christ not an Ecclesiasticism," "The Nature of Evil," "Christianity the Logic of Creation," and "Lectures and Miscellanies." Professor Will- iam James, of Harvard, and the well-known novelist, Henry James, Jr., are his sons. JAPAN, an empire in Eastern Asia. The su- preme power resides in the Tenno, or Emperor, usually called the Mikado, who acts through an executive ministry. The reigning Emperor is Mutsu Hito, born November 3, 1852, who suc- ceeded his father, Komei Tenno, in 1867. The succession is limited to the four imperial fami- lies known as the Shi Shinno, and usually de- JAPAN. 439 voices upon the most distinguished or powerful relative of the Emperor. The throne has often been filled by a woman, but she must take a husband, who must be a member of one of the royal houses. The government is constituted in part on European models, the Mikado ruling in accordance with the counsels of his regu- larly appointed advisers. These are the Min- istry, which was established in imitation of European cabinets ; the Council of State, of an indefinite number of members; and the Sen- ate, composed of thirty-two members, most of whom are persons who have filled high posts. The first president of the Council of Ministers is Sandjo, the second Prince Arisugawa, the third Iwakura. The ministers at the head of the different departments are : Foreign Affairs, Inuye ; Interior, Yamada ; Finance, Matsuka- ta ; War, Oyama ; Marine, Kavvamura ; Agri- culture and Commerce, Saigo ; Public Works, Sasaki ; Justice, Ogi ; Instruction, Fukuoka ; Imperial Household, Tukudaida ; Postmaster- General, Nomura. AREA AND POPULATION. — The area and pop- ulation of Japan, on January 1, 1880, were as follow : ISLANDS. Square miles. Population. Hondo, or Nippon 86 435 27 242 847 Kiushiu 14 898 5 212 997 Shikoku 7 008 2 618 142 Iki, Tsushima, Awadji, Oki, and Sado 998 377,271 Total Japanese islands 109 839 35 451 257 Teso and Curiles 35866 163355 Liuchiu 1 856 810 545 Bonin Islea ' 83 156 147 094 85 925 313 The number of males was 18,210,500; of females, 17,714,813. The density of the popu- lation is 325 inhabitants to the square mile on the Japanese islands, about equal to that of the Netherlands, and 244 for the whole empire, or about the same as in Italy. The population of the empire, on the 1st of January, 1881, is stated to be 36,357,212, clas- sified according to rank as follows : Emperor and family, 5 ; royal house, 34 ; Kazokou, 3,146; Shizokou, 1,933,882; Hei'min, 34,415,- 392 ; and 4,753 persons whose class is not known. The number of Ainos, or aborigines of the Island of Yeso, is estimated by the most recent travelers at only about 17,000. The number of foreigners residing in Japan in 1879 was reported as 2,398 Europeans and Ameri- cans, and 3,649 Chinamen. The city of Tokio had, in 1878, 796.785 inhab- itants, and, with the suburbs, 1,064,333. The population of the city was returned, in 1879, as 811,510, and, in 1881, that of the city and suburban districts as 1,140,566. The next largest city is Osaka, the population of which was returned, in 1881, as 291,086. Kioto had 229,810 inhabitants in 1877. Kagoshima, the principal city of the Satsuma Province, has not been enumerated. Nagoya had, in 1880, a population of 114,978 ; Kanazawa, in 1877, 108,263 ; Hiroshima, 75,760 ; Yokohama, in 1879, 67,499. There are forty other towns of over 20,000 inhabitants. The number of post-offices, in 1880, was 4,377. The number of letters carried was 34,627,343 ; of postal-cards, 17,345,212 ; of newspapers, 14,256,795 ; total number of mis- sives, 68,944,782, against 55,775,206 in 1878- '79. The receipts amounted to $1,173,692; the expenses to $1,091,900. The length of telegraph in operation, in 1882, was 3,929 miles ; of wires, 9,345 miles. The number of dispatches forwarded, in 1881, was 1,272,756. The total length of railroads in operation was about 100 miles, consisting of short lines connecting Tokio with the port of Yokohama, Osaka with Hiogo and Kioto, and the latter place with Otsu, besides a line on the Island of Yeso, between Otarunai and Sapporo. COMMERCE. — The total imports and exports for the last six years reported were as follow : YEAR. Imports. Exports. 1879 $32 631 000 $28 364 000 1878 ... 33 334 392 26 259 419 1877 25 900 541 22 866 708 1876 28,969,004 27 578 851 1875 28,174,194 17 917 845 1865 . 14 076 938 18 491 430 The staple imports are cotton and woolen fabrics. The imports of European cotton goods in 1879 amounted to $12,112,000, against $12,739,000 in 1878 ; of woolen goods, $4,172,000, against $4,637,000; of cotton and woolen mixed, $1,308,000, against $1,156,000. The imports of metals amounted to $1,645,- 000; of miscellaneous merchandise, $8,288,- 000 ; of Asiatic products (sugar, cotton, etc.), $5,106,000. The exports of staple articles for 1879 and the preceding year are given in thousands of dollars in the following table : EXPORTS. 18?9. 1878. Raw silk 11 148 8995 Silk cocoons 583 683 Tea 7,446 4413 Copper .... 854 866 Tobacco 142 108 Vegetable- wax 830 106 Camphor. . . . 457 810 Coal 755 857 Dried fish 1 288 1 031 Rice 1029 4642 Various merchandise 4,382 4,248 Total 28864 26259 The foreign commerce of Japan is divided mainly between Great Britain and the United States, the American share being less than halt' as great as the British. Of 992 vessels, of 1,101,502 aggregate ton- nage, entering Japanese ports in 1879, 286, of 464,346 tons, were Japanese ; 408, of 351,144 tons, British; 153, of 191,488 tons, American; 29, of 44,286 tons, French; and 87, of 37,034 tons, German. 440 JAPAN. AEMT AND NAVY. — Universal and obligatory military service was introduced by an edict of 1875 ; but exemptions for various causes or for a money price, which is fixed at $270, are allowed. By the reorganization of the army in 1879 the military forces are divided into four classes, corresponding to the military organization of the German Empire : 1. The active army, recruited by lot from all able- bodied young men as they reach the age of twenty, the time of service being three years. The active army comprises the army of the line and the Imperial Guard, which is com- posed of picked men from the line regiments who have served six months, and who remain three years longer in active service. 2. The active army reserve, formed of the soldiers who have served their time in the active army ; they remain three years in the reserve, and are called out to drill a short time every year. 3. The Landwehr, which is trained in military exercises annually. 4. The Landsturm, com- posed of all between seventeen and forty years of age who are not in the active army or the reserve ; they are to be called out in the case of invasion when the active army and reserves are already in the field. According to the new law, advancement to the grade of officers depends on merit and intelligence. The Guard consists of 2 regiments of infantry, a squadron of cavalry, and a division of artillery. The army of the line is composed of 14 regiments containing 3 battalions of 4 companies each of infantry, 2 squadrons of cavalry; 9 divisions of artillery, each containing 2 batteries of 6 cannon ; 9 companies of heavy artillery, and 9 of engineers. The effective in 1880 was as follows : ARMY. Peace footing. War footing. Infantry (46 battalions) 86106 41,382 Cavalry (3 squadrons) 507 567 Artillery (120 guns) 8.206 1 570 8,800 1 840 Train (6 platoons) 510 680 Ministry of War staff etc 588 588 Gendarmerie and police 18,473 18,473 Total . . 61 680 68180 The navy consists of 31 vessels with 196 guns, including five ironclads, one of which is a frigate with casemates, one a turret-ship, and three corvettes. FINANCE. — The budget for 1879-'80 places the total revenue at 55,651,379 yen, or dollars, and the total expenditures at the same amount. (The gold yen, which is the unit of account, is almost identical in value with the American gold dollar. The silver yen is the same in weight and fineness with the Mexican dollar, and is exactly equal in value to the American trade-dollar. The paper yen, of which there is a large quantity in circulation, is at a dis- count usually ranging from 25 to 30 per cent.) The total revenue and expenditure in the pre- ceding three years were as follow : YEAR. Receipt!. Expenditures. 1876-'77 $59 481 036 $59 308 956 1877-'78 ... 52 444 308 4s 534 494 1878-'79 61 862 109 59 615 208 The revenue and expenditure for the year ending June 30, 1881, is taken in the budget estimate as $59,933,507. The estimates for 1882-'83 place the total at $66,814,122. Of the estimated receipts $42,945,853 come from the land-tax, and $10,512,806 from the tax on the manufacture of sake" and other alcoholic liquors. Only $2,600,330 are derived from cus- toms duties. The net profits of the railroads, mines, mint, and other public undertakings, are estimated at $2,001,166. Of the expendi- tures $23,293,204 are on account of the public debt, $15,055,592 for interest, and $8,237,612 for liquidation. The civil list and appanages amount to $1,398,785. The sum of $1,200,- 000 is set aside as a reserve against famines. The expenditures for the military are $8,605,- 872; for the navy, $3.161,692; for justice, $2,070,556 ; for provincial administration, $4,- 185,081 ; for police, $2,838,032. The Depart- ment of Agriculture and Commerce receives $1,000,300. Among the extraordinary expen- ditures are $5,260,000 reserved as a fund for the encouragement of industry, and $703,100 for industrial undertakings. There is a large domestic debt and a small foreign debt. The latter was raised in Eng- land, and consisted originally of a 9 per cent loan issued in 1870, of £1,000,000, and a loan of £2,400,000, bearing 7 per cent interest, which was placed in 1875, at the price of 92£. By the operation of a sinking fund the entire foreign debt had been reduced at the begin- ning of 1882 to £2,134,700. The home debt stood in July, 1880, as follows : LOANS AT — Amount. Four per cent $11.152,650 Five per cent 46,412,555 Six per cent 42,104,420 Seven percent 108.131,090 Eight per cent 32.245,275 Ten per cent 9,093,625 Without interest $229,139,615 . 9,211,776 Total $288,351,391 Paper money in circulation 108,683,204 Total home debt $847,034,595 The mountainous character of the Japanese islands is strikingly shown by the fact that the tillable plains, inclusive of the cultivated mountain- vales, form only about 12 per cent of the total area. Mountain and valley alter- nate constantly, the only considerable plains being the alluvial bottom-lands at the mouths of the larger rivers. The volcanic phenomena of these islands have not yet been examined to any extent. There are eighteen active and a much greater number of extinct volcanoes. Earthquakes are of continual occurrence, but destructive con- vulsions do not happen oftener than once in JAPAN. 441 twenty years on the average. Thermal springs are scattered all over the empire, and occur in places remote from the active volcanoes. They are counted by hundreds. Sulphur and neutral waters predominate, while decided chalybe- ate and alkaline springs are exceptional. The favorite temperature of 40-50° 0. is common; but some, notably the sulphur-baths, reach the boiling temperature. The Hakone Mountains, in the Peninsulas of Idju and Atami, are par- ticularly rich in hot springs. Geological explorations have, until a recent examination, which has been confided to Ger- man geologists, been confined to researches for useful minerals. Gold, silver, quicksilver, tin, zinc, and lead are present in no great quanti- ties; but copper and antimony are abundant, and coal and iron have been found in large quantities. Coal-beds have been discovered in numerous parts of the country, but principally on the Island of Yesso. They are not very thick nor of the best quality, but contain all varieties from the oldest anthracite to the most recent bituminous deposits. Petroleum is ob- tained in several provinces, but not in sufficient quantities to supply the home demand. The climate of Japan, allowing for the wide difference in latitude between the northern and southern portions of the island empire, is essentially regulated by the monsoons. It takes its character from the warm, moist south winds of the summer and the cold and raw north and northwest winds of the winter. The east and west coasts vary considerably in climatic character. The coast-lands on the Yellow and Japan Seas resemble the opposite coast of the Asiatic Continent in their hot and moist summer and long and relatively cold winter, while the other side of the islands, under the influence of the Kuro Siwo, is char- acterized by cooler summers and milder winters and by constant moisture throughout the year. The winter is so severe as to limit the period of vegetation for most plants to five months in Yesso, to six months in middle, and to seven months of the year in southern Japan; the growth of even the evergreen trees is inter- rupted. Even in the south vegetation is still very backward in April; but in the beginning of May commences the luxuriant and rapid development of a flora which is tropical in its profusion and variety. The rich and strange insular flora of Japan deserves the attention which botanists have given to it. The Japanese themselves, by their careful descriptions and drawings of plants, which they were prompted to make by their national love of flowers and by their cultivation of the ancient Chinese medical art, have assisted the systematic bota- nists considerably to understand these peculiar forms which throw a new light on the questions of the development of the vegetable kingdom and the geographical distribution of plants. The climatic paradoxes are exaggerated in the familiar illustration of the bamboo and the palm growing side by side with the fir and the evergreen oak. The bamboo reed is the product of artificial culture, and is not raised, except in spots, north of the Bay of Yeddo. The indigenous Cycas revoluta must be pro- tected at Tokio by straw bands from the wintry frosts. According to the seventh annual report of the Minister of Education, there are 28,025 common schools, of which 16,710 are public and the remainder private, an increase of 1,316 and 125 respectively within the year. There are, besides these, a great number of primary and kindergarten schools. The law of 1872 provided for the gradual establishment of 53,000 elementary schools. Of the 5,251,807 children of school age, 40 per cent are now re- ceiving instruction. In the 31 public and 358 private middle schools 20,000 pupils are in- structed. The zeal for knowledge attracts hundreds of students to the house of a private master, famed for thought and erudition, espe- cially in European culture, and is comparable only to that displayed in Europe at the time of the revival of letters. The most famous of these leaders of youth is Fukusawa, of Tokio, author of many treatises on political and social subjects and translations from European lan- guages. His students fill many important offices in the state. Some of them have estab- lished a newspaper, in which they criticise the acts of the Government with vigor and acu- men. There are 112 daily newspapers and 132 periodical journals, with an annual circulation of 33,500,000 copies. The direction of the ex- traordinary intellectual activity existing in Ja- pan is revealed in the character of the books licensed to be printed by the Interior Depart- ment. In 1881, 545 works on political subjects were issued, against 281 in 1880; 255 on law, against 207. In the natural sciences and math- ematics there was a decrease, in the latter, from 116 to 107 only. Books on ethical subjects in- creased from 32 to 93 ; on historical subjects, from 196 to 276 ; on poetry and poetical works, from 491 to 556 ; on drawing and writing, from 127 to 339 ; on engineering, from 8 to 28 ; on commerce, from 70 to 113. School-books are more numerous than any other class, 704 hav- ing been published, 4 less than the preceding year. There were 266 journals founded in 1880, of which 47 succumbed. Of the 149 new newspapers started in 1881 only 35 sur- vived. Only one paper of the 415 started in the two years was suppressed by the Govern- ment. The total number of works published in 1881 was 4,910, against 3,792 in 1880. Very many are translations or adaptations from Eu- ropean or American books. FOREIGN RELATIONS. — Japan, like China, is bound in its commercial treaties with Western nations, under the lead of England, by harsh restrictions as to the amount of duties it is allowed to impose upon imports. The Tokio statesmen have endeavored for one or two years to secure a relaxation of these conditions in order to raise the larger revenues which are 442 JEVONS, WILLIAM S. KANSAS. necessary for the redemption of the forced pa- per currency, the extinction of the puhlic debt, and the accomplishment of the important in- ternal reforms which have been undertaken by the Government. Having appealed in vain to the British Government for the revision of the treaties, they propose to call a conference at Berne between representatives of Japan and of the European states to agree upon a com- mon basis for new treaty arrangements. The commercial concessions granted, through the violent proceedings of Commodore Perry, to the United States in 1854, were promptly taken advantage of by England, which, how- ever, demanded far harsher conditions from the intimidated Shogun. Instead of the gen- eral import duty of 20 per cent ad valorem in Commodore Perry's treaty, the treaty extract- ed by Lord Elgin in 1858 restricts the tariff on cotton and woolen manufactures to 5 per cent. The case of O'Neil, tried for murder and con- victed of manslaughter by the United States consul at Hiogo, and afterward pardoned by the President, called up in Congress the ques- tion of the constitutionality of the laws confer- ring, in virtue of treaty arrangements, criminal jurisdiction on consuls, vice-consuls, and min- isters in Japan, China, and other countries of the East. Murders are almost never punished by these extra-territorial courts, because uni- versal feeling demands the verdict of a jury. JEVONS, WILLIAM STANLEY, English econo- mist, was drowned while bathing in the sea, near St. Leonard's, on August 13th. Professor Jevons was the son of an iron-merchant, and was born September 1, 1835. His mother was the daughter of the author William Roscoe, and herself wrote poetry. Her son was edu- cated in the Mechanics' Institution High-School at Liverpool and at University College, Lon- don. From 1853 to 1858 he was assayer to the Eoyal Mint in Sydney, Australia. He devoted his leisure to scientific observations, the fruit of which was " Data concerning the Climate of Australia and New Zealand." Returning to England, he completed his studies at Univer- sity College, graduating with honors and be- coming a Fellow. In 1866 he was appointed Professor of Logic and Philosophy, and Cobden Lecturer on Political Economy, in Owens Col- lege, Manchester. He published before this date works which established his fame as a thinker, a treatise on the "Value of Gold," one on the "Theory of Political Economy," and one on the "Coal Question." In the latter work he took the ground that the coal-supply in Great Britain would eventually become ex- hausted. His theory excited so much discus- sion that a royal commission was appointed to investigate the subject. Another work of the earlier period treated of " Pure Logic, or the Logic of Quality." After his connection with Owens College he published in 1869 his "Sub- stitution of Similars the True Principle of Rea- soning"; in 1870, "Elementary Lessons in Logic"; in 1871, the "Theory of Political Econ- omy " ; in 1874, the " Principles of Science " ; and, subsequently, " Money and the Mechan- ism of Exchange." In 1876 he left Owens Col- lege to take the professorship of Political Econ- omy in University College, London. A year before his death he gave up professorial duties to devote himself entirely to writing. In the " Principles of Science" were expounded his logical theories, which were a development of the mathematical method first applied by Boole. The " Theory of Political Economy " is the application of the same methods of reasoning to economics, and embodies his ripest ideas of the fundamental principles of that science. KANSAS. STATE GOVERNMENT.— The State officers during the year were as follow : Gov- ernor, John P. St. John, Republican ; Lieuten- ant-Governor, D. W. Finney; Secretary of State, James Smith ; Treasurer, John Francis ; Auditor, P. J. Bonebrake ; Attorney-General, W. A. Johnston ; Adjutant-General, P. S. No- ble ; Superintendent of Public Instruction, H. C. Speer ; Secretary of Board of Agriculture, F. D. Coburn ; Insurance Commissioner, Orrin T. Welch ; State Librarian, H. J. Dennis. Ju- diciary, Supreme Court : Chief-Justice, Albert H. Horton ; Associate Justices, David J. Brewer and D. M. Valentine. GENERAL CONDITION. — Referring to the gen- eral condition of the State at the close of the year, the new Governor, in his message to the Legislature, says : An abundant harvest has rewarded the husband- man for his labor ; the stock interests of the State nave been prosperous and remunerative, while labor has been fairly rewarded. All business has been reasonably productive, while the material wealth of the State has steadily and fairly increased, and demon- strates in an eminent and satisfactory manner that our State, while yet in its infancy, is capable of a de- velopment that will surprise the thoughtless, and create wonder and admiration in the minds of those who can appreciate the grand development of the past and contemplate its capabilities for the future. The Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture shows in his report that our wheat-crop was over 35,- 000,000 bushels, worth over $24,000,000, and over 157,000,000 bushels of corn, worth nearly $53,000,000, with a value of our cereal crops alone over $83,000,- 000, and a total value of all farm products of $108,177,- 520.93, while our live-stock interests represent a cash value of $83,874,530, making a showing of the capabilities of our young State that we can all re- joice at. FINANCES.— The cash in the Treasury at the close of the fiscal year amounted to $644,323.- 76, belonging to the several funds as follows: KANSAS. 443 General revenue $215,188 22 Capitol extension 5,882 28 Sinking fund 21,714 8T Interest fund 74,881 22 Permanent school fund 187,769 95 Annual school fund 10-3,726 00 Normal School permanent fund 8,578 71 Normal School interest fund 1,458 07 University permanent fund 10,695 82 University interest fund 6,767 99 Railroad fund 7,388 60 Military 272 08 Total $644.823 76 In addition to the cash in the Treasury, the sinking fund contained United States and State bonds to the amount of $218,125. The State debt falling due in July, 1883, amounts to $61,- 800, of which $32,000 is now in the sinking fund, $16,000 is held by the permanent school fund, $800 by the State University fund, $3,- 700 by the State Normal School fund, and $8,900 by individuals. On the 1st of July, 1884, $189,675 falls due, and of this amount $2,125 is held by the sinking fund, $47,425 by the permanent school fund, and $140,425 by individuals. The income to the sinking funds from interest on investments and from the present rate of taxation will be ample to meet these obligations. The next bonds fall due on the 1st of July, 1886, at which date $100,000 mature ; these, however, can be provided for by the Legisla- ture of 1885. The present rate of taxation of four tenths of one mill on the dollar, to pay interest on the bonded debt, will prove sufficient to meet all liabilities. The permanent school fund, in addition to the $187,769 cash in the Treasury at the close of the fiscal year, contained $2,280,121.07 in United States, State, and school district bonds. This fund is rapidly increasing, and further legislation will be necessary to provide for its judicious investment. For the past four years a tax of one half mill on the dollar has been annually levied for the purpose of build- ing the State Capitol. " I would suggest," says the Governor, " that this tax be discon- tinued, and that authority be given to bor- row, from time to time, as it may be found necessary to successfully carry on the work, from the uninvested school fund, paying in- terest thereon at the rate of 4 per cent per an- num." The amount subject to investment will soon be $350,000. The Legislature of 1879 discontinued the levy of a direct tax for school purposes, hence since that date the annual school fund has been derived wholly from the interest upon the in- vested permanent school fund, including inter- est on the unpaid principal of school lands sold, and the fifty-dollar tax on foreign insur- ance companies doing business in the State. This income from June 30, 1880, to June 30, 1882, amounted to the sum of $542,928.70, to which should be added the balance in the Treasury July 1, 1880, $116,000.48— making in all $659,029.19. The disbursements during the same period were $558,076.18, leaving a balance on hand, July 1, 1882, of $100,953.01. The sum col- lected by the several school districts of the State by direct taxation for educational pur- poses during the same period amounted to $2,791,825.85 — making the total amount ex- pended for the support of common schools in that time of $3,350,002.03. The State University permanent fund, at the close of the fiscal year, amounted to $48,723.- 59, of which amount $10,690.82 was cash in the Treasury, and $38,027.17 in State and school-district bonds. The income from the in- vested fund, together with the interest on the unpaid principal of university bonds sold, for the two years ending June 30, 1882, amounted to $12,106.05, to which should be added the balance of the interest fund in the Treasury, July 1, 1882, viz., $518— making a sum total of $12,624.05. Of this amount there was drawn from the Treasury during that period the sum of $5,851.05, leaving a balance on hand to the credit of the State University interest fund on July 1, 1882, of $6,767.99. The direct ap- propriations made by the Legislature for the support of this institution for the two years amounted to the sum of $64,000.12. Of this amount $63,826.79 was drawn from the Treas- ury, to which should be added the sum of $5,- 851.06 interest fund expended — making a total of $69,697.85. The permanent fund of the State Normal School at the close of the fiscal year, June 30, 1882, amounted to $35,073.71, $26,475 of which is invested in bonds of the State of Kansas and school-district bonds. The balance, $8,- 578.71, is cash in the Treasury. The income to this fund from July 1, 1880, to June 30, 1882, amounted to the sum of $20,308.07, derived from the interest on bonds and interest on the unpaid principal of sales of Normal School lands. The appropriations made by the Legis- lature to the State Agricultural College for the two years ending June 30, 1882, amounted to the sum of $36,729.09, of which $17,979.09 was paid for the purpose of restoring the en- dowment and income funds, and the balance for buildings and experiments. The following is a financial statement of the Henitentiary for the two years: Cash earnings $89.548 94 Coal furnished state institutions 12,691 31 Improvements and buildings 18,467 25 Total earnings $120,702 50 Total expenditures 120,045 99 Balance in favor of prison $656 51 The total assessed value of the railroad prop- erty in the State is $25,088,156.46; average per mile, $6,786.43 ; gross earnings, estimated, $45,000,000. The extent and assessed value of the several classes of railroad property for the year 1882 were as follow : Number miles of main track 3,697 Value per mile of main track $5,181 65 Total value of main track $19,155,571 00 444 KANSAS. Number miles of side track Average value of side track per mile $2,000 00 Total value of side track $891,290 00 Value per mile of rolling-stock $1,145 84 Total value rolling-stock $4,235,939 00 Value per mile of tools, machinery, moneys, credits, etc $9425 Total value of tools, machinery, moneys, cred- its, etc 1 $848,91129 Value of buildings $653,945 00 Total value of all property $25,0^8, 156 46 Average value per mile of all property $6,786 43 The amount of taxes for all purposes paid by the several railroad corporations in the State of Kansas for the year 1881 was $740,786.57. This amount does not include taxes paid on lands, hut includes only taxes paid on right of way, track, road-bed, rolling-stock, tools, ma- terials, etc. The following statement shows the taxes levied upon the property of the people of Kansas for the year 1881, for all purposes for which taxes are collected — State, county, city, township, and school district: State taxes $857,553 64 County taxes 2,178,846 84 City taxes 513.117 33 Townshiptaxes 612,377 16 School-district taxes 1,992,363 03 Total $6,154,258 00 Average rate on each $100, $8.60. The State debt amounts to $1,181,975. COUNTY DEBT. On July 1, 1880, the aggregate county indebtedness amounted to $7,676,894 Samedebtin 1882 8,036,736 An increase of. $356,842 TOWNSHIP DEBT. Township debt, July 1, 1880 $2,260,055 Township debt, July 1, 18s2 2,250,347 A decrease of $9,707 CITY DEBT. City debt July 1, 1880 $2.016,797 City debt, July 1, 1882 2,102,159 An increase of $85,662 SCHOOL-DISTRICT DEBT. School-district dsbt, July 1, 1880 $2,041,858 School-district debt, July 1, 1882 2,082,475 An increase of $40,617 Total debt — State, county, city, township, and school district— July 1, 1882, $15,653,994.72. This is an increase in the last two years in the aggregate debt, of $473,415, or 3 per cent. In the same period of time the taxable property of the State has increased 16 per cent. The ag- gregate debt of all kinds as stated above is equal to 8| per cent of the taxable property. STATISTICS. — According, to the Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture, there were in the State at the close of the year, 1,404,488 head of neat-cattle, valued at $49,192,408; 1,228,683 swine, valued at $12,286,830; and 980,767 sheep, valued at $2,942,301. The State has 9,000,000 acres of land under cultivation; $91,000,000 of taxable lands ; $22,- 000,000 of town lots ; $22,000,000 of railroad property ; $34,000,000 of personal property, or an aggregate taxable valuation of $170,000,000, the true valuation being $341,000,000. Of the 1,000,000 people in the State, 348,000 are of school age; 249,000 are enrolled, and 139,000 attend school. Eight thousand teach- ers are employed to teach in 5,752 school- houses, valued at $4,800,000. There have been planted in Kansas, since its settlement, forest- trees as follow : VARIETY. Acres. Walnut 9.512 Maple (mostly soft) 13,545 Honey locust 1,916 Cottonwood 47,363 Other varieties 67,659 Total acreage 139,995 The number of fruit-trees planted in the same time is as follows : VARIETY. Bearing. Non-bearing. 3,028,110 97,369 5,983,140 293,474 767,498 8,590,333 164,302 4,089,808 889,516 756,576 Pear Peach Plum Cherry Total 11,169,597 of fruit-trees 8,940,931 11,169,597 Grand total of the five varieties 20,110,128 As a rule, the forest-trees have been set out under the timber-culture act, but a number of thousands have been started by farmers and others who have not a timber claim. A rough estimate of the amount of sponta- neous growth in Kansas is 20 per cent of the number of acres set out. This would make 27,945 acres. GUBEKNATOEIAL RECOMMENDATIONS. — Th 6 Governor, in his message, makes the following observations and recommendations regarding the death -penalty, assessment of real estate, highways, etc.: The law fixing the death-penalty should "be amend- ed. As it now stands, it is left discretionary with the Executive to issue his warrant to carry out the sen- tence of the court. No one is willing to exercise dis- cretionary power in a case of life and death, while any Executive would obey the law and issue the warrant in such cases were it mandatory. The warrant then would issue as a matter of course, and the law, and not the Executive, would be responsible for its effect. Though I am clearly of the opinion that the court that renders the judgment and fixes the penalty of the law should provide for carrying into execution the sen- tence, I am aware that there is a divided sentiment as to whether or not the death-penalty should be in- voked in cases of murder. But this is no excuse for leaving the law in its present unsatisfactory condi- tion, as our manhood dictates that the death -penalty should be executed in a reasonable time after sen- tence, or that the horrors of an anticipated hanging should be ended by a sentence of imprisonment for life. The person who now commits the crime of mur- der, with all its attendant horrors, is on an equality with the criminal who steals but twenty dollars, and is free to murder his keeper, or the warden of the prison, with the assurance that a score of murders does not increase his punishment. There are now in the Penitentiary about twenty-five persons who are under the sentence of death, who have all the kindly treatment, and the benefits of all rules, and the laws KANSAS. 445 made to ameliorate the sad condition of prison-life, while the victims of their crime sleep in death, and the relatives of the deceased are taxed to feed and clothe the ones who robbed the wife of a husband, and the children of a father. The existing law is simply an evasion of a plain manly duty, and should be amended at once, though not made retroactive in its operations ; it should be certain as to the murders committed in the future. The present system of appraising or valuing real estate for taxation is very defective. This work is performed by to we ship trustees and city assessors, and thus in many counties there are a dozen or more persons engaged who have different ideas on the sub- ject of values, some interested in reducing them; while others may be giving honest and fair values to real estate, each appears to be anxious to have the land in his township valued less than the others in the county. This system results in great inequality of appraise- ment, even in the same county, and places the taxable value of the real estate far below what it should be. While this does not benefit the tax-payer, or reduce or increase the amount of tax necessary to be raised, it works _ a real injury to the State, and especially our municipal organizations, by making the rate of taxa- tion appear higher than it really is, and suggests to those not cognizant of the abuse of our system, a heavy rate of taxation, when in fact it is quite the re- ve rse. It also fails to show the rapid increase of values, and the true value of the taxable wealth of the State. _ I therefore recommend to your favorable considera- tion, as a means of remedying, in a measure, the more serious defects of the present system, the appointment or election of a county assessor, whose duty it should be to appraise real estate only, every third year, leav- ing trustees to appraise new structures, as now pro- vided by law. This would secure an equal, or at least a more uniform, valuation of real estate, would come nearer ascertaining the true value of the wealth of our State, reduce the rate of taxation from fifty to one hundred per cent, furnish a potent and con- clusive argument in favor of bringing wealth and population to our State, and take away all tempta- tion to reduce values . to save State taxation. It would also relieve county boards of the necessity of raising the value of each single tract of land in a town- ship, for the purpose of protecting some townships against the wrongs of an intentional low assessment in another. County boards have no authority now, under the law, to appropriate money out of the county Treasury for making or repairing roads. I have no special plan to suggest to remedy these defects of our road laws, but suggest that you give the matter serious attention, with a view of remedying the defects of the system, and securing better highways for the use of the pub- lic, in as economical and satisfactory a manner as possible. To this end I would recommend, however, that the Board of County Commissioners be authorized to levy a tax annually, not exceeding one mill on the dollar, to be used exclusively by the county board for the repair of, or grading roads, where public necessity may require such work to be done, as the means now provided by law are inadequate. There is no tax that could be levied that would be of so great a bene- fit to the farming interests, as one that could be used exclusively, in a prudent and economical manner, for the bettering of public highways, and none that will give a more immediate and beneficial return to the farmer for such a small expenditure. The Governor also recommends an increase in the number of judicial districts, the ap- pointment of a veterinary surgeon in connec- tion with the Board of Agriculture, and an in- crease in the capacity of the insane asylums. RAILROADS. — On the subject of railroads he says : In addition to these oppressive discriminations against localities and individuals, these corporations have for ten years persistently defied the law in re- fusing to comply with the enactment requiring them to establish and keep their general offices within the State, but have moved them beyond our limits, and now even deny and defy the jurisdiction of our courts, thus violating the will of the people in this regard. And perhaps one of the worst features of this vexed railroad problem is the constant tendency on the part of railroad managers to manipulate the politics of the State ; to seek not only to control conventions, to make platforms, to nominate and elect candidates, but also to improperly influence legislation by subsidizing and establishing newspapers, and by employing paid lobbyists to defeat proper legislation so that corpo- rate greed may still override and oppress the people. Hitherto these wrongs have been borne patiently, and the people in their magnanimity have given the rail- roads every opportunity to prove themselves the real friends of the State, and for that reason have post- poned legislative action, in the hope that these cor- porations would see the folly and injustice of their methods and adopt a wiser and more equitable policy. It seems, however, that forbearance on the part of the public has only emboldened these corporations to perpetrate still greater wrongs; for example, when it was ascertained that our wheat and corn crop of 1882 was a certainty, the railroads of the State at once advanced the rate of freight above the rate of last year, to such an extent as to place an additional burden upon the wheat and corn crops, amounting to over $1,500,000, so that, as we increase the agricultural products of Kansas, the railroads adopt the unnatural policy of advancing their rates, thus preventing a good crop from returning any more money to the producer than a poor one. Therefore I deem it my duty not only to call your attention to these evils, and to warn you of the danger of delay in dealing with thern^but also to impress upon you the following propositions : 1. That railroads are public highways, created' by the authority of the State, for the oenefit of the State. 2. That railroads are common carriers, and as such shall receive and have the right to demand just and reasonable compensation for service rendered, and have no legal or equitable rights to charge excessive or exorbitant rates. 3. That all persons have a right to their use, on like conditions. 4. That the Legislature has the right and power to regulate them in all these respects and particulars men- tioned, including the right to fix rates of freight and fare. With these propositions in view it is clearly the duty of the law-making power to exercise a most thorough, fearless, and just management and control of its corporations, including telegraph and express companies, so as to prevent these valuable adjuncts of the business of the State from becoming oppressive monopolies. And should the Legislature, in its wis- dom, deal with this important question as the public demand, and should it be decided that the railroads shall be placed under the control of a commission appointed for that purpose, I would fail in my duty to the State and to you did I not specially request that you shall fix by law, independent of any commission, the rate of passenger fare at three cents per mile, and that you provide by law, independent of any commission, that railroads shall be prohibited, under proper penalty, recoverable by civil action, from charging more" for a short distance than for a long dis- tance ; that you shall fix by law, independent of any commission, a low but just and fair maximum rate of freight for coal, wheat, corn, oats, broom-corn, cattle, sheep, hogs, and lumber, so that no contingency of weather or combinations shall deprive the public of fuel at reasonable rates, or prevent the agriculturist and stock-raiser from getting his produce to market at reasonable rates and in the quickest time, so as to 446 KANSAS. give him the advantage of the best markets, and ena- ble him to obtain a reasonable return from his labor and capital invested. Railroads should not be permitted to increase their rates on any articles transported by them, until thirty- days' notice posted in the station where the goods are received and delivered ; and they should not be allowed to increase the rates on car-lots by excessive terminal charges, or for switching ; and the rate per hundred pounds shall be specified in the shipping bill or receipt given for the article shipped, and the consignee should not be required to pay>a greater rate than that named in the shipping bill or receipt. The Union Pacific Railway Company, Kan- sas Division, received from the General Gov- ernment, in the way of subsidies, six million acres of public lands, of which four million acres are in Kansas and two millions in Colo- rado. Notwithstanding this company came into possession of the lands over twelve years ago, it has neglected to take out patents, for the sole purpose, as is alleged, of evading tax- ation. On the first day of January, 1882, the total number of acres patented to this com- pany by the Government was 883,772, leaving 3,116,228 acres of these lands still in the hands of the railroad company for all other purposes excepting taxation. These lands are to-day worth over $13,000,000; and, at the rate of levy by the several counties on adjacent tracts, more than $250,000 annually are thus with- held from the county and State Treasuries. Efforts have been made by the State to ob- tain an act of Congress compelling the com- pany to patent its lands. PKOHIBITION. — The Governor's observations on the prohibitory amendment are as follow : At the session of the Legislature of 1879, a proposi- tion to amend the Constitution of the State was adopted, to be submitted to the people at the general election, held November 2, 1880, in the following words : " The manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors shall be forever prohibited in this State, except for medical, scientific, and mechanical purposes." At the election in November, 1880, this proposed amendment to the Constitution was, by a majority of the votes cast upon that question, but not by a major- ity of the electors of the State, ratified, and became a part of the fundamental law of the State. The suc- ceeding Legislature, in 1881, enacted a law whose provisions were intended to make the constitutional inhibition in respect to the traffic in intoxicating liq- uors effectual and operative. The public policy embodied in this amendment and statute has been in force since their adoption, but during all that time this policy has been a failure, and injurious to the cause of genuine temperance, divert- ing immigration from our State, engendering strife in neighborhoods, promoting excessive litigation, load- ing down the dockets of the courts, making heavy cost bills to be paid by the people, inducing the clan- destine use of intoxicating liquors in club- rooms and in the homes of the people, setting a frightful example of the use of intoxicating liquors before the young, drinking to excess caused by the purchase of liquors in quantities, and losing to the cause of temperance good and sincere temperance people by the meddle- some interference with the habits and establish'ed customs of long standing of many good and worthy citizens, by busy-bodies whose only ambition was to magnify their own importance, instead of working for real temperance. It was premature, and indeed unfortunate, to have ingrafted into the fundamental law of the State a policy which from its nature was an experiment of doubtful utility and of uncertain success, and which has proved a failure wherever tried in other States. Whatever mutations attend the ordinary statute law, it is of the first importance that the body of constitu- tional laws should be permanent and inflexible in its character. During the last year of local option and license, the United States Revenue Office of Kansas issued 1,132 permits to sell intoxicating liquors, or one permit to 879 persons, placing Kansas as the first temperance State in the Union ; while in the first year of prohibi- tion there were issued 1,788 permits, an increase of 656, and also an increase of 58 per cent, or one permit to 551 persons, and taking Kansas from the first and ranking her the seventh temperance State, while in the first forty-five days of the second year of prohibi- tion, 1,148 permits were issued, sixteen more than in the whole year of local option and license. If we consider these facts in connection with the clandes- tine sales of intoxicating liquors, and consider the vast amount that is daily delivered to individuals in con- cealed packages, by express companies, we are forced to the conclusion that the cause of true temperance reform has not progressed very rapidly under our present coercive system. These, with other reasons that might be urged, con- strain me to invite your attention to the necessity, or at least the policy and wisdom, of submitting to the people, in accordance with the provisions of the Con- stitution, a proposition to repeal the prohibition clause in the Constitution, and to amend the existing statute, with a view to rendering it less offensive to the peo- ple, and more effective in its operation. These views ana suggestions are submitted in obedience to a pub- lic duty, rendered imperative by what I believe to be the wish of a large majority of the people who desire to enthrone true temperance, in lieu of the present free-liquor system. PARTY CONVENTIONS. — The Republican State Convention met in Topeka, on the 10th of August, and made the following nominations for State officers : Governor, John P. St. John ; Lieutenant-Governor, D. W. Finney ; Secre- tary of State, James Smith; Auditor, E. P. McCabe; State Treasurer, Samuel T. Howe; Attorney-General, W. A. Johnston; Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, H. C. Speer; Associate Justice of Supreme Court, I). J. Brewer. Governor St. John was renominated by a vote of 287 to 76 for all others. Mr. McCabe is colored. The following is the plat- form adopted: "We, the Republicans of the State of Kansas in dele- gate convention assembled, affirming our faith in and adherence to the principles of the Republican party, hereby express confidence in our present national and State administrations, and we pledge ourselves to their supportj and announce the following as our dec- laration of principles : Resolved, That we declare ourselves unqualifiedly in favor of the prohibition of the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors as a beverage, and pledge ourselves to such additional legislation a.s shall secure the rigid enactment of the constitutional provision upon this subject, in all parts of the State. Resolved^ That we demand the enactment of such laws as will prevent unjust discrimination by rail- road companies, and will provide for such freight and passenger tariff as shall fully protect the interests of the people. That we are in favor of the strict and immediate enforcement of all laws now on the statute-book for the regulation of railways. Resolved. That we request the Legislature of the State to submit to a vote of the women of the State the question of woman suffrage. KANSAS. 447 Resolved, That we request our delegation in Con- gress to secure such an amendment to the revenue laws as will prevent the issuing of receipts or stamps to sell intoxicating liquors to any persons other than those authorized so to do under State laws. Resolved, That we ask of the Eepublican majority of the Congress of the United States to pass such laws as will compel the railways of this State to take patents for the lands granted them from the public domain, to the end that all property in this State shall pay its just proportion of the taxes levied to sup- port the government. Resolved, That the Republicans of Kansas heartily indorse President Arthur's veto of the extravagant River and Harbor Bill, and the action of the united Kansas delegation in sustaining that veto. By other conventions the following nomina- tions were made for Representatives in Con- gress: First District, John A. Anderson; Second District, D. 0. Haskell ; Third District, Thomas Eyan ; at large, S. R. Peters ; at large, E. 1ST. Morrill; at large, Louis Han- back ; at large, B. W. Perkins. The Greenback State Convention met in Topeka, on the 22d of August, and made the following nominations : For Governor, Charles Robinson; Lieutenant-Governor, J. G. Bayne; Secretary of State, A. P. Elder ; Auditor, W. A. Garretson; Treasurer, J. H. Ludlow; At- torney-General, J. D. McBryan ; Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, J. S. Whitman; Associate Justice of Supreme Court, L. 0. Uhl ; Congressmen-at-large, H. L. Phillips, S. N. Wood, John Davis, and Allen Williams (colored). The Democratic State Convention met in Emporia, on the 30th of August, and nomi- nated the following ticket : Governor, George W. Glick, of Atchison ; Lieutenant-Governor, Frank Bacon, of Neosho County : State Treas- urer, Charles E. Gifford, of Clay Center ; Au- ditor of State, W. E. Brown, of Rice County ; Attorney-General, Moore ; State Superin- tendent, D. E. Lantz, of Riley County. The following were nominated for Congress- men-at-large: 0. A. Leland, of El Dorado; John C. O'Flanagan, of Pottaw attain ie. The platform adopted is substantially as follows: The Democratic party of the State of Kansas, in convention assembled, recognizinw the people as the source of all political power, and the Constitutions of the United States and the State of Kansas as the fun- damental laws of the land, and that the chief object and end. of government is to protect and defend its citizens in the enjoyment of life, liberty, and property, does declare its political faith and purposes. . . . 2. We will defend and ever maintain the doctrine of equal rights to all and special privileges to none, the protection of the weak against the strong, equal and just taxation, free speech, free press, free schools, and a free, uninterrupted ballot fairly given and hon- estly counted, freedom for all men and women of every race, creed, and color, and a perpetual and ab- solute separation of Church and State. 3. We demand a revision of the present unjust tariff laws of the United States : no kind of industry should be fostered by the Government to the injury of an- other; no class of men should be taxed directly or in- directly for the comfort, convenience, or interest of another; that every description of industry should stand or fall upon its own merits, and we especially demand that agricultural pursuits and productions be encouraged and made free from all unjust discrimina- tion in favor of gluttonous and selfish corporations. 4. We maintain that the State has and must retain the power to control and regulate the right and duties of all corporations created by it, and we demand that the Legislature exercise this power so as to protect the people against unjust discrimination and exorbi- tant charges for the transportation of freight and pas- sengers by railroad corporations, and we particularly demand the enactment of such laws as will compel all corporations existing by the favor of the laws of this State to keep and maintain their general offices with- in the State. . . . 7. We demand that the relations between capital and labor be so adjusted by wise and just legislation as to secure to each its last rights, and at the same tune to make it impossible for avarice and greed to override and imperil the rights, interest, personal freedom and independence of working-men ; and we demand that every law, combination, and policy that is unjust and too onerous upon those engaged in manual labor be removed and utterly destroyed. . . . 9. We demand an immediate reduction of taxes, Federal, State, and municipal, to the lowest rate suffi- cient to meet all public dues and obligations. So long as the people are burdened with debt, the industries of the country suspended by labor-strikes, and thou- sands of men out of employment by reason of the tyr- anny, avarice, and cupidity of exacting and oppressive monopolies, it is neither right nor just to collect money from the people to be squandered by an incompetent, reckless, and corrupt Congress in the pretended im- provement of stream-harbors and waterless rivers; and we further demand that the surplus money in the Treasury be applied in payment of our national debt. 10. We demand that the Congress of the United States propose and submit to the States for their action such amendments to our Federal Constitution as will accomplish the following objects : 1. The election of a President and Vice-President by a direct vote of the people. 2. The extension of the term of office of President and Vice-President to six years, and making the President ineligible for a second term. 3. The election of United States Senators by a direct vote of the people of the United States respectively. 4. Fix- ing the term of offices of Senators the same as the pres- idential term, and of Representatives in Congress at four years. 5. The election of postmaster by a direct vote of the people of the city, town, or district in which the office is located. 6. Biennial sessions of Congress. 7. The election for all Federal officers to be under the control of the Federal Government, and to be held at a time other than the time of holding State elections. . . . 12. We demand the enactment of additional and more stringent laws, both Federal and State, for the punishment of bribery and corruption in office, and to secure the purity of elections, general, special, and primary. 13. That we are opposed to monopolies of all kinds, believing them to be at war with the best interests of the country, imperiling its power, prosperity, and se- curity, and contrary to the genius and spirit of free institutions. . . . 15. We are opposed to national banks, and insist that gold, silver, and a greenback currency shall be the only money of the country. George W. Glick was born on the 4th of July, 1827, at Greencastle, Fairfield County, Ohio. The early years of his life were spent on a farm. He acquired a fair English educa- tion, and some knowledge of the higher mathe- matics, and the languages. He read law in the law-office of Messrs. Buckland & Hayes, the latter being afterward the President of the United States. Mr. Glick early took an active part in politics. In 1858 he was nominated 448 KANSAS. KENTUCKY. ATTORNEY-GENERAL . Johnston 99,177 Moore 57,026 McBryan 23,014 SUPERINTENDENT OP PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. Speer 99,269 Lantz 60.230 Whitman 23,305 ASSOCIATE JUSTICE. Brewer 98,806 Green 60,671 TJhl 21,146 by the Democratic Convention of his district for Congress, but declined the nomination. He was nominated the same year as the Democratic candidate for the State Senate, and ran against his preceptor, Mr. Buckland, being defeated, but running nearly 2,000 votes ahead of his ticket. He was elected Judge Advocate of the Second Regiment of the Seventeenth Division of the Ohio militia, with the rank of colonel, and was commissioned by Governor Chase. He removed to Kansas in the spring of 1859, The Legislature chosen at this election will located at Atchison, and resumed the practice consist of 37 Eepublicans, 2 Democrats, and of law. In 1874 Mr. Glick relinquished a lu- i Greenbacker in the Senate, and of 86 Repub- crative practice on account of a severe throat licans, 26 Democrats, and 13 Greenbackers in affection, giving his entire attention from that the House. date to the management of his fine farm, when MISCELLANEOUS. — A convention of colored not filling a public position. He served nine voters was held in Topeka in June, which terms in the Kansas Legislature — oftener than passed resolutions claiming recognition from any other citizen of the State. During five the Republican party in nominations for office, sessions of the House he was chairman of the During the year the Supreme Court decided that Judiciary Committee. In 1868 he was the Dem- the prohibition act, so far as it provides a pun- ocratic candidate for Governor, and ran 1,600 ishment for drunkenness, is unconstitutional, votes ahead of the Democratic candidate for On the ground that the title of the act only pur- President, ports to provide for the manufacture and sale ELECTION RETURNS. — The election in Novem- of liquor, and not for intoxication. This ren- ber resulted in the choice of the Democratic ders the section void under the clause in the candidate for Governor, while the other State Constitution which provides that the subject officers and the Congressmen elected are Re- of the law must be expressed in the title, publicans. The defeat of Governor St. John KENTUCKY. STATE GOVEENMENT. — The was due to his pronounced views in favor of State officers during the year were as fol- prohibition. The vote was as follows: low: Governor, Luke P. Blackburn, Demo- CONGRESSMEN-AT-LARGE. <™t J Lieutenant-Governor, James ECant- Peter8 99,866 well; Secretary of State, James Blackburn; Mowm'. '.'.'. '.'. '.'. '.'.'.'. '.'.'. '.V. V. "." "";.:..«.... 98,349 Treasurer, James W. Tate ; Auditor, Fayette ¥%*££::::::. ::::::;:;::::; :::::::: SIS Hewitt; Adjutant-General, Joseph p. Nuck- Wood .""".'.".'.'...............'........!!.......'.! 83^079 ols ; Superintendent of Public Instruction, J. 59,872 D Pickett . Attorney-General, W. P. Hardin; ::::::::::;:::;:::::::;:::::::::::::: IK* Register of Land-office, Ralph sheidon ; com- 22,243 missioner of Agriculture, Charles E. Bowman; Davis ^''yi Insurance Commissioner, L. C. Norman ; State FIRST CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT. Librarian, Mrs. Anna B. Cook. Judiciary, Moo?yson::::::v:.::v.v.:::v.:::::::::::::::::::::: nfsS court of Appeals: chief-justice, Joseph H. Lewis ; Associate Justices, T. F. Hargis, Thorn- Haskeil SEC°ND CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT; . 23,601 as H. Hines, and William S. Pryor. Ace™.. V.V.'.V.V.V.V.V." '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. .".'.".*.'.'.'.'."!.'.'.'.'." I9,'ii6 LEGISLATIVE ACTS. — The Legislature, which Taylor 5>T1° was in session at the beginning of the year, THIRD CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT. adjourned on the 24th of April, after a session £yan 86,181 of one hundred and forty-eight days. Among Co™011 '. '. .V.V 9,365 the acts passed are the following : STATE TICKET-GOVERNOR. . An ** ,to Prescribe the mode of condemn- 8t John 75,158 ing land for the use of railroad and turnpike GHck ...... 83,239 companies; an act providing that the stated Eobinson 20,933 bienniai sessions of the Legislature shall here- LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR. after Degin on foe 30th of December, or the Son7::::::::::.: :::::':::.::::::::::::::::::::::: S^M? day following, if that be Sunday; an act pre- BayneV.V. ................!.!.................!!... 23^800 scribing that the fiscal year shall hereafter end SECRETARY OP STATE. on the 30th of June ; an act to amend an act Smith 99,282 to establish a State Board of Health, to pro- Igj? ; ; gg vide for the appointment of local boards of health and superintendent, and acts amenda- McCabe.. _ 86,160 tory thereof; an act to require railroad com- Brown .!'..'!!!.".".!!!!! 1 !!!!."! I "I." .'*.".'.*.*«! I! !!! I eeaso panics to post notices of delays in passenger Garretson 24'603 -trains; an act to apportion the State into STATE TREASURER. eleven congressional districts, as follow : Giffbrd'. ! ', ". " 60 55S First District, composed of the counties of Fulton, Ludlow. .'...'.'.'.. ....... 1 '..'!."!.".*.'. V.V. V.V. V.V. '.'.'.'.! II 23,'807 Hickman, Graves, Bollard, McCracken, Marshall, Cal- KENTUCKY. 449 loway, Trigg, Lyon, Livingston, Crittenden, and Cald- well. Second District, of the counties of Christian, Hop- kins, Webster, Union, Henderson, McLean, Daviess, and Hancock. Third District, of the counties of Muhlenberg, Todd, Logan, Butler, Edmonson, Warren, Simpson, Allen, Monroe, Cumberland, and Clinton. Fourth District, of the counties of Ohio, Grayson, Breckenridge, Meade, Hardin, Bullitt, Nelson, Larue, Marion, and Washington. Fifth District, of the county of Jefferson. Sixth District, of the counties of Trimble, Carroll, Gallatin, Grant, Boone, Kenton, Campbell, and Pen- dleton. Seventh District, of the counties of Oldham.Henry, Owen. Franklin, Scott, Harrison, Bourbon, Fayette, and Woodford. Eighth District, of the counties of Shelby, Spencer, Anderson, Mercer, Boyle, Lincoln, Garrard, Jessa- mine, Madison, Kockcastle, Jackson, Owsley, and Laurel. Ninth District, of the counties of Bracken, Mason, Eobertson, Nicholas, Fleming, Bath, Eowan, Lewis, Greenup, Carter, Boyd, Lawrence, Johnson, and Martin. Tenth District, of the counties of Pike, Letcher, Floyd, Magoffin, Morgan, Elliott, Menifee, Wolfe, Powell, Montgomery, Clark, Estill, Lee, Breathitt, Perry. Clay, Leslie, Knox, Bell, and Harlan. Eleventh District, of the counties of Whitley, Wayne. Pulaski, Casey, Eussell, Adair, Taylor, Green, Metcalie, Barren, and Hart. An act was also passed establishing a Su- perior Court, to be held in Frankfort. The principal features of this act appear in the fol- lowing extracts : SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, That there is hereby established a court of justice for the Commonwealth of Kentucky, known as the Superior Court, to consist of three judges, who shall have the same qualifica- tions as are now required by law for judges of the Court of Appeals. Any two of them may constitute a court for the transaction of business. On the first Monday in August, 1882, there shall be elected by the qualified voters of this Commonwealth three persons, qualified as aforesaid, as judges of said court, whose term of office shall commence on the first Monday in September, 1882, and continue until the first Monday in September, 1886. They shall determine by lot who shall be the presiding judge. The State shall bo di- vided into three Superior Court districts, and one judge of said court shall be elected from each of said districts by the qualified voters thereof. SEO. 2. The Superior Court shall have exclusive ap- pellate jurisdiction over the final orders and judg- ments of all other courts of this Commonwealth that the Court of Appeals now has, except as provided in this act ; and all the laws now in force in regard to appeals to the Court of Appeals, and the trial thereof, shall be applicable to appeals to the Superior Court, unless otherwise provided in this act. SEC. 3. The Superior Court shall not have appellate jurisdiction of any appeal where there is involved (1) the validity of a statute ; (2) the title to a freehold or right to a franchise ; (3) nor in cases of felony, (4) the probate of a will, (5) judgments for money or per- sonal property, if the value in controversy be greater than $3,000, exclusive of interest and co'st ; and the said court shall have the original jurisdiction in fiscal cases heretofore vested in the Franklin Circuit Court by Article IX of chapter 28 of the General Statutes, and so much of said chapter as vested said jurisdiction in the Franklin Circuit Court is hereby repealed, and the terms of said Superior Court for the hearing of fiscal cases shall be as provided for the Franklin Circuit Court in said chapter. SEC. 5. The Court of Appeals shall have appellate VOL. xxii. — 29 A jurisdiction over the final orders and judgments of the Superior Court Jn all cases except the following: 1. Those for fines,* or for the recovery of money or per- sonal property, where the amount of the fine, or the value in controversy, is less than $1,000, exclusive of interest and costs. 2. Those where the judgments of the lower court have been affirmed by the Superior Court without a dissenting vote ; but if, in any case coming within either of the above exceptions, any two of the judges of the Superior Court shall certify that, in their opinion, the question involved is novel, and is one of sufficient importance, the party against whom the decision was rendered shall be entitled to take the same by appeal to the Court of Appeals, as in other cases. SEO. 17. The judges of the Superior Court shall each receive an annual salary of three thousand six hundred dollars, to be paid monthly out of the Treas- ury. SEO. 22. The Superior Court shall have original ju- risdiction of escheats ; and all acts, or parts of acts, inconsistent with this section, are hereby repealed. The three judges were subsequently duly elected, and the court was organized, Judge Bowden becoming the presiding judge. Another act is entitled " An act to prevent extortion and discrimination in the transpor- tation of freight and passengers by railroad corporations, and, in aid of that purpose, to establish a Board of Railroad Commissioners, and define its powers and duties." The following are the chief provisions of this important act : SECTION I. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the Commonwealth of Kentucky, If any railroad corporation shall willfully charge, collect, or receive more than a just and reasonable rate of toll or com- pensation for the transportation of passengers or freight in this State, or for the use of any railroad-car upon its track, or upon any track of which it has con- trol or the right to use in this State, it shall be guilty of extortion, and, upon conviction, shall be punished as prescribed by this act. SEC. 2. If any railroad corporation shall willfully charge, collect, or receive from any person or persons, for the transportation of any freight upon its railroad, a higher or greater rate of toll or compensation than it shall at the same time charge, collect, or receive from any other person or persons for the transportation of the like quantity of freight of the same class, being transported from the same point, in the same direction, over equal distances of the same railroad, or if it shall charge, collect, or receive from any person or persons, for the use and transportation of any railroad car or cars upon its railroad, a higher or greater sum than it shall at the same time charge, collect, or receive from any other person or persons for the use or transporta- tion of a car or cars of the same class for a like pur- pose, from the same point, hi the same direction, and an equal distance ; all such discriminating rates, charges, or collections, whether made directly or by- means of any rebate, or other shift or evasion, shall be considered and taken as prima facie evidence of discrimination, which is hereby prohibited and de- clared unlawful, and shall be punished as prescribed by this act. When one or more car-loads of freight shall be transported at the same time for different per- sons, and for each shipper a car-load or more, such shipments shall be considered and taken as the same quantity of freight within the meaning of this act; and when less than a car-load of freight, and over five thousand pounds, are transported at the same time for different shippers, and for each shipper over five thou- sand pounds, such shipments shall be considered and taken as the same quantity of freight ; and when over five hundred pounds, and less than five thousand pounds, are transported at the same time for different 450 KENTUCKY. shippers, and for each shipper said quantity of freight, such shipments shall be considered and taken as the same quantity of freight. SEC. 3. Nothing contained in this act shall be con- strued to prohibit railroad corporations from issuing commutation, excursion, or thousand-mile tickets, as are now issued, nor as controlling the rates of freight which come from and go beyond the boundaries of the State, nor as excluding other evidence of extortion or unlawful discrimination. SEC. 4. Any railroad corporation that shall be guilty of extortion or unlawful discrimination shall, upon conviction, be fined, for the first offense, in any sum not less than one hundred dollars, nor more than one thousand dollars ; and, upon a second conviction, in any sum not less than five hundred dollars, nor more than two thousand dollars ; and, upon a third con- viction, hi any sum not less than two thousand dol- lars, nor more than five thousand dollars. The circuit court, or court of similar jurisdiction, of any county into or through which the line of railroad may run owned by the corporation alleged to be guilty as aforesaid, shall have jurisdiction of the offense, which shall be prosecuted by indictment or by action in the name of the Commonwealth, upon information filed by the Board of Railroad Commissioners ; and, in all prose- cutions and actions against railroad corporations un- der this act, a preponderance of the evidence shall govern and control the jury in making their verdict. And such railroad corporation shall also be liable in damages to the party aggrieved to three times the amount of the damages sustained, together with costs of suit and a reasonable attorney's fee, to be fixed by the court. SEC. 5. The Governor, during the present session of the General Assembly, shall, by and with the ad- vice and consent of the Senate, appoint three compe- tent persons as commissioners, who shall constitute a Board of Railroad Commissioners, who shall hold their offices until the next meeting of the General As- sembly, and until their successors are appointed and qualified. At the next meeting of the General As- sembly, and every two years thereafter, the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint three competent persons as such com- missioners, who shall hold their offices for the term of two years from the first Monday in the year of their appointment, and until their successors are appointed and qualified. For the purposes of this act, the State shall be divided into three districts, to be called the Eastern, the Middle, and the Western Districts, and the Governor shall appoint one commissioner from each district, who shall now be, and shall continue to be during his term of office, a resident of the district from which he is appointed. SEC. 6. No person shall be appointed as such com- missioner who is under twenty-five years of age, or who is directly or indirectly interested in any stock, bond, or other property of, or is in the employment of any railroad company ; and no person appointed as such commissioner shall, during the term of his office, become interested in any stock, bond, or other prop- erty of any railroad company, or be employed by any railroad company. The Governor shall have power to fill vacancies in the office of any such commissioner until the meeting of the Senate. SEC. 8. Each of said commissioners shall receive for his services the sum of not exceeding two thousand dollars per annum, payable quarterly ; they shall be furnished with an office, furniture, and stationery at the expense of the State. The total sum to be ex- pended by said commissioners for office-rent, furni- ture, and stationery shall not exceed eight hundred dollars per annum. The office of said commission- ers shall be kept at Frankfort. SEC. 9. Every railroad company shall, on or before the first day of September in each year, make and transmit to the commissioners, at their office in Frankfort, under oath of the proper officers of the corporation, a full and true statement of the affairs of said corporation as the same existed on the first day of the preceding July, specifying : 1. The amount of capital stock paid up, and the names of the owners thereof, and the amounts owned by each, and the residence of each stockholder as far as known. 2. The amount of its assets and liabilities. 3. The names and place of residence of its general officers. 4. The amount of cash paid to the company on ac- count of the original capital stock. 5. The amount of funded debt. 6. The amount of floating debt. 7. The estimated value of the road-bed, including iron and bridges. 8. The estimated value of rolling-stock. 9. The estimated value of stations, buildings, and fixtures. 10. The estimated value of other property. 11. The length of single main track. 12. The length of double main track. 13. The length of branches, stating length of single and of double track. 14. The aggregate length of siding and other tracks not above enumerated. 15. The number of miles run by passenger trains duringthe year preceding the making of the report. 16. The number of miles run by freight trams dur- ing the same period. 17. The number of tons of through freight carried, and the number of tons of local freight during the same time. 18. The monthly earnings for the transportation of passengers during the same time. 19. The monthly earnings for the transportation of freight during the same time. 20. The monthly earnings from all other sources respectively. 21. The amount of expenses incurred in running of passenger trains during the same time. 22. The expense incurred in running freight trains and in running mixed trains during the same time. 23. All other expenses incurred in the management of the road, including the salaries of officers, which shall be reported separately. 24. The amount expended for repairs of road and maintenance of way, including repairs and renewals of bridges and renewals of iron. 25. The amount expended for improvements, and whether the same are estimated as a part of the ex- penses of operating or repairing the road, and if either, which ? 26. The amount expended for motive power and cars. 27. The amount expended for station-houses, build- ings, and fixtures. 28. All other expenses for maintenance of way. 29. All other expenses for other purposes. 30. The rate of fare for passengers for each month for the same time, through and way passengers sepa- rately. 31. The tariff of freights, showing each change of tariff during the same time, and a copy of each pub- lished rate for passengers and freight issued to its agents during the same time, and whether the pub lished rates were those actually received ; if not, what were received. 32. The number of tons of freight carried one mile. 33. The amount received per ton per mile. 34. The average distance each ton was hauled, and the average cost of hauling a ton of freight one mile. 35. What freight and transportation companies run on its road, and on what terms, and whether such transportation companies use the cars of the railroad company, or cars furnished by themselves. 36. Whether the freight or cars of such transporta- tion companies are given any preference in speed or order of transportation ; and if so, in what particular ? SEC. 10. The said commissioners may propound any additional interrogatories, which shall be answered by KENTUCKY. 451 such companies in the same manner as those specified in the foregoing section. SEC. 11. Said commissioners shall, on or before the first day of December in each year, and oftener if required by the Governor to do so, make a report to the Governor of their doings for the preceding year, containing such facts as will disclose the practical workings of the system of railroad transportation in this State, and such suggestions in relation thereto as to them may seem appropriate. SEC. 12. Said commissioners shall examine into the condition, management, and all other matters con- cerning the business of railroads in this State, so far as the same pertain to the relation of such railroads to the public ; and whether such railroad corporations, their officers, and employe's, comply with the laws of this State. And whenever it shall come to their knowledge, or they shall have reason to believe that the laws Wrecting railroad corporations in their busi- ness relations to the public have been violated, they shall prosecute, or cause to be prosecuted, the corpo- rations or persons guilty of such violation. SEC. 13. Said commissioners shall have power to examine, under oath, the directors, officers, agents, and employes of any railroad corporation concerning the management of its affairs, and to obtain informa- tion pursuant to this act; and shall have power to issue subpoenas for the attendance of witnesses, and to administer oaths. In case any person shall willfully refuse or fail to obey such subpoena, it shall be the duty of the circuit court, or any court of similar juris- diction of the county, upon application of said com- missioners, to issue an attachment for such wltnessess and compel them to attend before the commissioner, and give testimony upon such matters as may be law- fully required of them, and may punish for contempt as in other cases. SEC. 15. Every corporation, and every oflicer or agent that shall willfully neglect or refuse to make any report required in this act at the time herein required:, or who snail intentionally hinder and obstruct said commissioners in the discharge of the duties hereby imposed upon them, shall be fined in the sum of not less than fifty nor more than one hundred dollars, to be recovered upon an indictment, or by an action in the name of the Commonwealth, to be instituted by said commissioners. SEC. 17. This act shall not apply to any street rail- road. SEC. 18. The term railroad corporation, as used in this act, shall be construed to include any person, association, or company operating a railroad, whether incorporated or not. And any association, company, or corporation extorted upon, or discriminated against, shall be included in the term person, as used in this act.- SEO. 19. Said commissioners shall hear and de- termine complaints under the first and second sec- tions of this act. Such complaints shall be made to said commissioners in writing, and they shall give the company complained of not less than ten days' notice of the time and place of hearing the same. They shall hear the evidence of the parties, and award judgment as authorized by this act. Unless the same be satis- fied, the chairman shall, within ten days, file a copy of said award in the office of the clerk of the circuit court of the county which, under the Code of Practice, would have jurisdiction of such controversy, on which execution shall issue as on other judgments : Pro- vided, That any party dissatisfied with said award may, within ten days, file a traverse thereof with the clerk of said court, who shall docket the same for trial at the next term. If the matter in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, said court, on demand 01 either party, shall impanel a jury to try the same. If it does not exceed that sum, the court shall hear and summarily decide the same without the intervention of a jury. D. Howard Smith, W. B. Machen, and W. M. Beckner, were appointed commissioners under this act, and the board was organized in May. Acts were also passed repealing the capitation tax of one dollar on each male colored person above the age of twenty-one years ; providing for the assessment and collection of a tax upon distilled spirits ; providing for taking the sense of the people at the next general election for representatives, as to the propriety of calling a convention to revise the Constitution. A joint committee from the Senate and House was created during the session to visit the convicts leased to contractors and worked without the walls of the Penitentiary, to in- vestigate their treatment and management, and to ascertain whether or not they were clothed and dieted, and given medical attention, guard- ed, housed, and worked as required by law. They made a report of which the following is the concluding portion : " We unhesitatingly recommend an immediate repeal of the law establishing the leasing system ; that the con- tracts with the lessees, violated in every par- ticular, be immediately annulled, and the con- victs withdrawn." STATISTICS. — The Auditor's report shows: That 8,772 sheep, valued at $21,080, were killed by dogs in 1881. That there were 461,226 hogs over six months old, a decrease of 222,851 as compared with 1880. That there were 308,- 492 white voters in 1881, and 51,776 negro voters; the former being an increase of 1,638, and the latter a decrease of 4,869, since 1880. That the average valuation of property as- sessed to each male over twenty-one years of age was $940.50 in 1880, and $741.25 in 1881, being a decrease of $199.25. That there were 412,028 white school-children between six and twenty years of age, and 47,924 colored in 1880, but only 406,095 white and 44,930 col- ored in 1881. That Christian County raises the most corn, and Madison next, while Bour- bon, Boyle, Fayette, Jackson, Johnson, Mer- cer, and Oldham raised none either in 1880 or 1881. The assessed value of railroad property in 1882 was $34,171, 857; miles assessed, 1,675. One hundred and two insurance companies were doing business in the State at the begin- ning of 1881. Of this number ninety-two were fire and ten life insurance companies. The paid-up capital of the fire companies, including $200,000 deposit of each of the for- eign companies, was $47,707,200, being an in- crease, as compared with the previous year, of $6,399,990. The risks written in the State during the year 1881 amounted to $128,208,- 661. Total premiums received by the compa- nies, $1,558,957.94. Total losses paid, $654,- 528.50, showing net receipts of companies of $904,529.44. The business of fire insurance shows a large increase during the year. The ten life companies held at the beginning of the year on lives of citizens of the State, 11,152 policies, insuring $28,766,383. At the end of the year there were in force 11,820 452 KENTUCKY. policies, insuring $30,231,199. The premiums received by the companies amounted to $811,- 397.11, and losses and claims paid to $441,- 622.18. The taxes paid to the State amounted to $14,172.89, and the expenses of the Insurance Bureau were $9,761.82, leaving a surplus of $4,555.98 placed to the credit of the State rev- enue. The amount of whisky produced annually in Kentucky since 1862 is as follows: YEAR. Gallons. 1863 857,739 1864 472,092 1865 832,272 1666 513,720 1867 514,400 1868 403,568 1869 7,018,306 1870 11,082,082 1871 5,870,002 1872 5,203,071 1873 5,244,663 YEAR. Gallons. 1874... .. 6,982,709 1S75 9,399,338 1876 6,245,717 1877 7,889,151 1878 6,371,965 1879 8,111,781 1880 15,011,279 1881 31,869.047 30,386,456 Total 150,280,258 The State Commissioner of Agriculture gives the following statement of crops for 1882 : Acreage. Bushels. Wheat ... 1 436 705 17 156 646 Oats 805,974 5,498 740 Eye 251,667 3,118,669 Hav (tons) 664,336 2 778 048 Corn 2 875 041 60 918 238 The valuable deposits of coking coals, which have added such wealth to Pennsylvania and West Virginia, have been traced and identified in the valleys of the Cumberland, the Ken- tucky, and the Big Sandy, of a thickness of seven or eight feet. The report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction shows that in the white depart- ment, at the close of the year ending June 30, 1880, there were 6,177 school districts, an in- crease over the previous year of 109 districts. In these there were 6,136 schools taught, an increase over the previous year of 101 schools. The number of children enrolled in cens'us reports for that year was 478,554, an increase over the previous year of 1,684. The highest number attending school was 245,358. There was a difference of 66,526 between the census of children as reported to the superintendent, and the census as taken by assessors and re- ported to the auditor, the former being that much in excess of the latter. The total aver- age per capita for that year from all sources was $2.08 + . In the same department for the year ending June 30, 1881, the number of school districts was 6,244, a gain of sixty-nine districts. The number of districts in which schools were taught was 6,189, a gair of fifty-three. The number of children enrolled that year was 483,404, a gain over the previous year of 4,850. The highest attendance reported was 238,440, showing a decrease of 6,918. The difference between the number of children reported to the superintendent and that reported to the auditor for the year was 79,957. The total average per capita for that year was $2.24+, an increase of 0.16 + . In the colored department for the year end- ing June 30, 1881, the number of school dis- tricts was 804, an increase over the previous year of thirty-one districts. The number of schools taught was 718, an increase of twenty- one over the previous year. The number of children enrolled was 70,234, an increase of 3,670 over the previous year. The average attendance is not given. The per capita for these years was 58 cents, an increase over the previous year of 10 cents. POLITICAL AND TEMPERANCE CONVENTIONS. — The Democratic State Convention met in Frankfort on the llth of January, and nomi- nated for Clerk of the Court of Appeals, Cap- tain Thomas J. Henry, of Morgan County. The following is the platform adopted : 1. The Democracy of Kentucky, in State Conven- tion assembled, reassert their devotion to the princi- ples of the party, national and State, as enunciated in the platforms promulgated by the last National Con- vention held at Cincinnati, and the State Convention at Louisville, and relying on the intelligence, justice, and patriotism of the people, fearlessly appeal for the continuance of their support. 2. That the recent interference of the Federal Ad- ministration in the local politics of the States, and the efforts, by the dispensation of its patronage, to ma- nipulate and control State elections, are deserving of the severest denunciation. We declare such practices to be in the highest degree degrading to the civil ser- vice, obstructive to reform, and dangerous to the lib- erties of the people. The nominee had been a Confederate officer, and his nomination intensified a feeling which had been some time growing among the Demo- crats of the State who were supporters of the Union during the war that the organization of that party was in the hands of Confederates, and was used to ostracize Unionists. Colonel E. T. Jacob was placed in nomination by the dissatisfied element, and was supported by the Eepublicans. Captain Henry encountered fur- ther opposition from an indiscretion committed early in the canvass. A Temperance Convention of the ministers of Kentucky was held in Lexington on the 15th of February and the following days, which adopted the following resolutions : Resolved, That while we give our vigorous support to all just means and efforts to suppress intemperance, even when these means and these efforts are imper- fect, yet we believe that the only righteous and logical and only thoroughly effectual end to be aimed at is the prohibition by law. State and Federal, of the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors for the purpose of drinking : and that we will in all our ef- forts always keep this final aim in view. Resolved, That we regard as a most efficient means of success, in the war against the great evil we are ighten and direct the public mind and awaken and stimulate the conscience of the people. Resolved, That it is the opinion of this convention that the liquor-traffic in its results is subversive of the great purposes of the Church, and should not be toler- ated by the churches in their members. KENTUCKY. LABOR, MOVEMENTS OF. 453 A meeting of Prohibitionists was also held later in the year, in Louisville, which adopted the following resolutions : Resolved, That we deem it expedient that a State Convention be called for the purpose of nominating a State ticket representing the principles of the Prohi- bition party, and that we recommend said mass-con- vention to be held in the city of Louisville on Feb- ruary 19, 1883, at 12 M. Resolved, That this Conference earnestly and cor- dially invite the people of Kentucky favoring the pro- hibition of the liquor-traffic, irrespective of all political sentiments and affiliations, to attend this convention, and that each county be urged to send a delegation. ELECTION RETURNS. — The election on the 7th of August resulted in the choice of Captain Henry, the vote being as follows : Henry, 115,- 681; Jacob, 75,464; Alexander Lush, 4,392. The act providing for an additional tax for the common schools was ratified by the following vote : for, 114,324 ; against, 97,636. For Judge of the Court of Appeals in the Third Appellate District, Joseph H. Lewis received 26,715 votes and W. E. Russell 19,709. For Judges of the Superior Court the following were elected: First District, J. H. Bowden, by a vote of 43,- 721, against 218 ; Second District, A. E. Rich- ards, by 48,411 votes; Third District, Richard Reid, by 52,222 votes. In November, Republic- an Congressmen were elected in the Ninth and Tenth Districts, an Independent Democrat in the First, and Democrats in the other eight. The following are the returns by districts : FIRST DISTRICT. Oscar Turner, Independent Democrat 8.705 J. E. Grace, Democrat 7,627 H. H. Houston, Republican 5,803 SECOND DISTRICT. J. F. Clay, Democrat 5,747 Others 2,380 THIRD DISTRICT. J. G. Halsell, Democrat 18,546 W. G. Hunter, Republican 18,356 SIXTH DISTRICT. John G. Carlisle, Democrat SEVENTH DISTRICT. J. C. S. Blackburn, Democrat 11,789 J. W. Asbury, Republican 6,651 EIGHTH DISTRICT. P. B. Thompson, Jr., Democrat 11,202 R. L. Ewell, Republican 10,335 NINTH DISTRICT. "W". W. Culbertson, Republican 11,217 J. Smith Hartt, Democrat 9,948 TENTH DISTRICT. John D. White, Republican 14,240 G. M. Adams, Democrat FOURTH DISTRICT. T. A. Robertson, Democrat 5,878 W.H. Parrish, 1,964 FIFTH DISTRICT. A. S. Willis, Democrat 6,492 Silas Miller, Republican 8,557 J. M. Hunter, Prohibition 835 monies. ELEVENTH DISTRICT. Frank Wolford, Democrat . . .11,999 D. R. Carr, Republican 9,934 MISCELLANEOUS. — A crime committed in Boyd County created great local excitement, and attempts were made to lynch the supposed culprits, Neal and Craft. The local authorities became incompetent to protect the prisoners, and Judge Brown called upon the Governor for troops to protect the court and prisoners dur- ing the hearing of an application for a change of venue, to take place before him at Catletts- burg on the 31st of October. Troops were furnished, commanded by Major John R. Allen. The place of trial was changed to Carter County, and the prisoners were directed by the judge to be taken by the troops to Lexington, for safe keeping until the trial. The troops were threatened while embarking on a steamer with the prisoners, by a mob from Ashland, and, while passing down the river, were attacked at that point by members of the mob from a ferry-boat, who fired upon them, wounding several. The troops returned the fire, killing some on the ferry-boat and on the wharves. After this the prisoners were taken to Lexing- ton without opposition. On Saturday, August 19th, the one hun- dredth anniversary of the battle of Blue Licks was celebrated on the battle-field with ap- propriate and numerously attended cere- LABOR, MOVEMENTS AND AGITA- TIONS OF. The partial failure of the crops in the United States in 1881 was followed in the spring of 1882 by an increase in the price of all kinds of provisions. This bore heavily upon the working-men of all trades, whose wages had been adjusted to the lower market rates of good seasons ; at the same time employers were not disposed to grant any advance in wages, for they were all feeling the burden of a depression resultant upon a diminished de- mand for their goods, and were anticipating further declines in the markets. The situation created great discontent among the working- men, which found expression in combined de- mands for increased wages, and, when these were refused, in strikes. Numerous establish- ments in the different manufacturing centers were individually affected by these strikes for a longer or shorter time. In many instances the strikes were met by combinations of em- ployers and lock-outs. In a few instances these deadlocks occurred on so extensive a scale that they prostrated a whole line of business, as in the strike of the iron-workers of the West, or, like that strike, and the strike of the freight- handlers of the railroads terminating in New York city, affected very large districts of the country. THE KNIGHTS OF LABOR. — A new element of 454 LABOR, MOVEMENTS AND AGITATIONS OF. strength has been given to movements of this kind in recent years by the appearance as a directing and supporting force of the society called the Knights of Labor, which has become one of the most important and effective or- ganizations of working-men in the United States. It has grown up out of a secret pro- tective union of garment-cutters, that was formed in Philadelphia in 1869, at the instiga- tion of Mr. Uriah S. Stevens. The principles of the organization were extended in 1873 to the other trades of the city ; and two years afterward the strength of the local assemblies of Philadelphia having increased to fifteen thousand members, a district assembly, com- posed of delegates from the local unions, was organized. An extension of the organization to other cities and States was begun at about this time ; and in 1878, several hundred local assemblies having been formed, a general as- sembly was constituted as the legislative body for the entire order. At a meeting of the del- egates from fifteen districts, held at Reading, Pa., a " national resistance fund " was also es- tablished at this meeting, to be made up of contributions of five cents each month, from each member of the order, and to be kept for the assistance of "brothers in need against the aggressions of employers." The objects of the order are declared in the preamble of its con- stitution to be the unification of labor, with the object of putting a check upon the power of aggregated wealth and upon unjust accumula- tion, and of obtaining the adoption of a sys- tem which will secure to the laborer the fruits of his toil. It therefore seeks " to bring with- in the fields of organization every department of productive industry, making knowledge a stand-point for action, and industrial moral worth, not wealth, the true standard of indi- vidual and national greatness ; to secure to the toilers a proper share of the wealth they create, more of the leisure that rightfully be- longs to them, more society advantages, more of the benefits, privileges, and emoluments of the world ; in a word, all those rights and priv- ileges necessary to make them capable of en- joying, appreciating, perpetuating, and defend- ing the blessings of good government." It proposes the establishment of bureaus of labor statistics of the various governments, for the purpose of ascertaining the real condition of the producing masses; the establishment of co- operative institutions, productive and distrib- utive ; the reservation of public lands for act- ual settlers ; the abrogation of all laws that do not bear equally upon capital and labor ; the removal of technicalities, delays, and dis- criminations in the administration of justice, and the adoption of measures providing for the health and safety of persons engaged in vari- ous industrial occupations; weekly payment of their workmen by corporations in lawful money; the establishment of a first lien to mechanics and laborers on their work for the fall amount of their wages; the abolition of the contract system in public work ; the sub- stitution of arbitration for strikes ; prohibition of the employment of children under fourteen years of age in workshops, mines, and facto- ries; the abolition of the contract system in prisons and reformatory institutions ; to both sexes equal pay for equal work ; the reduction of the hours of labor to eight per day ; and the issue by governments of "a purely national circulating medium, direct to the people with- out the intervention of any system of banking corporations." The general assembly in 1879 advised all the assemblies of the order to use their political power at legislative elections, but left it within the discretion of each local assembly to decide with which party it should act ; but it also provided that no decisive ac- tion of this kind should be taken by any as- sembly unless at least three fourths of the members in attendance were united in support of it, and that no member should be compelled to vote with the majority. In 1880 women were made eligible to membership. In 1881 the general assembly voted to make the name and objects of the organization public. The membership of the order at that time was enumerated at 40,000 persons. In April, 1882, it had increased to 140,000, the increase having taken place chiefly in the smaller industrial cities and in the mining districts. Omitting 20,000 new accessions at Pittsburg, whose names have not yet been officially enrolled, the members of the order were at that time dis- tributed by States as follow : New York 9000 Michigan 1 500 Illinois . 8 000 Iowa 900 Indiana . .. 6,500 Tennessee. . . . 800 Ohio 6.800 Wisconsin 800 4 500 800 Massachusetts. . . . New Jersey . 4,200 8 800 700 Colorado 700 Kentucky . .. 8000 Alabama Rhode Island Indian Territory... ... 400 850 . . . 150 Maryland West Virginia .... 2,800 2,600 Total... .. 119,700 These members were represented in 44 dis- trict assemblies, with 1,830 local assemblies, in good working order. The order is represented by four weekly newspapers, advocating its principles and explaining its objects. STEIKE OF THE WESTERN IRON- WORKERS. — A strike of the workmen in the iron-trade, which was intended to embrace all the mills west of the Allegheny Mountains, was begun on the 1st of June. It originated in a demand of the men for a new scale of wages, the oper- ation of which would be to cause an advance in wages in all branches of the business of from 15 to 25 per cent, and was sustained by the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers. The demand was made upon the Cleveland Rolling-Mill Company, Ohio, May 9th, and was met with a refusal, followed by the closing of the mill and the throwing of 4,500 men out of employment. Two weeks afterward the scale was submitted to the man- ufacturers of Wheeling, West Virginia, and vi- LABOR, MOVEMENTS AND AGITATIONS OF. 455 cinity, and was refused by them. The rates of compensation for puddling iron had been fixed since 1875 by a scale based on the selling price of bar-iron, under which it was agreed that the wages of the puddlers should rise and fall with that price. The demand for an advance was now made at a time when the market rate for iron had been lowered, and this fact was al- leged by the manufacturers as their reason for declining to accede to it. The workmen re- sponded that the plea of the manufacturers was hardly fair, for, while they paid for pud- dling bar-iron, they did not sell the product as bar-iron, and at the price of that article, but put it upon the market in other shapes and at higher prices than ruled for bar-iron ; and in consideration of this fact they thought they were entitled to a readjustment of their wages. At about the same time these questions were opened, the report of the American Iron and Steel Association on the condition of the Amer- ican iron-trade at the end of May appeared. It showed that under various influences of short crops and speculative excitement the de- mand for most iron and steel products had sen- sibly slackened, and prices had very generally sympathized with the decline. Steel rails espe- cially had undergone a remarkable fall in price. The situation at the time was pronounced far from encouraging, and in some respects dis- couraging. It was also alleged that the price of iron- ore had increased largely out of propor- tion to the price of manufactured iron ; and a calculation was published, showing that while the cost in 1879 of producing a ton of iron from the pig to the finished bar was $33, it would, under the scale demanded by the strik- ers, reach $52. A convention of manufacturers, at which every iron firm west of the Alleghany Moun- tains, except those in St. Louis and a few in Cincinnati, was represented, met at Pittsburg on the 30th of May, to consider what answer to return to the demands of the Amalgamated Association. The manufacturers of St. Louis sent assurances that they intended to resist every demand for an advance ; those of Cincin- nati did not regard themselves as affected by the strike, for they had already for some time been paying, by special agreement, the price for puddling now demanded by the Amalgamated Association. With the exception of these manufacturers, who were already operating under special agreements with their workmen, the meeting resolved to return a decided nega- tive to the demand for a new scale. The strike went into operation on the first day of June. The Amalgamated Association, by which it was directed, is a body formed by the union of the former separate organizations of iron and steel workers, and was estimated to include at this time about 75,000 members, or, practically, all the skilled iron-workers in the country, and was claimed to have a fund of $500,000 in its treasury at Philadelphia. The extent of the interests affected by the strike was shown in the following estimate of the number of establishments and the men em- ployed in them, which was made by an officer of the Amalgamated Association: NAMES OP PLACES. Men. Establish- Pittsburg District . 20,000 80 West Virginia. . 8,228 6 Ohio 10266 40 Indiana 1,740 9 Illinois 2,468 6 Missouri 855 6 Kentucky 2,1 TO 8 Michigan 925 2 100 1 Wisconsin 500 1 Shenango Valley, Pennsylvania 8500 7 Total 45 752 116 Not all of these men, however, it was added, were out on strike. Six establishments had signed the new scale, six or eight were already paying the price demanded, or were employing non-union men, and all the Western steel- works, some of which were included in the list, continued in operation. The manufactur- ers took advantage of the stoppage to repair their works; and some thought it was well that it had occurred ; for they were apprehen- sive of embarrassment, if their orders should continue to diminish, while production was kept up at the full rate. It was even consid- ered advantageous that a few mills should con- tinue running, for they would supply the ex- isting demand, and, by preventing a "short- ness " in the market, would remove the temp- tation from the closed mills to yield to the demands of the strikers, for the sake of se- curing the business that might offer. On the 3d of June the workmen in the mills in Cin- cinnati decided to join in the strike, on the ground that the committee who had made the agreement with the proprietors, under which they were continuing their operations, had exceeded their constitutional powers. This course was not approved by the officers of the Amalgamated Association, and was receded from under their advice. The Cleveland Eolling-Mill, which had not employed avowed union men, filled the ranks of its workmen with new men, and kept on. The strikers demanded that its managers should sign an agreement to be governed by the rules of the union. The company refused to do so, saying that their policy had been, and would continue to be, so to conduct the affairs of the concern as to insure to its workmen the high- est wages its business would warrant, and that they trusted that "the pleasant relations now existing will not be disturbed by permitting outsiders to influence and mislead you." A committee, representing the strikers, subse- quently visited the president of the company, to say that they had been deceived into going into the strike, and desired to return to work. The president declined to receive the men as a committee, for the company was determined not to recognize the union in any manner, and 456 LABOR, MOVEMENTS AND AGITATIONS OF. had decided to make the return of any of the men to work conditional upon their signing an agreement not to be governed by it. The members of the committee were therefore directed to apply at the mills, if they wished employment. At the beginning of August, or after the strike had been two months in operation, the position of the workmen had obviously been weakened, while the proprietors had not ma- terially lost strength. A meeting of the Amal- gamated Association was held at Chicago, the sessions of which were continued through sev- eral days, at which resolutions were passed guaranteeing the manufacturers that no ad- vance on the scale prices for rolling and puddling would be asked for five years. The strike continued, however, till the 19th of Sep- tember, when the district meetings of the Amalgamated Association at Pittsburg, Wheel- ing, and Youngstown resolved to return to work without conditions, and the president of the association officially declared it at an end. STRIKE OF FREIGHT-HANDLERS IN NEW YORK CITY. — The freight-handlers of the railroads ter- minating in the city of New York struck in June, on a demand for an increase of their wages from seventeen cents to twenty cents an hour, or of three cents an hour or thirty cents a day. The agents of the railroad companies asked for time to consult with their superior officers before answering the demand, but the men insisted, and ceased work at once. The strike began with the Hudson River Railroad, but quickly extended to all the railroads hav- ing termini or docks in New York, and to the terminal stations in Jersey City. As a consid- erable advance had been recently made in the schedule of freight rates to the West, public opinion, as was indicated by expressions made in various ways, did not regard the demand of the workmen as unreasonable. The agents of the railroads explained that it had been precipi- tated upon them without notice, whereas, if due warning had been given them, and time for consultation, concessions might have been made which would satisfy the freight-handlers. The business at the railroad-stations and docks was almost wholly interrupted for a few days; freight accumulated in large quantities, and shippers and cartmen were subjected to great inconvenience in getting their goods received. New hands were employed to take the place of the strikers, engaged chiefly from among the recent immigrants from abroad ; but they were unskilled at the business, and were not able to do effective service. The striking workmen paraded the streets in considerable bodies, vis- iting the railroad-stations and docks, for the 'purpose of persuading such new laborers as might be engaged to desist from work, and of preventing others from giving their services. These demonstrations became so formidable, especially in Jersey City, that forces of special policemen were enrolled. The Governor of New Jersey issued a proclamation, notifying the civil authorities that it was their duty to use the power vested in them for the protec- tion of persons and property, and promising the aid of the military power of the State if it should be needed. One of the railroads of New Jersey being in the hands of a receiver appointed by the court, the Chancellor of the State gave notice that any interference with its operation and management would be regarded as an obstruction offered to the execution of the order of the court, and treated as a con- tempt. The interruption in transportation and in- convenience to shippers having continued sev- eral weeks, an action was brought in the Su- preme Court of New York, July 17th, against the New York Central and Hudson River, and the New York, Lake Erie, and Western Rail- road Companies, for a writ of mandamus to compel them to perform their duties as com- mon carriers in delivering, receiving, and for- warding with all reasonable dispatch the freight put in their care or offered to them. The ap- plication was enforced by the affidavits of mer- chants regarding the losses they alleged they had suffered by the failure of the compa- nies to forward their goods, and of the strik- ing freight-handlers concerning their position as toward the companies. The institutors of the proceedings held that among the du- ties of the companies was that of operating their roads while they could be operated to carry the goods which might be offered them on the condition of the payment of the proper charges. When a railroad company, it was claimed, " sitting in the gates of commerce, closes its doors against the receipt of goods offered for transportation, or opens them tar- dily to oppress trade instead of supporting it, then it is answerable to the public whose franchises and trusts it is abusing. . . . The people in this case have sought nothing from the corporations except that they go on in the performance of their duties to their maximum power, and now pray that relief may be granted under the great prerogative right of writ of mandamus. When a railroad ceases to perform its function as a common carrier, or does it in a careless manner, causing public inconvenience and distress, it violates the provisions of its charter, and it is the duty of the Attorney- General to compel it to a discharge of its duties, and, if it still persists in its neglect, its franchise may be revoked." The matter of the strike, it was added, was merely put for- ward as an excuse. The position of the people (or promoters of the suit) was this : " These de- fendants may employ such help as they please so long as it is competent help, but they have no right to refuse the performance of their public duties because they can not get compe- tent help at the price they are willing to pay for it. The relations of supply to demand in this country are such that capital can not fail to obtain adequate assistance anywhere." The respondent companies pleaded through LABOR, MOVEMENTS OF. LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. 457 their attorney that the character of the appli- cation, as disclosed in the affidavits of the freight-handlers, was simply that the respond- ent companies should not be permitted to select their own employes at such reasonable com- pensation as might be agreed upon, but " should be compelled at the pressure of a judicial man- date to employ a certain class of men at a rate of compensation arbitrarily dictated by them- selves. . . . On what principle of justice, free- dom, or sound policy can a court of justice lend itself to the work of coercing one class of persons to enter into contracts with another class on terms dictated by the latter? " ^More- over, the court had no right to exercise its dis- cretion except upon the ground that the de- mand was reasonable and just. Now, it no- where appeared in the petition and affidavits that the compensation the freight -handlers were already receiving was not a fair and proper one, or whether their demand was rea- sonable and just, or exorbitant and unjust. " Is it discreet or practicable for the court to under- take to regulate the employment of men by carriers, whether individuals or corporations? " The respondents also endeavored to show that action by mandamus was not proper, but that the right course lay in suits by aggrieved parties for damages. The court in chambers decided, through a single justice, July 28th, refusing the applica- tion for writs of mandamus. It held that the court had not the power to prescribe a scale of wages ; that while the writ of mandamus could issue to compel the exercise and discharge ot those duties which belonged to the State or Government and were conferred upon the re- spondent by the State (such as to maintain and operate the road regularly, to build bridges across streams so as not to interfere with navi- gation, to take freight to the place of delivery, if on its line, etc.), it could not issue a manda- mus to a common carrier to exercise his rights as such; for the right to become a common carrier did not emanate from the Government, but was universal. The refusal of a common carrier to transport freight was a private wrong redressible through suit by the person ag- grieved, and not such a public wrong as would authorize a suit by and on the part of the State. The neglect or refusal of a railroad corporation to receive and transport freight tendered to it by citizens of the State was of this character, and remediable in this way. Furthermore, "the writ of mandamus, when it is issued, must clearly and distinctly state the act or duties which are by it commanded to be performed, so that the party to whom it is addressed may distinctly understand what he is to do. If he fails or neglects to perform, an attachment will issue against him to the end that he may be adjudged in contempt of the process of the court. It is not in the power of the court to look into the future and deter- mine the kinds or quantities of freight that will hereafter be presented for transportation, and by an order specify how and in what man- ner the same shall be carried, or what kinds shall take preference." The court, therefore, quashed the writ. Before this decision was given, the railroad companies had secured full forces of men at their stations, most of their old laborers having returned, and the strike had failed. The decision of the court in cham- bers was reversed in January, 1883, by the same court in general term. STRIKE OF COAL-MINERS. — A strike was be- gun in March in the bituminous-coal mines of Western Pennsylvania and Ohio. The pro- prietors employed foreigners and colored men to take the places of their disaffected work- men. The Miners' Association then directed a general strike, but afterward modified its order so as to limit its bearing to the pits of operators who were filling contracts for mines whose men were on strike, and to those which were supplying coal-yards in Pittsburg. .A policy of passive resistance against the employment of colored miners was persisted in, and con- certed efforts were made to induce men of this class working as substitutes for men on strike to desist. This strike was encouraged by the Knights of Labor, and continued through most of the summer. LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. During the session beginning in October, 1882, several cases involving important questions of con- stitutional law were decided by the Supremo Court of the United States. THE KU-KLUX LAW. — In the case of the United States against Harris the court set aside as unconstitutional what has been known as the " Ku-klux law." This law was passed by Congress in 1871, and now appears as section 5,519 of the Revised Statutes of the United States. It is as follows: If two or more persons in any State or Territory conspire or go in disguise upon the highway or on the premises of another, for the purpose of depriving either directly or indirectly any person or class of per- sons of the equal protection of the laws or of equal privileges or immunities under the laws, or for the purpose of preventing or hindering the constituted authorities of any State or Territory from giving or securing to all persons within such State or Territory the equal protection of the laws, each of said persons shall be punished by a fine of not less than $500 nor more than $5,000, or by imprisonment, with or without hard labor, not less than six months nor more than six years, or by both such fine and imprisonment. Under this law one R. G. Harris and nine- teen others were indicted and arraigned in the United States Circuit Court for the Western District of Tennessee for conspiring to commit violence upon certain negroes who had been arrested for a criminal offense, and were in the custody of the sheriff. The defense raised the objection that the act of Congress under which the prisoners were indicted was uncon- stitutional. In order to determine this ques- tion the court considered four clauses of the Federal Constitution, namely, section 2 of Article IV of the original Constitution, and the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amend- 458 LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. ments. Taking these up in inverse order, Justice Woods, who delivered the opinion, said that the fifteenth amendment simply secures to all citizens of the United States the right to vote, and protects that right against all hostile legislation on account of race, color, or previ- ous condition of servitude. This gave to Con- gress no power to pass the law embodied in sec- tion 5,519 of the Kevised Statutes. Nor was such power found in the fourteenth amend- ment, which declares that "no State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States, nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.1' This amendment, as the Court held in Virginia against Rives, 100 United States Be- ports, 313, has reference to State action exclu- sively, and not to any action of private persons. After citing this case and the United States against Cruikshank, 92 United States Eeports, 542, Justice Woods said : These authorities show exclusively that the legisla- tion under consideration finds no warrant for its en- actment in the fourteenth amendment. The language of the amendment does not leave this subject in doubt. When the State has been guilty of no violation of its provisions; when it has not made or enforced any law abridging the privileges or immu- nities of citizens of the United States ; when no one of its departments has deprived any person of life, liberty, or property without due process of law, or denied to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws ; when, on the contrary, the laws of the State, as enacted by its legislative, and con- strued by its judicial, and administered by its execu- tive departments, recognize and protect the rights of all persons, the amendment imposes no duty and con- fers no power upon Congress. Section 5,519 of the Kevised Statutes is not limited to take eifect only in case the State shall abridge ^he privileges or immunilies of citizens of the United States,' or deprive any person of life, liberty, or prop- erty without due process of law, or deny to any person the equal protection of the laws. It applies, no mat- ter how well the State may have performed its duty. Under it private persons are liable to punishment for conspiring to deprive any one of the equal protection of the laws enacted by the State. In the indictment in this case, for instance, which would be a good indictment under the law if the law itself were valid, there is no intimation that the State of Tennessee has passed any law or done any act for- bidden by the fourteenth amendment. On the con- trary, the gravamen of the charge against the accused is that they conspired to deprive certain citizens of the United States and of the State of Tennessee of the equal protection accorded them by the laws of Ten- As, therefore, the section of the law under consid- eration is directed exclusively against the action of private persons, without reference to the laws of the States or their administration by the officers of the State, we are clear in the opinion that it is not war- ranted by any clause in the fouiteenth amendment to the Constitution. Coming to the thirteenth amendment, the Court said that it is clear that this amend- ment, besides abolishing forever slavery in the United States, gives power to Congress to pro- tect all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States from being in any way subjected to slavery or involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, and in the enjoyment of that freedom which it was the object of the amendment to secure. kt Congress has, by virtue of this amendment, exacted that all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States shall have the same right in every State and Territory to make and enforce contracts, to sue, be parties, give evidence, and to the full and equal benefit of all laws and proceed- ings for the security of persons and property as is enjoyed by white citizens, and shall be subject to like punishment, pains, penalties, taxes, licenses, and exactions of every kind, and no other." The opinion then proceeds as fol- lows : But the question with which we have to deal is, Does the thirteenth amendment warrant the enactment of section 5,519 of the Eevised Statutes? We are of opinion that it does not. Our conclusion is based on the fact that the provisions of that section are broader than the thirteenth amendment would justify. Under that section it would be an offense for two or more white persons to conspire, etc., for the purpose of de- priving another white person of the equal protection of the laws. It would be an offense for two or more colored persons, enfranchised slaves, to conspire with the same purpose against a white citizen or against another colored citizen who had never been a slave. Even if the amendment is held to be directed against the action of private individuals, as well as against the action of the States and United States, the law under consideration covers cases both within and without the provisions of the amendment. It covers any conspiracy between two free white men against another free white man to deprive the latter of any right accorded him by the laws of the State or of the United States. A law under which two or more free white private citizens could be punished for conspir- ing or going in disguise for the purpose of depriving another free white citizen of a right accorded by the law of the State to all classes of persons, as, for in- stance, the right to make a contract, bring a suit, or give evidence, clearly can not be authonzed by the amendment which simply prohibits slavery and invol- untary servitude. Those provisions of the law, which are broader than is warranted by the article of the Constitution by which they are supposed to be authorized, can not be sustained. There is another view which strengthens this con- clusion. If Congress has constitutional authority under the thirteenth amendment to punish a conspir- acy between two persons to do an unlawful act, it can punish the act itself, whether done by one or more persons. A private person can not make constitutions or laws, nor can he with authority construe them, nor can he administer or execute them. The only way, therefore, in which one private person can deprive another of the equal protection of the laws is by the commission of some offense against the laws which protect the rights of persons, as by theft, burglary, arson, libel, assault, or murder. If, therefore, we hold that sec- tion 5,519 is warranted by the thirteenth amendment, we should, -by virtue of that amendment, accord to Congress the power to punish every crime by which the right of any person to life, property, or reputa- tion is invaded. Thus, under a provision of the Constitution which simply abolished slavery and in- voluntary servitude, we should, with few exceptions, invest Congress with power over the whole catalogue of crimes. A construction of the amendment which leads to such a result is clearly unsound. The Court concluded by saying that there is LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. 459 only one other clause in the Federal Constitu- tion which can in any degree be supposed to sustain the law under consideration, name- ly, section 2 of Article IV, which declares that " the citizens of each State shall be enti- tled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens of the several States." But this sec- tion, as the Court held, like the fourteenth amendment, is directed against State action. Its object is to place the citizens of each State upon the same footing with citizens of other States and inhibit discriminative legislation against them by other States. "It was never supposed," said Justice Woods, " that this clause conferred on Congress the power to enact a law which would punish a private citi- zen for an invasion of the rights of his fellow- citizen, conferred by the State of which they were both residents on all its citizens alike." CONSTITUTIONALITY OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS ACT. — The above decision raises the question whether the Civil Eights Act, passed by Con- gress in 1875, to secure to colored people equal rights with white persons in theatres, hotels, and public conveyances, is not also unconsti- tutional. The first section of this act declares that " all persons within the jurisdiction of the "United States shall be entitled to the full and equal enjoyment of the accommodations, ad- vantages, facilities, and privileges of inns, pub- lic conveyances on land and water, theatres, and other places of public amusement; sub- ject only to the conditions and limitations es- tablished by law, and applicable alike to citi- zens of every race and color, regardless of any previous condition of servitude." The act then gives to any aggrieved person an action for damages, and also subjects the offender to fine and imprisonment. According to the above decision of the Supreme Court, in the Harris case, the fourteenth amendment pro- hibits States, but not individuals, from deny- ing equal rights to colored citizens, and that Congress has no power to protect those rights against individual invasion or violation. From this it would seem to follow that Congress has no constitutional authority to prohibit the keepers of hotels and the managers of thea- tres and other places of public amusement from making any unjust discrimination against colored persons. On the same principle, it would have no power under the fourteenth amendment to legislate in furtherance of the equal rights of colored persons in public con- veyances. And it was so held by the United States Court for the District of Kentucky, in August, 1882. In that case (reported in 13 Federal Reporter, 337) Mrs. Smoot, a colored woman, was denied admission to a first-class passenger-car on the railroad from Lexington to Covington. She brought an action for dam- ages against the company under the act of Congress of March, 1875. But Judge Barr held that the fourteenth amendment prohib- its only States and not individuals from deny- ing equal rights to colored citizens, and that that amendment gives to Congress no power to declare that railroad corporations shall not make any discrimination against colored pas- sengers. There is, however, another aspect of this question. The commercial clause of the Con- stitution gives to Congress power to regulate foreign and interstate commerce. This pro- vision was not considered in the Smoot case, for the reason that the defendant road was entirely within the State of Kentucky. But there is little room for doubt that the power of Congress to regulate foreign and interstate commerce extends in such case to the protec- tion of colored passengers. The decision of the United States Supreme Court, in the case of Hall against De Cuir, rendered in 1877, and reported in 95 United States Reports, 485, bears on this point. In that case it appeared that the Legislature of Louisiana had passed a law prohibiting any discrimination against colored passengers in public conveyances. Mrs. De Cuir, a colored woman, took passage from New Orleans to Hermitage, La., on a boat plying between the former city and Yicksburg, Miss. She was refused admission to the cabin set apart for white persons, and sued for damages under the State law. The Supreme Court of the United States held that the Louisiana statute, so far as it applied to foreign or interstate trans- portation, was an invasion of the powers vested by the Constitution in Congress. " We think," said Chief- Justice Waite, " that this statute, to the extent that it requires those engaged in the transportation of passengers among the States to carry colored passengers in Louisiana in the same cabin with the whites, is unconstitutional and void. If the public good requires such legislation, it must come from Congress, and not the States." A STATE LAW AGAINST MISCEGENATION. — In Pace against the State of Alabama, decided January 29, 1883, the Supreme Court held that a State law against miscegenation is not a vio- lation of the fourteenth amendment. Section 4,184 of the Code of Alabama imposes a speci- fied penalty upon any man and woman who live together in adultery. Section 4,189 pre- scribes a more severe penalty when the offense is committed by a white person and a negro, and the penalty is extended to the intermar- riage of whites and blacks. The plaintiff in error, a colored man who had been indicted for living with a white woman, contended, through his counsel, that by the above legisla- tion a discrimination was made against colored persons, in violation of the fourteenth amend- ment. The Court unanimously held the law to be constitutional. Justice Field, who de- livered the opinion, said : " The defect in the argument of counsel consists in his assumption that any discrimination is made by the laws of Alabama in the punishment provided for the offense for which the plaintiff in error was indicted, when committed by a person of the 460 LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. African race, and when committed by a white person. The two sections of the code are en- tirely consistent. The one prescribes, gener- ally, a punishment for an offense committed between persons of different sexes ; the other prescribes a punishment for an offense which can only be committed when the two sexes are of different races. There is in neither section any discrimination against either sex. Section 4,184 equally includes the offense when the persons of the two sexes are both white, and when they are both black. Section 4,189 ap- plies the same punishment to both offenders, the white and the black. Indeed, the offense against which this latter section is aimed can not be committed without involving the per- sons of both races in the same punishment. "Whatever discrimination is made in the pun- ishment prescribed in the two sections, is di- rected against the offense designated, and not against the person of any particular color or race. The punishment of each offending per- son, whether white or black, is the same." SUITS AGAINST THE UNITED STATES. — In the case of the United States against Lee, decided December 4, 1882, the Court held by a major- ity of only one, that while the United States can not be sued without its own consent, as prescribed by Congress, this principle is limited to suits against the United States directly and by name, and does not extend to actions brought against officers or agents of the Gov- ernment for the recovery of property held for the United States by such officers or agents. The question arose out of proceedings relating to the Arlington estate. This tract of land, embracing about eleven hundred acres, was originally the proper of George Washington Parke Custis, who devised it to his daughter, the wife of General Robert E. Lee, and after her death, to the grandson of the testator, G. W. P. C. Lee. In 1864 it was sold for non- payment of taxes under acts of Congress of 1862 and 1863, which provided that no person but the owner in person should be allowed to pay the overdue taxes. The owner not ap- pearing in person at the sale, the property was bid in by the tax commissioners for the United States. It has since been used as a national cemetery for and other Government purposes, and was at the time of the proceedings in this controversy in the possession of Kaufman and Strong, as officers of the United States. Suit for its recovery was brought some time ago against Kaufman and Strong, in one of the State courts of Virginia, by General G. W. P. C. Lee, claiming to be seized of the fee under the will of his grandfather. The suit was removed to the United States Circuit Court, where At- torney-General Devens appeared in behalf of the United States, and opposed the objection that the action, being one against the Govern- ment without its consent, could not be main- tained. The case was then taken to the United States Supreme Court. It was conceded by that court that the United States can not be sued directly and by name by one of its citi- zens without its own consent. But in this case the suit was not nominally and directly against the United States, but against its officers in possession of property claimed by the United States. On the question, whether suit could be maintained against such officers, the court was divided. Five judges, Miller, Field, Har- lan, Matthews, and Blatchford, held that the action could be sustained. Chief -Justice Waite, and Justices Bradley, Woods, and Gray, main- tained the contrary. Two elaborate opinions were rendered, that of the court by Justice Miller, and that of the minority by Justice Gray. Justice Miller pointed out that the doctrine that the United States can not be sued by an individual without its consent is derived, not from the Constitution, but from the laws and practices of our English ancestors. But the most important reasons advanced in support of the principle in England do not apply to our form of government. For instance, it is an ancient principle in England that the King could not be sued except where his consent had been given on petition of right. " There is in this country, however," says Justice Miller, uno such thing as the petition of right, as there is no such thing as a kingly head to the nation, or to any of the States which compose it. There is vested in no officer or body the au- thority to consent that the State shall be sued except in the law-making power, which may give such consent on the terms it may choose. Congress has created a court [United States Court of Claims] in which it has authorized suits to be brought against the United States, but has limited such suits to those arising on contract, with a few unimportant exceptions. What were the reasons which forbid that the King should be sued in his own court, and how do those reasons apply to the political body corporate which we call the United States of America? As regards the King, one reason given by the old judges was the absurdity of the King's sending a writ to himself to com- mand the King to appear in the King's court. No such reason exists in our Government, as process runs in the name of the President, and may be served on the Attorney-General, as was done in the case of Chisholm against the State of Georgia (2 Dallas Reports, 419). Nor can it be said that the dignity of the Govern- ment is degraded by appearing as a defendant in the courts of its own creation, because it is constantly appearing as a party in such courts, and submitting its rights as against the citizens to their judgment. Mr. Justice Gray, of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, in a*n able and learned opinion which exhausts the sources of information on this subject, says: 'The broader reason is, that it would be inconsistent with the very idea of supreme executive power, and would endanger the performance of the public duties of the sovereign, to subject him to repeated suits as a matter of right, at the LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. 461 will of any citizen, and to submit to the judicial tribunals the control and disposition of his public property, his instruments and means of carrying on his government in war and in peace, and the money in his treasury.' (Briggs against The Light-Boats, 11 Allen's Eeports, 162.) As we have no person in this Govern- ment who exercises supreme executive power, pr^performs the public duties of a sovereign, it is difficult to see on what solid foundation of principle the exemption from liability to suit rests. It seems most probable that it has been adopted in our courts as a part of the general doctrine of publicists, that the supreme power in every State, wherever it may reside, shall not be compelled, by process of courts of its own creation, to defend itself from assaults in those courts." The Court said that but little weight could be given to the English decisions on the ques- tion whether a citizen might sue an officer of the Government for the recovery of property, for the reasons, first, that the petition of right afforded a judicial remedy in England, and hence there was no necessity for suing the offi- cers or servants of the King ; and, second, owing to the vast difference in the essential character of the two governments with respect to the source and the depositaries of power. After citing American authorities, Justice Mil- ler proceeded: Looking at the question upon principle, and apart from the authority of adjudged cases, we think it still clearer that this branch of the defense can not be main- tained. It seems to be opposed to all the principles upon which the rights of the citizen, when brought in collision with the acts of the Government, must be de- termined. In such case there is no safety for the citi- zen, except in the protection of the judicial tribunals, for rights which have been invaded by the officers of the Government, professing to act in its name. There remains to him but the alternative of resistance, which may amount to crime. The position assumed here is that, however clear his rights, no remedy can be af- forded to him when it is seen that his opponent is an officer of the United States, claiming to act under its authority ; for as Chief- Justice Marshall says, to ex- amine whether this authority is rightfully assumed is the exercise of jurisdiction, and must lead to the de- cision of the merits of the question. The objection of the plaintiffs in error necessarily forbids any inquiry into the truth of the assumption that the parties set- ting up such authority are lawfully possessed of it, for the argument is that the formal suggestion of the ex- istence of such authority forbids any inquiry into the truth of the suggestion. . . . The defense stands here solely upon the absolute immunity from judicial inquiry of every one who asserts authority from the executive branch of the Government, however clear it may be made that the Executive possesses no such pow- er. Not only that no such power is given, but that it is absolutely prohibited, both to the Executive and the legislative, to deprive any one of life, liberty, or prop- erty without due process of law, or to take private property without just compensation. . . . No man in this country is so high that he is above the law. No officer of the law may set that law at defiance with impunitv. All the officers of the Gov- ernment, from the highest to the lowest, are creatures of the law, and are bound to obey it. It is the only supreme power in our system of government, and every man who by accepting office participates in its functions is only the more strongly bound to submit to that supremacy, and to observe the limitations which it imposes upon the exercise of the authority which it gives. Courts of justice are established, not only to decide upon the controverted rights of the citizens as against each other, but also upon rights in controversy be- tween them and the Government, and the docket ot this court is crowded with controversies of the latter class. Shall it be said, in the face of all this, and of the acknowledged right of the judiciary to decide in proper cases, statutes which have been passed by both branches of Congress, and approved by the President, to be unconstitutional, that the courts can not give rem- edy when the citizen has been deprived of his prop- erty by force, his estate seized and converted to the use of the Government without any lawful authority, without any process of law, and without any compen- sation, because the President has ordered it and his officers are in possession ? If such be the law of this country, it sanctions a tyranny which has no existence in the monarchies of Europe, nor in any other govern- ment which has a just claim to well-regulated liberty and the protection of personal rights. It can not be, then, that when in a suit between two citizens for the ownership of real estate, one of them has established his right to the possession of the property according to all the forms of judicial procedure, and by the ver- dict of a jury and the judgment of the court, the wrongful possessor can say successfully to the court : " Stop, here ; I hold by order of the President, and the progress of justice must be stayed" ; that, though the nature of the controversy is one peculiar- ly appropriate to the judicial function, though the United States is no party to the suit, though one of the three great branches of the Government to which by the Constitution this duty has been assigned, has declared its judgment after a fair trial, the unsuccess- ful party can interpose an absolute veto upon that judgment by the production of an order of the Secre- tary of War, which that officer had no more authority to make than the humblest private citizen. By the four dissenting justices it was main- tained, in an elaborate opinion written by Jus- tice Gray, that "the sovereign is not liable to be sued in any judicial tribunal without its consent. The sovereign can not hold property except by agents. To maintain an action for the recovery of possession of property held by the sovereign through its agents, not claiming any title or right in themselves, but only as the representatives of the sovereign and in its be- half, is to maintain an action to recover pos- session of the property against the sovereign ; and to evade such possession of the agents, by execution or other judicial process, is to invade the possession of the sovereign and to violate the fundamental maxim that the sovereign can not be sued. That maxim is not limited to a monarchy, but is of equal force in a republic. In the one, as in the other, it is essential to the common defense and general welfare that the sovereign should not, without its consent, be dispossessed by judicial process of forts, arsenals, military posts, and ships of war ne- cessary to guard the national existence against insurrection and invasion ; of custom-houses and revenue-cutters, employed in the collection of the revenue ; or of light-houses and light-ships, established for the security of commerce with foreign nations and among the different parts of the country. These principles appear to us to be axioms of public law, which would need no reference to authorities in their support, 462 LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. were it not for the exceeding importance and interest of the case, the great ability with which it has been argued, and the difference of opinion that has been manifested as to the extent and application of the precedents." Jus- tice Gray then proceeded to cite and apply nu- merous English and American decisions in sup- port of the views of the minority of the court. SUITS AGAINST A STATE. — On March 5, 1883, the Court rendered an important opinion, holding that one State can not be sued in the Federal courts by another State acting as the assignee of one of its citizens. The question was raised in two similar suits brought by New York and New Hampshire against Louisiana. The essential facts were substantially the same in both cases. It appeared that each of the plaintiff States had passed a law providing that any of its citizens holding bonds or other obli- gations of another State might transfer them to his own State, and have it bring suit against the defendant State. Under these laws alleged " repudiated " bonds of Louisiana were assigned to New York and New Hampshire by citizens of those States respectively, and suits were ac- cordingly brought. The Constitution express- ly authorizes suits to be brought by, one State against another in the Federal courts. But the eleventh amendment declares that " the judi- cial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State." In an elaborate opinion on the question raised, Chief-Justice Waite expressed in substance the following views : Under the operation of this amendment the actual owners of bonds and coupons held by New Hamp- shire and New York are precluded from prosecuting these suits in their own names. The real question, therefore, is whether they can sue in the name of their respective States after getting the consent of the State, or, to put it in another way, whether a State can allow the use of its name in such a suit for the benefit of one of its citizens. The language of the amendment is in eft'ect that the judicial power of the United States shall not extend to any suit commenced or prosecuted by citizens of one State against another State. No one can look at the pleadings and testimony in these cases without being satisfied beyond all doubt that they were in legal eifect commenced, and are now prose- cuted solely by the owners of the bonds and coupons. The State and the Attorney-General are only nominal actors in the proceeding. The bond-owner, whoever he may be, is the promoter and manager of the suit. He pays the expenses, is the only one authorized to conclude a compromise, and if any money is ever col- lected it must be paid to him without even passing through the form of getting into the Treasury of the State. The State is nothing more nor less than a mere collecting agent of the owners of the bonds and cou- pons, and, while the suits are in the names of the States, they are under the control of individual citi- zens, and are prosecuted and carried on altogether by and for them. It is contended, however, that notwithstanding the prohibition of the amendment the States may prose- cute the suits, because as the " sovereign and trustee of its citizen*" a State is " clothed with the right and faculty of making an imperative demand upon another independent State for the payment of debts which it owes to the citizens of the former." There is no doubt but one nation may, if it see fit, demand of another nation the payment of a debt owing by the latter to a citizen of the former ; but the States are not nations either as between themselves or toward for- eign nations. They are sovereign within their spheres, but their sovereignty stops short of nationality. Their political status at home and abroad is that of States in the United States. But it is said that even if a State, as sovereign trustee for its citizens, did surrender to the national Government its power of prosecuting the claims of its citizens against another State by force, it got in lieu the constitutional right of suit in the na- tional courts. There is no principle of international law which makes it the duty of one nation to assume the collection of the claims of its citizens against an- other nation, if the citizens themselves have ample means of redress without the intervention of their government. Under the Constitution, as it was origi- nally construed, a citizen of one State could sue an- other State in the courts of the United States for him- self and obtain the same relief that his State could get for him if it should sue. Certainly, when he can sue for himself, there is no necessity for power in his State to sue in his behalf, and we can not believe it was in- tended by the framers of the Constitution to allow both remedies in such a case. Therefore, the special remedies granted to the citizen himself must be deemed to have been the only remedy the citizen of one State could have under the Constitution against another State, for the redress of his grievances, except such as the delinquent State saw fit itself to grant. In other words, the giving of the direct remedy to the citizen himself was equivalent to taking away any indirect remedy he might otherwise have claimed through the intervention of his State upon any principle of the law of nations. It follows that, when the amendment took away the special remedy, there was no other left. Nothing was added to the Constitution by what was thus done. No power taken away by the grant of the special remedy was restored by the amendment. The effect of the amendment was simply to revoke the new right that had been given, and leave the limita- tions to stand as they were. The evident purpose of the amendment was to prohibit all suits against a State by or for citizens of other States or aliens, without the consent of the State to be sued ; and in our opinion one State can not create a controversy with another State, within the meaning of that term as used in the judicial clauses of the Constitution, by assuming the prosecution of debts- owing hy the other States to its citizens. Such being the case, we are satisfied that we are prohibited both by the letter and the spirit of the Constitution from entertaining these suits, and the bill in each of them is consequently dismissed. A CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT PROPOSED. On January 19, 1883, William E. Moore, of Tennessee, introduced into the House of Eepresentatives the following joint resolu- tion, proposing a sixteenth amendment to the Constitution of the United States : Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives (two thirds of each House concurring therein), That the following amendment to the Constitution be and is hereby proposed to the States, to become valid when ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, as provided in the Constitution : ARTICLE XVI. SECTION 1. That Article XI of the present Consti- tution be and the same is hereby rescinded. SEO. 2. That Congress shall have power to provide, by appropriate legislation, for the legal enforcement of the obligation of contracts entered into by any ot the States of this Union. The repeal of the eleventh amendment would enable any citizen of one State to sue another State in the Federal courts. The alleged pur- LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. 463 pose of Mr. Moore's proposed amendment was, among other things, to give a remedy to the holders of repudiated State bonds and obliga- tions. The concurrent resolution was not voted upon. TAXATION OF IMMIGRANTS. — The right of a State to levy a tax on immigrants, for the de- clared purpose of raising money for the execu- tion of its inspection laws, was denied by the Supreme Court, in an opinion announced Feb- ruary 5, 1883. The Court decided, in 1876, that the statute of New York, taxing immi- grants for the purpose of raising money to de- fray the expense of the Emigration Board of that State, was a violation of that clause of the Constitution which vests in Congress the power to regulate foreign commerce. Early in 1882 another statute, for the same purpose, was passed by the Legislature of New York. It imposed " a duty " of one dollar on every alien passenger brought to the port of New York. In order to avoid the constitutional ob- jection to the former statute, it was entitled " An act to raise money for the execution of the inspection laws of the State of New York," and provided that the tax levied should be paid by the steamers bringing the immigrants to the Chamberlain of the city of New York ; and then directed that the Chamberlain should hand over to the Commissioners of Emigration whatever money might be necessary for the execution of the inspection laws of the State, and the balance of the tax collected to the Treasurer of the United States. A few days before the enactment of this law the Legisla- ture had passed another "Act for the inspec- tion of alien emigrants, and their effects, by the Commissioners of Emigration," which pre- scribed regulations for the inspection of immi- grants arriving at the port of New York. It was claimed that this legislation, including the imposition of the head-tax, was a lawful exer- cise of the power of the State under Article I, section 10, clause 2 of the Federal Constitu- tion, which declares that "no State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, ex- cept what may be actually necessary for exe- cuting its inspection laws." The Compagnie Generale Transatlantique refused to pay the tax, and contested the constitutionality of the legislation imposing it. In an opinion, written by Justice Miller, the Supreme Court said that neither at the time of the formation of the Constitution, nor since, has any rightful in- spection law included anything but personal property as a subject of its operation ; nor has it ever been held by any competent judicial authority that the words " imports " and " ex- ports " are used in that instrument as applica- ble to free human beings. It knew of nothing which could be exported from one country, or imported into another, that is not in some sense property — property in regard to which some one is owner, and of which the owner is either the importer or the exporter. This can not apply to a free man. Of him it is never said that he imports himself, or his wife, or his children. Free human beings are not imports or exports within the meaning of the Consti- tution. Furthermore, said the Court, it ap- pears that the object of these New York enactments goes far beyond any correct view of the purpose of an inspection law. The commissioners are to inspect all persons arriv- ing from any foreign country, to ascertain who among them are " habitual criminals or pauper lunatics, idiots, or imbeciles, or orphan per- sons, without means or capacity to support themselves, and subject to become a public charge." It may be safely said that these are matters incapable of being satisfactorily ascer- tained by inspection. What is an " inspec- tion"? Something which can be done by looking at, or weighing, or measuring the thing to be inspected, or by applying to it at once some crucial test. When testimony or evi- dence is to be taken and examined, it is not " inspection " in any sense whatever. Another section provides for the custody, the support, and the treatment for diseases of these per- sons, and the retransport of criminals. Are these "inspection laws"? Is the ascertain- ment of the guilt of a criminal to be made by "inspection"? In fact, these statutes differ from those heretofore held void, only in that they are called in their caption " inspection laws," and in that provision is made for the payment of any surplus, after the support of paupers, criminals, and diseased persons, into the Treasury of the United States — a surplus which, in this enlarged view of what are the expenses of an inspection law, it is safe to say will never exist. A State can not make a law designed to raise money to support paupers, to detect or prevent crime, to guard against dis- ease, and cure the sick, an " inspection " law within the constitutional meaning of that word, by calling it so in the title. TOBACCO INSPECTION. — In the case of Henry A. Turner, plaintiff in error, against the State of Maryland, the Court, on February 5, 1883, gave an elaborate opinion on the question of the constitutionality of certain provisions of the laws of Maryland relating to tobacco in- spection. The provisions in question, being section 41 of chapter 346 of the Laws of Maryland of 1864, as amended and re-enacted by chapter 291 of the Laws of 1870, are as follows : After the passage of this act it shall not be lawful to^ carry out of this State, in hogsheads, anv tobacco raised in this State, except in hogsheads which shall have been inspected, passed, and marked, agreeably to the provisions of this act, unless such tobacco shall have been inspected and passed before this act goes into operation, and any person violating the provis- ions of this section shall forfeit and pay the sum of $300, which may be recovered in any court of law of this State, and which shall go to the credit of the to- bacco fund ; provided that nothing herein contained shall he construed to prohibit any grower of tobacco or any purchaser thereof, who may pack the same in the county or neighborhood where grown, from ex- 464 LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. porting or carrying out of this State any such tobacco without having the same opened for inspection ; but such tobacco, so exported or carried out of this State without inspection, shall in all cases be marked with the name in full of the owner thereof and the resi- dence of such owner, and shall be liable to the same charge of outage and storage as in other cases, and any such person who shall carry or send out of this State any such tobacco without having it so marked, shall be subject to the penalty prescribed by this sec- tion. In an elaborate opinion written by Justice Blatchford, the Court, affirming the judgment of the Maryland Court of Appeals, held : first, that this section, in its provisions as to charges for outage and storage, is not in violation of clause 2 of section 10 of Article I of the Con- stitution of the United States as respects any impost or duty imposed by it on exports, or in violation of the clause of section 8 of Article I, which gives power to Congress "to regu- late commerce with foreign nations and among the several States"; second, that the charge for outage under the proviso of said section 41, as amended and re-enacted, is an " inspection duty" within the meaning of the Constitu- tion ; third, that dispensing with an opening for an inspection of the hogsheads mentioned in the proviso does not, in view of the other provisions of the tobacco inspection laws of Maryland, deprive those statutes of the char- acter of inspection laws ; fourth, that it is not foreign to the character of an inspection law to require every hogshead of tobacco to be brought to a State tobacco warehouse; fifth, that the section of the law in controversy is not a regulation of commerce, or unconstitu- tional as discriminating between the State buyer and manufacturer of leaf-tobacco and the purchaser who buys for the purpose of transporting the tobacco to another State or to a foreign country, or a discrimination between different classes of exporters of tobacco ; sixth, that the charge for outage in this case appears to be a charge for services properly rendered. THE KAILROAD-TAX CASE. — No more im- portant constitutional question was raised dur- ing the year than that passed upon by the United States Circuit Court in California, and afterward argued before the Supreme Court of the United States, in the " railroad-tax case." The suit was begun by the county of San Mateo against the Southern Pacific Eailroad Company for the recovery of State and county taxes. The company set up the defense that, in the assessment of its property, according to which the taxes claimed had been levied, an unlawful and unjust discrimination was made between its property and the property of indi- viduals. The Constitution of California pro- vides that all property in the State, with cer- tain exceptions, shall be taxed in proportion to its value; but, in the ascertainment of its value as a basis for taxation, a distinction is made between the property of persons and that of railroad corporations. In the assessment of individual property, the amount of mortgages on it is deducted from its value ; in the case of corporate property this deduction is not al- lowed. The practical effect of this law was thus illustrated by Justice Field : " Suppose a private person owns a farm which is valued at $100,000, and is encumbered with a mort- gage amounting to $80,000; he is, in that case, assessed at $20,000 ; if the rate of taxa- tion be two per cent, he would pay $400 taxes. If a railroad company owns an adjoin- ing tract worth $100,000, which is also en- cumbered by a mortgage for $80,000, it would be assessed for $100,000, and required to pay $2,000 taxes, or five times as much as the pri- vate person." The railroad company contend- ed, among other things, that the provision of the Constitution of California which authorized this discrimination against corporations was in violation of the fourteenth amendment to the Federal Constitution, which declares that no State shall deny to any person within its juris- diction the equal protection of the laws. The plaintiff maintained, first, that the fourteenth amendment was intended only to secure civil rights to colored citizens ; and, second, that a corporation is not a person within the mean- ing of that amendment. On the questions thus raised two elaborate opinions were rendered by Circuit-Justice Field, of the United States Supreme Court, and Circuit-Judge Sawyer, who agreed that equal protection of the law is guaranteed by the fourteenth amendment to corporations as well as persons, and that the amendment is aimed against unjust discrimina- tion in taxation as well as in the matter of per- sonal rights. Justice Field admitted that the power of taxation possessed by the State may be exercised upon any subject within its juris- diction, and to any extent not prohibited by the Constitution of the United States expressly or by clear implication. Hence, where com- plaint is made in a Federal court of a tax levied by the States, the question always is, whether there is any inhibition, express or implied, in the Federal Constitution upon the imposition of the tax. Considering this ques- tion in the light of the fourteenth amendment, he said : The fourteenth amendment of the Constitution, in declaring that no State shall deny to any person with- in its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws, imposes a limitation upon the exercise of all the pow- ers of the State which can touch the individual or his property, including among them that of taxation. Whatever the State may do, it can not deprive any one within its jurisdiction of the equal protection of the laws. And by equal protection of the laws is meant equal security under them to every one on similar terms, in his life, his liberty, his property, and in the pursuit of happiness. It not only implies the right of each to resort, on the same terms with others, to the courts of the country for the security of his person and property, the prevention and redress of wrongs, and the enforcement of contracts, but also his exemption from any greater burdens or charges than such as are equally imposed upon all others un- der like circumstances. Unequal exactions in every form, or under any pre- tense, are absolutely forbidden ; and, of course, un- equal taxation, for it is in that form that oppressive burdens are usually laid. It is not possible to con- LAW, CONSTITUTIONAL. 465 ceive of equal protection under any system of laws where arbitrary and unequal taxation is permissible ; where different persons may be taxed on their prop- erty of the same kind, similarly situated, at different rates ; where, for instance, one may be taxed at 1 per cent on the value of his property, another at 2 or 5 per cent, or where one may be thus taxed according to his color, because he is white, or black, or brown, or yellow, or according to any other rule than that of a fixed rate proportionate to the value of his property. The Court then proceeded to consider the question whether a corporation can be con- sidered a person within the meaning of the fourteenth amendment so as to be entitled with respect to its property to the equal pro- tection of the laws. It was conceded that the amendment had its origin in a purpose to se- cure colored persons whom it made citizens in the full enjoyment of their freedom and civil rights. But (said Justice Field) the generality of the lan- guage used extends the protection of its provisions to persons of every race and condition against discrimi- nating and hostile State action of any kind. Its effect, in preserving free institutions and preventing harsh and oppressive State legislation, can hardly be over- stated. When burdens are placed^ upon particular classes or individuals, while the majority of the peo- ple are exempted, little heed may be paid to the com- plaints of those affected. Oppression thus becomes possible and lasting. But a burdensome law, operat- ing equally upon all, will soon create a movement for its repeal. With the amendment enforced, a bad or an oppressive State law will not long be left on any statute-book. The argument that a limitation must be given to the scope of this amendment, because of the circum- stances of its origin, is without force. Its authors, seeing how possible it was for the States to oppress, without relief from the Federal Government, placed in the Constitution an interdict upon their action, which makes lasting oppression of any kind by them under the form of law impossible. The amendment prohibiting slavery and involuntary servitude, except as a punishment tor crime, had its origin in the previous existence of African slavery. But the generality of its language makes its prohibi- tion apply to slavery of white men as well as that ot black men ; and also to serfage, vassalage, villanage, peonage, and every other form of compulsory labor to minister to the pleasure, caprice, vanity, or power of others. Quoting from the opinion of Chief-Justice Marshall, in the Dartmouth College case, in which the latter laid down the principle that " the case being within the words of the rule, must be within its operation likewise, unless there be something in the literal construction so obviously absurd or mischievous, or repug- nant to the general spirit of the instrument, as to justify those who expound the Constitution in making it an exception," Justice Field pro- ceeded as follows : Following that authority, we can not adopt the nar- row view for which counsel contend, and limit the ap- plication of the prohibition of the fourteenth amend- ment to legislation touching members of the enfran- chised race. It has a much broader operation. It does not, indeed, place any limit upon the subjects in reference to which the States may legislate. It does not interfere with their police power. Upon every matter upon which, previously to its adoption, they could act, they may still act. They can legislate now, as they always could, to promote the health, good VOL. xxii. — 30 A order, and peace of the community, to develop their resources, increase their industries, and advance their prosperity ; but it does require that in all such legis- lation, hostile and partial discrimination against any class or person shall be avoided ; that the States shall impose no greater burdens upon any one than upon others of the community under like circumstances, nor deprive any one of rights which others similarly situated are allowed to enjoy. It forbids the State to lay its hand more heavily 'upon one than upon another under like conditions. It stands in the Constitution as a perpetual shield against all unequal and partial legislation by the States, and the injustice which fol- lows from it, whether directed against the most hum- ble or the most powerful ; against the despised laborer from China, or the envied master of millions. . . . Private corporations are, it is true, artificial persons, but with the sole exception of a [municipal] corpora- tion, with which we are not concerned, they consist of aggregations of individuals united for some legiti- mate business. ... It would be a most singular re- sultj if a constitutional provision intended for the pro- tection of every person against partial and discrimi- nating legislation by the States, should cease to exert such protection the moment the person becomes a member of a corporation. We cannot accept such a conclusion. On the contrary, we think that it is well established by numerous adjudications of the Supreme Court of the United States, and of the several States, that whenever a provision of the Constitution, or of a law, guarantees to persons the enjoyment of property, or affords to them means for its protection, or pro- hibits legislation injuriously affecting it, the benefits of the provision extend to corporations, and that the courts will always look beyond the name of the arti- ficial being to the individuals whom it represents. After citing the fifth amendment to the Con- stitution, which declares among other things that "no person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation," Justice Field said: From the nature of the prohibitions in this amend- ment, it would seem, with the exception of the last one, as though they could apply only to natural per- sons. No others can be witnesses : no others can be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb, or compelled to be witnesses against themselves ; and, therefore, it might be said with much force that the word person there used in connection with the prohibition against the deprivation of life, liberty, and property without due process of law, is in like manner limited to a natural person. But such has not been the construc- tion of the courts. A similar provision is found in nearly all of the State Constitutions ; and everywhere and at all times, and in all courts, it has been held, either by tacit assent or express adjudication, to ex- tend, so far as their property is concerned, to corpo- rations. And this has been because the property of a corporation is in fact the property of the corporators. To deprive the corporation of its property, or to bur- den it, is in fact to deprive the corporators of their property or to lessen its value. Their interest, undi- vided though it be. and constituting only a right during the continuance of the corporation to participate in its dividends, and on its dissolution to receive a propor- tionate share of its assets, has an appreciable value, and is property in a commercial sense ; and whatever affects the property of the corporation necessarily affects the commercial value of their interest. If, for example, to take the illustration given by counsel, a corporation created for banking purposes acquires land, notes, stocks, bonds, and money, no stockholder can claim that he owns any particular item of this property, but he owns an interest in the whole of it, 466 LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. which the courts will protect against unlawful seizure or appropriation by others, and on the dissolution of the company he will receive a proportionate share of its assets. Now, if a statute of the State takes the entire property, who suffers loss by the legislation ? Whose property is taken ? Certainly the corporation is deprived of its property ; but, at the same time, in every just sense of the constitutional guarantee, the corporators are also deprived of their property. .Decisions of State courts, in harmony with the views we have expressed, exist in great numbers. But it is unnecessary to cite them. It is sufficient to add that in all text-writers, in all codes, and in all Kevised Statutes, it is laid down that the term person includes, or may include, corporations, which amounts to what we haVe already said, that whenever it is necessary for the protection of contract or property rights, the courts will look through the ideal entity and name of the corporation to the persons who com- pose it and protect them, though the process be hi its name. All the guarantees and safeguards of the Constitution for the protection of property possessed by individuals may, therefore, be invoked for the protection of the property of corporations. And as no discriminating and partial legislation, imposing unequal burdens upon the property of individuals, would be valid under the fourteenth amendment, so no legislation imposing such unequal burdens upon the property of corporations can be maintained. The taxation, therefore, of the property of the defendant upon an assessment of its value, without a deduction of the mortgage thereon, is to that extent invalid. An appeal from this decision was taken to the Supreme Court of the United States, where the case was argued toward the close of the year. The importance and far-reaching con- sequences of its expected opinion can hardly be overestimated, for it will affect not merely the railroad companies of California, but all corporations, other than municipal, throughout the United States. (For the opinion of the United States Supreme Court on other important constitutional ques- tions, see POLITICAL ASSESSMENTS and POWERS OF CONGRESS OVER WITNESSES ; for the inter- pretation given by the courts to the anti- Chi- nese law, see IMMIGRATION; for the opinions in the Virginia and Louisiana bond cases, see OBLIGATIONS or CONTRACTS.) LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1882.— The productiveness of American literature dur- ing the year has been very remarkable. It has exceeded all previous years, in the several de- partments of human knowledge. As in the past year also, American literary effort has manifested itself in translations of foreign books, and the editing and making additions to English publications for the home market. At the same time it must be confessed that the number of really great and important works of the year has not been as large in proportion as might have been expected. According to "The Publishers' Weekly,^' which is regarded as the organ of the Ameri- can book-trade, the following list gives the ap- proximate numbers of books of various classes issued in 1882 (being 481 more than in 1881, and 1,396 more than in 1880) : CLASS. No. of works. Fiction 76T Theology and religion ! 326 Juvenile books 2T8 CLASS. No. of Work.. Law 261 Education : language 221 Medical science : hygiene 188 Description, travel, etc 185 Biography, memoirs, etc 184 Poetry and the drama 182 Literary history and miscellany 155 History 118 Social and political science 112 Physical and mathematical science 106 Fiue arts : illustrated works Useful arts Books of reference Humor and satire Sports, amusements, etc Mental and moral philosophy Music-books (chiefly si nging-books) Domestic and rural economy Total. . . . 91 87 86 85 28 21 21 20 8,472 In THEOLOGY AND RELIGION there has been about the usual activity on the part of American authors; but it must be admitted that no works of surpassing merit or impor- tance have appeared. American theological scholars and teachers of religion (perhaps even more than others of their countrymen) are forced to compete, not only with each other, but with the entire British press ; and the year 1882 has been, like previous years, noted for numerous republications of English works in this department. So long as there is no inter- national copyright law, this must be the regular result. In the wray of sermons and lectures American writers have published freely. Among these may be named here, Rev. Alexander CrummelPs "The Greatness of Christ, and other Sermons " (New York, T. Whittaker) ; " Three Hundred Outlines of Sermons on the New Testament," by eminent English and American clergymen (New York, A. C. Arm- strong & Son) ; " Sermons preached in Plym- outh Church," by Henry W. Beecher (New York, Fords, Howard & Hulbert), these last marked by all the peculiarities of the some- what notorious author. To these add Dr. Phelps's " Men and Books, or Studies in Homi- letics " (Scribner's Sons), and a new and en- larged edition of Professor Hoppin's " Homi- eltics " (New York, Dodd, Mead & Co.). The Bedell Lecture for 1881, by Bishop Williams, of Connecticut, entitled " The World's Testi- mony to Jesus Christ, or The Power of Chris- tianity in developing Modern Civilization," (New York, Putnam's Sons), is one of the most thoughtful and valuable volumes of the year. A number of excellent volumes of sermons and expository works have been reprinted, such as Principal Fairbairn's "Studies in the Life of Christ " (New York, D. Appleton & Co.) ; W. Robertson Smith's "The Prophets of Israel and their Place in History, to the Close of the Eighth Century, B. C.," a companion volume to his " Old Testament in the Jewish Church " (same publishers); the late Dean Stanley's " Westminster Sermons " (New York, Scrib- ner's Sons) ; " The Pulpit Commentary," edited by Canon Spence, with the aid of Canon Far* rar, Principal Tulloch, and others (New York, A. D. F. Randolph & Co.); Rev. Andrew Jukes's " Types of Genesis " (T. Whittaker) ; LITERATURE, AMERICAN", IN" 1882. 467 and " The Second Death and the Restitution of All Things" (same publisher); the late Canon Mozley's valuable " Lectures and other Theological Papers " (New York, E. P. Button & Co.) ; Professor Mahaffy's " The Decay of Modern Preaching " (New York, Macmillan & Co.). Mr. W. R. Hart's "Eternal Purpose, a Study of the Scripture Doctrine of Immortality" (Philadelphia, Lippincott & Co.) has reached a second edition, and is well worth reading. Dr. 0. P. Tiele's " History of the Egyptian Re- ligion " (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.), is a masterly work of its kind, and will repay study. Professor Green's " Moses and the Prophets " (New York, R, Carter & Brothers) is a search- ing and able re view of Robertson Smith's " Old Testament in the Jewish Church " and "Proph- ets of Israel," and also of Kuenen's "Prophets and Prophecy in Israel." "Christ's Christiani- ty)" by Mr. A. H. Walker, is a lawyer's attempt to analyze and arrange, according to subjects, the precepts and doctrines recorded in Mat- thew, Mark, Luke, and John, as taught by Jesus Christ ; it is well worth consulting. So also is Dr. Thomas Hill's " Geometry and Faith," third edition, enlarged (Boston, Lee & Shepard). Mr. 0. Van Norden's " The Outer- most Rim and Beyond" (New York, A. D. F. Randolph) is a very suggestive contribution toward reverential thought on divine things. The first volume of the " Schaff-Hertzog En- cyclopaedia of Religious Knowledge" (New York, Funk & Wagnalls) has made its appear- ance and promises well. Dr. Hurst's u Biblio- thecaTheologica" (New York, Scribner's Sens) is a very timely contribution in aid of students and general readers. The second volume of Westcott and Hort's New Testament has been reproduced by Harper & Brothers, and is a necessary adjunct to the volume issued last year. It contains a full account of the princi- ples of criticism, etc., in accordance with which the learned editors arranged the Greek text of the New Testament. PHILOSOPHY offers a few works this year. Professor Bowne's " Metaphysics " (New York, Harper & Brothers) is very able and note- worthy. Dr. E. J. Hamilton has produced a full and complete treatise on "The Human Mind " (New York, R. Carter & Brothers). Dr. McCosh's " Criteria of Diverse Kinds of Truth, as opposed to Agnosticism," No. I of " Phil- osophic Series" (New York, Scribner's Sons), is a treatise on applied logic, and, with the num- bers to follow, will prove to be timely and use- ful in the present condition of philosophical thought and study. President N. Porter's col- lection of papers, chiefly philosophical, under the title "Science and" Sentiment," is both interesting and valuable. President Mahan's J' Mental Philosophy " (Chicago, Griggs & Co.) is a complete system of mental science, for the use of schools and colleges. A translation of Rudolf Schmid's " The Theories of Darwin " (Chicago, Jansen, McClurg & Co.) presents clearly and forcibly the relation of his the- ories to philosophy, religion, and morality. It is one of the ablest works of the year. Among republications of foreign contributions to phi- losophy are, H. Martensen's " Social Ethics " (New York, Scribner & Welford) ; H. Heine's " Philosophy and Religion in Germany " (Bos- ton, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.) ; G. S. Morris's " Kant's Critique of Pure Reason " (Chicago, Griggs & Co.), and Professor Watson's " Schel- ling's Transcendental Idealism " (same publish- ers). Herbert Spencer continues his labors in "The Principles of Sociology" (Ceremonial and Political Institutions), Vol. II (D. Apple- ton & Co.). In SCIENCE, chiefly physical or natural sci- ence, the main supply has been from abroad. "The Concepts and Theories of Modern Phys- ics," by Judge Stallo (New York, D. Appleton & Co.), is a work of superior merit. Profess- or Le Conte's " Elements of Geology " (same publishers) has appeared in a revised and en- larged edition. "The Stars and the Earth," by Dr. T. Hill (Boston, Lee & Shepard), pre- sents some striking thoughts upon space, time, and eternity. Dr. A. Wilson's " Chapters in Evolution " (New York, Putnam's Sons) is in- teresting and valuable. So also (same pub- lishers) is Dr. G. M. Beard's "The Psychology of the Salem Witchcraft Excitement, 1692." Specially interesting republications, of a sci- entific character, are, Sir John Lubbock's "The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Con- dition of Man" (fourth edition, with illus- trations) ; " Ants, Bees, and Wasps " (same author) ; Tyndall's " Essays on the Floating Matter of the Air, in Relation to Putrefaction and Infection," and Professor Huxley's " Sci- ence and Culture, and other Essays " (D. Apple- ton & Co.) ; A. G. Locke's work on " Gold, its Occurrence and Extraction " (New York, E. & F. N. Spon) is regarded as important and valuable, as is also Spon's " Encyclopaedia of the Industrial Arts." Further advance in the applications and uses of electricity has led to the preparing a number of works on this sub- ject. One of the best is " The Modern Appli- cations of Electricity," by E. Hospitalier, trans- lated and enlarged by J. Maier (D. Appleton & Co.). In this connection may be noted Mr. Donnelly's curious and instructive volume, " Ragnarok, the Age of Fire and Gravel " (same publishers) ; it is well worth reading and examining. " The Popular Science Monthly " (D. Appleton & Co.) maintains its place, and increases in favor with intelligent readers and students. In MEDICAL SCIENCE the year's production has been quite as creditable as usual. A con- siderable portion of the works published is in continuations, or new and revised editions. A few only need here be specified. Dr. Will- iam H. Van Buren's " Lectures on Diseases of the Rectum " appear in a second enlarged edi- tion (New York, D. Appleton & Co.). " A Guide to Materia Medica and Therapeutics," by Dr. Robert Farquh arson (Philadelphia, H. 468 LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. 0. Lea's Son & Co.), ranks high with the pro- fession, as does also " A Practical Treatise on Operative Dentistry " (Philadelphia, P. Blakis- ton, Son & Co.). The subject of "Legal Medi- cine," by Dr. Charles Meynott (New York, W. Wood & Co.), is discussed with care and ability. Dr. Richard Quain's "Dictionary of Medicine, including General Pathology, Gen- eral Therapeutics, Hygiene, and the Diseases peculiar to Women and Children " (D. Apple- ton & Co.), is a large volume of nearly 2,000 pages, fully illustrated. Dr. Quain's co-workers are among the most eminent physicians and surgeons in England, and the work is one of superior merit and value. Dr. Courty's " Prac- tical Treatise on the Diseases of the Uterus, Ovaries, and Fallopian Tubes " is translated from the French. It is a work of standard ex- cellence, and has reached a third edition (Phil- adelphia, P. Blakiston, Son & Co.). The work of Dr. T. Billroth (of Vienna), on " General Surgical Pathology and Therapeutics " (D. Ap- pleton & Co.), has been translated from the fourth German edition, by Dr. C. E. Hackley, of New York. It has further been revised from the eighth edition of the original, and is one of the most valuable books of the year. Streck- er's " Short Text-Book of Organic Chemistry" (D. Appleton & Co.), and Dr. Luys's " The Brain and its Functions " (same publishers), deserve mention. In the way of periodicals may be named here, " The New York Medical Jour- nal " (monthly in 1882, announced as weekly in 1883), published by D. Appleton and Co. ; also, "The Medical and Surgical Reporter" (weekly), and "The Quarterly Compendium of Medical Science" (Philadelphia, D. G. Brin- ton, M. D.). Dr. Satterthwaite's "Manual of Histology" (New York, W. Wood & Co.), Dr. Bartholow's "Medical Electricity," and " Treatise on Hypodermic Medication " (Phila- delphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co.), deserve men- tion, as also Dr. Clapp's " Is Consumption Con- tagious? and can it be Transmitted by Food and Drink ?" Works on LAW and GOVERNMENT number very largely this year. As heretofore, codes, digests, statutes, etc., are added to the litera- ture of 1882 in this department, and increase its value at home as well as abroad. The 104th volume of the United States Supreme Court, seven volumes of Circuit Court reports, and one volume of New York District Court re- ports, show the importance of the Federal tribunals. Twenty or more States and Terri- tories have published one or more volumes of the decisions of their highest courts, be- sides numerous volumes relating to the work of inferior courts. "American Decisions" and " American Reports " are steadily in- creasing in number of volumes. " Digests " and " Indexes " are also freely furnished, and are becoming a necessity amid the bewildering increase from year to year of law publications. Pomeroy's " Equity Jurisprudence " (San Fran- cisco, A. L. Bancroft & Co.) has reached a second volume, and sustains its high reputa- tion. Dr. F. Wharton's " Commentary on the Law of Contracts" (Philadelphia, Kay & Brothers) is a very thorough treatise in two volumes. " The Principles of the Law," by A. J. Willard, is a careful examination of the law of personal rights, to discover the princi- ples of the law, as ascertained from the prac- tical rules of the law, and harmonized with the nature of social relations (D. Appleton & Co.). " The Marriage and Divorce Laws of the United States," by Charles Noble (New York, Baker, Voorhis & Co.), treats of a most perplexing topic in these days. Add to this Woolsey's "Essay on Divorce and Divorce Legislation, with Special Reference to the United States " (New York, Scribner's Sons). " Trial of Title to Land," by A. G. Sedgwick and F. J. Wait, " A Treatise on the Law and Practice of Voluntary Assignments," by A. M. Burrill (same publishers), and Justice Shea's little volume, "The Nature and Form of the American Government founded in the Chris- tian Religion" (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.), deserve honorable mention, without dis- paragement, however, to other works which our limits do not admit of naming. The " Al- bany Law Journal " has reached its twenty- sixth year. A " Journal of Banking Law " has been commenced, and hereafter "The South- ern Law Review " will be merged in " The American Law Review " (St. Louis, Mis- souri.). Though BIOGEAPHY, MEMOIRS, etc., fall short considerably, in number, of the previous year's production, yet in quality and interest they are quite equal. To the series of " American Men of Letters " there have been added Scudder's " Noah Webster," Sanborn's " H. D. Thoreau," Frothingham's "George Ripley," and Lowns- bury's " J. Fenimore Cooper " (Boston, Hough- ton, Mifflin & Co.) ; and the " American States- men Series" now numbers five volumes, viz., Morse's" John Quincy Adams," Lodge's "Alex- ander Hamilton," Von Hoist's "John C. Cal- houn," Sumner's "Andrew Jackson," and Adams's " John Randolph " (same publishers). " The Life and Letters of Francis Lieber " (Boston, J. R. Osgood & Co.) form an inter- esting and instructive volume, as also F. H. Underwood's "Henry Wadsworth Longfel- low " and "James Russell Lowell " (same pub- lishers). Mrs. S. C. Bull gives a very readable memoir of her husband, " Ole Bull," the fa- mous violinist (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.), and the poet Whittier furnishes a pleasant bio- graphical introduction to the "Letters of L. Maria Child" (same publishers). "The Life and Letters of Elizabeth Prentiss " (New York, A. D. F. Randolph & Co.) make an attractive volume, well worth reading; so also Mr. Elaine's "Eulogy on James Abram Garfield" (Boston, J. R. Osgood & Co.) is an eloquent presentation of the lamented martyr-President. With this last should be joined H. C. Pedder's "Gar- field's Place in History " (New York, Putnam's LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. 469 Sons). In the way of reprints, the series " Eng- lish Men of Letters" has had added to it Mor- rison's "Macaulay," Jebb's "Bentley," Ward's "Dickens," Gosse's " G-ray," Traill's "Sterne," and Stephen's " Swift " (New York, Harper & Brothers), all of them well done and sustain- ing the reputation already gained by the se- ries. To these add the " Philosophical Classics and Foreign Classics for English Readers" (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co.); new volumes, viz., Hasell's "Tasso," Wallace's " Kant," Sime's " Schiller," Collins's "La Fon- taine and other French Fabulists." Alex. Bain's "James Mill" and "John Stuart Mill" are valuable additions to the biographies of the year (New York, H. Holt & Co.). To these may be joined Thomas Mozley's rather ram- bling but instructive "Reminiscences, chiefly of Oriel College and the Oxford Movement " (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.), and the Hon. J. Bigelow's " Molinos, the Quietist" (Scribner's Sons), a very striking monograph, well worth the student's examination. In HISTORY, the chief American work comes from the venerable George Bancroft. His " History of the Formation of the Constitution of the United States " is an elaborate produc- tion, properly in continuance of his life-work on American history (New York, D. Appleton & Co.). There has also appeared Volume I of an entirely new edition of his " History of the United States," partly rewritten and thoroughly revised: it is to be published in six volumes (same publishers). "The History of the Negro Race in America," by George W. Williams (N"ew York, Putnam's Sons), is an interesting and valuable addition to historical literature. Admiral Preble's "History of the Flag of the United States," copiously illustrated (Boston, J. R. Osgood & Co.), has reached a third edi- tion. Mr. H. H. Bancroft has published Vol- ume I of the "History of Central America" (San Francisco, A. L. Bancroft & Co.), being a continuation of his former valuable work on " The Pacific States." J. A. Doyle's " English Colonies in America : Maryland, Virginia, and the Carolinas " (New York, H. Holt & Co.), is a work of merit; so, also, are Reed's "Vicks- burg Campaign " (Cincinnati, R. Clarke & Co.), Sterne's " Constitutional History of the United States " (Cassell & Co.), and Volumes V-X of " The Campaigns of the Civil War/' (New York, Scribner's Sons), by Palfrey, Doubleday, Cox, etc. Dr. Stille's " Studies in Mediaeval History" (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co.) is highly spoken of by competent judges. Among valu- able English works in history reproduced are W. E. H. Lecky's "History of England in the Eighteenth Century," Volumes III and IV (D. Appleton & Co.), G. Rawlinson's " Sixth and Seventh Oriental Monarchies" and "History of Ancient Egypt" (New York, Dodd, Mead & Co.), John Richard Green's " Making of Eng- land " (Harper & Brothers), Walpole's" History of the Kingdom of Ireland " (same publishers), and Rev. M. Creighton's " History of the Papacy during the Reformation" (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.). In EDUCATION, LANGUAGE, etc., the steady production keeps pace with the demand. New text-books in the classics and modern lan- guages, as well as new and revised editions of existing books, are noticeable as usual, to an extent quite beyond our limits to specify. Pro- fessor A. H. Welsh's "Development of English Literature and Language " (Chicago, S. C. Griggs & Co.) is a very valuable contribution to the subject of which it treats. Mr. B. Tuck- erman's " History of English Prose Fiction " (New York, Putnam's Sons) is also valuable ; and Miss Washburne's " Studies in Early Eng- lish Literature " (same publishers) is pleasing and instructive. Mr. Appleton Morgan has replied to his critics, in a small volume, " Some Shakespearean Commentators " (Cincinnati, R. Clarke & Co.), but the vexata qucestio re- mains as unsettled as ever. Longley's " Amer- ican Phonographic Dictionary " (same publish- ers) and " Manual of Phonography " are highly commended ; so also is G. H. Thornton's " Mod- ern Stenographer " (New York, D. Appleton & Co.). Of works from abroad which are val- uable additions to our stock of literature, may be named here, Professor Hodgson's " Errors in the Use of English " (D. Appleton & Co.) ; H. Morley's " English Literature in the Reign of Victoria "(Putnam's Sons); Principal Shairp's " Aspects of Poetry " (Boston, Houghton, Mif- flin & Co.) ; Rev. E. M. Wherry's " Comprehen- sive Commentary on the Quran " (same pub- lishers) ; Carl Abel's " Linguistic Essays " (same publishers). The making of English Dictiona- ries continues, and seems likely to continue ad GroBcas calendas. Professor Skeat's "Etymo- logical Dictionary of the English Language " (Macmillan & Co., and, in concise form, Harper & Brothers) is a noteworthy effort to attain greater accuracy and precision in the matter of etymology. Mr. H. Wedgewood, however, sharply questions the professor's success in many cases, in his " Contested Etymologies in the Dictionary of Rev. W. W. Skeat " (Boston, J. R. Osgood & Co.). A further great effort is being made, in publishing Dr. Ogilvie's " Im- perial Dictionary of the English Language," revised and augmented by C. Aimandale. It is to be. in four octavo volumes, with more than 3,000 illustrations, published by " The Century Company," New York, at the close of 1882. To these should be added Poole's "In- dex to Periodical Literature " (Boston, J. R. Osgood & Co.), which is indispensable to liter- ary men, and the carefully prepared " Biblio- theca Americana," or catalogue of books re- lating to American topics, etc. (Cincinnati, R. Clarke & Co.). POLITICAL ECONOMY and SOCIAL SCIENCE, from the practical character of the times, call for full consideration, and are largely inquired into both here and in England. Herbert Spencer contributes a second volume of his elaborate treatise on the "Principles of Sociology" (D. 470 LITERATURE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. Appleton & Co.). Two more volumes have been added to the excellent collection entitled " Appletons' Home Books," and Mr. F.B. Haw- ley's " Capital and Population " (same publish- ers) is a timely study of the economic effects of their relations to each other. " The Social Law of Labor," by W. B. Weeden (Boston, Roberts Brothers), is a very creditable discus- sion of this important topic. Professor D. B. King's "The Irish Question" is an earnest contribution to the settlement of a question that puzzles the wisest heads (Scribner's Sons). In a second series of the "Library of Political Education " (New York, Putnam's Sons) are furnished a "History of Political Economy in Europe," by J. A. Blanqui; "Money and the Mechanism of Exchange," by Professor Jevons, and " On Liberty," by J. S. Mill. To these add Dr. O'Dea's "Suicide, Studies on its Phi- losophy, Causes, and Prevention," and Mr. W. H. Mallock's "Social Equality, a Study in a Missing Science " (same publishers), the latter characterized by the well-known peculiarities of style and speculation of the author. As con- nected with the subject should be added Mrs. Wittemayer's " History of the Woman's Tem- perance Crusade," and Mrs. Stanton's and Miss Anthony's second volume of the " History of Woman's Suffrage." As regards POETET, the DEAMA, etc., the year presents hardly anything of much note. The poet Longfellow passed away during 1882, leaving his "In the Harbor" and "Ultima Thule " as the latest of his gifts co song. Mr. De Kay is author of " The Vision of Esther," being a sequel to his " Vision of Nimrod " (D. Apple- ton & Co.). " Christine " is a poem by T. B. Read, and is worthy of his reputation (Phil- adelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co.). " Monte Rosa," by J. H. Nichols (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.), is really what he terms it, " The Epic of an Alp." Mr. A. B. Alcott's " Poems and Sonnets " (Boston, A. Williams & Co.) are admired by readers of this kind of poetry, as are also Miss Mary Clemmer's " Poems of Life and Nature " (Boston, J. R. Osgood & Co.), and Miss M. E. Sangster's "Poems of the Household" (same publishers). Mr. G. H. Calvert's u Life, Death, and other Poems " (Bos- ton, Lee & Shepard) have been received with much favor. Across the water, Tennyson, Browning, and Swinburne have each done something, though not specially distinguished. In the way of new editions, collections of po- ems, etc., a good deal has been accomplished. Longfellow's poetical works are now furnished in complete form (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.) ; so also the complete poems of T. B. Aldrich and J. G. Saxe (same publishers). Mr. C. A. Dana has thoroughly revised and considerably en- larged " The Household Book of Poetry " (D. Appleton & Co.). Miss C. F. Bates has com- piled a choice volume entitled " The Cambridge Book of Poetry and Song " (Boston, T. Y. Crow- ell). The indefatigable Martin Farquhar Tup- per has supplied his admirers with " Three Five- Act Plays and Twelve Dramatic Scenes." It would be tedious to put on record the num- ber and description of new editions of Shake- speare, Milton, Scott, and others — "names which were not born to die." Works on AET, the FINE AETS, Music, etc., are not very numerous, though on the whole creditable and useful. " The History of Wood Engraving in America," by W. J. Linton (Bos- ton, Estes & Lauriat), treats of a subject of special interest at this date. As complement- ary to this has appeared Mr. G. E. Woodberry's "History of Wood Engraving," which deals with the subject at large (New York, Harper & Brothers). Amory's " Domestic and Artis- tic Life of John Singleton Copley " (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.) is spirited and use- ful. Commander Gorringe has supplied an interesting volume on "Egyptian Obelisks" (New York, Putnam's Sons). J. W. Mollett's "Illustrated Dictionary of Words used in Art and Archaeology " (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.) is very full and valuable. To these may be added E. Fromentin's " Old Masters of Bel- gium and Holland," translated by Mrs. M. C. Robbins (J. R. Osgood & Co.) ; H. Bacon's " Parisian Art and Artists " (same publishers) ; C. Yriarte's " Florence, its History, the Medi- ci, its Scholars, Architecture, Painting, Sculp- ture," etc. (New York, Scribner & Welford) ; A. Challamel's " History of Fashion in France," giving an account (with colored plates) of the dress of women from the Gallo-Roman period to the present time (same publishers) ; M. H. Bloxam's "Principles of Gothic Architecture" (same publishers) ; F. von Reber's " History of Ancient Art " (New York, Harper & Broth- ers) ; G. W. Sheldon's " Hours with Art and Artists " (D. Appleton & Co.) ; " Our Native Land," or glances at American scenery and places, etc. (same publishers); Loomis's "In- dex Guide to Travel and Art Study in Eu- rope " (New York, C. Scribner's Sons) ; and Miss Knowlton's "Hints for Pupils in Draw- ing and Painting" (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.). In the way of TRAVEL and ADVENTUEE the books of 1882 compare favorably with those of the preceding year. G. F. Godfrey's " Sketch of Bangor " (Boston, J. R. Osgood & Co.) is interesting and instructive ; as also are Baillie-Grohman's " Camps in the Rockies " (Scribner's Sons), and W. Nash's " Two Years in Oregon" (D. Appleton & Co.). W. E. Griffis tells in a very capital way the story of " Corea, the Hermit Nation " (Scribner's Sons) ; and the Rev. Titus Coan presents an interest- ing autobiographic sketch of mission life and labors in his " Life in Hawaii " (New York, A. D. F. Randolph) ; Miss C. A. Baker's " A Summer in the Azores," with a glimpse of Madeira (Lee & Shepard), is very pleasant reading; and Lieutenant Danenhower has given an instructive " Narrative of the Jean- nette " (J. R. Osgood & Co.). Coming from writers across the ocean are a goodly number LITERATUEE, AMERICAN, IN 1882. LITERATURE, BRITISH, IN 1882. 471 of capital hooks in this department; as, H. Lansdell'a "Through Siberia" (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.) ; E. O'Donovan's " The Merv Oasis " (Putnam's Sons) ; E. de Amicis's " Mo- rocco, its People and its Places " ; E. Stack's " Six Months in Persia " (same publishers) ; the Chevalier de Hesse- Wartegg's " Tunis, the Land and the People" (New York, Dodd, Mead & Co.) ; Dr. W. M. Thomson's " Cen- tral Palestine and Phoenicia " ( Harper & Brothers). JUVENILES.— Of books prepared specially for young people, the number this year is con- siderably less than in 1881. A few only need here be named. " Boys in the Mountains and on the Plains," by W. H. Rideing (New York, D. Appleton & Co.), is a capital book of adven- tures, and abounds in instruction. "Building the Nation," by 0. C. Coffin (New York, Har- per & Brothers), is equally interesting and use- ful ; " Boy Travelers in the Far West," by J. W. Knox (same publishers), is another volume in continuation of previous labors in this field. To this add " Our Young Folks in Africa," by J. D. McCabe (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co.). " The Young Moose-Hunters " (Bos- ton, Estes & Lauriat) is a stirring book of boys' adventures in Maine ; and " Six Girls " (same publishers) is a charming book for girls, " Drake, the Sea-King of Devon," by G. M. Towle (Boston, Lee & Shepard), is a further volume of the " Young Folks' Heroes of His- tory," by the same author. W. Black's " Four Macnicols"; T. W. Knox's "Young Nimrods around the World " ; J. Otis's " Mr. Stubbs's Brother " (Harper & Brothers), are well worth reading. Add to these "The Princess and Cardie," a new juvenile by George MacDonald (J. B. Lippincott & Co.) ; Miss Yonge's " Little Duke," " Prince and Page," " Golden Deeds," "Lances of Lin wood," 4 volumes (Boston, D. Lothrop & Co.) ; " Little Bullets," by A. L. O. E. (New York, R. Carter & Brothers); new edition of Hans Andersen's "Fairy Tales" (New York, Scribner & Welford). In FICTION", the production of the year has been unusually large and various, not only from native writers, but also from republications of English novels and tales, and translations from German and French authors. " A Mod- ern Instance," by W. D. Howells (Boston, J. R. Osgood & Co.), is regarded as very effective. Miss C. Reid's "Heart of Steel " (New York, D. Appleton & Co.) is much praised for skill and spirit. Bret Harte, in his " Flip and Found at Blazing Star " (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.), continues to please numerous .readers; and Judge Tourgee, in "John Eax " (New York, Fords, Howard & Hulbert), presents, as he claims, " the South without the shadow." In " Mr. Isaacs " (Macmillan & Co.), the writer, J. Marion Crawford, gives a very interesting tale of modern India. " The Marquis of Cara- bas," by Harriet P. Spofford (Boston, Roberts Brothers), is very well done; as are also Miss Woolson's " Anne " (Harper & Brothers) ; Miss E. S. Phelps's "Doctor Zay " (Houghton, Mifflin & Co.) ; Miss Warner's " Nobody " (New York, R. Carter & Brothers) ; and Miss S. May's "Janet, a Poor Heiress" (Boston, Lee & Shepard). — Among books of this kind from English writers may be named here F. Ans- t.Av'a " Vice Versa ; or, A Lesson to Fathers " tey's (D. Appleton & Co.); George MacDonald's Inglesant " (same publishers) ; James Payn's " Kit, a Memory " (Harper & Brothers) ; W. C. Russell's " The Lady Maud," and " My Watch Below " (same publishers) ; Miss G. M. Craik's " Fortune's Marriage " and Mrs. Oliphant's " Lady Jane " (same publishers) ; Ouida's "In Maremma, a Tale of Italian Life " (Philadel- phia, J. B. Lippincott & Co.) ; R. Buchanan's " God and the Man " (Harper & Brothers) ; "A Little Pilgrim," reprinted from "Macmil- lan's Magazine " (Boston, Roberts Brothers). — A goodly number of translations have been made during the year. Of these brief mention may be made. Bjornsen's " Novels and Tales," in four volumes, have been rendered into Eng- lish by Professor R. B. Anderson (Boston, Houghton, Mifflin & Co.), and are highly es- teemed. " Plish and Plum " is from the Ger- man of Busch, by C. T. Brooks (Boston, Rob- erts Brothers). " A Noble Name, or Donning- hausen," is from the German of Von Glumer, by Mrs. Wister (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co.). " The Romance of a Mummy " is from the French of T. Gautier, by Miss A. M. Wright (same publishers). " Abb6 Constantino " is from the French of M. Hal6vy (New York, Putnam's Sons). Also Franzos's " The Jews of Barnow," from the German, by M. W. Mac- dowall (D. Appleton & Co.) ; E. Pouvillon's "Cisette," from the French, by C. W. Woolsey (New York, G. P. Putnam's Sons) ; and " The New Arabian Nights," translated and edited by W. F. Kirby (Philadelphia, J. B. Lippincott & Co.). LITERATURE, BRITISH, IN 1882.— Lit- erary productiveness in Great Britain this year shows somewhat of a falling off from that of 1881. This is attributed to the extraordinary activity which prevails in the departments of journalism and periodical literature, and which necessarily makes inroads upon the time and attention of readers of books. " There is no standing out against the statistics, as we find them" (says the editor of the London " Pub- lishers' Circular ")," but considering the variety and extent of the rival demands upon attention, the real wonder is that the effect is not more marked. As matters are, it is not improbable that the real value of the literary works of 1882, whether viewed from an intellectual or from a material stand-point, is superior to that of its forerunners." From the same source is obtained the following analytical table, which gives the numbers of books issued in (being 282 less than in 1881) : 472 LITEEATUEE, BEITISH, IN 1882. CLASS. Juyenile works and tales Theology, sermons, etc Miscellaneous (year-books, serials in volunles, etc.). . . Educational History, biography, etc Novels, tales, and other fiction Arts, sciences, etc Voyages, travels, etc Political and social science Poetry and the drama. . . No. of works. 987 6S9 625 525 452 344 244 181 Medicine, surgery, etc 177 Belles-lettres, essays, etc 106 Law and jurisprudence 75 Total .' 5,124 NOTE.— Of these, 3,978 are new books, and 1,146 are new editions. In THEOLOGY and EELIGIOUS LITERATUEE in general, there is not much of special value or importance to be noted. Exegetical works number about as usual. The " Speaker's Com- mentary," under the able editorship of Canon Cook, has reached its completion, and contains much of the ablest talent and profound learning in the Established Church. Eev. W. F. Deane's " The Book of Wisdom ; the Greek Text, the Latin Vulgate, and the Authorized Version," with introduction, commentary, etc., is a work of much value (Oxford, University Press). A number of other works in this department, some covering the whole Bible, others devoted to separate books of the Old and New Testa- ments, have been published ; as, " The Bible Commentary for English Eeaders," edited by Bishop Ellicott, with the aid of a number of scholars and divines, three volumes on the New Testament, two volumes on the Old (Cassell, Fetter, Galpin & Co.) ; Eev. M. F. Sadler's " St. Matthew's Gospel," with notes (George Bell & Sons) ; a new and rather striking work entitled "The Apostolic Liturgy and the Epistle to the Hebrews, being a Commentary on the Epistle and its Eelation to the Holy Eucharist, with Appendices on the Liturgy of the Primitive Church," by John Ed ward Field (Eivingtons). New and revised editions of standard works devoted to exegesis of Holy Scripture have been issued ; as, Adam Clarke's Commentary on the Bible, six volumes ; Archbishop Trench's "Notes on the Miracles and on the Parables, Studies in the Gospels," etc. ; Davidson's " In- troduction to the New Testament " (Longmans & Co.). Much attention has been given to CHURCH HISTORY. Eev. J. H. Blunt has pub- lished the second volume of his elaborate work, " The Eeformation of the Church of England, its History, Principles, andEesults," 1547-1662 (Eivingtons). The first volume was published in 1870, covering from 1514-1547. Eev. M. Creighton's " History of the Papacy during the Period of the Eeformation, 1378-1464 " (Long- mans & Co.) is a valuable contribution. Canon Farrar's " Early Days of Christianity " (Cassell & Co.) has all the charms of style and liveliness of narration of his previous works. " Ecclesia Anglicana," by Eev. A. C. Jennings (Eiving- tons), is a concise history of the Church of Christ in England from the earliest to the pres- ent times, and is a work of passable merit. " Notes on the Canons of the First Four Gen- eral Councils," (H. Frowde, Oxford, Clarendon Press), by Dr. Bright, is a very valuable little volume. In EELIGIOUS BIOGRAPHY may be noted Dr. Cutts's "Constantine the Great, the Union of the State and the Church " (Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge) ; Mr. M. Eule's "Life and Times of St. Anselm, Arch- bishop of Canterbury and Primate of the Brit- ains " (Kegan Paul, Trench & Co.) ; Eev. S. Kettlewell's "Thomas & Kempis, and the Brothers of Common Life " ; and the third and concluding volume of the " Life of Bishop Wil- berforce, by his Son " (John Murray). The mooted subject of eternal punishment received much attention this year from Canon Farrar, Eev. F. N. Oxenham, and Eev. A. Jukes (new editions). As to EELIGIONS of the world (non- Christian), it suffices to name Kuenen's "Na- tional Eeligions and Universal Eeligions "; Hib- bert Lectures, 1882 (Williams & Norgate) ; A. Earth's " Eeligions of India " (Trubner & Co.) ; and " The Faiths of the World " (Black- wood & Sons), being the St. Giles's Lectures, by Caird, Flint, Milligan, etc., and giving a concise history of the great religious systems of the world. In BIOGRAPHY and HISTORY combined, there has been about the usual activity. The elab- orate work of C. Yriarte, entitled " Florence : its History ; the Medici, the Humanists, Let- ters, Arts," has been translated by Mr. C. B. Pitman (Sampson Low, Marston & Co.) ; it is splendidly illustrated, and quite equals the "Venice" by the same author. Professor Max Duncker's "History of Antiquity," translated by Evelyn Abbott, has been com- pleted in the sixth and concluding volume (Bentley & Son). Sir A. Alison's " Some Ac- count of my Life and Writings" (Blackwood & Sons) is lively and valuable. "Memoir of Augustus De Morgan," by his wife (Longmans & Co.), is well worth reading ; as are also " The Friendships of Mary Eussell Mitford, as re- corded in Letters from her Literary Corre- spondents," edited by Eev. A. G. L'Estrange (Hurst & Blackett) ; volume iii of the " Foreign Secretaries of the Nineteenth Century" (W. H. AUen & Co.) ; " Memories of Old Friends, being Extracts from the Journals and Letters of Caroline Fox, of Penjerrick," edited by Horace N. Pym (Smith, Elder & Co.) ; the "Autobi- ography of Prince Metternich," edited by his son (Bentley & Son); "Eaphael, his Life, Work, and Times," from the French of Eugene Muntz (Chapman & Hall) ; " Eecollectious of Dante Gabriel Eossetti," by T. H.Caine (Stock), " The Salon of Madame Necker," by Vicomte d'Haussonville, from the French, by H. M. Trollope (Chapman & Hall). In the way of TRAVEL and ADVENTURE Eng- lish men and women show themselves as act- ive and persevering as ever. A few volumes only can here be named ; as, Laurence Oli- phant's "The Lands of Khemi ' (Blackwood & Sons); "Magyarland," a lady's charming nar- LITERATURE, BRITISH, IN 1882. 473 rative of travels through the snowy Carpathi- ans and Great Alfold of the Magyar (Sampson Low, Marston & Co.) ; Mr. Felkin's and Mr. Wilson's " Uganda and the Egyptian Soodan" (same publishers) ; E. O'Donovan's " The Merv Oasis," being travels and adventures east of the Caspian during the years 1879-'81, includ- ing five months among the Tekkes of Merv (Smith, Elder & Co.) ; W. G. Dixon's " The Land of the Morning, an Account of Japan and its People, based on a Four Years' Residence in that Country, including Travels into the Re- motest Parts of the Interior" (Edinburgh, Gem- mell) ; Rev. Henry Lansdell's " Through Sibe- ria," being a journey of 8,000 miles from the Urals to the Pacific, on the rivers Obi, Amur, and Ussuri, and by the hire of 1,000 horses (Sampson Low, Marston & Co.) ; Mrs. Macin- tosh's " Damascus and its People ; Sketches of Modern Life in Syria " (Seeley) ; Lady Brassey 's " Tahiti," with illustrations (Sampson Low, Marston & Co.); E. 0. Baber's "Travels and Researches in Western China " (Murray) ; G. A. Sala's "America Revisited, from the Bay of New York to the Gulf of Mexico, and from Lake Michigan to the Pacific," including the author's experience among the Mormons of Salt Lake City ( Vizetelly & Co.) ; 0. L. Norris- Newman's " With the Boers in the Transvaal and Orange Free State in 1880-'81 " (W. H. Allen & Co.) ; A. Gallenga's " Summer Tour in Russia " (Chapman & Hall). As usual, SCIENCE receives a large share of attention. " Water and its Teachings in Chem- istry, Physics, and Physiography," by C. L. Morgan, is a very suggestive and useful hand- book (E. Stanford). " The Sun, its Planets and Satellites," by Rev. E. Ledger, is the Gresh- am Lectures for 1881-'82, upon the Solar Sys- tem (same publisher). "Notes on Evolution and Christianity," by J. F. Yorke, is well worth consulting, though hardly satisfactory (Kegan Paul, Trench & Co.). " Modern Physical Fa- talism, and the Doctrine of Evolution," by Pro- fessor T. R. Birks, is very thorough, including an examination of Herbert Spencers " First Principles " ; new edition, with replies to stric- tures by Spencer and Pritchard (Macmillan & Co.). " Myth and Science," by Tito Vignoli, is interesting and valuable. It is one of the "International Scientific Series," republished by D. Appleton & Co. (Kegan Paul, Trench & Co.). "Permanence and Evolution," by J. E. B. Bouverie - Pusey, and "The Creed of Sci- ence, Religious, Moral, and Social," by W. Gra- ham (same publishers), are clearly and thor- oughly wrought out. Mr. Pusey's inquiry into the supposed mutability of animal types is very valuable. Works on AET, in the general sense of the term, are considerably less in number this year than in 1881. " The Graphic Arts, a Treatise on the Varieties of Drawing, Painting, and En- graving, in Comparison with each other and with Nature," by P. G. Hamerton (Seeley, Jackson & Halliday), is very carefully prepared, and ranks as one of the very best books of its kind. "Raphael, his Life and Works; with Particular Reference to Recently Discovered Records," by J. A. Crowe and G. B. Cavalca- selle (John Murray), is an exhaustive study of extant drawings and pictures. The very valua- ble " Dictionary of Music and Musicians, A. D. 1450-'82," edited by Dr. George Grove, has been completed by the publication of voJ. iii (Macmillan & Co.). " A New History of the English Stage," by P. Fitzgerald (Tinsley & Brothers), from the Restoration onward, deals specially with the patent theatres, and is much praised by the critics. Sir Charles Wilson's " Picturesque Palestine, Sinai, and Egypt," vol. iii, is a magnificent work of art (J. S. Vir- tue & Co.). " Hopes and Fears for Art," by W. Morris (Ellis & White) is a series of five lectures, admirably setting forth the theme chosen by the writer. Contributions to POETRY have been few and of small consequence this year. Mr. Swin- burne has published a volume, " Tristram of Lyonnesse, and other Poems " (Chatto & Win- dus), which fully sustains his reputation. Ten- nyson and Mr. and Mrs. Browning have each done something, but not much, for the honor of the Muses in 1882. Edwin Arnold's " The Light of Asia, or the Great Renunciation" (Trubner & Co.), is an enthusiastic laudation of the life and teaching of Gautama, Prince of India, and founder of Buddhism. The poem has been much praised and also severely criti- cised. Mr. A. Lang, translator of " The Odys- sey " of Homer, has published a volume enti- tled " Helen of Troy " (George Bell & Sons), which is very creditable to his scholarship and poetic skill ; and Mr. A. Austin has produced some charming lyrical poems, entitled " Solilo- quies in Song " (Macmillan & Co.). In this con- nection may be named Francis Bacon's " The Promus and Formularies and Elegancies," being private notes, circa 1594, hitherto un- published ; illustrated and elucidated by Mrs. Henry Pott, with preface by E. A. Abbott (Longmans). It is the latest effort in favor of the claim made in behalf of Bacon that he wrote the plays, or the chief plays, which thus far have been attributed to William Shake- speare's genius and ability. So far as appears, the present volume is not likely to do much toward a settlement of the several questions at issue. In HISTORY, besides those already named under Church History and Biography, a few contributions may be specified. Mr. E. A. Freeman, in his " Reign of William Rufus and the Accession of Henry I " (Oxford, Clarendon Press), has made a valuable addition to the de- partment of history, in which he is justly es- teemed a master; and Mr. J. R. Green, in "The Making of England," has shown the same admirable skill and ability as in his well- known " History of the English People " (Mac- millan & Co.). " The Indian Empire ; its His- tory, People, and Products" (Trubner & Co.), 474 LITER ATUKE, BRITISH, IN 1882. LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL, IN 1882. by Dr. W. W. Hunter, is regarded as a full and exhaustive account of that important portion of the British Empire. Mr. C. A. Fvffe (the first volume of whose work was noticed last year) has continued his labors on " The Histo- ry of Modern Europe " with much success. It promises, when completed, to become a stand- ard history of the period to which it is devoted. Messrs. Gairdner's and Spedding's " Studies in English History " (Edinburgh, Douglas), are full of suggestive and interesting matter. The year has also been noted for numerous re- publications and new editions of histories and biographies ; such as, Dr. Lingard's " History of England," Guizot's "History of France," eight vols., Thiers's " History of the French Revolution, 1789-1801," five vols. ; "The Life and Speeches of the Right Hon. John Bright," Bishop Wordsworth's " Greece, Pictorial, De- scriptive, and Historical," Sir G. W. Cox's " Mythology of the Aryan Nations," " The Life of Richard Cobden" (Chapman & Hall), SirE. Creasy's " The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the "World," and " History of the Ottoman Turks, from the Beginning of their Empire to the Close of 1878 " (R. Bentley & Son). To these add, for general use, the enlarged, corrected, and revised edition of Haydn's "Dictionary of Dates, relating to all Ages and Nations " (Ward, Lock & Co.). JUVENILE WORKS and TALES are very nu- merous this year, many of them of superior quality, and many also of only moderate value. In number they are almost, if not quite, double those published in 1881. On the other hand, that kind of fiction, usually designated as nov- els, is less in quantity than last year; but, whether it excels in quality or not, is not quite clear. A few only of these can here be named. Mr. T. Hardy's " Two on a Tower " (Sampson Low, Marston & Co.) is unique and slightly fantastical. W. Besant's " The Revolt of Man " (W. Blackwood & Sons) is undoubtedly clever and amusing in these days of disputed sover- eignty between man and woman. Mrs. M. O. W. Oliphant's " In Trust, the Story of a Lady and her Lover " (Longmans & Co.), fully meets the expectations of her admirers. Mr. Buchan- an's "God and the Man" (Chatto & Windus) is, as might be expected from the title, rather startling, but the writer works out his theme with power and skill beyond what is usually met with in novels. Mr. Shorthouse's "John Inglesant " (Macmillan & Co.) has met with very general favor, and is regarded as one of the ablest books of the year. So, also, Georg Ebers's new novels, "Only a Word," and " The Burgomaster's Wife" (same publishers), translated by Clara Bell, are held to be equal to his former work, " The Egyptian Princess." The sciences of LAW and MEDICINE have re- ceived their usual share of attention. The for- mer need not be dwelt upon here, as books of this kind are generally of local character and importance. A number of valuable pub- lications in medicine, surgery, etc., appeared, and new and enlarged editions of standard works have been published. Dr. Tidy's "Le- gal Medicine, including Evidence," Part I (Smith, Elder & Co.), is new, and treats of an important topic. Dr. H. A. Reeves's "Human Morphology, a Treatise on Practical and Ap- plied Anatomy," volume i (same publisher), is much esteemed, as is also Dr. Aitken's "Out- lines of the Science and Practice of Medicine " (C. Griffin). Dr. J. D. Macdonald, of the British Navy, has furnished an excellent work entitled " Outlines of Naval Hygiene " (Smith, Elder & Co.). Dr. Gamgee's " Vivisection and Human Surgery " (J. A. Churchill) has reached a second edition ; and Dr. W. Turner's "Intro- duction to Human Anatomy " (A. & C. Black) appears in a new edition. The great " Dic- tionary of Medicine," by various eminent writ- ers, edited by Dr. Quain, maintains its position in the esteem of medical men. Watts's well- known and valuable "Dictionary of Chemis- try, and the Allied Branches of other Sciences" (Longmans &Co.), has a supplement furnished, containing important discoveries in 1879-'80 ; the wrork is complete in nine volumes. In conclusion, it may be stated that, as was predicted last year, the American fashion of cheap issues of books, in various departments of literature and science, has made its way in England to a large extent. " Sixpenny " liter- ature is markedly on the increase, and not only novels and tales are issued in this form, but works of value and high character. Its ulti- mate effect, however, whether for good or ill, remains to be seen, and, if any are alarmed at the prospect, they may take comfort in the be- lief that the conservative character of the Brit- ish way of looking at things will keep publish- ers from going too far, or risking too much, in this direction. LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL, IN 1882. The record for the year evinces about the same activity in the several branches of litera- ture as in previous years. A brief resume, without going into details, will make this plain. We begin, as heretofore, in alphabet- ical order of countries. BELGIUM. — Works referring to the history of the country rank first both in number and importance. M. Poullet's "Histoire Politique Nationale " traces the origin and history of the institutions of the Netherlands before the French Revolution. Volume I comes as far as the fourteenth century. M. Nameche's " Cours d'Histoire Nationale " has reached its ninth vol- ume, which gives the history of the beginning of the reign of Charles V. Local histories are numerous — too numerous to give even the ti- tles. They show much activity and research on the part of the writers, and are creditable to the people who encourage and support such studies. The "Bibliotheca Belgica," of Van- derhagen, is making steady progress. A na- tional "Bibliography" (1830-'80) has been commenced, valuable documents have been printed, and the very instructive "Report of LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL, IN 1882. 475 the Parliamentary Committee on Primary Education and Schools" has been published by order of the Government. Other subjects have received due attention ; such as political >nomy, popular rights, social questions, the fine arts, etc. Several monographs on this latter are regarded as very valuable, and the Royal Academy continues to publish works of ancient writers of the country. M. F. Van den Branden is still at work on his elaborate "History of the Antwerp School of Paint- ing." Decker's " History of the Malcontents in the Netherlands, Sixteenth Century," though crowned by the Academy, is pronounced by critics to be weak and prejudiced. Poetry has been fruitful this year. Collections have been made by Pol de Mont, Beernaert, Gallant, and others. A drama in blank verse, " Gudrun," by Albrecht Rodenbach (a young writer who died two years ago), is the most noted poetical publication of 1882. Novels and tales of vari- ous degrees of merit have also appeared. DENMARK. — Though much interest is taken in the older literature of the country, there is no falling off in work by living writers. Schau- dorph's " Poems " and " Novelettes " are note- worthy as indicative of the progress of en- larged and liberal ideas in literature; and Gjel- lerup's " Pupil of the Germans " goes still fur- ther in setting forth the advance of "free thought " and democratic doctrines among the young. Jacobsen's " Romances and Tales " are highly spoken of, and H. Drachmann is noted as the foremost living poet and drama- tist of Denmark. His productions are received with enthusiasm. 0. W. Smith's " History of Russian Literature, from the Time of Peter the Great," is a work of more than usual merit. Danish historians have been as active as ever. Madvig (so well known in America by his profound work on Latin philology) has pub- lished the second volume of his " Constitution and Administration of the Roman State," a very valuable addition to works on this sub- ject. Other works which may be named are : "The Political History, 1635-'45," by Fred- ericia ; Erslev's " Queen Margaret and the Calmar Union " ; " Unpublished Documents of Danish History " ; Nielsen's " History of Copen- hagen"; Lund's "History of Denmark and Norway at the Close of the Sixteenth Cen- tury"; and Bache's "History of the North." Brandes's biography of " Ferdinand Lassalle " is highly commended, as also are Brun's "Life of Bishop Gruntvig," and Colin's elaborate narrative of Hans 0. Andersen as a poet and a man. Philology has not been neglected. Kal- har's "Dictionary of the Old Danish Lan- guage (1300-1700) " is specially to be noted, and Madvig's new edition of Livy's works. Something, not much, has been done in phi- losophy and physical science. Outlines of psy- chology, a treatise on Jacob Boehme, a vol- ume on the yellow fever, etc., may be named here. FRANCE. — Literature in France, during 1882, does not present its best appearance. Between political excitement and unrest, and the preva- lence of so-called " naturalistic " productions of the school of Zola, genuine literature and scien- tific pursuits have had a rather hard time. Po- etry languishes; history only creeps along; criticism is often weak ; science produces Al- most nothing. Were we to attempt a presenta- tion and analysis of the publications of Zola and his numerous followers, the result would be such as to affright the reader. As an offset may be named Daudet's clean and attractive stories, Halevy's "L'Abbe Constantine," Greville's "Rose Rozier," and other stories, Theuriet's, Erckmann-Chatrian's, Malot's, Verne's, and La Forest's novels and tales. These have done much toward counteracting the pernicious in- fluence of the " naturalistic " writings. In poetry, Victor Hugo has produced the only noteworthy contribution of the year. Octogenarian though he is, yet his "Torque- mada " is full of the fire of genius. In grand- eur of conception and skill in the management of his subject, as well as in nobly expressed sentiments on questions of ever-living inter- est, this will rank among the master works of Victor Hugo. A few other volumes of poetry have appeared from the pens of Bruyere, Tournefort, Latille, Herve, De Biran, Ratis- bonne, etc., but they are considered of little moment to national literature. History furnishes a few works which may be noted. M. Wallon has published the sixth and concluding volume of his " History of the Revolutionary Tribunal." M. Barre-Duparcq's " History of Philip II " is a work of merit, and M. Lebon has treated the subject of England and the French Revolution in a clear, unpreju- diced, and scholarly way* Biographies and memoirs form a branch of literature in which French writers excel. Quite a large number of books of this kind have appeared, such as " Letters of B. Constant to Madame Recamier," D'Haussonville's " Salon de Madame Necker," Vatel's "Madame du Barry," M. Camp's "Souvenirs Litteraires," E. Daudet's life of his brother, A. Daudet, D'Ideville's "Mare- chal Bugeaud," the " Confessions of St. Beuve," which last are pronounced to be scandalous, and issued in violation of a distinct pledge to keep them secret. Essays and criticisms by Scherer, St. Victor, Brunetiere, Montegut, Stopfer, Lafou, etc., evidence the existence of life and spirit in this branch of literature. Note here also M. Houssaye's " L'Art Francais depuis dix Ans," a series of salon articles. Some volumes relative to contemporary poli- tics have been published, as Louis Blanc's " Discours Politique," F. Maurice's " View of the Foreign Policy of the French Republic," and Bertrand's " Manual of Administration of Affairs." Philosophy and science present little of inter- est. Bouillier's " La Vraie Conscience " defends idealistic psychology against attacks of physi- ologists ; Janry's " Breviaire de 1'Histoire du 476 LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL, IN 1882. Materialisme " ; Liard's manual of the philoso- phy of Descartes ; and " Revues Scientifiques," edited by P. Bert, are worthy of mention. Gubernatis's "Mythologie des Plantes" is in- teresting and valuable; as is also Marmier's " Legendes des Plantes et des Oiseaux," besides being instructive for general readers. GERMANY. — Imaginative literature, or works of fiction, have declined still further during this year, and the complaint is largely made that "realism" is invading and injuring all depart- ments of education and literary culture. The effect on poetry and poetic production has been very marked ; only a few volumes, and these of no great moment, having appeared. E. von Wildenbruch has enriched dramatic literature with three new works, "The Mennonites," "Fathers and Sons," and "Harald," which are highly praised for superior skill in construction, and noble and effective sentiment, etc. Wag- ner's " Parsifal " is a musical drama of the middle ages type. It is regarded by the writer's adherents as announcing a new epoch of salva- tion and religion, destined to take the place of a worn-out Christianity. Other plays of the year are hardly worth mentioning. P. Heyse, the Goethe of German story-tellers, has collect- ed his Provencal tales under the title " Trou- badour Novellen," and published a new gem of a story, " Das Gltick von Rothenburg." Steub, Keller, Von Saar, Fontane, and Put- litz have also sent forth collections of stories, more or less meritorious. Ebers, the author of " Uarda " (which was a great success), has tried his hand at a romance relating to scenes and events on the Rhine, and Spielhagen has pub- lished "Angela," the scene of which is laid on the shores of the Rhine. The critics speak se- verely of these books, as inferior in ability, skill, etc. Historical and social novels are quite nu- merous and successful. F. Gregorovius, in his " Athenais " (i. e., the Empress Eudocia), has furnished admirable vindication of that no- ble lady against certain vile slanders upon her reputation. In history, the venerable L. von Ranke's "Weltgeschichte" makes steady progress, the second volume having been published on his eighty-sixth birthday. E. Schebech has endeav- ored to clear the famous Wallenstein from the charge of being a traitor, and it is said with some fair success. Gindely's extensive " History of the Thirty Years' War " has reached its fourth volume, and Stacke's " Deutsche Geschichte " is completed, and also highly esteemed. Mono- graphs in history are numerous, asDumichen's " History of Ancient Egypt," Justi's " History of Ancient Persia," Stade's " History of Israel," Kugler's "History of the Crusades," Stern's " History of the English Revolution," Philipp- son's " Age of Louis XIV," Hassel's " History of Prussian Policy from 1807-75," etc. The " Historische Taschenbuch," founded by Von Raumer, fifty years ago, is continued with spir- it and success. H. Breslau has in it an inter- esting paper on the famous " Casket Letters " of Mary Queen of Scots. He considers the more important letters to be forgeries. W. Scherer's "History of German Literature " has reached its sixth part, which brings the history down to Lessing's time; and K. Goedeke's " Introduction to the History of German Po- etry " has been finished with the seventh part of the third volume. The Lessing centenary has called forth a deluge of new publications and republications, such as the biographies of Lessing by Danzel and Guhrauer, and K. Fisch- er's Lessing Lectures. Goethe's and Schiller's works have also occupied much attention of German savants, and numerous publications are the result, such as Vischer's "Old and New," comments on Goethe's " Faust," explanations of "Wahrheit und Dichtung," the poet's "Let- ters," and J. Braun's " Goethe und Schiller im Urtheile ihrer Zeitgenossen." Books of travel have been quite abundant, and on the whole good, as Rodenberg's "Belgium and the Bel- gians," Bodenstedt's "From the Atlantic to the Pacific," Knortz's "Pictures of Transat- lantic Society," Gregorovius's " Corfu," Ka- den's " Sketches and Pictures of Italy," etc. German philosophy is striving to hold its own and make advances. Lotze's death is re- garded as a great loss in this department, and several important works of his are left unfin- ished. Caspari, a pupil of Lotze's, has published a capital historical and critical monograph, " Hermann Lotze," and other pupils have been editing notes and lectures on ethics and the history of philosophy. Von Hartmann has added to his works " The Religious Conscience of Mankind in the Sequence of its Evolution," containing a history of religions from the earliest forms to what the writer considers the future after Christianity is dissolved and gone forever. F. Schulze attempts to furnish a me- thodical " Philosophy of the Natural Sciences," there being an evident necessity among men of science for some consistent philosophy to meet the wants of their position and principles. The unsolved and, so far as can be seen yet, the in- soluble, problems of mind and matter surround men on all sides. The present year witnesses the publication of the 2,000th volume of the Tauchnitz Library, and the forming an association of German au- thors in favor of spelling reform. The Govern- ment also has given permission to publish the confidential correspondence of Bismarck and Manteuffel, 1851-?54. GREECE. — There has been about the usual activity in literature, but nothing of special moment has resulted. Some respectable po- etry, two or three plays, a few tales or novels, and some creditable work in historical research, are evidences of a fair share of life and interest in literature. An interesting volume has ap- peared on " Public Law of Greece under Turkish Rule"; also, a small book on the " Taxation of Crete during the First Years of Turkish Domi- nation." Considerable good work has been done in philology, archaeology, topography, church LITERATURE, CONTINENTAL, IN 1882. 477 history, etc., for the description of which our present limits do not furnish space. HOLLAND. — As regards Dutch literature there is not much more to be said than was supplied by Greece in 1882. Novels appear to have been numerous as well as lively, some of the very best having been written by women. Hofdyk's "History of the Dutch" is highly commended by competent judges, as are also Pierson's " Philosophical Investigations, i. e., Critical Prolegomena of ^Esthetics." Fruin's " Contributions to Dutch History and Antiqui- ties " is a work of much merit. Besides these there are other valuable contributions to his- tory by Dutch scholars. The Leyden school in theology is as busy as ever in its advanced ra- tionalism, but with no special progress. Kern's " History of Buddhism in India," Volume I, is a work of real value, and so recognized by critics. ITALY. — Some efforts of authors and publish- ers to popularize science and spread literary culture in Italy do not seem to meet with much success. Various manuals have been issued and new periodicals started, but the mass of the people are hardly educated enough to appre- ciate these at their true value. Creditable ad- ditions have been made to literary biographies, as Cantu's "Alessandro Manzoni," Favaro's monograph on " Galileo and the University of Padua," Carducci's " Letters of Guerrazi," etc. Novelists are said to be on the increase, both male and female : of the former are G. Rovetta, author of " Mater Dolorosa," Ciampoli's " Tale? of the Abruzzi," Castelnuovo's " Sorrisi e La- grima," Barille's " II Ritratto delDiavolo," etc. Of female writers of fiction Matilde Serao, in her "Legende Napolitane," takes high rank, as do also Cesira Siciliani and " Emma " (nom de plume). History and philology hold their place as in past years. The third volume or Villari's " Machiavelli " has appeared ; also, the "Letters of Cavour," documentary "History of the Reformation," " History of the Italian Kingdoms established by Napoleon," critical study on the " Life and Times of Dante," etc. In poetry, Carducci's " Nuove Odi Bar bare" is much praised ; G. D'Annunzio sends forth " Canto Nuovo," and G. Manzoni is highly com- mended for his volume, " Poesie." Carcano's translation of Shakespeare, in twelve volumes, has been completed. NOEWAT. — Political topics occupy a large share of the attention of people in Norway, and literature proper suffers in consequence. Ibsen's new drama, " A National Enemy," is highly approved, and gives more satisfaction than his last year's "Ghosts, or Apparitions." Jonas Lie maintains his popularity in his latest sailor - story, "Go ahead." A. Kielland ad- vances in public favor in his " Skipper Worde," and other tales ; and K. Janson sends forth an excellent historical romance, " Our Grandpar- ents." Several reprints of older authors, some works on natural history, an edition of the mathematical works of N. H. Abel, under the care of S. Lie, the great mathematician of the day, are worthy of note. POLAND. — Brief notice is all that Poland re- quires this year. Considerable discussion of early Polish history, and the publication of a number of books on the subject, are to be noted. Korzon's " Internal History of Poland in the days of Stanislaus Poniatowski " (the last king) is a very creditable production, and the Academy of Sciences at Cracow has published several volumes of documents and valuable his- torical material. Kraszewski is the chief writer of historical romances and stories. Something, not much, has been done in lyric and narrative poetry, and in the drama. A " History of Uni- versal Literature, with Illustrations," has been begun, and promises well as to the subsequent volumes. RUSSIA. — In this vast empire, which is in so unsettled and unsatisfactory a state, the cen- sorship of the press bears heavily on literature, and consequently the year has in its record little that is remarkable or important. Tour- guenief, Tolstoi, Boborykin, Vallnieff, and some others, have contributed novels and stories, and Stchedrin, in his " Letters to my Aunt," has produced a capital satire on the servility, hy- pocrisy, and the like, in Russian society. In native poetry little has been accomplished, while on the other hand numerous translations of German and English poems have appeared. Several volumes of merit on modern Russian literature have taken the form of biography, such as biographies of Lermontoff, of Pushkin, of Schevtcheuko, etc. In history, the Histor- ical Society contributes a number of volumes of documents and material. Kobeko's " Caesare- vitch Paul Petrovitch " (Paul I), the strange and wild despot, Troussevitch's " History of the Diplomatic and Commercial Relations of Rus- sia with China," Drygalshi's " Russian Army in War and Peace," and Volume XI of the late Metropolitan Makari's " History of the Russian Church," are deserving of mention here. As is natural, social, political, religious, and na- tional questions excite much interest, and accordingly (as far as the censorship rules per- mitted) several clever books have been published on these topics, such as, "Woronzoff's "Fate of Capital in Russia," Youzoff's "Sociological Studies," Tchitcherin's "Property and the State," Daneffski's " Systems of Political Equi- librium and Legitimism, and the Origin of Nationality," Buslaiev's " Development of Re- , ligious Beliefs in Russia," etc. A number of good books of travel have also appeared. SPAIN. — There has been little activity in letters and science in Spain this year. A few works on historical topics, publications of the several academies, a goodly number of novels and tales, some efforts in poetry and the drama, with books on social, statistical, and econom- ical questions, are about all that the literary record can show. Translations from standard English and American writers have been made, and three different works on "bull-fighting," 478 LONGFELLOW, HENRY W. its laws and regulations, and the like, have ap- peared. SWEDEN. — In general development and prog- ress Sweden holds her own in 1882. The past year has been unusually active in produc- tion of historical and descriptive works of merit; as, "Voyage of the Vega," published simultaneously in eleven languages ; " Illustrat- ed History of Sweden," in six volumes (each by a separate author) ; two volumes describing the Swedish people in their home-life, their cul- ture and customs ; a National Cyclopedia, in six volumes; a work on Swedish medals and statuettes ; the third volume of the " Collection of Swedish Laws," etc. The Finnish poet and novelist, Topelius, continues to be as popular as ever. His well-known " Surgeon's Stories " are in course of publication in a new edition, six volumes, and in several languages. LONGFELLOW, HENEY WADSWOETH, was born in Portland, Me., February 27, 1807. His father, the Hon. Stephen Longfellow, was a distinguished member of the Maine bar, and also a member of Congress. On his mother's side he was descended from John Alden, one of the Mayflower Puritans, and one whom he has so pleasantly embalmed in his poem, "Miles Standish's Courtship." Of his early years there is only scant record, hardly more than that he was a quiet, gentle boy, who went to school with other boys at the Portland Academy, where Mr. Cushman was head-master. Here he made rapid progress, and, in 1821 (being only fourteen years old), he entered Bowdoin College. In his class were several youths who became afterward well known to the public, such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, G. B. Cheever, J. S. C. Abbott, J. W. Bradley, etc. Longfel- low was graduated in 1825, second in his class, and so highly were his talents and acquire- ments valued and esteemed that, six months after his graduation, when only nineteen, he was appointed Professor of Modern Languages and Literature in his Alma Mater, a chair of which he was the first occupant. With rare good sense, while accepting the appointment, he felt it necessary to fit himself more exactly and fully for his post by travel and study abroad. Accordingly, he spent three and a half years in Europe, in studying French, Ger- man, and Italian; and the college wisely waited for his return. Mr. Longfellow entered upon his duties at Bowdoin College in 1829, and became a very popular professor, noted for his genial, kindly spirit, and for the life and animation he in- fused into his department. He engaged to some extent in literary pursuits, in prose as well as poetry, and thenceforward devoted him- self largely to that noble ancl honorable career of authorship which ended only with his life. In 1835 Professor Longfellow was invited to fill the chair of Modern Languages and Liter- ature in Harvard College, from which the emi- nent historian and scholar, George Ticknor, had just retired. Previously to entering upon its duties, he resolved to spend another year in Europe in further study and research. While in Rotterdam he met with his first great trouble in life, viz., the death of his wife, to whom he had pledged his faith and love in 1831. Al- though Longfellow married again, in 1843, this severe domestic affliction probably had its effect in deepening the religious cast of his thoughts, and leading him to brood over topics which later formed the staple of his most touching and enduring verses. On his return home he gave to the public " Outre-Mer," and, two years afterward, "Hyperion," both of them of the nature of prose-poems, and much prized for their simple beauty of style and purity of sen- timent. It was with true poetic instinct that Long- fellow, on coming to Harvard to reside, in 1836, secured for his future home that old- fashioned square house, with a broad piazza looking out upon its garden, and its front win- dows commanding a view of the quiet Charles River, situated a little back from the elm- shaded avenue which leads to Mount Auburn. This was the " Craigie Mansion," occupied at the time by a widow lady of the name of Craigie, who admitted the youthful professor within her walls. On her death, some seven years later, the poet purchased the property, and continued to reside there with his family until his own summons came to leave this world, and pass away to his final account. The house was already famous as being Washing- ton's headquarters after the battle of Bunker Hill. It has, ever since Longfellow's occu- pancy, been famous in a different sense, as a place of pilgrimage for devout admirers of the genial, much-loved poet. From this date (1836) onward, for nearly twenty years, Longfellow not only gave care- ful attention to the duties of his professorship, but also engaged in writing for reviews and magazines, as well as composing and publish- ing several of his best-known poems, as " Voices of the Night," "Ballads," "The Spanish Stu- dent," "The Belfry of Bruges," "Evangeline," "The Golden Legend." He also published " Kavanagh," a New England tale, and edited " The Poets and P»oetry of Europe," with bio- graphical notes and translations. The remaining incidents of the poet's life and career are few and easily stated. He resigned his chair in Harvard in 1854, and, in the retirement of his charming home, prepared his later poems and contributions to American literature. He made a third visit to Europe in 1842, and a last visit in 1869, when the university honored itself by conferring upon him the degree of D. C. L. His wife met with a tragic end in 1861. She was sealing a letter in her own room, when her light summer dress caught fire from the lighted taper, and she was burned so severely that she died soon after in great agony. Two sons and two daughters (unmarried) were the inmates of the poet's residence, ancl survive their honored father. LONGFELLOW, HENRY W. LOOM, POSITIVE-MOTION. 479 Longfellow died when he had reached the ripe old age of seventy-five, March 24, 1882. His funeral, attended by numbers of the ^most distinguished of his countrymen, was simple and without any display, and his mortal re- mains were placed in the family vault at Mount Auburn. Public services were held in the chapel of Harvard College, when words of mingled grief, resignation, and eulogy were uttered by those who knew and appreciated his worth. It may be mentioned here that steps have been taken in England to erect a suitable memorial of Longfellow in Westmin- ster Abbey — Tennyson, as every way fitting, taking an active part in the proposed honoring of our American poet. It is perhaps too soon as yet to attempt to fix his precise place and rank among American poets. If he be not the very first, he is cer- tainly in the front rank of modern masters of song. He possessed the true poetic genius and insight; and though he is not the singer of violent, fierce passion, or of tbe profounder depths of tragedy — that is, not a Homer, or a Dante, or a Milton, or a Shakespeare — he is still a master in all those emotions and passions which stir the hearts of mankind in general. He is one whom myriads of readers learn to love as well as admire, and who continue stead- fast in their love all their life long. He is, in the best sense of the words, the people's poet, and Longfellow himself coveted no higher fame than this. There is one feature in his poems to be noted, and that is his perfect skill as an artist. He always made most careful prepara- tion before beginning to write any of his longer poems, and he spared no toil to secure the most complete accuracy, in every, even the minutest, particular. His large and varied reading, his thorough culture, his keen appre- ciation of the beauty and power of art, his own genial, loving, kindly nature, his true gentle- manly instincts and perceptions, all these not only aided the poet but guided him to a large extent in his work. From first to last, Long- fellow was the same ; and it is worthy of note that his mental and poetical vigor was vouch- safed to him to the very close of life, as may easily be seen by a perusal of " Morituri Salu- tamus " and " Ultima Thule." The works of Henry W. Longfellow may properly here be enumerated. They are pub- lished both separately and in collected forms by Messrs. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., of Boston, in various sizes and at various prices, from the diamond 18mo (poems) to the illustrated 8vo. The best library edition is the one known as the Cambridge edition, the poetical works be- ing in four crown 8vo volumes, the prose works in two volumes. Most of his "Earlier Poems," written before he was nineteen, are included in his collected works ; the others in the order of time are as follow : 1. Voices of the Night, 1839. 2. Ballads and other Poems, 1841. 3. Poems on Slavery, 1842. 4. The Spanish Student, 1843. 5. The Belfry of Bruges and other Poems, 1845. 6. Evangeline. A Tale of Acadie, 1847. 7. The Seaside and the Fireside, 1847. 8. The Song of Hiawatha, 1855. 9. The Courtship of Miles Standish, 1858. 10. Birds of Passage, Flights First to Fii'th. 11. Tales of a Wayside Inn, 1863. 12. Flower-de-Luce, and other Poems, 1866. 13. CHRISTUS: A Mystery. In Three Parts. I. The Divine Tragedy. II. The Golden Le- gend. III. The New England Tragedies, 1872, '51, '68. 14. Aftermath, 1874. 15. The Hanging of the Crane, 1874. 16. Morituri Salutamus, 1875. 17. The Masque of Pandora, 1876. 18. Keramos, and other Poems, 1878. 19. Ultima Thule, 1880. 20. In the Harbor, Part II of Ultima Thule, 1881. 21. Translations, at various periods, 1833-1880. 22. The Waif. A Collection of Poems. Edited by H. W. Longfellow, 1846. 23. TheEstray. A Collection of Poems. Edited by the same, 1846. 24. The Divina Commedia of Dante. Translated from the Italian, 3 vols., 1867-'70. 25. Poems of Places, 31 vols., 18mo. Edited by the same, 1872. PROSE WORKS. — 1. Outre-Mer. A Pilgrimage beyond the Sea, 1835. 2. Hyperion. A Eomance, 1839. 3. Driftwood. From the French, 1833. 4. Kavanagh. A Tale, 1849. LOOM, POSITIVE-MOTION. A simple contrivance has been introduced by James Ly- all, an American inventor, by which a positive and even motion is given to the shuttle in weaving. Many attempts have been made to remedy the defects of the flying shuttle, and bring the shuttle-movement to the same de- gree of mechanical efficiency as the other parts of the modern loom. Compressed air, mag- nets, clutch-sticks to pull the shuttle through, and revolving rollers to catch it and expel it from a shuttle-box, have been tried, to give it a positive and controllable motion. The solu- tion of this problem may take rank with the flying shuttle, invented by John Kay in 1835, which it would supplant, with Dr. Arkwright's power-loom, and with Jacquard's process for weaving designs, as a great improvement in the weaving art. The inconveniences of the intermittent action of the shuttle, driven, as heretofore, by picking-sticks, are such as to make the loom, with its perfect mechanism in other respects, an uncertain instrument, and cause frequent stoppages of work and destruc- tion of materials. The friction of the shuttle on the warp weakens the threads constantly, and makes the fabric less durable than it would otherwise be. Some of the threads break un- der the strain. The frequent eccentric behav- ior of the shuttle is more serious, and causes all degrees of damage, from occasional broken threads and defective selvage, to the destruc- tion of the piece of cloth or breaking of the machine. The leather on the picking-staff becomes irregularly worn, and the shuttle takes a wrong direction, or the blows are too weak, causing it to stop short in its course, or too strong, causing it to recoil from the 480 LOUISIANA. opposite pick and bringing about the same result. The device of Lyall is simply a carriage on which the shuttle is drawn back and forth, with rollers between the carriage and the shut- tle, which allow the lower shed of warp to pass between. The carriage is propelled on rollers by a band over a raceway. The friction-roll- ers on the carriage are placed outside of those on the shuttle, so that the shuttle is held in place and given the motion of the carriage by the purchase derived from the inclosing roll- ers. The shuttle is held down upon the car- riage by a track above, upon which run rollers placed on the top of the shuttle, the upper shed of warp being held against the track so that the rollers can pass over. LOUISIANA. STATE OFFICERS.— Govern- or, Samuel Douglas McEnery ; * Secretary of State, William A. Strong; Treasurer, E. A. Burke ; Auditor, Allen Jumel ; Superintendent of Public Education, Edwin H. Fay ; Attor- ney-General, James 0. Egan. United States Senators (Forty-seventh Congress), W. P. Ke.- logg and B. F. Jonas: Members of the Forty- seventh Congress: First District, Randall L. Gibson ; Second District, E. John Ellis ; Third District, Chester B. Darrall ; Fourth District, Newton C. Blanchard; Fifth District, E. W. Robertson ; Sixth District, J. Floyd King. Members of the Forty- eighth Congress elect : Carlton Hunt, William P. Kellogg, E. John Ellis, Newton 0. Blanchard, Andrew Herron,t J. Floyd King. THE OVEKFLOWS. — The unprecedented flood in the beginning of the year laid waste hun- dreds of square miles of land, sweeping away cattle and fences, destroying houses or mak- ing them uninhabitable, tearing up and wash- ing away railroads, devastating plantations, and reducing several thousand people, white and black, to absolute destitution. Fortu- nately, the loss of life was inconsiderable. It is estimated that 585,000 acres of land — 203,000 of which were in Louisiana — were overflowed. The damage to the sugar dis- tricts was not so great as to cotton - lands. The pecuniary loss by the overflow in Louisi- ana amounted to upward of $2,000,000. When it occurred there was no money in the State Treasury which could be used for the relief of the sufferers ; and had not the Congress of the United States been in session and with laudable promptitude and unanimity made provision for the immediate relief of the distress, thousands must have perished from exposure and starva- tion, the liberal contributions of the people of New Orleans and other places being quite in- sufficient to meet the emergency. The United States Government furnished 1,966,000 rations, costing $218,630, which were distributed among 130,000 of the most necessitous, made * Elected Lieutenant-Governor : became Governor on the death of Louis A. Wiltz. t Died at Baton Eouge, November 27th. Vacancy to be filled in February, 1883. liberal appropriations of money, and also sent a number of tents for the shelter of those who were made houseless. The flood extended over thirteen parishes, to a greater or less extent. Notwithstanding this calamity, the people have cause for thanksgiving in the good state of the public health during the year, owing, it is be- lieved, to the wise and efficient measures adopted and rigidly carried out by the Board of Health. By this system of quarantine not only has the health of Louisiana been pro- tected, but that of the inhabitants of the entire valley of the Mississippi. It is claimed that the absence of yellow fever, caused by the vigilance of the authorities, goes a long way to prove that the disease is imported and not indigenous, and that the city of New Orleans is not the hot-bed of pestilence, from which it is communicated to other places, as many have hitherto supposed. FINANCES. — The unsettled condition of the finances of the State for several years past has seriously impeded her growth and prosperity, causing a universal distrust, which has not merely affected the credit and honor of the Commonwealth, but has also, to a great extent, affected injuriously individual credit, prevented investment of foreign capital, and excluded immigration. The bonded debt of the State, as reported by the State Treasurer and Auditor in May, 1882, consists of: Seven per cent consols, unstamped $11.322,900 Four per cent constitutional bonds 198,750 Bonds stamped two per cent, three per cent, and four per cent 265,200 Total bonded debt $11,786,850 In 1879 the Constitutional Convention en- acted what is known as the " Debt Ordinance," which was subsequently ratified by the people. This ordinance offered to the public creditor who held a 7 per cent bond 2 per cent interest for five years, 3 per cent for fifteen years, and 4 per cent from that time to the maturity of the bonds, giving the bondholders, however, the option of scaling their bonds 25 cents on the dollar, and receiving 4 per cent interest. The creditors^ declined to accept these terms, as is shown by the fact that only $186,150 have been funded into 4 per cents, and only $237,000 have been stamped as accepting the 2 per cent offered. In the mean time, the in- terest fund has been collected from the tax- payers and amounts to upward of $1,000.000 lying in the hands of the fiscal agent, and tied up by injunctions issued by the Federal courts. The bondholders have made the following proposition to the Governor : To his Excellency Samuel D. McEnery, Governor of the State of Louisiana. EESPECTED SIR : The undersigned holders of bonds of the State of Louisiana known as consolidated bonds, bearing 7 per cent, who have declined to accept the propositions contained in the debt ordinance, and be- ing deeply interested in the welfare of the State, beg leave most respectfully to suggest to your Excellency, and to request that at the approaching meeting of the General Assembly it may please your Excellency to LOUISIANA. 481 recommend proper and further legislation for the final adjustment of the bonded debt of the State on the following basis, viz. : 1. That provision be made for paying the interest thereon for the first five years since January 1, 1880, at the rate of 2 per cent per annum in lieu of 7 per cent, as therein provided, the payment of which not to prejudice or novate the original constitutional con- tract of 1874, unless the amendment to the Constitu- tion necessary to effect the proposed reduction of in- terest be adopted by the people of the State. 2. The State of Louisiana will thereafter agree to pay 4 per cent interest per annum, in lieu of 7 per cent, with ample legislation to secure the prompt and regular payment of said 4 per cent. At the request of the Governor, the Auditor and the Treasurer, to whom he referred the above proposition, gave an opinion, of which the following is an extract : If the holders of unstamped 7 per cent consols should avail themselves of the provisions of the debt ordinance and scale their bonds at seventy-five cents, as authorized therein, and the holders of consols stamped for reduced interest should retain their pres- ent form of bond, the yearly interest requirements of the State for the existing debt would, for five years, be as follows : $11,322,900 consols, less 25 per cent, $8,492,175, at 4 per cent $339,637 $265,200 consols, stamped, 2 per cent 5,304 $198,750 constitutional bonds at 4 per cent 7,940 Total yearly interest $352,931 The interest account under the constitutional pro- visions would require for twenty years, or until the period at which the Constitution provides for the pay- ment of 4 per cent on unsealed bonds : $8,492,175 at 4 per cent, twenty years $6,793,740 $198,750 at 4 per cent, twenty years 158,800 $265,200 at 2 per cent for five years, 3 per cent for fifteen years 145,860 Total interest as per debt ordinance $7,098,400 Under the proposition now submitted by the owners and representatives of bonds, the interest requirements would be as follows, viz. : $11,588,100 at 2 per cent for five years, $231,762 per year $1,158,810 $11,588,100 at 4 per cent for fifteen years, $463,524 per year 6,952,860 $198,750 at 4 per cent for twenty years, $7,950 per year 159,000 Total interest, twenty years $8,270,670 SUMMARY. Bondholders' proposition $2,270,670 Debt ordinance 7,098,400 Difference in twenty years $1,172,270 Less surplus from interest fund to general expenses for live years 566,095 Total difference in interest $606,175 Or an average difference against the State of $30,- 308.75 per year from January 1, 1880, to January 1, 1900, after which time the Constitution provides for the payment of 4 per cent on the face of consolidated bonds stamped for reduced interest. ^ We unhesitatingly advise the adoption of the propo- sition as looking to a final settlement of this vexatious question, and as presenting a means of partially re- lieving the State from existing financial embarrass- ments. The adoption of an amendment as proposed will place the bonds of the State at par, and all sec- tions of the State will experience the advantage flow- ing from the values thus added to the resources of our citizens. In addition to these considerations, this measure of justice will unite the people of our State upon a ques- VOL. xxii. — 31 A tion which must disturb our politics and impede our material advancement as long as it remains unsettled. We have the honor to be,very respectfully, ALLEN JU MEL, Auditor. E. A. BUKKE, Treasurer. The necessary steps have been taken by the Legislature to give effect to the proposed ad- justment of the difficulty, and it is hoped that this, with the passage of a suitable revenue bill, will restore the credit of the State and enable her to repair the damage inflicted by years of reckless extravagance and misrule. The receipts at the Treasury for the year 1882, from all sources, amounted to $2,353,621.66, derived as follows: General fund, $803,569.- 43; school fund, $205,455.20; interest tax fund, $819,022.92 ; levee construction and re- pair fund, $5,232.24; general engineer fund, $141,753.78; interest and redemption of $5 bonds, $44,764.68; redemption of school cer- tificates, $7,487.32; poll-tax fund, $5,209.72; Charity Hospital fund, $47,672.47; levee and drainage fund, $36,034.56; free-school fund, $13,567.42; district levee fund, $119,870.34; militia fund, $150; judicial expense fund, $102,387.83 ; agricultural and immigration fund, $990 ; balance on hand January 1, 1882, $453.75. The disbursements for the same period amounted to $1,617,164.17. The assessment roll of 1881 shows that the real property in the State was assessed at $130,- 701,901, and personal property at $50,758,060, thus making the former pay 72 per cent and the latter only 28 per cent of the total State tax, while it is well known that the value of personal is quite equal to that of real property, and should bear an equal share of the burden of taxation. The taxation is limited by the Constitution to six mills. Very large amounts are due the State for " back .taxes," of which it is expected 50 per cent at least will soon be collected and paid into the Treasury. "When this is done, and the flagrant inequalities of assessments are fully corrected, the resources of the State will be ample to meet all her just and legal obligations. The total number of registered voters in the State is 172,005, of whom 158,485 are natives, 13,276 of foreign birth, 85,451 whites, 88,024 colored, 69,006 whites who can write and 16,- 913 who are illiterate, 11,403 colored who can write and 76,087 who are illiterate. STATE INSTITUTIONS. — The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, since the election of Colonel William Preston Johnston, son of the late General Al- bert Sidney Johnston, as president, has been thoroughly organized and placed upon a new basis. It is now located at Baton Kouge, on a high bluff overlooking the river, commanding an extensive view. The main building, five stories in height, is 270 by 90 feet, with two wings, two stories high, 158 by 60 feet. These contain 79 rooms, embracing mess-hall, library of 17,000 volumes, hospital, chapel, museum, cadets' sleeping-rooms, class-rooms, etc. The 482 LOUISIANA. grounds are capacious and tastefully laid out. The faculty consist of ten professors, who in- struct in English, mathematics, chemistry, Lat- in and Greek, the modern languages, mechan- ics, agriculture, and military tactics. Attached to the institution is a machine-shop where 70 cadets are now learning carpentry, forging, and turning. Under the supervision of Presi- dent Johnston and the university surgeon, Dr. Dupree, a station for the production of vaccine lymph was instituted and the product was dis- tributed gratis within the State. The sales out- side of the State paid all the expenses. The government and discipline of the cadets are well administered, and all the institution needs is a liberal appropriation by the State to make its success certain. It has 150 students in attend- ance, with promise of a large increase. It grants four degrees, namely, Bachelor of Arts, Bache- lor of Science, Graduate in Agriculture, and Graduate in Mechanics. The University of Louisiana, situated in the center of the city of New Orleans, on Baronne, Common, and Dry- ades Streets, is composed of four faculties, viz., one of Law, one of Medicine, one of the Nat- ural Sciences, and one of Letters. The aca- demical department, though of comparatively recent establishment, is advancing rapidly in efficiency and usefulness. The buildings are handsome and commodious, and have been made more capacious by the purchase and ad- dition to them of the building known as the "Mechanics' Institute." During the session 1881-'82 there were in the different depart- ments of the university 494 students — in the academical department (including the High- School) 250; in the medical department, 217; and in the law department, 27. The univer- sity is under the control of a board of admin- istrators, of which the Governor of the State, the Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, and the Mayor of New Orleans, are ex-officio members. The other members are appointed by the Governor, with the consent of the Senate. This board, owing to the imper- fect preparation of students seeking en- trance, has been forced to choose between establishing a high-school in the university, and lowering the standard of scholarship in the academical department. They have wisely chosen the former, and thus far it has been very successful. The State Library, of 26,000 volumes, is arranged in the wing of the university devoted to the law department. The State appropriates $10,000 annually for the support of the institution. The faculty of the academical department consists of eleven professors and instructors. The university for the education of people of color, which was opened in January, 1881, with a fair prospect for usefulness and a large number of students, was closed in June of that year, and has not been reopened, because the trustees were un- willing to sacrifice the warrants of the State — its only assets — at the ruinous discount at which they could be sold. It is now hoped that under an improved financial system all these embarrassments will be removed, and adequate provision made for the support of the institutions of the State. COMMON SCHOOLS. — The report of the Super- intendent of Public Education gives an encour- aging account of the progress of education in the State. The total attendance was close to 70,000 pupils, which is a large increase over former years. Accurate figures can not be given, as several parishes have failed to re- port. The sum apportioned was $123,500. The city of New Orleans has a school sys- tem of her own, with a board of directors and superintendent. The total enrollment of pupils for the session of nine months is estimated at about 25,000, of which number about one fifth are colored. The number of schools in the city is fifty-four. One high-school for boys; one high-school for girls ; twenty-seven gram- mar-schools, with eight years of instruction ; eight grammar-schools, with a seven-years' course; three primary schools, with a four- years' course ; and one special primary, with a Kindergarten system. Of this number thirteen, of mixed grammar and primary grades, are ex- clusively for colored pupils. The total means for the support of the schools— assuming, as is supposed, that they will be equal in amount to that of the previous year — are $210,000, of which amount upward of nine tenths are de- rived from the city appropriations, the remain- ing tenth from the poll-tax and from the cur- rent school fund of the State. For several years the city government has appropriated $200,000 per annum ; but the expenses of the schools have largely exceeded the income, and the Board of Directors are unable to make in- come and expense balance, by reducing salaries and discharging some of the teachers, because the law requires an unbroken session of nine or ten months, and the payment of all salaries in twelve monthly installments, and forbids the discharge of any teacher once elected, ex- cept upon "written charges of degeneracy, neglect of duty, incompetency, or malfeasance, of which he or she shall be found guilty by a majority of the members of the board at a regular meeting." The improvement of the colored pupils in these schools is represented as very marked and encouraging. The separa- tion of the whites and blacks has ceased to create any friction, and is now acquiesced in as the best arrangement for both. THE STATE ASYLTJM FOE THE INSANE, situ- ated at Jackson, La., contained, at the last re- port, two hundred and fifty-two patients, forty- seven of whom were colored. About 60 per cent are able to work, and are engaged in gar- dening, in making bricks, and other manual la- bor. Were it not for this the institution could not be carried on with the means appropriated to it, which are paid in warrants, and have been hitherto sold at a discount of 50 per cent. The death-rate is only 4 per cent per annum. The capacity of the institution is quite LOUISIANA. 483 insufficient to accommodate the insane of the State. Those who can not obtain admittance are detained in the country jails. The annual appropriation for the asylum is $50,000, which, if paid in par funds, would be an ample pro- vision. THE CONSTITUTION OF 1879. — The Governor, in his Jast message, expresses much discontent with the practical working of the Constitution adopted in 1879. He says: " The instrument is voluminous, and contains many provisions, borrowed from other States, not applicable to our system of laws or to our condition. The appointing power of the Executive is too great, and it is not well distributed. With an im- mense patronage, he has no power, and his ef- forts to execute the law result in recommenda- tions and remonstrances. The system of re- moving officers for delinquencies, incompe- tency, and corruption, without the power of suspension, is too complicated. The result is, that a judicial contest is equivalent to the prosecuted officer serving out his term, and enjoying the emoluments of his office. The judiciary system is unsatisfactory, and has been the cause of much complaint. The restrictions on the Legislature are unwise, and exclude from its control many subjects which should demand its attention. The limitation on taxation is un- fortunate, and the financial system under it is confused and embarrassed. The General As- sembly can be liberal in its appropriations, but it is limited in the taxation to meet them. The Constitution declares gambling to be a vice, yet it encourages that vice in its worst forms, not only inciting to breaches of faith and embez- zlement in the effort to get rich in the turn of a wheel, but demoralizing society, corrupting politics, and impeding legislation. The Con- stitution was intended to expedite judicial in- quiries, and to cheapen litigation, "but it has crowded the dockets of the courts, and in- creased the costs to such an extent that many are afraid to venture within the halls of jus- tice. The instrument is difficult to interpret, and impracticable in its execution. A new Constitution would be a blessing, and I hope to see the State under an organic law suit- able to our wants, and in harmony with our laws.'1 THE CITY OF NEW ORLEANS — DEBT, ETC. — The long- vexed question of the heavy debt of the city of New Orleans has been, it is hoped, finally and satisfactorily adjusted by the Legis- lature, and the grievous load of judicial taxa- tion which, for more than two years, has crushed the tax-payers of the city, averted. Acts have been passed authorizing the munici- pal authorities to levy annually, commencing in 1883, a tax not to exceed five mills, in addition to the ten-mill tax authorized by the Constitution of 1879, and the tax of five mills required by the premium bond act, to pay the annual interest on all outstanding bonds of the city, other than premium bonds, the surplus, if any, to be used as a sinking fund ; and authorizing the renewal, extending the payment for forty years, of all outstanding bonds, except premium bonds, providing for the payment of interest thereon at six per cent, and reserving to the city the right to call in and pay the bonds at par after the year 1895. Provision is also made for the issue of certificates of indebtedness dated January 1, 1888, payable with six per cent interest per an- num, in ten years or sooner at the option of the city, for the sum of all matured coupons out- standing on January 1, 1883. It is further pro- vided that all legal proceedings instituted to de- lay or obstruct the operation of these acts shall be tried summarily and by preference over all other causes, and determined immediately, whether the courts be in vacation or not. The creditors have thus the option to accept the terms of either of these acts. This settlement faithfully carried out will benefit every material interest of the city, enhance the value of prop- erty, and restore public confidence in the good faith of the people. With the cheap transporta- tion of her great river and her now completed railway communication with the Pacific coast, New Orleans will command the bulk of the trade of the valley of the Mississippi, and re- gain the Mexican, Central and South American trade. There is now a through railroad con- nection between New Orleans and San Fran- cisco. The New Orleans Pacific Railroad ex- tends in a northwestward direction from New Orleans to Shreveporfc on Red River, a distance of 325 miles, through the richest part of Louisi- ana. At Shreveport, junction is made with the main line of the Texas Pacific Railroad. The first ninety miles of the line out of New Orleans follow the general course of the Mis- sissippi River, running through the largest sugar and rice plantations in the State. At Brusle", a branch eight miles long connects the road with Baton Rouge, the capital of the State. From Brusle the road turns more west- ward to the Atchafalaya River, which it reaches at Church ville, 130 miles from New Orleans ; thence in a northwesterly direction, striking the rich valley of the Red River — the great cotton-producing section — it reaches Al- exandria, 200 miles from New Orleans. From Alexandria it follows the course of the river, passing near Natchitoches, traversing the largest timber region of the State, and reach- es Shreveport by way of Mansfield. Along the whole line from New Orleans to Alexandria, immense cypress thickets are easily accessible, and thence to Shreveport it passes through forests of the finest " long-leaf " pine. During the summer shipments of wheat via the South- ern Pacific Railroad reached New Orleans, as an experiment to prove whether the overland shipments can be made as cheaply as by the long ocean-voyage from San Francisco, and whether, although there may be theoretically a limit at which actual cost of transportation may check railroad business, practically, mini- mum freights may not be more remunerative 484 LOUISIANA. than empty cars, sent to carry back the sugar, molasses, and rice of the Southwest. The annual settlement of the United States Mint at New Orleans for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1882, showed that the varied and deli- cate operations of that establishment had been skillfully conducted. The bullion operated on amounted to nearly $18,000,000, with a wast- age of less than $3,000, being far within the limit allowed by law. The coin and bullion in the immediate possession of the Superintend- ent on the day of settlement amounted to $5,047,585. The coinage for the fiscal year was, gold, $101,700, and standard silver dol- lars, $4,958,000. The coinage at the mint is far less than the demand for distribution, so that frequent transfers of silver by the Assist- ant Treasurer have to be made to meet the de- mand when the crops begin to move and the active business season commences. The following is a statement of receipts and disbursements by the Assistant Treasurer of the United States at New Orleans, during the fiscal years ending June 30, 1880, 1881, and 1882 : EECEIPTS. ACCOUNT. 1880. 1881. 1888. $2332996 21 $3127801 74 $3 562 551 95 Internal revenue 1 182 576 40 927021 96 1 065 136 97 Sales of lands .... 17169 86 45,792 56 752,766 96 Post-Office department 786751 48 629,283 10 1,001,788 24 Transfers 8215752 42 13034,692 30 13 319 396 44 Disbursing officers. . . . 3 762'023 54 5 687 1 66 83 5,992,563 91 Miscellaneous. ..... 1 279 350 79 165,681 16 862,607 41 Totals .... $12 576 620 70 $23,617,439 65 $26,556,811 83 DISBUKSEMENTS. ACCOUNT. 1880. 1881. 1888. Treasury drafts $2765,056 72 $3,199,070 37 $3,215,367 22 Post-Office warrants T05,227 69 681,623 94 866,472 69 Disbursing officers' checks 4,716,637 65 4,353,161 17 6,298,436 00 Transfers 5,414,700 00 14,117,864 59 13,494,042 57 Miscellaneous 7689 00 7,272 00 323,559 06 Totals $13,609,311 06 $22,888,992 07 $24,197,877 54 The domestic exports from the port of New Orleans to foreign countries, during the fiscal year 1881-'82, amounted to $68,190,431, a falling off of $35,196,019 as compared with the preceding year. The imports of foreign products and manufactures at New Orleans for the same period amounted to $11,993,852, a falling off of $419,418 as compared with the year before. The ocean tonnage shows a de- cline corresponding to the reduced amount of the exports and imports. This year 897 ves- sels, with a tonnage of 998,079, entered, and 953 vessels, tonnage 1,038,859, cleared; and last year 1,255 vessels, tonnage 1,422,726, en- tered, and 1,257 vessels, tonnage 1,402,496, cleared. The commercial year, which closed August 31st, was far from prosperous. There was a large decrease in the leading lines of trade. The season was unfavorable for agriculture, especially in the staple crops — cotton and sugar. Good prices, however, were main- tained, and, despite the many drawbacks, the number of commercial failures was not large. Local finances improved greatly. State and city securities appreciated. The banks did a profitable business and are in a sound condi- tion, and more money h,is been invested in improvements than in any year since the close of the war. The tendency to invest in manu- factures is marked. The completion of the two ^ through trunk lines west of the Missis- sippi, and the active prosecution of the work on two lines east of the river, indicate confi- dence in the future prosperity of the State. The Southern Pacific is doing a large business, and the New Orleans Pacific is bringing large additions to trade with Northern Texas. THE TULANE DONATIONS. — During the win- ter of last year it was announced that Mr. Paul Tulane, of Princeton N. J., but for many years a citizen of New Orleans, had conveyed a large estate to trustees to be used for the education of the white youth of the city of New Orleans. There was some delay in per- fecting the arrangements, but now the deeds have been recorded, and the charter incorpo- rating the trustees duly issued. The gift em- braces all the real estate owned by Mr. Tulane in the city of New Orleans, worth at assessors' valuation $288,700, yielding an annual income of $38,000. In his letter to the trustees he de- clares the purpose of the donation to be — For the promotion and encouragement of intel- lectual, moral, and industrial education among the white young persons in the city of New Orleans, State of Louisiana, and for the advancement of learning and letters, the arts and sciences therein, my intention being that the benefits shall be applied and expended in the city of New Orleans. By the term education, I mean to foster such a course of intellectual development as shall be useful and of solid worth, and not be merely ornamental or superficial. 1 mean you should adopt the course which, as wise and good men, would commend itself to you, as being conducive to immediate practical benefit, rather than theoretical possible advantage. I wish you to establish or foster institutions of a higher grade of learning, where the young persons to be bene- fited shall, upon due examination, be found compe- tent and qualified for admission, both by age and pre- LOUISIANA. 485, vious training, to receive the benefits of a more ad- vanced degree of educational culture. Intellectual advancement should be unfettered by sectarianism, but the profound reverence I entertain for the holy Scriptures leads me to express here the hope that the educational development intended by this gift should never antagonize: but be in harmony with, the great fundamental principles of Christian truth contained in them. As to the details of the administration of the property and the application of its reve- nues, he gives carte blanche to the trustees. He makes the following suggestions : The plan and details of any organization, corpo- rate or otherwise, must of necessity be ^left to your own judgment, but I desire to communicate to you my wishes in such manner as to enable you more fully to enter into the motives which impel me, there- by enabling you completely to enter into my thoughts and purposes. Of course, whatever I may determine to donate to you, should you conclude to organize, will be (while leaving you the absolute owners of the property), with the object of enabling you, in your discretion, to use the revenues for the purposes al- ready by me mentioned. I suggest and recommend : 1. That in your organization, whatever form it may assume, that my friend General Randall Lee Gibson be your chairman, or President, and that Judge Charles E. Fenner and James McConnell, Esq., be vice-presidents, or vice-chairmen. 2. That you provide for the filling of any vacancies in your number, by death, resignation, or otherwise, by election. 3. That while my desire is that you shall continue my purpose for more than fitly years, nevertheless, I would consider it no violation of these wishes should you, when organized, determine after fifty years no longer to perform the duties incident to the ownership of this property, which I may donate, and the income of which I have expressed the desire that you ad- minister as aforesaid: in that event, I suggest that you distribute the property, or the proceeds from the sale thereof^ amon.70'-> 71.S51.-297 15,399,311 Artificial feathers and flowers 1 Bags, other than paper Bakin^ an1 yeast powders 2 Blacksmithing a Book-binding and blank-book making Boots and shoes 4 Boxes, wooden, packing .... Brass and copper rolled. Brass castings Brick and tile Brooms and brushes . . ... Carpentering Carpets, other than rag 5 Cars, railroad, street, and repairs e Carriage and wagon materials Carriages and wagons 1 Cheese and butter (factory). . . Clocks Clothing, men's ... Clothing, women's Coffee and spices, roasted and ground Confectionery Cooperage Cordage and twine . . ... Cotton goods 8 Drugs and chemicals 10 Dyeing and finishing ] 1 . . . ... Fertilizers Flouring- and grist-mill products Foundry and machine-shop products Fruits and vegetables, canned and preserved. Furnishing goods, men's Furniture 12 Furs dressed Glass Gloves and mittens I3 Glucose Gold and silver, reduced and refined, not from the ore .... Grease and tallow Hardware Hardware saddlery Hats and caps, not including wool hats Hosiery and knit goods14 Iron and steel15 Iron bolts, nuts, washers, and rivets Iron doors and shutters . Iron forgings Iron nails and spikes, cut and wrought Iron pipe, wrought Iron railing, wrought Iron-work, architectural and ornamental Jewelry Lard, refined Leather, curried16 Leather, dressed skins MANUFACTURES OF THE UNITED STATES. 501 INDUSTRIES. fc Capital. AVERAGE NUMBER OF HANDS EMPLOYED. Total amount paid in wages during the year. Value of materials. Value of producti. IlJ us H Leather, tanned 16 3,105 844 2,191 117 167 1.203 25,708 216 2,846 1,591 37 357 247 470 171 174 45 28 81 15 8,968 244 692 25 563 55 2,161 8,467 90 7,999 263 1,288 106 18 2,183 549 73 832 872 629 139 686 77 49 508 7,595 477 7,145 145 781 81 27 11 10,701 40 305 710 287 43 1,990 76 50,222,054 24,247,595 91,208,224 2,581,910 4,501,825 17,612,923 181,186.122 14,890,441 16,493,221 3,990,706 2,114,850 1,749,750 2,678,880 37,996,057 3,922,338 9,809,577 8,862,300 1,127,500 5,872,750 1,680,300 5,645,950 13,555,292 46,241,202 8,560,500 10,620,880 5,862,025 5,950,512 62,983,704 6,057,987 16,508,019 8,225,740 20.457,670 12,501,830 741,300 20,979.874 6,841,778 1,165,100 19,125,300 49,419,213 14,541,294 5,328,256 6,380,610 3,333,560 27,432,500 1,866,390 22,252,290 17.207,401 21,698.549 4,384,109 2,835,401 8,778.100 1,584,740 4,144,327 10,641,080 4,280,071 3,681,898 8,450,710 8,606,794 8,615,830 96,095,564 20,374,043 23,287 6,452 26,001 781 3,641 14,614 141,564 2,320 21,112 15,877 808 1,770 971 17,470 3,948 6,449 3,114 424 1,378 561 17,271 4,192 16,138 1.666 2.504 8.742 9,217 45,880 3,693 20,024 4,125 20,544 8,632 1,586 21,888 2,878 695 9,375 26,118 4,868 2.710 7,205 8.278 5,832 9,955 23,903 14,886 40,099 3,042 2,456 550 1,418 2,127 15,821 5.544 8,595 4,933 4,268 3,222 46.978 6,435 188 10 29 57 808 23 425 8 23 1 1,120 466 5,248 20,520 89 57 83 ii 18 181 188 7,640 150 1,186 881 15 6,759 2,281 561 20 79 248 22,186 496 16,396 801 7,501 838 853 10,776 9,108 29 690 189 1,219 17 172 800 131 144 1,459 29,872 9,473 337 40 190 129 878 652 5,967 4 886 142 231 158 836 5,882 165 69 172 8 21 20 309 103 649 671 835 102 452 5,839 294 861 144 1,275 673 286 7 628 91 5,566 1,184 538 108 1,841 169 25 242 1,492 7,094 4,090 80 212 23 201 270 453 564 601 621 789 10,154 2,895 9,204,243 2,663,967 12,198,053 216,559 2,307,302 5,890,724 31,845,974 1,004,54* 10,238,885 6,880,800 535,911 808,325 1,661,044 13,316,753 2,142,539 4.603,193 880,836 161,672 681.677 212,952 7,920,866 2,132,255 8,525,355 874,921 1,651,596 2,453,861 4,770,889 80,531,657 2,295,972 7,997,752 1,260,028 8,540,930 4,686,089 683,388 12,713,813 5,403,696 400.326 9,146,705 10,508,530 2,219,513 919,197 8,279,535 2,556,197 2,875,032 1.623,061 10,722.974 6,419,024 18,464,562 1,489,531 1,358,334 366,716 976,041 1,712,276 5,074.799 1,982,731 1,708,165 2,148,914 1,539,571 1,893.215 25.836,392 5,683,027 v 85.949,207 x 27,744,245 56,836,500 1,340,629 2,755,264 24,477,543 146,155.385 14,321,423 12,743,345 10,123,478 8,298,502 8,116,471 6,142,091 37,227,741 2,692,332 5,283,119 5,091,251 4,184,450 12,874,294 5,486,141 8,762,780 17,062,552 83,951,297 8,629,222 6,704,729 4,100,116 9,095,308 82,460,395 9,249,967 19,968,710 2,074,049 20,790,919 4,829,106 1,239,400 19,736,858 11.306,444 3,366,650 22,467,701 267,788,902 19,907,444 4,911,060 2,564,359 4,455,559 144,698,499 2,324,637 25,232,281 84,397,072 29,577,833 1,532,556 4,150,884 3,699,684 2,812,922 982,224 6,703,677 7,034,065 5,410,084 2,940,630 2,635,720 4,785,774 100,845,611 22,013,628 113,848,336 41,063,663 101,058,885 2.169,193 6,912.338 86,808,856 23«,268,729 18,273,102 31,415,150 20,586,553 4,668.440 5,288,284 9,577,840 66,221, 7C8 6,136,472 12,264,521 7,690,921 4,721,066 15,398,812 6,892,989 22,457,560 28,390,767 55,109.914 6,267,303 14,682,494 8,596,181 18,123,250 90,789,341 18,751,724 88,081,643 4,829,566 36,621,325 18,863,188 2,064,837 86,800,327 20,130,081 4.989,615 41,088,046 803,562,413 26,552,627 7,477,742 7,942,729 9,345,759 155,484,915 5,876,988 48,096,038 52.793,056 63,979,575 4,286,568 7,158,893 5,721,174 4,589,314 8,271,244 18,892,858 10,836,605 9,127,818 6,770,119 5,235,474 8,516.569 160.606,721 33,549,942 Liquors distilled Liquors vinous ... Lithographing 1 7 Malt • . Marble and stone work Matches ' Mixed textiles 'J0 Musical instruments, organs, and materials.. Musical instruments, pianos, and materials.. Oil lard . Oil, Unseed Paints 21 Paper not specified . . . .... Paper-hangings Patent medicines and compounds Plumbin T * -rTT . • f .' • SECOND DISTRICT. uncontrolled by tear or purchase. We view with sen- ous apprehension the growing tendency of the times JJn ?V£5£; of f^f^T ' ........................ ? J'??S toward corrupting expenditures of money to control ^^^^[^^:-:::- -::::- 10'S8 nominations and elections to the public offices. The George E. Donham, of Eockland ................... 333 peril to our institutions is extreme. Open bribery in All others .................................... ..... 3 legislative halls is not more dangerous or culpable. Eeform, prompt and thorough, is demanded by every :STRICT. consideration of safety. Ambrose A. Eanney, of Boston ...................... 11,968 Eecalling with satisfaction the salutary enactments Horatio E. Swasey, of Boston ....................... 8,550 of the State Legislature for the reformation of the elec- I8™?6' f. Oapen, of Boston ........................ 91 tion laws for tne security of the rights of every legal K0l8AFu^ g voter, for humane assistance to the needy poor, for a Ay others ...... . . .................................. 20 more equitable adjustment of the burdens of taxation, for protection to the interests of the laborer, and for FOURTH DISTRICT. the advancement of the material, moral, social, and Patrick A. Collins, of Boston ........................ 12,884 educational interests of the Commonwealth, we invite Charles T. Gallagher, of Boston ..................... 4,546 intelligent and candid consideration of all propositions Wendell Phillips, of Boston ......................... 123 in aid of temperance and good order, for equal rights "J. C. B rop hy, of Boston ........................... 70 of suffrage irrespective of sex, and for the encourage- ment of industry, frugality, contentment, and pros- FIFTH DISTRICT. perity among all the people of our honored State. Leopold Morse of Boston .... .................. 11,301 ELECTION BBTUHOT.-^ election in No- i^^SS^'w^T!"*::: ill: *'™ vember resulted in the choice of General Butler All others .......................................... 48 for Governor, and of the remainder of the Ke- SIXTH DISTRICT. publican State ticket. The VOte was as follows : Henry B. Lovering, of Lynn ........................ 12,840 rnvFRvnR Elisha 8" Converse, of Maiden .................... ... 11,961 GOVERNOR. Allothers .......................................... 9 Benjamin F. Butler, of Lowell ...................... 133,946 a WF vrw ms-rpr™ Eobert K. Bishop, of Newton ...................... 119,997 SEVENTH DISTRICT. Charles Almy, ofNew Bedford ..................... 2,137 Eben F. Stone, of Newburyport ..................... 10,056 Allothers ......................................... 198 Charles P. Thomson, of Gloucester .................. 8,764 Kben Moody Boynton, of Newburyport .............. 8,825 LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR. j Newtou ^^ of Beverly ...... ................. 50 Oliver Ames, of Easton ............................ 134,353 All others .......................................... 26 Samuel W. Bowerman, of Pittsfleld. ................ 116,078 TT^WTW msTRTfT George Button, of Springfield ...................... 4,033 EIGHTH D1STEICT- John Blackmer, of fepringfield ...................... 2,141 William A. Eussell. of Lawrence .................... 11,269 All others ......................................... 56 Charles S. Lilley, of Lowell .......................... 10,743 SECRETARY OF STATE. Kg£. ^ .^^ V. '. ! " ! ! ! ! ii " ! ! " ! ! ! i 1 Henry B. Peirce, of Abington ...................... 136,813 KTMTH DISTRICT David N. Skillings, of Winchester .................. 110,941 NINTH DISTRICT- John P. Sweeney, of Lawrence ..................... 4,203 Theodore Lyman, of Brookline ...................... 12,076 John Howes, of Worcester .... 4,147 John W. Candler, of Brookline ...................... 9,703 Solomon F. Eoot, of Douglas ....................... 2,135 George W. Stacy, of Milford ........................ 206 All others ........................................ 19 Prescott West, of Marlboro ......................... 186 TREASURER. A" °ther8 .......................................... 10 Daniel A. Gleason, of Medford ..................... 136,386 William A.Hodges, of Quincy..., .. 115,437 William W. Eice, of Worcester ...................... 11,846 George Foster, of Lynn ............................ 4,157 John Hopkins, of Millbury .......................... 9,404 Thomas J. Lothrop. of Taunton 2,158 Jason Waters, of Sutton ............................ 95 Allothers. .............. 88 Allothers .......................................... 2 520 MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED STATES. ELEVENTH DISTRICT. William Whiting, of Holyoke 14,485 Edward J. Sawyer, of Gardner 7,602 Warner Johnson, of Athol 802 Oscar Edwards, of Northampton 168 Allothers 22 TWELFTH DISTRICT. George D. Robinson, of Chicopee 11,294 Reuben Noble, of Westfleld 9,889 All others 25 The Legislature chosen at this election will consist of 22 Republicans and IT Democrats in the Senate (there being one vacancy), and 140 Republicans and 90 Democrats in the House (there being two vacancies). PEOHIBITOKY AMENDMENT. — A convention of persons interested in temperance work, irre- spective of party or sect, to agitate in favor of an amendment to the Constitution prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors, was held in Boston on the 28th of September. The following resolutions embody its action : In view of the fact that the liquor-traffic still con- tinues to be the most fruitful source of crime, misery, pauperism, and taxation in the State^ and license is wrong in principle and a failure in action, Resolved, That the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors ought to be prohibited by law. That the Con- stitution of the State ought to be so amended as to pro- hibit such manufacture and sale within the Common- wealth. That we continue to demand at the hands of the Legislature the submission to the popular vote of the people at the ballot-box of an amendment to the Constitution of the State forever prohibiting the manu- facture and sale of alcoholic liquors. That we recommend to the friends of temperance throughout the State to carefully ascertain how the candidates of the various parties stand upon the ques- tion of submission of a constitutional amendment, for- ever prohibiting the manufacture and sale of alcoholic liquors as a beverage, to a vote of the people, and to vote only for such candidates as will favor such sub- mission. That we pledge ourselves to call a ministerial con- vention in favor of such submission to the people. That we pledge ourselves to call conventions in the large cities and towns in aid of the same. That we pledge ourselves to circulate petitions among the people and to present them to the General Court in aid of the same. That the present committee, with needed additions, be made a permanent working committee in aid of the MISCELLANEOUS. — In February a destructive fire occurred in Haverhill. The pecuniary loss was about $2,000,000; the insurance amounted to nearly $1,800,000; the territory burned over covered an area of from five to ten acres ; about sixty buildings in the best part of the city were destroyed; 159 firms, including nearly every shoe-manufacturing concern in the city, two national banks and one savings-bank, were burned out, and between 2,000 and 2,500 per- sons were thrown out of employment. On the 12th of October a celebration was held in Marshfield, in honor of the one-hun- dredth anniversary of the birth of Daniel Web- ster, which occurred in January. MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED STATES. The decadence of the shipping in- terests of the United States has attracted an un- usual degree of attention during the year, and aroused the people and Congress to efforts for the discovery of its causes and the provision of a remedy. Since the year 1855 or thereabout, there has been a progressive decline in the ton- nage of American vessels engaged in foreign trade, and in the business of building and equip- ping sea-going ships. The carrying-trade of the country has in that time passed almost wholly into foreign hands. The aggregate tonnage of American shipping of every class in 1861 — re- gistered and enrolled, sail and steam, employed upon the ocean, the lakes and rivers, and about the harbors of the country — was 5,539,813 tons. In 1881 it had declined to 4,057,734, a decrease of 27 per cent. The decline in tonnage em- ployed in foreign trade only, during the same period, was from 2,496,894 to 1,885,586, a de- crease of 54 per cent. The loss of ground in ship-building is still more striking. In the year 1855 there were constructed of vessels of all descriptions in the United States, 583,450 tons. In 1861 the amount had fallen to 233,- 194 tons, and in 1880 it was only 157,409 tons. This period covers a time during which the for- eign trade of the country has largely increased. The total of American imports and exports in 1855 was $536,625,366, and over 75£ per cent of the amount was carried in American ves- sels. In 1860 the whole trade amounted to $762,288,550, of which 66| per cent was carried on by American shipping. In 1881 the total volume of imports and exports of the United States had increased to $1,676,636,000, but of this amount only 16 per cent was carried in American vessels, and the percentage was still lower in 1882. "While the marine of the United States was thus sinking into insignificance, that of other countries was making corresponding gains. The tonnage of British vessels engaged in trade rose from 935,000 in 1856 to 7,903,- 000 in 1880 ; that of Germany increased during the same period from 166,000 to 1,089,000; that of Sweden and Norway from 20,662 to 1,234,000. The gain of other countries was only less marked. The following table shows the variation in the volume of the foreign trade of the United States from 1840 down to 1882, and in the percentage carried in American vessels : YEAR. Total imports and exports. Percentage carried in American vessels. 1840 $239 227 465 82-9 1841 449,797,980 83-3 1842 204,853,621 82-3 1843 149,100,279 77-1 1844 219,687 081 78'6 1845 281,901,170 81-7 1846 285,180,313 81-7 1847 804 867 460 71-1 1848 809,031,059 77-4 1849 293,618,259 75'2 1850 830,037,038 72-5 1851 .... 434 612 948 72-7 1852 417,955,217 70'5 1858 498,954,804 69-5 1854 577 290 414 70-5 1855 536 625,366 75-6 1856 641,604,850 75-2 1857 723,850,828 70-5 MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED STATES. 521 YEAR. Total Imports and exports* Percentage carried in American vessels. 1858 607 257 571 73-7 1859 695 557 592 66 9 I860 762 288 550 66'5 1861 584 995 066 65-2 1862 435 710 714 50'0 1868 584 928 502 41 '4 1864 669 855 035 27-5 1865 . . 604 412 996 27' 7 1866 ... . 1 010 938 552 82' 2 1867 877 020 391 33-9 1868 848 527 647 85-1 1869 876,448 784 83-1 1870 991 896 889 35' 6 1871 1 132 472 258 81-2 1872.. 1 212 328 233 28-5 1873 1,340 899 221 25-8 1874: 1 812,680 640 26-7 1875 1 219 434 544 25- 8 1876 1 142 904,312 38-1 1877. . .. 1 194 045 627 26-5 1878 1 210 519 399 25-9 1879. 1,202,708,609 22-6 1880 1 618 770 633 17'4 1881 1 675 024 318 16-0 1882 1 567 071 700 15-5 The following statement shows the tonnage of American and foreign vessels entered at ports of the United States from foreign coun- tries during the years 1871 to 1881 inclusive : YEAR. Foreign. American. Total. 1871 1872 4,390,606 5,185340 2,603,591 2 584,646 6,994,197 7 769 986 1873 1874 7,951,464 7,094,713 2,443,285 2,914,942 8,894,749 10,009 655 1875 1876 1877 6,255,985 6,788,124 7,448 697 2,887,153 2,927,780 2 957,791 9,143,138 9,715,904 10 406 488 1878 8,521,090 8,009,437 11 530 527 1879 10 718 894 8 049 748 13 768 1U7 1880 1881 12,111,160 12,711,965 8,140,169 2 919 149 15,251,329 15 630 541 Total 87,176,965 31,437,686 118,614,651 The following shows at a glance by periods of five years the decline in American shipping, the increase in foreign commerce, and the trans- fer of the carrying - trade from American to foreign vessels : YEAR. Tonnage in foreign trade. Value of exports and imports. Per cent carried in American vessels. Per cent carried in foreign vessels. 1840.... 762 838 $231 227 465 82-9 17-1 1S45 1850.... 1855. 904,476 1,489.694 2 348 358 231.901,170 830,037,038 536 625 366 81-7 72-5 75-6 18-3 17-5 14'4 I860 2 378 396 762 288 550 66'5 33'5 1865 1,518,350 604,412 996 27-7 62-8 1870 1875 . . 1,448,846 1 515998 991,896,889 1 219 434 544 35-6 25' 8 64-4 74-2 1880 1881 1,314,402 1 297 085 1,618,770,653 1 675 024 318 17'4 16'0 82-6 84-0 1882 1,259,492 1,567,071,700 15-5 84-5 THE COASTWISE TKADE. — During the same period American shipping engaged in the coastwise trade, which is protected from for- eign competition, increased from 1,172,694 to 2,873,638 tons. A striking illustration of the almost complete transfer of the American carrying - trade to foreign hands, appears in the fact that, of the 72,276,000 bushels of grain exported in 1881, not a single bushel was transported in an American vessel. Over 62 per cent of the entire shipment was taken in British vessels ; Italy held the second place, taking over 5,000,000 bushels; Belgium was third on the list, Norway fourth, Germany fifth, and Austria sixth. In 1861 the tonnage of the United States and Great Britain of all classes was approximately equal — 5,539,000 for the former and 5,895,000 for the latter. In 1881 the aggregate tonnage for the United States was 4,657,734, but of this 1,057,450 was engaged on the Northern lakes and the Western rivers, 442,000 was of canal-boats and barges, and 64,947 was of licensed vessels under twen- ty tons. The tonnage engaged in foreign trade was only 1,335,000. The officially registered tonnage of Great Britain, on the other hand, was 6,574,413 in 1880, while it was estimated that the aggregate tonnage of mercantile ma- rine under the British flag was fully double that amount. Of the steam marine of the world, Great Britain was said to own in 1880 63 per cent, registering 5,247 vessels of 2,723,- 468 aggregate tonnage. The United States, on the other hand, had only 146,604 tons of steam- vessels engaged in foreign commerce. BUILDING OF VESSELS. — The total of iron vessels built in the United States in six years, from 1876 to 1881 inclusive, was 127,298 tons, and this was for use almost wholly in the coasting-trade, from which foreign vessels are excluded. In Great Britain the iron vessels built during those six years had a capacity of over 2,000,000 tons. The amount constructed in 1881 alone exceeded 600,000 tons, and there were under construction on the last day of that year, 515 steamers of an aggregate ca- pacity of 958,377 tons, and 127 sailing-vessels, of 130,440 tonnage. Meantime there has been a marked increase in the carrying-trade and ship-building of Germany. The incidental losses of the decline of the American merchant marine are variously es- timated. The amount of capital expended in the construction and repair of vessels in the United States in 1855 is stated at $50,000,000 to $60,000,000, while in 1881 it was less than half the amount. FEEIGHTS EARNED. — The amount paid in freight charges on exports from the United States in 1879 is said to be $88,000,000, and on imports $45,000,000, or $133,000,000 in all. Of this, fully five-sixths went to the owners of foreign vessels. One writer assumes $100,- 000,000 to be a safe and moderate estimate of "the loss which the business and national wealth of the country at present annually sus- tains by reason of the decay of our industries of ship-building, ship-repairing, and ship-using in foreign commerce," and says that this loss is " nearly equivalent to all the capital in- vested in 'all the blast-furnaces of the United States in 1880 ; to more than one third of the value of the present annual products of all the iron and steel industries of the country; and 522 MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED STATES. to more than 50 per cent of the value of all the products of our cotton manufactures, as returned by the census of 1880." But, he adds, the direct losses are "insignificant in comparison with the indirect losses due to the loss of trade from an inability to make ex- changes promptly, regularly, and cheaply with foreign countries." CAUSES OF THE DECLINE. — A study of the causes of the decadence of American shipping shows that its beginning was practically con- temporaneous with the introduction of steam in place of sail as a propelling power, and of iron or steel in place of wood as the chief ma- terial of construction. "Wooden sailing-vessels were made more cheaply in the United States than in any other maritime country, and as a consequence the greatest skill and perfection were attained not only in their construction but in their use. About 1855, when American shipping interests were at their highest stage of prosperity, the tonnage of the country was more than 50 per cent in excess of the needs of the entire carrying-trade in its exports and imports, which shows that it was largely and profitably engaged in carrying commodities for other countries. Moreover, a large amount of tonnage was built each year for sale in foreign markets. This construction for foreign account amounted in 1855 to 65,000 tons. In 1856 it had fallen to 42,000, in 1858 to 26,000, and in 1860 to 17,000. The first steam -vessels were built in Great Britain in 1838, but the growth of this interest was slow -at first. The total British steam tonnage engaged in foreign trade in 1851 was 65,921 tons. A beginning in this direction was made in the United States in 1848, when it acquired 16,000 tons of steam shipping. Its increase at first was compara- tively rapid, and in 1851 it amounted to 62,390 tons. The advance continued until 1855, when American steam shipping amounted to 115,000 tons. From that time a retrograde movement set in, and the steam tonnage of the United States was less in 1862 than seven years before. The civil war which intervened accelerated the decline, and prevented attention from being de- voted to the subject, which might possibly have given a different direction to events. Ameri- can commerce was, in a measure, driven from the seas by Confederate cruisers and their al- lies, and American shipping was sold to foreign- ers on account of the special risks to which its use was subjected. Attention was turned away from ship- building for commercial purposes, and from the fostering of commercial interests in general, and the heavy burdens imposed upon the country in order to raise war revenues had the effect of restricting foreign intercourse and trade. Accordingly, when the war was over, the American merchant marine was well-nigh destroyed. The wooden sailing-vessels had largely disappeared, there had been no increase of steam tonnage, and the slight revival which followed the return of peace affected the coast- ing-trade mainly, if not wholly. In 1869 the steam tonnage was 221,939, but in the twelve years following it dwindled to 145,604. Mean- time the building of iron steam-vessels had been developing to enormous proportions in Great Britain, and that country had gradually secured the bulk of the carrying-trade of the Atlantic. Some of her mail-steamship lines to remote colonies and to distant parts of the globe, in which the British Empire had posses- sions or large interests, were developed by the aid of liberal compensation for mail service under special contracts. While the British marine and commercial interests had acquired such overshadowing proportions, and those of the United States had sunk into such insignifi- cance, in the ten or fifteen years following 1855, it was soon found that continued peace and internal prosperity produced no symptoms of recovery on the part of the latter country. On the contrary, the decline continued. It speedily became evident that the primary cause of this state of things was the fact that under existing conditions iron vessels could be more cheaply built in Great Britain than in the Unit- ed States. The difference has been variously stated at from $10 to $15 per ton for iron sail- ing-vessels, and $25 to $35 per ton for iron steam-vessels. But it was also found that many burdens were laid upon American ship- ping by the laws of the country which would prevent development even if ships could be economically built. There were many anti- quated restrictions in the navigation acts, heavy port charges, tonnage dues and consular fees, not to mention State and municipal taxa- tion, which placed American shipping at a dis- advantage in competition with that of other countries. Americans were not permitted to buy ships abroad and have them registered in the foreign trade, the materials used in their construction were subject to heavy duties if imported, domestic materials and labor for one reason or another bore a high price, and it was no wonder that ships were neither built nor used to any extent by the United States in for- eign commerce. The only chance for develop- ment was in the coasting-trade, from which foreign competition was excluded by law. THE REMEDY. — The remedy for this deplor- able state of things has been a subject of thought and discussion to an increasing extent for some years. Private citizens and public bodies have given it their attention, until it has been forced to the position of a pressing ques- tion. Near the beginning of this year the New York Chamber of Commerce considered the report of a special committee on the sub- ject. Among the suggestions of that commit- tee were the following : 1. The repeal of the existing law of Congress which requires the payment of three months' wages to all seamen discharged in foreign ports. This law was declared to be unjust, not called for by any other na- tion, and now not applicable, as it was originally in- tended to protect American seamen, the law requiring American vessels to have only American sailors hav- ing been repealed. In addition, the facilities of trans- MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED STATES. 523 pprtation are so much greater now than in olden times. The period of three months, then deemed a reasonable time to allow for the sailor's reaching home, is not at all required at this age of steam. 2. The repeal of the law obliging all American ves- sels to transport wrecked sailors for a uniform price of $10 each, regardless of cost or of distance to be traveled. The committee recommended that the rate of compensation be made 50 cents per day for the time taken in passage. 3. A more liberal law in regard to the admeasure- ment of vessels. 4. That the existing requirements of the laws of the United States as to life-saving apparatus and other fitting of vessels shall be made uniform with foreign vessels, and either our own reduced to their level, or all such coming to the United States be required to conform to our laws. 5. That the existing law requiring the transporta- tion of mails for a sum not exceeding the postage re- ceived be repealed, and the Postmaster-General be authorized to apply a general law to all postal service, and compensate the service at sea " quantum meruit," the same as on land. 6. The exemption from all national, State, and municipal taxes of ship property engaged in foreign trade and to and from Pacific ports. V. The limitation of a ship-owner's individual lia- bility, under all circumstances, to the proportion of debts and liabilities that his individual share of the vessel represents to the whole. 8. The abolition of all fees charged to vessels for consular services ; the payment of proper salaries to consuls, so that extortions may not be levied upon ships. 9. The establishment by the Government of bonded warehouses, from which all vessels engaged in foreign trade, or to and from Pacific ports, may withdraw all goods, stores, and supplies of a foreign production and manufacture, free of duty, the same as is per- mitted in Great Britain. 10. That all foreign materials, of every kind and character, entering into the construction and repair of vessels, be made duty free. The committee also advocated government aid by means of subsidies to steamship lines. It said : _ " It is found that Great Britain, with a keen percep- tion of the incalculable advantage and benefit it is to her people to attain the supremacy of the ocean, has led up to it by a system of subsidies, and it is well known and authenticated that for many years that country has not only aided in its development, but maintained the existence of its commercial lines by a system of subsidies. Were we to follow in her foot- steps, it can not be supposed that she will now retrace her path. And, theretore, any action in this line must be made with the foreknown and anticipated fact that she will then, in all probability, increase hers again to our detriment. Still we are of opinion that in Great Britain there is a tendency to oppose this sys- tem of subsidies, and your committee ao not hesitate to recommend that our Government do, by some sys- tem of bounty or otherwise, afford material aid and inducement to the creation of a mercantile marine." Further considering the same subject, the committee takes occasion to say : " Whether it be practicable to build a class of vessels adapted to the carrying-trade, and convertible, by additions, into war-cruisers, the experts of the navy and ship-building interest can best determine. Your committee believe they can be constructed, and if so, no more prompt or efficient means could be adopted than for the Government to extend such aid in the construction of a series of such vessels as would bring about their immediate con- struction and the establishment of a number of lines to important foreign points, and thus supply the most serious detect in time of war, and afford additional markets for our productions. Your committee also recommend a bounty to encourage the building of wooden vessels." INVESTIGATING COMMITTEE. — Near the close of the first session of the Forty-seventh Con- gress, the Hon. Perry Belmont, of New York, proposed in the House of Representatives that a special joint committee of the two Houses make an investigation of the condition and needs of American shipping interests, and re- port at the beginning of the next session. The joint resolution directing the investigation was adopted, and Messrs. Warner Miller, of New York ; O. D. Conger, of Michigan ; and G. G. Vest, of Missouri, were appointed members of the committee on the part of the Senate, and Messrs. Horace F. Page, of California ; Nelson Dingley, of Maine ; S. S. Cox, of New York ; J. W. Candler, of Massachusetts; Robert Mc- Lane, of Maryland ; and George M. Robeson, of New Jersey, on the part of the House of Rep- resentatives. The committee met in New York not long after the adjournment of Con- gress, chose Senator Miller as chairman, and issued a circular containing the following ques- tions, to which replies were solicited from those having knowledge of the subject or sug- gestions to offer : 1. Why can not this country build iron, steel, or wooden vessels as well and as cheaply as they are built in Scotland, England, or other countries ? 2. If we had such vessels without cost to us, could they be run by us in competition with those of other countries who build their own vessels and run them with their own officers and crews, without a modifica- tion or repeal of existing laws ? 3. What modifications of existing^ laws or what new laws are required to remove discriminations against and burdens upon our shipping and ship-owning in- terests, such as customs dues, port dues, consular charges, pilotage, tonnage, and other dues, etc. ? 4. Compare the laws of other countries with our own with a view to their effect upon our and their shipping and ship-owning interests. 5. Should our navigation laws be repealed or modi- fied, and, if modified, wherein and for what purpose ? 6. What is the cost of the component materials of iron, steel, or wooden vessels in other countries and our own ? 7. What would be the effect of a rebate on any or all such materials ? 8. Present any other statements connected with the cause of the decline of the American foreign carrying- trade, and what remedies can be applied by legislation. The committee met again in New York in November, to consider the replies received to these interrogatories, and to take oral testi- mony on the subject-matter of their inquiry. This testimony occupied several days, and came from ship-builders, merchants, experi- enced ship-masters, students of the question, and others. The committee prepared a bill for submission to Congress, which was agreed to by all the members, but two separate re- ports were made, and certain amendments to be offered to the bill at the proper time were prepared by the minority of the committee. The bill was reported simultaneously by Mr. Conger, in the Senate, and Mr. Dingley, in the House, on the 15th of December, and referred to the Committees on Commerce of the two 524 MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED STATES. Houses. The minority report was submitted the same day, signed by Senator Vest and Rep- resentatives Cox and McLane. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE. — The general report of the committee to accompany the bill followed the next day, and bore the signatures of all the members. The bill, as reported, con- sisted of twenty-three sections, and was enti- tled " An act to remove certain burdens on the American merchant marine, to encourage the American foreign carry ing- trade, and to amend the laws relating to the shipment and discharge of seamen." The first section makes some change in the law with reference to the regis- tration of vessels, but restricts its benefits to those " wholly owned by citizens and to be commanded by a citizen of the United States." The second section strikes from the statutes the tax of fifty cents per ton on vessels, "any officer of which shall not be a citizen of the United States." The only important change made by these two sections was to limit the restrictions of the old law as to citizenship to the commanding officer instead of applying it to all officers. The third section modifies the provisions as to the discharge of seamen at foreign ports on their own application by con- sular officers of the United States. The pay- ment of the wages due may be exacted, but, if the seaman is discharged on account of illness or inability to perform his duties, he is enti- tled only to the wages due ; while, if he is dis- charged on account of any hurt received in the service of the vessel, or disease caused by im- proper or insufficient treatment, the master of the vessel must provide proper care for him until he recovers, dies, or is brought back to the United States. Section 4 abolishes the old requirement of three months' extra pay when a seaman is discharged at a foreign port upon the termination of his agreement, or when the vessel becomes stranded, wrecked, or unfit for further service. If the consular officer is satisfied that the master of the vessel has designedly continued the voyage beyond the term of the agreement with the seaman, he may require payment of one month's wages, unless the master finds employment for the seaman, or provides for his passage home. Section 5 requires that, in case a vessel is sold in a foreign country, the master shall pay to a consular officer of the United States one month's wages for all discharged seamen, or provide them with other employment, or else provide for their passage home. Section 6 provides for an examination by consuls into cases of desertion of sailors, and, when they are satisfied that it was caused by unusual or cruel treatment, they may require the payment of wages due, and of one month's extra wages, unless employment on some other vessel is provided, or means furnished for returning the deserter to his own country. The seventh and eighth sections make consuls responsible to seamen for wages and charges collected in their behalf, but permit the retention of the amount necessary to pay the expenses which they may have incurred before shipping again. Section 9 requires the masters of American vessels bound to home-ports to take destitute seamen, on the request of consuls, at a charge not exceeding $10 each; but, in case of long voyages, or peculiarly disabled condition of the seamen, there may be an extra allowance, not exceeding 30 cents a day, made by the col- lector of the port at which the vessel arrives. A penalty of $100 is provided for any refusal of a master of a ship to take a destitute sea- man home on the request of a consul, but no master shall be required to take more than two such seamen for every 100 tons burden of the vessel. Section 10 abolishes consular fees for certificates, manifests, or other official ser- vice to American vessels, or their owners, officers, or seamen, and provides for payment for the service out of the Treasury of the United States. Section 11 prohibits the pay- ment of advance wages to any seaman, or to any person on his account. This prohibition is applied to foreign as well as American ves- sels employing seamen in United States ports, and is intended to do away with what is known as the exaction of " blood-money." The abuse at which it strikes is that of trusting sailors for board, and other expenses, and then ob- taining employment for them from the mas- ters of vessels, and securing reimbursement from advances on account of their wages. Sec- tion 12 requires each vessel to carry a slop- chest, with supplies of clothing, blankets, etc., which shall be sold to seamen at a profit not exceeding 25 per cent upon the reasonable wholesale price. Section 13 gives to masters and owners of vessels the right to ship and pay off men without the intervention of shipping commissioners or the payment of fees. Sec- tion 14 provides for the admission in bond, for use free of duty, of articles and materials used in the repair of vessels engaged in foreign trade, and of all ships' stores, cordage, rigging, can- vas for sails, and coal to be used and consumed on such vessels. Section 15 abolishes tonnage dues and the requirement of consular certifi- cates in the case of vessels trading with the Dominion of Canada. Section 16 reduces the assessment of 40 cents a month upon seamen for hospital dues to 20 cents a month. Sec- tion IV limits the liability of individual ship- owners to the proportion of the ship's debts that each owner's share in the vessel bore to the whole, and the aggregate liability of all the owners to the value of the vessel. Sec- tions 18 and 19 are as follow: SECTION 18. That when any vessel, whether steam or sail, shall be constructed and equipped in the United States for the foreign trade, including the trade he- tween the Atlantic and the Pacific ports of the United States, in whole or in part, of materials of the produc- tion of the United States, tne owner or owners of such vessel shall be entitled to receive and collect from the United States a drawback or sum equal in amount to the duty which would have been collected upon im- ported materials of like description and of equal qual- MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED STATES. 525 ity with the American materials used in the construc- tion, equipment, engines, boiler, and other appurte- nances of such steam or sail vessel ; provided that in ascertaining such drawback the duties on such iron or steel shall be computed on iron and steel advanced in manufacture not beyond the point of plates, angles, bars, and rods : and- provided further that this section shall apply only to vessels commenced alter the pas- sage of this act. SEC. 19. That such sums shall be paid in the same manner and from the same funds as drawbacks on customs duties and under such regulations as may be adopted from time to time by the Secretary of the Treasury, and shall be regulated and the amount thereof determined prior to the registry of such ship or vessel. Section 20 provided for a new form of registry certificate. Section 21 allowed a drawback of duties on foreign materials used in the construc- tion of vessels for foreign account. Section 22 exempted all vessels employed in foreign trade from state and municipal taxation ; and section 23 simply repealed conflicting legislation. The report of the full committee which ac- companied this bill briefly reviewed the condi- tion of American shipping and the difficulties with which it was beset, and justified the pro- visions recommended for its relief. In regard to the drawback on materials provided for in section 18, the committee gave the following illustration of its intended effect : For the purpose of illustrating what would be the practical working of the foregoing plan, we have ob- tained from the Delaware Eiver Iron Ship-building and Engine- Works a schedule of the materials actu- ally used in constructing two first-class passenger and freight steamships for the Pacific trade of 2,131 tons each, having a speed of thirteen knots. It appears that 3,709,845 pounds of iron, mainly in the form of plates, angles, and bars, were used in the construction of the hull, engines, boilers, etc., of each steamship. The duty on iron, if imported in these forms, would aver- age under the present tariff about li cent per pound, or about $26 for each ton of the steamship. The duty on the other materials used hi the hull, equipment, and furniture of the steamship would carry up the draw- back allowed from the Treasury to about $34. As the cost of each of the steamships to which we have re- ferred was $286,317, or $134 per ton, the net cost to the original owner of a similar steamship under the foregoing plan, after deducting the drawback, would be apout $100 per ton, which, from all the information obtained by your committee? would be substantially the cost of a similar steamship built upon the Clyde. If the steamship were intended only for freighting, with the speed of seven or eight knots, usually found in English freighting steamers, the quantity of iron used, and consequently the drawback and cost, would be considerably reduced. In the case of iron sailing- vessels only about five eighths of the iron used in a first-class steamship for hull, engines, etc., is required for a given tonnage, and the drawback would be about $15 per ton. The proposed drawback, therefore, will practically effect the increased cost of building an iron steamship in the United States over its cost on the Clyde. This is the unanimous judgment of ship-build- ers and owners, so far as your committee have heard from them. This is the judgment also of the Board of Trade of San Francisco, which proposed this plan ; the Maritime Association of New York, and other commercial boards. So far as the original cost of any kind of a vessel affects the question of the restoration of the American flag to its proper position on the ocean, there is good reason to believe that the policy proposed will solve the problem. It should be borne in mind, however, that the United States Treasury re- ceives annually about $1,500,000 from the tax on ton- nage engaged hi the foreign trade. This tax is not imposed on vessels engaged in the coastwise trade or on any other industry. In 1880 this tonnage tax yielded $1,490,544, of which $237,863 was paid by American vessels. During the last fiscal year the amount of the tax was little less, but it is certain to increase as our foreign commerce enlarges. There would be a general concurrence in the justice of abol- ishing the tax were it not for the fact that England and most foreign nations impose a similar tonnage tax on all vessels entering their ports, and the further fact that five sixths of our tonnage tax is paid by foreign and only one sixth by American vessels, and on ac- count of reciprocal commercial treaties the tax can not be abolished as to our own vessels without also work- ing abolition as to foreign vessels. We can, however, and should use this tax or its equivalent to encourage our own merchant marine employed in the foreign trade. This was precisely what England did when she granted $10,000,000 out of her tonnage tax to make the Clyde the most favorable location in the world for iron ship-building. On the reasonable supposition that the tonnage tax will amount to $10,000,000 during the next five years this alone would meet the drawback demands under the plan proposed for at least 400,000 tons of new steamships and sailing-vessels for the foreign trade during that period. This increase of tonnage would itself go far to revive our foreign carrying-trade, with- out taking a single dollar from the ordinary revenue. If the addition to our tonnage should be more than this, the additional appropriations required would be wisely expended. From any point of view the experi- ment is one which affords much promise, and in view of the general indorsement it has received from Boards of Trade and commercial men, and the national im- portance of the end sought to be reached, ought to be given a thorough trial. If in addition to this di- rect aid the United States shall imitate Great Britain in giving contracts to private ship-yards to build a portion of any steel war-steamships which it may be deemed wise to construct for our navy, there is reason and hope that favorable results would, follow. As it is essential for our iron and steel ship-yards to place themselves in a position to secure contracts for build- ing vessels for South America and perhaps other for- eign countries, your committee recommend that a drawback of 90 per cent be allowed on any imported materials of a vessel constructed in the United States for foreign account. In regard to exemption from taxation the committee said : There is no one thing that has had more to do in rendering it difficult to sail an American vessel in competition with an English steamship than the dif- ferent system of taxation of shipping, as well as other invested capital in the two countries. The English system of taxation is on incomes, ours on the value of the property. For example, a steamship valued at $500,000 and earning 8 per cent net, or $40,000 an- nually, would pay in England an income-tax of about 2 per cent, or only $800. A similar steamship under the laws of every State but Massachusetts and New York (which have recently exempted vessels from local taxation engaged in the foreig'n trade), and pos- sibly Pennsylvania, would pay a tax of about 2 per cent on the value, or $10,000. Thus in the single item of taxation, the steamship under the English flag would have every year an advantage of $9,200, which in so close a "business as the foreign carrying- trade would of itself be enough to make it impossible to sail an American steamship in competition with an English rival. Your committee are unanimously of opinion that it is of vital importance to the revival of the American foreign carrying-trade that this diffi- culty should be removed either by State or Federal le- gislation. Your committee think that the element of local taxation enters so largely into the solution of the 526 MERCHANT MARINE OF THE UNITED STATES. problem of sailing American vessels that it is incum- bent on Congress to exercise the power of regulating commerce, which it possesses under the Constitution, to the extent of prohibiting State and municipal taxa- tion of vessels engaged in the foreign trade. The following recommendation concerning compensation for mail service has no bearing on the provisions of the bill reported : The law as it exists (section 3,976, Revised Statutes) compels the master of every American vessel engaged hi the foreign trade to carry such United States mails as may be tendered him by the Post-Office Depart- ment, and allows him as compensation for such service a sum not exceeding 2 cents per letter carried. In no case is this an adequate compensation, and in some in- stances it does not pay the cost to the vessel of deliv- ering the mails at the post-office or the port of arrival. The pay to United States vessels in the foreign trade for transporting the mails in 1880 was only 2i cents per mile, while at the same time the steamers on our coast which contracted to carry the mails received 57£ cents per mile for mail service. The contrast between pur inadequate mail pay to American vessels engaged in the foreign trade and the very liberal mail pay given by Great Britain to her steamship lines only serves to show more clearly the injustice and unwis- dom of our policy. Since 1840 England has paid more than $250,000,000 for mail service, with the de- liberate purpose of establishing and maintaining steamship lines to connect the United Kingdom with all parts of the world. Even in one year she paid about $3,000,000 to her steamship lines for mail service, which was $1,641,300 more than she received from mail matter transported by them. As this sub- ject is before the postal committees of both the Senate and the House, we refrain from reporting any legisla- tion, but unanimously recommend such a modification of our laws as will give fair compensation to Anerican vessels in the foreign trade which may carry our mails, and adequate pay for mail service to American steamship lines that are already or may be hereafter established. In conclusion, the committee said : It is unnecessary for your committee to dwell on the great importance of any and all legislative measures that will tend to a revival of the American foreign carrying-trade, and a restoration of the American flag to a position on the ocean commensurate with our population, wealth, and rank in the family of nations. The problem presented to Congress involves interests of exceptional importance. The great agricultural interests of the West and South are especially con- cerned. To-day at least 85 per cent of their products exported to other countries depend on foreign vessels, mainly English, for transportation, and, unless some- thing is speedily done to relieve American shipping engaged in the foreign trade, our dependence on Eng- lish ocean-steamers will be complete. This places our commerce at the mercy of England. In case of war between that country and another power able to put cruisers on the ocean, American farmers and the American people aa a whole would suffer nearly as much as the belligerents, by having their exports and imports hi British bottoms liable to capture and con- fiscation. . . . While some of the members of your committee do not concur in all the statements and reasoning of the foregoing report, and would recom- mend additional legislation, yet all concur in recom- mending the passage of the accompanying bill. A minority of the committee, composed of its Democratic members, made a separate re- port, in which a free admission of foreign-built ships and of foreign materials for ship-building was advocated. Its main suggestions were presented in the following form : 1. Let us use, and then we will have cause to repair, and then build. Then the native inventive faculty of America will be aroused, and something will be the result, and that something can not but be better than our present forlorn condition. 2. If .we are to build ships in the United States in competition with other nations — and unless we can do so, the ships we may build will never be voluntarily bought or used by our own citizens or any others — our ship-builders must have their materials for construc- tion as cheap as the builders with whom they are to compete. Either allow the importation free of duty of all the material and stores that enter into construc- tion and equipment of ships, or reduce the tariff. So long as the business of constructing iron steamships has to bear the burden of high prices consequent on protective duties, averaging 40 per cent, it can not compete with like industries in free-trade countries. There is no possibility of evading this conclusion. It will be seen by the majority report that our committee, in dealing with the desperate straits of our shipping interests, do recommend a rebate on articles for do- mestic and foreign account which enter into the mak- ing of ships. 3. If foreign competing maritime nations do not sub- ject their ships to local taxation, the United States evi- dently can not afford to do so. If Congress under the Constitution has the power, it should exempt as in- strumentalities to commerce all vessels engaged in for- eign or interstate commerce from every form of local, State, or municipal taxation. Concede to the States the right to tax the instrumentalities of interstate or foreign commerce in any degree, and you concede to the States the right to say there shall be no interstate or foreign commerce, for the right to impose 1 per cent of taxation involves the right to impose 100 per cent, or, in other words, the right to destroy. The report then quotes from opinions ren- dered by the United States Supreme Court in the case of Weston against the State of Missouri and the Western Union Telegraph Company against the State of Texas, to show that the court has decided the question unequivocally that foreign and interstate commerce are un- der the taxing control of the Federal Govern- ment. It continues as follows : Therefore, the full committee, confident of this Fed- eral power over commerce, do not hesitate to present a section of a general nature which overrides all State and Federal taxation. We thus would relieve ships and shipping from these burdens. 4. Reduce all the expenses, taxes, and other burdens on shipping. There can be no objection to the pro- posed changes of the laws relating to the payment of extra wages to seamen, with some exceptions, or when a vessel is sold, or the voyage improperly continued beyond the port to which the sailors shipped ; when the vessel is found to be insufficiently provisioned, and when the master refuses to correct the same. When, by reason of injury to the seamen in the line of duty, or of disease contracted because of want of proper food on shipboard, is it not proper to hold the ship responsible for the expenses incidental to the sickness ? The amendments of the Revised Statutes as to trans- portation of disabled sailors ; as to the remission of consul fees; as to the importation in bond, free of duty, of ship supplies for vessels in the foreign trade ; as to the reduction of the Marine Hospital tax on sea- men from forty to twenty cents ; as to the abrogation of the tonnage tax on vessels engaged in trade with Canada ; as to the limitation of the part owner of a vessel proportionate to his share, and in case of death and disability by one of the mates of a vessel on a for- eign voyage ; of the employment of a foreign seaman • — these are proper reforms, and in the interest of ship- ping revival. 5. There is no reason why we should not add to this catalogue the repeal of the United States shipping MERCHANT MAKINE OF THE UNITED STATES. 527 act of 1872 (title 53, Revised Statutes). It is a heavy tax on shipping. For its repeal there is a general sen- timent in the testimony, with the exception of Captain Duncan, who, with his family and employe's in the Shipping Commissioner's office, has^used and yet uses the thousands exacted from shipping, and this, too, without any benefit to any one except those who administer the law. _The committee, however, have only gone so far on this topic as to allow the ship- mas- ter to select his own crew where he elects to do so, and this will relieve the shipping interest, in the opinion of the committee, of a great and crying evil. Under this law our consuls are authorized^ to act as shipping commissioners in foreign ports, and to exact a fee of two dollars for shipping each seaman. In addition to this, consuls exact their consular fee for certifying each shipment. The expense of procuring each seaman is thus three dollars, and two dollars in addition for the agent who procures the seaman, mak- ing in all five dollars. Under the British law the cost is only equivalent to two shillings, or forty-six cents. If, however, the decline of American shipping contin- ues much longer, these reforms will be unnecessary, for there will be no sailors hired or discharged, and no necessity of invoking or discarding the co-operation of consuls, for there will be no ships of ours engaged in foreign trade. 6. Reform and revise the tariff, and the natural re- sources of our country and the intelligence of our peo- ple are such that, with the reduction of the burden of taxes and prices consequent on low rates of duty, we shall regain in the next twenty years more than we have lost in the last twenty, and become the first mari- time nation of the world. 7. Without resorting to the artificial expedient of subsidies and bounties, let Congress assimilate in their treatment steamships and railroads on established routes, to the extent of paying steamships for carry- ing the mails of the United States good compensation — as good as the Government now pays railways for performing similar service. In conclusion, the minority report says : "Whatever may be the cause of this decay, the main obstacle to its resuscitation, and without the removal of which all other legislation is futile, is the obstruc- tion to commerce by the tariff. This adds its 40 odd per cent, not to speak of prohibition, to the other obstructions which the committee propose to remove by the bills ordered to be reported. When we reform our whole tariff system and extend our markets for our continually increasing surplus, we may revive the means by which we ourselves may exchange the prod- ucts of this country with those of other countries, and thus not only save the $140,000,000 paid to foreigners in freightage and fares, but gradually resuscitate that art, the very apprenticeship to which is almost obso- lete. The decadence of our shipping, and its causes, are all too familiar to the public mind. The selfishness which prevents its resuscitation is no less familiar. It is an old, old story. The minority of the committee would repeat it in detail, were it not known to every tyro in commerce and economy. They would rehearse if by studying the causes of the decay we could remove the effects. The simple truth is, the removal of the causes of decay will not revive shipping. Our shipping in- terests have been choked by other interests — choked to death. Restrictions cumber our statutes. In a coun- try so abundant in production as ours, which seeks every market; and is unlimited in its range of enter- prise, the capital policy is mare liberum. Give us a free sea and freedom to trade upon its bosom, permit us to buy in the best market the material to fashion vessels of the best quality and to bring the completed ship where our competitors buy their vessels, and even without the opportunity which foreign wars may give to our carrying-trade, and with the aroused inventive faculty of America consequent upon our freedom to use our energy and skill, and with the natural laws and their conditions to aid intelligence and niter- change, and we may once more find the capital, labor, and genius of our countrymen evoke from the sea, as they have from the land, its most valued treasures. Our merchant marine languishes for lack of liberty. Its revival must come from the enlargement of our freedom. The minority of the joint select committee, while concurring with the report as to the measures reported by the committee, desire also to present two other propositions : First, for the admission free of duty of all the materials finished and perfected and ready to put together a ship ; and, second, for the free admis- sion to American registry of ships built abroad. The amendment to the bill proposed by the minority of the committee was in the follow- ing terms : All or any part of the materials, whether wood, steel, or iron, copper, yellow metal, bolts, spikes, sheathing, treenails, canvas for sails, whether flax or cotton ; rigging and cordage, whether hemp, Manila hemp, or iron wire ; anchors and cables, iron plates, castings and forgings, angle -irons, beams, masts, yards, rivets, bolts, nuts, screws, engines, boiler- plates and tupes and machinery, and all other mate- rials and appliances which may be necessary for the construction and equipment in whole or in part of vessels, whether steam or sail vessels, to be built and furnished in the United States after the 1st day of January, 1883, may be imported in bond under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may pre- scribe, and, upon proof that such materials have been used for such purpose, no duties shall be collected or paid thereon. That from and after the 1st day of January, 1883, any citizen or citizens of the United States may purchase the whole of any steam or sail vessel, no matter where said vessel may have been built, whether within the United States or in a for- eign country, or whether said vessel shall be regis- tered free of duty as to her hull, spars, appliances, outfitj and equipment (including boilers, engines, and machinery if a steam-vessel) as a vessel of the United States by the collector in any port of entry of the United States, to whom application for such registry may be made by said citizen or citizens, in the same manner as though said vessel had been built in the United States. The bill came up in the House of Repre- sentatives early in January, 1883, and was the subject of an animated discussion. On the llth of that month the free ships and free materials amendment was in substance adopt- ed by a vote of 125 to 104, the drawback pro- vision of the 'eighteenth section being also re- tained, but on the following day the House receded from this action and struck out the whole section as amended, and the others sup- plementary to its provisions. Section 14 was modified so as to permit the admission of for- eign materials, without payment of duty, to be used in the construction and equipment as well as the repair and supply of vessels built for and used in foreign trade, including that be- tween the Atlantic and the Pacific ports of the United States. Section 15 was changed so as to substitute for the existing tonnage tax a duty of six cents per ton on each entry of ves- sels from the ports of Canada, the West Indies and Mexico, and southward to and including Panama and Aspinwall, and twelve cents a ton on vessels from other foreign ports. The sec- tion relating to State and municipal taxation was stricken out. With a few other unimpor- 528 METALLURGY. tant changes the bill was passed by a decisive majority. The vote in favor of striking out the drawback, free ships, and free materials provisions, was 159 to 54. The bill went to the Senate and was re- ferred to the Committee on Commerce. Strong objection was made by the regular lines of for- eign steamers to the fifteenth section, which would increase their tonnage dues materially. Under existing laws these dues were thirty cents a ton per year. This bill would make them twelve cents a ton for each entry, and some of the regular steamers made ten or twelve entries in a year. On the other hand, many foreign sailing-vessels did not enter an American port more than once in a year, and their tonnage dues would be materially re- duced. The Senate committee agreed to strike out this whole section, and also the thirteenth, which dispensed with the necessity of employing seamen through the intervention of the shipping commissioner. The committee then added a section repealing the provisions of the existing statutes which obliged all American vessels to carry the mails at a rate of compensation not exceeding the ocean post- age, and providing for contracts with vessels of American registry for carrying the mails, under which the Government should pay "not exceeding one dollar per mile on the trip each way," contracts to be entered into, after pub- lic advertisement, with the lowest responsible bidder. The aggregate to be expended for this service was limited to $1,500,000 per year, and the term of the contracts was to be for four years. The bill as amended was reported to the Senate, but not taken up for action until the last day of the session. The amendments striking out the thirteenth and fifteenth sec- tions were then agreed to, and that providing for a mail subsidy was rejected, and the bill was then passed and sent to the House for concurrence in the amendments. That body was engaged in contest over an election case, in which the Democrats were filibustering to prevent action, while the Republicans would permit nothing else to be dona. The result was, that no further action could be secured on this important measure, and it failed, leav- ing American shipping without any relief whatever from the burdens and exactions that have so nearly destroyed it. METALLURGY. IRON - SMELTING BY THE DIEEOT PKOOESS. — The Siemens direct process for smelting iron has come into general use, with satisfactory results in effecting a saving of time and in the consumption of fuel, the principle of which was stated by Dr. Siemens in a communication to the Iron and Steel In- stitute in September, 1877, as follows: "In mixing comparatively rich iron-ore in powder with about 25 per cent of its weight in pound- ed coal, and in exposing the mixture for some hours to the heat of a common stove or of a smith's fire, metallic iron is formed, which, on being heated to the welding-point on the same smith's hearth, may be forged into a horse- shoe of excellent quality. The admixture with the ore of some fluxing material, such as lime or clay, will, in most cases, be of advantage to rid the iron of adherent slag. The process is conducted in a rotatory furnace, as follows: The ore to be smelted is broken up into frag- ments not exceeding the size of peas or- beans; to it is added lime or other fluxing material, in such a proportion that the gangue contained in the ore and flux combines, with only a little protoxide of iron, into basic and fluid slag. A charge of, say, 20 cwt. of ore is put into the furnace when fully heated, while it is slowly revolving. In about forty minutes this charge of ore and fluxing material will have been heated to bright redness, and at the same time from five to six cwt. of coal of uniform size are added to the charge, while the rotative velocity is increased, in order to accelerate the mixture of coal and ore. A rapid reaction is the re- sult: the peroxide of iron, being reduced to magnetic oxide, begins to fuse, while metallic iron is precipitated by each piece of carbon, and the fluxing materials form a fluid slag with the silicious gangue of the ore. Resorting again to the slow rotative action, the mass is turned over and over, presenting continually new surfaces to the heating lining and to the flame within the rotator. During the time of this reaction, carbonic oxide, besides the hydrocarbon contained in the coal, is evolved from the mixture of ore and carbon, and heat- ed air only is introduced from the regenerator to effect its combination within the rotating chamber. When the reduction of the ore is nearly completed, the rotator is stopped in the proper position for tapping off the fluid cinder, after which the quick speed is imparted to it, by means of which the loose masses of iron contained in it are rapidly collected into two or three metallic balls. These are taken out and shingled in the usual way of consolidating puddled balls, when the furnace is tapped again and is ready for another charge at once." Comparing, on theoretical grounds, this meth- od of producing iron with the operation of the furnace, it appears that while in the blast-fur- nace the products of combustion consist chiefly of carbonic oxide, and issue at a temperature of more than 350° C., the result of combustion in the rotatory furnace is carbonic acid, the temperature of which rarely exceeds 175° C. Dr. Siemens estimated that his process was competent to produce a ton of iron balls with a consumption of 25 cwt. of coal, and a ton of cast steel with a consumption of 40 cwt. of coal. The first effort to introduce the process into the United States, which was made at Pittsburg, Pa., in 1878, was pronounced a fail- ure. Afterward a rotator was set up at Ty- rone, Pa., on a plan a little larger than that used by Dr. Siemens, from which between 80 and 85 per cent of the iron in the ore was pro- duced, with 3,800 pounds of coal per ton of blooms. The results were considered sufficient- METALLURGY. 529 ly satisfactory to warrant the construction of a larger concern at Pittsburg by the Siemens- Anderson Steel Company. The rotator plant of this establishment consists of four vessels measuring 11 feet 4 inches in diameter and 12 feet in length inside the shell, lined with Wood- land fire-brick four and a half inches thick. The entire charge of ore, limestone, and reduc- ing coal, is introduced at once. The vessel is slowly rotated at the rate of one revolution in every fifteen or eighteen minutes. In about four hours the. slag begins to form ; and, when it becomes perfectly liquid, it is tapped off. The flow of slag continues until the completion of the heat and the drawing of the balls. The yield of iron with fair grades of hematite ores, in December, 1881, ranged from 34-3 to 47 per cent. Several charges with Lake Superior and Tyrone ore have yielded more than 50 per cent ; and Mr. George W. Maynard, of New York, who has given an account of the enter- prise before the American Institute of Mining Engineers, expresses no doubt that an average yield of 50 per cent can be kept up with this mixture. The average time for forty-eight heats, "through good and bad," from the charging of the ore to the drawing and shin- gling of the balls, was a little more than nine hours, and it was anticipated that with more experience the time would be reduced to eight hours, or three charges in twenty-four hours, with a product of 15 tons of blooms. The cost of 38 tons of hammered steel blooms produced during the week ending December, 1881, was $30.15 a ton; with regular working, however, 90 tons might have been produced at an esti- mated cost of $25.24 a ton. The blooms have proved to be of excellent quality, and the steel made with them upon the open hearth is supe- rior to that made with scrap-iron or scrap- steel. The cost of making open-hearth spring steel from the blooms is estimated by Mr. May- nard to be $37.18 a ton. The results so far obtained at Tyrone and Pittsburg, though very encouraging, are far short of what Dr. Siemens has set out to accomplish. That mark has, however, been reached at the works in Lan- dore and Towcester, England, where from one ton of small Somorrostro ore and twelve hun- dred-weight of hammer or roll scale, with one ton of producer coal and six hundred-weight reducer coal, has been produced one ton of iron, at a cost of £1 12*. 9d. In the Bromfield direct process of Mr. J. Coley-Bromfield, Hone, near Brighton, Eng- land, the iron-ore and coal, or coal-dust, are reduced to a powder by means of a Mars- den or a Western pulverizer. The pulveriza- tion of the ore maybe facilitated by previously calcining it. For this purpose it is roasted in grated ovens above a tank filled with water. The roasted ore can pass directly from the ovens into the water in the tank, when it be- comes so disintegrated and friable that the re- duction can afterward be accomplished at an expense almost nominal. The crushed iron-ore VOL. xxn.— 34 A and coal-dust are then mixed, and to them is added carbonate of lime, also powdered, ready for mixing, alumina and sand, after which the materials are passed through a mixing-machine. The compound produced by the mixer is then made plastic by adding a mucilage extracted from steamed sea-weed, which cements it to- gether, and it is then molded and compressed in a kind of brick-making machine. The com- pressed materials, in the form of bricks or cyl- inders, are then removed to a retort, when they are consolidated into coke by a process similar to that for gas-making, but with a spe- cially constructed furnace. Carbonate of lime or calcium oxide is added to the fire-clay in the upper part of the retort, to absorb the sul- phur given off from the ore during the process of distillation. As the materials have been powdered and intimately mixed so as to be brought within the close grasp of their several chemical affinities, a great saving of fuel is ef- fected and the output of the furnace is largely increased. Mr. Bromfield expresses confidence that the adoption of his process in the old blast-furnaces will be attended by several sal- utary results, among which are an increase of 30 per cent in the weekly produce of iron ; the invariable production of a pig wholly free from injurious impurity and yielding malleable metal of the largest fiber, no matter how much sulphur may originally have existed in both the fuel and the ore ; a very large saving in the average quantity of fuel now required for the smelting of each ton of pig; and the realiza- tion of all these advantages at a cost so small as to be hardly worthy of consideration when viewed in connection with the additional net profit. Another advantage is claimed in the high commercial value of the results to be ob- tained by economizing and utilizing the prod- ucts contained in the materials placed in the retorts, but which under the present usage are allowed to escape into waste. It is believed that these products will alone repay the cost of preparing the iron-ore for the smelting-fur- naces. APPLICATIONS OF MANGANESE BRONZE. — Great improvements are promised in the con- struction of steamship-propellers from the adoption of manganese bronze. A theoreti- cally perfect propeller should have blades pre- senting the requisite surface of the right form to act against the water so as to utilize the whole power of the engines in the line of the vessel's keel, while no resistance should be ex- cited from cleaving the water. These condi- tions can not be realized, because there is a limit to the extent to which the thickness of the blade can be reduced, and it is impossible to do away with surface-friction ; but a nearer approach can be made to them with the use of the substance just named than with any other material that has been suggested for the pur- pose. Manganese bronze has great strength and toughness, its transverse strength being double that of the best gun-metal, and up to- 530 METALLURGY. the elastic limit nearly double that of cast-steel. The blades, therefore, can be made of it much thinner and lighter than of steel and gun-met- al. The blades, when cast, come out of the sand true and smooth, and, as they do not have to be annealed, are wholly free from the distor- tion to which steel blades are liable in passing through that process, and which, inducing a variation from the theoretical form, causes in them a serious waste of power. This metal is also free from the liability to pitting and cor- rosion, for which allowance has to be made in all steel propellers by giving them greater thickness than is necessary for strength, and thereby increasing the resistance; and it is practically incorrodible. Other practical ad- vantages which may arise from the use of this substance are the reduction in weight effected by its use, with a corresponding reduction in the stem-frame of the vessel in a heavy sea; and facility of restoring the shape of the blades if they are bent, and of replacing them if they are broken. The drawback lies in the cost of manganese bronze, which is about twice, for the same weights, that of steel ; but the friends of the use of this metal assume that this will be more than offset by the reduced quantity of the metal that will have to be employed, and in the practical indestructibility of the manga- nese bronze. Steel propellers require to be renewed every few years; those of manganese bronze, it is claimed, will last the lifetime of the vessel. Dr. G. Durgee, of New York, has invented a process for manufacturing iron direct from the ore by the aid of crude petroleum as fuel, in a special revolving furnace. It employs two furnaces, which are placed at slightly dif- ferent levels, with a total length of 120 feet, the working capacity of which is a hundred tons of ore in twenty-four hours. The ores are pulverized and then submitted to the ac- tion of an oxyhydrogen-flame produced by a blast of air with petroleum and coal-dust. The first experiments with this process were re- ported to be successful and encouraging; but late statements of its working have not been published. DEPHOSPHOKIZ ATION IN IKON-SMELTING. — The Gilchrist-Thomas, or basic, process for the de- phosphorization of iron in working the ore de- pends for its efficacy upon the power of lime to absorb phosphoric acid. When it is used in connection with the Bessemer process, the Bes- semer vessel is lined with magnesium lime, which has been previously subjected to an in- tense white heat, and so brought to a condi- tion of density, tenacity, and hardness in which it resembles granite or flint more closely than ordinary well-burned lime, in which con- dition it is known as "shrunk lime." Before the metal is run into the converter, from 15 to 18 per cent of its weight of common well-burned lime is thrown into the ves- sel. The metal is then introduced and the charge is blown in the ordinary way to the point at which the ordinary Bessemer opera- tion is stopped — that is, till the disappearance of the carbon, as indicated by the drop of the flame. The dephosphorizing process requires, however, to be continued for from one hun- dred to three hundred seconds longer, during which the great bulk of the phosphorus is removed. Not only is the phosphorus re- moved by this operation, but the silicon also, of which inconvenient and even dangerous quantities are occasionally left in the Bessemer process, is entirely eliminated, while at least 60 per cent of any sulphur, also untouched in the ordinary process, which may have been present in the pig, is also expelled. The phos- phorus is, in fact, made a real assistance in the perfection of the process, through the in- tense heat it affords by its combustion. The substantial position occupied by the basic pro- cess is well shown by the large amount of basic steel which was turned out in October, 1882. Germany held the first position, with an output of 25,170 tons by eight firms ; Eng- land stood next, with an output of 7,700 tons by one firm ; then followed Austria, with 7,700 tons by three firms; Belgium, with 1,687 tons by one firm ; Russia, with 1,270 tons by one firm; and France, with 1,240 tons by one firm — giving a total output for the month of 46,537 tons, by fifteen firms. The process had been adopted at the end of 1882 by thirty-two European firms, which had working furnaces, or were constructing them, and thirteen other firms had taken out licenses for its use. IMPKOVEMENTB IN STEEL-MAKING. — A new process in rolling steel, called the "Soaking Pit Process," has been introduced by Mr. John Gjess, of Middlesbrough, by means of which the bloom may be rolled into a rail or other finished article with its own initial heat, and the necessity of submitting the ingot again to the heating-furnace is avoided. The chief dif- ficulty heretofore met in utilizing the heat of the ingot, to work it up into the finished prod- uct, has been that the bar when newly stripped was too hot in the interior to be rolled, and when the interior was in a fit condition, the exterior was far too cold. In the new process, the ingots are placed in pits, where little or no heat being able to escape to the surface, and the ingots being surrounded by walls as hot as themselves, the surface heat of each one of them is greatly increased, and it becomes fit for the rolling-mill in about half an hour. The process was introduced in June, 1883, at the Darlington Steel and Iron Company's works, where three hundred ingots were treated in the pits every twenty-four hours, and at the West Cumberland Steel Works; and more than 30.000 tons of ingots had been success- fully treated by the close of the year at each place. The economical advantages of the pro- cess are obvious. The steel manufactured by it, whether for rails or wire billets, is thought to be improved by it, for the danger of burning, to which all reheated steel is liable, and which METALLURGY. 531 is detrimental to the soundness of the fabric, is wholly obviated in it. BESSEMEB STEEL IN THE UNITED STATES. — From the reports of the companies owning the fourteen completed Bessemer- steel works which were in operation in the United States in 1882, it appears that 1,696,450 net tons of steel ingots and 1,253,129 net tons of steel rails were produced during the year. These figures represent an increase in production of 10 per cent in ingots and of 6 per cent in rails over the production of the same mills in 1881. The rate of increase is much smaller than had been made before for several years. Thus, the increase in the production of ingots in 1881 was 28 per cent over that of 1880, while that of the latter year was 30 per cent over that of 1879. The figures representing the production of rails do not cover the total pro- duction of steel rails in the United States, as some rails were rolled in 1882 from import- ed steel blooms, and some open-hearth steel rails were rolled. Estimating the amount of such rails to be near 100,000 gross tons, the total American steel-rail production in 1882 would be 1,300,000 gross tons, against a total in 1881 of 1,210,285 gross tons. The fourteen steel-works whose reports are thus compiled contain 35 converters. Relative to the pro- duction of steel throughout the world, it ap- pears from the latest published statistics that there are now in England 23 steel-works, with about 115 converters, of a productive capaci- ty of 1,461,000 tons per annum; in Austria, 14 steel-works, with 36 converters, and a ca- pacity of 350,000 tons ; in Belgium, 4 steel- works, with 18 converters, and a capacity of 380,000 tons; in France, 7 works, with 34 converters, and a capacity of 632,000 tons; in Germany, 23 Bessemer and Thomas steel- works, with 80 converters, and a capacity of about 1,300,000 tons; in Russia, 5 steel-works, with 10 converters, and a capacity of 100,000 tons; and in Sweden, 35 converters, with a capacity of 80,000 tons. The total number of converters in the world is, therefore, about 360, with an aggregate annual productive ca- pacity, in round numbers, of 5,800,000 tons of steel. PRODUCTION OF ALUMINUM. — An improved process for producing aluminum, whereby the cost of the metal is reduced by about 80 per cent, and the time required to prepare it from nine months to a few days, has been invented by Mr. James Webster, of Hollywood, near Birmingham, England. Alumina, from which the metal is obtained by precipitation, is pre- pared by burning alum and pitch, as follows : A given quantity of alum and pitch, which are first finely ground, is mixed together and placed in a calcining furnace, when 38 per cent of water is driven out, and the sulphur, potash, and alumina are left, with oxide of iron. The calcined mixture is then put into vertical re- torts, and steam and air are forced through, after which a residue of potash and alumina only is left. This residue is afterward placed in a vat filled with warm water, which is heated with steam. The potash is thus leached out and the alumina left as a deposit. The potash - liquor is then run off and boiled down, while the alumina precipitate is collected in sacks and dried. It is then ready for making chloride of aluminum. The alumina deposit thus obtained contains about 84 per cent of pure alumina, while that which is obtained by the old pro- cess of precipitation has only 65 per cent. For conversion to aluminum, the chloride is treated with sodium. This process, if its success is verified, is probably destined to make it pos- sible to employ aluminum, as an alloy, econom- ically in many manufactures for which it is preferable to any metal now known. It is eight times more conductible to the galvanic current than iron, and by this, and the fact that it does not rust, it is valuable for tele- graphic purposes. Its tensility, and lightness, and un susceptibility to corrosion indicate a great adaptation to the purposes of ship-fittings, particularly for steamship propellers. The al- loy, it is said, will bear a strain of forty-two tons to the square inch, or twelve tons more than Bessemer steel. A more particular state- ment of its mechanical powers was given by Mr. W. H. Barlow, F. R. S., at the last meet- ing of the British Association, in the relation of some experiments he had made on the sub- ject. He found the ultimate tensile strength of the metal to be about twelve tons to the square inch. The range of its elasticity was indicated by an extension at the yielding-point of one two-hundredth the length of the piece, or about three times that of steel, and five times that of wrought-iron. The mechanical value of the substance, as indicated by its strength in relation to its weight, is about equal to that of steel of thirty-five tons per inch. These properties point to a great suita- bility of aluminum for cases where strength combined with lightness and a great range of elasticity are required. Mr. Webster has also discovered that aluminum may be deposited on several other metals, and may be soldered and welded. ZINO. — The present methods for the reduc- tion of zinc ores by distillation are expensive and cumbrous. In the search for more econom- ical ways of preparing metallic zinc, attention has been directed to the feasibility of produc- ing it by a wet process and electricity. Three methods have been proposed which depend upon the employment, severally, of hydro- chloric, nitric, and sulphuric acids. In the hydrochloric-acid process the acid is placed in contact with the ore in order to produce a hydric chloride, neutral and concentrated; after which the liquid is treated with an electric current, by which the zinc is precipitated in a pure metallic state. The iron, which would otherwise be precipitated with the zinc, is pre- viously eliminated by means of some oxidizing body. The chlorine, which is liberated when 532 METALLURGY. the zinc is separated from its salt, is drawn off into a chamber where it is absorbed by chalk. This process is defective on account of the loss of metal in smelting, and the presence of chlo- rides of zinc as an impurity. In the nitric acid method, an oxide is produced by the electrical decomposition of the salt, and it is necessary to add some organic matter, such as glycerine, a gum, etc., for the removal of the oxygen. To obtain enough nitric acid and organic mat- ter the process has to be conducted near where some chemical industries are carried on. In the sulphuric- acid process, also called the Le- trange process, the solution is effected by means of the sulphuric acid obtained from the ore itself in the process of roasting. No re- agent being required, the method is independ- ent of other industries, and is free from all ex- pense of transportation. Though principally intended for blende, it is available for all the ores. It is very simple, and does net require the separation of substances containing lead, nor, if sulphuric acid is evolved in excessive quantities, the removal of the calcareous gangues. Only a moderate roasting is required when only blende is treated ; but if the ore be only calamine or the oxides of zinc, it is ne- cessary to feed the bath with a certain quantity of acid or sulphates. The sulphurous vapors produced by roasting the blende may often be used for this purpose. As acid is continuously reproduced during the process of precipitation, it will only be necessary after that is started to provide as much sulphate as will furnish the necessary acid to be absorbed by the foreign matters, the chalk, iron, etc., contained in the ore. The electrical current necessary to effect the precipitation is furnished by machines driv- en by steam or water power. By this process the zinc contained in the ore is extracted in its entirety, and pure. The cost of treatment is limited to the working of the electrical appara- tus, and to manual labor of the most simple character. OOPPEE. — Copper is prepared at Spenceville, Oal., from a fine-grained pyrites in a kind of chlorite slate. The ore, which has been pre- viously broken into small lumps, is put upon a base of fire- wood around a loose brick flue, and piled up with layers of brush at intervals; salt is distributed through the pile, tank resi- due is placed on top to exclude the air, and the heap is then fired. The process of roasting requires six months. In the leach- vats, of which there are fifty, with a capacity for 120 tons of roasted ore, the leaching is hastened by boiling with steam. The copper is precipitated with scrap-iron. NICKEL. — Nickel-ores are quite extensively distributed through the United States — more generally than is usually supposed. The chief source of supply is at Lancaster Gap, Pa., but the ores are also found in Connecticut, by the Hudson River, and in New Jersey, associated with chrome-ores, where they appear in the shape of a coating of nickel oxide or emerald nickel ; also associated with magnetic pyrites. Deposits have also been found in the mag- nesian rock at Quebec ; at Silver Harbor, on Lake Superior; in Nevada; and in Douglas County, Southern Oregon. The hydrated sili- cate of New Caledonia, a very pure ore, has been found to be in sufficient abundance to supply nearly all the works of Europe. Pro- fessor Wharton exhibited at Philadelphia, in 1876, a number of articles that had been made by him of wrought nickel. He showed them again in 1878, in Paris, where they attracted but little notice at first, but excited great admi- ration when the attention of the judges was called to the quality of the metal. Experi- ments, prompted by this demonstration, were immediately tried on a more extensive scale, which resulted in raising the manufacture of nickel to a considerable importance. Sheets of iron and steel have been coated by weld- ing with nickel on both sides, so as to furnish a combination adapted to the manufacture of many articles of hollow ware. Professor Wharton has succeeded in making several ar- ticles of cast -nickel, among which are the door- knobs of his house in Camden, N. J. He has proved that the metal will not tarnish, by ex- hibiting objects which were shown at the Paris Exhibition in 1878, and are as bright as ever, although they have not been rubbed or polished since. A French company is making a con- siderable variety of useful articles from the nickel of New Caledonia. Mixed with zinc, copper, or tin, in such a proportion that it shall constitute 20 per cent of the combination, this metal forms an inoxidable nickel bronze ; a material of which all articles that are now made of brass or copper, and nickel-plated, may be made at practically the same cost, while they will be one fifth stronger and may be as much lighter. Added to steel, nickel in- creases its hardness, renders it inoxidable, and makes it more suitable for edge-tools. MICKOSCOPIOAL ANALYSIS OF IKON AND STEEL. —Dr. H. 0. Sorby, F. R. S., has recently made known the results of some interesting investi- gations he has been making in the microscopi- cal structure of iron and steel. His specimens were prepared for examination by polishing very thin plates of the metal and subjecting their surfaces to the action of nitric acid till they were sufficiently etched to bring out the details of the arrangement of the particles, the development of which was due to the fact that some of the constituents were not acted upon at all, and others in varying degrees. As far as could be learned from the careful use of the microscope, various kinds of iron and steel contain at least seven well-marked constituents. They are pure iron ; what are probably three well-marked compounds of iron with varying amounts of carbon or other substances which are met with in small quantities in different sorts of iron and steel; portions of included slag; well-marked crystals of graphite; and a small crystal, which may be silicon. The METALLURGY. 533 structure of various kinds of cast-iron appears to be chiefly modified by the presence of crys- talline plates of graphite, over which is depos- ited what is probably free iron, while the inter- spaces are filled with what are probably two distinct compounds of iron and carbon. In other cases, the structure is mainly dependent on the crystallization of the iron itself, the graphite being thrown off toward the close of the process. In white refined iron the princi- pal constituent is probably an intensely hard refined white iron with much carbon, and one or more of the other compounds of iron and carbon. Hammered bloom consists of an ir- regular mixture of crystals of iron and portions of slag. When rolled into a bar those portions of slag not squeezed out are thrown out into long threads. The crystals seen in the bar are not the original crystals of the bloom, but fresh crystals formed on the cooling of the bar. The fiber seen on fracturing specimens of wrought- iron is mainly due to the elongation that occurs during the fracture, and is not a characteristic of the unaltered iron. The most characteristic feature of the change of structure produced by the cementing process is the development of a network of flat crystals of an intensely hard compound of iron and carbon, which is scarcely acted upon by dilute acid. The structure of Bessemer steel ingots is materially different from that of the varieties of steel containing more carbon, and, though of coarser grain, closely approaches the structure of some vari- eties of Swedish iron. This structure, upon hammering, is greatly altered, and becomes of finer grain and more uniform. Mr. J. 0. Bayles, of New York, after review- ing before the American Institute of Mining Engineers the researches of Mr. A. Martens, of Berlin, and Mr. Sorby, on this subject, and giving an account of his own method of pre- paring the objects for examination, expressed the belief that the method opens a vast field of knowledge not yet reached by either chemi- cal analysis or physical test. There are many conditions the result of changes produced by mechanical treatment to which chemical analy- sis gives no clew, and which are detected but not explained by the tests of the physical labo- ratory. DETERIORATION OF TIN. — At a late meeting of the American Institute of Mining Engineers Professor R. H. Richards, of Boston, exhibited a pig of block-tin which had appeared to be of a perfectly good quality, but was found after the lapse of a few months to have become brittle, and to have undergone a change in its molecular condition that involved about half of the mass. The change made itself apparent by enlarge- ment in spots which took on a darker color and revealed a crystalline structure like that of stilbite. It was believed to be due to the presence in the tin of a small percentage of mercury with which the metal was originally treated, left after an imperfect heating; and the analysis of a part of the pig showed that about 2 '62 per cent of mercury was actually present. The fact of this deterioration taking place is not new. Dr. T. Sterry Hunt called attention to the fact that it had previously been ascertained that block-tin, under certain conditions, would undergo the changes de- scribed ; and he cited an instance of a piece of the metal which, supposed to be in a state of purity, afterward became so crystalline that it was almost ready to fall to pieces. IMPROVEMENTS IN ELECTRO -PLATING. — Some further improvements in the electro-deposition of brass, bronze, and other metals have been patented by Mr. W. H. Walenn, of London. The first object of the inventor was to produce a coating that should be adherent and in a soft condition. For this a solution is used which is composed of thirty-two ounces avoirdupois of cyanide of potassium (70 per cent real cya- nide) and one ounce of neutral {artrate of am- monium per gallon of liquid, which is charged with copper by an electrolytic process, and is made complete by the addition of cupric am- monide. The solution is used at a boiling-point, or near to it, when the coating of copper is soft- ened, and the rate of deposition is very materi- ally increased by the heat. The quality of the work done by this process is illustrated by the fact that thin sheet-iron plates treated by it have been given a coating so adherent that repousse work could be executed upon them without interfering with the continuity of metal and without exposing the coated metal underneath. If a plate were hammered to destruction, the copper coating would be simply extended over the iron where it was cracked or broken. Mr. Walenn's invention also includes methods of preventing the too great evaporation of the solution while it is heated during deposition, for working the electro-depositing solutions in a closed vessel under a known pressure. PROTECTION OF IRON AND STEEL SURFACES FROM RUST. — The Bower-Barff process for preserving iron and steel from rust is based on the fact that a film of magnetic oxide on the surface of a mass of either metal will pro- tect the whole from further oxidation or cor- rosion. The resisting power of Russia sheet- iron has been found to be due to this cause. To Professor Barff is due the credit of being the first deliberately to undertake to coat iron and steel with magnetic oxide produced design- edly for the purpose of protecting their sur- faces from rust. To effect this, he subjected the metal to the action of superheated steam. The Bower process is based upon the use of combustible gases and air, or free oxygen. The gases are burned in a fuel gas-producer, which is similar in principle to the Siemens regener- ator, with a slight excess of air over that re- quired for perfect combustion, while the iron articles to be heated and oxidized by the prod- ucts of the combustion are exposed to them in a suitable brick chamber. When the quantity of free oxygen mixed with the products of combustion is rightly adjusted, the iron articles 534 METHODISTS. are oxidized to excess in about forty minutes. Magnetic oxide will then be found nearest to the iron, and sesquioxide over all. The air- inlet is next closed entirely, while the gas- valve is left open for twenty minutes, at the end of which time the outside coating of sesquioxide will be reduced, by the action of the combus- tible gases alone, to magnetic oxide. The Bower process is the more energetic of the two. The Barff process is the better one for wrought- iron, and perhaps for polished work of all kinds, while the Bower process is better for cast-iron, especially for that quality of it which contains much carbon. Steel — except polished steel, which is better treated in a low- temperature Barff furnace— can be equally well treated by both processes. These processes not only protect the metal from rust, but they give it a finely colored coating, which makes articles made of it ready for the market as soon as they are out of the furnace and cool. A ton of small articles can be as cheaply treated by them, save the difference in expense of hand- ling, as a single article of a ton weight. So penetrating are they, that every crevice, even in the most intricate pattern, may be as effect- ively coated by them as the plainest surface. Paint will adhere to the coating as to wood or atone. As a whole, the processes are suitable to make iron available for a thousand purposes for which it is now not adapted, because of its liability to rust. METHODISTS. I. METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. — The following is a general summary of the statistics of this Church as they were re- ported in the "Minutes" of the Annual Con- ferences for 1882: Numberof annual confer- ences, 99 ; number of missions not included in annual conferences, 13 ; number of bishops, 11 ; number of itinerant preachers, 11,028 ; num- ber of preachers on trial, 1,337 ; number of lo- cal preachers, 11,967; number of members in full connection, 1,572,177 ; number of proba- tioners, 175,841 ; whole number of lay mem- bers, 1,748,021 ; number of churches, 18,152 ; probable value of the same, $65,467,082 ; num- ber of parsonages, 6,224; probable value of the same, $9,250,288 ; number of Sunday-schools, 20,901, with 224,667 officers and teachers, and 1,629,358 scholars ; number of baptisms during the year (57,241 of adults and 56,805 of in- fants), 114,046. Amount of benevolent con- tributions: For conference claimants, $167,- 693; for the Missionary Society, $624,186; for the Woman's Foreign Missionary Society, $107,673; for church extension, $110,900; for the Tract Society, $15,320; for the Sunday- School Union, $16,991; for the Freedmen's Aid Society, $56,808; for the Educational Fund, $49,039 ; for the American Bible Society, $29,- 209. The General Committee of Church Extension met in Philadelphia, Pa., November 2d. The financial report showed that the committee had received during the ten months already past of the current year, $109,895 on general account, and $82,881 on loan fund account; in all, $192,- 277. It had spent within the same period, $106,085 on general account, and $68,809 on loan fund account; in all, $174,394. With these expenditures, it had aided with gifts or loans, or both, 388 churches. A cash balance of $57,210 was left with the board at the time of making the report, but against this it had made grants, on conditions, of $72,070 to 197 churches. Applications were on hand from 43 churches, asking for $18,805. Progress was reported on a plan which had been set in op- eration to raise enough by subscriptions of $250 each to build four hundred churches on the frontiers, each of which should receive aid to the amount of $250, as follows : Amount of donations, $32,750 ; of loans, $19,100 ; number of churches built, 131, at a cost of $236,955, hav- ing 34,000 sittings, 4,904 members, and 7,884 Sunday-school scholars, and giving church fa- cilities to a population of 144,130. The sub- ject of inviting contributions to the general funds, subject to life annuity, was considered. The paid-up capital of the loan fund at the end of 1882 amounted to $500,000. The annual meeting of the Board of Edu- cation was held in New York city, November 14th. The receipts from collections, legacies, and other sources had been $18,026, against $9,256 in 1881, and $2,079 in 1880. More than $11,000 were to be disbursed during the year in aid of 250 students attending the insti- tutions of the Church in the United States and foreign lands. Ten thousand dollars were ap- propriated for the same purpose in 1883. The total receipts of the Freedmen's Aid Society for the year ending July 1, 1882, were $118,070.60. To the 1st day of November of the same year the society had aided in the maintenance among the freedmen of 6 char- tered colleges, 4 theological schools, 1 medi- cal college, and 14 institutions not chartered, in which 95 teachers were employed, and 3,506 students were taught. Of these students, 440 were in the biblical, 15 in the law, 75 in the medical, 225 in the collegiate, and 1,470 in the normal departments. In accordance with the action of the General Conference of 1880, 14 institutions for the whites of the South have been organized, at which 1,827 pupils were taught during the year. The General Missionary Committee met in the city of New York in November. The treasurer reported that the total receipts of the society for the year had been $691,666, or $66,002 more than the receipts for the previ- ous year. A decrease of $28,343 in liabilities was reported. Appropriations were made in support of mis- sions during the ensuing year, as follow : For the foreign missions (in Liberia, South America, China, Germany, and Switzerland, the Scandinavian states, India, Bulgaria, and Tur- key, Italy, Mexico, and Japan), $362,379. For missions in the Territories of Arizona, Dakota, the Indian Territory, Montana, New Mexico, METHODISTS. 535 Utah, etc., $57,100; for domestic missions among the foreign, Indian, and English-speak- ing populations of the United States, $248,300 ; total, including miscellaneous appropriations and $32,000 for the liquidation of the debt of the society, $777,849. The foreign missions returned in their annual reports, 269 foreign missionaries and assistants, 246 native ordained preachers, 1,025 native assistants, 1,498 other helpers, 29,095 members, 9,984 probationers, 80 day-schools with 12,913 scholars, and 303 churches. The domestic missions employed 2,381 mis- sionaries, with local preachers and teachers. The Woman's Foreign Missionary Society re- ceived for the eighteen months ending Novem- ber 1, 1882, $195,678. It returns 42 missiona- ries, 350 Bible women and teachers, 6 hospitals and dispensaries, 16 boarding-schools, 140 day- schools, 3 orphanages (400 orphans), and 1 home for friendless women, in eight several mission-fields. The committee appointed by the bishops of the Church met in November and took the pre- liminary steps for holding in 1884 a centennial celebration of the organization in 1784 of the Methodist Episcopal Church, in which all or- ganizations of American Methodism should be invited to unite. A committee was appointed to correspond with other American Methodist Churches on the subject. II. METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH, SOUTH. — The "General Minutes" of the conferences of this Church for 1881 give the folio wing statistics of the Church for the year : Number of travel- ing preachers, 3,704; of superannuated preach- ers, 307; of local preachers, 5,865; of white members, 844,367; of colored members, 993; of Indian members, 5,451 ; total of ministers and members, 860,687, showing an increase during the year of 12,894 ; number of Sunday- schools, 9,310, with 62,442 teachers and 462,- 321 scholars, showing an increase during the year of 21,707 scholars. The General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, met at Nashville, Tenn., May 3d. The bishops of the Church presided over the sessions of the body in al- ternation. The address of the bishops pre- sented a view of the present condition of the Church during the past four years. The num- ber of ministers active in the thirty-nine annual conferences and the mission-fields had increased by 247, and was now 3,704; the number of members had increased from 798,862 to 860,- 687. Thirteen thousand members had been added during the past year. The amount of church property and the accommodations for congregations had increased in proportion with the other items, and much progress had been made in the payment of debts. The sum of $354,372 had been contributed for foreign mis- sions against $242,934 in the preceding four years, and $226,850 against $216,916 for home missions. Home-mission work had been ex- tended through Colorado and New Mexico toward Arizona, in Northwestern Texas, among the German settlers in Louisiana and Texas, and in the Indian Territory. The Indian mis- sion had steadily grown, and there were now in the conference that represented it more than 5,000 members — Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, Creeks, and Seminoles, besides sev- eral hundred white people and negroes who had obtained citizenship or the right of residence among the natives; who were served by more than thirty traveling preachers — most of them Indians — and one hundred and twenty local preachers. The Mexican Border Mission in- cluded nearly a thousand ministers and seven- teen native preachers. The foreign missions, in Central Mexico, China, and Brazil, had been strengthened by the addition of new missiona- ries. The Woman's Missionary Society, four years old, had sent out five missionaries to China, Brazil, and Mexico, and was building a boarding-school at Laredo, on the Eio Grande. The number of Sunday-schools had increased during the four years by more than 2,000, and the number of pupils by 71,000. The Sunday- school literature had been improved in quality, reduced in price, and increased in circulation. The condition of the Publishing House had been materially changed for the better. While, four years before, the claims against the establish- ment amounted to more than $300,000, and were drawing interest at the rate of $60 a day, and the liabilities exceeded the assets by more than $100,000, it now reported an excess of $50,000 of assets over liabilities, with the whole of its remaining indebtedness in manageable shape. The negro population of the South and Southwest, which had for several years been turned away from this Church, was again be- coming accessible to its influence. The Colored Methodist Episcopal Church, which had been organized ten years before, at the request of colored members, had maintained its integrity and made some progress. It needed better fa- cilities for the education of pastors and teach- ers of the colored race, and the favorable con- sideration of the General Conference was in- voked for measures to help it in this work. The agent of the Publishing House reported that he had received a bequest from a lady in Virginia of $2,500 to the establishment "for the use of the Church in spreading and dissemi- nating the gospel among mankind " ; and that the sum of $266.17 had been paid him by John Whitman, of Philadelphia, as a balance due the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, in the di- vision of the property of the Methodist Epis- copal Church under the action of the General Conference of 1844, which sum he had entered under the title of " suspended assets." The Conference ordered the latter sum to be turned over to the Publishing House as a part of its capital. Fraternal communications were re- ceived from the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church and the Colored Methodist Epis- copal Church in America. Bishop Wood, of the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, 536 METHODISTS. spoke of that body as one which held a rela- tion to the Church, South, that it held to no other body ; it occupied the same field of ter- ritory with it without rivalry. The communi- cation from the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church contained a request for aid in the erec- tion of school-buildings. The church had pur- chased sites for schools during the past year at Jackson and Byhalia, Miss. The people were willing and ready to contribute, but their finan- cial circumstances did not permit them to give much. They also needed mission-money, par- ticularly for the building up of missions at such places as New Orleans, La., Atlanta, Ga., and Corinth, Miss. Fraternal answers were re- turned to the letters of both churches. The Conference approved a recommendation for the organization of annual conferences in China and Central Mexico during the ensuing four years. A plan for church extension was adopt- ed, and a Board of Church Extension organized, which is to have its seat at Louisville, Ky., and to obtain a charter from the State of Kentucky. A new chapter on temperance was adopted, to be inserted in the Discipline, the provisions of which are as follow : Let all our preachers and members faithfully observe our General Eule, which forbids "drunkenness or drinking spirituous liquors, unless in cases of neces- sity" • m cases of drunkenness let the discipline be administered as in case of immorality ; drunkenness being a crime expressly forbidden in the word of God. In cases of drinking, except in cases of necessity, let the discipline be administered as in case of imprudent or improper conduct ; let all our preachers and mem- bers abstain from the manufacture or sale of intoxicat- ing liquors to be used as a beverage, and if any shall engage in such manufacture or sale, in such case pro- ceed as in cases of imprudent and improper conduct. The Conference decided to elect five new bishops, and Alpheus W. Wilson, Linus Parker, Atticus G. Haygood, J. 0. Granberry, and B. K. Hargrove were chosen to that office. Bishop "Wilson was, at the time of his election, Mission- ary Secretary to the Church ; Bishop Parker, editor of the " New Orleans Christian Advo- cate " ; Dr. Haygood, President of Emory Col- lege; Bishop Granberry, a Professor in Van- derbilt University ; and Bishop Hargrove had filled several responsible positions in the church. Dr. Haygood, believing that the circumstances of Emory College demanded his continued presence there, declined to be ordained bishop, and the Conference determined to elect no other person in his place. A resolution was adopted — That the matter of changing the name of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, to the Methodist Episcopal Church in America, be referred to the sev- eral Annual Conferences by the bishops during the ensuing four years, and that they report the result of the vote to the General Conference of 1886 for ratifi- cation. Action was taken in favor of the celebration, in 1884, of the centenary of the formal organi- zation of Methodism in America, which took place in 1784, by participating in a conference of Methodist bodies to be held in Baltimore, Md., during that year, and by endeavoring to raise the sum of two million dollars, to be ap- plied equally, save where donors shall give special direction to their gifts, to the causes of education, church extension, and foreign missions ; and a committee, consisting of twelve ministers, twelve laymen, and the bishops, was appointed to take charge of the whole matter, and report to the next General Conference. III. COLORED METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH. —The statistical reports of this Church, made to the General Conference in May, gave the number of ministers as 1,749, and of members as about 125,000. The increase in the number of members during four years had been 18,917. Report was also made of 1,450 Sunday-schools, with 3,973 teachers and 42,254 scholars. The General Conference of the Colored Meth- odist Episcopal Church in America met in Washington, D. 0., in May. Attention was given to the enterprises for the benefit of the members of the Church in the Southern States ; to missions, from which favorable reports were received ; to the interests of the Metropolitan Church of the denomination in Washington, and the payment of the debt upon it; and to the affairs of the denominational organ, the *' Christian Index," the entire control of which was assumed, and its office of publication fixed at Jackson, Tenn. A Convention of the Bishops of the Colored and African Methodist Episcopal Churches was called to meet in Baltimore, Md., April 26th, to consider the subject of a union of the two bodies. All of the bishops of the African Methodist Episcopal Church were present, but only one of the four bishops of the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church. As a majority of the bishops of the latter body could not at- tend the Conference, the consideration of the question of union was deferred. The bishops of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, however, expressed themselves ready to meet the bishops of the other body in council at any time or place they might designate, to proceed with the negotiations. In accordance with a resolution of the Gen- eral Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, Bishop George F. Pierce, rep- resenting the bishops of that body, and the bishops of the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church met at Atlanta, Ga., in August, as a joint committee to take action for organizing an institution of learning for the Colored Method- ist Episcopal Church. The committee elected a board of trustees composed of white and col- ored men, and representing the two churches, for the proposed institution, and decided that it should be established at Augusta, Ga. The board of trustees thus appointed met at Augusta in October, and decided that the new school should be called "Paine Institute," in honor of the late Bishop Robert Paine, of the Method- ist Episcopal Church, South. An offer to serve as president of the institution was received from the Rev. Morgan Callaway, D. D., Vice- President of Emory College, Oxford, Ga., and METHODISTS. 537 Professor of the English Language in that insti- tution, and he was elected to the position. IV. FREE METHODIST CHURCH. — This Church includes 271 itinerant ministers, 328 local preachers, and 12,642 members. The sixth General Conference of the Free Methodist Church met at Burlington, Iowa, October llth. B. T. Koberts presided. Dele- gates were present from fourteen annual con- ferences. A proposition to extend the pas- toral term for three years was discussed, and defeated. V. METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN CANA- DA.— This Church has one bishop, three annual conferences (the Niagara, Ontario, and Bay of Qninte Conferences), 265 ministers, and 27,657 members. The General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Canada met at Hamilton, Ont., August 23d. A plan of lay delegation having been adopted and ratified, went into effect at this Conference, and in accordance with it the lay delegates attended and took part in the proceedings. The most important subject considered was that of the union of the Methodist churches of the Dominion, upon which resolutions were adopted expressing gratification that the proposition for a general union was under consideration, and a willing- ness to make reasonable concessions to secure it. A committee of eighteen members was appointed, to confer with similar committees of other Methodist bodies, and negotiate for a union with any or all of them. A proposition to allot presiding elders to pastoral stations was laid on the table till the next General Conference. VI. METHODIST CHURCH OF CANADA. — The statistical reports of this Church for 1882 show that it has 1,192 itinerant ministers, 1,338 local preachers, and 125,420 members. The third General Conference of the Meth- odist Church of Canada met at Hamilton, Ont., in September. The Kev. Dr. S. D. Price was chosen president. The subjects of establish- ing a general superintend ency for the whole Church, and of introducing lay delegations, were brought forward, in consequence of the pendency of negotiations for union with the other Methodist churches of the Dominion. The Methodist Episcopal Church, while it was ready to surrender the life-term principle, and other particular features of its episcopacy, in- sisted on the preservation in the united Church of the principle of an itinerant general super- intendency. The Primitive Methodist and Bi- ble Christian Churches were willing to accept a general snperintendency, but insisted on the representation, in some form, of the laity in the annual conferences. A proposition was accordingly considered that the President of the General Conference should be ex officio constituted a General Superintendent, the priv- ilege and duties of whose office should be to hold office during the four years from one regu- lar General Conference to another ; to preside over all sessions of the General Conference during his term of office ; to be chairman of all stationary committees ; to travel at large in this connection as the General Conference may direct, and be relieved of all circuit duties ; to attend as many annual conferences as possible, and bring before them matters of denomina- tional interest ; to rule on questions of law submitted to him ; to arrange with the presi- dents of annual conferences for transfers of ministers ; and to organize new annual con- ferences when directed by the General Con- ference to do so. A resolution was adopted, proposing an amendment to the provision in the Discipline of the Church respecting the election of the President of the General Con- ference, so as to provide for an itinerant gen- eral superintendency in some form. The Con- ference also resolved that the principle of lay representation in all church courts be so rec- ognized as to admit lay representation into the annual conferences in some form ; and that while the General Conference u is not aware of any general desire among the members of the Methodist Church of Canada for lay rep- resentation in the Annual Conference, yet it agrees, in order to promote union, to concede the principle, provided no change is made in regard to the examination of ministerial char- acter, or the composition of the stationing committee." A committee of twenty-seven ministers and laymen was appointed to meet the committees of the other Methodist churches, with the provision that whatever basis of union might be adopted by the joint committees should be submitted to the Quarterly Boards for approval in February, when, if two thirds of the Quarterly Boards vote in the affirmative, the General Conference shall be convened to give effect to the basis of union. PROPOSED UNION OF THE METHODIST CHURCHES IN CANADA. — Committees, appoint- ed by the conferences of the Methodist, Meth- odist Episcopal, Primitive Methodist, and Bi- ble Christian Churches of Canada, met in Toronto in September, to consider the ques- tion of a union of the bodies. Seventy-one members were present. The Discipline of the Methodist Church was taken up as the basis with reference to which propositions should be made and objections offered, and was considered in its several features. The Primi- tive Methodist and Bible Christian Churches insisted that the principle of lay representa- tion in the annual conferences should be re- tained, but were willing to make concessions in details and as to forms. The representa- tives of the Methodist Episcopal Church in- sisted upon the retention of a general super- intendency, although they were ready to give up the name of bishop and the life-terra, and they proposed that the term of office of the General Superintendent should be twelve years. The representatives of the Methodist Church were not ready to assent to this proposition, al- though otherwise the features both of a gener- 538 METHODISTS. al superintendency and of lay delegation were generally concurred in. As the General Con- ference of the Methodist Church was then in session, it was thought best to wait, before proceeding further, till that body had discussed the points in question. The joint committee accordingly adjourned, to meet again in No- vember. The joint committee met again in Toronto, November 28th. Bishop Carman, of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Canada, was chosen president of the meetings. The only questions about which any difference of opinion was manifested were those of lay dele- gation and the itinerant general superintend- ency. Provision was finally made for equal representation of the laity with tbe ministry in the annual conferences ; the lay delegates to have the right to speak and vote on all ques- tions except the examination of ministerial character, the reception and ordination of probationers into full connection, and the granting of the superannuated or supernumer- ary relation. It was also agreed that minis- ters and laymen shall vote separately when electing their representatives to the Gener- al Conference. The following provision for the office of a General Superintendent was adopted : 1. There shall be one or more General Superintend- ents elected by the General Conference, to hold office for the term of eight years ; but if it be decided at the meeting of the General Conference, after union, to elect two superintendents, one of them shall be elected for four years only, so that there may be a re- curring election or elections every four years. 2. The General Superintendent shall preside over all sessions of the General Conference, and over all standing committees of the same. 3. The General Superintendent, when present, shall open the Annual Conference, and preside therein dur- ing the first day of its sessions, and afterward alter- nately with the President-elect. In association with such President he shall conduct the ordination ser- vices, and they shall jointly sign the ordination parchments; but all other duties pertaining to the presidency of the Annual Conference shall be vested in the President elected by that body, and, in the absence of the General Superintendent, he shall con- duct the ordination and sign the parchments. Other articles were adopted, defining the con- stitutions of the Annual and General Confer- ences, and providing for the choice, by ballot in the Annual Conference, from among the ministers of the Conference within the dis- trict, of a district superintendent for each district, to whom the supervision of the dis- trict shall be committed. Questions were also disposed of concerning educational inter- ests, church funds, the stationing committee of the annual conferences, and other matters of detail. The United Church, if the union is com- pleted, will have 1,624 itinerant ministers, 2,036 local preachers, and 168,831 members. VII. WESLETAN METHODIST CHTJKCH.— The following is the statistical statement of the British and Affiliated Conferences, as published m connection with the " Minutes of Confer- ence " for 1882 : COUNTRIES. | On trial. | i 1,549 250 348 *27 2,124 ! 3 81 18 198 1 298 |f Si 3 279 43 16 3 I. In Great Britain 393,754 24,475 89,369 1,769 40,653 776 12,934 126 II. In Ireland and Irish mis- sions III. In foreign missions IV. French Conference Total 509,367 54,489 341 The Chapel Committee reported to the Con- ference, in July, 1882, that the total sum of £230,388 had been contributed in Great Britain for chapel-building and other trust purposes during the year, and that the erections and en- largements would afford 25,562 additional sit- tings. The ordinary income of the fund had increased. The Committee of the Thanksgiving Fund reported that, on July 12th, the amount prom- ised to the fund was £303,600, and estimated the amount which it might be necessary to allow for loss of subscriptions at £10,000. The Committee of the Metropolitan Chapel- Building Fund reported that eight new chapels had been opened during the year in the metro- politan district; and that sixty-one chapels, each providing for one thousand persons, had been opened since the fund was started. The grants and loans amounted to £27,168. The Committee for the Extension of Methodism in Great Britain had received and considered 143 applications and made 123 grants, amount- ing to £1,940. Since it was instituted, this committee had made 538 grants of £33,843, in answer to 777 applications, whereby 89,876 additional sittings in chapels had been pro- vided. The fund for the Relief and Extension of Methodism in Scotland amounted to £9,748. This fund was instituted to provide chapels and manses in Scotland ; and it was stated that during twenty years the entire trust property in that country had been renewed, at a cost of £100,000. The income of the Theological In- stitution had been £11,544. The Committee on Sunday-Schools reported the number of Sunday-schools to be 6,489, with 122,999 officers and teachers, and 829,666 scholars, 122,999 of whom were members of the society or on trial. There were 2,257 Bands of Hope, with 227,784 members. The total receipts of the Home Mission and Contingent Fund for 1882 amounted to £35,034, as against £34,210 in 1881. The committee was author- ized to employ, in addition to district mission- aries, ministers and lay agents for general evan- gelistic work in different parts of the connec- tion. The anniversary of the Wesleyan Missiona- ry Society was held in London, May 1st. Mr. Henry John Atkinson presided. The total in- come of the society for the year had been £141,722, besides £10,074 which had been re- ceived from the Thanksgiving Fund toward the * The French ministers who are employed in the Channel Islands district are not included in these returns. METHODISTS. 539 extinction of the debt. The expenditures had been £146,754, showing a deficiency of £5,031, which, with a previously undischarged indebt- edness of £28,235, made the total deficiency in the accounts of the society £33,266. The Mis- sionary Committee afterward reported, how- ever, to the Conference that the debt had been extinguished. The following is the general summary of the missions under the immediate direction of the Wesleyan Missionary Commit- tee and the British Conference in Europe, In- dia, China, South and West Africa, and the West Indies, which was presented with the report of the society : Central or principal stations called circuits 542 Chapels and other preaching-places, in connection with the above-mentioned central or principal stations, as far as ascertained 2,469 Missionaries and assistant-missionaries, including su- pernumeraries 549 Other paid agents, as catechists, interpreters, day- school teachers, etc 2,275 Unpaid agents, as local preachers, Sabbath-school teachers, etc 7,868 Full and accredited church-members 89,345 On trial for church-membership 12,983 Scholars, deducting those who attend both the day and Sabbath schools 97,754 Printing establishments 8 The most favorable reports were made from the South African missions, where all the colonial churches were self-supporting, and were now developing a desire to send mission- aries among the aboriginal tribes ; while the native converts, where opportunity had fa- vored them, were not far behind the colonists in the essential elements of church growth. They had a ministry of great promise ; they were showing themselves capable, under the guidance of the European missionaries, of managing their own affairs, and had displayed during the recent political troubles some rare qualities of Christian citizenship. The com- mittee hoped, after it was relieved of the care of these churches, by setting them upon their own foundations, to extend its missions into the unoccupied territory in the Transvaal, Swaziland, and Pondoland. The one hundred and thirty-ninth Wesleyan Methodist Conference met at Leeds, July 18th. The Kev. Charles Garrett was chosen presi- dent. The numerical returns of membership were presented, and showed the number of members of the society to be 393,754, with 40,653 on trial; 25,205 persons had ceased to be members during the year. The report showed 32,417 members in junior society classes, and a net increase of 12,798 full members. As at the previous Conference, more candidates made application for admis- sion than could be received, so now twenty- four candidates had to be declined. The most important business was the consideration of the report on the revision of the Book of Offices, which had engaged the attention of committees and the Conference for eight years. The previous Conference had adopted the re- port of the committee, so far as concerned the Order of Morning Prayer and the forms for the administration of the Lord's Supper, the solemnization of Matrimony, and the Burial of the Dead, but had referred the form of adminis- tration of Baptism to another committee, with instructions to report to the present Confer- ence. The discussion in the Conference turned upon the form which should be given to the preamble of the service, and bore particularly upon the doctrine of baptismal regeneration — all implication of a sanction of which it was decided to exclude. The preamble was finally adopted as follows : DEARLY BELOVED : Forasmuch as our Lord Jesus Christ gave commandment to his Church to make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, and whereas these persons here present do bring this child, and do now present him for holy baptism, let us, being gathered together in the name of Christ and in obedience to his command, hear for our instruction and encouragement the teaching of his Holy Word concerning this sacrament. The new form, as reported by the commit- tee, orders the four collects, which have here- tofore been read immediately before the act of baptism, to be read after it, so that the prayers contained in them should not be interpreted as having reference to any regenerating influence attendant upon the act. Action was taken for the organization of the colonial and native churches of South Africa into a South African Conference, to which the parent conference re- linquishes its missions ; and the Eev. J. Wal- ton was designated as the first president of the new conference. The subject of organizing a West Indian Conference was also considered. VIII. PRIMITIVE METHODIST CHURCH.— The following is a summary of the statistics of this church as they were presented to the Confer- ence in June : Number of members 191,329 Number of ministers 1,152 Number of local preachers 15,278 Number of class-leaders 10,898 Number of connectional chapels 4,497 Number of rented chapels 1,851 The increase in the number of members from the previous year was 6,017. Reports were presented of 3,764 Sunday-schools in the United Kingdom, with 56,337 teachers, 364,- 592 scholars, and 62,121 members of the Con- nectional Band of Hope. The increase in Sun- day-school scholars was 9,518. The income of the schools amounted to £50,150. The anniversary of the Primitive Methodist Missionary Society was held May 16th. The receipts of the society had been £35,225, or £215 more than during the previous year, and an increase of 1,303 members was reported at the home and foreign stations and in the colonial districts. The society had the super- intendence of 65 home-mission stations, 176 colonial, and 4 foreign stations, with 100 home missionaries, 205 colonial ministers and mis- sionaries, and 6 foreign missionaries — in all 245 stations, with 1,227 preaching-places, and 311 missionaries. The foreign mission work is represented by stations at Aliwal North, South Africa, and Fernando Po, on the West 540 METHODISTS. MEXICO. African coast. At the former place were 3 ministers, 11 local preachers, and 234 members of the church. The colonial work was in Aus- tral ia and Canada. In the latter country were 61 stations and 97 missionaries, with 8,137 members. The sixty-third Annual Conference of the Primitive Methodist Connection met at Shef- field, June 7th. The Rev. Joseph Wood was chosen president. Measures were approved for securing a more solemn and becoming observ- ance of the ordinance of baptism, and to im- press on the societies the obligations of the Church in relation to the baptized ; also for securing a better attendance at Sunday-schools of the children who have been baptized in the chapels and by the ministers. A scheme for the formation of a Connectional Temperance League was referred, to be matured by a com- mittee and considered by the next Conference. The Missionary Committee was authorized to give higher salaries to its missionaries on home stations that are regarded as especially impor- tant fields of labor, and where heavy respon- sibilities have to be accepted. IX. METHODIST NEW CONNECTION. — The fol- lowing is a summary of the statistics of this Church as they were reported to the Confer- ence in June: Number of chapels, 512 ; of so- cieties, 467 ; of circuit preachers, 186 ; of local preachers, 1,278; of members, 28,631 ; of pro- bationers, 4,512 ; of Sunday-schools, 465, with 11,210 teachers and 80,897 scholars. The in- crease of members was 861, and of Sunday- school scholars, 1,429. An increase of 40 members was reported in China, and of 32 members in Ireland. The Conference of the Methodist New Con- nection met at Batley, in June. The Rev. W. Longbottom was chosen president. X. UNITED METHODIST FEEE CHURCHES. — The following is a summary of the statistics of these churches, as they were reported to the Conference in July : Number of itinerant preachers, 392; of supernumeraries, 40; of local preachers, 3,385; of leaders, 4,186; of members in the society, 74,142; of probation- ers, 9,905; of chapels and preaching-rooms, 1,533; of Sunday-schools, 1,354, with 23,892 teachers and 199,382 scholars. The increase of members was 1,363, and of Sunday-school scholars, 3,425. The annual meeting in behalf of the Home and Foreign Missions was held April 23d. The income of the society for the year had been £16,480. The society conducted twenty-four home missions, which were under the charge of twenty -two missionaries, and had in its foreign missions, in China, East Africa, and West Africa, fifty-one missionaries, with 7,772 church-members, 917 on probation, and 7,752 Sunday-school scholars. The Annual Assembly of the United Meth- odist Free Churches met at Bristol, July 19th. The Rev. Arthur Hands was chosen president. The present being the twenty-fifth year since the amalgamation, in 1857, between the Wes- leyan Association and the Wesleyan Reform- ers, by which the present union of churches was formed, measures were taken to celebrate the anniversary by raising a commemorative or thanksgiving fund of £25,000 to be appro- priated between the Connectional funds and local objects ; and the Connectional Commit- tee was authorized to prepare the details of a scheme for accomplishing this object, to be submitted to the next Assembly. MEXICO (ESTADOS UNIDOS DE MEXICO, OR REPUBLICA MEXIOANA). Mr. J. Y. Sargent, in an article, " Mexico and her Railways," in the London "Fortnightly Review," February 1, 1883, expresses himself about Mexico in the following terms : " Mexico occupies the south- ern portion of the North American Continent, narrowing southward to the Isthmus of Tehu- antepec, and broadening toward the northwest and east with the breadth of the continent, through about fifteen degrees of latitude, until it reaches the boundary of the United States. This is an imaginary line, stretching from about San Diego, on the Pacific, to Matamo- ros, on the Gulf of Mexico. This line, run- ning nearly 2,000 miles, divides Mexico from California, Arizona, and Texas. For the whole length of the Texan frontier it follows the Rio Grande River down to its mouth. Less than fifty years ago Mexico included California, Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Colo- rado, Southern Wyoming, and Texas ; continu- ing, in fact, the high plateau which occupies the central part of Mexico, and which, widen- ing northward, embraces the mesa of the Rocky Mountains as far north as the latitude of Salt Lake, where it is now crossed by the trunk line of the Union Pacific. This great table-land, although diversified with mountains and valleys, yet lies at an average altitude of about 5,000 feet above the level of the sea. Eastward it slopes gradually across the prai- ries, to the level of the Missouri and Missis- sippi. In Mexico proper it sinks by successive steps and steep escarpments to the lowlands that border on the Gulf of Mexico and Cali- fornia, and the Pacific. " Being narrowed in the area of the Mexican States, and nearer the equator, the land pre- sents in a smaller compass all the variety of climate and produce of the tropic, the temper- ate, and the colder zones. Hence the well- known division of Mexico into the tierras calientes, tierras templadas, and tierras frias. A glance at the map will show that the States nearest the capital are the most thickly peo- pled. Tlascala, Morelos, Hidalgo, Queretaro, Guanajuato, Zacatecas, and San Luis Potosi are studded with names of towns which be- come more sparse toward the north and north- west." AREA AND POPULATION. — Mr. Lorenzo Cas- tro's hand-book, entitled "The Republic of Mexico in 1882," contains the statistics of area and population as follows : MEXICO. 541 NAMES OF STATES. Area in leagues. Population. Capitals. Population. Aguas Calientes 827 189,800 Aguas Calientes 35,000 8,801 120,815 26000 2,474 205,000 San Cristobal las Casas .... 10205 Chihuahua . 14,800 220,000 Chihuahua. . . 16,000 9500 125 400 Saltillo 17000 Coliina 552 65827 Colima 81 774 6891 200 000 Durango 28000 Guanajuato 1,862 889,575 Guanajuato 63,000 Guerrero. 3,564 825,000 Chilpancingo .... 8,000 Hidalgo 1 521 404 207 15000 7225 934 850 93875 Mexico ... . . 1,416 607,435 Toluca 11876 Michoacan 8,497 618,240 Morelia 25,000 Morelos 262 150,300 Cuernavaca 12,000 4036 201 732 40000 Oajaca 4,953 733,556 Oajaca 26708 Puebla ... 1733 784,466 Puebla . . ... 76,817 Queretaro 506 154,000 Quer6taro 48,000 4262 650 000 San Luis Potosi 45000 Sinaloa 5950 200 000 7000 Sonora . ... 11 655 141 000 Ures 8000 Tabasco 1,876 104 759 San Juan Bautista 8,000 4428 120 000 25000 Tlascala 253 138 98S Tlascala 36463 Vera Cruz 8501 552 918 20000 Yucatan 4,818 422 365 Merida ... 56,000 Zacatecas 6,270 470,000 Zacatecas 62,000 Lower California (Territory) 8727 80000 La Paz 4000 Federal District of Mexico . . . 50 315 916 Mexico 225 000 Total area of States in leagues, 119,710. The proportion of the Mexican league to the English or American mile is fifty to nineteen. Of this population of 10,000,000, according to the most probable estimates, 6,500,000 con- sist of Indians of various tribal descent, the Aztecs being only a small portion of the num- ber, and of the remaining 3,500,000 at least 3,000,000 are half-breeds, or are mixed with Indian blood in some proportion, leaving only about 500,000 inhabitants of wholly white de- scent. Mr. Sargent (above referred to) resumes as follows : " For many years before and since the intrusion of Maximilian, Mexico was a prey to revolutions. These have gradually ceased. Under the regime of the existing President, Gonzalez, and his predecessor, Diaz, there has been no political disturbance of any moment. The thoughts of all classes, tired of continual change, have been directed to social and material improvement ; the name of a stable government is daily more and more ap- preciated, and public opinion is so firmly set in favor of a continuance in the present path of tranquillity and progress that there would seem to be but little fear of a recurrence of revolu- tions. It was the knowledge of this improved state of things that persuaded the wide-awake people of the United States that the time had come for opening up Mexico to American com- merce. Enlightened Mexican statesmen like Diaz and Romero were found ready to respond, and showed a desire to encourage the introduc- tion of American trade and American capital into the country. But public opinion had to be educated up to the mark, and time had to be allowed for the expansive force of American commerce, working, as by an inevitable law, to force its way into Mexico, when the pro- viding of railways would be proved to be Total population, 10,025,649. an absolute necessity. Accordingly, events brought on the time." STATE VALUATION. — A Government esti- mate, taken in 1880, gives the following figures of assessed valuation of real estate and export of precious metals : STATES. Real estate. Gold and silver export. Coahuila $2,950,693 Guanajuato. 80 002 994 $4 118 632 Hidalgo 13 077,189 8 734 98T Jalisco 24,793.322 1 600 91T Mexico 22,598,918 848 446 Michoacan 20 849 885 287 626 San Luis Potosf 13,553,656 8 053 110 Zacatecas 15,615,652 4,592 098 Lower California 7 598 682 Eest of Mexico $151,040,441 187 861 447 $17,685,816 4,217 618 Grand total $338 901 888 $21 903 429 PUBLIC OFFICERS. — The President of the Re- public is General Manuel Gonzalez, whose term of office will expire on December 1, 1884. His Cabinet is composed of the following min- isters : Secretary of Foreign Affairs, Sefior J. Mariscal; Interior, C. Diez Gutierrez; Jus- tice and Instruction, vacant; Finance, F. Landero y Cos ; Public Works, General 0. Pa- checo; "War, General E. Naran jo. Supreme Court, President (and Vice-President of the Republic), Sefior J. L. Vallarta, and the ma- gistrates are : P. Ogazon, J. de Mata Vasquez, M. Alas, M. Blanco, J. M. Bautista, M. Saldafia, E. Avila, P. Ortiz, J. M. Vasquez Palacios, J. F. Corona, M. Auza, and M. Rojas ; with J. E. Muftoz, Attorney-General, and E. Ruiz, Pro- curator-General. GOVEENOES OF STATES. — Aguas Calientes, R. Arellanos ; Campeachy, A. Shields ; Coahuila, E. Madero ; Colima, F. Santa Cruz ; Chiapas, 542 MEXICO. M. Utrilla; Chihuahua, L. Terrazas; Federal District, R. Fernandez; Durango, F. G. de Palacios; Guanajuato, M. Ledo; Guerrero, General D. Alvarez; Hidalgo, S. Craviato; Jalisco, P. Landazurri, ad interim; Mexico, J. Zabieta; Michoacan, P. Dorantes; Morelos, C. Quaglia; Nuevo Leon, G. Garza Garcia; Oajaca, General Porfirio Diaz; Puebla, Gen- eral Mendez; Queretaro, F. G. Cosio; San Luis Potosi, P. Diaz Gutierrez; Sinaloa, M. Castro; Sonora, C. Ortiz; Tabasco, M. Fou- cher; Tamaulipas, A. Canales; Territory of Lower California, General J. M. Rangel ; Tlas- cala, Grajales; Vera Cruz, A. Castillo; Yu- catan, General Rosada; and Zacatecas, Gen- eral Arechegui. The Governors of States are elected for a term of four years. The Governor of the Ter- ritory of Lower California is appointed by the Federal Government. The army in 1882 was composed as follows : Officers. Men. Infantry (20 battalions) 740 12200 Cavalry (14 regiments) 518 4,850 Artillery (6 brigades, each of 5 batteries). . 180 22 1,645 71 150 1692 Invalids 19 2SO Total 1 629 20 738 The navy consists of four gunboats. The national and State finances, as shown by the budget estimates for the current year, exhibit the following details : REVENUE. Budget of 1882-'83. Custom-house $ 15,000,000 Custom-house at Mexico and town dues 2,000,000 Stamp dues 4,000,000 Direct taxes 900,000 Mint 690,000 Instruction Fund 60,000 Post-Office and telegraphs 650,000 Lottery 800,000 New tobacco and stamp taxes 2,000,000 Sundry incomes 1,000,000 Income of the individual States 7,500,000 Grand total $34,600,000 EXPENDITURE. The Legislature $1,071,712 The Executive.. Supreme Court.. Foreign Affairs Interior 3,235,118 Justice and Public Instruction 1,215,473 Public Works 7,551,683 Finance 4,648,377 Army and Navy 8,514,478 Expenditure in the different States 7,500,000 Grand total $34,511,507 The city expenses of 1,411 municipalities, amounting in the aggregate to about $7,000,- 000, are covered by local taxes. The foreign debt embraces the following items: English loan of October 14, 1850, $89,- 252,360 ; agreement of indebtedness to English bondholders of December 4, 1851, $5,900,025 ; ditto to Spanish, of December 6, 1853, $1,231,- 775 ; ditto, ditto, of November 12, 1853, $5,- 553,287 ; debt to the United States of July 4, 1868, $2,775,123; together, $104, 712,570; ditto, internal, $40,241,215; grand total, $144,953,- 785. THE CHIEF RAILROAD LINES. — Among the multitude of companies or individuals possess- ing " concessions " for railroads from the Mexi- can Federal Government, all may be discarded at the present moment from consideration in this inquiry except three: 1. The Mexican Central Railroad Company, whose main line is planned to reach from the city of Mexico to Paso del Norte, on the American frontier, running north ward through the States of Mexico, Hidalgo, Queretaro, Gua- najuato, through a corner of the State of Jalisco, and through the States of Aguas Ca- lientes, Zacatecas, Durango, and Chihuahua, with lateral lines from the neighborhood of the cities of Leon or Lagos or Aguas Calientes to San Bias, on the Pacific coast, and to the neigh- borhood of Tampico, upon the Gulf of Mexico. The main line of this road follows pretty nearly the central line of the tierrafria north- ward from the capital. In Humboldt's " Views of Nature " the extraordinary facilities of part at least of this route for railroad-building were indicated many years ago by a table he com- piled of " the line of leveling from the city of Mexico to Santa Fe," comprising the follow- ing altitudes of cities which are on its route : Mexico, 7,469 feet; Tula, 6,733; San Juan del Rio, 6,490; Queretaro, 6,362; Celaya, 6,017; Salamanca, 5,761; Silao, 5,911; Guanajuato (which the Mexican Central reaches by a branch road from Silao), 6,836; Leon, 6,133; Lagos, 6,376 ; Aguas Calientes, 6,261 ; Zacate- cas, 8,038; Fresnillo, 7,244; Durango, 6,848; Chihuahua, 4,638, and Paso del Norte, 3,810. 2. The Mexican National Railroad Company, whose main line is planned to reach from the city of Mexico to Laredo, on the American frontier, running first westward toToluca, then turning northward through the towns of Ma- ravatio and Acambaro, crossing the Central road at Celaya and extending to Laredo by way of the cities of San Luis Potosi, Saltillo and Monterey — traversing the States of Mexi- co, Michoacan, Guanajuato, San Luis Potosi, a corner of Zacatecas, Nuevo Leon, and Coa- huila, with a central line branching off at Acambaro and running to Manzanillo on the Pacific. The elevations of the cities of Saltillo and San Luis Potosi above the sea are given by Humboldt as respectively 5,240 and 6,090 feet. That of the city of Toluca he gives in " Cosmos " as 8,825 feet. 3. The Mexican Railroad Company, whose main line reaches from the city of Mexico to the city of Yera Cruz, running through the cities of Apam, Huamantla, Maltrata, Orizaba, and C6rdova, and traversing the States of Mex- ico, Tlascala, Puebla, and Vera Cruz. The Mexican Railroad has been running throughout its whole line from Vera Cruz to the capital, 263 miles, since the year 1873, with a branch line, twenty-nine miles long, MEXICO. 543 from Apizaco (eighty-six miles from the capital and 177 miles from Vera Cruz) to the city of Puebla. It is a " standard gauge " road, was built chiefly with English capital, and is con- trolled in London. Its president, however, is an American. Its distinctive peculiarity — in which it differs from the two other roads which have been mentioned — is that it traverses all tbree of the climatic belts of Mexico, while their routes are in only the tierra fria. At Paso del Macho, in the tierra caliente, forty- seven miles from Vera Cruz, the work ahead is indicated by the substitution of a Fairlie for a Baldwin locomotive on the train. From this station during the next sixty miles the road mounts through the tierra templada, across the terraces of C6rdova and Orizaba, up to Boca del Monte, 8,310 feet above the sea, and thence follows the table-land 156 miles to the city of Mexico. The magnificent scenery and engineering of these sixty miles have long been familiar to Americans by photographs and written narratives. It would be trite, there- fore, to descant upon them. They are unri- valed, except by the engineering and scenery of the present route of the Mexican National Eailroad from the capital to the city of To- luca. The main line of the Mexican Central road is completed from the north only so far that trains are running regularly from El Paso to Chihuahua, about 225 miles, and from the south only so far that they are running regularly 286 miles, from the city of Mexico to Lagos, to which extreme point they began to run on December 15, 1882. Between Lagos and Chi- huahua there is, therefore, a gap of five or six hundred miles, which must be traversed at present by " diligence." This gap is so exten- sive that it prohibits the line from becoming a convenient means of access to the capital at present. The Mexican " diligence," or stage- coach, is a very uncomfortable vehicle, built on the pattern of the old-fashioned "Concord coaches," and is as dirty as it is uncomfortable. The highways are very rough, and, although the relays of mules are frequent, a speed of more than forty or fifty miles a day can not reasonably be expected. The Mexican Central road is of the "stand- ard gauge." Its American connections are with the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe Rail- road system — a fact which sufficiently identi- fies its American control to anybody acquainted with the subdivisions of American railroad in- terests. Its Mexican controllers are men in close and peculiar relations with the Federal Executive. The main line of the Mexican National road is completed from the north only so far that trains are running regularly from Laredo to Monterey, and from the south only so far that they are running from the city of Mexico through Toluca, forty-seven miles (to which point they began to run in September, 1882), to Maravatio, ninety-six miles farther, to which point it is said that they began to run regu- larly during the month of February, 1883. The gap in which resort must be had to the "diligence" in this line, therefore, is nearly as extensive at present as exists in the case of the Central road. Nor does the section com- pleted from the city of Mexico westward and northward help at all to fill it, even if that sec- tion be reckoned to extend as far as Marava- tio, 143 miles. Nor can it do so until after the Central road is crossed at Celaya. The reasons for this are evident by a glance at the map, without discussion. A traveler by "dil- igence " down from Monterey will of course aim to strike the Mexican Central road at La- gos and use it to the capital. As a main ave- nue of travel between our country and the city of Mexico the location of the southern part of the Mexican National Railroad is highly advan- tageous compared with the location of the Central road ; while, on the contrary, for that purpose, the location of its northern part pos- sesses some striking advantages. The Mexican National Company owns also another strip of rail, which is laid northward out of the valley of Mexico by the side of the Central Railroad, some thirty miles to the vil- lage of El Salto, availing itself of the easy grades of exit from the valley afforded by the old " Spanish Drain." From El Salto numer- ous surveys have been made with a design to connect this strip with Toluca, in which event the monstrously expensive road that this com- pany has constructed directly westward from the capita] to that city (with grades some of which were stated by one of the engineers, who went over it in company with the writer in January, to be as steep as 3 '8 in 100 feet) would doubtless be discontinued as the main line, and the El Salto route substituted. But these sur- veys were fruitless. It is now asserted, how- ever, that a later survey has been successful in finding a way to make the connection with grades not exceeding 1*5 in 100 feet. The Mexican National road is of the "narrow gauge." Its American connections are with the Denver and Rio Grande railroad system. ACCESS BY SEA ON THE PACIFIC SIDE. — On the Pacific side steamers land passengers from San Francisco at San Bias, in the State of Ja- lisco. Thence it is possible to reach the Mexi- can Central Railroad at Lagos or Leon by a seven and a half days' journey by " diligence " through the cities of Tepic and Guadalajara. From Lagos to the city of Mexico by rail it is, as has been mentioned, about 286 miles. From Leon to the city of Mexico the distance is 266 miles. As soon as the Mexican Central road pushes its lateral line from Leon or Lagos to Guadala- jara it will greatly facilitate the approach from this quarter. ACCESS BY SEA ON THE ATLANTIC SIDE. — On the Atlantic side there is a weekly " Alexan- dre " steamer from New York for Vera Cruz (starting from pier 3 North River on Thurs- 544 MEXICO. days), touching on the way at Havana, in Cuba, and Progreso, in the Mexican State of Yucatan, and on alternate weeks also at Cainpeachy, in the State of the same name, and Frontera, in the State of Tobasco. The distances by this route are as follow : Miles. New York to Havana 1,200 Havana to Progreso 425 Progreso to Cainpeachy 123 Cainpeachy to Frontera 133 Frontera to Vera Cruz 200 Total From Havana there are also British, French, and German steam lines running to Vera Cruz, to any of which a traveler may shift his passage if he desires. Or he may go from New York to Havana by the " Ward " line of steamers, which start from pier 16 East River weekly, on Sat- urdays, and there shift his passage to Vera Cruz either to an Alexandre boat or to one of these foreign lines. All the Ward and Alexandre steamers from New York are commodious — those of recent build especially so — and are run with reasona- ble regard to the comfort of passengers. Their size in general is about 2,500 tons old measure- ment. There is also an Alexandre steamer from New Orleans for Vera Cruz once in three weeks. This steamer touches, between New Orleans and Vera Cruz, at the Mexican ports of Bag- dad (at the mouth of the Rio Grande, where passengers are taken from or left for Matamo- ros) and of Tampico and Tuxpan. The distances from New Orleans to Vera Cruz by this route are as follow : Miles. New Orleans to Bagdad 578 Bagdad to Tampico 225 Tampico to Tuxpan 90 Tuxpan to Vera Cruz 125 Total 1,018 There is also a " Morgan " line steamer from Morgan City, formerly called Brashear City (reached by rail in a few hours from New Or- leans), for Vera Cruz twice a month, touching on the way only at Galveston, in Texas. This is an iron boat, flat-bottomed, and a "side- wheeler." All the other boats above mentioned are propellers. It has lately been published that all the Morgan steam lines, including this one, have been purchased in an interest con- nected with the Central Pacific and Southern Pacific Railroads and with a Mexican " conces- sion," as yet unimproved, for a railroad toward the Mexican capital, starting from the Texas frontier at a point on the Rio Grande north- west of Laredo. In its issue of January 16, 1883, the Mexican correspondent of the London "Times" thus expresses himself about railroads in Mexico : Eailroads are naturally expected to do much for Mex- ico, where absence of navigable rivers and water for canals has hitherto necessitated the tedious movement of all goods by ox- team or on the back of the useful burro. Already charters have been granted for some 5,000 miles of road, which will cost on an average for construction and equipment $25,000 per mile. The United States and foreign countries are finding the money, which would augur that the Mexicans have either very little enterprise, or are doubtful of the suc- cess of such undertakings. Nearly 1,000 miles have already been built. The line from the seaport of Vera Cruz to the city of Mexico, covering with its branches 365 miles, has been opened since 1873. The tardiness of the people of Mexico to take advantage of improved transport facilities is illustrated by the fact that the increase of business since the road was opened has been about one per cent per annum, while, although possessing a monopoly and a Government subsidy, the company earned no dividend until last year, when 5 per cent was declared. If the road from the capital of the republic to its principal seaport has taken eight years to develop profitable traffic, there is poor pros- pect of much profit from lines running though more sparsely populated, poorer regions. Years must elapse before there is much agricultural, manufacturing, or mineral produce to be carried by Mexican railroads, or before the amplified wants of the masses will fill many freight-cars. Before railways can prosper the country, moreover, must become more peaceful and settled. It seems almost incredible that on the Vera Cruz road a car full of soldiers accompanies each train, and at every station soldiers are drawn up awaiting the arrival of each train. These precautions are adopted regularly, even when no specie is being transported. On the Mexican Central, running south from Paso del Norte, 225 miles, to Chihuahua, the traveling offi- cials are all armed, but no military accompany the train. Government subsidizes several Mexican lines to the extent of about one third of the cost of construc- tion, but this, although enabling the road to dispose of its bonds advantageously in foreign markets, is ham- pered by unfavorable regulations as to freight charges and transport of Government officials and munitions of war. < I have not visited the southern portions of the repub- lic, the Mexican Gulf shores,where tropical produce can be raised, whence much tobacco is brought, and where malarial fevers abound. I have not seen the fertile, extending coffee plantations, still free from parasitic attacks, nor the great silver-mines, nor the larger cities. My observations have been confined to the northern portion of the country, which has obviously been the basin of a great sea, in the midst of which towered the old granitic mountains, standing out then as shallows or islands, now mapping the region into great vallevs, some of them 100 miles long and five to 50 miles wide ; several of the later-drained flats for miles covered with so much saline deposit as entirely to prevent vegetation. The Mexican Central Railroad, from its northern start on the borders of Texas, for upward of 150 miles passes through a poor sage-brush country, diversified by immense sand-hills and barren alkaline plains, broken with mesas, and flanked by a succes- sion of gneissic mountains 1,000 feet to 2,000 high, from the fastnesses of which Indians and white des- peradoes were wont to sally forth and rob and murder occasional travelers, railroad surveyors and construct- ors. The Caudelero Pass was pointed out to me, where, twelve months ago, twenty- seven Mexicans in pursuit of a marauding band of Apaches, were in- veigled into a defile and cut down to a man. On the waysides, along many a mountain -path, are crosses where prospectors and cattle-men have been shot for plunder or revenge. No wonder that the population invariably carry fire-arms, and always have them handy by night as well as by day. Toward Chihuahua there is less alkali and sand and more water, settle- ment, irrigation, cultivation, and stock-keeping. The town contains about 7,000 people, and consists of one and two storied adobe houses, with flat roofs, cheaply and quickly built, keeping out both heat and cold, but, unless some attention is paid to cleanliness, affording harbors for centipeds, tarantulas, and other vermin. An imposing cathedral and several churches of the same simple" material were erected nearly 300 years MEXICO. 545 In 1875-'76 the imports amounted to $28,- 485,000, while the exports only reached $25,- 435,000, $15,000,000 of the latter amount being silver. The marine movement in 1874-175 was as follows : Mexican.. American. English. . . French... German . . Spanish. . . 2,227 332 162 115 112 64 FLAG. Norwegian Danish Dutch Other nationalities. Total. Vessel.. 8,131 Total tonnage entered, 1,000,000. The Mexican merchant navy embraces 421 sea-going vessels and 847 coasting-craft. The United States imported from Mexico the following amounts of merchandise : FISCAL YEARS. 1858 $1,108,501 1859 1,244,084 1860 1,908,431 1861 886,112 1862 817,809 FISCAL YEARS. 1868 ............. $1,590,667 1869 ............. 2,336,164 1870 ............. 2,715,665 1871 ............. 8,209,688 1872 ............. 4,002,920 ago, and have since been maintained in good order and endowed by a tax of one per cent on the neigh- boring mines. The advent of the railroad in Septem- ber has somewhat awakened Chihuahua from her quiet stagnation: it has brought visitors from all parts of the United States. The Mexican and Indian populations still appear fascinated by the locomotives, and examine them to discover the concealed animals which they believe must furnish the motive power ; while still another problem exercises some simple minds— how, when the train is backed, the cars draw the engine. On the other hand Mr. Eomero, the Mexican Minister at Washington, in a speech delivered by him on February 12, 1883, on the occasion of a banquet tendered him by the merchants there, alluded to Mexican railroads in the fol- lowing terms : As for the net earnings of railroads in my country. I may state that the Vera Cruz line was inaugurated on January 1, 1873, when its net earnings amounted to $826,000, while they reached $2,958,729 in 1881, and nearly $4,000,000 last year. This railroad cost twice the amount of the present cost of construction ; its bonded debt is $40,000,000, and its shares, which three years ago had not reached par, now sell at 143 per cent, in consequence of the dividends the road Tntal *fsq-Q(m Tntii *issvn7 Pioneer 16 619 457 023 Total 72 962 $2 006 454 The mines which produced each an ore- product valued at over $1,000,000, were: Lake Superior, $2,834,835; Eepublic, $2,351,109; Chapin, $2,103,810; Cleveland, $1,958,140; Champion, $1,590,090 ; and Norway, $1,076,- 055. The Florence put out a valuation of $960,930 ; the Jackson, $919,885 ; the Vulcan, $799,357; the Commonwealth, $752,503; the Perkins, $626,008; and the New York, $539,- 657. No other mine produced half a million. The product of the Indiana dropped from $1,024,500, in 1881, to $36,380. The product of the copper-mines is stated as follows, in pounds : Houghton Company's mines 50,770,719 Keweenaw Company's mines 5,462,648 Ontonagon Company's mineg 1,025,770 Total 57,259,137 Compared with 1881, the output of the mines producing over one million pounds each was as follows : MINKS. 1881. 1882. Calumet and Hecla 38 924 482 81 914 726 Quincy 6 815 485 5553784 Oscola 4 806 880 3 841 754 Franklin 3 ^28 190 3 179 7gg Atlantic 3 G31 995 3 014 976 Allouez 1 989 845 l's39'468 Central 1 443 068 Pewabic 1 247 550 1 431 224 The next largest producing mines were: Massachusetts, 837,928 pounds; Conglomerate, 793,100; Grand Portage, $710,192; Copper Falls, 695,808; Hancock, 672,009; and Phce- nix, 531,472. The average price of copper during the year was 18-41 cents per pound, which would give an approximate value of $10,541,407.12. EDUCATION.— The Superintendent of Public Instruction furnishes the following statistics of the primary schools in advance of his annual report : Whole number of school districts. . . 6,630 104 6,728 153 588,802 year Whole number of school-houses ,....'...'..'. Increase over preceding year ' Number of children between five and twenty years of age MOO, «» Increase over preceding year 20,508 Number of children attending public schools. . . 885.504 Increase over preceding year Number of private and select schools Number of pupils attending private and select schools Number of teachers employed in public schools Number of teachers' employed' in'public schools — women . . . Total wages paid teachers Increase over 1881 Estimated value of school property Amount on hand from preceding year Amount received from one-mile tax Amount received from primary-school interest fund Amount received from tuition of non-resident pupils Amount received from district taxes Amount received from all other sources . . . 168,983 94 9,848,493 00 876,882 28 514,504 56 626,673 56 40,513 18 2,269,504 47 406,948 69 Total of both sexes. Decrease since 1881.., Total receipts for the year $4,735,026 74 Total expenditures for all purposes $3,789,290 98 Amount carried forward to next year 945,785 81 Total $4,735,026 74 The annual report of the Acting Principal of the State Normal School gives the following summary of students in attendance during the school year 1881-'82 : In Normal department 880 Practice school— Grammar department 77 Primary department 112 "519 Counted twice by transfer 8 Total 511 Number graduated during the year: Com- mon-school course, 43; English courses, 18; language courses, 21. Total, 82. The dis- bursements for the year were : On account of salaries and current expenses, $26,650.72 ; for new building and special purposes, $24,839.49. Total, $51,490.21. The receipts, exclusive of balances, Sept. 30, 1881, were $48,266.57 : $3,415 came from tuition, laboratory, and diploma fees, and $44,851.57 from the State Treasury. The report of the President of the State Agricultural College makes the following show- ing for 1881-'82 : Number of students, 221 (a decrease of seven from the preceding year). Classification: Resident graduates, 2; seniors, 29 ; juniors, 31 ; sophomores, 56 ; freshmen, 82 ; specials, 21. The number of ladies in the several classes increased from seven to nine (one senior, two sophomores, two freshmen, and four in select studies). At the annual com- mencement, August 15th, the degree of Bachelor of Science was conferred upon 28 graduates, in- cluding one lady, the first daughter of the col- lege. During the year 10,225-99 acres of col- lege lands were sold for $51,129.25; also 1,637 '01 acres of forfeited college lands for $8,335.05 ; leaving unsold 124,886-74 acres that have never been sold, and 10,583-13 acres for- feited or once-sold lands— in all, 135,469-87. At the same price the sales were made during 1882 — $5 per acre — these lands have a cash value of $677,345, and may be expected to in- crease the present endowment fund of $224,- 868.15 in that amount. The expenses of the last two years (reported together) were $167,- 069.61, and cash balance, September 30, 1882, $7,211.32. The annual report of President Angell, of Michigan University, evidences a prosperous year. The number of students enrolled was the same as last year, classified by departments as follows: Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts, 513; Department of Medicine MICHIGAN. 553 and Surgery, 380; Department of Law, 395; School of Pharmacy, 100 ; Homeopathic Medi- cal College, 71 ; College of Dental Surgery, 75. Of these 184 were women, 110 of whom were in the Literary Department, 44 in the Depart- ment of Medicine and Surgery, 2 in Depart- ment of Law, 5 in the School of Pharmacy, 19 in the Homeopathic Medical College, and 4 in the Dental College. Concerning these the president says: "A good proportion of the women who have graduated here are holding conspicuous positions either as medical practi- tioners or as teachers in high-schools, acade- mies, and colleges. No less than six members of the present faculty of Wellesley College, in- cluding the president, are graduates of this university. Several women who graduated from the medical department are in heathen lands discharging the varied and responsible duties of medical missionaries." The president further says: " About three fifths of the stu- dents in the literary department were from Michigan. More than half of the students in the other departments were from elsewhere. Perhaps no other institution in the country has so wide-spread a constituency. Last year we had students from every one of the Eastern, the Middle, and the Western States, and from every Southern State but four ; from four Ter- ritories and the District of Columbia ; and from Ontario, New Brunswick, Manitoba, the Ha- waiian Islands, Nicaragua, Cuba, Bermuda, England, Ireland, Roumania, Egypt, and Bur- mah." The degrees conferred on examination during the year were : Bachelor of Letters, 8 ; Bachelor of Science, 9 ; Bachelor of Philosophy, 19 ; Bachelor of Arts, 39 ; Master of Letters, 1 ; Master of Science, 3 ; Master of Philosophy, 1 ; Master of Arts, 4 ; Doctor of Philosophy, 2; Doctor of Medicine (department of medi- cine and surgery), 92 ; Bachelor of Laws, 170; Pharmaceutical Chemist, 40 ; Doctor of Medi- cine (homoeopathic college), 15 ; Doctor of Dental Surgery, 32. Total, 435. The honor- ary degrees were : Master of Arts, 2 ; Doctor of Philosophy, 2. The degrees of Civil and Mining Engineer are now offered only as sec- ond degrees. The receipts of the year, exclu- sive of balance, September 30, 1881, were $266,740.06; the disbursements, $245,884.09; and the balance on hand, September 30, 1882, $28,118.75. The receipts from students' fees were $85,979.10, and the payments on account of salaries of officers, professors, and employes, were $118,390.82. CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. — The annual re- port of the Superintendent of the Michigan Asylum for the Insane, for the year ending September 30, 1882, shows : Patients Septembr 30, 1881 685 Received during the year 200 Discharged recovered 29 " improved 37 unimproved 80 Died .. '. 49 145 Remaining September 30, 1882 740 The heredity of the 200 patients admitted during the year is stated as follows: Paternal insane — immediate, 13 ; remote, 11. Maternal insane — immediate, 11 ; remote, 9. Paternal and maternal insane, 6 ; brother or sister in- sane, 25 ; unclassified, 7 ; dissolute parentage, 13; unascertained, 35; no insanity reported, 70. Of the same 200, 55 males and 48 females were married ; 58 males and 23 females single, and 9 males and 7 females widowed; 98 were farmers, gardeners, or agricultural laborers ; 36 common laborers and domestics; 10 workers in leather; 10 workers in stone; and only a small percentage belonged to the professional classes. The report of the Medical Superintendent of the Eastern Michigan Asylum makes the fol- lowing showing: 658 8S5 Under treatment September 30, 1SS1 471 Admitted during year 187 Discharged recovered 44 " improved 26 " unimproved 10 Died 86 Temporarily absent 1 11T Kemaining September 30, 1882 541 Of this number 273 are males and 268 fe- males. The superintendent, after classifying the patients under the head of " probable ex- citing causes," and the tendency to " ascribe insanity to moral causes," says that "insanity is very rarely to be ascribed to a single cause," and reaches the conclusion that " the causes of insanity are manifestly physical and affect the individual by depressing the general health. This interferes with the nutrition of the brain, and mental alienation results." The expendi- tures for 1882 were $175,618 for all purposes, and the average weekly cost per capita was $3.91f. The Board of Commissioners of the North- ern Asylum for the Insane report the pur- chase of a site near Traverse City, overlooking Grand Traverse Bay, consisting of 339 acres, with contracts for 57 acres adjoining the same ; also that plans have been adopted, building material contracted for, and a contract let for the erection of the building. The report of the Principal of the Michigan Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb gives an enrollment for the session of 1881-'82 of 249. The graduating class num- bered but four, chargeable to an increase of the school course from eight to ten years. The disbursements on account of current expenses were $46,589.74, of which amount $5,072.76 came from earnings and $41,516.98 from the State. The trustees say : " The graduates of this institution will compare favorably in lit- erary attainments with those of the high-schools of our State, while in ability to earn a living and become self-supporting we think they sur- pass any equal number of speaking pupils of eight years' training that may be selected " — which work is accomplished at an average weekly expense for each pupil of $3.23. 554 MICHIGAN. The first biennial report of the Michigan School for the Blind says : " During the period of two years, ending June 22, 1882, there have been 73 pupils enrolled, of whom 55 were in attendance the first year and 63 the second. These pupils were divided into different grades, as follows: first grade, 12; second grade, 18; third grade, 43. Gratifying progress is report- ed both in the studies pursued in the school and in the industrial department. The disburse- ments for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1882, were: for current expenses, $22,140.32; for buildings and special purposes, $19,728.81. Total, $41,869.13. Statistics collected by State authority in 1881 give the number of blind persons resident in the State in that year as 540 — 325 males and 215 females. Of this num- ber 67 were under twenty years old and 48 be- tween the ages of twenty and thirty years ; 90 are reported as having been inmates of institu- tions for the blind, and 382 have never been inmates of any institution. REFORMATORY AND PENAL. — From the bien- nial report of the State Public School Superin- tendent the following statistics for the fiscal year ending September 30, 1882, are collated : Beceived during the year 150 Indentured during the year 175 Eeturned to counties 19 Returned from families 64 Died ... 2 Eemaining in school September 30, 1882. .... 311 Current expenses for yea**, $37,200.26, and average cost per capita, $119.61. Under the head of "Discipline," Superintendent Alden says: The question is many times asked how the children are disciplined. In answer I have to say, generally, that the character of our government is paternal. The majority of the children are kept in order by the rules and general system of the institution, without resort- ing to any or much punishment. But all can not be so governed. Some are very disobedient and vicious, destructive of property, overbearing and oppressive toward their fellows, untruthful and dishonest, and resort must be had to such punishments as are best suited to their years, dispositions, and offenses. What will reach one child effectively makes no impression upon another. The circumstances of the particular case in hand can alone determine the punishment. It has been claimed by some institutions that they do not use corporal punishment. A careful and some- what extended investigation of this claim has con- vinced me that they must have forgotten. I am con- vinced that there is not a child's institution in the country where corporal punishment is not occasionally resorted to as the most effective punishment for some children. This institution has never made any such pretensions. As a last resort, when all other things nave proved ineffective, a few strokes, from two to ten, as the case may be, are given on the hand with a light switch or leather strap. This is usually suffi- cient. At least, I am satisfied that if such a moderate punishment fails, greater severity would, in time, tend to harden instead of softening the culprit. Placing children in bed for a part or all of the day, depriving them of play^ giving them bread and water for one meal or snutting them up by themselves in a cheerful room where they may have. time to reflect and come to themselves, I find sometimes quite effective. In all cases more depends upon the spirit and manner of the person administering the punishment than upon the punishment itself. I know that there are persons who disapprove of all these or any punishments, but I think that eight years' experience, with twelve hun- dred children, such as come to us, would considera- bly modify their views, and thev would discover things not dreamed of in their philosophy. It will still ever be true, however, that the "minimum of punishment is the maximum of excellence." Miss Emma A. Hall, the accomplished and zealous Superintendent of the Michigan Re- form School for Girls, in her first report to the Board of Control, gives the number of girls received up to, and in the school, September 30, 1882, as follows : During August and September, 1881 18 from September 80, 1881, to September 80, 1882 67 Eeturned to court 2 In school September 30, 1882 83 The girls were graded : In Cottage No. 1, or lowest grade, 19 ; in second grade, 25 ; in high- est grade, 39. "Tickets of leave" had been granted four of the girls of the highest grade, and they were soon to be placed in good homes, where they will receive care, protection, and fair wages for their services, a portion of which will be placed in a savings-bank for them. One girl was but eight years old, eighteen were over sixteen years, and the average age was thirteen and three quarters years. They have made good progress in their studies, and of their industrial advance the superintendent says: "Seventeen can make yeast and bread well, thirty can do dining-room work well, thirty are good general kitchen-girls, five excel in laundry-work, twenty-three are good in general laundry-work, thirty-three in chamber- work, fifteen good sewers, thirty-two can sew straight seams and hem neatly, and thirty-six have begun to learn to sew." Of these same girls the Board of Control say : " They came from wretched abodes, their habits were vile, and their health poor — most of them ignorant, dirty, and untrained. Cleanliness, wholesome food, early hours, exercise, and discipline, have changed them into cleanly, healthy, and use- ful girls, so that it would be difficult to distin- guish them from the pupils attending public schools. Their improvement is greater than the most hopeful of us dared to expect." Also : Girls who come to us are usually those who have already entered upon a life of vice and sin— all are ignorant— the cases are exceptional where they have not been exposed to the depraving and debasing influ- ences of poverty and vicious associations. The pro- cess of reformation is longer and more difficult than that of formation. To implant new and better tastes and purposes — to create a desire for a better life, bet- ter surroundings and companionships — can not be ef- fected in a short time. The public must not expect our school to eradicate or overcome the evil tenden- cies to which these girls have been exposed, unless time is allowed for the work. The girls are treated by the management of the school, not as criminals, but as friendless, unfortunate children committed to their care. The Board of Control stands to them as parents, and as such pity and care for them. It is the aim of the school to make it resemble, as nearly as possible, a well-regulated Christian family, with its household worship, maternal influence, pious coun- sels, and steady and gentle but authoritative train- ing. All the girls are taught domestic work, to wash MICHIGAN". 555 and iron, to cook, to sew, to sweep, and perform all household duties. Some of the girls are too young to do hard work, but they assist in lighter labors. The girls are taught in the school-room two and a half hours daily in the ordinary branches of the district schools. Four cottages are com- pleted, and three occupied ; capacity, thirty-two each. The statistical tables which accompany the report of the Warden of the State House of Correction at Ionia, for the year ending Sep- tember 30, 1882, show : Number of prisoners September 30, 1881 886 " received on sentence 1,267 " returned from witness 1 Total 1,654 Number discharged by expiration of sentence. . . 1,034 " order of court 7Q " " pardon 11 death 4 " escaped and not recovered 6 1,125 graph, during the sessions of the conventions, and resulted in an agreement between the con- tracting parties for a division of the State ticket, each party to nominate its own assigned portion and adopt its own platform. The nominations by each party were ratified by the other, and a union ticket thus presented for the suffrages of the electors of the State. A " bolt " from the Grand Rapids Convention took place, and the nomination of a straight Greenback ticket followed. The Democratic Convention, by a unanimous vote, placed its chosen candidates upon the fol- lowing platform, a platform heartily indorsed by the entire Democracy of the State: The Democracy of Michigan, in convention as- sembled, recognizing the people as the source of political power, and the Constitution as the funda- mental law of the landj do solemnly declare : 1. That home rule is the essence of free govern- ment ; that the line bounding State and national authority is clearly denned, and needs only to be strictly followed to insure the broadest liberty to the people. 2. Earnestly believing that a real civil-service re- form is needed to purify every department of the Fed- eral Government, we therefore demand, as an initial but important step in this direction, an amendment to the Federal Constitution which will give to the Number remaining September 30, 1 882 529 The greatest number of prisoners at close of any day, 624 ; least number, 386. Average daily number, 510. The disbursements on ac- count of current expenses were $77,381.67; cash earnings for same period, $40,348.47 ; ex- people of the several cities, villages. and~such other cess of disbursements over earnings, $37,033.- postal districts as may be authorized by law, the right 20. Deduct from last amount value of labor entering into permanent improvements, mate- rial paid for from current expense fund, and value of appraised farm products ($27,280.17), and the net expenditures exceed the earnings, $9,753.03. The annual report of Warden Humphrey, of the State-Prison at Jackson, shows : 901 Number of con victs September 30, 1881 699 Received during the year 202 Discharged by expiration of sentence 238 order of Supreme Court 2 Pardoned by Governor 4 Died 8 Escaped 8 Transferred to Detroit House of Correction 2 Discharged for new trial 8 265 In prison September 30, 1882 636 Average length of sentence, three years, nine months, twenty-five days. The general classi- fication of offenses is : against life and person, 49 ; against chastity and decency, 7 ; against property, 139; for forgery aud counterfeiting, 7. The net earnings of the year are given as $90,360.97, and the net expenditures, $98,040.- 99. During the year contractors paid $11,155.- 75 to convicts on account of overwork, or more than twelve per cent of the net earnings. POLITICS. — The biennial general election was held November 7th. On the preceding 23d day of August a Democratic State Convention was held at Jackson ; and on the same day the State Convention of the National Green- back-Labor party was held at Grand Bapids. Before the meeting of these two conventions negotiations had been entered upon looking to a union of the two parties upon a single ticket. These negotiations were continued, by tele- to elect postmasters. We also demand that Federal subordinate officers shall not be appointed or removed because of political belief, nor appointed until their ability and merit have been proved by open public examination and competition, and that political assessments on, or forced contributions from, public officers should be made felony by law. 3. We are unalterably opposed to the unjust, un- equal and iniquitous system of taxation called a pro- tective tariff, which oppresses the farmer and laborer, destroys our merchant marine, breeds and enriches monopolies and impoverishes the poor. The tradi- tional policy and principles of the Democratic party are on the side of complete commercial freedom ; and we demand immediate and aggressive revenue re- form in the direction of free trade, subject to a tariff only sufficient to raise the necessary revenue for the expenditures of government economically adminis- tered. 4. That the right of Congress to make appropria- tions for the improvement of rivers and harbors should be restricted to such as are of national im- portance : that the people of Michigan can not be bribed with a share of the theft to sanction the waste of $30,000,000 in two years ; and we denounce with- out distinction of party all who voted in Congress for the iniquitous Eiver and Harbor Bill. 5. That the letting of the printing of the annual tax-sales to party favorites, without competitive bid- ding, and the keeping in the State Treasury of from one to two million dollars of State funds for the bene- fit of partisan office-holders while the people are heavily taxed, are demoralizing to the public service, and demand immediate reform. "We cordially invite the voters of Michigan, with- out regard to previous party affiliations, to join us in an earnest effort to correct these abuses, by withdraw- ing the administration of State affairs from those who have been already too long in power, and confiding it to those who come freshly from the people, untram- meled by the tyranny of political rings and of party machinery. The ticket nominated did not meet so cor- dial an indorsement, but after some protesta- 556 MICHIGAN. tions of dissent was generally supported by the party at the polls. The convention at Grand Kapids put forth the following declaration of principles : The National Greenback-Labor party of Michigan reaffirms the leading principles of the party, as set forth in the last national platform, which have been forcibly epitomized as follows : First, to destroy sec- tional strife ; second, to pay promptly the public debt ; third, to reduce taxes and expenditures ; fourth, to es- tablish unlimited coinage of gold and silver; Jiitn, to substitute government legal-tender paper for bank- issues ; sixth, to overthrow corruption at the polls and in representative bodies ; seventh, to secure a free bal- lot and a fair count ; eighth, to control by law, and bring into subjection to the interests ot the people, all monopolies which have corrupted the public service. and by combination and extortion have established absolute dominion over money or invention, and over land and labor. 1, The right to petition to amend the Constitution is a sovereign power of the people, and we therefore favor the submission to the people of the question of constitutional prohibition of the liquor-traffic for ratifi- cation or rejection. 2. We shall support no candidate for any official position who will not pledge himself that if elected he will not accept from any corporation a free pass on any railroad or public conveyance, or its equivalent, while holding official position. 4. We denounce the Republican party for having rechartered the national banks ; for having attempted to relieve the banks of taxation rather than the pro- ducing classes ; and for extravagant appropriations of nearly $80,000,000 in excess of former years. 5. That the assessment of office-holders for a cor- rupt campaign fund is the crowning shame of a party owned by grasping monopolists and bossed by un- scrupulous politicians, who seek power for the spoils afforded through excessive taxation of the people. 6. That we favor the repeal of the specific tax on railroads and other corporate property, and demand that they be subjected to a tax in the municipality where located, upon the same basis as other property is assessed. 7. That we invite all good citizens to join us in car- rying these principles to a successful issue at the bal- lot-box. The Republican State Convention met at Kalamazoo, on August 30th, nominated a full ticket with great unanimity, and adopted the following exhaustive set of resolutions : 1. The Republican party of the State of Michigan) assembled in convention for the first time since the tragic death of James A. Garfield, our beloved leader an! revered Chief Magistrate, grateful for the inspir- ing lessons of his life and example of his heroic death, record, first of all, our profound sorrow at his loss and our veneration for his memory ; and next, our strength- ened and abiding faith in the stability of republican institutions ; and our fixed resolve that governments of the people, by the people, and for the people, shall not perish from the earth. 2. Chester A. Arthur, called to a place of power un- der most trying and delicate circumstances, has proved himself worthy of the high trust reposed in him. He has given to the country an administration conserva- tive, patriotic, and progressive. The Republicans of Michigan extend to him thei^ confidence for the fu- JJ-LlVJlllHilll QAWUUU UV7 UUU U**v/* w-- ture, based upon the record of the past. 3. The Republicans of Michigan once more declare their devotion to the time-honored and fundamental principles of the National Republican party— liberty for all men ; equality before the law ; perpetual union of the States ; supremacy of the nation ; and the invio- lable right of every citizen on every foot of American soil to cast his ballot according to his sovereign will, and to have such ballots, and only such, honestly counted and truly returned to constitute the " voice of the people," which is the voice of God. 4. From its organization until now the Republican party has denounced slavery and polygamy as " twin relics of barbarism." The first perished at the hands of the Republican party, shot to death on battle-fields and buried in amendments to the Constitution. The second disgrace of our civilization and our century must die. We demand that polygamy be destroyed. We cordially commend the efforts of our Senators and Representatives in Congress to that end. 5. Whatever may be our individual views as to the ultimate ideal system of international trade, we are all agreed that the public debt must be paid, the pen- sions of the nation's defenders and their widows and orphans sacredly guarded, and the current expenses of the Government duly provided for ; that the reve- nues necessary for these purposes must in a large part be derived from duties upon imports, and we affirm that in the adjustment of these duties in any revision of the tariff, care should be taken to relieve from taxa- tion, so far as practicable, the necessities of the poor, especially such as do not come into competition with American production, and at the same time to afford incidental protection to American producers, to the end that wages may be maintained at the American standard, and America control the American markets. 6. We believe that the time has come when the Eublic debt and rate of interest upon public securities ave been so far reduced that our national legislators should consider as an immediate duty the reduction of the burdens of taxation, and, as auxiliary thereto, a revision of the tariff. 7. We believe in a rational civil service which does not create of the official class a separate caste, nor take away from the citizen the inspiration of participation in the administration of the government, yet which requires that offices shall be regarded as trusts to be administered with intelligence, fidelity, and economy, and not as spoils to be distributed as personal per- quisites of political managers. 8. In the administration of the State and national Governments we demand efficiency, integrity, and economy ; that unfaithful officers be removed and punished : that the public faith and credit be main- tained and the people be provided with a circulating medium, safe, uniform, and constitutional ; that mo- nopolies dangerous to the liberties of the people and purity of the laws be disfavored, and that the purity of the ballot be sacredly protected. 9. It is the fundamental right of the people to alter from time to time the organic law of the State as new circumstances or growing evils may require, laying its foundations on such principles and organizing its pow- ers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. The evils of intem- perance have become so great that in the name ot pa- triotism the most efficient measures ought to be taken to reduce those evils to a minimum, and as members of no political party are wholly agreed as to whether this can be best done through prohibition or regula tion of the traffic in taxing liquors, and as the people are and ought to be the final arbitrators of this question, and as more than 100,000 among the moral and mtelJ gent people of the State have asked by petition th the question be put to the people by the submission to them of a prohibitory constitutional amendment, we declare that we believe that it would be wise and patriotic for the next Legislature to submit such an amendment to a direct vote of the people, and we de- mand that it be so submitted. 10 Republicans of Michigan demand a full legisla- tive investigation of the transportation question, will a view to securing such legislative enactments as will prevent unjust discriminations in rates by n fines operating in the State. A Prohibition State ticket was also put in the field, upon a platform demanding the sub- MICHIGAN. MINNESOTA. 557 mission to the electors of a constitutional amendment prohibiting the manufacture and sale of intoxicating liquors of whatever name. The election resulted as follows : FOR GOVERNOR. David H. Jerome, Republican 149,697 Josiah W. Begole, Union 154,268— 4,571 David P. Sagendorph, Prohibitionist 5,854 Waldo May, Greenbacker 2,006 FOR LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR. Moreau S. Crosby, Republican 157,615— 8,172 Eugene Pringle, Union 149,443 William G. Brown, Prohibitionist 4,440 FOR SECRETARY OF STATE. Harry A. Conant, Republican 157,609— 8,487 William Shakespeare, Union 149,122 Martin V. Rork, Prohibitionist 4,666 FOR STATE TREASURER. Edward H. Butler, Republican 158,348— 9,280 Lucien 8. Coman, Union 149,068 Emory L. Brewer, Prohibitionist 4,684 FOR AUDITOR-GENERAL. William C. 8tevens, Republican. . . . . 157,954— 8,617 James Blair, Union 149,337 John H. Osborn , Prohibitionist 4,404 FOR COMMISSIONER OF STATE LAND-OFFICE. Minor 8. Newell, Republican 158,424— 10,714 John F. Vandevanter, Union 147,710 Edward C. Newell, Prohibitionist 4,490 FOR ATTORNEY-GENERAL. Jacob J. Van Riper, Republican 157,269— 7,933 Timothy E. Tarsney, Union 149,836 John H. Tatem, Prohibitionist 4,243 FOR SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. Varnum B. Cochran, Republican 162,594— 14,084 David Parsons, Union 148,560 FOR MEMBER OF STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION. Bela W. Jenks, Republican 157,750— 9,252 Clark B. Hale, Union 148,493 Isaac W. McKee ver, Prohibitionist 4,352 The vote for the straight Greenback candi- dates, not named, varied from 1,005 to 2,141. In the above table (copied from the " Michigan Almanac") the " defective" votes are given to the candidates for whom they were intended, while " scattering " votes are omitted. The vote polled was not a full one, falling about 40,000 short of the vote on presidential electors in 1880. In the congressional districts the vote was as follows : FIRST DISTRICT. William C. Maybury, Democrat 16,147— 4,939 Henry W. Lord, Republican 11.208 William G. Brownlee, Free-Trader 773 SECOND DISTRICT. Nathaniel B. Eldredge, Democrat 15,251— 542 John K. Boies, Republican 14,709 Albert J. Baker, Green backer 1 ,265 Albert F. Dewey, Prohibitionist 360 THIRD DISTRICT. Henry C. Hod-e, Union ... . . 16,239 Edward 8. Lacey. Republican 18,023— 1,784 George Landon, Prohibitionist 268 FOURTH DISTRICT. George Taple, Union 16,328— 255 Julius C. Burrows, Republican 16,073 FIFTH DISTRICT. Julius Houseman, Union. ... . . 16,725— 116 William O. Webster, Republican. ... . . 16,609 William H. Taylor, Greenbacker 429 SIXTH DISTRICT. Edwin B. Winans, Union 18,516— 82 Oliver L. Spaulding, Republican 18,484 Brewer, Prohibitionist 148 SEVENTH DISTRICT. Ezra C. Carleton, Union 11,540— 289 John T. Rich, Republican 11,251 EIGHTH DISTRICT. Charles J. Willetts, Union 13,918 Roswell G. Horr, Republican 14,872— 954 Benjamin Colvin, Greenbacker 538 NINTH DISTRICT. Stephen Bronson, Union 10,897 Byron M. Cutcheon, Republican 13,129— 2,232 TENTH DISTRICT. Andrew C. Maxwell, Democrat. Herschell H. Hotch, Republican 11,298— 8,489 Jesse Miller, Greenbacker 2,441 ELEVENTH DISTRICT. Peter White, Democrat 4,840 Edward 8. Breitung, Republican 11,298— 6,558 John Russell, Prohibitionist 881 In the Forty-seventh Congress the delega- tion was solidly Republican. In the Forty- eighth Congress it will be divided : Democrats or Union, 6 ; Republicans, 5. The members of the Legislature elected are classified : PARTIES. Senate. House. Republicans 19 62 13 87 Workingman 1 Republican majority on joint ballot, 30. Republican majority in the Legislature of 1881, 100. Two constitutional amendments were voted upon : 1. Increasing the salaries of circuit judges from $1,500 a year to $2,500. This was adopted by a vote of: Yes, 85,765; No, 55,641. 2. Providing for a Board of County Auditors in each county, conditioned on the order of the Board of Supervisors (now the Auditing Board) of any given county. Re- jected by a vote of: Yes, 23,892; No, 38,065. The question of a general revision of the Constitution, which the Legislature is required to submit to the electors every sixteen years, was negatived by the following vote: For a revision, 20,937; against a revision, 35,123. The present Constitution was adopted in 1850. In 1866 a revision was voted for and carried. The convention which followed submitted a Constitution differing in many important fea- tures, but their work was rejected by the electors. The Legislature of 1873 provided for a commission to revise the organic law, and an extra session held in 1874 amended the commission's revision, and in November, 1874, it was defeated by the electors. The meager vote polled on the question at the last election, as given above, indicates that the mass of the electors care very little whether the Constitution of the State is revised or its outgrown features are perpetuated. MINNESOTA. STATE OFFICERS.— The Gov- ernor of the State is Lucius F. Hubbard, elected in 1881 ; Lieutenant Governor, Charles A. Gilman ; Auditor, W. W. Bradin ; Secre- 558 MINNESOTA. tary of State, F. von Bombach; Treasurer, Charles Kittelson; Attorney-General, W. J. Hahn ; Railroad Commissioner, James H. Ba- ker. The term of the present Executive ex- pires in 1885. The November elections of 1882 gave the Republicans a large majority in the Legislature. In the Senate there are 34 Re- publicans, 10 Democrats, and 3 Independent members; in the House, 76 Republicans, 28 Democrats, 2 Independents, and one Farmer's Alliance nominee — giving the Republicans a majority of 64 on joint ballot, and securing the return of a Republican Senator to Congress. FINANCES. — The actual receipts from taxes and other sources of ordinary revenue, for the biennial period 1881-'82, exceeded the esti- mates by $346,000, but the actual expenditures were $764,000 in excess of the estimated amount. The revenue fund was overdrawn nearly up to the legal limit of $150,000, because the Legislature, while making appropriations in excess of the usual amounts for ordinary pur- poses, and to meet various extraordinary re- quirements, had failed to increase the tax levy so as to provide sufficient revenue. The ad- vances of $142,810 were mostly taken from the trust funds of the State. The extraordinary expenditures were on account of the extra session of 1881, the Cox impeachment trial, the new Capitol, interest on the railroad read- justment bonds, etc. The Capitol-building, which was first to have been restored after the fire of March 1, 1881, at a cost of $75,000, and then rebuilt at an additional cost of $100,000, has finally been replaced, on the responsibility of the Governor, by a fire-proof structure at an outlay of about $300,000. The ordinary receipts for the two years were as follow : RECEIPTS. 1881. 1882. State tax $411,518 $311,205 liailroad and telegraph taxes 330,625 470,556 70717 107 719 Balance in Treasury November 30 1880. 138 927 Surplus 10,634 115745 Total $951 778 $1 015 861 The disbursements for the State government and maintenance of the State institutions were as follow : DISBURSEMENTS. 1881. 1888. Legislature, regular session Legislature, extra session $73,206 46,132 $28 885 Executive .... . . ... 63,545 59980 Judicial 69,796 79,502 Printing 83689 83208 Miscellaneous and overdrafts Support of institutions 143,000 300 465 70,095 812 413 Interest on State bonds 19,485 11,706 Interest on railroad readjustment bonds Buildings 174 6i7 88,086 831983 Total. $924 952 $1 015 861 is expected to be made good by a surplus of $167,500 in 1884. The sources of revenue are expanding at a very rapid rate with the settlement and agri- cultural development of the State. The taxable property of Minnesota increased from $258,- 055,543 in 1880, to $311,200,841. The taxation for all purposes, State and local, in 1881 and 1882 is shown in the following table : TAXATION. 1881. 1882. State tax $379 689 $741 686 56616 12 000 General school (1 mill) 270737 810116 Special school 1,190 086 1 381361 County revenue 875,640 1,000 465 99881 100 741 140 116 153 641 County special purposes ... 91 089 164102 City taxes 807,898 1 135 261 Township taxes 297,018 803,785 146 420 166266 Interest on town bonds. 72624 120 799 Special city and town 271,505 526 122 $4 698 771 $5 725 859 The estimated expenditures for 1883 overrun the estimated receipts $368,925, including the overdrafts already made, but part of the deficit The average rate of taxation for all purposes was 17'3 mills in 1881 and 18'4 mills in 1882. The total transactions of the State Treasury, including the sales of public lands and invest- ments for the trust funds, conversion of invest- ments, etc., reached $1,979,558 of receipts and $1,421,812 of disbursements in 1881, and $3,- 201,416 of receipts and $3,058,317 of disburse- ments in 1882. The allowance of 5 per cent on the sales of United States lands amounted to $3,115 in 1881, and rose to $49,561 in 1882 ; the sales of pine-timber on the State lands amounted to $26,638 in 1881, and $89,174 in 1882 ; principal paid on sales of school lands to $37,025 in 1881, and $20,718 in 1882 ; on for- mer sales to $134,774 in 1881, and $210,863 in 1882 ; interest on contracts of school lands to $171,587 in 1881, and $167,157 in 1882 ; in- terest on sales and contracts of internal im- provement lands to nearly $100,000 for the two years ; principal from sales of Agricultui College and University lands and interest on contracts, to about $70,000. The interest paid on the permanent school fund bonds, amount- ing to $103,698 in 1881, was $81,225 in 1882; $687,000 was realized from sales of United States bonds. A portion of the Missouri bonds held for the trust funds were also sold, and the main part of the trust fund investments con- verted into the new 4£ per cent railroad ad- justment bonds, of which $1,596,000 were taken for the several permanent funds : $204,000 of State bonds of 1873 and 1878 were redeemed. The expenses of the university in 1881 were $47,000; in 1882, $43,881 ; the apportionments of school funds in 1881 were $259,414 ; in 1882, $259,097. In accordance with the act of November 4, 1881, providing for the adjustment of certain alleged claims against the State, there were redeemed 2,232 Minnesota State railroad bonds of $1,000, and other claims settled to the amount of $53,088. For the settlement of the MINNESOTA. 559 recognized bonds and claims, $4,253,000 of new 4£ per cent bonds were issued. Tbe only other acknowledged indebtedness of the State is $25,000 bonds issued in 1873 for building purposes, which mature in 1883, and $61,000 issued in 1868 for seed-grain distribution, for which the State is to be reimbursed by the counties. The people at the last general elec- tion approved the proposition for the applica- tion of the internal improvement land fund to the payment of the principal and interest of the railroad adjustment bonds. This will leave only an insignificant portion of the debt as a burden on the taxable resources of the people, as the lands are now marketable, and when all disposed of will swell the fund to at least $3,000,000. EDUCATION. — There was an increase in the enrollment of the public schools of 22.638 in the two years, the total number enrolled at the end of 1882 being 196,238, as against 173,- 600 in 1880. There were 567 new school- buildings erected, at a cost of $759,022, making the total number 4,260, valued at $3,947,857. The expenditures on the public schools for the two years amounted to $3,844,866. The three normal schools, at "Winona, Mankato, and St. Cloud, had an aggregate enrollment of 939 scholars in 1881, and 1,028 in 1882. Their combined expenses were $45,859 in 1881, and $46,081 in 1882. The schools graduated 129 teachers in two years. Aid was extended in 1882 to 38 schools under the act to encourage higher education. New buildings for the uni- versity are to be erected, for which appropria- tions have been granted and the plans adopted. The experimental farm in connection with the Agricultural College has been sold, and more suitable land acquired. STATE INSTITUTIONS. — The State institutions of charity and correction were not calculated for the great additions to the population re- cently received, so that most of them require to be enlarged. The number of inmates in the State-Prison at the end of 1882 was 279, an in- crease of 29 in two years. The earnings were $26,277 in 1881, and $30,952 in 1882 ; the cur- rent expenses were $49,964 and $54,972. Ad- ditional walls are in construction, and increased cell-room is demanded. In the Reform School there were 123 inmates. The managers ask for the repeal of the law requiring the coun- ties to maintain the youth they send to the institution. The expenses in 1881 were $30,- 101 ; in 1882, $31,550. In the Institute for the Deaf, Dumb, and the Blind there are now sep- arate departments for the education of the mutes and the blind. The Imbecile School was removed to a new building in February, but its accommodations, as well as those of the school for the blind, are insufficient, there be- ing 59 applicants waiting admission, for whom there is no room in the imbecile, and 84 blind and 233 deaf-mute youth who have never re- ceived instruction. There were 125 pupils in the deaf and dumb, 34 in the blind, and 41 in the imbecile departments. The current ex- penses were $44,278 in 1881, and $49,807 in 1882. The burned portion of the Insane Hos- pital at St. Peter has been rebuilt, and the one at Rochester enlarged, but the 635 inmates of the former and 236 of the latter already tax their capacity. The weekly cost per capita in 1882 was $3.82 at St. Peter, and $4.13 at Roch- ester. TKADE AND INDUSTRY. — The capital stock of the banks is reported by the Public Examiner as $9,351,208 in 1882, and $7,990,850 in 1881 ; the surplus funds as $1,600,977 and $1,191,425 for the respective years; the deposits as $22,- 810,306 and $20,109,435 ; loans and discounts, $27,147,343 and $22,910,609. This is only a partial exhibit of the banking business, as there are 116 private banks, many of which would not furnish reports. The amount of insurance risks written in 1882 was $122,070,500, 250 per cent more than ten years before; the amount of premiums collected, $1,596,353 ; of losses paid, $914,950 — nearly three times as much as in 1872. The total number of immigrants who settled in the State during the two years is estimated by the Secretary of the Board of Immigration at over 100,000. The Surveyors-General of Logs and Lumber report 276,595,640 feet of logs scaled in 1882, and 260,045,720 in 1881 in the first district; and 312,211,780 feet in 1882, and 238,648,210 in 1881, in the second district. The quantity of lumber manufactured in 1882 is reported as 126,820,590 feet in the first, 423,009,250 feet in the second, and 239,000,000 feet as the esti- mated quantity in the fifth district. The agriculture of Minnesota is improving in character as well as extending. Sections which have hitherto been devoted exclusively to wheat now produce a variety of crops. The State is also making marked progress in stock-raising, to which attention has been given only in the most recent time. Fine breeds of stock have been imported in considerable numbers and bought in various parts of the State for breed- ing purposes. The wheat production has in- creased every year, owing to the settling up of new lands, but in the older districts the acre- age under wheat has diminished largely. Con- stant cropping and the chinch-bug have reduced the yield and made other crops more valuable. The rotative system of agriculture and stock- raising and dairying are important means for the preservation of the fertility of the soil, which are now introduced in earnest. The number of cattle in the State increased 100 per cent in 1882, of sheep 25 per cent, of hogs 40 per cent. The production of culti- vated hay nearly doubled, of butter more than doubled, of cheese quadrupled, of wool more than doubled, of corn more than doubled, and of oa^s, barley, rye, buckwheat, etc., largely increased. Flax has recently become a staple agricul- tural product of Minnesota. There were 505,- 560 MINNESOTA. MISSISSIPPI. 717 bushels of flax-seed produced in 1881, on 83,947 acres, an average of a little over six bushels per acre. The acreage planted in 1882 was 98,309 acres and the estimated production about seven bushels per acre. Flax is planted not merely for the value of the product ; it is usually sown as a first crop on newly broken ground, as it keeps out weeds and rots the sod, and is the only crop which can be raised the first year. When grown for the seed alone, it is not ordinarily profitable. The cultivation of flax for the fiber is still in the experimental stage. Besides the difficulty of securing a good fiber, it must be handled with great care. Most of the fiber grown in the Northwest is burned after thrashing. During 1882 there were constructed within the State 531 miles of new railroad, making the total mileage 3,749 miles. The total cost is returned as $149,312,631, or $43,934 per mile. The value of the subsidies in bonds and lands given to the companies by the State of Min- nesota is stated by the Kailroad Commissioner to be $76,489,790. The earnings of the lines within the States for the year ending June 30th were reported as $4,816,218 from passengers and $13,158,697 from freight; the total earn- ings as $18,805,193 ; the operating expenses as $10,221,783. There were 9,962,393 passengers carried and 5,883,120 tons of freight transport- ed during the year. The amount of taxes paid to the State by railroad companies was $470,- 593 in 1882, against $315,482 in 1880, $200,171 in 1878, and $145,794 in 1876 ; the aggregate amount of taxes collected from the companies since 1864 was $2,641,334. Two of the rail- road corporations have refused to pay taxes on a part of their incomes, setting up a claim of legal exemption. The war of rates between the lines of the Northwest, which arose from a dispute over "territorial rights" between the rival com- panies, called forth a cry of warning from Governor Hubbard. He reminded the com- panies that they were the creatures of the au- thority of the State; that it endowed them with valuable franchises and enormous subsi- dies, and afforded them that protection which gives to all property its greatest value; that their legitimate resources are derived from the patronage of the public, and that their proper and legal relation to the public can only be maintained by dispensing exact justice to ev- ery individual and locality. The Railroad Com- missioner has elaborated a project for the reg- ulation of rates by a Board of Control, based upon a classification of the roads according to income, and a maximum rate for each class. The question of regulating rates was decided in the negative by the Legislature in 1871, but the recent prosperity of the railroads has wrought some change in the public feeling. It is pro- posed to place telegraph companies on the same basis as railroads with respect to inspec- tion and taxation, and to require sleeping-car companies to pay a tax on their income. More effective legislation is demanded, to compel railroad companies to perform their duty as common carriers in the shipment of grain. The question of public grain inspection is, next to the prohibition question, the most im- portant and pressing subject that engages the attention of the Legislature in the second bi- ennial session. The farmers generally com- plain of frauds and abuses practiced upon them in the warehousing and grading of grain. They are placed so entirely in the power of the buy- ers, whosejudgment they must accept regarding the quality and value of their products, that the wrongs practiced upon them are exagger- ated in their eyes. They consequently de- mand that a system of official grading, and the regulation of elevators and warehouses, such as has been adopted in other States for the protection of dealers from each other, should be adopted in Minnesota, to protect the pro- ducers from the dealers. The exploration of large deposits of iron- ore in the Vermilion Lake region has been be- gun on a large scale. The ore is of extraordi- nary value, it being the specular hematite va- riety, which is best adapted for the production of Bessemer steel. Analyses show 65 to 70 per cent of iron, with only 0*053 to 0'078 per cent of phosphorus. MISSISSIPPI. STATE OFFICEKS.— Govern- or, Robert Lowry ; Lieutenant-Governor, G. D. Shands; Secretary of State, Henry C. Myers ; Treasurer, W. L. Hemingway ; Audi- tor, Sylvester Gwin; Attorney-General, T. C. Catchings ; Commissioner of Agriculture and Immigration, E. G. Wall ; Superintendent of Public Education, J. A. Smith. United States Senators, Hon. L. Q. C. Lamar and Hon. J. Z. George. Members-elect of the Forty-eighth Congress — H. S. Muldrow, First District; Van H. Manning (seat contested by J. R. Chalmers), Second District; E. Jeffords, Third District; H. D. Money, Fourth District ; O. R. Single- ton, Fifth District ; H. S. Van Eaton, Sixth District, and Ethel Barksdale, Seventh Dis- trict. FINANCES. — The revenues of the State for 1882 and 1883 are computed as follows: Taxation on real and personal property, on a total valuation of $115,150,120, at the rate of 2f mills, the rate now fixed by law, will pro- duce for two years $575, T50 (JO Cash in the Treasury 500,000 00 G«taeral tax on privileges 348,612 29 Collections of 1881 not reported 800,000 00 Probable revenue from Land-Office 40,000 00 Probable revenue through revenue agent 25,000 00 Derived from compromise with Mississippi and Tennessee Kailroad 65,000 01 Total $1,849,362 89 Expenditures for the same period : Salaries $105,75000 Appropriations 722,847 71 Immigration 25,500 00 Legislature 70,495 00 University of Mississippi 64,000 00 Common schools 600,000 00 Probable expenses not yet ascertained 100,000 0(1 Total expenditures $1,688,592 Tl Deducting this sum from the total revenue, MISSISSIPPI. 561 will leave a balance in the Treasury on Janu- ary 1, 1884, of $160,770.18. To the above computation of cash in the Treasury January, 1884, should be added the taxes on 1,000,000 acres of land sold by the State, which will henceforth be subject to tax- ation. It should also be noted that the sum necessary to pay bonds maturing in 1883, amounting to $100,000, is included in the item of " appropriations." The entire bonded debt of the State is $518,150, with funds in the Treasury to pay it off at par, but the holders refuse to sell them except at such a high pre- mium as the State officials are unwilling to pay. A recent statement by Governor Lowry to this effect, in answer to a question as to the bonded debt of Mississippi, has been widely and severely criticised. It is charged that his statement that the debt only amounts to $518,- 150, and could be canceled at once if the holders would sell their bonds at a reasonable premium, "is at variance with the facts as understood by others," alluding, doubtless, to the Planters' Bank and Union Bank bonds, payment of which is prohibited by an amend- ment to the Constitution, adopted and sub- mitted by a Republican Legislature, and sub- sequently ingrafted on the Constitution by a Democratic Legislature. The amendment is as follows : Nor shall the State assume, redeem, secure, or pay any indebtedness, or pretended indebtedness, claimed to be due by the State of Mississippi to any person, association, or corporation whatsoever, claiming the same as owners, holders, or assignees of any bond, or bonds, now generally known as Union Bank bonds, or Planters' Bank bonds. The Governor was asked for information as to the recognized debt of the State, and, an- swering in his official capacity, could not be fairly expected to include a claim which is expressly barred by the Constitution he has sworn to support, however opinions may differ as to the propriety of the amendment, which places the Planters' Bank bonds on the same footing as the Union Bank bonds. The rate of taxation, low as it is, compared with that of other States, might be much re- duced were the assessments of property for tax- ation equal and uniform throughout the State, as the Constitution and the law require. But when assessors are lax or derelict in their duty, and tax-payers undervalue the property, the honest tax-payer has good reason to complain of the undue burden imposed upon him. The State holds for sale at $6 per acre, about 34,000 acres of what are known as the Chickasaw School lands ; and 22,000 acres of internal im- provement lands at fifty cents per acre. With- in the past two years 1,300,000 acres of levee, swamp, and overflowed lands have been sold to parties mostly outside of the State, by the Board of Levee Commissioners, under a decree of the Court of Chancery. The proceeds of these sales, as they become available, will add VOL. xxii. — 36 A considerably to the public revenues. The Auditor of Public Accounts has on his books upward of 1,000,000 acres of land forfeited for non-payment of taxes which are offered for sale at a very low price. The United States holds for sale or for homestead about 3,500,- 000 acres in the State, situated mostly in the long - leaf pine - region, extending from the Vicksburg and Meridian Railroad to the Gulf of Mexico. These lands are heavily timbered, and might be converted into admirable sheep- walks. The Government price is only $1.25 per acre. The estimated number of feet (board measure) of pine-timber now standing in the State reaches, within a small fraction, 25,000,- 000,000. EDUCATION. — The cause of public education has been promoted by wise and liberal legisla- tion, and the prospect is more promising than it has ever been. The distributive common- school fund has been increased from $200,000 to $300,000, and the limit upon levying taxes for school purposes which hitherto existed — "not to exceed three mills" — has been re- moved, so that the county supervisors of edu- cation may now in their discretion levy a greater tax, which, with other taxes, shall not exceed the aggregate fixed by law. In coun- ties where a sufficient number of educable In- dians are found to reside, schools for their ex- clusive use are authorized to be kept open for the same time as the other public schools. Until January 1, 1886, the basis of distribution of the common-school funds of the State shall be forty per cent of the total population of each county, as shown by the report of the State census of 1880. Several thousand dollars in the Treasury to the credit of the two and three per cent funds are to be applied to com- mon-school purposes, to be used by supervisors in the construction of good houses where needed, and in the repair of those already built. Liberal appropriations were made to the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Starkville, for the erection of new buildings, purchase of land, stock, implements and appa- ratus, also to the University of Mississippi at Oxford, and to the educational institutions of the colored people — the Alcorn University, the Normal School at Holly Springs, and the Tou- galoo University. The representatives of the State in the Federal Congress were requested and instructed by the Legislature to present a memorial to Congress asking aid in maintain- ing and improving the free-school system, as the danger and obligation connected with illit- eracy are not merely local in their character. Among the other judicious acts of the Legisla- ture in reference to education, that prohibiting the sale or giving away of intoxicating liquors within five miles 'of the University of Missis- sippi deserves special mention. In addition to the 5,200 common schools in the State, where upward of 425,000 children, white and black, are regularly taught, there are 969 private schools, and for the higher education of both 562 MISSISSIPPI. races there are the following institutions, most of which are, in whole or in large part, supported by the State : 1. The University of Mississippi at Oxford, in Lafayette County, for white students exclusively. Here tuition is free, except in the law school. The average annual attendance is 250. The State has ap- propriated $64,000 for the support of the uni- versity, repairs, etc., for the years 1882 and 1883. The board of trustees, at their meeting in June, took a new departure and threw open the doors of the university to females, in con- cession to the public demand for enlarged edu- cational opportunities for the women of the State. Two restrictions are placed on their admission, namely : first, that they shall not be allowed to board in the campus, except in the families of the professors; and, second, that they may not enter the preparatory depart- ment. 2. The Agricultural and Mechanical College at Starkville, Oktibbeha County, is also exclu- sively for whites. Here also tuition is free, and many of the students are enabled to pay the greater part of their expenses for board by their earnings on the farm connected with the college, where they are daily instructed in the practical details of agriculture, horticulture, and stock-raising. There were 250 students in attendance during the year. 3. The Alcorn University, at Oakland, Clai- borne County, is exclusively for colored stu- dents. Tuition is free, and the expenses of the college are almost entirely defrayed by the State. The average attendance is a little over 100 students. 4. The Tougaloo College, at Tougaloo, Hinds County, is exclusively for colored students of both sexes. It was established by some benev- olent individuals at the North, and receives annually $3,000 from the State. Tuition is free, and the average attendance is about 125. 5. The State Normal School at Holly Springs, Marshall County, is devoted altogether to the education and training of colored teachers to serve in the common schools. The State sus- tains it by an annual appropriation of $3,000. Nine tenths of the taxes levied for the support of the free schools and the endowed colleges are paid by the white tax-payers, and the liber- ality of the last Legislature in its appropriations for educational purposes shows that the taxa- tion is cheerfully borne, and the benefits of dif- fused education are duly appreciated. STATE BENEVOLENT INSTITUTIONS. — The Lu- natic Asylum, near Jackson, is well managed, but has been found quite inadequate to accom- modate the number of the insane for whom ad- mission is sought. At the beginning of the year there were 416 patients in the asylum, or 75 more than it can accommodate comfortably. Besides these, it was estimated that there were 75 insane people in the county jails, and 150 at their homes, where they can not be treated with any reasonable expectation of improving their condition. The death-rate has been un- usually large among the patients, owing in great measure to the crowded state of the in- stitution. The Legislature has employed the only remedy for this by authorizing the build- ing of another asylum in the eastern part of the State, capable of accommodating 300 patients. THE INSTITUTION FOE THE EDUCATION or THE BLIND, at Jackson, since the erection of the new building authorized by the Legislature, gives instruction in literature and music, as well as in domestic economy, and certain useful handicrafts, to between 75 and 100 blind chil- dren. The present buildings are well arranged, furnished, drained, and heated, and the com- fort of the inmates well provided for. THE STATE DEAF AND DUMB INSTITUTION, also at Jackson, is under capable management, but has been inadequate for the number of appli- cants for admission. The pupils are instructed by signs, the manual alphabet, and writing, and the superintendent proposes, when practicable, to teach the male pupils useful trades, such as printing, carpentering, and shoemaking. The Legislature has made provision for the erection of suitable buildings for the colored mutes, which will render the present institution capa- ble of fulfilling the objects for which it was tablished. RAILROADS. — Several railroad enterpris have been completed, or are in process of coi struction, within the State, which will be incalculable benefit in advancing the materh prosperity of the people, besides expending the State between fifteen and twenty millh dollars in the next two years. The Erli Syndicate, who bought the old Southern Ro* running east and west across the middle the State, and are relaying it with new ste rails, are also building a road from Meridian New Orleans, running 160 miles diagonal across the southern portion of the State, op< ing up the great pine-lands of that secti( The road from Natchez to Jackson has completed. The directors of the Chicago, Louis, and New Orleans Railroad have d< mined to build a road from Jackson to City, and have already begun the work, most important enterprise is that of Mr. R. ^ Wilson, of New York, who is building a rail road from New Orleans to Memphis, running parallel with the Mississippi River, and for up- ward of a hundred miles traversing the most fertile lands on the continent, besides opening up vast forests of cypress, oak, poplar, and walnut timber. The old Memphis and Selina Railroad has been revived and placed under contract, which will traverse diagonally the northern part of the State from northwest to southeast. The old roads have been much im- proved, and the rates of freight and travel re- duced. A bill to create a Board of Railroad Commissioners, similar to that existing in Geor- gia, "to provide for the regulation of railroad companies and persons operating railroads in the State of Mississippi,'' passed in the House of Representatives by a large majority, but MISSISSIPPI. 563 failed to pass the Senate. A general law was passed this year exempting from taxation for ten years all railroads constructed hereafter within the State. LEGISLATURE. — The biennial session of the Legislature, having lasted for fifty-seven work- ing days, adjourned March 9th. A large num- ber of bills were passed, among which were several prohibiting the sale of vinous and spirituous liquors at certain localities. An excellent bill for the encouragement of immi- gration was adopted. Liberal provision was made for the support of the educational and benevolent institutions of the State. Charters were granted to a number of new railroad companies. A new congressional apportion- ment bill was passed, which provides for an additional (the seventh) district, as follows : First District : Tishomingo, Alcorn, Prentiss, Ita- wamba, Lee, Oktibbeha, Lowndes, and Monroe. Second District : Tippah, Union, Benton, Marshall, Lafayette, De Soto, Tate. Panola, and Tallahatchie. Third District : Clay, Chickasaw, Yalobusha, Pon- totoc, Grenada, Carroll, Montgomery, Calhoun, Web- ster, Choctaw, Winston, Noxubee, and Kemper. Fourth District : Tunica, Quitman, Sunflower, Co- ahoma, Bolivar, Washington, Issaquena, Sharkey, Warren, and Leflore. Fifth District : Holmes, Yazoo, Leake, Attala, Ne- shoba, Scott. Newton, Lauderdale, Smith, Jasper, Clarke, and Wayne. Sixth District : Hinds, Eankin, Copiah, Franklin, Lincoln, Madison, Claiborne, Jefferson, and Simpson. Seventh District : Jackson, Harrison, Perry, Greene, Hancock, Marion, Pike, Amite, Covington, Adams, and Wilkinson. A proposition was made and strongly sup- ported to establish and endow a State Female College, for the higher education of females, but it was not adopted. An amendment to the Constitution proposed by the House of Kepresentatives, for the election of judges by the Legislature, was defeated in the Senate. Governor Lowry's inaugural address to the joint convention of the State Legislature, in January, contained many sentences worthy of consideration by Southern agriculturists. With reference to the general neglect of diversified farming, he says : " In a material point of view our almost exclusive devotion to the produc- tion of a single article of industry is our bane. We buy too much and sell too little. Our corn-cribs and smoke-houses are too far from home. Our income is princely, our expendi- tures are utterly exhausting. Legislation may do something to remove these barriers to our progress, but individual enterprise and exer- tion must do much more." As to the practical duties of government, and the proper limits of legislation, he says : u When life, liberty, and property are secure, when the public morals are protected, an efficient system of public education established, and the public health, convenience, and safety well guarded, and all at the smallest practical cost, there is but little omitted from the fundamental obligations of government. Under these conditions, indi- vidual action, diversity of interest, and, above all, the production of the necessaries of life at home, ought to cause the springs of prosperity to flow, and insure contentment, progress, and independence. . . . Whoever, either in a pub- lic or private capacity, contributes to diversify the industries of Mississippi, and to relieve her from dependence on other States and countries, is a benefactor to the State. The president or managers of a successful factory among ns ought to be more highly appreciated and hon- ored by us than any public functionary in the land. ... A people who have proved them- selves to be equal and superior to the exigen- cies of peace and war, such as those under which other States and nations have perished, can not be incapable of improving and appro- priating the advantages and opportunities we enjoy." These remarks are very pertinent when it is remembered that Mississippi, of the Southern States, is almost, if not quite, the largest producer of cotton ; that she has only nine cotton-mills, with 704 looms and 26,172 spindles, whose annual production exceeds by nearly half a million of dollars the capital in- vested, and that she clips only 734,000 pounds of wool, when she might easily grow ten times that quantity and manufacture it into cloth. INDUSTRIAL. — There are several cotton and woolen factories in the State, some of which are very prosperous and some reasonably so. The largest and most productive of these is the Mississippi Mills, at Wesson, Copiah County, 138 miles from New Orleans, on the Chicago, St. Louis, and New Orleans Railroad ; of the others, the Natchez Cotton-Mills, and the Ro- salie Cotton- Yarn Mills, at Natchez; the Stonewall Manufacturing Company, at Enter- prise; the Wanita Cotton and Wool Mills, seven miles northwest of Enterprise ; Ulman's Woolen Mill, at Ulmanville, in Hancock Coun- ty; the Yocona Cotton- Yarn Mills, at Water Valley; the Strawberry Cotton - Mills, near Carrollton (now owned by General John B. Gordon, of Georgia) ; the Canton Cotton-Fac- tory ; and the two cotton-factories at Corinth, are the most successful and prosperous enter- prises. The Legislature, at its late session, in order to encourage manufactures in the State, passed a law exempting " all factories hereafter erected " from taxation for ten years. Fruit- culture, grape-growing, and wine-making are among the " infant industries " to which a portion of the people are giving attention. The culture of jute promises to become a lead- ing industry. Jersey cattle are being intro- duced on the upland farms in many portions of the State, and large sums are paid, with the general object of improving the quality of the cattle, and with the purpose, in some cases, of establishing dairy-farms. Colonel Thomas W. White, of Hernando, De Soto County, has the largest herd for dairy purposes in Northern Mississippi. Large and valuable deposits of gypsum have been discovered near Shubuta, Clarke County. THE CONGRESSIONAL ELECTIONS for members 564 MISSOURI. to serve in the Forty-eighth Congress passed off peaceably. A troublesome dispute has arisen in regard to the election in the Second District, in which Hon. Van H. Manning, Democrat, and General Chalmers, Independ- ent, were the opposing candidates. On count- ing the votes in the office of the Secretary of State, it appeared that in Tate County 1,472 ballots were cast for J. R. Chalmers, and 1,166 for Van H. Manning. These facts were certi- fied by the three Commissioners of Election for Tate County, but the tally-sheet accompanying the certificate read as follows: " For Congress, Van H. Manning, 1,166 ; for J. R. Chambless, 1,472." On this showing the Secretary of State felt compelled to issue the certificate of election to Mr. Manning, though there is no doubt that General Chalmers received a large majority of the votes cast. The question is, whether the return of the Commissioners of Election, stating that J. R. Chalmers received 1,472 votes, or the tally-sheet showing that J. R. Chambless received 1,472 votes, should properly govern the decision of the Secretary of State. Public opinion is pronounced in favor of Chalmers, although that gentleman has become exceedingly obnoxious to a major- ity of the people of the State, and Mr. Man- ning is universally respected and esteemed. Hon. L. Q. C. Lamar was re-elected to the United States Senate by a large majority of both Houses of the Legislature. MISSOURI. STATE OFFICERS.— The Gov- ernor of the State was Thomas T. Crittenden, elected in November, 1880 ; Lieutenant-Gov- ernor, Robert A. Campbell ; Secretary of State, M. K. McGrath; State Auditor, John Walker; Attorney-General, Daniel H. Mclntyre ; State Treasurer, Philip E. Chappel; Supreme Court Judge, Robert D. Day; Railroad Commissioner, George C. Pratt ; Register of Lands, Robert McCulloch. FINANCES. — The finances of the State are in a very satisfactory condition. The obligations of the State are promptly met, and every legal demand made upon the Treasurer is paid as soon as presented. During the present admin- istration not a warrant of the State has been discounted because of non-payment ; nor is there a warrant outstanding. Heretofore war- rants have been issued and sent to the various civil officers and other claimants throughout the State, and, before the warrants were or could be cashed, they were discounted by some person or bank in the locality to which they were sent. Now the warrants are sent by the Auditor to the Treasurer, who issues a draft therefor upon the Bank of Commerce of St. Louis, upon which the money is received with- out delay or discount. The whole indebtedness of the State on January 1, 1883, was $13,979,- 000. Of this amount $3,031,000 is in the form of certificates of indebtedness to the school and seminary funds, which will be due in 1911. This part is an amount which the people owe to themselves. The debt will probably never be canceled, as the interest on it goes to the common schools and the State University. It is but a medium of collecting a tax for the sup- port of education. The debt proper, therefore, of the State amounts to $10,948,000, and bears 6 per cent interest. The assessment of prop- erty for taxation for 1882 was $649,267,242. It will be observed, therefore, that the interest charge on the people is really only about one mill — one tenth of one per cent. The last of this debt will fall due in 1895. With the certain increase of property and the constant decrease of the interest charge, the debt will be extin- guished at the period named — twelve years from now. The constitutional provision on this subject irrevocably fixes the interest and sinking fund as follows : There shall be levied and collected an annual tax of one fifth of one per centum (twenty cents on the hundred dollars) on all real estate and other property and effects subject to taxation, the proceeds of which shall be applied to the payment of the interest on the bonded debt of this State as it matures, and the sur- plus, if any, shall be paid into the sinking fund, and thereafter applied to the payment of such indebtedness and to no other purpose. During the two years of the administration of Governor Crittenden, the public debt has been reduced $712,000 ; of which $252,000 was paid in 1881, and $460,000 in 1882. This sum shows the amount of bonds taken up and re- tired since January 10, 1881, with the surplus revenue, proper, of the State, and does not in- clude the $250,000 renewal revenue bonds — also paid in 1881 — issued under act of May 9, 1879, making a total reduction of $962,000 of the liabilities of the State. If other bonds could have been called during this year, or purchased at a reasonable premium, there is now sufficient surplus revenue on hand to retire $300,000 more of the State's indebtedness. At no previous period has the State's indebtedness been so rapidly diminished, or the State grown so rapidly, in those elements which give a State a character at home and abroad, as with- in the last two years. LOCAL INDEBTEDNESS. — The bonded indel edness of the counties, as shown by the report made by the Auditor under date of January 1st, is $10,840,082, and that of the townships $2,649,331— total, $13,489,414. The interest on much the larger proportion of this is promptly paid and a sinking fund provided for the liqui- dation of the principal. No more county or township debts are created. It is, therefore, safe to say that when the State debt shall be extinguished, in 1895, there will be lit- tle of the county and township indebtedness left. The bonded indebtedness of cities and incor- porated towns in Missouri, omitting St. Louis, is small. The amount is set down at $3,938,- 970. Of this amount Kansas City and St. Joseph owe about one half. So that, outside of St. Louis, St. Joseph, and Kansas City, the cities and towns of the State owe only about $2,000,000. The debt of St. Louis is nearly MISSOURI. 565 equal to that of the State— omitting the certifi- cates to the school and seminary funds — the counties and the towns combined. But all these debts are reduced. They represent a vast amount of public property, of which the people have the benefits. In many instances the amounts contracted were vainly large, and the mode of expending them profligate and dis- honest. But the proposed objects were desir- able, and the fruits in a majority of the cases have proved of great benefit. Four fifths, per- haps, of the counties and towns have court- houses, bridges, poor-farms, and railroads, whose construction was hastened or was wholly due to these debts, which they would not now part with for much larger amounts than they have become responsible for in getting them. The debt of St. Louis stands for improvements and property which go far toward reconciling the tax-payers to the burden. Among the things the city has to show for its bonded in- debtedness are hospitals, water-works, harbor improvements, sewers, insane asylums, market- places, jails, court-houses, the great bridge over the Mississippi, parks, and squares, pos- sessing a value which will be readily perceived by even the most unreflecting. But the leading consideration in connection with the subject of all these debts is, that, ex- cepting that of St. Louis, they are being fast liquidated, and that a vast amount of capital will in the next few years thus be forced into active channels. Taxation will grow light, and the people will be left free to employ their in- creased resources in all the improved avenues of production. STATE CLAIMS. — The claims of the State con- sist of two kinds : First, war claims, or claims arising out of the furnishing of troops and sup- plies to the United States Government during the late civil war ; and, second, claims arising un- der the enabling act of Congress and the ordi- nance of acceptance by the State, under which the State was admitted into the Union. This compact guaranteed to the State, in considera- tion of certain conditions by it accepted, 5 per cent of the net proceeds arising from the sale of all public lands in the State of Missouri after admission, etc. The amount due the State on account of all sales made for cash has been paid ; but as a large proportion of the public domain in the State has been located with the military land warrants of the Government, issued in payment of services rendered by her soldiers in various wars, such locations should be regarded as sales for cash, and the State is entitled to 5 per cent thereon. These loca- tions cover about eight million acres, and the five per cent of the proceeds of such sales — estimating the laud at the price of $1.25 per acre — amounts to $426,000. The war claims are of two classes: First, those belonging to the State ; and, second, those belonging to individuals, which the State is at- tempting to collect. By an act of Congress of July, 1861, the United States Government promised to reim- burse the different States for amounts expend- ed by them, respectively, in the organization equipment, and maintenance of troops while acting under competent military authority and in concert with the Federal troops. Under that law, a settlement between the State and the General Government was effected in 1866, by which the State received the amount then shown to have been expended by it up to that date ; and it was on account of similar dis- bursements, subsequently made by the State, that a claim was preferred for the amount not reimbursed by the Government. The other class of claims, or those belong- ing to individuals, are those which were, by authority of an act of the Legislature, ap- proved March 19, 1874, audited by a commis- sion created by said act, and on account of which audit and allowance conditional certifi- cates of State indebtedness were issued. These claims have been presented to the Government for payment ; but, so far, have been refused consideration upon the ground that, even if they are just, the present laws of Congress only authorize their examination for settle- ment after they shall have been paid by the State, and that the issuance of conditional cer- tificates of State indebtedness is not payment, as contemplated by the law. TAXABLE PROPERTY. — The total taxable wealth in Missouri, exclusive of railroads, tele- graphs, and bridges, returned for 1882, is $615,- 000,000, and of this amount $190,145,000 is returned from St. Louis city. The total amount of State taxes assessed for 1882 was $2,462,- 000, and of this $760,000 was assessed against St. Louis city. It will be seen that nearly one third the taxable property of the State is in St. Louis, and that it pays nearly one third the whole State revenue derived from property tax. The collections from merchants and man- ufacturers' tax-books in 1881 were $179,000, of which sum $106,000 was collected from St. Louis, and the ad valorem taxes and licenses collected in 1880 were $200,000, of which St. Louis paid $108,000. The whole amount of revenue paid into the State Treasury from the general property tax, merchants' and manu- facturers' taxes, and licenses, was, therefore, $2,841,000 ; and of this St. Louis paid $974,- 000, or more than one third. Next to St. Louis in the amount of general property taxes paid comes Jackson County, with $135,000; then St. Louis County, $72,000; next Buchanan, $53,000; next Saline, $36,400; next Noda- way, $26,000 ; next Lafayette, $32,000. The counties paying the smallest amounts are Ozark, $644; Carter, $877; and Taney, $885. The coun- ties that show the largest landed property, not including town lots, are St. Louis, $15,854,000 ; St. Louis city, $11,358,000; Jackson, $8,122,- 000; Nodaway, $5,244,000; Saline, $5,157,- 000; Lafayette, $4,884,000; Bates, $4,240,- 000. The counties showing the smallest amount of landed property are Ozark, $131,000; Ta- 566 MISSOURI. ney, $193,000; Douglas, $275,000; Stone, $286,000; Carter, $336,000. STATE SCHOOL FUNDS. Total amount of permanent productive funds in the several counties (county, township, etc.) and in the city of St. Louis $6,124,083 84 Add State fund (proper) 2,912,517 66 Add Seminary fund 122,095 08 Add Agricultural-College fund (sale of lands). . . 213,000 00 Total $9,871,69658 Add University fund (bonds not heretofore re- ported) 200,000 00 Total $9,571,696 58 Comparing these figures with those given in the last published report of the School De- partment (1880), there is an increase in the county funds : Actual increase, or part not heretofore reported by county clerks in two years, of $205,165 87 In the State fund of 2,275 00 And the University funds of. 813,000 00 Total increase $520,890 87 The report of 1880 showed that Missouri was the second State in the Union in the amount of permanent funds set apart for pub- lic education — Indiana surpassing her $114,- 449.02. But as Indiana has no county or township funds, and no fixed or certain pro- visions for the increase of her State fund, Mis- souri has advanced beyond her, and now has considerably the largest amount of funds de- voted to public education of any State in the Union. Nor does the amount above given represent all of the school funds. The fines, forfeitures, and penalties realized during the year belong to the county school funds. SCHOOL CENSUS OP 1882. Total enumeration 741,632 Total enrollment ; 488,091 Per cent of enrollment to enumeration • 6581 This is an increase (in two years) of enumeration of. 18,148 And an increase (in two years) of enrollment of. 5,105 Considering the facts that the school age is between six and twenty years (covered by the enumeration) ; that very few attend school af- ter the eighteenth year, and very many not after the sixteenth year; that the enrollment does not include those attending private, de- nominational, or parochial schools of other States ; while the enumeration includes all of these, the per cent of enrollment or attendance is scarcely surpassed by that of any other State. SCHOOL STATISTICS. Expenditures for the last school year $3,468,737 67 Which is a per capita, on enumeration, of. Which is a per capita, on attendance, of 7 • 106 It must be borne in mind that five large, wealthy, and populous counties make no report of expenditures (on account of township or- ganization), while they do report school popu- lation and receipts. The five doubtless ex- pended $150,000 for schools. School-houses owned 8,272 Increase over 1880 28 Schools in operation (white), 8,321 ; (colored), 501— total 8,822 Increase (white), 172; (colored), 9— total in- crease 181 Teachers1 wages paid $2,226,609 58 Increase over 1880 8,972 22 Number of teachers employed 10,607 Decrease since 1880 1,052 Average salaries paid teachers per year $209 91 It is impossible to tell the average number of months schools have been taught, owing to the defective reports made to the superintend- ent's office ; but, assuming that average to be five months, the average monthly salary of teachers would be $41.98. The estimated value of school property in the State, exclusive of the university, four nor- mal schools, and the schools for the Blind and Deaf and Dumb, is $7,521,695.08. An increase since 1880 of. $168,293 86 The estimated seating capacity of the schools is . . 51 6.942 An increase of 27,807 The total amount of taxes levied by the school districts (DeKalb and Macon not in- cluded) is $2,286,191.66, which is $0.41 on the $100 of assessed valuation of taxable property for State and county purposes. RAILEOADS. — In his message to the Legisla- ture, at the session in January, 1883, Governor Crittenden made these remarks relative to the railroads in the State : Section 17 of Article XII of the Constitution for- bids the consolidation of parallel or competing lines of railroads within this State. This section was not inserted in the Constitution for the purpose of array- ing the police power of the State against the roads, but to prevent their franchises and privileges from being used against the interests of the people, and converted into powers to oppress those who invoked them into existence. I do not know that such con- solidations as are prohibited by the Constitution have taken place. It is worthy of the consideration of the proper tribunal, and should receive judicial investi- gation. The Constitution declares that the question shall be decided by a jury upon proper issues made in the courts. The liberties of no people are safe wl suffer their laws or organic acts to be violated by any individual or combination of individuals. If one or more corporations have disregarded this section of the law, they should be dealt with in the manner pre- scribed by the law. Those immense powers should yield implicit obedience to the law like individuals, receiving its benefits and protection when in submis- sion to its requirements, and its punishments am1 penalties when they defy its powers. There shou1' be the most amicable feelings between these corpoi tions and the State, each being essential to the pros- perity of the other. THE INSANE. — There are 500 patients in the asylum at Fulton, 250 in the one at St. Joseph, and 400 in the one at St. Louis. But this aggregate of 1,150 does not represent one half the number of insane in the State. Ac- cording to the report of the special committee appointed to visit the institutions there are 2,300 insane persons in the State outside the asylums. Of this number about one fourth are in county poor-houses and jails, and the other three fourths at their homes. More than one half the whole number of insane persons in the State, therefore, are without the treat- ment that would ameliorate their unhappy con- dition, if it did not restore them to reason and usefulness. The number is constantly increas- ing with the increase in the State's population. All the asylums are crowded as they should MISSOURI. 567 not be, and the committee point out the urgent necessity for erecting new asylums, or enlarg- ing the existing ones. In all the institutions there is a sitting-room for each hall. All these sitting-rooms are now provided with cots. It was originally intended that each patient should have a small, separate room ; but the pressure upon the asylums has caused this to be aban- doned, and in some of the buildings as many as eight patients are now quartered in one room, and the halls are provided with cots, in which patients sleep at night, but which have to be removed in the day. The cost to the State of the 1,150 patients in the asylums is about fifty cents a day each. The State has been rid of a notorious band of robbers by the efficiency of Governor Crit- tenden. He alludes to the subject in his mes- sage to the State Legislature, and says : I paid $20,000 in rewards to various persons for the capture and overthrow of this band of desperadoes, not one dollar of which was taken from the State Treasury. It is not probable that Missouri will again be cursed and disgraced by the presence of such a band of men, confederated together for desperate pur- poses. It is fully redeemed and acquit of that unwar- ranted appellation of " robber State." But an insig- nificant number of people in two or three counties gave countenance to such lawlessness. Our people, with one accord, heartily approve of the measures and means employed to compel these violators of the law to confess its power and majesty, and applaud the stern, unbending determination of the officers who contributed so much to the fulfillment of that purpose. It is done ; and Missouri is to-day one of the most peaceful States in the Union. Fewer crimes are com- mitted within her borders than in those of surround- ing States. Since my inauguration, three other lawless bands were formed and operated in different portions of the State. The " Meyers gang," composed of six men, was organized in New Madrid County for the purposes of robbery and murder. Within a few weeks after its formation two of its members were shot to death while resisting arrest, two were captured, tried under the law and executed, and the other two were sent to the Penitentiary for their crimes. A band known as the "Mason gang" was organ- ized in Adair County, for the purpose of robbing banks and committing other crimes. It consisted of four men, under the leadership of Frank Mason. In the month of June, 1882, they robbed a bank at Brookfield, Mo. Within one week from the date of the robbery these men were captured, indicted, tried, and sentenced to twenty-five years' imprisonment each in the Penitentiary. The Lewis brothers formed a band in Jasper County for similar purposes. With- in a few weeks after commencing their lawless career they were captured and are now in jail awaiting A system of " high license " has for some time been in operation in the State. It seems to have been successful, as appears by the fol- lowing facts: In Oarrollton, a town of 2,500 inhabitants, there are only six saloons, which pay a revenue of $3,000 — half enough, prob- ably, to meet all the expenses of the city gov- ernment. In Clarksville, with a population of 2,500, there are only two saloons, which pay $600 each. In Carthage there are four, which pay $800 each. In Fulton there are three, which pay $3,763 a year to the city — quite one half the whole revenue, if not more. In Higginsville there are four, which pay $1,600 a year. In Kirksville there are two, which pay in a revenue of $1,400. In Louisiana there are seven, which pay $4,800 a year. In Lamar there are four, which pay $2,400 a year. In Maysville there are eight, which pay $9,000 a year. In Mexico there are four, which pay $5,200 a year. In Marshall there are four, which pay $2,400 a year. In Linneus there is one, which pays $600 a year. In Neosho there are two, which pay $1,000 a year. In those towns where the number of saloons is much greater the revenue yielded by them is much smaller, and it may be added that the general results are less satisfactory. Thus Boonville has ten saloons, which yield only $1,257 in the aggregate. Cape Girardeau has twenty-three, but the revenue from them all is only $1,725, less than half as much as Fulton derives from four. Fayette has eight, which yield only $793. Hermann has fourteen, which only yield $210. Jefferson City has twenty- seven, which yield only $1.295. Kansas City has two hundred and thirty-nine, which pay $46,000. Lexington has sixteen,' which pay $1,600. Sedalia has thirty-three, which pay $3,730 — about the same as Fulton derives from four. St. Charles has twenty-eight, which pay $1,120. St. Joseph has one hundred and eighty, which pay $12,000. It would appear clear enough from this that the greater the number of saloons in a place the less aggregate revenue they pay, and that the most effective way of securing substantial revenue from them is to charge them a license so high as to reduce the number. The State election, held in November, was for the choice of a Judge of the Supreme Court, a Railroad Commissioner, and a Super- intendent of Schools. For Supreme Court Judge — Sherwood, Dem- ocrat, 198,620; "Wagner, Republican, 128,239; Rice, Greenback, 33,407. Railroad Commissioner — Harding, Demo- crat, 202,137; Hunt, Republican, 125,591; Ritchey, Greenback, 32,576. Superintendent of Schools— Coleman, Dem- ocrat, 202,855; Hill, Republican, 124,759; Booth, Greenback, 32,264. Sherwood's plurality over Wagner, 70,381 ; majority over all, 36,974. Harding's plurality over Hunt, 76,546 ; ma- jority over all, 43,970. Coleman's plurality over Hill, 78,096; ma- jority over all, 45,832. The constitutional amendment increasing the number of Judges of the Supreme Court to six, and dividing the court into two branches, was lost: yeas, 44,149; nays, 142,742. The Legislature chosen was divided as fol- lows : PARTIES. Senate. House. 6 82 28 104 568 NAVIES OF EUROPE. The vote for Representatives in Congress was as follows : Dist. 1.. 8.. 8. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Republican. Democratic. Greenback. Glover 11,407 Dorsey 8,628 Thomas.... 12,887 Eeed 10,571 Hatch... Alexande Dockery. Barnes. Graves . Cosgrov Buckner O'Neil. . Broadhe Clardy . Bland.. Morgan Fynn . . Davis.. .. 16,243 r. 19,033 .. 17,261 . 19,325 . 12,695 . 17,149 . 14,370 . 7,240 d. 6,860 . 13,536 . 14,259 . 14,768 . 13,904 . 14,023 Leavitt.. Quayle . . Burrows Sisson. . . McCabe. McNair . Hill Jackson . Quinn.. . H^eltine Kitchen . . 667 . 5,302 . 2,485 . 2,185 . 243 . 1,786 . 463 . 2,667 . 1,187 . 3,559 . 6,122 . 2,920 Crisp 8,672 Aldredge... 11,349 Daudt 9,857 Sessing-haus. 5,514 McLean.... 6,758 Manistre.... 7,455 Wallace .... 10,580 Terrell 9,111 Cloud 12,424 Carroll 7,177 The Democratic pluralities in the last four preceding elections were : Hancock over Gar- iield in 1880, 55,000; Crittenden over Dyer for Governor, 54,000 ; Tilden over Hayes in 1876, 58,000; Phelps over Finkelnburg for Governor, 52,000. The Democratic plurality over the Republican vote, therefore, has run pretty evenly at 52,000 to 55,000 for the last six years. But in the recent election it rose to 78,000 — an increase of 50 per cent. The change in public sentiment in Missouri as mani- fested in this election of November, 1882, was a part of the same movement which produced such astonishing results in New York, Pennsyl- vania, and elsewhere. (See UNITED STATES.) NAVIES OF EUROPE. THE BRITISH NA- VY.— The naval operations before the city of Alexandria have directed attention to the effi- ciency of the latest models of armored war- ships and the heavy ordnance which they car- ry. The most effective work in the destruction of the forts was done by the British iron and steel-clad vessels Inflexible and Tem6raire. The former is a turret-ship of 9,515 tons displace- ment an indicated power of 8,483 horse, 23 feet draught, and a speed of 14*74 knots. She towers. Her displacement is 8,571 tons ; indi- cated horse-power, 7,516; draught, 27 feet 4 inches ; speed, 14*65 knots. Her guns wer not nearly as heavy as those of the Inflexible hat were capable of penetrating 13*35 inchc of iron at 1,000 yards. She was provided wit an upper-deck battery in two fixed towei These two colossal engines of destruction di most of the work of battering down the fenses of Alexandria. The enormous ranj of their guns enabled them to carry on effe HER MAJESTY'S SHIP INFLEXIBLE. carries four 80-ton guns. These enormous weapons have a length of 26 feet 9 inches and a caliber of 16 inches, and hurl a projectile of 1,700 pounds weight. The charge is 370 pounds of cubical or prismatic powder, and they are capable of penetrating 22 inches of iron at a distance of 1,000 yards. The turrets are ar- ranged en echelon, instead of along the middle line, in order that the whole armament may be fired at once in the line of the keel as well as abeam. The turrets and guns are worked by Rendel's hydraulic system. The Temeraire is an iron and steel-clad vessel, with barbette tive action at a distance of 3,000 to 5,000 yards, while they were entirely out of the reach of the projectiles from the forts. The rotating turrets of the one, and the revolving platforms of the other, also enabled them to bring their heavy guns to bear in different directions with- out a change of position. The strongest of the Egyptian works suffered little from the fire of the Alexandra, Superb, and Sultan, although engaged at a distance of only 800 yards, while they were speedily reduced when the Inflexi- ble and T6rne>aire brought their guns to bear upon them. These guns, however, were of the NAVIES OF EUROPE. 569 muzzle-loading class and were worked slowly. The armament of the forts, moreover, did not consist of the most effective kind of modern ordnance. The British Admiralty has been engaged in providing several new vessels for the navy dur- ing the past year, and every effort is made to bring the latest improvements into use. Two vessels, which have been in course of construe- Calliope. Canada. Length between perpendiculars. . . Extreme breadth 235 ft. 44ft. Cin. 225ft. 44 ft. 6 in. 17ft. 5 in. 17ft. Indicated horse power 19 ft. 11 in. 3,000 18 ft. 6 in. 2,300 Speed in knots 13% 18 Coal stowage 820 tons. 270 tons. 280 245 Guns, 6-inch breech-loading rifles. 10 I HER MAJESTY'S SHIP TEMERAIRE. tion at Chatham Dock-yards, belong to widely- different types. The Calliope, which was be- gun in October, 1881, is an unarmored corvette, belonging to what is known as class " 0." These are not designed so much as fighting-ships as for patrols and escorts, and for service on for- eign stations. They are of 2,383 tons displace- ment, 2,300 horse-power, and their dimensions are 225 feet between perpendiculars, 44 feet 6 inches extreme breadth, and 21 feet 6 inches depth of hold. The transverse frames are of iron, but the bulkhead and skin-plating of steel. They have steel shell-proof decks below the water-line and extending over the whole length of the engines, boilers, and magazines. They are fully rigged and coppered, and provided with large bunker capacity to fit them for long cruises. They are good sailers, and make a ^peed of 13 knots an hour under steam. The Calliope is intended to combine all the quali- ties calculated to give to this class of vessels the highest merit. As compared with the Can- ada, regarded as the best specimen previously floated, it has the following characteristics : The Calliope is to be fitted with sponsons for 6-inch guns, projecting beyond the sides fore and aft, and with Whitehead torpedoes and ma- chine guns. The other vessel which has been mentioned as under construction is the Impe- rieuse, an armor-clad, swift-sailing, fighting- ship. It is 315 feet long, 61 feet breadth, 25 feet draught, 7,390 tons displacement, and 8,000 horse-power. She is to carry four 18-ton guns, mounted in barbettes, and six 6-inch guns on the broadside, capable of penetrating 12 inches of armor. Two of the barbettes will be built across the middle line forward and aft, and the rest abreast of each other at the sides amidships. The heavy guns are situated at twice the height out of water that they are in the turret-ships, and they can be fired, three together, in any direction — ahead, astern, or on the beam. The armor on the sides of the citadel will be 10 inches thick, that across the ends 9 inches, that on the barbettes 8 inches, while the armor protecting the pilot-tower will be 10 inches thick. The whole of the protection will consist of the new steel-faced armor. The pe- 570 NAVIES OF EUEOPE. culiar shape of the iron beams, which are to support the armored deck containing the coal armor, is what mainly distinguishes the Impe- rieuse from other ships in a similar state of progress. These are bent downward at the ends, so that the sloping contour of the deck at the sides will cause shots to glance off. Her bunkers will be able to store the extraordinary quantity of 1,200 tons of coal. She will be brig-rigged, and will carry a good spread of canvas. Under steam her speed is expected to be 16 knots an hour. Of the vessels lately completed in the English dock-yards, and not yet put into service, the most important are the double-turret ships Neptune, Dreadnaught, and Colossus. The following table contains a list of the armored vessels of the British navy designed for active service, showing the class, displace- ment, draught, and maximum speed of each : NAME. Material. Ctaf. Maximum indicated horse-power. DISPLACEMENT AND DRAUGHT ON TRIAL. Maximum speed. Displace- ment. draught. Inflexible Partly steel Turret-ship 8,483 8.207 6,272 6,652 a6,000 a6.000 7,842 7,993 06,000 o6,000 04.500 07,000 8.615 7,516 8,778 8,529 6,312 4,832 5.156 4,021 4,832 4,789 4,703 7,431 3,370 6,645 6.073 3,200 2,329 5,917 6^02 6.558 4,977 5.267 5,772 8,256 8,348 2,329 2.343 6,706 3,347 05,500 9,515 9,120 9,190 9,190 8,490 8,490 8,070 9,170 9,150 9,150 6,200 9,150 9,432 8,571 8,7-23 8,676 7,369 6.537 6,552 6,170 5,563 5.563 4,863 8,950 5,390 7.473 7,652 4,738 5,070 10,230 10,230 10,543 9,934 9,231 9,300 6,455 6.485 6,300 6,077 7.S39 6,010 2,640 Ft. In. 23 0 24 6 26 6 26 6 24 0 24 0 25 9 25 3 26 3 26 3 24 0 26 3 26 3 27 4 26 1C* 26 5* 26 8 25 7 25 8 23 0 21 6 21 6 17 4i 23 0 23 4 25 1 25 3 19 5 26 10 26 6 26 10 27 9 27 5 27 8 27 3 25 8 25 6 26 11 26 1 27 9 25 10 20 6 Knots. 14-74 14-52 13-4') 13-84 013-00 o!3-00 14-93 14-21 014-00 014-00 013-00 i4:i)9 14 -C5 14-20 14-69 14-05 13 70 14-16 12-82 14-09 13-85 12-76 13-78 12-35 14-05 13-17 12-20 11-44 13-73 14-41 14-13 13-78 14-07 13-60 12-36 12-51 11-40 11-23 13-49 12-28 017-00 Dreadnaught ... Iron Thunderer • 4; Devastation u u Eemnon . 14 u U u rch u it Neptune H Colossus . Steel a Majestic u n tt Collingwood Alexandra Temeraire Steel and iron Barbette-towers Sultan Iron Hercules tt tt Swiftsure u i. Triumph .... u u Audacious . . . u ;i Invincible (1 u Iron Duke u U Penelope u it Superb u u Shannon. fron and steel with wood sheathing. Nelson u Northampton... Belleisle.. Orion Agincourt « u Minotaur u II Northumberland fct u Achilles u lt "Warrior II it Black Prince u H Hector fct it Valiant . . . u u Resistance. u u Defense u u Lord Warden Kepulse Wood il it *Polyphemus Sr.pel Torpedo and ram a Estimated. Besides these are the following, intended for harbor-defense : NAME. Material. Class. Maximum indicated horse-power. DISPLACEMENT AND DRAUGHT ON TRIAL. Maximum speed. Displace- ment. Maximum draught. Glatton | Iron . Turret 2.868 8,497 4,635 2,121 L660 1,669 1,755 1,472 1,455 1,446 696 658 949 1,436 1.869 8,900 4,980 5,152 3.809 3,100 8,311 8,059 8,144 2,660 2,602 1,180 1,189 2.816 2.997 2.9-20 Ft. In. 19 H 20 2 22 10 20 0 15 5 16 0 15 6 15 8* 16 4 16 1 11 10 11 11 14 8 14 8 14 2* Knots. 12-10 12-65 18-59 11-26 11-02 11-13 KV89 11-20 10-f.l ' 10-05 9-58 9-06 9-59 10-66 9-75 Hotspur Eupert Prince Albert... " Turret Cyclops Gorgon tt u Hecate " « Scorpion u ! u Wivern it 14 Viper.... " Gunboat Abyssinia Magdala Cerberus Composite Iron Turret NAVIES OF EUROPE. 571 Great Britain has also a large fleet of unarmored vessels of various classes, some of them quite swift and powerful. The following list is compiled from official reports of steam trials : NAME. Material. Class. Maximum indicated horse-power. DISPLACEMENT AND DRAUGHT ON TRIAL. Marimum speed. Displace- ment. Draught. Shah Iron sheathed with wood. n it Iron cased with wood . . . Steel Frigate 7,477 7,361 5.541 5,292 2,490 5.109 4,964 4,500 4,131 7 556 5.922 5,328 5,285 8,883 8,631 4.223 3,462 8,080 8,033 3,290 3,290 1,922 2,398 2,3SO 2.427 1,930 1,930 2,781 2,380 2.3SO 2,098 2,119 2,195 1,973 1,636 2,126 860 973 804 1,131 1,131 1,130 1,094 884 980 1,200 1,142 1,150 1,137 926 931 925 949 918 949 Ft. In. 25 7* 24 7 25 2 22 4 22 0 23 6 22 7 21 6 21 8J 20 6 20 6 17 0 19 0 IS ISA 19 3 17 0 17 0 20 9 18 6 18 6 19 0 18 10 19 2 18 2 16 3 IS 10 14 6 15 0 14 4 15 4 15 10 15 9 15 6 14 7 15 0 14 6 15 8 15 10 15 9 18 11 13 10 14 1 14 0 14 0 14 0 Knots. 16-45 16-51 15-15 14-89 12-07 14-71 14-53 15-12 15-08 18-58 18-87 13-95 12-G6 13-dO 12-79 13-98 13-58 12-30 a!3-00 a!3-00 12-53 12-62 12-32 13-20 13-87 12-28 12-24 10-20 all -00 11-31 11-47 11-00 10-85 all -00 11-35 10-25 11-52 11-68 11-OD 10-63 10-59 10-95 11-30 10-51 11-00 Kaleigh Boadicea Corvette Bacchante Jtover Volage Active Dispatch Mercury 7,534 2,611 2,400 2,300 2,337 2,674 2,541 2,020 a2,300 a'2,300 2,187 1,972 1,994 2,005 2,170 1,55-38 1,056 719 1,128 951 972 900 797 1,020 946 786 1,006 1,107 900 915 884 836 1,011 838 975 Cleopatra Steel and iron cased with wood. Corvette Carysfort Champion Comus Conquest Constance. Tw n screw corvette Corv ette .... Cordelia Opal Tourmaline Turquoise Garnet tt n Emerald u Euby 4t i Pelican >t Sloop of war t( Phoenix H Cormorant. ... M Pegasus u Kingfisher Wild Swan . . . ct ,1 Miranda Osprey t 1 1 Dragon I Gannet t Espiegle t Daring 1 i Flying-Fish . Egeria lt Albatross Fan to me u a Estimated. THE FRENCH NAVY. — The French Govern- ment has been paying renewed attention to the building up of its naval strength, which has somewhat declined since 1870. Its efforts, indeed, began soon after the report of Admiral de Montaignac, in 1875, on the inefficient con- dition of the naval defenses. Since that time the dock-yards at Brest,Oherbourg,Lorient, and Toulon have been busy, but the navy has not yet attained the strength it had in 1867-'68, when the Marquis de Ohasseloup-Laubat had brought it to the highest state of efficiency. At the beginning of this year it consisted of twenty-three ironclads of the first class (Mti- ments de combat}, ten of the second class, avail- able only for defensive warfare, and six of the third class, or gardes-cotes cuirasses, for the de- fense of the seaboard. There were also 264 unarmored screw-steamers, 62 paddle-steamers, and 113 sailing-vessels. Many of these ships, however, were only effective on paper. Thus, of the unarmored screw-steamers, more than half were not on active service, being either stripped of their guns or on the reserve list. Only two of the 29 ships-of-the-line of this class, the Louis XIV, 480 horse-power, with 116 guns, and the Jean Bart, 400 horse-power, with 66 guns, were afloat last year. Again, 16 out of the 23 first-class ironclads are of an- tiquated construction, with plates not exceed- ing 7i inches in thickness at the water-line, and most of them are to be withdrawn from the active list in 1885. Six new ironclads of the first class, five of the second, and one of the third have been completed during the year, and six others of different sizes are in process of construction. Of these the two most remarkable are the For- midable, at Lorient, and the Amiral Baudin, at Brest, monster ironclads of 11,300 tons, and armored at the sides with plates of 18 to 25 inches thickness. The three most powerful of the completed ironclads of the French navy are the turret-ships Devastation and Foudroyante, and the Amiral Duperre. They were designed nearly on the same lines, are 312 572 NAVIES OF EUROPE. feet in length, and constructed mainly of steel. The first-named two have plates of 14 inches, and mount six guns each, that is, four of 38 tons and two of 25 tons; their indicated horse- power is 4,200, and their displacement 9,600 tons. The Amiral Duperre has 12-inch plates, and four 38-ton guns. Next in order come the six new ironclads, the Tempete, Tonneur, Ful- minant, Furieux, Vengeur, and Tonnant, with 11^-inch plates, and two 38-ton guns apiece. In all of them horizontal steel armor is used of sufficient strength to make the decks bomb- proof, and the guns are mounted en barbette — i. e., on swivels, so as to be aimed in any direction. The horse-power of the first three new ships is 4,200, and the displacement 5,495 tons ; in the remaining three the horse-power is 3,800, and the tonnage 4,452. Not much inferior to these nine first-class ironclads are the Kedoutable, 8,658 tons, 6,000 horse-power, six guns, and 9-inch plates ; and the Trident, Friedland, and Colbert, which have all 8^-inch plates, are of 8,164 tons burden, and carry 10 guns apiece — viz., eight of 24 tons and two of 12 or 18 tons. The second-class ironclads, now fifteen in number, have all 6-inch plates. The newest carry four 12-ton guns, the older ones have four 7-ton guns and four of 5 tons. The tonnage of all the fifteen ships is the same, 3,445, but the horse-power varies be- tween 3,963 in the new-built Victorieuse and 1,987 in the Bayard, Duguesclin, Turenne, and Vauban, also new-built. At the head of the seven coast-guard ironclads stands the In- domptable, of 600 tons, with 10-inch plates, and two 38-ton guns ; the thickness of the armor-plates in the others varies between 9 inches and 5£ inches. The following list, made up from the latest official sources, contains the names and descrip- tion of all the armored vessels in actual service in the French navy : NAME AND CLASS OF VESSEL. Thickness of armor, in inches. Displacement, in tons. Maximum speed, in 1 knots, per hour. Armament : number and description of guns (all breech-loading rifles). Remarks. SEA-GOING CRUISERS. Amiral Duperre 24-6 15 15 14 8-66 8-66 8-66 8-66 22 10,322 9,454 9,454 8.661 8,684 8,651 8,183 8,183 14-5 i4" 14 13 14-5 14 14 13i-inch and 14 51-inch 4 12$-inch,4 10i-inch,and 8 6J-inch. 8 lOJ-inch and 6 5J-inch Iron and steel, ram, ship-rigged. u u u Iron ram, full sail-power. Building. Iron and steel, ram. Full sail-power. Wood hull, ram, full sail -power. Iron hull, ram, full sail-power. Wooden hull, full sail-power. Iron and steel, three now built. Iron and steel. Single revolving turret. Devastation Foudroyante Eedoutable . .... Friedland 8 10$ -inch and 8 5$-inoh Eichelieu 6 101-inch, 2 Sf-Jnch, and 5 9*-inch.. 8 lOi-inch, 4 5$-inch, and 2 9^-inch. . 8 lOJ-inch, 6 5j-inch, and 1 JlJ-inch. . 8 100-ton guns Trident Colbert Amiral Baudin Formidable . . . do Duguesclin 10 5,789 5,789 5,789 5,7S9 4,133 4,074 4,088 7,480 7,244 7,244 6,689 5,618 5,613 5,613 5,613 5,613 5,613 5,613 5,613 5,618 5,442 5,613 5,700 3,617 8,617 3,617 8,617 8,617 8,617 3,617 8,617 5,492 4,458 ( 3,190 •j to 3,643 14 13" 13 18 13 13 13 13 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 13 14 12 11-8 11-8 11-8 11-8 11-8 11-8 11-8 11-8 14 10 11-3 ) to I 13 \ 4 8|-inch, 1 Ti-inch, and 6 51-inch. . 6 9i-inch, 3 7^-inch, and 6 ,"Hnch..' .' 6 Sli-inch, 1 7j-inch, and 6 5J-inch.. . 69|-inch Bayard Turenne Vauban Triomphante 6 C 6 7J | 6-9 5-9 5-9 5-9 5-9 5-9 5-9 5-9 & 9 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 13 11* 6 to 9 Victorieuse La Gallisoniere Suffren 4 101-inch and 4 91-inch Ocean 4 101-inch and 4 71-inch Marengo Solferino 52Cl-inch 8 12-ton and 4 7-ton Flandre. Gauloise Guyenne. Magnanime Provence . . . Revanche Savoie Surveillante . Valeureuse Gloire 36 6 3-inch 8 12 ton and 4 7-ton Couronne . Alma 6 7-ton Armide Atalante Belliqueuse u Hf Jeanne d' Arc u Montcalm u Eeine Blanche . . . u Thetis u 7 coast-defenders, 1st class. 8 coast-defenders, 2d class.. 5 coast-defenders, 3d class. . 2 124-inch and 4 4§-inch 2 101-inch and 4 4§-inch 1 or 2 91-inch The French navy also contains twenty-six of about 1,200 tons, and some sixty -five gun- unarmored cruisers of various sizes and mod- boats, with ram bow, wooden hulls, and full els, from the 5,350-ton frigates Duquesne and sail-power. The general service fleet consists Tourville to the old type of sailing-corvettes of 9 ships-of-the-line, 6 frigates, 21 sloops of NAVIES OF EUROPE. 573 war, 11 gunboats, 42 transports, and a num- bers of smaller vessels. The Duquesne and Tourville were launched in 1876, and each carries 27 guns and has a calculated speed of 17 knots. Among the 130 screw-steamers which are really available out of a paper total of 264, are 58 gunboats and 35 transports or troop-ships ; among the 62 paddle-steamers are 11 frigates, 7 cutters, and 44 dispatch-boats. Of the 113 sailing-vessels, the greater number are employed as garde-peches on the fisheries near the coasts of France. In addition to the ships above enumerated, the following are now on the stocks : The Kaiman, at Toulon ; the Terrible, at Brest; and the Requin, at Bor- deaux. All these are armored and have fixed turrets, the guns being mounted on swivels. They are each of 7,168 tons displacement, and are protected at the water-line by compound armor 50 centimetres thick at the top and diminishing to 40 centimetres. GERMAN NAVY. — No notable additions have been lately made to the strength of the German navy. It contains several moderately heavy armored vessels, equipped with Krupp guns. The following is a list of the armored ships : NAME OF VESSEL. Thickness of armor, in inches. .9 I Maximum speed per hour, in knots. Armament: number and description of guns (Krupp). Remark*. Kaiser 10 7,560 14-5 8 10i-inch and 1 Si-inch Krupp. . . . Earn bow, full sail-power. Deutschland 10 7,560 14-5 Sachsen 10 7,135 14 6 10^-inch guns Bam bow. Baiern 10 7185 14 1 36-ton and 4 3 8-ton Wiirtemberg 10 7,135 14 u Baden 10 7,185 U 41 44 Preussen Friedrich dcr Grosse 9-2 9-2 6,748 6,558 14 14 4 lOf-inch, 2 6'T-inch, and 4 3-inch.. Turret-ship. Konic* Wilhelm 8 9,602 14-7 18 9^-inch and 5 8J-inch guns , Broadside-ship, full sail-power. Prinz Friedrich Karl 5 5,819 13-5 16 8J-inch guns Kronprinz . 5 5,393 14-3 U I. Hansa 6-2 8,497 12 Corvette full sail-power Arminius . . . 4-5 1,558 10 '5 4 8^-inch guns Coast defender. Prinz Adalbert 4-7 s 1,456 1 000 9-5 9 1 8J~inch gun and 2 6- 7 inch guns. . 1 36-ton (12 inch) gun Wespe 8 1 000 9 u Viper 8 1,000 9 u 44 Mucke 8 1,000 9 u 41 Biene 8 1 000 9 u tt Scorpion . . 8 1 000 9 M 44 Basilisk H. J. K. andL 8 8 1,000 1,000 9 9 It * The unarmored vessels of the German navy are named in the list which follows, besides which there is a general service fleet of 26 cor- vettes and gunboats : MODERN UNARMORED SHIPS OF GERMANY. NAME OF VESSEL. Displacement, In tons. Maximum speed per hour, in knots. Armament : number and description of guns (Krupp). Remarks. Leipzig... 8.863 3.863 2,460 2,460 2,460 2,460 2,856 1,697 14 14 15 15 15 15 ie 12 6' 7-inch guns Iron corvette,double deck, full sail-power. Building. Iron, dispatch vessel. Building. Gunboat. Building. Single-decked corvette, full sail-power. Sedan ... Bismarck... 16 6' 7-inch guns Blucher Stosch u - .... Moltke u Greisenau and Stein HohenzolleriK H B and C Kyklop . . . 412 129 470 470 2.169 8 8 Otler. 8 guns Waif 4 guns Hyane and Iltis Six vessels now building. . . NAVY OF ITALY. — Italy has two of the heavi- est armored war-ships afloat, in the Duilio and Dandolo, which have each a displacement of 10,401 tons and over 21£ inches of armor. They each carry four 100-ton guns and have a maximum speed of 15 knots an hour. The two vessels cost about $7,000,000. Two others of still greater dimensions, the Italia and the Lepanto, are in course of construction. In the construction of the Duilio and the Dan- dolo, which were double-screw turret-ships of the Monitor type, each carrying four 100-ton guns of Sir William Armstrong's manufacture, mounted in two turrets, the Italian navy con- siderably surpassed anything yet supplied to the Royal Navy of Great Britain. But the 574 NAVIES OF EUROPE. HIS ITALIAN MAJESTY'S SHIP LEPANTO. Italia and the Lepanto, apparently, are very much more formidable, their dimensions being as follow : Length, 122 metres (or 403 feet) ; greatest breadth, not reckoning the armor, 22 metres 28 centimetres (73-11 feet) ; height at the middle section, 15 metres 20 centimetres (49 feet 5 inches) ; medium depth of immer- sion, 8 metres 48 centimetres (27*81 feet) ; ton- nage, about 15,000. The Lepanto will have four 100-ton guns in a central armored redoubt, and eighteen 4^-ton guns in the battery. There are two screws, each moved by two engines and three cylinders on the Penn system, twenty-six boilers, and six funnels. The indi- cated horse-power is 18,000; the expected speed is seventeen miles. There are only two masts, which serve for signaling. Side-armor being altogether abolished, the system of de- fense consists in the cellular deck of the first battery, the armor of the main deck, the iron casing of the funnels and passages for projec- tiles, and the armor of the redoubt containing the four cannon. The Lepanto is 22 metres (72*16 feet) longer than the Duilio and Dando- lo, and will have 4,000 more tonnage, about 8,000 extra horse-power, and a covered battery of eighteen cannon, which the above-named ships have not. The Lepanto will therefore be much more powerful. As much as possi- ble, she will preserve the type of a frigate, differing here also from the Dandolo and Dui- lio. She will cost about twenty-four million francs. The time fixed for launching her is March 17, 1883. The following is a list and description of the other armored vessels of the Italian navy : NAME. Armor in inches. Displace- ment, in tons. Speed. Armament. Remarks. 6 5,780 1 23-ton and 6 18-ton guns Wooden hull line of battle Palestro Roma 6 6 5,780 5,697 10 6 18-ton and 2 12-ton guns cruiser, full sail-power. Venezia 6 5,697 u Castelfidardo 4| 4,194 13 9 9-ton and 2 12-ton guns Full sail-power. San Martino 4 4,194 13 Maria Pia 4 4,194 13 U It M Ancona.... ... 4$ 4,194 13 u u U 5 4.070 2 12-ton guns . ... Coast defender full sail-power. Conte Verde Varese . . >t 8.932 2,700 io 6 12-ton guns and 1 9-ton gun 4 9-ton guns Full sail-power. Terrihile 41 2,700 10 80 6J-ton guns Formidable 3 2,700 10 In the construction of the Lepanto, the ob- ject was to make a ship sufficiently power- ful for offensive as well as defensive opera- tions, and possessing greater speed than any other vessel. Italy has an unarmored fleet of 3 frigates, 7 list : corvettes, 20 gunboats, 10 dispatch-vessels, 7 screw-transports, and a number of smaller vessels. NAVY OF SPAIN. — The armored ships of the Spanish navy are included in the following NAVIES OF EUROPE. 575 NAME OF VESSEL. Thickness of armor, in inches. £ 1 2 •E.- 5 Maximum speed per hour, in knots. Armament : number and detcription of gum (all rifled). Remarks. 5 7053 13 6 18-ton, 3 9-ton, and 16 7-ton Broadside battery, ram bow, Vittoria 6| 7,000 4 12-ton, 3 9-ton, and 12 7-ton ship-rigged. Full sail-power. Sara^ossa 4 4 11-inch, 2 S£-inch, and 14 7i-inch.. 4| 2 18-ton, 5 9-ton and 10 7-ton t. Mendez Nuft"z 4 9-inch and 2 8-inch H 6 6,300 2 18-ton, 5 9-ton, and 10 7-ton li. 02 3 650 3 guns Beinf built Castilla s{ 8 650 8j- 3650 ,t it 4 600 1 6J-inch and 4 4|-inch. . . . Pui«-serda 4 515 1 6i-inch and 2 4f-inch Monitor. Spain has a small unarmored fleet of large- size vessels, but many small gunboats for the defense of her colonies — in all, 9 frigates, 20 corvettes, and 75 gunboats. NAVY OF RUSSIA. — The Russian navy con- tains 29 armored and 10 unarmored ships, be- sides a general service fleet of 2 frigates, 18 corvettes, and 56 gunboats. The unarmored vessels include four American-built ships, the Europe, 3,000 tons, the Asia, 2,650, the Africa, 2,580, and the Zabiaca, 1,200 tons, armed with four and six inch guns and making a speed under full sail-power of 12 to 14 knots. The remainder are Russian-built cruisers of 1,334 tons. The following is a list of the armored vessels of Russia : NAME OF VESSEL. Thickness of armor, in inches. Displace- ment, in tons. Armament. Remarks. Peter the Great Knaz Minin 14 12 6 6 a 4* fi to 6 5i to 6 6 6 4* ? 3 4f 4f 4$ 4* 4* I 5 5 11 18 9,510 8,800 4,433 4,438 6,200 6,200 4,500 8,700 8,700 3,700 3,700 3,300 3,300 3,300 1,555 1,555 1,555 1,5,55 1,555 1,555 1,555 1.555 1,555 1.555 1,330 1,835 1,835 2,490 8.551) 4 12-inch 40-ton guns Full sail-power. "Wooden hull, ram bow, full sail-power. Iron hull, rain bow, full sail-power. Full sail-power. Single-turret monitor. Double-turret monitor. Circular monitor. 4 11-inch 28-ton guns Duke of Edinburgh General Admiral 4 8-inch 26-ton guns Sevastopol Petropaulovski Knaz Pojarski Admiral Lazareff 10 8-inch 9-ton guns Admiral Gruig Admiral Tchitcha^aff . . . Admiral Spinadaff 8 11-inch 27^-ton guns 2 11-inch 27^-ton guns Ne-tron-mefia Kreml 16 S-inch guns 26 8-inch guns . . Auragan Tiphon 2 9-inch 14J-ton guns Latnik. u u Lava Vetchoun Kaldoun U U It « u .. Streletz u u Edenorag Bronenosetz Perm it »t U U It 11 Smertch Tchaweika .... 4 11-inch 27^-ton guns Kousalka 2 11-inch 27^-ton guns . . Novgorod Vice- Admiral Popoff . . . 2 12-inch 40-ton trans. . . . The fastest of these are capable of making NAVY OF AUSTEIA. — Austria has a navy of 13 knots an hour, and the speed of the lighter fair power, as appears from the following list class is 6 to 7 knots. of her armored ships of war : NAME OF VESSEL. Thickness of armor, in inches. Tons displace- ment. Speed, in knots, per hour. Armament. Remarks. Tegethoff . . 14-5 7,390 14 6 11-inch Krupp Line-of-battle cruiser, bark-rigged. Custozza 9i 7,060 14 8 10-inch Krupp Line-of-battle cruiser, ship-rigged. Lissa . 4 6080 13 12 9f-inch Krupp . . Erzherzog Albrecht ?8 5940 18 8 10-inch Krupp U tt It Kaiser 6i 5810 12 10 9-inch Armstrong u u u Don Juan d' Austria Kaiser Max... i 3.550 8550 8-5 8-5 12 7-inch Armstrong Line-of-battle cruiser, ram, ship-rigged. Prinz Eugen Erzherzog Ferdinand Max. Habsburg f 5 3,550 5,140 5140 8-5 10-3 10'3 14 8'27-inch Krupp Line-of-battle cruiser, ship-rigged. Salamander Maros.. ft 3,110 310 7 5-6 10 7-inch Armstrong 2 5-9-inch Krupp. . . . Ordinary station service, ship-rigged. River monitor. Leitha t. 1-5 810 5-6 576 NAVIES OF EUROPE. OF TURKEY. — Turkey has 15 armored the-line, 5 frigates, 7 corvettes, 14 gunboats, vessels besides 1 ironclad monitor and 3 river and 44 transports and smaller vessels. The gunboats, and an unarmored fleet of 1 ship-of- following is a list of the armored ships : NAME OF VESSEL. Thickness of armor, in inches. Displace- ment, in tons. Maximum .peed, in knots, per hour. Armament : number and descrip- tion of guns (all rifled). Remarks. Mesoodiyeh 12 8994 13'74 12 18-ton and 3 6J-ton puns 10 7900 13 10 12-ton and 2 6J-ton guns 6J 6.400 12 1 12-ton and 15 6J-ton guns Earn bow, bark -rigged. Osmaniyeh Orkaniyeh 1 6,400 6400 12 12 £} 6400 12 44 u u 44 44 Assar-i-tevfik 8 5,687 12 8 12-ton guns. Full sail-power. Feth-i-Bulend 9 2719 14 Mookademi Khain 9 2,719 14 44 u Avni Illah 6 2314 12 44 u Earn bow full sail-power Mooyini Zaffer 6 2,314 13 44 It Idilaliyeh 2,300 11 2 12-ton and 2 &J-ton guns. Full sail-power. Nedj-im-shefket 2,300 11-5 5 9-ton guns Assar-i-shefket. 2 300 11 11 44 Haliz-i-Itahruaii . 1J. 2300 12 2 9-ton and 2 4- ton guns NAVY OF HOLLAND. — The Dutch navy con- tains 20 armored ships of war ranging from 1,500 to 5,200 tons displacement, besides six lighter ironclad rams and gunboats, and an unarmored fleet of 1 frigate, 31 corvettes, 31 small gunboats, 13 side-wheel steamers, and 16 torpedo-boats. The following is a list and de- scription of the heavier armored vessels of Hol- land ; the unarmored fleet is composed of ves- sels of her former navy: *J G Remarks. NAME OF VESSEL. \l §1 Armament. a 1 Koning der Nederlanden 8 4} 5,201 3822 4 11-inch Armstrong and 4 4f-inch Krupp guns Earn bow for general service. Prins Hendrik der Nederlanden Guinea 6 2,340 2 9-inch Armstrong . . . . Earn bov T for coast -defense. Buffel 6 2,163 Schorpioen . . . 6 2,141 44 44 44 Stier 6 2036 41 44 44 Cerberus 5i 1,506 u 44 Bloedhond 5} 1,506 44 44 Heiligerlee.. . . 9 1,506 4. 44 Krokodil 3 1 506 44 44 Tijger 3 51 1,392 1 541 " 41 Adder Haai el 1541 44 14 £4 1,541 1 541 " " Panther Wesp . . 6J 1,541 44 44 " " The speed of those of 2,000 tons and upward is about 12 knots an hour, and of the lighter vessels about 8 knots. NAVY OF DENMARK. — Denmark possesses 7 armored vessels and an unarmored fleet of 3 frigates, 9 corvettes, and 12 gunboats, which is sufficient for immediate defense. The ar- mored ships are the following : NAME. Thickness of ar- mor, in inches. Displacement, in tons. Armament. Remarks. Helgoland... 12 5265 1 12-inch 4 lOJ-inch and 5 5-inch guns. Broadside full sail-power. Odin g 8036 Frigate full sail-power Denmark 4£ 4664 Peder Skram 4! 8321 6 8-inch and 1 2 6-inch guns 44 Gorm 8 2308 Lendermen... 5* 2',044 2 9-inch guns Eolfe Krake 4} 1 823 8 8-inch guns tt CONSTRUCTION OF GUNS : ENGLISH METHOD. — There has been for some years an almost con- tinuous revolution going on in the construction of heavy ordnance to be used on board ships of war. It is now generally acknowledged that the most effective type of gun for fleets and forts is a breech-loading rifled cannon of steel, firing projectiles of moderate size with great velocity. Twenty-live years ago the pre- vailing type was the muzzle-loading, smooth- bore, cast-iron weapon of enormous caliber. The largest of these attained a diameter of bore NAVIES OF EUROPE. 577 of twenty inches or more. England began arming her fleets and fortresses with rifled can- non in 1858. A system of breech-loading was adopted at the same time, but so many acci- dents occurred in the working of the guns that the system fell into disfavor with the navy, and, after a long investigation and competitive tri- als, both the War Office and Admiralty deter- mined to return to muzzle-loading ordnance. That system has continued to prevail until within a year or two ; but another change of opinion has taken place, and it is generally ad- mitted that there must be a rearmament of the British navy and forts with breech-loaders. The great steel-clad vessels of the present Eng- lish fleet are armed with muzzle-loaders, some of which have great power : the 80-ton guns of the Inflexible have a caliber of sixteen inches, carry a projectile of 1,700 pounds, with a pow- der-charge of 370 pounds, and will penetrate 27'5 inches of iron at 500 yards. The muzzle velocity is 1,520 feet per second, and the muz- zle energy 27,213 foot-tons — that is, the equiv- alent of 27,213 tons of metal falling one foot. The 25-ton guns, such as are carried by the Temeraire, the Monarch, and the Alexandra, have a twelve-inch caliber, 600-pound projec- tile, 85 pounds powder-charge, and penetrate 13-9 inches of iron at 500 yards. Their muzzle velocity is 1,180 feet per second, energy 7,030 foot-tons. The 18-ton guns forming part of the armament of the leading vessels of the fleet have 10-inch caliber, 400-pound projectiles, 70 pounds charge, penetrate 12'7 inches at 500 yards, have muzzle velocity of 1,364 feet per second, and energy of 5,160 foot-tons. The 12-ton guns are 9-inch caliber, 250-pound pro- jectile, 50 pounds charge, 10-4-inch penetrating power, 1,420 feet per second muzzle velocity, and 3,496 foot-tons muzzle energy. The most common gun of all, the chief armament of cruis- ers, is the 6|-ton rifled cannon with a 7-inch bore, 115-pound projectile, 30 pounds charge, capable of penetrating 7'7 inches of iron at 500 yards, with a muzzle velocity of 1,525 feet per second, and energy of 1,246 foot-tons. These all load at the muzzle. GERMAN ORDNANCE. — Germany adopted breech -loading ordnance at about the same time with Great Britain, but, instead of aban- doning it after trial, endeavored so to improve its construction as to avoid the defects which caused disaster to the guns. The German sys- tem has been adopted by Russia, Austria, Den- mark, and Holland. The present Krupp gun is breech-loading and consists of a steel body strengthened by hoops. The largest class has a twelve-inch caliber, and is bound with three tiers of hoops. Its projectile weighs 715 pounds, its powder-charge is 158 pounds, and it develops a working effect of 12,584 foot-tons. The French have a type of breech-loaders of their own, which have been adopted 'by Spain and Sweden. The largest of these have a cali- ber of 32 centimetres (12-6 inches), and throw a shot of 770 pounds with 132 pounds of powder, VOL. xxii.— 37 A developing an energy of 10,390 foot-tons. The prevailing manner of construction is to cut off the base of the breech from an iron body, in- sert a steel lining as far as the trunnions, and shrink hoops of steel around the exterior ; but experiments with all-steel guns have been go- ing on for some time. ITALIAN ORDNANCE. — The standard naval ordnance of Italy is the Armstrong muzzle- loader, though there are some batteries of French breech-loaders. The newly ordered 100-ton guns are to be breech-loading, with the Armstrong mechanism for closing the breech. These are the largest afloat, being 32 feet long, having a caliber of 17 inches, and weighing 222,300 pounds each. The projec- tile is of steel, weighing 2,000 pounds, and is driven by a charge of 471 pounds of powder, with a velocity of 1,584 feet per second, and a working effect of 34,550 foot-tons. TENDENCY OF CONSTRUCTION. — The tendency of construction is clearly toward steel guns of great length, rifled bore, of moderate caliber, using large charges of slowly-burning powder, and loading at the breech. Various devices have been tried to re-enforce the metal used, in such a way as to counteract its defec- tive tendencies. Certain degrees of cohesive strength, elasticity under violent strain, and ductility, to prevent rupture, are desirable. As no limits are assignable to the force which it is desirable to impart to a projectile, it is impossible to define any bounds for the caliber and strength demanded in artillery. The prob- lem is, therefore, the production and selection of a material combining in due proportions and in the highest degree cohesive strength, elastic extensibility, and ductility and malleability. No one of these properties is found in the high- est degree in any metal possessing either of the two others in an equally high degree, and as yet no fixed relation is known between them. Of all the metals available for gun-con- struction, some of the varieties of steel, espe- cially the low steel, combine the qualities de- sired in the greatest degree. These metals have been combined, and the strains have been sought to be overcome, first, by the method of initial tension, which is effected by shrinking heated iron bands around the parts in danger from pressure, as in the "Woolwich system, or by slipping a tube into the bore after it has been enlarged by heat, as in the Palliser sys- tem, and, second, by the method of varying elasticity, which places the metal that stretches the most within its elastic limit around the surface of the bore, so that by its enlargement the explosive strain is transmitted to other parts. Among the methods of re-enforcement which appear to be growing in favor is that of winding the body of the gun with steel wire, in spirals of considerable obliquity, alternate layers running in opposite directions, and so- lidifying with a more fusible metal used as a solder. The walls of the bore may be the man- drel around which the wire is woven, then the 578 NAVIES OF EUROPE. fused metal is poured in, and, after cooling, the gun is shaped, rifled, and finished. Armstrong obtained the following results with his wire gun : Caliber, 10-236 inches ; weight, 21 '5 tons ; projectile, 500 pounds; charge of powder, 300 pounds ; pressure in chamber, 18'6 tons. The relation between the charge and the projectile is here enormous, the former being over one half the latter. THREE TYPES OF GUNS. — Authorities on im- proved ordnance are advocating three types of guns, all, however, being steel breech-loaders. For armor-piercing, it is said, a long, pointed bolt, nearly solid, is required, which must strike with great velocity, and must, therefore, be propelled by a very large charge of powder. Hence, an armor-piercing gun should have a large chamber and a comparatively small bore of great length. For pieces intended for breach- ing fortifications, on the other hand, no en- larged powder-chamber is wanted, but the shell must be made to hold the most powder for a given weight, and therefore must be rather short and thick. Hence the bore of the gun must be large, and need not be long, as little velocity is required. For producing destructive effects among troops a third kind of projectile should be employed — namely, shrapnel. For the effective discharge of this missile a large powder-charge is necessary, while, as the shell has to hold as many bullets as possible, the bore must be large enough to contain a short projectile of the given weight. Thus the proportions of the shrapnel-gun were intermediate between those of the armor-pierc- ing gun and of the shell-gun. EXPERIMENTS AT SPEZIA. — Some very inter- esting experiments were made at Spezia, Italy, in the latter part of November, for the purpose of testing the resistance of armor-plates, and the perforating or crushing power of heavy ordnance. The primary object was to ascer- tain by competitive trial the comparative merits of the compound plates of Cammell & Co. and Brown & Co., of Sheffield, England, and the all-steel plates of Schneider & Co., of Creusot, with a view to providing the most effective armor for the monster ships, the Italia and the Lepanto. The scene of the trial was the polygon of Muzziano, at Spezia, where similar experiments took place in 1876. On that occasion the Creusot establishment had carried off the palm, and the Duilio and Dan- dolo had in consequence been armored with Schneider plates ; but the English manufactur- ers proceeded to make improvements in their plates by covering an iron backing with a face of steel. It was claimed for these compound plates that they were superior to those made wholly of steel. But the Messrs. Schneider had also made improvements in their work, and before ordering the armor for its new ves- sels the Italian Government determined to make a new trial at Spezia. ^ The cut on page 579 represents the gun in po- sition as used at the experiments at Spezia. It is not mounted in a turret, but on a pontoon built for the purpose. It was loaded and worked, however, by the mechanism to bo used in the turret described further on, and precisely as it will be on board ship. In the left-hand corner is represented the missile before the first shot at the Schneider plate. In the right-hand corner is represented the same missile after the shot. The cut on page 580 represents the three targets after the first and second fire at Spezia. The Cammell, the Brown, and the Schneider plates, each 11 feet long, 8f feet broad, and 19 inches thick, and weighing about 32 tons, were severally bolted, according to the methods of the competing manufacturers, to a heavy back- ing of oak and old metallic targets. These were set up at a distance of a little less than 100 yards from a 100-ton muzzle-loading Arm- strong gun, which was anchored in a huge float off the shore. Two shots were fired at each plate, the first with a charge just suffi- cient to perforate 19 inches of iron, and the second with a charge capable of perforating 24 inches of iron. These were respectively 328 and 478 pounds of Fossano powder. The projectiles used were from the San Vito Arse- nal, and were of pig-iron from the Gregorini foundry, weighing 2,003 pounds each. The caliber of the Armstrong gun used was little less than 18 inches. The striking velocity the shot in the first test was 1,220 feet p( second, and the total energy 20,000 foot-toi In the second test the striking velocity w* 1,560 feet, and the total energy 33,900 foe tons. At the first shot both the English plat were badly cracked. The projectile pei trated the Brown plate 14 inches, and brol off. The Cammell plate was penetrated inches. In both there were numerous cracks some of which extended clear through, whil the backing was badly wrenched, and frames and bolts broken. The Schneider plat was penetrated eight inches, but was left solutely without a crack, and its frame ai backing were intact. At the second shot hot the English plates were shivered to fragmenl which fell at the foot of the target, leavii _ the backing bare and badly shattered. Of the Cammell plate this was literally true, and only a single piece of the Brown plate was left clinging to the target by a broken bolt. The Schneider plate was penetrated nine inches, or less than half its thickness. It received a few insignificant cracks, but the backing was unin- jured, and not a bolt was broken. The pro- jectile itself was badly shattered. The Gov- ernment commission, as a result of the ex- periment, awarded the palm of superiority to the Schneider plate, which was then subjected to a crucial test. It was attacked at point- blank range with the same high powder-charge, and great velocity used in the second competi- tive trial, and with the hardest projectiles made. The striking velocity in this case was 1,538 feet per second, and the total energy NAVIES OF EUROPE. 579 580 NAVIES OF EUROPE. NAVIES OF EUROPE. 581 34,000 foot-tons. Two shots were fired, the first with the Whitworth compressed-steel pro- jectile, and the second with the Gregorini cast- steel. The former penetrated the plate only 8 inches, and was itself shortened 16 inches, bulging out in spherical form ; the latter pene- trated 13 inches, and then broke off, being also badly blunted. The result of these experi- ments was to turn the scale, for the time at least, in favor of the resisting power of ar- mor-plates, as against the penetrating force of ordnance. HANDLING THE GUN. — On the following day, at Spezia, there was another important and in- teresting series of experiments in the trial of the new Armstrong breech loading 100-ton guns intended for the Italia and Lepranto. This monstrous piece of ordnance is composed for more than half its weight of steel, the rest being wrought-iron. The inner tube and the nest tube which embraces it are both of steel, and on the exterior of the gun are rings of the same material. Its principal dimensions are as follow : Length over all, 468 inches ; length of bore (26 calibers), 442 inches; length of rifling, 335*4 inches; diameter at muzzle, 33'3 inches; diameter at breech, 65'5 inches; di- ameter of bore, 17 inches ; diameter of powder- chamber, 19*5 inches. One of the most inter- esting points with regard to the gun is the method of mounting it. The usual trunnions are entirely absent. The gun lies imbedded on a sort of sledge-carriage, which is a mass of steel weighing about fourteen tons. Project- ing rings, which form part of the gun, rest in grooves, and prevent any backward or forward motion of the piece on the carriage, and rota- tory motion is prevented by strong steel straps. Thus the gun and carriage are securely bound together, having their axes parallel, and recoil together in the same direction. The carriage rests and slides upon the planed surface of two cast-steel beams of about ten tons weight each. They are held together by the recoil-press, and their front ends pivot vertically on a massive hinge. Thus the axes of the gun, the carriage, the recoil-press, and the slide are all parallel, whatever the elevation, and the difficulty of restraining the rotatory motion caused in other systems by recoil is completely got rid of. The whole weight is taken by two powerful hy- draulic presses, which work always together, being acted upon by one common supply-pipe. If the muzzle of the gun is to be elevated, the hydraulic rams sink, and the slide, pivoting on its front end, is lowered in rear, carrying with it recoil-press, gun, and carriage. The reverse takes place when the gun is to be depressed. By this simple arrangement a host of difficul- ties are at once eliminated, and some terrible strains removed from the system. And not only is there the advantage of harmonious re- coil, but the pivoting on the end of the slide enables the gun to be fired through a very small port, which it would fill almost com- pletely. The loading arrangements are also extremely simple, and present some features of novelty. With the exception of bringing up the ammunition and ramming, which are performed by another hydraulic apparatus, the whole business of opening and closing the breech is performed by two levers close to- gether, which are worked by one man. He can not make a mistake, for nothing can be moved out of its proper order, and, whatever position a lever may be in at the end of its last movement, the next act is performed merely by pushing or pulling the lever to the opposite side. One pair of levers works the whole breech-closing apparatus, prepares the gun for loading, or opens the breech after discharge. Another pair of levers runs the gun out and in, and elevates or depresses it. It is impossi- ble to run it back or forward too far, and the whole mighty mass of metal may be managed by the hand of a lady, who can not possibly make a mistake. All the movements involved in open- ing the breech, withdrawing the breech-screw, replacing and closing the breech, can be per- formed in less than one minute. No damage can be done in the heat of action, and the gun can not be fired till the operation of loading and closing the breech has been completely performed. The motive power in the processes of load- ing and laying the gun is hydraulic pressure, the mechanism for which is not attached to the gun itself. The hydraulic pumps are worked by a small steam-engine, which is governed in its rate of work by the pressure of water produced. It never ceases work, but, when no movement is required of any of the parts, its action is feeble, and only- keeps up a certain normal pressure. But if any motion of the system is required and the touch of a lever opens the way for water to create that motion, the engine instantly sets off briskly and continues to act till the cessa- tion of movement tells it that its services are no longer required. It then drops back at once to its slow and feeble action. The en- gine is seated on a tank, from which the pumps draw their water, and to which the water is returned after being exhausted from the various cylinders and pipes. Behind and across the breech of the gun, but entirely sep- arate from it, is a slide-bed similar to that of a lathe, and on this bed moves a saddle which carries the loading-tube and a rest for the breech-screw when drawn out of the gun. By touching the levers for elevating and running back, the gun is brought into the loading posi- tion exactly. A touch of another lever brings the saddle into its proper position, unlocking and turning the breech-screw as it comes. A touch on the third lever brings up a piston from the rear and makes it engage a catch in the breech-screw. The same lever moved in the opposite direction draws out the breech- screw upon a bed made to receive it on the saddle, which is then drawn out of the way by a reverse movement of the lever which brought 582 NAVIES OF EUROPE. NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. it up. As the saddle moves sideways, that part of it containing the loading-tube comes into position exactly behind the rear end of the bore. The small piston which withdrew the breech-screw now pushes the loading-tube into the gun. The projectile and its two half- charges are always kept ready on trolleys, which rise by hydraulic pressure from their places in the magazines, and arrive between the hydraulic rammer-head and the breech of the gun. Other levers thrust them forward into their places ; the loading-tube is with- drawn and the breech closed by a reversal of the different movements just described, which do their work more quickly than the descrip- tion of their action can be read. The breech of the gun can not be moved till all is complete, and the piece can not be fired unless the breech is accurately closed and locked to prevent its opening. The absence of trunnions and the method of mounting makes it possible for two of these guns to be worked side by side in a turret, but the arrangements on the Italia and Lepanto are for firing en barbette from behind a breast- work which completely shields the men from the fire of an enemy. In the trial of the gun at Spezia, eighteen rounds were fired with charges of varying weight, but the new armor- plates were not used in the experiment. Fos- sano (Italian) and prismatic (German) powder were provided, but, as there was found to be little or no choice between them, the former was mostly used. The maximum velocity at- tained was 1,833 feet per second, and the high- est energy 46,700 foot-tons, sufficient to raise the gun itself a height of 500 feet, and to pen- etrate thirty inches of wrought-iron. The fol- lowing table exhibits the results of the different rounds fired : No. of round. Pounds of powder. Weight or projectile. Velocity— feet per second. Pressure in bore of gun — foot-tons per square inch. 1.... 496 1,483 10-9 2.... 551-2 1,496 11 8.... 551-2 ( Chil'led i 1 1,974 ) 1,512 11 4.... 606-3 J Chilled i 1 1,942 f 1,593 11-35 5.... 606-8 S Chilled | ? 2,001 f 1,609 11 6.... 661-4 ( Chilled | 1 2,005 f 1,676 12-5 7.... 661-4 Chilled 1,686 12-4 8.... 716-5 " 1,767 J13-6 114-1 9.... 771-6 u 1,838 16-5 10... 716-5 u 1,761 14-5 11.... 496 " 1,423 9-8 12.... 551-2 « 1,506 (10-4 1lO-3 18... 551-2 u Not taken 11*6 14.... 771-6 " 1,881 16-4 15.... 606-8 « 1,607 j 12-8 112-5 16.... 606-3 u Not taken 113 -5 113-6 17.... 716-5 " " j 13-8 1l3'7 18.... 771-6 " ii J15-9 1l6 The results of these experiments threaten to turn the efforts of governments in the arming of navies in the direction again of large ves- sels and ordnance of heavy caliber and enor- mous power. NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. In comparison with last year, the condition and prospects of the navy are somewhat improved, although far from being yet what it is felt that they ought to be. From the report of the Secretary of the Navy for 1882, it is plain that the following facts and statements are worthy of careful consideration : 1. The available cruising war-vessel* of the navy are — One first-rate (the Tennessee) 4,480 tons displacement. Fourteen second-rates, from 1,100 to 4,000 " " Twenty-two third-rates, " 900 to 1,900 " Thirty-seven in all. Four of these, of less than 1,400 tons displacement, have iron hulls; all the others are built of wood. These vessels are good and commodious for all ordinary naval exercises, and useful for displaying the national flag upon the seas and in the harbors of the commercial world. But they are of low speed, with inferior engines and destruc- tive capacity, compared with the present war- ships of other navies. It is urgently recom- mended by the Secretary of the Navy and his advisers in the service, that the wooden vessels be replaced, as speedily as possible, by new iron or steel cruisers. The honor and reputa- tion as well as the interests of the country demand that the navy of the United States be placed on a footing of efficiency to meet possible emergencies. 2. The available armored vessels are thii teen fourth-rates, the single-turreted monitor from 1,800 to 2,100 tons displacement. Tin vessels were built twenty years ago, have speed, and have been mostly laid up since war. Three of them are in commission fc harbor-defense, in the Hudson and Delaw* Rivers and at Hampton Roads. 3. Under the head of Ordnance, it ap] that the guns of the navy are — Smooth-bore muzzle-loading (of various calibers) 2,2 Parrott muzzle-loading (40-pound rifles) Muzzle- and breech-loading (converted rifles) These last have fair power, and may be us ful for the present at least ; but the others wholly behind the age. " With not one modern high-powered cannon in the navy, and with only eighty-seven guns worth retaining, the importance of action for the procurement of naval ordnance seems apparent, if the navy is longer to survive." 4. Officers and Seamen.— On July 1, 1882, the record stood : 937 officers, on sea duty, annual pay $1 644 " on shore duty, annual pay 1,568, 236 " waiting orders, " " .Total . . . 7,074 seamen, receiving ......................... 2,170,096 950 apprentices, receiving ...................... 152,556 Add to these over 300 officers on the retired list, and the officers and privates of the marine NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. 583 corps, receiving $1,292,130, and the total an- nual pay amounts to $7,440,182. The enor- mous disproportion of officers to only thirty- one vessels in commission is pointed out, and the gradual reduction, as ordered by Congress, from 1,817 to 1,562 is urged. This latter num- ber will be amply sufficient for all the needs of the service. The Secretary recommends that the officers and seamen of the navy should be actively employed in all matters of the national Government upon or in direct connec- tion with the ocean, so as to increase knowl- edge and improve and strengthen the navy. A useful change in the existing law of promotion is also recommended. 5. Navy -Yards. — There are seven large yards in full and expensive operation, viz. : at Portsmouth, N. H., Boston, New York, League Island (Philadelphia), Washington, Norfolk, and Mare Island, Gal., one other at Pensaco- la, Fla., and one in embryo at New London, Gonn. ; with naval stations at Key West, Fla., New Orleans, La., Sackett's Harbor, N. Y., Mound City, 111., and Port Royal, S. 0. The total cost of permanent improvements and re- pairs, including the sites, at these navy-yards, from their establishment to June 30, 1882, was $54,227,772.67. Total expenditure for last year, under all bureaus (excluding Mare Island), was $2,608,379.02. The number of officers and employes at the several navy-yards is about 7,300. Although these yards are too many and too expensive for any present or even prospective needs, it is not easy to determine what is best to be done with them. A com- mission appointed by order of Congress, in August, 1882, has the whole matter under con- sideration, and will report in due time upon the question of sale or retention. Boards of naval officers have been appointed to see to the disposal of old and unserviceable material in the navy-yards ; but no sales have yet been made. Inspection Boards have also been ap- pointed to examine all the vessels in the navy, and report as to those unfit for service and those unfinished in any navy-yard. It is expected that some definite results will soon be attained. 6. The present service rendered by the navy consists in keeping the vessels appointed on the several stations, viz., the North Atlantic, the South Atlantic, the European, the Pacific, and the Asiatic stations. On the first station are six ships, engaged in exercises in fleet tactics, etc. On the second are three vessels. On the third are three vessels, which were pres- ent at Alexandria, in Egypt, during the year's troubles, and gave timely aid and comfort to American citizens and others. On the fourth are seven vessels, looking after the interests of the country in the Pacific. One of the vessels was required in the waters of Alaska Terri- tory. On the fifth station are four ships, and three others are under orders to join the sta- tion. Besides these there is the Apprentice Training Squadron, consisting of five vessels. Cruises to Europe were made during the sum- mer, and a cruise to the West Indies ordered for the winter. Eight vessels were engaged on special service, surveying duty, experiment- al cruises, etc. 7. The several Bureaus to which the work of the navy is intrusted report encouraging progress. The Bureau of Ordnance is occupied in plans and efforts to secure the construction of high-powered guns, in experimenting with torpedoes and electric lights, etc. Urgent call is made for speedy aid of Government toward means for perfecting the making of steel forg- ings, and furnishing a steam-hammer, of which at present there is none in the country sufficient for heavy forgings. Under the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting much was accom- plished in the fitting out of ships, manufacture of cables and anchors, etc. Enlistments of seamen and apprentices were to the number of 5,260, 478 being boys. Congress having au- thorized the construction of two new steel cruising-vessels, estimates have been furnished of the probable cost by the Bureaus of Steam- Engineering and of Construction and Repair. According to these, the vessels will cost some- thing less than $2,000,000 each. It is also esti- mated that, to complete the four double-tur- reted monitors, which have been much disputed about from year to year, it will require $3,165,- 000. The Advisory Board, having in charge the construction of the new steel cruisers, is proceeding with care and deliberation, the de- termination being to spare no pains to design and complete the two best ships which can possibly be constructed in this country. The Secretary of the Navy further recommends the construction of three or four smaller vessels, of high speed, etc., at a cost of $7,000,000 each for two, and $500,000 each for others. The sanitary condition of the navy, as reported by the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery, appears to be better than usual. 8. The United States Marine Corps contains 1,681 enlisted men, 984 on board ships in commission, and 877 occupied in shore duty. The legal number of privates is 2,500. As Congress has appropriated for only 1,500, the Secretary calls for appropriations for 2,000. 9. The Naval Academy is efficiently and satisfactorily conducted, and the Naval Ob- servatory is doing good work. The erection of the new observatory (which was authorized by Congress three years ago), on the site se- lected on Georgetown Heights, is urgently rec- ommended. 10. The expenditures for the year were $13,- 936,294.96, being $2,336,508 less than the ap- propriations available for the current expenses of the Navy. The estimates furnished by the chiefs of the respective bureaus (for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1884), for pay, supplies, building new ships, machinery, etc., amount to a little over $27,000,000. The Secretary of the Navy thinks that they may be revised so as to amount to about $21,000,000. 11. The Light- House Service and Coast-Sur- 584 NAVY OF THE UNITED STATES. NEBRASKA. ney occupy at present the time and labors of 81 officers and 275 seamen. The Secretary urges that, as these branches of the public ser- vice are maritime in their nature and purpose, they ought to be placed in direct connection with the Navy Department and severed from the Treasury Department. In like manner, the Secretary holds that it is every way desir- able that the Revenue- Cutter Service be under the direction of the Navy Department, instead of forming a part of Treasury Department work. He argues the question quite fully, and presents various cogent reasons for the view he advocates. It hardly admits of doubt, he thinks, that the Revenue Marine and the Life-Saving Service should be joined to the navy, not only as a matter of economy, but as affording valuable training and discipline for younger and unemployed naval officers. 12. Under the head of the Commercial Ma- rine, there is a full discussion of the impor- tance of fostering and strengthening this branch of the nation's strength and prosperity. Every one knows how deeply depressed is the condi- tion of American commerce, how largely the carrying-trade has fallen into the hands of foreigners, and how unwilling capitalists are to put their money into shipping under its present manifold disadvantages arising from foreign competition. It is urged, further, that not only does the passive policy of neglect injure our mercantile marine, but also that various impositions are heaped upon it in the way of fees, taxes, pilotage-dues, and other exactions. Several remedies are suggested, for the purpose of removing these impositions, extending protective measures to this neg- lected industry, and reforming the administra- tion. Compulsory pilotage and numerous ex- travagant fees ought to be abolished. Gov- ernment bounty should be extended for the construction of vessels in the United States, and for their navigation in the foreign trade. The French shipping law (early in 1881) has adopted this plan, and Bismarck has recom- mended similar measures for German shipping interests. " The most natural, legitimate, and effective method of protecting and reviving the merchant marine of the country, is to pay a compensation for carrying the United States mails in American ships on the great ocean- highways sufficient to result in the permanent establishment of fast steamship lines. It is not the cost of building the ships that deters capitalists from investing in lines of steam- ships : it is the impossibility of competing by such lines, during the earlier years of their existence, with the lines already in successful operation and sustained by large annual pay- ments from foreign governments." In illustra- tion of the policy pursued by other nations in this matter, it is stated that England has paid, as mail compensation to her steamship lines during the last fifteen years, from four to six million dollars annually. France, in 1878, paid for foreign mail service more than four millions and a half ; Italy more than one and a half million in 1879; Austria, the same year, a little over a million ; while the United States paid for foreign mail service, the year ending June 30, 1880, only $196,684. By this system, it is urged, these nations have virtually taken possession of the commercial waters of the world, and driven out our vessels ; and by this method they have secured an auxiliary navy, every mail steamship company furnishing ships built according to governmental require- ments, and subject to be taken for national use in time of war. Our country must follow a like policy, or she can never recover her place among maritime nations. Recommending a reform of administration by establishing a Bureau of Mercantile Marine in the Navy Department, the Secretary con- eludes his report as follows: "These criti- cisms and recommendations are made with a sincere and earnest desire to promote the suc- cess of the navy and the commercial interests of the country. If the naval establishment not to be made effective, it should be dh tinued, and the fifteen millions annually pended should be reserved to procure, in tional emergencies, the assistance of foreig ships and guns. If governmental measui are not soon adopted to promote the carrying- trade and to arrest the disappearance of Ann can ships from the ocean, we shall soon to be a seafaring people, and shall not need maintain a navy of our own. These are stroi expressions, but they are justified and quired by the present condition of our ni and maritime interests." NEBRASKA. STATE GOVERNMENT.—'] following were the State officers during year: Governor, Albinus Nance, Republic Lieutenant-Governor, G. C. Cams; Secret of State and Adjutant-General, S. J. Alex* der; Treasurer, G. M. Bartlett; Auditor Public Accounts, John Wallichs; Attorney General, C. J. Dil worth; Superintendent Public Instruction, W. W. W. Jones ; Seer of Board of Agriculture, J. C. McBride ; Coi missioner of Public Lands and Buildings, G. Kendall; State Law Librarian, Guy Brown. Judiciary, Supreme Court : Chief- Justice, George B. Lake; Associate Justice Amasa Cobb and Samuel Maxwell. GENERAL CONDITION.— Governor Nance, his message to the Legislature of 1883, re- marking on the prosperous condition of the State, says: Since the last regular session of the Legislature there has been a marked degree of prosperity in every department of industry, and our growth in population and wealth has been a marvelous event, even to those who had indulged the most sanguine anticipations in contemplating the possibilities of the future. A brief review of our State history may be profitably consid- ered in this connection. At the date of admission into the Union, in 1867, the population of Nebraska was estimated at 70,000, and the aggregate valuation of taxable property of the State was $20; 115,252. 1 population at the present time, as estimated on the basis of a moderate increase over the census of 1880, NEBRASKA. 585 is not less than 600,000. The total assessed value of property as shown by the grand assessment roll of 1882, on file in the office of the State Auditor, is $98,- 537,475.11. The sparse settlements of 1867 were remote from centers of trade and railroad connections, and were deprived of most of the comforts of life. The people of Nebraska are now brought into close relations with the commercial and social world, and it is a gratifying fact that every organized county in the State, except eight, has railroad facilities. Two principal agencies have accomplished this transformation. The home- steaders, under the liberal policy of the General Gov- ernment, accepting a heritage which in itself was a valuable legacy, have toiled from year to year with untiring energy and splendid success in improving the lands thus secured. The capitalists of this and other countries, having a degree of faith in our future which has been more than justified by results, pushed the work of railroad extension in Nebraska with un- exampled zeal, and thus opened the way for the large immigration which followed from the Eastern States and the Old World. The policy of the General Government in granting aid to railroads, as in giving homesteads to settlers, was designed to promote the common welfare, and it speedily gave us a railroad system which has been a potent agency in developing our natural resources. The practical co-operation of the above-mentioned agencies has brought us to a period of prosperity which is contemplated with feelings of pride by every citizen of Nebraska. FINANCES AND EDUCATION. — The receipts and disbursements of the Treasury for the two years ending November 30, 1882, as shown by the Treasurer's report, were as follow : Balance in Treasury, November 30, 1880 $843,018 61 Beceipts from all sources during the two years ending November 30, 1882, including transfers 1,943,307 64 Total amount $2,256,326 25 Disbursed during same period, including trans- fers 1,814,211 75 Balance on hand, November 30, 1882 $472,114 50 The bonded indebtedness of the State is : Belief bonds due in 1885 $50,000 00 Funding bonds due in 1897. 449,267 85 Total $499,267 35 The aggregate valuation of property assessed for taxation in 1881, as shown by the Auditor's report, was $93,142,456.99, and in 1882, $98,- 537,475.11. The rates of levy, and amounts that will accrue to the State on the assessment of 1882, are as follow : General fund, four and one half mills $437,874 44 Sinking fund, one quarter mill 23,726 15 School fund, one mill 98,537 47 University fund, three eighths mill 86,951 56 Total $597,089 62 The number of acres of educational lands held by the State, November 30, 1882, was 2,- 582,366-65. Of this amount 217,080 acres have been sold but not deeded, 489,440 have been leased, leaving 1,872,846-65 acres subject to sale or lease. During the two years preceding the above date 274,699*70 acres were leased at an estimated aggregate valuation of $824,- 099.10. During the same period 88,627 acres were sold for the sum of $657,971.42, being an average of $7.42 per acre. The report of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction embodies a fund of valuable information concerning the common-school system of the State. The school attendance in 1882 was 115,546, an increase of 14,770 over the number in attendance the previous year. The total value of school property is estimated at $2,054,049.18. The permanent school fund is invested as follows : Cash in Treasury, November 80, 1 882 $135,208 37 United States four per cent bonds 15,000 00 County bonds 303,600 00 Mortgages 4,000 00 State funding bonds 826,267 35 Claims in hands of Attorney-General for collec- tion 7,692 23 Notes from sales of school-lands 1,470,919 49 Grand total $2,262,687 44 The fund derived from this endowment has increased from year to year in about the same proportion as the increase of population, con- sequently the distribution per capita has not materially changed. The unfortunate controversy which was for some time a disturbing element in connection with the affairs of the State University has been brought to a close, and the faculty is in process of reorganization upon a basis which enables the institution to enter upon a period of en- larged usefulness and prosperity. A period of uninterrupted prosperity is re- ported by the Principal of the State Normal School — the last year being the most prosper- ous in its history. The catalogue shows an at- tendance of 318 students. STATE INSTITUTIONS.— On the 30th of No- vember, 1880, there were 193 patients in the Hospital for the Insane. During the two years following, 288 were received, 165 discharged, 1 escaped and 42 died ; leaving 273 in the hos- pital November 30, 1882. The hospital farm has been very productive during the past year, and the crops produced have materially de- creased the average cost of maintaining the in- mates. The average cost per capita per week of maintaining the inmates of the asylum, includ- ing salaries and expenses of every kind during the past two years, has been $3.24|. At the regular session of 1881 the Legislature provided for the construction of an additional building in connection with the Institute for the Deaf and Dumb. The building has been erected and completed by contract under the general supervision of the Board of Public Lands and Buildings, and is now partly occu- pied. The total number of pupils in attendance is 120, an increase of 24 over the number re- ported two years ago. The average cost per capita per week of maintenance of inmates has been $3.29. The educational and industrial departments of the Institute for the Blind have been con- ducted with success. The number enrolled at the present time is 25. The average cost per capita per week of maintaining the inmates during the past two years has been $5.33. In accordance with the act of the Legislature 586 NEBRASKA. of 1881, providing for the organization of a State Reform School at Kearney, George W. Collins was appointed superintendent. The school was formally opened in June, 1881, and has been successfully operated since that time. The discipline in the State-Prison has been all that could be desired and the health of the convicts under the supervision of the prison physician has been exceptionally good, only one death having occurred in the last two years. The number of prisoners reported by the warden on the 30th of November, 1882, was 261. Of these, 3 were United States pris- oners, 7 were from New Mexico, and 39 from Wyoming — leaving 212 that were State convicts — an increase of only 6 over the number re- ported two years previously. The Legislature of 1881 provided for the erection of a Home for the Friendless, and made an appropriation for that purpose, which has been successfully used. FISH COMMISSION. — In March the Board of Fish Commissioners purchased a hatchery in Sarpy County. This property embraces fifty- two acres of land, upon which is situated a water-supply which is considered the finest in the State for a hatchery. In October, 1881, the commissioners received from the United States Commissioner of Fisheries, 500,000 salmon-eggs, which were immediately hatched, and the young fish distributed in the streams of the State. In November of that year the commissioners obtained a supply of German carp, a very valuable fish which may be readily propagated for food by every farmer who will provide himself with the proper facilities. The commissioners have also obtained and distrib- uted a considerable number of brook and Cali- fornia trout. EXECUTIVE RECOMMENDATIONS. — The Gov- ernor recommends legislation for the purpose of increasing the number of judges and judicial districts, and also " that a small appropriation be made for the purpose of preparing and pub- lishing immigration documents under the im- mediate supervision of the State officers, giv- ing full and reliable information concerning our varied resources." The Secretary of State recommends the re- peal of the act of 1869, providing for an annual State census, as the law is inoperative in some counties, the returns, therefore, being of little value. Instead of an annual census, it is rec- ommended that a State census be taken in the year 1885, and every ten years thereafter, thus alternating with the United States census. CAPITOL-BUILDING. — The west wing of the new Capitol-building, which was commenced in 1879, was completed and occupied by the close of 1881. The eastern extension was substan- tially completed by the 1st of November, 1882, and was formally accepted by the Board of Public Lands and Buildings on the first day of December, 1882. The total cost of the two wings \vas a little less than $175,000. LEGISLATURE, SPECIAL SESSION. — On the 10th of May the Legislature convened in special ses- sion, at the call of the Governor, for the fol- lowing purposes : 1. To apportion the State into three congressional districts, and to provide for the election of representa- tives therein. 2. To amend an act approved March 1, 1881, en- titled " An act to incorporate cities of the first class, and regulating their duties, powers, and govern- ment," by conferring additional power upon cities of the first class, for the purpose of paving or macad- amizing streets and alleys, and also providing for the creation and appointment of a Board of Public Works therein. 3. To assign the county of Custer to some judicial district in the State. 4. To amend section 69, chapter 14, of the compiled statutes of Nebraska, entitled " Cities of the second class and villages." 5. To provide for the payment of expenses incurred in suppressing the recent riots at Omaha and protect- ing citizens of the State from domestic violence. 6. To give the assent of the State to the provisions of an act of Congress to extend the northern boundary of the State of Nebraska. 7. To provide for the payment of the ordinary and contingent expenses of the Legislature, incurred dur- ing the special session hereby convened. With respect to the boundary extension, the Governor says : By an act of Congress approved March 28, 1882, the northern boundary of the State of Nebraska was extended so as to include all that portion of the Terri- tory of Dakota lying south of the forty-third parallel of north latitude, and east of the Keya-paha Eiver and west of the main channel of the Missouri Eiver} subject to the provision that the act aforesaid shal not' take effect so far as jurisdiction is concerned unt: the Indian title has been extinguished and the Ste' of Nebraska shall have assented to the provisions said act. This subject is submitted for your conside ation, in order that you may determine what actu shall be taken by the State for the purpose of givii final force and effect to said act of Congress. The session was closed on the 2oth of Mi TEMPERANCE. — A temperance convention the ministers of the State was held in Linc( on the 9th and 10th of May, which adopt the following among other resolutions : Resolved. That the people hold the only power thi can settle the question, and to the people the questio must finally be submitted, and we therefore appeal 1 our next Legislature, and ask them to submit the que tion to the people of the State in the form of a cor-1 tutional amendment prohibiting the manufacture sale of alcoholic liquors as a beverage. Resolved, That while we labor earnestly for the adoption of such constitutional amendment, and for the enactment of suitable laws to carry it into effect, we appreciate the fact that intemperance is a vice, and that against its influence we must labor and pray until human nature has become subject to the grace of God through our Lord Jesus Christ ; and that the hope of the enforcement of laws relating to intemper- ance lies in an awakened public conscience and a right public sentiment. Resolved, That the fact that the American saloon is a licensed institution makes it none the less an evil, and that the paying of a large sum of money for thi privilege of committing a crime, abates none of ft heinousness of the crime, but tends to connect those who take the money with the sin. Resolved, That speedy prohibition by constitutional amendment for the State and nation is desirable, pos- sible, and highly probable in the near future. NEBRASKA. 587 PARTY CONVENTIONS. — The Republican State P. D. Sturdevant, of Fillmore ; Auditor, John Convention met in Omaha on September 20th, Beatty, of Wheeler ; Attorney-General, John and nominated the following ticket : Barnd, of Buffalo ; Superintendent of Public For Governor, James W. Dawes, of Saline Instruction, J. J. Points, of Douglas ; Commis- County; for Lieutenant-Governor, A. W. Agee, sioner of Public Lands, 0. H. Madley, of of Hamilton ; for Secretary of State, E. P. Rog- Adams ; Regent of University, Thomas Bell, of gen, of Lancaster ; for Treasurer, Loran Clark, Otoe. of Boone ; for Auditor, John Wallichs, of Hall ; ELECTION RETURNS. — The election in Novem- for Commissioner of Public Lands and Build- her resulted in the choice of the Republican ings, A. G. Kendall, of Howard; for Attorney- State ticket by a plurality vote, except in the General, Isaac Powers, of Dakota; for Super- case of Treasurer, to which office Sturdevant, intendent of Public Instruction, W. "W. W. the joint nominee of the opposition, was chosen. Jones, of Lancaster; for Regent of the Uni- The following are the figures, excluding a few versity, C. H. Gere, of Lancaster. hundred scattering votes : The platform adopted is as follows : FOR GOV£RNOR> Resolved, That the Kepublicans of Nebraska, in con- Dawes 43,495 vention assembled, stand by the fundamental prin- Morton 28,562 ciples of the Republican party as enunciated in an Ingersoll 16,991 unbroken line of national ana State platforms, the _, chief of which are free labor; free speech; the right l0tal 89'048 of every qualified citizen to vote once at every elec- FOR LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR. tion, and nave that vote counted under the restrictions Ag-ee 44,520 of just and equitable election laws; free, non-secta- Warner 26*022 rian schools ; sound currency on a specie basis, under Reynolds 17,656 national control ; the raising of national revenues by taxation of luxuries and articles of consumption not . 4Vr ??'i«o essential to the comfort and well-being of the people, j* !| °™ Reynolds 26's64 and from a tariff on imports so adjusted as to protect home labor and the investment of capital in home FOR SECRETARY OF STATE. industries ; and legislative control of corporations. Rogrpen 44,765 JSesolved, That we uphold and maintain the enforce- Bowlby 23,420 ment, by well-considered legislation, of the clause in Kirtley 17,124 our State organic law that prohibits unjust discrimi- T , , "SS~SOQ nations and extortions by railroad corporations, while E °n Q— -^^ • ; ; ; ; ; %$fg recognizing the importance 01 fostering and protect- Koggen over Kirtley 27,641 ing them as necessary factors in our progress and Roggen over all '. '. .............. '. '. ...'. 1*221 prosperity ; and that we trust to the honesty and cour- age of the people, in their political capacity ? to repel . FOR AUDITOR. encroachments of corporate power upon the rights and waffidis privileges of citizens on the one hand, and, on the ^ea?!1 other, to deal justly and fairly with all property inter- , ests under whatever name or form, without unjust Total 83.272 discrimination or extortion in the matter of levying Wallichs over Leach 18,290 taxes, or regulating prices of commodities or charges Wallichs over Beatty 27,301 for services. Wallichs over all 970 The following were the Republican nominees FOR TREASURER. for Oongress; First District, A. J. Weaver, of Richardson ; Second District, James Laird, of Adams ; Third ,. Total ; TV i • i T« -IT- \r i A- j> Vi • Sturdevant over C ark 4,111 District, E. K. Valentine, of Cummg. The Democratic State 'Convention also met F°R ATTORNEY-GENERAL. in Omaha in September. Its nominees were Crawford 2^447 the following: For Governor, J. S. Morton; Barnd..." "' ''""""''''" ' Lieutenant-Governor, J. H. Warner ; Secretary T of State, C.J. Bowlby; Auditor, Charles Leach; Powers over Crawford. .. ......... .... ........... moi2 Attorney-General, J. C. Crawford; Commis- Powers over Barnd 27,576 sioner of Public Lands, Henry Grebe ; Super- Power8 over a11 1)129 intendent of Public Instruction, Charles A. FOR COMMISSIONER OF PUBLIC LANDS AND BUILDINGS. Speice ; Regent of University, John H. Burks ; Kendall 44,341 Treasurer, P. D. Sturdevant. graedb£y The Greenback State Convention was held in Lincoln. This body appointed a committee KJS to wait upon the Anti-Monopoly State Conven- Kendall over Madley 27,15!> sion, which met in Hastings on September Kendall over all 896 27th. The result was the following joint FOR SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS. ticket: Jones 44,713 For Governor, E. P. Ingersoll, of Johnson Speice 26.814 County, President of the State Farmers' Alii- ] ance; for Lieutenant-Governor, D. P. Rey- Total 88,387 noids, of Hamilton; for Secretary of state, Js^fe;:;::;;:;:::;;::::::::::::;;::;;;; i|S ihomas Kirtley, of Franklin; for Treasurer, jonesoveraii 1^040 588 NETHERLANDS, THE. Gere . . , Burks.. Bell.... FOR REGENT OF THE UNIVERSITY. 43,221 88,113 4,709 A vote was also taken on a proposed amend- ment to the Constitution, extending the right of suffrage to women, with the following re- sult : For the amendment, 25,756 ; against, 50,- 693. For Congressmen three Republicans were elected : FIRST DISTRICT. "Weaver. 17,022 Eedick 12.090 Gilbert 3,70T Laird.... Moore. . . Harman. . SECOND DISTRICT. 10.012 8,060 THIRD DISTRICT. Valentine 11,284 Turner 7,342 Hunger 9,932 The Legislature, to meet in January, 1883, will consist on joint ballot of seventy-one straight Republicans, forty Democrats, and twenty-two Anti-Monopolists, the Republicans having a majority in the House, and the oppo- sition in the Senate. NETHERLANDS, THE, a monarchy of Western Europe. The Constitution, proclaimed in 1848, vests the legislative authority in the King and the two Houses of the States-General. The First Chamber is composed of 39 members, elected by the Provincial Councils from among the class paying the highest taxes. The Sec- ond Chamber is elected by ballot, at the rate of one deputy to every 45,000 inhabitants, and consists of 86 members. Every Netherlander who is of age, is domiciled, and pays from 20 to 160 guilders of direct taxes, according to the locality, has the right to vote. Clergymen, judges, and provincial governors are ineligible. The members of the Second Chamber receive pay. One half the members of the Second Chamber retire every two years, and one third the members of the Upper House every three years. The initiative in legislation is confined to the Lower House, the Upper House possess- ing only the rights of approval and amend- ment. The ministers must attend the meetings of both Houses, and have a voice in the delib- erations, but no vote. The veto power, re- served to the King, is never exercised. Either or both Houses may be dissolved by the King, but new elections must take place within forty days. The executive authority is exercised in the name of the sovereign by a responsible council of ministers. The reigning sovereign is William III, born in 1817, who succeeded his father, William II, March 17, 1849. The heir- apparent is Alexander, Prince of Orange, his only son, born in 1851. The Cabinet is composed of the following members: Baron W. F. van Rochussen, Minister for Foreign Affairs, and appointed June 19, 1881, who replaced Baron Lynden van Sandenburg as President of the Council in the latter part of 1882 ; Dr. C. Pynacker Hordyk, Minister of the Interior, appointed February 9, 1882 ; Dr. A. E. J. Modderman, Minister of Justice, ap- pointed August 19, 1879; Baron Dr. C. T. van Lynden van Sandenburg, Minister of Fi- nance, appointed in August, 1881 ; Dr. O. W. Stavenisse de Brauw, Minister of the Colonies, succeeding Baron van Goltstein ; Baron G. J. G. van Klerck, Minister of the Waterstaat, Commerce, and Industry, appointed August 19, 1879 ; Major-General A. E. Reuther, Min- ister of War, appointed August 19, 1879 ; W. F. van Erp Taalman Kip, Minister of Marine. AREA AND POPULATION. — The decennial cen- sus of 1879 gave the area of the Netherlands as 32,972 square kilometres, or 12,678 square miles, and the population as 4,012,693, com- prising 1,983,164 males and 2,029,529 females. The total population in 1869 was 3,579,529. The annual enumeration of December 31, 1881, gives the population as 4,114,077, distributed among the eleven provinces as follows : PROVINCES. North Holland South Holland Utrecht Zealand North Brabant Limburg Population. 713.238 835,112 197,638 189,306 475,493 242,122 Guelderland 476,026 PROVINCES. Population. Overyssel 277.946 Drenthe 120,734 Groningen 257,153 Friesland Total population . 4,114,077 The movement of population for four years was as follows : YEARS. Marriages. Births. Deaths. Exce.s of births. 1878 80710 1 50 493 98486 52007 1879.... 1880 . . 30,655 30,849 155,089 151,380 98,099 102.806 56,990 48,574 1881 29,849 150,C90 95,447 55,243 The population was divided in 1879, as to religion, into 2,469,814 Protestants, 1,439,137 Catholics, 81,693 Israelites, and 29,049 of other beliefs. The population of the chief cities, on Decem- ber 31, 1881, was as follows : CITIES. Population. Amsterdam 828,047 Rotterdam 157,2TO The Hague 123,499 Utrecht 71,387 CITIES. Population. Leyden 41,631 Haarlem 39,977 Tilburg.... Leeuwarden 29,079 Groningen 48,000 Maestricht 28,917 Arnhem 42,761 I Dordrecht 27,722 The number of domestic letters forwarded by the post in 1881 was 44,144,240 ; of foreign letters, 13,298,865; of postal-cards, 17,640,- 758 ; total letters, 75,083,863 ; of newspapers for the interior, 36,646,830 ; for foreign parts, 3,308,804; total newspapers, 39,955,634. The receipts amounted to 4,260,168 guilders; the expenses to 3,005,286 guilders. (The guilder, or florin, is equivalent to 38£ cents.) The length of the state telegraph lines at the commencement of 1882 was 3,943 kilome- tres, or 2,460 miles; the length of wires 14,- 373 kilometres, or 8,980 miles. The state had 203 stations, the companies 215. The number of dispatches sent in 1881 was 3,281,792, of which 1,972,158 were of domestic, and 1,279,- 495 of foreign, destinations. The receipts NETHERLANDS, THE. 589 amounted to 1,083,190 guilders ; the expenses to 1,416,734 guilders. The length of the railroads in operation on the 1st of January was 1,976 kilometres, or 1,230 miles, of which 1,010 kilometres, or 630 miles, belonged to the state. The export and import trade of Holland with the principal foreign countries, and with the Dutch colonies, was in 1879 and 1880, in millions of guilders and tenths of millions, as follows : COUNTRIES. IMPORTS. EXPORTS. 1S?9. 1880. 1879. 1880. German Zollverein 207-5 13-2 219-0 111-8 82-9 16 9 80-8 233-6 12-4 212-2 104-3 45-6 15-1 83-5 656-8 259-3 10-4 129-0 94-2 7-5 10-3 15 2 251-7 14-1 146-6 100-6 9-2 10-4 29-0 561-9 Hanse towns ... Great Britain Russia .... France . . . Other European countries Total Europe 682-2 526-2 United States 54-2 14-3 81-3 12-2 9-1 2-8 15-6 3-1 Other American countries Total America 69-6 93-5 11-9 18-8 British India 29-8 1-8 5-0 0'9 24-6 'i:6 0-3 0-3 0-2 1-2 0-3 'i:5 Other Asiatic countries African countries All others Total foreign countries Dutch East Indies 789-5 782-5 56-1 0-9 540-0 582-6 55-9 1-1 41-4 46-8 0-11 0-2 Dutch West Indies Total colonies 57-1 57-1 41-6 47-0 846-6 889-7 581-6 629-7 The number of sailing-vessels entering Dutch ports in 1881 was 3,5,39, of 2,662,324 tons, of which 3,326, of 2,609,601 tons, were laden, and 1,246, of 869,001 tons, were of Dutch nationality ; the number of steamers was 4,863, of 7,417,575 tons, of which 4,776, of 7,292,- 876 tons, were with cargoes, and 1,089, of 2,054,918 tons, were Dutch. The merchant marine in 1881 consisted of 802 sailing-ships, of 658,887 cubic metres displacement, and 78 steamships, displacing 204,396 cubic metres. COLONIES. — The colonial possessions of the Netherlands have a total area of 666,700 square miles, and contain more than six times the population of the mother-country. Java and Madura, the most important of the Dutch East India colonies, with an area of 51,- 324 square miles, have, according to the census of 1879, a population of 19,298,804 persons. The rest of the Dutch East Indies, comprising Sumatra, Riau, Banca,Billiton, Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, New Guinea, Timor, Bali, etc., have collectively an area of about 665,000 square miles, and a population estimated at 8,400,000. The European and foreign population of the Dutch East Indies is as follows: European ci- vilians, 39,318; Chinese, 308,886 ; Arabs, 16,- 012 ; Hindoos and others, 33,221. Nearly three fourths live in Java and Madura. The capital of Java, Batavia, contains 102,901 inhabitants. The other important cities are Samarang, with 69,141, and Soerabaya, with 120,254 inhabi- tants. The American colonies of the Netherlands are two in number : Surinam, or Dutch Guiana, 45,890 square miles in area, containing in 1880 69,476 inhabitants, inclusive of about 17,000 Indians and bush negroes descended from ma- roons, or runaway slaves ; and the colony of Curagoa, or the Dutch West Indies, 434 square miles in extent, and containing 42,530 inhab- itants. The item of colonial administration in the Netherlands budget applies to the West India colonies only. The expenditures of Surinam for 1882 are given in the estimates as 1,330,300 guilders, the receipts as 1,164,944; the expen- ditures of Curacoa as 565,498, the receipts 528,- 631 guilders. The great East India colonies have their separate budget voted by the States- General. The estimates state the receipts for 1882 as 138,913,703 guilders, the expenditures as 148,499,631 guilders. The receipts in 1881 amounted to 142,602,554 guilders, the expen- ditures to 144,671,160 guilders. In normal years a large surplus revenue is produced for the benefit of the home government, averaging between 1869 and 1876 nearly 20,000,000 guil- ders. The sources of revenue are given in the budget for 1882 as follow : RECEIPTS. In Holland. In the Indies. Total. Sales of coffee 85,668,043 10,048,000 45,716,043 Sales of quinine Sales of tin 188,867 4 825 499 183,867 4,825 499 Opium monopoly 18,984,000 9 015 000 18,984,000 9015000 Land-tax 18 028 000 18 028 000 Salt duty 7,105,500 7,105 500 Posts and telegraphs. Railroads ' 855,666 1,256,500 2,2-»»,000 1,256,500 8.075,000 Various sources Total 719,642 42,252,051 80,004,652 96,661,652 80,724,294 188,918,703 Of the disbursements 24,859,110 guilders were expended in Holland, and 123,640,521 guilders in the colonies. About one third of the annual expenditure is for the army, and one third for the general administration in Java and the Netherlands. The " culture system," or species of serfdom on which the Government of Java is based, has been abolished in respect to the production ot indigo, pepper, tea, tobacco, and other articles, and is now confined to the cultivation of coffee and sugar. Forced labor in the production of the sugar-cane is to be done away with like- wise in 1890. The bulk of the population are agricultural laborers. Nearly the whole of the soil is claimed as Government property. Pri- vate ownership is confined to the northwestern residencies, where a number of Netherlander possess estates. The right to exact forced la- bor from the natives on Government or private property is limited to one day out of seven, for which the laborers receive no wages. The vast and complicated official organization has a sin- gle head, the Governor-General, who has the 590 NETHERLANDS, THE. power to make laws and regulations subject to the restrictions laid down in the code of regu- lations adopted in 1854, and to the authority reserved to the States-General. The Governor- General is Frederik s' Jacob, who entered upon his duties in July, 1881. The sales of colonial produce on account of the Government are transacted in Holland on the so-called consignation system by the Neth- erlands Trading Company, which has been the Government's agent since 1824. This company, which has made enormous profits ever since the establishment of the culture system in 1832, originally advanced the capital to start that system, on which the state guaranteed 4£ per cent interest. By a new contract concluded with the company in November, 1882, the com- missions on sales are reduced from 2 to 1^ per cent, and the Government is relieved of the costs of the factory in Batavia. The foreign trade of the Dutch East Indies, in 1878 and 1879, was of the following amounts, in guilders : IN 1878. Imports. Exports. Merchandise . 115 971 000 172 490 000 Specie 24 479 000 7 477 000 Total 140 450 000 179967000 IN 1879. - Imports. Exports. Merchandise 13C 668 000 171 758 000 Specie 17 981 000 8 983 000 Total 154,651,000 175743000 The principal exports in 1879 were of the following values : EXPORTS. Guilders. Coffee : By the Government 33,499,000 li By individuals 32,257,000 Sugar 47,867,000 Tin : By the Government 3,772,000 '• By individuals 3.531,000 Indigo 2,950,000 Hides 1,895,000 Cloves and nutmegs 2.508,000 Eice 1,623,000 Tobacco 14,612,000 Tea 1,821,000 The revolt of the Atchinese in Sumatra con- tinued through the year 1882. In September an important victory of the Dutch troops was announced to have been achieved on the 13th, by which the rebels lost their chief, Nyahas- sin, and many men. Later dispatches showed that the rebellion was spreading. The replace- ment of the military by a civil government seemed to have been premature, but Minister de Brauw, when questioned on the subject of restoring the military administration, expressed unwillingness to interfere with the authority of the Stadtholder of East India. ARMY AND NAVY. — The Dutch army consists of two distinct elements, the volunteers and the militia. The militia was organized in 1861, to supplement the volunteer forces. They are drawn by lot, and serve nominally five years; but after being drilled for a year they are al- lowed to go on furlough, and are only called in for six weeks each year. Besides the regular army, there is a civic guard called the Schut- tery, composed of all the members of communes between twenty-five and thirty-five years of age. The regular army on the war footing numbers 2,320 officers and 62,687 men. The army of the Dutch East Indies is composed entirely of volunteers. In 1881 it mustered 1,456 officers and 31,693 men. Of the rank and file, 15,399 were Europeans, 156 Africans, and 16,130 natives. The navy in 1882 consisted of 103 steamers with 393 guns, and 19 sailing-vessels with 157 guns. (See NAVIES or EUEOPE.) FINANCE. — The total revenues in the five years 1873-'77 averaged 110,000,000 guilders, the expenditures slightly more. The budget estimates for 1882 place the total receipts at the sum of 107,421,555 guilders, the expendi- tures at 129,987,644 guilders. The public debt in 1882 stood at 941,308,450 guilders, including 10,000,000 of paper money; 613,294,400 guilders bore interest at 2£ per cent; 90,312,150 at 3 percent; 10,150,000 of sinking-fund bonds at 3| per cent; and 186,- 239,400, being the old national debt, and 31,- 312,500 guilders of new bonds issued under the law of 1878, at 4 per cent. FOREIGN RELATIONS. — The operations of the British in North Borneo gave rise to consider- able mistrust and excitement in Holland, which found expression in the Chamber in a request to the ministry to have the boundary -line fixed between this new British colony and the Dutch possessions in Southern Borneo. The ministry announced that they had the assurances of the British Government that British sovereignty would not be proclaimed on the island, and that they would therefore not take the respon- sibility of creating difficulties on the question. A large part of the year was taken up with settling a new commercial treaty with France, which was framed on the principle of the most favored nation. An international fishery con- vention, between Holland, England, France, Belgium, Germany, and Denmark, was signed in May. It provides for guarding the fisheries by cruisers from the navies of the contracting powers, and for the decision of disputes be- tween fishermen of the different nationalities. POLITICS. — The year, which witnessed a re- markable and prolonged ministerial crisis, ended with no important results except that of spur- ring the Government to take up the questions which have been postponed for three years. The financial difficulties of the Government caused by the continued deficits in the home and East Indian budgets reached no conclusion in 1882, the proposition to raise a new loan to cover the deficits and extend the railroads be- ing postponed. There is a total deficiency of 53,500,000 guilders in the accounts of tim Netherlands and 44,000,000 in those of Java, including the estimated deficits for 1883. The question of amending the school laws was NEVADA. 591 brought up by the Catholics and Evangelical religionists, and, during the discussions, the Liberals showed a less uncompromising dispo- sition than heretofore. NEVADA. The Governor of Nevada dur- ing the year was John H. Kinkead. His term expired on January 1, 1883, and he was suc- ceeded by Jewett W. Adams, elected on the Democratic ticket. The affairs of the State have been without any important change ; its growth in popula- tion has been slow, and its prosperity in min- ing diminished. The Nevada Asylum for the Insane has been constructed and furnished, at the compara- tively small cost of $63,000, and put in actual operation this year. The law case pending before the Supreme Court in 1881, upon the payment of $1,279.79, claimed by the Nevada Orphan Asylum in Virginia City as its due portion of the money appropriated by the previous Legislature for distribution among all the orphan asylums in the State which are conducted in a non-secta- rian manner, has been decided adversely to the said institution, upon the ground that it is sec- tarian. This asylum was founded nearly twenty year.-? ago, and, with the school attached to it, is under the management of the Sisters of Charity, who are Catholics. The Court held, as a certain principle, that " not who are in- structed, but what is taught, must determine the question of sectarianism." The public debt of Nevada is $336,587.50, and the State has $331,127.03 in coin on hand. The receipts for the years 1881 and 1882 amounted to $302,435.74 and $303,445.94 re- spectively ; the expenditures, to $346,117.01 and $286,842.66, leaving for the two years in the Treasury a cash balance of $27,868.99. For the collection of her revenue the State now pays the collector at the rate of 14 per cent. The aggregate valuations of assessable prop- erty in the State, for the year 1882, amounted to $29,109,889.86, which sum included the net proceeds of mines. The depreciation of property has not been general throughout the State. Its value has decreased in eight of the fourteen counties, namely, Douglas, Eureka, Humholdt, Lyon, Nye, Ormsby, Storey, and White Pine, to the collective amount of $2,071,980.45, of which sum $1,286,607.29 belongs to Storey County alone, the depreciation of this county's prop- erty having been the greatest in the whole State, and in less than a twelvemonth. In 1881 it was valued at $5,212,823.39 ; in 1882, at $3,926,216.10. In the remaining six coun- ties— Churchill, Elboo, Esmeralda, Lander, Lincoln, and Washoe — assessable property has, on the contrary, increased in value for 1882 to an aggregate amount of $1,074,77.15 over 1881, the depreciation for the whole State amounting to $997,903.30. With reference to the net proceeds of mines, the decrease for 1882 was principally in the counties of Esmeralda, Eureka, and Lander, to a total amount of $801,817.11, making an aggregate decrease of assessable valuations in the State of $1,799,720.41, as compared with those for 1881. The assets of the State School fund amount to $622,008.85, of which sum $576,610.50 are invested in undoubted securities. The Gov- ernor predicts the time to be near at hand when the tax-payers will be entirely free from the necessity of contributing any part of their money for the support of the common schools. The whole number of children of school age, from six to eighteen years, throughout the State, at the close of 1882, was 10,483. The money apportionment made for them by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, in his semi-annual report for the first half of 1883, amounts to a total of $30,354.40, or at the rate of little less than six dollars a year for each child. Storey County has by far the largest number of children of school age — 3,152 ; Ormsby and Eureka coming nearest to it, with 1,182 and 1,014 respectively. Churchill County has the smallest number of such chil- dren, 96. The State University fund amounts to $56,- 630, invested in undoubted securities, as the School Fund. The expense of keeping this university open the Governor thinks to exceed by much the benefits resulting from it. The public institutions are under praise- worthy management in every respect, and re- alize the objects for which they were intended. The number of the insane persons in Ne- vada, brought from the asylum at Stockton on July 1, 1882, and lodged in the asylum erected for them at Eeno, was 148. The Legislature of 1879 had appropriated for their care and treatment at Stockton during the years 1881 and 1882 the sum of $100,000. the unemployed balance of which, amounting to $15,682.50, has now been expended in bringing them over from Stockton, and in supporting the institu- tion. In the State Penitentiary the number of con- victs on January 1, 1881, was 138, increased soon after to 162, and then, in the course of two years, gradually diminished, their number on December 31, 1882, being 113. Two of them are women. Four escapes from the State-Pris- on have occurred during 1881-'82, but all of the fugitives have been recaptured. The cost to the State for feeding, clothing, and guard- ing each prisoner during the two biennial terms of 1879-'80 and 1881-'82, has been 72'35 and 66'96 cents per diem, respectively. Of the four items making up this cost, as set down by the warden in his last report, the highest is that of " salaries, arms, and ammunition — 57*78 and 32-02 cents " ; nearest to it comes that of "commissary stores — 27'85 and 27'73 cents," respectively. At the session of 1879, the Ne- vada Legislature appropriated $100,000 for the current expenses of the State-Prison, and 592 NEVADA. NEW HAMPSHIRE. $60,000 for its boot and shoe manufactory, in which occupation the convicts are almost ex- clusively employed. During the two years 1881-'82 there have been from this factory $1,995.86 of profits, with about $600 of bad debts. Out of the proceeds from the sales of boots and shoes manufactured at the Nevada Penitentiary within the said two years, the warden has paid into the State Treasury the sum of $55,886.69. The Eepublicans of Nevada met in State Con- vention at Reno on September 4th, to nomi- nate their candidates for the several State of- fices, a member of the Lower House of Con- gress, and a Supreme Court Judge, as follow : For Governor, Enoch Strother ; Lieutenant- Governor, Charles E. Laughton ; Secretary of State, J. M. Dormer; State Treasurer, George Tufly ; State Comptroller, J. F. Hallock ; State Attorney - General, W. H. Davenport ; State Printer, J. C. Harlow; State Superintendent of Public Instruction, C. S. Young; State Sur- veyor-General, Charles S. Preble. For Judge of the Supreme Court, O. R. Leonard ; Clerk of the Supreme Court, Charles F. Bicknell ; member of Congress, C. C. Powning. The following, among other resolutions, were adopted : Resolved, That we have faith in the prudent and sa- gacious administration of President Arthur, and be- lieve it will result in promoting the best interests of the country. Resolved, That the presence in our midst of a ser- vile race of aliens, incapable of assimilation with our institutions, is a perpetual menace to all classes of so- ciety. The reliet extended to our people bv the pas- sage of a law excluding the Chinese by a Republican Congress, and approved by a [Republican President, is a genuine cause of satisfaction. We are in favor of strenuously enforcing the provisions of said law, and we pledge the Eepublican party to labor now and henceforth to secure such further legislation as will permanently exclude the Chinese. Resolved, That we recognize the paramount impor- tance of maintaining unimpaired the free public-school system of the State. We shall defend it against sec- tarian, political, or other improper influences, and we favor such additional legislation as the condition and wants of the common schools of the State may require. As free institutions, they should be so conducted as to satisfy poor and rich alike ; and upon this principle we urge the adoption of some system by wnich this State shall furnish the text-books at the lowest pos- sible figure. Resolved, That owing to the remote position of Ne- vada from the seaboard, and the entire absence of navi- gable waters and competing lines of railroads to and from commercial centers, we demand from Congress such wholesome and effective legislation as will place our people on terms of equality in respect to trans- portation charges with communities specially favored by railroad monopolies. Resolved, That we pledge the Eepublican party of Nevada to such a course of enlightened legislation as will extend to railroad and all other corporations do- ing business in this State the same protection and the same rights before the law as are accorded to individ- uals—no more and no less. The Democratic party of Nevada held its State Convention at Eureka on September 6th, and nominated the following candidates: For Governor, Jewett W. Adams ; for Lieu- tenant-Governor, William Burke; for Secre- tary of State, James W. Richards; for State Treasurer, George H. Shepherd ; for State Comptroller, P. J. Dunne ; for State Attorney- General, George W. Merrill ; for State Super- intendent of Public Instruction, A. E. Keye; for State Surveyor-General, George Ernst ; for State Printer, D. E. McCarthy ; for Judge of the Supreme Court, M. N. Stone ; for Clerk of the Supreme Court, A. E. Ham ; for member of Congress, G. W. Cassidy. For District Judges : for the Third District, William Sewell ; for the Fifth District, W. C. Grimes ; for the Sixth District, Henry River ; for the Seventh District, J. McMullen. The Democrats elected their nominees, Jew- ett W. Adams for Governor, George W. Mer- rill for State Attorney-General, and re-elected G. W. Cassidy for the member of Congress from Nevada. The Republicans elected their nominees for Lieutenant-Governor and for all the other officers of the Executive Departments, also for State Printer, for Surveyor-General, for Judge of the Supreme Court, and for Clerk of that court. The majority for Governor was 881. The State Legislature is composed of 36 Rep- resentatives and 20 Senators, ten of whom hold over from the previous election. This body at its meeting in January, 1883, will be divided as follows : In the Senate, Democrats 12, Repub- licans 8 ; in the House of Representatives, Re- publicans 24, Democrats 14: the Republicans having a minority of 4 in the Higher House, a majority of 10 in the Lower, and of 8 on joint ballot. NEW HAMPSHIRE. The State officers were as follow: Governor, Charles H. Bell; Secretary of State, Eli B. Thompson; State Treasurer, Solon A. Carter ; Councilors, Thomas J. Jameson, Lyman D. Stevens, John W. Wheeler, George H. Stowell, Arthur L. Me- serve. DEBT AND FINANCES. — The State debt is as follows : Net indebtedness June 1, 1881 ... ... $3,372,770 05 June 1,1882 3,830,75748 Reduction during the year $42,013 57 Receipts from all sources during the year $909.608 90 Cash on hand June 1, 1881 -. 87,507 87 Total receipts during the year $947,1 1 6 27 Expenditures for all purposes during the year.. 885,894 79 Cash on hand June 1, 1882 61,111 48 Total $947,116 27 The ordinary State expenditures during the last fiscal year amounted, in the aggregate, to $201,492.80 ; the extraordinary to $59,441.41. This sum includes the expenses made on the new prison, $4,854.31 ; express taxes and in- terest refunded, .$652.57; Yorktown centen- nial, $7,000; National Guard's equipments, $10,000, and other items of outlays of no fre- quent occurrence. RAILEOADS. — The names of all the railway lines operating in New Hampshire, either NEW HAMPSHIRE. 593 within her limits only, or in connection with lines worked in other States, and the tax as- sessed on each of them by the State Board of Equalization; also the names of her several telegraph companies, and the amounts of the taxes levied on them respectively, are given in the following lists, published in October, 1882 : Amount of tax : RAILROADS. on each road. Eastern $3,997 25 Boston and Maine 16,811 14 Ashuelot 1,696 23 Boston, Concord, and Montreal 25,762 78 Fitchburg. 192 60 Nashua and Lowell 4,275 12 Wilton 2,890 90 Cheshire 12,914 90 Grand Trunk 6,352 05 Northern 16.490 43 Concord 27,762 20 Manchester and North Weare 901 84 Concord and Portsmouth 5,459 52 Dover and Win nipesaukee 3,839 43 Portsmouth, Great Falls, and Con way 2,502 05 Manchester and Lawrence 17.196 67 Concord and Clarernont 5,356 59 Sullivan County 5,781 00 Worcester and Nashua. 1,937 34 Mount Washington 1,595 56 Suncook Valley 1,618 63 Portland and Eochester 173 43 Monadnock 1,141 40 Portland and Ogdensburg 445 14 Total $170,003 85 The taxes assessed upon the several telegraph companies are shown in the following table : Amount of tax assessed TELEGRAPH COMPANIES. on each line. Western Union $657 81 American Union 83 88 Atlantic and Pacific 22 94 Northern 19 20 Maine 49 43 Montreal 24 75 New Hampshire 917 Chester and Deny 8 00 American 45 00 Stratfordand Colebrook 8 05 Total $867 73 The valuation of the railroads for assessment purposes has been reduced this year to $82 on $100 of supposed actual value; and that has been the average rate of their taxation through- out the State. The aggregate amount of rail- road-tax for 1882 is about $13,000 less than in 1881, because of the said undervaluation, and because the lower rate of taxation has now been assessed on other property within the State generally. The land and water areas of New Hamp- shire have been ascertained, from accurate measurements by Henry Gannett, the geogra- pher of the tenth census, as follows : " The total land area of New Hampshire, by counties, in square miles, is, Rockingham, 740 ; Strafford, 320; Belknap, 400; Carroll, 780; Merrimack, 920 ; Hillsborough, 980 ; Cheshire, 780; Sullivan, 580; Grafton, 1,525; Coos, 1,980=9,005. Water area of the State, 300. Total gross area, 9,305 square miles." (For the details of State institutions, see " Annual Cyclopedia," 1881.) STATE CONVENTIONS. — The Prohibitionists of the State held a convention at Nashua, on June VOL. xxii. — 38 A 7th and 8th. Some weeks prior to the meet- ing the purpose of the convention was pub- licly stated to be " to devise some more effect- ive way than the ' spotter system ' to suppress the sale of intoxicating liquors." It was also announced that in the local committee of ar- rangements all parties were represented by their respective adherents as members, and that delegates from all were invited to take part in the convention, which was to be, as it were, " a mass-meeting of temperance men, who desire to confer together concerning the suppression of an evil." At various times during its proceedings, the convention was addressed by a number of prominent citizens, devoted to the interests of prohibition; and the chief result of its deliberations, character- ized throughout by earnestness and harmony, was a new constitution, which, without chang- ing the character and purpose of the associa- tion, gives it a somewhat different form. Soon after the first meeting of the delegates had been organized, a committee of nine was ap- pointed, with Governor Bell at its head as chairman, and two women among its mem- bers, " to prepare a plan for the organization of a State association." This committee, on the second day of the session, reported the following constitution, which was unanimously adopted by the convention : NEW HAMPSHIRE STATE TEMPERANCE UNION. To promote the cause of temperance, both by moral and legal means ; to secure unity and vigor of action among the bodies engaged in promoting this cause, and to aid in diffusing useful information on the sub- ject, by lectures and in print, this constitution is formed. ARTICLE I. This association shall be known as the New Hampshire State Temperance Union. ART. II. The officers shall consist of a president and three vice-presidents, a secretary, a treasurer, and an executive committee of fifteen. ART. III. The president shall preside at all meet- ings of the Union, and in his absence the vice-presi- dents in order of election. The secretary shall keep a record of all meetings of the Union ; shall attend to the necessary correspondence, and also perform any other duties that shall devolve upon him by action of the Association or Executive Committee. The treas- urer shall receive all moneys due the Union, and dis- burse the same as directed, taking vouchers for all expenditures, and keeping an accurate account of the same. All the officers shall constitute a board of di- rection, a majority of whom shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. They shall meet as often as they may elect, and as often as once in six months. The Executive Board shall adopt such meas- ures for the promotion of the objects of the Union as shall seem to be prudent and effective. ART. IV. Any person may become a member of the Union by the payment of one dollar or more to the treasurer, and thereby authorizing the secretary to append his name to the constitution. ART. V. The Executive Board may make all ne- cessary by-laws to carry out this constitution, which shall be subject to revision by the Union at its annual meeting. The following declaration of principles was subsequently reported from the committee on resolutions, and unanimously adopted : 1. "We believe that there is no reform calling for greater exertion and sacrifice than that which seeks to 594 NEW HAMPSHIRE. help men to break away from the bondage of strong drink. 2. We believe there is no cause more just and com- manding than that which aims at the extermination of a traffic which is the source of nine tenths of all poverty, misery, and crime. 3. The prohibitory law of this State, now on trial for twenty-five years, while partially inoperative from lack of enforcement in many places, has exerted a wholesome and restraining influence, and its efficiency has been abundantly proved wherever and whenever enforced. 4. The time has come in the history of this reform to declare our firm and unalterable conviction that the duty of enforcing all laws, the prohibitory law in- cluded, is incumbent on the police and solicitors, and on the selectmen, and mayor, and aldermen of cities and towns ; and the same diligence and impartiality are due from them that the courts have employed in upholding the prohibitory law among the statutes of the State. 5. The reform clubs, temperance unions, and all other organizations that aim to carry out the practical work of the temperance cause, both by moral and le- gal suasion, should receive the approval and support of allgood citizens. 6. That the lavish and corrupt use of money in procuring the nomination and election of civil officers is an alarming and growing evil ; is a reproach to the State, turning our politics into a school of corruption, and threatening, unless checked, to undermine popu- lar elections and overwhelm republican government itself ; and we call upon the people to rebuke the prac- tice, and wipe out the reproach in every eifective way. 7. To secure the enforcement and strengthening of the prohibitory and all other laws of the State, we recommend to the people, especially in the choice of all executive officers and members of the Legislature, that they vigilantly see to the nomination and elec- tion of capable, upright, temperate, and independent men. The following additional resolution was then offered by a delegate, and unanimously adopted by the convention : Resolved^ That this convention recommend such legislative action as will insure the use in the public schools of an elementary treatise on alcohol as a poison. In preparation for the general election in November, 1882, the Republicans of New Hampshire met in State Convention at Con- cord, on September 12th, to nominate their candidates. Little less than 650 delegates, from all sections of the State, were in attendance. The nominations were as follow : For Governor, Samuel W. Hale, of Keene ; Railroad Commissioners, Edward J. Tenney, of Claremont; Ben jamin W. Hoy t, of Epping ; and Stillman Humphrey, of Concord. For members of Congress, by Congressional District Conventions, were nominated: First District, Martin A. Haynes, of Gilford ; Sec- ond District, Ossian Ray, of Lancaster. The following among other resolutions were unanimously adopted : Resolved, That the Eepublicans of New Hampshire reaffirm their faith in those principles which have given liberty, peace, and prosperity to the whole country ; while in the untimely death of the late President Gar- field, endeared to the nation by his public and pri- vate virtues and whose brief service gave promise of a brilliant future, we recognize a great national calam- ity ; we also recognize the patriotism, ability, and fidelity of his successor, and rejoicing in the success of his administration we tender to President Arthur the assurance of our heartiest confidence and support. We reaffirm and indorse the principle of a protec- tive tariff as the safeguard of American industries, by which our great manufacturing interests have been fostered and maintained, and American labor has been protected against the ruinous competition of the scant- ily-paid labor of foreign nations. We believe in the re-establishment of American commerce, by the encouragement of our shipping and ship-building, and by the enactment of laws discrimi- nating in favor of those interests. We believe, also, in the re-establishment of the American Navy. We maintain the principle of the prohibition of the traffic in intoxicating drinks, a traffic so disastrous to the best interests of the people, and we demand that all laws for the prohibition of this traffic shall be fear- lessly and impartially enforced. We recognize the great importance of common schools as essential to our national security and pros- perity, and we favor national assistance toward the complete establishment of such a system throughout the whole country. The public revenues have been and are collected economically and faithfully, but we believe that the term of office should be made for a fixed number of years, and legislation should be adopted to make ap- pointments conditioned solely upon fitness. The Democratic party, represented by about 450 delegates, held its State Convention at Concord on September 13th, and Martin V. B. Edgerly was declared its nominee for Gov- ernor. The following resolutions, with others, were adopted : The Democrats of New Hampshire in convention assembled, while affirming their adherence to the grand principles of Jefferson, Jackson, Madison, and Douglas, enumerate the following as their plat- form: . . . 2. We demand the equal taxation of all property, individual and corporate. 3. We advocate the passage and strict enforcement of the anti-bribery bill of General Marston, defeated by the last Eepublican Legislature. 4. We denounce the present system of blackmailing office-holders, Government clerks, and employe's, practiced by the Eepublicans, to secure corruptive funds for the purchase of votes, and condemn all uses of money, and all other means used for corruption of the ballot at popular elections. 5. We affirm our unalterable opposition to all mo- nopolies, both in State and nation. . . . 7. We believe the present tariff system is unequal and oppressive, and therefore demand its immediate re- vision, to the end that American industries and labor may be properly protected, without creating and fos- tering monopolies. 8. We recognize the growing evil of intemperance, and view with alarm the sale of spirituous liquors, in all the cities and larger towns of the State, in open defiance of the law ; in view of which facts, we charge the Eepublican party with cowardly and designedly evading the enforcement of the prohibitory law, and steadily shamming on the temperance question, and record our opposition to all sumptuary laws and our condemnation of that hypocrisy which places a law upon the statute-book, and then evades its enforce- ment. . . . 11. We charge the Eepublican party with inaugu- rating and steadily practicing wholesale bribery at elec- tions for twenty years past, until our elections have become a grand auction, and the offices go to the high- est bidder ; they have practiced bribery and intimi- dation of voters until New Hampshire politics are a stench in the nostrils of the whole country ; they have used the arm of corporate power in terrifying and con- trolling the votes of their employe's to an extent equal NEW JERSEY. 595 to the Ku-klux among voters of the South, until the working-men of these corporations know they must vote the Republican ticket or be discharged. For Congress, George Chandler was nomi- nated in the First District, and Hosley in the Second. The result of the general local election, on November 7, 1882, was almost entirely favora- ble to the Republican nominees. The aggre- gate vote for Governor numbered 76,218; of which Mr. Hale received 38,399, Mr. Edgerly 36,879, and 840 were scattering. With reference to the other officers, the Re- publicans elected the three Railroad Commis- sioners, both of the two Congressmen, and the first four of the five State Councilors, the Democrats having elected Mr. Aldrich, their nominee for the Fifth District, as Councilor. The General Assembly at its next session will be divided as follows: Senate of 24 mem- bers— Republicans 17, Democrats 7 ; Lower House, composed of 307 Representatives — Re- publicans 188, Democrats 114, Independents 3, Greenbackers 2. NEW JERSEY. STATE GOVERNMENT.— The following were the State officers during the year: Governor, George C. Ludlow, Demo- crat; Secretary of State, Henry C. Kelsey; Treasurer, George M. Wright; Comptroller, Edward J. Anderson ; Attorney-General, John P. Stockton; Adjutant-General, William S. Stryker ; Chancellor, Theodore Runyon ; Vice- Chancellors, Abraham S. Van Fleet and Amzi Dodd ; Clerk of Supreme Court, Benjamin F. Lee; Clerk in Chancery, George S. Duryea; Chancery Reporter, John H. Stewart; Law Reporter, Garret D. W. Vroom ; State Libra- rian, James S. McDanolds; State Superin- tendent of Public Instruction, Ellis A. Apgar ; State Geologist, George H. Cook; Chief of Bureau of Statistics, James Bishop ; Secretary of the State Board of Health, Ezra M. Hunt, M. D. ; Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, Mercer Beasley. LEGISLATURE. — The Legislature met on the 9th of January, and adjourned on the 31st of March. An act to prevent vending, using, or exploding of guns, pistols, toy-pistols, or other fire-arms, to or by persons under the age of fifteen years, makes violations thereof misde- meanors. An act amending the school law provides that an annual meeting for the election of school trustees shall be held in each district on the Tuesday of the week following the an- nual town meeting ; that women shall be eligi- ble as school trustees; and that there shall be an annual census taken in May of all children residing in each district between the ages of five and eighteen. An act was also passed providing for the examination in certain cases of applicants for admission as attorneys to the Supreme Court. Other acts were the follow- ing: An act to encourage the establishment of public libraries in any town or municipality in the State, and to provide for taking care of and perpetuating the same; an act to authorize cities and boroughs to provide by ordinance for the licensing, regulating, restraining, and taxing of auctions and auctioneers ; an act to provide for the better protection of the drivers of horse-cars on street passenger-railroads in the cities and towns of the State; an act to provide for the licensing and regulating of milk-dealers and their agents in cities, incor- porated boroughs, or police, sanitary, and improvement commissions, and incorporated camp-meeting associations or sea-side resorts ; an act to prevent the adulteration and to regu- late the sale of milk; an act to regulate fares on horse-cars in cities of the first class (fixing a maximum of five cents) ; and an act to regulate the sale of petroleum and its products. Anoth- er act divides the cities of the State into four classes, viz.: first class, over 100,000 inhab- itants; second class, 12,000 to 100,000; third class, all other cities, except sea-side resorts on the Atlantic coast ; fourth class, such sea-side resorts. An act was also passed providing that corporations may increase their capital stock to provide means for the payment of bonds that are due or about to become due. FINANCES. — The financial transactions of the State are kept by the Treasurer under four general accounts, viz : Agricultural College Fund, Library Fund, School Fund, and State Fund. The income of the Agricultural College Fund is entirely derived from the interest on $116,- 000 of State bonds, purchased with the pro- ceeds of the sale of lands donated by the Gen- eral Government. It amounts to $6,960, and is paid over to the Agricultural College, as de- signed by the donors of the land. The State Library Fund is small. The Treasurer includes in the operations of the School Fund the amount received by him as the result of the State school-tax, but the whole of this amount is returned to the several counties. Under the law of 1881, the rate of the school- tax was changed from two mills on the dollar of property to four dollars for each child be- tween five and eighteen years of age. The sum produced was to be paid into the Treasury on the 1st of January ; 90 per cent of it was to be returned within ten days to the counties paying it, and the remaining 10 per cent was to be distributed by the State Board of Edu- cation, according to their discretion, among the several counties. The amount produced by this tax and paid into the Treasury during the year 1880 was $1,322,740 00 And for the preceding year, under the former system...:. 1,017,78468 Increase $804,955 82 The school-tax for 1882 amounts to $1,342,- 656, a further increase of nearly $20,000. The assets of the School Fund at the close of the fiscal year embrace railroad stocks and bonds, United States bonds, State and city bonds, bonds of school districts, bonds and mortgages and other items of value, as follow : 596 NEW JERSEY. Railroad and bank stock $46,500 00 United States bonds 555,000 00 Railroad bonds 117,00000 State and city bonds 35,000 00 Bonds of school districts 96,100 00 Bonds and mortgages 999,508 50 Principal of riparian leases 1,124,119 53 Heal estate bought at foreclosure 82,000 00 Interest due on bonds and mortgages Eents due on riparian leases Balance on hand Total property of the fund $8,376,727 27 Total property, November 1, 1881 2,899,658 00 Increase during the year $477,069 27 The receipts of the fund during the year were $172,427.64. The disbursements were : Appropriation to public schools $100,000 00 Amount invested 872,200 00 Premium on United States bonds purchased 3,125 00 Cash on hand, October 81, 1882 201,764 29 $677,089 29 The assets of the State Fund are as follow : Stock of the joint companies $288,700 00 Bonds of the joint companies 24,000 00 $312,700 00 Besides these there are held Centennial stock (valueless) 74,116 67 County bonds, securing surplus revenue, loaned. 764,670 44 Total $1,151,487 11 The following table presents an exhibit of the receipts and expenditures of the years 1881 and 1882 : RECEIPTS. 1381. 1883. $646,025 93 $673,455 24 State tax 120.564 20 State-Prison receipts Interest and dividends 56,611 20 80,310 00 20,318 21 76,032 78 30,310 00 17,594 12 Official fees 2,793 83 11,758 52 Sales of revision 880 00 825 00 Fines and forfeited recogniz- 629 50 4,039 13 615 00 500 00 7,521 29 1439 39 Assessments on private acts. . 50 00 $878747 87 $823 525 47 Balance at beginning of year. . 884,780 45 167,274 89 250,000 00 Total $1,268,478 32 $1,240,799 86 Total disbursements Balance at close of year $1,096,203 93 167,274 39 $1,104,308 75 136,496 11 Total $1,263,478 32 $1,240,799 86 From these figures it will be observed that the disbursements of the year exceeded the receipts in the sum of $280,778.28. This ex- cess was met by diminishing the bank balance in the sum of $30,778.28, and by borrowing $250,000. The business of the Riparian Commission during the past year was much more than double that of the preceding year, thus prac- tically evidencing the recognition by the shore owners of the rights of the State in the riparian lands, and their disposition to acquire them for themselves by purchase or lease. These grants and leases have been made in every county of the State fronting on tide-waters. The lands still in possession of the State are of great value, particularly in the Bay of New York, and in the Hudson and Delaware Rivers. The operations of the commissioners during the year were as follow : Grants of the fee $210,152 28 Leases converted into grants 83,275 50 Leases made at a rental of 7 per cent 197,820 03 Total $441,247 86 Eeceived on leases heretofore made 65,202 45 Total $506,450 81 Besides these, leases and grants amounting to $40,000 have been agreed upon, but are await- ing the completion of papers. The commis- sioners, in accordance with the powers vested in them, and in response to applications for increased accommodations for warehousing, shipping, and other commercial pursuits, have established a new exterior line for piers farther out into the river in front of Jersey City. The following is the valuation of the ratables in the several counties of the State : Valuation. Atlantic $4,577,238 00 Bergen 16,097,57100 Burlington 25,856,14300 Camden 19,217,64000 Cape May 3,525,26500 Cumberland 12,111,00000 Essex 108,494,000 00 Gloucester 13,736,26000 Hudson 91,901,99650 Hunterdon 21,067,571 00 Mercer 29,890,82000 Middlesex . 18,826,00000 Monmonth.'.. 27,991,00000 Morris...... 21,040,44700 Ocean 8,'228,998 00 Passaic . 27,953,34500 Salem 13.896,97600 Somerset 16,300,000 00 Sussex 9,960,55700 Union 24,016,10000 Warren".'.'.....'. 18,762,29500 Total $527,451,222 50 RAILEOAD TAXATION.— The rate at which railroad property is taxed is, as compared with that which affects that of individuals, very small. The present rate was established by the charters of the companies many years ago, when the success of railroad enterprises was the subject of much doubt and uncertainty, and when it bore a more equal comparison with that of the tax on individuals. While the lat- ter has increased very materially, the former has remained the same. On this subject the Governor says : I would state that, from the opportunities which I have had and from the facts which have been present- ed themselves, I am led to believe that the labor of securing information in regard to the value of railroad property is too onerous to be conducted by any officer not specially intrusted with it, and whose time is not wholly at bis command for that purpose. The special duties required of the Comptroller in this regard are foreign to the regular work of his office, are a very large addition to it, and are performed without com- pensation. He is, for these and other reasons, com- pelled to depend, in a very great degree, upon the statements made to him by the companies, and pre- vented from securing such accurate information as NEW JERSEY. 597 •would warrant him in rejecting them as being " un- true or insufficient," and yet, until he does this, the statement of the company is required to be taken. This difficulty can be remedied by vesting the power and duty of examining and approving the reports, and the facts upon which they are based, in an officer specially appointed for that purpose. The law; doing this should require annual report of the operations of the office to be made to the Governor and Legislature. If this be done, the proviso of the act of 1876 be repealed, and the Legislature shall itself give such a construction of the words "true value " as will clearly show them to mean the full worth of the enterprise to the company using it, the tax from this source can be very materially increased, as it undoubtedly should be. STATE INSTITUTIONS. — The number of con- victs in the State-Prison at the beginning of the year was 803 ; received during the year, 454 ; discharged and died, 459 ; leaving in the prison at the close of the year, 798 ; being 5 less than at the close of last year. Of this number 32 are females and 766 are males. Contracts have been made, and are now in force, with several parties for the labor of these men. These contracts specify the minimum number which the contractors agree to take and pay for, with the right to use a larger number at the same price. The following table shows, in a condensed form, the several contracts; the number which the contractors agree to pay for, the number employed on each, and the price paid per man per day : CONTRACT. Minimum to be paid for. Number employed. Price per day. Shoes 100 100 60 cents. 80 86 50 cents Shirts 80 95 50 cents Collars 20 60 50 cents Boxes 2ft 20 50 cents. Whips 40 40 50 cents. Rubber goods 80 70 50 cents. Total 370 470 Of the 296 men not actually employed on the several contracts, 41 are used as runners ; 20 in the kitchen and laundry ; 47 in different trades and employment around the prison and grounds ; 64 are crippled, old, and infirm ; sick and attendants in hospital, 28 ; leaving 96 per- sons capable of labor unemployed. By the report of the Supervisor, the expense of maintaining the prison during the year was as follows: Maintenance $62,502 80 Repairs 5,784 33 Paid discharged convicts 1,402 00 Salaries of officers and inspectors 9,000 00 Salaries of deputies 51,073 81 Total $129,762 94 Earnings of prisoners 68,599 6T Net loss to the State $61,1 63 27 Net loss of previous year 68,888 94 The number of inmates of the Reform School for Boys at the beginning of the year was 266 ; committed, 130; returned, 23; total, 419; 97 of these were discharged, leaving in the insti- tution at the close of the year, 322, a very marked increase over the number of last year. The amount of money from the State expended in the maintenance of the school was $23,076.- 25 ; there was derived from the labor of the boys in the shirt-factory, $14,859.92; from the sale of farm products and miscellaneous sources, $3,499.22 ; and from the board of boys, $589.06. The farm products amounted to near- ly $10,000, an increase over last year of about $3,600 ; and over 400,000 bricks were manu- factured, nearly 300,000 of which were used in the construction of the new family building, a saving of about $3,000. The number of pupils in the Industrial School for Girls at the close of last year was 25 ; com- mitted during the year, 20; returned to the school, 6 ; making a total of 51. Of these, 7 were discharged and returned to friends, 10 indentured, and 3 out on trial, leaving at the close of the year 31 inmates. For the support and care of this number, the State has invested in real estate and personal property, as shown by the inventory of the institution, some $45,- 000. The cost of maintenance was $6,151.72, leaving a balance on hand of $981.55. The State provides for the care of the insane in its institutions at Morristown and Trenton, and in the county asylums of Burlington, Cam- den, Cumberland, Essex, Hudson, Passaic, and Salem. Toward the support of these institu- tions the State pays $1 per week for each county patient in the several asylums ; and $7 per week for each convict patient in the Tren- ton Asylum. The counties pay $3 per week for each patient sent to the State asylums. The reports of the managers and superin- tendent of the Trenton Asylum show that there were in the institution at the beginning of the year 577 patients; received during the year, 186 ; total, 763 ; of these, 77 were discharged and 57 died, leaving at the close of the year 629 patients. Of these, 504 were county pa- tients, 35 were convict patients, and 90 were private patients, five of the last class being from other States. The receipts for the year were : From the State for county patients, $24,264.16 ; for con- vict patients, $13,450.69; from the counties for county patients, $79,955.68 ; from private patients, $24,913.14; from sales of products, etc., $7,860.14; from rents. $324; these, with the balance on hand at the beginning of the year, amounted to $166,584.20. The expendi- tures were $151,061.52, leaving a balance on hand at the close of the year of $15,522.68. The annual inventory shows the property of the institution to be $108,484.88, a falling off from last year of about $6,000. The number of patients in the Morristown Asylum at the beginning of the year was 641 ; received during the year, 174; discharged, 93; died, 55 ; remaining at the close of the year, 667. Of these, 524 were county patients and 143 private patients; of the private patients 66 were from other States. Besides the inmates of the State institutions, there were in the county asylums 746 patients, 598 NEW JERSEY. NEW YORK. divided as follows : Essex, 328 ; Hudson, 222 ; Camden, 79 ; Burlington, 64 ; Passaic, 36 ; Cumberland, 10; and Salem, 7. For these the State pays $1 per week, and the amount paid from the State Treasury during the year was $37,640.40. The number of pupils either wholly or partly supported by this State in institutions located in other States, at the close of the year, was 232. Of these, 139 were deaf and dumb, 44 were blind, and 49 were feeble-minded. FISHEEIES. — It appears, from a census report of the commercial fisheries of the United States, that New Jersey produced in 1880 $3,176,- 589 worth of fishery products, taking the sixth place in the list of fish-producing States. In some of the special fisheries it takes a higher rank. Its oyster products, valued at $2,030,- 625, are exceeded only by those of Maryland and of Virginia. Its crab - fisheries, from which the fishermen realize $162,612, are more extensive than those of any other State, while its quahaug (hard - clam) fisheries are second only to those of New York. In the menhaden-fisheries it stands fifth on the list, the oil, scrap, and compost produced in 1880 being valued at $146,286. Its river-fisheries are of minor importance, the total yield being only 2,752,000 pounds, netting the fishermen $91,435. EDUCATION. — The report of the State Su- perintendent shows a steady improvement in school matters. The school-tax produced very considerably more than in the previous year ; the surplus revenue over $3,000 more; and the amount raised by district tax for teachers' salaries and maintaining the schools is over $23,000 more. ELECTION RETTJENS. — Members of Congress and of the Legislature were elected in Novem- ber. Republicans were elected in the second, third, fourth, and fifth congressional districts, and Democrats in the first, sixth, and seventh. The following list shows the composition of the districts and the vote : FIRST DISTRICT. THIRD DISTRICT. COUNTIES. Ferrell, Democrat. Robeson, Republican. Bristol, Greenback. Woolman, Prohibition. 5887 5,387 24 282 Cape May Cumberland . . . Gloucester Salem 1,044 8.9B9 2,964 2,727 928 8,036 2,897 2,577 65 411 120 64 59 352 76 174 Majority 16,541 1,716 14,825 684 943 SECOND DISTRICT. COUNTIES. Parker, Democrat. Brewer, Republican. Rowland, Greenback. Atlantic.. 1,609 2,089 82 Burlington 6,068 5,651 126 Mercer 5,765 1,636 Ocean 1093 1,728 44 Majority.... 14,535 15.604 1,069 270 COUNTIES. Ross, Democrat. Kean, Republican. Umer, Greenback. Middlesex 4.684 5709 298 Moninouth Union . 5,540 2 717 4,455 5022 1,058 210T Majority 21,891 15,186 2,295 3,463 FOURTH DISTRICT. COUNTIES. Harris, Democrat. Howey, Republican. Larison, Greenback. Hunterdon Somerset 2,717 2,126 2,987 2,767 467 71 2737 2484 121 "Warren . 3365 o QOQ 219 Maioritv 10,945 11,567 622 878 FIFTH DISTRICT. COUNTIES. Ryle, Democrat. Phelps, Republican. Fotter, Greenback. McConnick, Prohibition. Bergen 3,175 3,337 23 77 Morris 3,795 4,632 279 660 Passaic 5,733 6,372 85 291 Majority 12,703 . 14,341 1,638 387 1,028 SIXTH DISTRICT. COUNTY. Fiedler, Democrat. Blake, Republican. Hook, License. 17200 14,780 368 Majority 2,420 SEVENTH DISTRICT. COUNTY. McAdoo, Democrat. Collins, Republican. 15,147 11,566 Majority 3,581 The total vote was as follows : Democratic, 99,962 ; Republican, 97,869 ; Labor and Green- back, 6,032; Prohibition, 1,971; Democratic plurality, 2,093. The Legislature, to meet in January, 1883, will be constituted as follows: Senate. House. 12 25 9 35 NEW YORK. When the New York Legisla- ture met on the 3d of January, it was composed of 17 Democrats and 15 Republicans in the Sen- ate, and 67 Democrats and 61 Republicans in the Assembly, but the political control was neutralized by a division among the Democrats. Three of the Senators and six of the Assembly- men from New York city had been elected as Tammany candidates against the so-called " reg- ular " or " County Democracy " nominees. Two other Assemblymen, also allied with Tammany, acted with the six " straight" Tammany men. In the State canvass of 1881 the Tammany dele- gates from New York city had been ruled out of the State Convention, and that association NEW YORK. 599 had taken an independent course in regard to local officers. Holding the balance of power in the Legislature, it seemed disposed to use its advantage in order to make terms with the leaders of the regular Democracy. The Tam- many Representatives declined to take part in the caucuses by which candidates for offices in the two Houses were nominated at the begin- ning of the session. The Democrats named John C. Jacobs, of Kings County, as their can- didate for President of the Senate, and Charles E. Patterson, of Rensselaer, for Speaker of the Assembly, but the Tammany men refused to sup- port them. The Republicans nominated Thom- as G. Alvord, of Onondaga, for Speaker, the Lieutenant-Governor being the presiding officer of the Senate. In advance of the nominations, representatives of the Tammany organization had made certain demands as the price of its co-operation with the Democrats. Among these were the chairmanship of the Committees on Cities in both Houses, a satisfactory composi- tion of the Committees on Railroads and on Commerce and Navigation, a share in the subordinate offices, and a pledge excluding Jacobs from the chair of the Senate. These demands not being complied with, the Tam- many members persisted for several weeks in opposition to the Democratic efforts to organ- ize the two Houses. The Senate had a presiding officer in the person of the Lieutenant-Governor, and was able to proceed with business, although the election of a Clerk was impossible, and there were no standing committees ; but the Assem- bly could do nothing until organized, the Clerk of the former Assembly presiding from day to day. In the ballots for Speaker the Tammany members cast their votes for J. J. Costello, of New York. The struggle over the organiza- tion was interrupted on the 16th of January by proceedings in honor of Senator Webster Wag- ner, who had been killed in an accident on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad near Spuy ten Duyvil. The Governor made this accident the occasion for a special message recommending more rigid requirements for the protection of passengers on railroad trains, and an act for that purpose was subsequently passed. Pending the organization an effort was made by the Republicans of the Senate to secure a modification of the rules, which should give the presiding officer the power to appoint standing committees. This power had been taken from the Lieutenant-Governor and given to a president pro tern, at a time when the former was a Democrat and the majority in the Senate was Republican. In the Assembly an effort was made to secure the adoption of a resolution appointing Charles E. Patterson tem- porary Speaker. Both of these expedients were unsuccessful. On the 25th of January there was a conference of the Democratic members of the Assembly, but as one of the demands of the Tammany men was that Patterson should be withdrawn as a candidate for Speaker and the selection made from five names to be pre- sented by them, it resulted in nothing. Other fitiitless conferences and caucuses followed, but finally, on the 2d of February, Patterson was elected Speaker, the Tammany members having been induced to vote for him by conces- sions, said to include the control of the Com- mittees on Cities and on Railroads. The final vote was 59 for Patterson and 51 for Alvord. The next day 58 bills were introduced in the Assembly, including one by C. S. Baker, of Monroe County, for the establishment of a Railroad Commission, and one by Mr. Sheehy, of New York, compelling the elevated rail- roads of that city to reduce their fare to five cents. A new difficulty arose before the list of committees was presented by the Speaker. The Tammany men grew distrustful and with- drew from a caucus called for the purpose of revising the nominations for subordinate offices and refused to support the candidates. This produced another dead-lock on the election of a Clerk. Meantime in the Senate it had been proposed to get along without committees, re- ferring all bills to the Committee of the Whole ; also to select one Democrat and one Republican member, who should, in conjunction with the Lieutenant-Governor, arrange the committees ; but neither of these plans obtained sufficient support. The Speaker of the Assembly pre- sented the list of standing committees on the 14th of February, and it served to intensify the dissatisfaction of the Tammany members. They not only complained of the composition of the important committees, but declared that distinct pledges had been violated. They showed their resentment next day by voting for the Republican candidate for Clerk and as- sisting to elect him. On the same day the Tammany Senators voted with the Republicans to modify the rules and permit the Lieutenant- Governor to appoint the committees. This action was speedily followed by a completion of the organization of the two Houses by the co-operation of the Republicans and Tammany Democrats. Charges of a political bargain be- tween them were freely made, and Governor Cornell and Mr. John Kelly were credited with an understanding through which it was effected. These accusations were denied by both Repub- licans and Tammany men. It was the 25th of February before the work of legislation was begun in earnest, and it was still somewhat em- barrassed by the peculiar division of the two Houses and the independent attitude of the Tammany Democrats, who held the balance of power. The session continued until the 2d of June. There were 1,222 bills introduced in the As- sembly and 735 in the Senate, and the number which passed both Houses was about 800. One of the most important subjects dealt with was that providing for the regulation and super- vision of railroads. The bill introduced in the Assembly by Mr. Baker, of Monroe, for this purpose, was substantially the commission bill 600 NEW YOKE. of the Hepburn Committee, reported in 1880. It provided for the appointment of three com- missioners by the Governor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, and defined their powers. The bill was kept in the hands of the Kailfoad Committee without action un- til the 23d of March, when, on motion of Mr. Baker, it was taken from the committee to be considered by the House. The opposition was then directed against the provision giving the Governor the power to appoint the commis- sioners, and a long political wrangle ensued. Mr. Armstrong, a Republican, proposed an amendment naming the commissioners in the bill. Mr. Haggerty, a Tammany representa- tive, proposed that there should be four com- missioners, and that the Governor be required to take two from each political party. Another proposition was to postpone the selection un- til January, 1883, in order that the existing Governor might not exercise the power of ap- pointment. Then Mr. Haggerty modified his amendment, so that it provides for three com- missioners, to be appointed by the Governor, one of whom "shall be selected from the party which cast at the last general election the greatest number of votes for Secretary of State " ; one " from the party which cast at the last general election the next greatest number of votes for Secretary of State, one of whom shall be experienced in railroad business " ; and one "upon the recommendation of the presi- dents and executive committees, or a majority of such, of the Chamber of Commerce of the State of New York, the New York Board of Trade and Transportation, and the National Anti-Monopoly League of New York, or any two of such organizations so represented, in case of disagreement." Following this was a substitute proposed by Mr. Welch, Democrat, that the commissioners be elected by the peo- ple. On the 6th of April the bill was ordered to a third reading, all amendments affecting appointments having thus far been defeated, by a vote of 69 to 55. When the bill finally passed the Assembly, on the 19th of April, however, it was with the amendment making the commissioners elective. This was adopted by a vote of 66 to 57, and the bill then passed, 106 to 15. When it was reported in the Sen- ate, it was with a change embodying the Hag- gerty proposition in regard to the appointment of commissioners. A proposition to restore the Assembly provision was defeated, 13 to 14; a motion to give the Governor an un- trammeled choice was lost, 9 to 14 ; an effort to have the commissioners named in the bill failed, and for some time final action was pre- vented by the refusal of the Democratic Sena- tors to vote. The opposition was based mainly on political objections to giving Governor Cor- nell the power to name the commissioners at all. Finally, after a long straggle, in which the various propositions were repeatedly voted on, an amendment retaining the Haggerty, or anti-monopoly, method of appointment, but postponing the exercise of the appointing power until a new Governor had been chosen, was agreed to, and the bill passed both Houses in that form on the 25th of May. In the Sen- ate there was but one dissenting voice on the first vote, that of McCarthy, of Syracuse, and in the Assembly the vote was 75 to 39. Ef- forts were made to secure a veto of the bill, but it was signed by the Governor. The powers given to the Railroad Commis- sion were chiefly those of inquiry and super- vision, all enforcements of law having to be effected through the action of the Attorney- General. Its main purpose was to secure pub- licity, the investigation of all complaints, and full reports to the Legislature. The Commis- sioners receive $8,000 a year each, and have allowances for assistance and expenses. The yearly cost, which must not exceed $50,000, is to be borne by the railroad companies ; one half in proportion to net income, and one half in proportion to length of main track. A bill which attracted a good deal of atten- tion was one providing that the elevated rail- road companies of New York city should, in lieu of other public charges, pay a tax of 4 per cent on their gross receipts, and relieving them of a large amount of taxes already due, though disputed, on their property. The bill, as first submitted, was understood to have the approval of the Mayor and Comptroller of the city ; but it was materially modified, and they not only withdrew their approval, but earnestly opposed its passage, on the ground that it unjustly discriminated in fa- vor of these particular corporations, and de- prived the city of a large amount of revenue rightly due to it. After the bill had passed both Houses, several members professed to have voted for it under a misapprehension, and a resolution recalling it from the Governor passed the Senate, but was defeated in the As- sembly. The bill was vetoed by the Governor after the close of the session, although the companies made strenuous efforts to induce him to sign it, ex-Senator Conkling acting as their attorney in the matter. Another bill that attracted considerable attention was a general act providing for the construction of street surface railways. It was claimed that it covered certain schemes for street railways in the city of New York, without providing sufficiently for the protection of public and private interests. This bill also passed, and was vetoed by the Governor after the close of the session. A bill compelling the elevated railroad companies to reduce their fares to five cents passed the Senate early in the session, but action upon it was prevented by its oppo- nents in the Assembly. Among the bills passed was one for the reg- ulation of primary elections, but it was so lim- ited as to apply only to the city of Brooklyn. It contains stringent provisions against fraudulent voting and false counting in primary elections, and empowered inspectors at such elections to NEW YOKE, 601 administer an oath to persons offering to vote, as to their qualifications, in case they are chal- lenged. Violators of the law are subject to penalties of fine not exceeding $3,000 and imprisonment not exceeding three years. Pri- mary elections are defined as embracing " all elections held by any political party, conven- tion, organization, or association, or delegates therefrom, for the purpose of choosing candi- dates for office, or the election of delegates to other conventions, or for the purpose of elect- ing officers of any political party, organization, convention, or association." Qualifications of voters at such elections are left to be "prescribed by the association holding the primary or con- vention." A bill was passed providing that in New York city one alderman should be elected in each Assembly district, and one from the city at large, who should be the president of the board. A joint resolution, submitting to a vote of the people the amendment of the Constitution abolishing tolls on the canals, and providing for their support by taxation, passed the Sen- ate by a vote of 22 to 10, and the Assembly by a vote of 74 to 44. The following is the text of the amendment affecting the third, fifth, and sixth sections of Article YII : SECTION 3. The first aud second sections of this ar- ticle having been fully complied with, no tolls shall hereafter be imposed on persons or property trans- ported on the canals, but all boats navigating the canals, and the owners and masters thereof, shall be subject to such laws and regulations as have been or may hereafter be enacted, concerning the navigation of the canals. The Legislature shall annually, by equitable taxes, make provision for the expenses of the superintendence and repairs of the canals. The canal debt contracted under the section hereby amend- ed, which on the first day of October, eighteen hun- dred and eighty, amounted to eight million nine hun- dred and eighty-two thousand two hundred dollars, shall continue to be known as the " canal debt, under Article VII, section 3, of the Constitution " ; and the sinking fund applicable to the payment thereof, to- gether with the contributions to be made thereto, shall continue to be known as the " canal debt sink- ing fund," and the principal and interest of said debt shall be met as provided in the fifth section of this article. All contracts for work or materials on any canals shall be made with the person who shall offer to do or provide the same at the lowest price, with adequate security for their performance. No extra compensation shall be made to any contractor ; but if, from any unforeseen cause, the terms of any contract shall prove to be unjust and oppressive, the Canal Board may, upon the application of the contractor, cancel such contract. SEC. 5. There shall annually be imposed and levied a tax which shall be sufficient to pay the interest and extinguish the principal of the canal debt mentioned in the third section of this article, as the same shall become due and payable, and the proceeds of such tax shall, in each fiscal year, be appropriated and set apart for the sinking fund constituted for the payment of the principal and the interest of the aforesaid debt. But the Legislature may, in its discretion, impose for the fiscal year, beginning on the first day of October, eighteen hundred and eighty-three, a State tax on each dollar of the valuation of the property in this StatCj which may by law then be subject to taxation, sufficient, with the accumulations of the sinking fund applicable thereto, to pay in full both the principal and interest of the canal debt before mentioned, and the proceeds of such tax shall be appropriated and set apart for the sinking fund constituted for the pay- ment of the principal and the interest of said debt. In the event of such action by the Legislature, then the Legislature shall, under the law directing the as- sessment and levy of such tax, make such provision for the retirement of the canal debt as it shall deem equitable and just to the creditors of the State. SEC. 6. The Legislature shall not sell, lease, or oth- erwise dispose of the Erie Canal, the Oswego Canal, the Champlain Canal, the Cayuga and Seneca Canal, or the Black River Canal, but they shall remain the property of the State and under its management for- ever. All funds that may be derived from any lease, sale, or other disposition of any canal shall be applied in payment of the canal debt mentioned in the third section of this article. An amendment was also submitted author- izing an increase of the judicial force of the Supreme Court, in the following terms : SECTION 28. The Legislature, at the first session there- of, after the adoption of this amendment, shall provide for organizing in the Supreme Court not more than five general terms thereof ; and for the election at the general election next after the adoption of this amend- ment, by the electors of the judicial districts men- tioned in this section, respectively, of not more than two Justices of the Supreme Court, in addition to the justices of that court now in office in the first, fifth, seventh, and eighth, and not more than one jus- tice of tnat court in the second, third, fourth, and sixth judicial districts. The justices so elected shall be in- vested with their offices on the first Monday of June next after their election. A joint resolution proposing a constitutional amendment guaranteeing the right of local self-government to cities passed both Houses. Amendments in favor of woman suffrage and prohibition of the liquor-traffic were defeated. A bill conferring the right of suffrage on women was defeated on its third reading, the Attor- ney-General having given it as his opinion that the right could not constitutionally be conferred by the Legislature. A bill was passed allow- ing the closing address in criminal trials to the defense, and was approved by the Attorney- General, who gave his opinion, at the request of the Governor, but it was nevertheless vetoed. The interest law was so modified as to permit advances of money to an amount not less than $5,000, repayable on demand, and secured by negotiable instruments as collateral, at rates to be agreed upon in writing between the parties. In effect, it removed the application of the usury law from u call loans." No serious effort was made to pass a bill apportioning the con- gressional representation of the State by new districts. A bill requiring_telegraph wires to be laid underground in cities was defeated. An appropriation of $1,000,000 to complete the Capitol was made, and $1,250,000 for the completion of the East Kiver Bridge was authorized. After considerable controversy, $200,000 was appropriated to continue the work of the Emigration Commission of New York city. This was signed after the close of the session, on the understanding that funds should not be drawn from the appropriation by the commissioner's after the bill pending in Congress providing for a head-money tax should pass. 602 NEW YORK. An unusual number of investigations were set on foot, some of which were to continue during the recess. Among the latter was one regarding the effect of dealing in " futures " and getting up u corners " in grain, provisions, etc., and one affecting the administration of the Department of Public Works in New York city. There were two investigations of alleged abuses in the management of receiverships of insolvent insurance companies — one made by the Senate and the other by the Assembly. The former was conducted by the regular In- surance Committee of the Senate, and was con- tinued during the recess. In the Assembly, it was proposed at first to place the investigation in the hands of the Committee on Insurance, but, as there were some indications of a purpose to smother the inquiry, it was promptly taken from that body and placed in the hands of a special committee, of which Mr. Chapin, of Kings County, was the chairman, and Major Haggerty, of New York, proved to be an ac- tive and zealous member. The report of this committee was submitted about two weeks be- fore the end of the session. The principal charges had been that there were unnecessary delay, inordinate expenses, and general laxity of management in closing up the affairs of in- solvent insurance companies and savings-banks. These were fully sustained by the investigation. Among other features of the committee's re- port were a review and condemnation of the course of Judge T. R. Westbrook, of the Su- preme Court, who, as was alleged, had made several appointments of receivers and granted many of the orders under which their extrav- agant and inefficient proceedings had taken place. Many facts and details were presented in the report, and legislation was recommended. Several acts were considered, some of which had been introduced into one House or the other, before the committee's report was made. One of these, submitted in the Assembly by Mr. Sharpe, of Ulster, and providing for the general charge of the winding up of insolvent corporations by the State Treasurer, with the legal aid of the Attorney-General, passed both Houses, but was vetoed by the Governor after the close of the session. Another important investigation was set on foot in the Assembly by the following reso- lution, offered by Mr. Roosevelt, of New York: Whereas, Charges have been made from time to time by the public press against the late Attorney- General, Hamilton Ward, and T. E. Westbrook, a Justice of the Supreme Court of this State, on ac- count of their official conduct in relation to suits brought against the Manhattan Eailway ; and Whereas, Those charges have, in the opinion of many persons, never been explained or fairly refuted ; and Whereas, It is of vital importance that the judiciary of this State should be beyond reproach : therefore — JResolved, That the Judiciary Committee be and it is hereby empowered and directed to investigate the conduct of the late Attorney-General, Hamilton Ward, and Justice T. E. Westbrook, in relation to the suits against the Manhattan Elevated Eailroad, and report at the earliest day practicable to this Legislature. This resolution was strenuously opposed by the friends of Judge Westbrook, but was adopt- ed on the 12th of April by a vote of 99 to 14. There was some delay in beginning the inves- tigation, and at the request of the committee it was allowed the assistance of counsel, Mr. Albertis Perry, of Oswego, and Mr. F. L. Stet- son, of New York, being selected for the pur- pose. The inquiry was conducted in part at Albany and in part in the city of New York. Efforts were made to secure a final adjourn- ment of the Legislature before the investiga- tion was finished, but it was defeated. The committee made its report on the 31st of May. The majority, after reviewing the evidence, presented their conclusion in the following resolution : Resolved, That Theodoric E. Westbrook, a Justice of the Supreme Court of this State, has not, upon the evidence submitted to the Judiciary Committee of this House, been guilty of any impeachable offense. In justifying this conclusion, the signers of the report, consisting of W. A. Ponder, chair- man of the committee, F. B. Smith, Amasa J. Parker, Jr., O. S. Searl, James D. McClelland, and D. S. Potter, said : The statutory description pt impeachable offenses is " mal and corrupt conduct in office and high crimes and misdemeanors (1 E. S. [fifth ed.], 456). The term "mal and corrupt conduct in office," as defined by Judge Grpver in the case of a judicial officer, con- sists of " an intentional violation of duty to the preju- dice of public justice, or a reckless exercise of his func- tions, indifferent as to whether what was done was right or wrong." Applying this test to the judicial conduct of Judge Westbrook, as disclosed by the evi- dence before them, your committee have come to the conclusion that, although in some instances his ac- tions have been indiscreet and unwise, yet there is nothing in that conduct which affords ground for im- peachment. The committee have discussed at some length the merits of orders for the granting of which it isTurged that Judge Westbrook should be impeached. They have done this in order to ascertain, if possible, whether or not the ;judge was actuated by unworthy or improper motives in granting such orders, and not because they deemed it within their province to re- view his errors, whether of fact or of law. Every lawyer knows that almost daily orders are made and judgments given, which, on review by the judge him- self or an appellant tribunal, are vacated, modified, or reversed as oeing improvident, irregular, or illegal. Tribunals are especially established by the Constitu- tion and laws for the correction of such errors, and it would be a dangerous precedent for a legislative _com- mittee to assume this prerogative and condemn a. Judge for his mistakes, omissions, or inadvertencies. Under such a system, and tried by the standard which has been urged upon the committee in this case, there is not a judge in the State who would be safe from im- peachment. The private character of Judge West- brook is without a stain. His industry and ability are shown by his numerous opinions recorded in the re- ports, by the united voice of the bar of the Third Ju- dicial District, and the testimony in this case. Before recommending the impeachment of such a judge, your committee have deemed it their duty to require that specific acts of mal and corrupt conduct on his part should be established, not by hearsay, or surmises, or fanciful inferences, but by legal and convincing evi- dence. In the opinion of your committee that has not been done. NEW YORK. 603 A minority of the committee, consisting of Alfred 0. Chapin, of Brooklyn, and James E. Morrison, of New York, recommended im- peachment "for mal and corrupt conduct in office." In their brief report they said : The undersigned do not consider that, on all the evidence, a resolution of removal would be justifiable. It seems to us clear, however, that a prima facie case has been established, and that upon all the evidence adduced the said justice should be put upon his trial. Until the charges made before your Judiciary Com- mittee are met by better and clearer explanations than have been offered thus far, the said justice should not continue to exercise the duties of his office. In our judgment the committee's duty is limited to ascertaining and declaring whether or no Justice West- brook is liable to removal or impeachment. Censure by implication or by direct resolution is not among the powers of the Assembly. Morally, such censure may perhaps carry the same weight as would similar declarations from any other body of equal numbers. Legally no such right exists. These are not censur- able offenses. The different departments of govern- ment are not subject to each other's control or suspen- sion, unless by virtue of some express enactment. We shall, therefore, refrain from addressing any di- dactic remarks to this justice or to the judiciary of our State. We desire to correct a wide-spread and dan- gerous misapprehension prevailing as to the scope and nature of the iudical misbehavior which justifies im- peachment. A Justice of the Supreme Court is cho- sen for fourteen years. The office is one of emolu- ment and high honor. He may be impeached for high crimes and misdemeanors, and also for mal and cor- rupt conduct in office. We must exclude both high crimes and misdemeanors, and in defining mal-con- duct we must attend solely to such offenses as are neither high crimes nor misdemeanors, and which do not necessarily constitute corrupt conduct. Mr. Robert A. Livingston, of the commit- tee, concurred in the minority report, but rec- ommended impeachment for " mal-conduct " only, the evidence in his opinion not showing " corrupt or dishonest motives." Messrs.Worth, Chamberlain, and Robert Armstrong, Jr., unit- ed in a statement of dissent from many of the "statements and conclusions of fact" in the majority report, but of concurrence in the rec- ommendation that the judge be not impeached. Action on the reports excited warm discussion in the Assembly. Mr. Roosevelt moved the adoption of the minority report of Messrs. Ohapin and Morrison, but the motion was de- feated—yeas 27, nays 84, not voting 17. The majority report was adopted by a vote of 77 to 35, 11 members not voting. Charges were not wanting to the effect that the railroad power and influence were instrumental in se- curing this result of the investigation. The veto-power of the Governor was very freely exercised during the session, and a large number of measures which passed both Houses were defeated after adjournment by a failure to receive the Executive approval. Among the acts vetoed after the adjournment was the Civil Code, one of a series of codifications of the laws of the State prepared under the direc- tion of Mr. D. D. Field ; the Military Code; the Sharpe Receivership Bill ; and the acts already mentioned regarding the taxation of elevated railroads and the chartering of surface street- railways. Items in the annual " Supply Bill," amounting in the aggregate to $326,863.84, were also vetoed on a variety of grounds. The political canvass of the year may be said to have begun early in the session of the Le- gislature. The charge that the Governor had a political understanding with the Tammany forces in that body, through which the "dead- lock " upon the organization of the two Houses was broken, whether true or not, was not with- out influence. The election of a Democrat to succeed Senator Wagner from the Saratoga District was generally interpreted as indicating Republican dissatisfaction. About the same time Isaac V. Baker, Jr., was appointed Super- intendent of State-Prisons, to succeed Louis F. Pilsbury. The appointment was at the time very generally regarded as a political one, intended to promote the renomination of Gov- ernor Cornell. It was confirmed by the Sen- ate with the aid of Tammany votes. It was this incident which largely influenced the op- position afterward made to giving Governor Cornell the power to appoint the members of the proposed Railroad Commission, and led to restrictions upon the appointing power in the act establishing the commission, and the post- ponement of its operation until 1883. The vetoing of the bill regarding the taxation of elevated railroads in opposition to the argu- ments of ex-Senator Conkling, who acted as counsel for the companies, was also believed to have an effect on the Governor's chances for a renomination, which he was avowedly seeking. Mr. Conkling was credited with hav- ing great influence with the national Admin- istration and with some of the political man- agers of his party in the State, and it soon became evident that that influence would be exerted against Governor Cornell's renomina- tion. As early as the month of March the Hon. Charles J. Folger, Secretary of the na- tional Treasury, began to be talked of as an "Administration candidate" for Governor of New York. During the summer it became evident that the Governor's canvass for a re- nomination and the efforts to defeat it by his enemies, represented by the Conkling faction, were threatening the Republican party with a serious division. On the 20th of August a Re- publican newspaper published at Albany dis- tinctly declared, on what was afterward avowed to be the Governor's authority, that Mr. Conk- ling was working to defeat Mr. Cornell's re- nomination, chiefly from resentment at his action in vetoing measures in which the ex- Senator was interested as the representative of great corporations. From that time the contest in the party was clearly defined. The supporters of the Governor labored openly for his renomination, and it soon became apparent that the so-called "Stalwarts" and "machine Republicans" were against him, and had the sympathy of the Administration at Washing- ton. It was also the avowed purpose of the latter to make Secretary Folger the candidate 604 NEW YORK. for Governor. There was a compromise ele- ment of the party which favored the nomina- tion of some men not identified with the fac- tion contest, and with them the favorite for the nomination was General James "W. Wadsworth. The Republican State Committee held a meeting in New York city on the 2d of Au- gust, to determine on the time and place of holding the State Convention. The friends of Governor Cornell were in favor of an early convention, September 5th being the date pre- ferred by them, but it was decided by a vote of 18 to 14 to hold the convention on the 20th of September. This was taken as indicating the strength of the Governor with the State Committee. It was decided to hold the con- vention at Saratoga, the vote being 17 for that place, 12 for Syracuse, and 3 for Rochester. The committee voted unanimously to refund to N. M. Curtis the $1,000 fine and his ex- penses in defending himself in the prosecution for collecting political contributions from pub- lic employes, in case he should finally be com- pelled to pay. The Anti-Monopoly organization displayed considerable political activity during the year, but exerted its influence without making nomi- nations. It held conferences at Albany during the session of the Legislature, chiefly for the purpose of influencing action on the Railroad Commission Bill, and the act as passed had its approval. A meeting was held in New York near the middle of August, at which a State Committee was organized, and a call issued for a State Convention to be held at Saratoga on the 13th of September. Early in August efforts were made through conferences and committees to secure the co- operation in the approaching canvass of the three Democratic factions of New York city known as Tammany Hall, Irving Hall, and the County Democracy. The Democratic State Committee met at Saratoga on the 8th of Au- gust, and decided to have the State Convention held at Syracuse on the 21st of September. The following resolution in the interest of harmony was adopted by the committee : Resolved, That while this committee neither pos- sesses nor will attempt to exercise any control over the methods by which delegates to the ensuing State Convention may be chosen in any Assembly district of this State, and while it recognizes the supreme power of the convention to pass upon the title of del- egates to seats therein, we nevertheless express our earnest desire that but one delegation, and that fully representative in character, may be sent to such con- vention to represent each Assembly district of the State. We, therefore, respectfully appeal to all men in the State professing to be Democrats, or sympa- thizing with our purposes, and desiring victory in the election, to use all honorable means to secure such result. To this end we respectfully advise that such electors unite in the same primaries or caucuses at a place and time to be designated by the Assembly dis- trict organization whose delegates were recognized by and admitted to the State Convention of 1881, and that the caucuses or primaries thus convened shall select their own officers and appoint their own tell- ers of election by the vote of the electors there as- sembled. The following was also embodied in the call for the convention : The Democratic electors of the State of New York, and all others who desire to co-operate in a deter- mined effort, at the ensuing election, to reform the public service, and protect the people against the en- croachments of those who are using public franchises as if they were only private rights ; and all citizens who are opposed to the unparalleled prodigality of the Republican party, and to the continuance of the present enormous and unnecessary taxation of the labor and business of the country, are requested to choose three delegates from each Assembly district to represent them in a State Convention, to be held at Albany on the 21st of September next, at twelve o'clock, noon, for the purpose of nominating candi- dates for State offices to be filled at the next election, and to transact such other business as may properly come before the convention. The first political convention actually held was that of the Greenback-Labor party, which took place at Albany on the 19th of July. Epenetus Howe, of Tompkins County, was nominated for Governor; James Allen, of Kings, for Lieutenant-Governor ; L. J. McPar- lin for Judge of the Court of Appeals ; and L. G. McDonald, of Glens Falls, for Congress- man-at-large. A platform was adopted re- affirming the principles of the party, condemn- ing the penal code and the system of contract labor in prisons, demanding the election of all public officers, including postmasters, and fa- voring local self-government for all communi- ties. It also contained the following declara- tions: That all railroad and telegraph companies doing business under the laws of this State, and which have forfeited their chartered privileges as common carriers by failing to provide suitable and speedy facilities for transacting tneir business, should immediately be taken possession of by the State, and operated for the benefit of the people. That all persons employed by such corporations should be liberally, justly^ and promptly paid for their services, and that any inter- ruption to business, resulting from failure on their part to pay their operatives such rates, should deprive such corporations of their chartered privileges. That the stock and bonds of all railroad and telegraph com- panies should be limited to the actual cost of construc- tion and equipment. That any burden imposed on commerce or travel to pay interest or dividends on any excess of that amount is in violation of the funda- mental law of public use which permits legislative sanction authorizing the construction of railroads and telegraphs. That no discriminating rates between in- dividuals or communities should be allowed. That the books of the companies representing such property should be open to public inspection, and that com- missioners should be elected by the people to carry out these provisions. That incorporate capital which now holds absolute control over the money, the highways, the public lands, and the legislation of this State and country, should be restricted in its power to purchase or con- trol large tracts of land ; and, as this is a question ot special interest to farmers — as a matter of protection to them — we demand that all land owned by individ- uals or corporations in excess of what is required for their personal use, or for the transaction of their busi- ness, should be taxed so as to render its ownership valueless. A Labor Convention was held at Buffalo on the 12th of September, but no nominations were made. The resolutions adopted demand- NEW YORK. 605 ed the abolition of contract labor in prisons ; the abolition of tenement cigar-factories; factory- inspection so as to permit no child under four- teen years of age to be employed ; the enforce- ment of the compulsory educational act; and the reduction of the hours of labor to ten hours a day in all the factories of the State ; the es- tablishment of a Bureau of Labor Statistics, to be managed by officers appointed upon the rec- ommendation of the State labor organization ; the repeal of the sections of the penal code that aim to prevent the lawful assembling of work- ing men and women ; the establishment of a printing-office for the State documents instead of letting the same out by contract ; the enact- ment of an employers' liabilities act, making the employers responsible for accidents occa- sioned through the carelessness of employes; a law giving mechanics and laborers first lien for labor performed ; that all employers of labor pay cash weekly, in lawful money, for labor performed. The Anti-Monopoly Convention took place at Saratoga on the following day. No nomina- tions were made, but a platform of extraordi- nary length was adopted. Among the more practical propositions which it contained were the following : 3. Corporations have the right to make charges for service which, without favoritism or unjust discrimi- nation, will pay the expense of their economical ad- ministration and reasonable dividends on the capital actually invested, but commissioners should be pro- vided to supervise and control them. When they con- form to the law and the objects of their creation, they are entitled to efficient protection. 4. Canals, rivers, and water-ways of the country should be constantly and efficiently maintained free of tolls. 5. The Federal Government should own the tele- graph lines, and operate them as a part of the postal system, establishing a tariff of rates limited to the cost of maintenance ana transmission. 6. Savings-banks should be established in connec- tion with the Post-Office ^Department, in which the poor can safely deposit their earnings. 7. The currency issued to the national banks should be retired. All currency, whether metallic or paper, should be issued and controlled by the Government only, and be redeemable in gold and silver. 8. The lavish grants to railroads should be discon- tinued, and those which have been forfeited by reason of non-compliance with the terms of the grants should be restored to the national domain. 9. Combinations to innate or depress prices, with- out regard to value, are immoral and wicked, and should be prohibited by law. 10. The penal code should be amended and objec- tionable sections repealed ; a labor bureau should be added to the State departments, to collect statistics and procure information, and make reports and recom- mendations to the Legislature for the benefit of pro- tection of labor, with adequate powers in cases of public emergency to arbitrate and arrange questions arising between laborers and corporations, and where laborers are employed by public corporations to estab- lish and alter the wages to be paid. 12. State-prisons and penitentiaries are established to prevent crime and to reform criminals, not to make profits for private persons, or to injure the interests of labor. Therefore, the contract system in these insti- tutions should be abolished, and the labor of the con- victs be so employed as not to injure the interests of merchants and laboring-men. 14. The civil service must be divorced from poli- tics and reformed. Honesty and efficiency must be made the conditions upon which subordinate offices may be secured or retained. 15. Women have the same inalienable right as men. Taxation without representation is odious. There is no sufficient reason why men should monopolize the ballot. Therefore, men and women should be equal before the law. Women should have equal pay with men for equal work, and if they desire to vote they should be allowed to exercise that right. 16. The present demand of the people is the elec- tion of a Governor and a Legislature which will carrv into execution the Eailroad Commission Bill, abolish free passes on railroads, reform the laws of assessment and taxation, and establish labor bureaus, with suffi- cient power to protect labor. Therefore, it is the duty of every anti-monopolist and anti-monopoly league to ascertain whether the candidates of existing parties will favor these necessary reforms as soon as they are nominated, and, if they will not, to see that a candi- date is nominated and elected who will obey the voice of the people. On the morning of September 20th, previous to the assembling of the Republican State Con- vention at Saratoga, there was a meeting of the State Committee, at which thirty-two of the thirty-three members were present, or represented by proxy. Stephen B. French, of New York, appeared in place of W. H. Rob- ertson, of Westchester, presenting what pur- ported to be a proxy sent by telegraph. The selection of a temporary chairman for the con- vention by the committee was regarded as a test of the strength of Cornell and his oppo- nents. E. M. Madden, the candidate of the latter, was selected over E. L. Pills by a vote of 18 to 14 ; Mr. Carpenter, chairman of the committee, who had been regarded as an " anti-Stalwart," voting for Madden, as well as French, who acted as proxy for Collector Rob- ertson. The result was a victory for the anti- Cornell men. An attempt was made in the convention to set aside the choice of the com- mittee for temporary chairman, but it was de- feated by a vote of 251 to 243. Mr. Madden made a brief address, counseling harmony and a united support of the action of the conven- tion. Subsequently the temporary organiza- tion was made permanent. The first important business of the convention was the nomination of a candidate for Governor. The names of Alonzo B. Cornell, Charles J. Folger, James W. Wadsworth, John H. Starin, and John 0. Robinson, were presented in complimentary speeches, and the first ballot resulted as fol- lows: Whole number of votes cast 497 Necessary to a choice 249 Charles J. Folger 223 Alonzo B. Cornell 1 SO James W. Wadsworth 69 John H. Starin 19 John C. Eobinson 6 A second ballot was taken, and considerable excitement was caused by changes of votes in various delegations to the Cornell or Folger side of the account. The result was : Whole number of votes cast 497 Necessary for a choice 249 Charles J. Folger 257 Alonzo B. Cornell 222 James W. Wadaworth 18 606 NEW YORK. On motion of United States Senator Miller, who had led the Cornell forces, the nomina- tion of Folger was made unanimous, though many delegates refrained from voting on the motion. The convention then adjourned until the following day. Some excitement was caused the same evening by an announcement from Collector Robertson that he had sent no proxy to Mr. French, and had not authorized him to act in his place on the State Committee. The alleged proxy proved to have been written on a " sending blank " of the telegraph company, and never to have been received over the lines. It was regarded as an impudent forgery, and this fact added not a little to the dissatisfaction which the defeat of Cornell produced, it being alleged that the whole power of the "party machine " in the State, backed by the influence of the national Administration, had been used to crush a faithful Governor because he had offended ex-Senator Conkling and the corpo- rations which he represented. On the second day of the convention, B. Platt Carpenter, of Dutchess County, was nominated for Lieuten- ant-Governor, receiving 280 votes out of 494 on the second ballot. His principal competitor was Hamilton Fish, Jr. A. B. Hepburn, of St. Lawrence, was nominated for Congressman- at-large, receiving 309 votes to 156 for George S. Batcheller, of Saratoga, and 8 for other can- didates. Charles Andrews, of Onondaga, was unanimously nominated for Chief -Judge of the Court of Appeals. The platform, which was presented by Mr. George Bliss, chairman of the Committee on Resolutions, and unani- mously adopted, was as follows: Resolved, That the Republican party of New York has no new doctrine to present upon the questions which have heretofore occupied much of public atten- tion, such as honest money, pure elections, the regu- lation of the traffic in intoxicating liquors, the protec- tion of home industry, and the necessity of restricting the power and influence of corporations. It is content to be judged by its past declarations and acts. 2. That equitable taxation, reaching corporations as well as persons, is approved as a correct system which should be perfected ; that the practical results of recent legislation upon the subject rally justify the action of the Eepublican party in its adoption. 3. That monopolies oppressing the people, or un- fairly discriminating against local interests, are wrong in principle and should not be tolerated. 4. That stringent legislation should be enacted to secure the purity and honesty of primary elections, and that all possible safeguards should be thrown about these sources of the political action of the people. 5. That the practice of appealing to the Legislature to overrule the action of the local authorities when confining themselves within the powers conferred upon them should be discouraged both by the Legis- lature and the Governor, and should be resorted to only in extreme cases. 6. That changes in the fundamental law should not ordinarily be the subject of party action, but they should when proposed 'always be carefully scrutinized by the people, who should signify their wishes with reference to them as generally they do in their selec- tion of their representatives. We, therefore, urge the people of the State, without reference to party, to ex- amine with intelligent care the constitutional amend- ments submitted to them, and to give full expression at the polls to their judgment and wishes thereon. 7. That while there are varying opinions on the sale of liquors, we subscribe to the principle that prop- ositions on that subject, like all other propositions for change in the fundamental law, ought to be sub- mitted to the popular vote. 8. That the conduct of the Democracy in this State during this year emphatically attests anew their signal unworthiness of public confidence. They signalized their return to power in the Legislature by wantonly sacrificing the public interests upon the altar of greedy and reckless partisanship. A party which could de- vote nearly two months to a quarrel of its factions for spoils, buti could give no time to the equalization of taxation, and to other questions vitally affecting the welfare of the people, insults the intelligence of the electors of New York when it asks them to approve its flagrant abuse of legislative powers by handing over to it the executive branch of the State government. 9. That the financial achievements of the Eepublican Administration are next in importance to its work of the preservation of the nation itself, as they are at- tended by the rapid liquidation of a great public debt, incurred to meet the national emergency, and by the reduction of the rate of interest to its present low fig- ures, and that it is the policy of the party to bring taxation within the lowest possible limits, and, by the strictest system of economy, reduce the governmental expenses and the number of those employed in the collection of the revenue, thus relieving the people of all unnecessary burdens. 10. That the civil service should be placed upon a proper basis by adequate legislation, so as to give fa- cilities for the execution of the law now upon the stat- ute-book, with competitive tests for admission to the service so arranged as to secure the necessary qualifi- cations for the positions sought, together with a fixed term for incumbents, removals from office during the term of appointment to be only for cause . 11. That the recent law of Congress designed to suppress polygamy, which offends the moral sense of mankind and prevents the administering of justice through the usual instrumentalities of law, approves itself to the people, and that it should be supple- mented by such laws as may be necessary to attain the object in view. 12. That the economy and efficiency of the present Eepublican State Administration entitle its members to the highest praise. Governor Cornell's fearless and firm exercise of the veto-power, while it has naturally brought down upon him hostile criticism, has shown his determination to protect the interests of the State and the people alike against individuals and corpora- tions. 13. That we tender the President, Chester A. Ar- thur, our assurance of confidence in his Administra- tion, and our approval of the wise and patriotic course pursued by him under the embarrassing circumstances of his accession to office. His courage in resisting the enactment of the Eiver and Harbor Bill, which vio- lated the accepted rules of constitutional power, and which, while authorizing many needed public im- provements, carried with it a large and wasteful ap- propriation for works of neither national nor public good, has secured for him the admiration even of his enemies. 14. That a hearty support be pledged to the nomi- nees of this convention, whose records in public life, distinguished abilities, and special fitness commend them to the people's approval at the ballot-box. When the Democratic Convention met at Syracuse, on September 21st, there was a full delegation present from each of the three local factions of New York city, and the first day was spent in organization and the settlement of their claims by the Committee on Contested Seats. An intense desire for union and har- mony was displayed, and found expression in the report of the "committee and its acceptance NEW YORK. 607 by the convention, with the cheerful acqui- escence of the factions concerned. The report of the committee, which was submitted on the morning of the second day of the convention, recognized the County Democracy as the regu- delegation ; but, with the view to success the party at the polls and for the purpose securing entire harmony, recommended that the County Democracy be allowed 38 dele- gates, Tammany Hall 24, and Irving Hall 10. The following platform was adopted : The Democracy of New York, in convention assem- bled, declare : 1. Whereas, The country is again subjected, by Re- publican maladministration, to the evils and abuses which afflicted it in 1874, we reaffirm the principles of our platform that year, under which the Republican party was driven from power and the government of the State brought back, for a time, to the practice of economy and honesty. 2. We arraign the Republican majority in Congress for culpable failure to reduce the amount of taxation to a sum sufficient only for the legitimate require- ments of the Government, under an honest and frugal administration ; and we favor such tariff and fiscal reforms as shall relieve an overtaxed people from all unnecessary burdens, and prevent the accumulation of a fund to be lavished in profligate legislation, and in support of a horde of useless and idle placemen. In particular, we proclaim our condemnation of the River and Harbor Bill, in which, by the multiplica- tion and mutual support of obnoxious provisions, the infamous measure purchases its passage through Con- gress in disregard of the limitations of the Constitu- tion, and to the depravation of public morals. 3. In the nomination of the Secretary of the Treas- ury for Governor of New York, by which, in effect, the candidate for the chief magistracy of the State was appointed by the President, we see a fresh and impressive proof of the dangerous power of public patronage, and, urged by this alarming spectacle, we protest against Federal intervention in State elections, and repeat our demand of 1881 for reform and purifi- cation of the civil service ; and we are further admon- ished by the recent experience of Republican corrup- tion of the necessity of forbidding, by penal enact- ment, the levying of black-mail from dependent office- holders to promote the interests of the party, which finds no support in the intelligent and independent convictions of the people. 4. We hold the present Republican Administration responsible for the unredressed outrages on our for- eign-born fellow-citizens, and we demand for them, when abroad, the protection to which they are entitled in return for the voluntary allegiance which the honor of the American Government requires shall be ex- tended to them. 5. We charge that in this State the Republican party has lowered the standard of public service by its local administration, and by the representatives it has sent to the two Houses of Congress. That it has made the State Legislature an instrument of the lobby to rob the public and enrich corporations, and has re- fused to its Governor the renommation which was due to him by custom, because he dared to use his veto- power to thwart such purpose, in disregard of those who sought to control him by the influence of political and moneyed power. 6. We demand the restoration of the New York State National Guard to the efficiency of which it has been deprived, and which made it representative of the soldierly spirit of the people. 7. In order to restore our merchant marine to its former prosperity, we demand the immediate revision and amendment of the laws relating to the shipping and carriage of ocean-freights. 8. We favor the adoption, by the next Legislature, of the resolution of 1882, providing amendments to the Constitution for the local self-government of cities. 9. Primary elections, openly and honestly conduct- ed, afford the surest means of securing the most suit- able candidates for public office, thus best preserving the democratic form of government. We, therefore, favor the speedy passage of general laws providing against fraud and intimidation at such election. 10. The public welfare demands that the various questions relating to chartered monopolies and meth- ods of transportation should be met and decided, and we are in favor of the adoption of measures to restrict the growing power of such monopolies. They should be subjected to the strict supervision of the commission now provided by law. All unjust dis- criminations in the transportation of passengers and merchandise should be prohibited. The charges of corporations, which have taken the property of private citizens for public use, should be limited to the cost of the service, with a reasonable profit, instead of the mercenary exaction of " all the traffic will bear." The laws should be so revised that taxation may be reduced, as far as possible, and that personal and cor- porate property may severally pay their fair propor- tion of the taxes. 11. We approve the submission to the vote of the people of the constitutional amendment in favor of free canals, and we have full confidence that they will dispose of it in such a manner as to promote all the great interests of the State, agricultural, manufactur- ing, and commercial. 12. We reaffirm the policy always maintained by the Democratic party, that it is of the first importance that labor should be made free, healthful, and secure of just remuneration. That convict-labor should not come into competition with the industry of law-abid- ing citizens. That the labor of children should be surrounded with such safeguards as their health, their rights of education, and their future, as useful mem- bers of the community, demand. That workshops, whether large or small* should be under such sanitary control as will insure the health and comfort of the employed, and will protect all against unwholesome labor and surroundings. That labor ^shall have the same right as capital to combine for its own protec- tion, and that all legislation which cramps industry, or which enables the powerful to oppress the weak, should be repealed ; and, to promote the interests of labor, we recommend the collection of statistics and information respecting the improvements, needs, and abuses of the various branches of industry. 13. Whereas the founders of the Democratic party inculcated frequent recurrence to fundamental prin- ciples, the Democracy of New York again avow their fidelity and respect for the liberty of the individual, which characterized the administration of the Govern- ment in the primitive days of the republic. The first choice for a candidate for Governor was greatly divided, and the following was the result of the first ballot : Whole number of votes cast 884 Necessary to a choice J » Henry W. Slocum » Roswell P. Flower 9J Grover Cleveland J> Allan Campbell °T Erastus Corning * Homer A. Nelson f Waldo Hutchins *« Perry Belmont * On the second ballot, Slocum and Flower had 123 votes each, and Cleveland only 71 ; but it was evident that a break in the forces was im- pending. The third ballot was taken amid much excitement, and resulted as follows : Whole number of votes cast 382 Necessary to a choice • «•. « Grover Clevt 211 H enry W . Slocum". ".'.'.'.'.'. 1BJJ Eoswell P. Flower 10 608 NEW YORK. The nomination was made unanimous, and the ticket was completed at leisure at an even- ing session. D. B. Hill, of Elmira, was named for Lieutenant-Governor ; Henry W. Slocum, of Brooklyn, for Congressman-at-large ; and W. 0. Ruger, of Onondaga, for Chief- Judge of the Court of Appeals. There was a Prohibitory Convention at Syra- cuse, on the 4th of October, at which the fol- lowing resolutions were adopted : Resolved, That we recognize the hand of Almighty God in a movement that has already accomplished so much for the suppression of the liquor-traffic in other States, and that is kindling so great enthusiasm among the friends of temperance in our State. Resolved. That we call for the submission to the people of this State of an amendment to the Constitu- tion prohibiting the manufacture and sale of alcoholic beverages. Resolved, That we do not identify ourselves with any partisan movement, but as a convention repre- senting temperance societies and Christian churches of the State of New York we do seek such legislation as shall free our noble State from the power of rum, which we recognize as an enemy of all that is good : and we do hereby call upon all good citizens, irre- spective of party or creed, to aid in this object. After discussion the following was added : " And that we pledge ourselves to vote for no candidate for the Legislature who will not publicly pledge himself in favor of submitting such amendment to the vote of the people." A. A. Hopkins was selected as the Prohibi- tion candidate for Governor. On the 3d of October the State Committee of the Anti-Monopoly League issued an address, in which it declared in favor of the Democratic State ticket. An organization in favor of the free canal amendment of the Constitution was formed by various commercial bodies in New York during the month of July, known as the Free Canal Union ; but the political conventions generally were content to declare in favor of submitting the question to the people for their decision. Shortly after the Republican Convention the State Committee of the party was reorganized, with John F. Smyth, of Albany, as chairman, and with the "Stalwart" element in full con- trol. The following resolution was adopted at its first meeting: Resolved, That the State Committee expresses its detestation of the attempt made at Saratoga to influ- ence the decision of the late State Committee by the use of a forged telegram, and its detestation of all the methods and purposes to which such wretched fraud and treachery apply, and that this committee tenders its cordial co-operation to any authorities or persons investigating the crime, to the end that its authors may be speedily ascertained and held up to the scorn of the people. Mr. Folger sent to the chairman of the con- vention a long letter of acceptance, on the 2d of October, in which he referred to the charges of forgery, the manifest dissatisfaction existing in the party, and a suggestion in some quarters that he ought to decline the nomination. He was of opinion, however, that the convention was properly constituted and had acted delib- erately, and he did not feel at liberty to decline. He referred to the circumstances under which the nomination came to him without any seek- ing on his part, and made a long statement of his position on various State questions. He was in favor of economy, local self-government, regulation of primary elections, supervision of corporations, etc. On the same day Mr. Hep- burn sent the following letter to the chairman of the State Committee: NEW YORK, October 2, 1882. The Hon. John F. Smyth, Chairman Republican State Central Committee. DEAR SIR: Having received no formal notice of my nomination for the office of Congressman-at-large by the recent Eepublican Convention, I address this communication to you. It is quite apparent that, ow- ing to the unfortunate circumstances that have come to light since the adjournment of the convention, a very large portion of the Kepublicans of the State are not disposed to accept its conclusions as an authori- tative utterance of the party. Nothing should be left undone to secure the unity and harmony of the party, and I don't think it right to enter upon the canvass without an earnest efibrt in that direction. It seems to me that for the purpose of attaining such result all questions should be submitted anew to the representatives of the party assembled for such pur- pose, and in furtherance of that object, while fully ap- preciating the very high compliment paid me by the convention, and returning my sincere thanks for the same, I deem it my duty to acquaint you with my declination of said nomination. Very respectfully yours, A. B. HEPBURN. On the following day Mr. Carpenter accepted the nomination for Lieutenant-Go vernor in a letter of some length, in which he disclaimed seeking the nomination, or being concerned in any bargain. Mr. Andrews the same -day briefly accepted the nomination for Chief -Judge. The vacancy on the ticket occasioned by the declin- ing of Mr. Hepburn was filled by the State Com- mittee, who designated Howard Carroll, of New York, as the candidate for Congressman-at- large. The acceptance of the nominations by the Democratic candidates was formally made on the *Tth of October. The following are the principal declarations of Mr. Cleveland's letter : Our citizens, for the most part, attach themselves to one or the other of the great political parties, and, un- der ordinary circumstances, they support the nomi- nees of the party to which they profess fealty. It is quite apparent that under such circumstances the pri- mary election or caucus should be surrounded by such safeguards as will secure absolutely free and uncon- trolled action. Here the people themselves are sup- posed to speak ; here they put their own hands to the machinery of government, and in this place should found the manifestation of the popular will. Wh by fraud, intimidation, or any other questionable tice, the voice of the people is here smothered, a c blow is aimed at a most precious right, and one whic the law should be swift to protect. If the primary election is uncontaminated and fairly conducted, those there chosen to represent the people will go forth with the impress of the people's will upon them, and the benefits and purposes of a truly representative govern- ment will be attained. Public officers are the servants and agents of the people, to execute laws which the people have made, and within the limits of a Constitution which they have established. Hence the interference of officials NEW YORK. 609 of any degree, and whether State or Federal, for the purpose of thwarting or controlling the popular wish, should not be tolerated. Subordinates in public places should be selected and retained for their efficiency, and not because they may be used to accomplish partisan ends. The people have a right to demand here, as in cases of private employ- ment, that their money be paid to those who will ren- der the best service in return ; and that the appoint- ment to and tenure of such places should dependf upon ability and merit. If the clerks and assistants in pub- lic departments were paid the same compensation and required to do the same amount of work as those em- ployed in prudently conducted private establishments, the anxiety to hold these public places would be much diminished, and, it seems to me, the cause of civil-ser- vice reform materially aided. The system of levying assessments for partisan pur- poses on those holding office or place can not be too strongly condemned. Through the thin disguise of voluntary contributions this is seen to be naked ex- tortion, reducing the compensation which should be honestly earned, and swelling a fund used to debauch the people and defeat the popular will. I am unalterably opposed to the interference by the Legislature with the government of municipalities. I believe in the intelligence of the people when left to an honest freedom in their choice, and that when the citizens of any section of the State have determined upon the details of a local government, they should be left in the undisturbed enjoyment of the same. The doctrine of home-rule, as I understand it, lies at the foundation of republican institutions, and can not be too strongly insisted upon. Corporations are created by the law for certain de- fined purposes, and are restricted in their operations by specific limitations ; acting within their legitimate sphere they should be protected ; but when by combi- nation or by the exercise of unwarranted power they the same authority which created loulcl restrain them and protect the rights of the citi- zen. The law Lately passed for the purpose of adjust- ing the relations between the people and the corpora- tions should be executed in good faith, with an honest design to effectuate its objects, and with a due regard for the interests involved. The laboring classes constitute, the main part of our population. They should be protected in their efforts peaceably to assert their rights when endangered by aggregated capital, and all statutes on this subject should recognize the care of the State for honest toil, and be framed with a view of improving the condition of the working-man. We have so lately had a demonstration of the value of our citizen soldiery in time of peril that it seems to me no argument is necessary to prove that it should be maintained in a state of efficiency, so that its use- fulness shall not be impaired. Certain amendments to the Constitution of our State, involving the management of pur canals, are to be passed upon at the coming election. This subject af- fects diverse interests, and, of course, gives rise to op- posite opinions. It is in the hands of the sovereign people for final settlement ; and as the question is thus removed from State legislation, any statement of my opinion in regard to it at this time would, I think, be out of place. I am confident that the people will in- telligently examine the merits of the subject, and de- termine where the preponderance of interest lies. The expenditure of money to influence the action of the people at the polls, or to secure legislation, is cal- culated to excite the gravest concern. When this per- nicious agency is successfully employed, a representa- tive form of government becomes a sham, and laws passed under its baleful influence cease to protect, but are made the means by which the rights of the peo- ple are sacrificed, and the public Treasury despoiled. It is useless and foolish to shut our eyes to the fact that this evil exists among us ; and the party which leads in an honest effort to return to better and purer meth- ods will receive the confidence of our citizens and se- cure their support. It is willful blindness not to see that the people care but little for party obligations when they are invoked to countenance and sustain fraudulent and corrupt practices. And it is well for our country and for the purification of politics that the people, at times fully roused to danger, remind their leaders that party methods should be something more than a means used to answer the purposes of those who profit by political occupation. An incident of the canvass which attracted some attention was a letter of Secretary Folger to a Republican meeting at Albany, in which he spoke of the effect of Democratic success upon the material interests of the country in the fol- lowing terms : As the barometer tells of atmospheric changes im- perceptible to the senses, so the state of the great markets of the country shows the sentiment of the busi- ness of the country as to political events. Take one instance. The Ohio election took place on Tuesday, the 10th day of this month. It resulted in a gain to the Democratic party of several Congressmen for the next Congress. At once there arose a jubilant claim from the organs of that party that the next House of Eepresentatiyes would be Democratic. How did busi- ness and capital regard that claim and the consequence of it, if true ? It is estimated from well-founded data, that on Wednesday, the llth day of October, the day following, there was a shrinkage of values in the great properties of the country of over forty millions of dollars. That shrinkage has been going on since. Do the business interests of the country look with dread to a return of the Democratic party to a control of Fed- eral legislation? Is it a well-founded dread? Will the election of the Democratic ticket in the State of New York increase it, and give it greater reason for existence? These are questions for hesitating Kepub- licans to ponder. Both candidates for Governor were ques- tioned by the Civil- Service Reform Association as to their -sentiments toward the cause which it represented. Mr. Folger, in his reply, said : In any public capacity in which I may be placed I will use the legitimate influence that I have thereby to further legislation desirable for the improvement of the public civil service, and well devised therefor, and to that end will call the attention to the matter of any body which I have the right to address upon such a subject. I have already, in an official capacity, more than once, in communication with my subordinates, de- clared that they need not feel forced to give for party purposes, and have promised them immunity if they refuse ; and have declined sanction of a tour of visita- tion of request for contributions. Mr. Cleveland's reply contained the follow- ing: I have no hesitation in saying that I fully approve of the principles embodied in the Pendleton bill relating to this subject, and that I should be glad to aid in any practical legislation which would give them a place in the management of the affairs of the State and of mu- nicipalities, so far as they can be made applicable there- to. I believe that the interests of the people demand that a reform in the national and State administrative service should speedily become an accomplished fact, and that the public should receive honest and faithful service at the hands of well-fitted and competent ser- vants. When contests between parties are waged for the purpose of securing places for professional poli- ticians, of high or low degree, whose only recom- mendation for appointment is their supposed ability to do partisan service, the people are apt to be de- frauded by the displacement of tried and faithful ser- VOL. xxn. — 39 A 610 NEW YORK. vants, well able to perform the duties for which they are paid with the people's money, and the substitution of those who are unfit and incompetent. In this way the interests of the party may be subserved, but the interests of the people are neglected and betrayed. This pernicious system gives rise to an office-holding class, who in their partisan zeal, based upon the hope of personal advantage, arrogate to themselves an undue and mischievous interference with the will of the peo- ple in political action ; this breeds the use of dishonest and reprehensible methods, which frequently result in the servants of the people dictating to their masters. If places in the public service are worth seeking, they should be the reward of merit and well-doing, and the opportunity to secure them on that basis should be open to all. Those holding these places should be assured that their tenure depends upon their efficiency and fidelity to their trusts, and they should not be allowed to use them for partisan purposes. The money they earn they; should receive and be allowed to retain, and no part of it should be exacted from them by way of political assessments. It seems to me that very much or all of what we desire in the direction of civil- service reform is included in the doctrine that the con- cerns of the State and nation should be conducted on business principles, and as nearly as possible in the same manner that a prudent citizen conducts his pri- vate affairs. If this principle is kept constantly in mind, I believe the details of a plan by which its adop- tion may be secured will, without much difficulty, be suggested. In the city of New York the canvass was characterized by a local contest of more than usual interest. An effort was made to secure anon-partisan municipal government by means of citizens' nominations. A committee was appointed for the purpose at a public meeting, and Mr. Allan Campbell, Comptroller of the city, was nominated for Mayor, and Colonel Emmons Clark for Sheriff, while William A. Butler was renominated for County Clerk. Before these nominations were made, however, the three Democratic factions had agreed upon a ticket bearing the names of Franklin Edson for Mayor, Alexander B. Davidson for Sheriff, and Patrick Keenan for County Clerk. An effort was made to induce the Republican or- ganization to support the citizens' ticket, but it insisted upon John J. O'Brien as a candidate for County Clerk, which seriously impaired the unity of its support. Before the election it became evident that the dissatisfaction in the Republican ranks was deep and wide-spread, and that the differences between the leaders of the factions were well- nigh irreconcilable, while the Democrats were united in an effort to profit by this condition of things and gain ascendency in the State. The election took place on the 7th of November, and resulted in an overwhelming Republican defeat. The official returns showed the total vote for Governor to be 918,894, divided as fol- lows: Grover Cleveland, Democrat 635,81 8 Charles J. Folger, Republican 842,464 Epenetus Howe, Greenback 11,974 Alphonse A. Hopkins, Prohibition 25,783 Blank and scattering 3,355 Cleveland's plurality over Folger was 192,- 854, and his majority over all, 151,742. For other State offices the votes were : LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR. David B. Hill 534 686 B. Platt Carpenter .......""..' 33L855 James Allan 11 004. William H. Boole '.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.".'. '. 27 153 Blank and scattering. 4^318 "Whole number Hill's plurality, 196,781. 915,861 CHIEF-JUDGE OF THE COURT OF APPEALS. William C. Euger 482,222 Charles Andrews 409?423 Lawrence J. McParlin '.'.'.'.'. lo'&2T Charles A. Hammond . . . ie',284 Blank and scattering 1^600 Whole number , Euger's plurality, 78,400. 920,605 CONGRESSMAN-AT-LARGE. Henry W. Hlocum 503,954 Howard Carroll 394,232 Leonard G. McDonald 10,567 Linus S. Freeman 14,724 Blank and scattering 5,474 Whole number 928,941 Slocum's plurality, 109,722. The two amendments of the Constitution were ratified by large majorities. There was some doubt as to the form of ballot required in voting on the canal amendment. The amendment effected changes in sections 3, 5, and 6 in Article VII, but the bill providing for its submission to a vote of the people, and pre- scribing the form of ballot, declared that bal- lots should read, "For the proposed amend- ment to section 3, Article VII of the Constitu- tion," or against the same, as the case might be, making no mention of the other sections to be changed. The Attorney-General, when con- sulted before the election, advised that ballots should mention all three of the sections to be affected, and expressed doubt as to whether the amendment would have the full effect in- tended unless all three were included. Ballots were prepared and distributed, nevertheless, in strict accord with the law, but some were used which accorded with the Attorney-General's view. The result was, that the vote as de- clared stood : For the amendment to section 3 of Article VII of the Constitution 486,105 Against the same 163,151 For the amendment to sections 8, 5, 6, of Article VII of the Constitution 9.609 Against the same 20,061 Blank and scattering 260 "Whole number 679,186 The only counties where ballots were count- ed for and against amendments to sections 3, 5, and 6 of Article VII, were Monroe, On Putnam, and St. Lawrence. After the election the Attorney- General wi consulted as to whether this was a valid rati- fication of the amendment as affecting three sections, and he gave it as his opinic that it was. The judiciary amendment wt adopted by a vote of 248,7*84 in its favor, 75,644 against it, and 626 blank and scatterii Nineteen of the Representatives in Congress chosen from the districts were Democrats. The names of those elected, with their several NEW YOKE. 611 majorities, were as follow — "D" signifying Democrat, and "R" Republican: DISTRICT. Congressmen. 1 Perry Belmont, D. 18 729 2 William E. Eobinson, D. . s'226 3 D. K. James, E 2398 4 Felix Campbell D.. 7 550 5 Nicholas Muller, D 15'873 6 S. 8. Cox, D ii'sn 7 William Dorsheimer, D 4614 8 John J. Adams, D 1 185 9 John Hardy, D 8974 10 Abram 8. Hewitt, D 14'861 11 Orlando B. Potter D 1 102 12 Waldo Hutchins D c'726 13 John H. Ketchum, K 14'203 14 Lewis Beach, D '631 15 John H. Bagley Jr D 8 45T 16 .... Thomas J. Van Alstyne D 6393 17 18 Henry Gr. Burleigh, E. (no opposition). . . F. A. Johnson, E. . . 17,685 9 191 19 A.X.Parker,E 5213 20 Edward Wemple, I) 89 21 George W. Eay, K 445 22.... Charles E. Skinner, E 1 269 23..., J. Thomas Spriggs, E . . l'676 24 N.W. Nutting, E 1 611 25 Frank Hiscock E . . 728 26 Sereno E Payne, E 971 27 23 29 30 J. W. Wadsworth, E S. C. Millard, E John Arnot, D H S. Greenleaf, D 1.083 1,609 2,778 5734 31 Eobert 8. Stevens, I) 3680 82... William F. Eogers, D . . . 727 33 F. B. Brewer, E 2,549 In the local contest in New York city the citizens' ticket was defeated, and that of the united Democracy was successful. The vote was: For Mayor— Edson, 97,802; Campbell, 76,385. For Sheriff— Davidson, 97,376 ; Clarke, 77,158. For County Clerk— Keenan, 84,180; Butler, 50,898; O'Brien, 38,930. The Demo- cratic majority for Mayor was therefore 21,- 417; for Sheriff, 20,218 ; and, for County Clerk, Keenan's plurality over Butler was 33,282. The city vote for Governor was: Cleveland, 124,914; Folger, 47,785; Howe, 1,537; Hop- kins, 584. In the Legislature of 1883 the Senate re- mained unchanged, as its members are chosen for two years. It consisted of 18 Democrats and 14 Republicans. The Assembly consisted of 84 Democrats, 42 Republicans, 1 Republican and Working-man, and 1 Independent. GEOVER CLEVELAND, the new Governor, was born in the town of Caldwell, Essex County. N. J., March 18, 1837, but his family was of New England origin, his father, Rev. Richard Cleve- land, having been a Presbyterian clergyman at Norwich, Conn., whence he removed to New Jersey some time before the son's birth. Hav- ing obtained what education the public schools of his native town afforded, young Cleveland at- tended an academy at Clinton, N. Y., for a time. At the age of seventeen he set out for the West to seek the wide opportunities afforded in that section. His first intention was to go to Cleve- land, but, stopping with an uncle in Buffalo for a time, he concluded to make his home there. He studied law, and was admitted to practice in 1859. In 1862 he was appointed Assistant District Attorney of Erie County, and acquitted himself with marked ability in that position. Two years later he was the Democratic candi- date for the office of District Attorney, but was defeated by a small majority by Lyman K. Bass. Mr. Cleveland pursued his professional practice with success until 1870, when he was chosen Sheriff of Erie County, holding that office three years. He then returned to active practice, and not long after became the head of the firm of Cleveland, Bissel & Sicord, which has won a leading position at the Buffalo bar. GROVER CLEVELAND. In the fall of 1881 popular dissatisfaction with the administration of municipal affairs in Buf- falo led to a warm local contest. The Demo- crats nominated Mr. Cleveland for Mayor, knowing that his independence, uprightness, and ability would win much support from the opposite party. The result justified their cal- culations, and he was elected by a majority of more than 5,000, though the Republican ma- jority in the city was ordinarily between 2,000 and 3,000. The vigorous, independent, and popular character of his administration there, as well as his success in the canvass which preceded it, attracted attention throughout the State, led to his nomination for Governor, and contributed to the overwhelming success of his candidacy. The funded debt of the State on the 30th of September, the close of the fiscal year,_ deduct- ing an unapplied balance in the sinking fund of the canal debt, was $6,385,356.30. Of this sum, $122,694.87 was the amount necessary to yield, at 6 per cent interest, the sum re- quired to pay the annuities to Indians ; $3,000 was unclaimed bounty debt ; and the remainder, $6,259,661.43, represented the canal debt. The only change in the funded indebtedness of the State during the last fiscal year was a contribu- tion of $309,717 to the sinking fund. The ag- gregate receipts of the State Treasury during the fiscal year, including a balance from the previous year amounting to $5,531, 858.71, were $17,735,761.59 ; the payments during the same 612 NEW YORK. period amounted to $13,898,198.21, leaving a balance in the Treasury at the beginning of the new fiscal year of $3,837,563.38. The amount received from taxes on corporations during the year was $1,539,684.27, being an increase of $546,959.11 over the previous year. The rate of taxation for the current fiscal year was fixed by the Legislature at 2T4^ mills on the dollar, which was estimated to yield a revenue of $6,- 820,022.29. The assessed value of property is $2,985,682,567, of which $2,432,661,378 is real estate. The revenues of the canals, for the year end- ing September 30th, were as follow : Tolls $647,602 88 Kent of surplus water. 1,910 85 Miscellaneous sources 10,456 62 Total $659,970 85 The expenditures amounted to 653,510 01 Leaving a surplus of $6,460 84 For the year ending September 30, 1881, the revenue failed to meet the expenditures by the sum of $205,642.45. The following is a statement of freight carried and tolls collected from the opening of navigation to December 1st in the years 1881 and 1882 : partment was 127, of which number 11 were in process of voluntary liquidation. During the year one new savings institution was organized, and one closed, having first paid its depositors and creditors in full. The condition of the savings-banks on the day named was as fol- lows: Tons moved. Tolls collected. 1882... 5 421 720 $655,195 51 1881 5 143 877 631 621 11 Gain in 1882 277843 $23 574 45 The tolls received after September 30th, with an unexpended appropriation in the canal fund, amounting together to $588,000, were deemed sufficient for repairs until the end of the cur- rent fiscal year, after which the canals will have to be supported by taxation. Eighty- nine claims, amounting to $168,652.57, were filed with the Board of Canal Appraisers during the year. During the same time 273 claims, aggregating $866,741.58, were disposed of, the awards amounting to $19,644.76. The cost of maintaining the board, exclusive of awards, was $39,639.20, of which $15,280.07 was paid to attorneys employed to defend the State against claimants. Seventy-six banks of discount and deposit were engaged in active business under the pro- visions of the banking laws of the State, on the 1st day of October. On that day their condi- tion was reported as follows : Resources $122,563,460 Capital 18,805.700 Surplus and profits 9,657,702 Due depositors 82,050,980 Other liabilities 12,049,078 The increase in deposits during the year was $6,333,850 ; profits, $729,527 ; loans and dis- counts, $5,503,379 ; and the net aggregate in- crease in assets was $9,099,888. During the year six new banking associations were organ- ized, one failed, and one was converted from a State to a national bank. On the 1st day of July, 1882, the number of savings-banks re- porting to the Superintendent of the Bank De- , $460,123,582 Due depositors 400,743,838 Surplus 59,157,039 Other liabilities 222,705 Number of open accounts 1,066,518 The increase in these several items during the year was as follows : Resources $35,918,774 Deposits 30,071,541 Surplus 5,853,656 Open accounts 70,776 There were 14 trust, loan, and mortgage com- panies in the State, whose condition on July 1st was as follows: Eesources ... , . . $139,758,534 Capital 12,579,500 Surplus and profits 9,854,376 Deposits 104,888,185 Other liabilities 12,486,473 This statement shows an increase over the preceding year of $10,765,848 in deposits, $1,- 322,027 in surplus and profits, and a net aggre- gate increase in assets of $13,869,620. On the 1st day of October there were in the State 14 corporations for the safe-keeping and guaran- teeing of personal property, employing $2,676,- 900 of capital in the aggregate. There were 151 fire-insurance companies doing business in the State on the 1st day of July, of which 69 were New York State com- panies, 55 were organized in other States, and 27 were foreign companies, with assets amount- ing in the aggregate to $154,810,890.43 ; their total liabilities, including capital stock, were $111,423,096.62, and their net surplus $43,- 387,793.81. There were 12 marine insurance companies doing business in the State on the 1st day of January, with assets amounting to $22,888,423.93, and liabilities, including capi- tal stock and scrip, amounting in the aggre- gate to $18,183,850.69, leaving a net surplus of $4,704,573.24. There were 12 life-insurance companies organized and doing business under the laws of this State, with assets amounting in the aggregate to $225,966,512.02; liabili- ties, $187,050,970.48, leaving a surplus, as re- gards policy-holders, of $38,915,541.54. There were also 17 life-insurance companies organ- ized in other States, but doing business in New York, with total assets of $203,310,947.58, and liabilities amounting to $169,813,325.83, leav- ing a surplus, as regards policy-holders, of $33,497,621.75 ; also one foreign life-insurance company, with total assets in the United States of $128,735.09, liabilities $5,248.75, and sur- plus $118,486.34. There were six casualty- insurance companies, of which two were New York companies, two organized in other States, and two were foreign companies, with aggre- gate assets amounting to $3,110,737.11 ; lia- bilities, $1,948,199.53, and a net surplus of NEW YORK. 613 $1,162,537.58. The number of co-operative insurance companies transacting business in the State on the 1st day of January was 115, having 325,524 certificates in force, of which 90,219 were written during the year 1881. Within the last-mentioned year 28,274 certifi- cates terminated, and losses to the amount of $4,742,090 were paid by this class of insurance organizations. During the year 1882 there was organized under the general insurance laws of the State one mutual fire-insurance company, with a paid-up cash contribution of $200,000, and one plate-glass insurance company, with a paid-up capital of $100,000. Eight fire-insur- ance companies, four organized in other States and four foreign companies, were during the year admitted to transact business in the State, with total assets amounting to $3,220,464.36, and liabilities, including capital stock, amount- ing to $1,554,788.42. Thirteen fire, two life, and two marine insurance companies, have ceased to do business in this State during the year. On the 1st day of July, 1882, the amount of securities, for the protection of policy-holders insured by the various insurance companies transacting business in the State, held on de- posit in the Insurance Department, as required by law, was $13,594,749.30, classified as fol- lows: New York State life-insurance companies $2,852,097 36 New York casualty-insurance companies 201,509 95 New York fire-insurance companies 1,653,000 00 Fire-insurance companies of other States 20,100 00 Foreign insurance companies 8,868,041 99 Total $13,594,749 30 The value of the property held by the va- rious charitable institutions, on the 30th day of September, was $41,103,809.54, of which $33,- 501,605.36 was real estate, and $7,602,304.18 personal property. The receipts of these in- stitutions during the last fiscal year were $10,- 186,810.91, derived from the following sources : State of New York $719,302 40 Cities and counties 4,236,130 00 Paying inmates 871,017 13 Invested funds 397,074 90 Donations 1,283,876 59 Loans 855,943 00 Labor of inmates 68,747 05 All other sources 2,760,620 84 Total $10,186,810 91 The expenditures during the same period were as follow : State institutions $1,482,819 84 County and city institutions 2,340,806 55 Incorporated benevolent institutions 5.891,439 23 The number of State paupers in the various institu- tions September 30, 1881, was 164 Committed during the year ending September 30, 1882. 1,392 Total. During the same period the number of deaths Discharged'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'. 1,350 1,556 43 Under care October 1, 1882. . . 1,388 ~163 Of the number reported as discharged, 778 were furnished transportation to their homes in other States and countries, or to their places of legal settlement. Forty-eight lunatic, idiotic, crippled, blind, and otherwise disabled alien paupers, were sent back to the countries whence they came by the State Board of Charities during the year. The number of insane in the various insti- tutions on the 30th day of September was 10,443, distributed as follows : In State institutions 8,105 In county poor-houses and asylums 1,995 In city almshouses and city asylums 4,739 In private asylums 503 In the Asylum for Insane Convicts at Auburn 141 Total 10,483 Of the insane in the State institutions, 2,022 were confined in the Willard and Bingham- ton Asylums, they being entirely of the chronic class. The number of insane persons in the several institutions, as given above, is 384 in excess of that reported at the close of the pre- vious year. The earnings and expenditures of the sev- eral State- Prisons during the year ending Sep- tember 30th were as follow : AUBURN. Earnings $120,234 16 Expenses 122,926 48 Deficiency $2,692 27 CLINTON. Earnings $60,361 59 Expenses 99,606 47 Deficiency $39,244 88 SING BING. Earnings $241,321 98 Expenses 198,127 20 Surplus $48,194 73 The total earnings of the three prisons were $6,257.58 in excess of their expenses. On the 30th day of September the number of convicts confined in Sing Sing Prison was 1,526, while Auburn contained 912, and Clinton 499. The Asylum for Insane convicts at Auburn contained 141 inmates, of which nine were women. The public-school statistics for the year end- ing September 30th are as follow : Total receipts, including balance on hand Octo- ber 1, 1881 $1 2,543,446 34 Total expenditures 11,181,986 55 Amount paid for teachers1 wages 7,986,383 96 Amount paid for school-houses, repairs, furni- ture, etc 1,525,578 26 Estimated value of school-houses and sites. . . 30,333,641 00 Number of teachers employed for the legal term of school Number of teachers employed during any por- tion of the year Number of children attending public schools 1,041,089 Number of persons attending normal schools 6,156 Number of volumes in school-district libraries 705,812 Number of persons in the State between the ages of five and twenty-one years 1,681,113 The number of children attending public schools during the last fiscal year was 19,807 in excess of the number reported the year previous. The number of immigrants landed at Castle Garden during the year was about 460,000, being the largest number landed in any year 614 NEW YORK. since the creation of the commission in 1847. Of the appropriation of $200,000, made by the Legislature for the maintenance of the com- mission, $47,569.46 had been expended at the close of the year in protecting the immigrants while landing, directing and forwarding those who had destinations fixed upon, assisting such as sought employment, and caring for the sick and helpless, and $23,473.24 for special repairs to buildings. Under an act of Congress, passed in August, the sum of fifty cents for each alien passenger intending to remain in this country was thereafter collected by the United States Treasury Department, and credited to the Emi- gration Commission. The sum collected for the first three full months after the law went into operation was $8,000 less than the ex- penditure for that period. The total cost of the new State Capitol to the close of the year, including $150,000 avail- able for work in progress, was $14,222,993.09. The two legislative chambers and offices for most of the State officers were completed. The Court of Appeals room was expected to be finished by March 1, 1883. The amount ex- pended during the year was $1,400,000, ap- plied mainly to the completion of the east front and roof, the outer walls of the west front, the main tower, and certain rooms and offices. The outer walls were substantially completed. The commissioners estimated that $1,000,000 to $1,250,000 would be needed for the next year's work. Statements having been made to the effect that certain parts of the building were unsafe — and especially so the heavy vault- ed ceiling of the Assembly Chamber — Govern- or Cornell appointed a commission, consisting of W. P. Trowbridge, Charles Babcock, and George B. Post, to make an examination. The report of the commission, made on the 26th of September, sustained the statements in part, and recommended that the stone vaulting in the Assembly Chamber be replaced by a construction of wood, on account of its great weight and insufficient support. The archi- tects of the Capitol, Leopold Eidlitz, H. H. Richardson, and Frederick L. Olmsted, re- plied to the criticisms and conclusions of the commission in a communication to the Gov- ernor, dated October 6th. They showed that the apprehensions regarding the safety of the Assembly Chamber were without foundation, giving in detail the supports, the variations from perpendicular of columns, the settling of bases, etc., which were less, rather than more, than is usual in such cases. The closing para- graph of the architects' statement is as fol- lows: "We find in the report of the commission no war- rant for any further recommendation, except that the fractured stone still remaining in the main vault be replaced ; that the work be properly pointed, and that the equilibrium of all the vaults be reviewed, and, if need be, corrected. Nor can we find in the report warrant for any other opinion than that when these slight repairs are made tne vaulted ceiling of the As- sembly Chamber will be a perfectly sound and perma- nent structure. In its present condition, and without repairs, there is nothing in the condition of the ceil- ing to warrant apprehensions in regard to its safety, or to prevent the immediate occupation of the cham- ber by the Assembly. General Newton M. Curtis, special agent of the United States Treasury in the New York Custom-House, was indicted in the early part of the year, under the law forbidding public officers to collect contributions of money for political purposes. On trial he was convicted, and a motion in arrest of judgment, and for a new trial, was denied by the Circuit Court in July. The decision was sustained on an ap- peal to the Supreme Court of the United States in December. (See POLITICAL ASSESSMENTS.) The freight-handlers' strike in New York city, during the summer, led to an important judicial decision regarding the obligations of railroad companies, and the power of the State through the courts to compel them to fulfill those obligations. (For particulars of the case see page 456, under LABOR, MOVEMENTS OF.) In rendering the decision of the General Term in January, 1883, Judge Davis said : The question presented by the motion is one of signal importance. It is whether the people of the State can invoke the power of the courts to compel the exercise by railroad corporations of the most use- ful public functions with which they are clothed. If the people have that right, there can be no doubt that their Attorney-General is the proper officer to set it in effective operation on their behalf. The question involves a consideration of the nature of this class of corporations, the objects for which they are cre- ated, the powers conferred, and the duties imposed upon them by the laws of their creation and of the State. As bodies corporate, their ownership may be, and usually is, altogether private, belonging to the holders of their capital stock, and their managements may be vested in such officers and agents as the stock- holders and directors under the provisions of the law may appoint. In this sense they are to be regarded as trading or private corporations, having in view the profit or advantage of the corporators. But these conditions are in no just sense in conflict with their obligations and duties to the public. The objects of their creation are from their very nature largely dil- ferent from those of ordinary private and trading cor- porations. Eailroads are in every essential quality public highways, created for public use, but per- mitted to be owned, controlled, and managed by pri- vate persons. But for this quality the railroads of the respondent could not lawfully exist. Their con- struction depended upon the exercise of the right of eminent domain, which belongs to the State in its cor- porate capacity alone, and can not be conferred except upon a " public use." The State has no power to grant tne right of eminent domain to any corporation or person for other than a public use. Every attempt to go beyond that is void by the Constitution, and, al- though the Legislature may determine what is a ne- cessary public use, it can not by any sort of enactment divest of that character any portion of the right of eminent domain which it may confer. This charac- teristic of " public use " is in no sense lost or dimin- ished by the fact that the use of the railroad by the corporation which constructs or owns it must from its nature be exclusive. That incident grows out of the method of use, which does not admit of any enjoy- ment in common by the public. The general and popular use of a railroad as a highway is therefore handed over exclusively to corporate management and control, because that is for the best and manifest advantage of the public. The progress of science and NEW YORK. 615 skill has shown that highways may be created for public use of such form and kind that the best and most advantageous enjoyment by the public can only be secured through the ownership, management, and control of corporate bodies created for that purpose, and the people of the State are not restricted from availing themselves of the best modes for the carriage of their persons and property. There is nothing in the Constitution hostile to the adoption and use by the State of any and every newly developed form or kind of travel and traffic which have a public use for their end and aim, and giving to them vital activity by the use of the power of eminent domain. When the earliest Constitution of our State was adopted, railroads were unknown. The public highways of the State were its turnpikes, ordinary roads, and nav- igable waters. The exercise of eminent domain in respect to them was permitted by the Constitution for the same reasons that adapt it now to the greatly improved methods of travel and transportation, and in making this adaptation there is no enlarged sense given to the language of the Constitution so long as its inherent purpose — the creation only of public uses — be faithfully ooserved. The judge proceeded to show that as a re- sult of the public character of the functions of a railroad corporation, it was not only obliged to furnish facilities and accommodations, but, as an agency of the State, to fulfill the purpose for which it was chartered. As to the peculiar relation of the company as a common carrier, he said : On other public highways every person may be his own carrier, or he may hire whomsoever he will to do that service. Between him and such employ^ a spe- cial and personal relation exists independent of any public duty, and in which the State has no interest. In such a case the carrier has not contracted with the State to assume the duty as a public trust, nor taken power to do it from the State by becoming the special donee and depositary of a trust. A good reason may therefore be assigned why the State will not by man- damus enforce the performance of his contract by such a carrier. But the reason for such a rule altogether fails when the public highway is the exclusive prop- erty of a body corporate which alone has power to use it, in a manner which of necessity requires that all management, control, and use, for the purposes of carriage, must be limited to itself, and which, as a condition of the franchise that grants such absolute and exclusive power over a user of a public highway, has contracted with the State to accept the duty of carrying all persons and property within the scope of its charter as a public trust. ... It is the duty of the State to make and maintain public highways. ... It is not the duty of the State to be or become a com- mon carrier upon its public highways, but it may in some cases assume that duty, and whenever it law- fully does so the execution of the duty may be en- forced against the agents or officers upon whom the law devolves it. It was next shown from various authorities that railroad companies could be compelled to furnish appliances, etc. These obligations, said Judge Davis, are no more binding than is the duty to carry freight and passengers. This duty is, in fact, " the ultima ratio of their ex- ist 3nce, the great and sole public good, for the attainment and accomplishment of which all the other powers and duties are given or im- posed. It is strangely illogical to assert that the State through the courts may compel the performance of every step necessary to bring a corporation into a condition of readiness to do the very thing it is created to do, but it is then powerless to compel the doing of the thing itself." As to the point that the State is not injured by the refusal of a corporation to perform its duty, and has, therefore, no in- terest in the question, Judge Davis said, it was no test that the State suffers no direct pecu- niary injury. The sovereignty of the State is injured whenever any public function vested by it in any person, natural or artificial, for the public good, is not used or is misused or is abused, and it is not bound to inquire whether some one or more of its citizens has not there- by received a special injury for which he may recover damages in his private suit. Such an injury wounds the sovereignty of the State, and thereby, in a legal sense, injures the entire body politic. The State in such a case as this has no other adequate remedy. The fact that individuals may have private remedies for the damage done them does not preclude the State from its remedy by mandamus. Again, the provisions of the Railroad Act, as amended by chapter 133 of the Laws of 1880, which give corporations power to regulate the time and manner in which passengers and property shall be transported, can not be construed to justify a general or partial suspension of receiving and transporting freight. Regarding the interference of the strike, the judge said : '' According to the statement of the case, a body of laborers acting in concert fixed a price for their labor, and refused to work for less. The respondents fixed a price for the same labor, and refused to pay more. In doing this neither did an act violative of any law, or subjecting either to any penalty. The respondents had a lawful right to take their ground in respect of the price to be paid and adhere to it if they chose, but if the con- sequences of doing so were an inability to ex- ercise their corporate franchises, to the great injury of the public, they can not be heard to assert that such consequence must be shoul- dered and borne by an innocent public who neither directly nor indirectly participated in their causes." If, however, it had been shown that a strike of the skilled laborers had been caused or compelled by some illegal combina- tion or organized body which held an unlawful control of their actions, and sought through them to enforce its will upon the companies, and that the latter in resisting such unlawful efforts had refused to obey unjust and illegal dictation, and had used all the means in their power to employ other men in sufficient num- bers to do the work, and that the refusal and neglect complained of had grown out of such a state of facts, a very different case would have been presented for the exercise of the discretion of the court as well as of the Attor- ney-General. The controversy with the employes of the railroads furnished no valid excuse, in the opinion of the Court, for neglect or refusal to perform their public duties. The conclusion was as follows : 616 NEW YOKE. NICARAGUA. The duties imposed must be discharged at whatever cost. They can not be laid down, or abandoned, or suspended, without the legally expressed consent of the State. The trusts are active, potential, and im- perative, and must he executed until lawfully surren- dered ; otherwise, a public highway of great utility is closed or obstructed without any process recognized by law. This is something no public officer charged with the same trusts and duties in regard to other public highways can do without subjecting himself to mandamus or indictment. We are not able to per- ceive the difficulties that embarrassed the court below as to the form of a writ of mandamus in such cases. It is true the writ must be specific ^as to the thing to be done ; but the thing to be done in tbis case was to resume the duties of carriers of the goods and property offered for transportation — that is, to receive, carry, and deliver the same under the existing rules and regulations as the business had been accustomed to be done. There was no necessity to specify what kinds of goods should be first received or carried, or whose goods, or, indeed, to take any notice of the details of the established usages of the companies. It was the people who were invoking the writ, on their own be- hall, and not for some private suitor, or to redress in- dividual injuries. The prayer of the petition indi- cated the proper form of the writ. The Court of Appeals in October reversed the decision of the General Term of the Court of Common Pleas of New York city in the case of Story against the New York Elevated Railroad Company, and ordered a new trial on the merits. The main point involved was, the right of the owners of property abutting on the line of the elevated railroad to recover damage for the injury done to such property. The question was examined at great length, and the decision was in fa^or of the right to recover. The conclusions in this particular case were as follow : 1. That the plaintiff, by force of the grant of the city to his grantors, has a right or privilege in Front Street which entitles him to have the same kept open and continued as a public street for the benefit of his abutting property. 2. That this right or privilege constitutes an ease- ment in the bed of the street which attaches to the abutting property of the plaintiff and constitutes pri- vate property within the meaning of the Constitution, of which he cannot be deprived without compensation. 3. That such a structure as the Court found the de- fendant was about to erect in Front Street, and which it has since erected, is inconsistent with the use of Front Street as a public street. 4. That the plaintiff's property has been taken and appropriated by the defendant for public use without compensation being made therefor. 5. That the defendant's acts are unlawful, and as the structure is permanent in its character, and if suffered to continue will inflict a permanent and con- tinuing injury upon the plaintiff, he has the right to restrain the erection and continuance of the road by injunction. 6. That the statutes under which the defendant is organized authorize it to acquire such property as may be necessary for its construction and operation by the exercise of the right of eminent domain. 7. In view of the serious consequences to the de- 'fendant, we think no injunct'on prohibiting the con- tinuance or operation of the road in Front Street should be issued until the defendant has had a reasonable time after this decision to acquire the plaintiff's prop- erty by agreement or by proceedings to condemn the The general course of the argument in the decision of the court sustained the view that the State could not grant privileges in the streets of a city which should be inconsistent with their use and enjoyment as such, and that any injury to the value of property or restric- tion upon its free and full use by the owner, was pro tanto a taking of such property for which compensation must be made. NICARAGUA* (REPUBLICA DE NICARAGUA), one of the five independent states of Central America. STATE OFFICERS. — The President of the Re- public is Dr. Adam Cardenas (successor to Sefior Don Joaquin Zavala), inaugurated on March 1, 1883. The Cabinet comprised the following Ministry : Foreign Affairs and Pub- lic Instruction, Sefior Francisco J. Medina (ad interim) ; Interior, Justice, and Public Worship, Licentiate V. Navas; and Finance, War, and Marine, Colonel J. Elizondo. The President of the Senate is Sefior Don B. Guerra ; and the President of the Chamber of Deputies, Sefior Don J. G. Bolafios. FOREIGN REPRESENTATIVES. — The Consul- General of Nicaragua in New York is Mr. Alexander J. Cotheal, and the Consul is Mr. C. R. Flint. The United States Minister accredited to the five Central American Republics, and resident at Guatemala, is Mr. H. C. Hall; and the United States consular agent at the port of Corinto, is Mr. E. Deshon. ARMY. — By the terms of the new military code, all male citizens of the republic between the ages of eighteen and fifty-five years are compelled to serve in the army. The strength of this last is reported at 703 rank and file (regular troops), and 9,600 militia. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. — To the details given in the volume for 1881, it may here be stated that measures have been taken for the estab- lishment of schools for females at Leon and Granada, under the auspices of the Govern- ment. The teachers in these, as is the case in most of the schools throughout the country, will be foreigners. A corps of French in- structors was to arrive in the early months of 1883 for the School of Artes y qficios (arts and trades}. The salaries of the director and four sub-directors were fixed at $3,600, $1,600, $1,500, $1,400, and $1,300, respectively. The State Library at Managua (the capital) con- tained, with recent accessions, 10,000 volumes. It is only within the past six years that the cen- tral Government has assumed the direction and defrayed the expenses of this important branch,' and the expenditure steadily increased in eachl successive year, having amounted to $185,-| 816.44 for the biennial period 1881-'82, against $111,215.90 and $61,546.99 for 1879 and 1880, and 1877 and 1878 respectively. Military schools were organized in Managua, Granada, and Leon, where the instruction was to com- prise reading, writing, arithmetic, and moral militas. * See " Annual Cyclopaedia" of 1881 for statistics of area, territorial divisions, population, etc. NICARAGUA. 617 FINANCE. — The national revenue for the bi- ennial period 1881-'82 amounted to $3,351,- 766.60, against $2,436,093.39 for 1879-'80, as stated in the Cuenta General del Tesoro pub- lished by the Minister of Finance in January, 1883. Of the revenue for 1881-'82, $1,275,506 were derived from the custom-house; $779,- 811 from the spirit-tax ; $447,029 from the to- bacco-tax, and $193,703 from slaughter-houses. The following table shows the amount and branches of the expenditure for the biennial fiscal period 1881-'82 : Executive, Legislative, etc., Departments $112,548 42 Ministry of the Interior, etc 518,068 99 War and Marine 889,406 89 Foreign Affairs 762,45782 Finance 1,353,61187 Sundries 109,787 37 Total $3,240,940 36 Hence there resulted a surplus of $110,826.24. Eeferring to the remarks given in the vol- ume for 1881, on the subject of the national debt, it may not be uninteresting here to tran- scribe the observation of the Minister of Fi- nance contained in his report presented to the Congress at the end of the year : " The only foreign debt, as you know, that weighed upon the republic, constituted our share of the Fed- eral debt of 1824. The Memorias successively laid before you relating to the biennial fiscal periods 1875-76 to 1879-'80 apprised you that on March 27, 1874, that indebtedness was set- tled, with the legal representative of the hold- ers of the old Central American bonds, at £31,510, and that the state faithfully kept the agreement then made. As I had the honor of informing you in my Memoria for 1879-'80, the debt at the end of 1880 was reduced to £4,170 15s. 6d., which remained unpaid because the bondholders did not present their titles, notwithstanding due publication of the agree- ment, and that the latter had been promptly complied with by the state. It was supposed that the whole of the bonds would, in the course of so long a time after their emission, have been redeemed, but during the biennial period 1881-'82, £1,100 were paid through Messrs. Jimenez & Sons, of London. Thus this debt is brought down to the insignificant sum of £4,011 15*. 6d., which the Government is ready to discharge on presentation of the bonds. Hence the national revenue is not en- cumbered by any foreign debt." The home debt, which at the end of 1880 stood at $920,257.70, has since been reduced to $426,352.55, as appears from the official re- port above referred to. COMMERCE. — The exports for the biennial period 1881-'82 were of the total value of $4,022,317.51, against $3,708,331.95 for 1879- '80. Chief among the staples sent out of the country were coffee and India-rubber, which together represented 50f per cent of the entire exports. The following tables exhibit the quantities and values of these articles exported in the periods therein expressed : PERIODS. Quantities. Price. Value. 1877-'78 . . . 1879-'80 . . . I881-'82 Quintals.* 86,119-90 80,574-69 120,266-64 $15 20 10 60 9 00 $546,401 99 855,620 25 1,082,399 76 INDIA-RUBBER. PERIODS. Quantities. Price. Value. 1877-'78 . . . 1879-'80 1881-'82 Quintals.* 36,938 29,729 29,315 $45 00 45 00 45 00 $1,662,210 1,337,805 1,319,175 In view of the progressive depression in the price of coffee in all markets, and the continued decrease in the production of India-rubber, it is apprehended in Nicaragua that the balance of trade, now so largely in favor, will at no distant day be turned against the republic. In the mean time, with increased facilities of trans- port by rail, the general foreign commerce will be considerably developed, and dye-woods will come to compensate in a measure decay in the coffee and rubber exports. The imports for the period 1881-'82 were of the total value of $3,362,544.44, against $2,936,483.96 for the period immediately pre- ceding. By far the largest portion of the for- eign trade is with Great Britain (the exports to which in 1881-'82 were of the value of $1,263,439.10, and the imports from which $1,378,674.66), the United States (exports to, $1,655,960.88— imports from, $812,906.07), and France (exports to, $366,374.32— imports from, $641,307.28). Next in order follow Germany, and the other states of Central America. The trade in the biennial period last past was di- vided as follows between the several ports of the republic : San,™ deport, ...... ™. , (Exports ........... 44,92517 Chinendega ............. j Imports ........... 13,86683 Of these ports, the second is on the Atlantic, the other three on the Pacific coast. KAIL WATS, TELEGKAPHS, ETC. — The railway t now in course of construction was completed and open to traffic as far as Chinendega in 1882; and it is confidently expected that by November, 1884, there will be uninterrupted communication by rail from the Pacific ter- minus of the line to Managua and Granada, when transit by rail and water from ocean to ocean will at last be an accomplished fact. Telegraphic communication with Honduras, via Pafaiso, was established during the year, and with the remainder of the world by the Central and South American submarine ca- ble ; and the tariff for dispatches to all points of Central America was reduced to uniformity with that for messages within the republic. * Of one hundred pounds. t See " Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1881, p. 662. 618 NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. Nicaragua joined the Postal Union in 1882. MISCELLANEOUS. — A steam soap-factory was put in operation in Leon, and bids fair to prove successful. A treaty of extradition with Colombia was signed on July 3, 1882. In the United States increasing interest is taken in the consummation of the Nicaragua interoceanic canal route.* The Legislatures and Boards of Trade of the Pacific States have urged the Government to aid the scheme ; sub- scriptions to stock in the canal were reported as having been made in San Francisco, and it was deemed probable that New Orleans would warmly support that initiative. The promoters of the enterprise announce their determination to prosecute it, spite of puissant adversaries, and to commence work at once in the event of obtaining the three per cent guarantee which they seek from the United States Government. NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NA- TIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. SOME RE- CENT VIEWS. — The justice of the intervention or non-intervention of the supreme authority of one nation in the internal affairs of another nation is one of those questions which occur in the science of international law. Its solu- tion in any case which may arise should, there- fore, be found in the rules and customs recog- nized in such law. What, then, is international law ? The term " law " is generally defined to be a rule of action prescribed by a superior, and commanding what is right, and prohibiting what is wrong. It is in consaquence of this prescription of the superior that the obligation to obedience arises in those on whom the law is imposed, and the justness of the act com- manded, and the unjustness of that prohib- ited, is inferred. With a precise use of lan- guage, therefore, it is evident that the term law can not be applied to the science embraced in international law, unless there is a superior to prescribe its rules, and to decide relative to the justice or injustice of actions. How can this take place, since the subjects of interna- tional law are sovereign nations, and the mat- ter of its rules consists of their mutual relations and actions? The earliest writers on the sci- ence seem to have been aware of an impro- priety in the use of such a designation. This is indicated by the titles of their works. Thus Grotius, regarded as the founder of the sci- ence, entitled his book "On the Rights of War and Peace." Hobbes afterward wrote " De Give," or on citizenship ; and Puffendorf called his distinguished work " Of the Law of Nature and of Nations." He was followed by Bynkershoek with "Questions on Public Law," Wolf on " The Law of Nations," and Vattel " On the Law of Nations." The term " international law " was introduced by Jeremy Bentham about 1790, and, notwithstanding many objections by others, it has become gen- erally accepted as the appropriate designation of the science. But it would seem that the * See u Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1881, p. 662. most perplexing points which came uuder the consideration of these writers, were those which treated of the prescriptive authority of a law of nations, and of the obligation to obey it. Both of these are necessary elements of a law, and the position which they occupy in international science is very distinctly stated by Wheaton.* THE OBLIGATION or INTERNATIONAL LAW. — " There is no legislative or judicial authority, recognized by all nations, which determines the law that regulates the reciprocal relations of states. The origin of this law must be sought in the principles of justice applicable to those relations. While in every civil society or state there is always a legislative power which establishes, by express declaration, the civil law of that state, and a judicial power which interprets that law and applies it to in- dividual cases, in the great society of nations there is no legislative power, and consequently there are no express laws except those which result from the conventions which states may make with one another. As nations acknowl- edge no superior ; as they have not organized any common paramount authority for the pur- pose of establishing, by an express declaration, their international law; and as they have not constituted any sort of Amphictyonic magis- tracy to interpret and apply that law, it is impossible that there should be a code of in- ternational law illustrated by judicial interpre- tations. The inquiry must then be, What are the principles of justice which ought to regu- late the mutual relations of nations — that is to say, from what authority is international law derived? When the question is thus stated, every publicist will decide according to his own views, and hence the fundamental differ- ences which we remark in their writings." ITS SOUECE OF AUTHORITY. — The views of various writers on the source of authority in international law, and consequently of the ex- tent of its obligatory force, are worthy of notice. Grotius, the earliest of these writers, sought to lay down certain rules of justice which would be binding on men living in a state of nature, independently of any positive laws of human institution. These rules he designated as natural law, and aimed to apply them to mutual relations of separate commu- nities living in a similar state with respect to each other. The substance of international law he thus makes to consist in certain rules of justice, binding upon men in a state of nature. These he designates as "natural law." The source of these rules of justice, and the ground upon which they rest for their obliga- tory force, are brought forward in his defini- tion of natural law. These rules, he says, are the dictate of right reason, pronouncing that there is in some actions a moral obligation, and in other actions a moral deformity, arising from their respective suitableness or repug- * " Elements of International Law," second annotated edi- tion. NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. 619 nance to the rational and social nature, and that, consequently, such actions are either for- bidden or enjoined by God, the Author of Na- ture. Actions which are the subject of this exertion of reason are in themselves lawful or unlawful, and are, therefore, as such, necessa- rily commanded or prohibited by God.* These views are in conformity with the philosophy of the period in which Grotius lived. They recognize an arrangement and order in all things, of which God is the au- thor, and which is designed to be the immuta- ble order of the universe. "Within the province of human actions justice is the rule which se- cures the observance by them of that order, and injustice expresses the departure from it, and is a violation of the rule. Thus he finds the source or foundation of the rules which should govern the relations of nations to each other to be a part of that basis upon which rests the superstructure of all human actions, and that the authority for these rules is none other than that of the Creator and Author of all things. But the application of this law of nature, as it is, related to man as an individual, and also to men united in one common society, soon led to a distinction in his views. Thus "Wheaton observes : " The term natural law is here evi- dently used for those rules of justice which ought to govern the conduct of men, as moral and accountable beings, living in a social state, independently of positive human institutions (or, as is commonly expressed, living in a state of nature), and which may more properly be called the law of God, or the divine law, being the rule of conduct prescribed by him to his rational creatures, and revealed by the light of reason, or the sacred Scriptures. As independ- ent communities acknowledge no common su- perior, they may be considered as living in a state of nature with respect to each other, and the obvious inference drawn by the disciples and successors of Grotius was, that the dis- putes arising among these independent com- munities must be determined by what they call the law of nature. This gave rise to a new and separate branch of the science called the law of nations — Jus Gentium" t This law of nations Grotius distinguished from the natural law by the different nature of its origin and obligation. These features of the natural law have been stated, but the origin and obligation of the law of nations he attrib- uted to the general consent of nations. This distinction has been also expressed by desig- nating the one as the natural and the other as the positive or voluntary law of nations. Neither Hobbes nor Puffendorf expressed an approval of this derivation of the origin and obligatory force of the positive law of nations. The former, in his work " De Cive," says: " The natural law may be divided into the nat- ural law of men, and the natural law of states, * Grotius, " De Jur. Bel. ac Pac.," lib. i, cap. 1, § x, 1, 2. t Lawrence's Wheaton, Part 1, chap, i, pp. 2, 3. commonly called the law of nations. The pre- cepts of both are the same ; but since states, when they are once instituted, assume the per- sonal qualities of individual men, that law, which when speaking of individual men we call the law of nature, is called the law of na- tions when applied to whole states, nations, or people." * To this view Puffendorf implicitly subscribes, saying that "there is no other vol- untary or positive law of nations properly in- vested with a true and legal force, and binding as the command of a superior power." t Here the issue is directly made between authority and obligation arising out of consent of nations, and the same arising under the law of nature. After denying that there is any positive or voluntary law of nations founded on the con- sent of nations, and distinguished from the natural, Puffendorf admits that the usages and comity of civilized nations have introduced certain rules, for mitigating the exercise of hostilities between them ; that these rules are founded on a general tacit consent, and that their obligation ceases by the express declara- tion of any party, engaged in a just war, that it will no longer be bound by them. Bynkershoek, who wrote later than Puffen- dorf, says: "The ancient jurisconsults assert that the law of nations is that which is ob- served in accordance with the light of reason, between nations, if not among all, at least cer- tainly among the greater part, and those the most civilized. According to my opinion, we may safely follow this definition, which estab- lishes two distinct bases of this law, namely, reason and custom."! It will thus be seen that the sources and obligation of international law are, by this writer, laid upon the bases of reason and custom. The views thus far pre- sented, with the exception of the latter writer, represent international law as a branch of the science of ethics, and consider it as the nat- ural law of individuals applied to regulate the conduct of men in societies, called states. "Wolf, the next writer, separated the law of nations from that which treated of the duties of indi- viduals. He says : " Since such is the condi- tion of mankind that the strict law of nature can not always be applied to the government of a particular community, but it becomes necessary to resort to laws of positive institu- tion, more or less varying from the natural law, so in the great society of nations it be- comes necessary to establish a law of positive institution more or less varying from the nat- ural law of nations." § He then advances the fiction of a great republic or commonwealth of nations upon whose assent this law of posi- tive institution is supposed to be founded, and thus derives its origin and obligation. Vattel, who followed Wolf, differs from him in the manner of establishing the foundations * " De Cive," chap, xiv, § 4. t Puffendorf, " De Jure Naturae et Gentium," lib. ii, cap. iii, § 23. ± Bynkershoek, " Quest. Jur. Pub.," lib. i, cap. x. § Wolfius, "Jus Gentium," Pref., § 3. 620 NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. of the voluntary law of nations. He says : " I do not find the fiction of such a republic either very just or sufficiently solid to deduce from it the rules of a universal law of nations, neces- sarily admitted among sovereign states. I do not recognize any other natural society be- tween nations than that which nature has established between all men. It is the essence of all civil society that each, member thereof should have given up a part of his rights to the body of the society, and that there should exist a supreme authority capable of command- ing all the members, of giving to them laws, and of punishing those who refuse to obey. Nothing like this can be conceived or supposed to exist between nations. Each sovereign state pretends to be, and in fact is, independent of all others. Even, according to Mr. Wolf, they must all be considered as so many free individ- uals, who live together in a state of nature, and acknowledge no other law than that of na- ture itself, and its Divine Author." * Accord- ing to his view, the law of nations in its origin is nothing but the law of nature applied to nations ; yet, he says, there are many cases in which the natural law does not furnish the same rule of decision between state and state as would be applicable between individual and individual. It is the art of accommodating this application to the different nature of the subjects in a just manner, according to right reason, which constitutes the law of nations a particular science. The two last-named writers, together with Grotius, recognize an application of the natural law, to regulate the conduct of nations in their intercourse with each other. This is desig- nated by the former as "the necessary law of nations," because they are absolutely bound to observe it, as it is binding upon states as upon individuals; while Grotius designates it as "the internal law of nations," being obliga- tory upon nations in point of conscience. By others this is termed " the natural law of na- tions," which is immutable, and founded on the nature of man. To embrace the whole science of international law, the first-named writers, Wolf and Vattel, recognize a volun- tary law of nations, arising from the presumed consent of nations, a conventional law result- ing from compacts between particular states, and a customary law resulting from usage be- tween particular nations. The obligation of the voluntary law, Vattel establishes in a man- ner unlike Wolf, as above mentioned. The view of Heffter, a writer of distinction, is that the law of nations is a law common to all mankind, which no people can refuse to ac- knowledge, and the protection of which may be claimed by all men and by all states. He places the foundation of this on the incon- testable principle that wherever there is a so- ciety there must be a law obligatory on all its members; and hence deduces the consequence that there must be likewise for the great soci- * Vattel, " Droit des Gens," Preface. ety of nations an analogous law. Again, he says : " Its sanction (the law of nations), or the obligation of all men to respect it, results from the moral order of the universe, which will not suffer nations and individuals to be isolated from each other, but constantly tends to unite the whole family of mankind in one great har- monious society." * An eminent French writer on this science t questions the propriety of using the term " law of nations " as applicable to those rules of con- duct which obtain between independent socie- ties of men. " There can be no right where there is no law, and there is no law where there is no superior ; without law, obligations, properly so called, can not exist ; there is only a moral obligation resulting from natural rea- son." M. Hautefeuille, an admirable French writer, says : " From the primitive law, that is, from the natural law, flows the entire inter- national law. Its principles are not only to be found in Grotius and Hobbes, but they are in the hearts of all men. The natural law exe- cuted with exactitude, would secure to all na- tions the tranquil exercise of all their rights, that is to say, peace and happiness." J Mr. Wheaton gives us this definition of the science: " International law, as understood among civilized nations, may be defined as con- sisting of those rules of conduct which reason deduces, as consonant to justice, from the na- ture of the society existing among independent nations; with such definitions and modifica- tions as may be established by general con- sent." § The sources of international law, he says, are text - writers of authority, treaties of peace, ordinances of particular states, ad- judications of international tribunals, written opinions of official jurists, and the history of wars, negotiations, and other transactions relating to the public intercourse of nations. His view of the obligatory authority of these rules of conduct must be sought for in his definition and general remarks. Thus of the text- writers of authority he says, "Without wishing to exaggerate the importance of these writers, or to substitute in any case their au- thority for the 'principles of reason, it may be affirmed that they are generally impartial in their judgment." Here the authority is ascribed to the principles of reason, or rather, principles deduced by reason. In the defini- tion he makes the substance of international law to consist of those rules of conduct which reason deduces from the nature of society. The distinctive powers of man are reason and free-will; the former to deduce the truth, and the latter to choose or accept it. The great principle that determines the character of all the actions of men toward each other, is jus-» tice. When, therefore, Mr. Wheaton requires in * Heffter, " Das europaische Volkerrecht," § 2. t Eayneval, " Institutions du droit de la nature et des gens," note 10 du ler liv., p. 8. $ " Des droits et des devoirs des nations neutres en temps de guerre maritime." § Lawrence's Wheaton, Part I, cap. i, p. 26. NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. 621 his definition that the rules of conduct shall be deduced by reason, as consonant to justice, he assigns to them the highest authority which can be ascribed to intellectual approval. But if the investigation be pursued, and it be asked, whence the simple deductions of reason con- sonant with justice derive authority over hu- man actions, the answer will show that it is from the same source from which the natural law derives its authority, viz., the Creator of all things. In another place he presents the following remark : " Grotius would, undoubtedly, have done better had he sought the origin of the natural law of nations in the principle of utility, vaguely indicated by Leibnitz, but clearly ex- pressed and adopted by Cumberland, and ad- mitted by almost all subsequent writers as the test of international morality. But in the time when Grotius wrote, this principle, which has so greatly contributed to dispel the mist with which the foundations of the science of inter- national law were obscured, was but very lit- tle understood. The principles and details of international morality, as distinguished from international law, are to be obtained not by applying to nations the rules which ought to govern the conduct of individuals, but by as- certaining what are the rules of international conduct which, on the whole, best promote the general happiness of mankind." * Here it would appear as if utility was the principle by which to test the right or wrong in the actions of nations toward each other; commending that which is useful as right and promoting the general happiness of mankind, and prohibiting that which is not useful as wrong and inju- rious to the general happiness of mankind. But there can be no incompatibility between true utility and true justice. Why, then, in one instance say that the principle of utility is admitted as the test of international morality, and in another instance say that international law consists in those rules of conduct which reason deduces as consequent to justice from the nature of society, etc. ? If the precepts of international law are consonant to justice, then the observance or the violation of them deter- mines their international morality, which in no sense can be determined by utility, although it may be consonant with it. Turning now to the Italian school of writers, one of the most eminent t presents this view : " If the society of nations is governed by natu- ral law, the atoms which compose it must be absolutely equal. Men under the scepter of nature are all equal, and accordingly common- wealths are equal if the international state be one of nature. The proposition that independ- ent communities, however different in size and power, are all equal in the view of the law of nations, has largely contributed to the happiness of mankind, though it is constantly threatened by the political tendencies of each successive * Part I, chap. 1, p. 5. t H. S. Maine, l> Ancient Law," chap. iv. age. It is a doctrine which probably would never have obtained a secure footing at all if international law had not been entirely derived from the majestic claims of nature by the pub- licists who wrote after the revival of letters." The opinions of these writers on interna- tional law, thus briefly presented, serve to show upon what an uncertain foundation the au- thority and obligation of its precepts seem to rest. Sovereign states being considered as the subjects of its commands, there is not to be found anywhere a state so supreme as to pre- scribe, with the authority of a superior, rules of conduct to others. Indeed, their relations to each other seem to resemble very much those of an individual in social life, who is said "to be on his good behavior." If, however, he violates the tacitly approved courtesies and rules of society, he is pronounced " disorderly," and is approached by a representative of an authority which has the right to command and the power to enforce. Nothing like this exists among sovereign states, but various substitutes have been sug- gested or attempted, such as a permanent con- gress of states, a confederation of states, etc., all of which have been temporary in their nature, and without efficient obligatory force. The conference of certain European states at Constantinople during the year, relative to the affairs of Egypt, presents an illustration of the highest condition to which a practical applica- tion of international law has attained. The ar- biters of Europe assembled to decide the fate of Egypt, not upon the principles of justice, but upon such terms as shall preserve the peace of Europe. VIEWS OF THE ITALIAN" SCHOOL. — But, with- out pursuing this aspect of the science further, it will now be interesting to turn to Italy and consider the views there advanced. Italy, con- sisting of several distinct and independent governments, as is well known, has been " uni- fied," as it has been termed, under the govern- ment of the strongest. A revolution so extreme in one aspect, a consolidation so vast in an- other; a confederation of such incongruous elements in one sense, a subjugation so entire in another, embracing as it does a church as- serting universal and more than human moral authority, must, in whatever manner it is viewed, elicit a multitude of interesting ques- tions. None of these is it here proposed to notice, but simply to present those declared principles of international law under which it is maintained that all these events can come to pass in perfect accord with the principles of justice, and be secured in permanence con- sistently with the principles of honor and rectitude among states. " The change," said Cavour, "which has just been accomplished in Italy, has not only been inspired by the principle of liberty, like the English Revolution of 1688; it has been founded on the right of nationality, which gives it additional force." * "MPariement Italian, seance du 9 Avril, 1861. 622 NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. BEGINNING OF THE SCIENCE. — The latest of Italian writers assumes that the science of in- ternational law really began to exist after the Peace of "Westphalia in 1648, and was one of the fruits produced by the changes made under the religious revolution of the preceding cen- tury.* The emancipation of humanity from Catholic theocracy placed man at the head of secular affairs, and released his free-will from all restraints except those which were approved by his personal reason. This constituted lib- erty as an essential right of human personality. " In fact, a man is not a person if he is not free; and Aristotle called slaves half-men, be- cause they are deprived of personal liberty.! Liberty, however, we do not understand in the cloudy sense given it by many philosophers. In our meaning, liberty is that which was de- fined by the great Revolution of France in the last century ; it consists in doing all that is not injurious to others. And so long as one man does not impair the liberty of another man, so long does he exercise his right ; for right, ac- cording to us, is the assemblage of those condi- tions under which the free-will of every one may co-exist with the free-wills of all the others. Now, because the state, as Plato used to say, is man considered on a grand scale, the same principles, which do for individuals, do for states; and international law is nothing else than a system of principles by the means of which the free-will of one state may co-exist with the free-wills of the other states ; in other words, it is the right of nature applied to the mutual relations of states among themselves. According to our view^ the state is the people organized to unity : Civitas, as Cicero said, est constitute populi ; populus autem est, non omnis coetus quoquo modo congregatm, sed coe- tus multitudinis juris consensu et utilitatis communione sociatus. Hence it is natural that in every state there should be a suprema po- testas which governs the multitude, a sover- eign power which is the expression of the will of the organized multitude. Now, when a state is governed by a supreme power which habit- ually exercises its sovereignty over the people without being subject to any foreign control, then there is autonomy and independence, which consists in a spontaneous, habitual, and complete sovereignty.! Any one, therefore, who will meddle in the internal affairs of a state violates its independence and autonomy; non-intervention, therefore, as a principle, is nothing else than the respect due to the inde- pendence and autonomy of states. And as personal liberty is for the individual, so inde- pendence is for a state the most precious good. Without this there can be neither moral dignity nor power, nor prosperity, nor glory in the state, nor respect for it on the part of others. A state without independence is a carcass — a body in which life is wanting. Non-interven- * " Eivista Europea," April 1, 18S2. p. 58. t Ibid., March, p. 1003. $ On the import of independence, see Austin's " The Prov- ince of Jurisprudence Determined," Lecture vi. tion, therefore, as a principle, is just and lawful, because it is the observance of the liberty of states ; wherefore it must be scrupulously re- spected, even when to violate it might be ad- vantageous ; for justice must at all times prevail over utility ; and, besides, history informs us that the violation of justice, although it may have been profitable for a short time, has ulti- mately proved detrimental. For us, therefore, utility has a value only when it is supported by justice. Consequently, every independent state is free to do at home what it pleases; and, even if it violates justice, provided its acts do no injury to others, it is fully sovereign, because there is no power superior to states, and no state has the mission of executing the avengements of justice, outside the limits of its own territory." EXPLANATION. — A few words in explanation are necessary to set forth the view here pre- sented. The writer says: "Now, because the state, as Plato used to say, is man considered on a grand scale, the same principles which do for individuals, do for states; and interna- tional law is nothing else than a system of principles by the means of which the free-will of one state may co-exist with the free-wills of the other states ; in other words, it is the law or right of nature applied to the mutual relations of states among themselves." The prime natural rights of man are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, and "for the protection of these rights governments are instituted." * That is, among the highest rights of man, is the right to his life, and to the safety and liberty of his person. This right is often designated as sacred ; as if it were, on the one hand, a possession of the highest value to the individual, and, on the other, beyond the reach of violability by any one. The man has the universally recognized right of peaceable possession and enjoyment, which is attended by the corresponding duty obligatory upon every other man, not to inter- fere with or disturb this possession. But the right of peaceable and secure possession on his part is a right of non-interference and non- intervention as regards all others. For right, says this writer, " is the assemblage of those conditions under which the free-will of every one may co-exist with the free-wills of all the others." Therefore the right of non-inter- ference and non-intermeddling by others is no less a right than that of peaceable and secure enjoyment, if, indeed, the one expression is not the equivalent of the other. SOURCE OF THE PRINCIPLES. — Now it is from this source that the writer derives the princi- ples of international law ; or, rather, with him, these are the principles of that science. He says : " The same principles which do for individuals, do for states; and international law is nothing else than a system of principles by the means of which the free-will of one state may co-exist with the free-wills of the * American Declaration of Independence, 1776. NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. 623 other states ; in other words, it is the right (law) of nature applied to the mutual relations of states among themselves." The obligatory- force of this law is, therefore, the same as that which obliges a man not to interfere with the life or liberty of his neighbor. Asserting the equal sovereignty and independence of all states, it follows that to each belongs the right of non-intervention or non-interference as against all others. France, subsequent to her first revolution of 1789, when threatened by successive coalitions of the great European monarchies, relying on the independence of nations, contended for non-intervention as a right.* Understood as an expression of the independence of states, the principle of non- intervention is not denied by any publicist; and even the famous " Holy Alliance " of Eu- ropean sovereigns, which was a negation of that principle, while it violated the principle, professed to respect the independence of na- tions. NON-INTERVENTION EXPLAINED. — But an ex • planation of the term "non-intervention," as here used, is necessary. " In order rightly to define the question of non-intervention," says this writer, " we begin with giving the true meaning of the word intervention ; and this is the more necessary, because intervention is often spoken of in various senses, and many times in a sense different from that which it ought to have : ' According to the strict signi- fication of the word, to intervene would ex- press the interposing of one or more powers between two peoples at variance, or between the contending parties of one and the same people. And this is understood of armed, or, at all events, coactive intervention ; inasmuch as the non-coactive and simply amicable is never and in no case unlawful, and in most cases it is even wished for and welcomed. In diplomacy, however, the modern use of that word makes it more properly to signify the interfering of one or more powers in the in- ternal affairs of an independent state, when- ever the condition of those affairs is likely to prove of serious detriment to others.' t We intend by intervention to designate meddling in the internal affairs of a nation, let this be amicable — which, though caused by the broth- erhood of peoples, is yet unlawful and humili- ating— or let it be coercive; for either form of it constitutes an intermeddling. And from the idea we assign to the word intervention, it will follow that the principle of non-interven- tion is applicable to all those cases in which a foreign state will interpose in the relations existing between government and governed, between citizens and citizens of one and the same nation." WHEN is A NATION RESPONSIBLE FOR ITS ACTS ? — Nations being thus constituted, each equal in sovereignty and independence, and as possessing an absolute right of non-interven- * Lawrence's Wheaton's " Elements," etc., p. 120. t "JSlew European Public Eight,'' chap, ix, § iv. tion on the part of others, it may be asked, When is a nation responsible for its acts ? Then only is a state responsible for its acts when these impair the right of others ; and then there is injury done to the right of others when this right is so just and evident that the violation of it is manifestly prejudicial, or seriously dan- gerous, to the power concerned. Thus, a state, whose existence should be made to depend on the injuries done to others, has no right to ex- ist; and intervention there is just, because the independence of any one must never be exag- gerated to the point of becoming injurious to the independence of others. Such states, there- fore, as should intend to live by piracy, would have no right to exist. In like manner, a state which should purpose to found for itself a uni- versal monarchy, or declare its intention to im- pose its own principles on other states by the force of arms, would violate the independence of others, and should be punished.* Great caution is required here, says the writ- er, and he maintains that this extreme remedy should be adopted only when no satisfactory diplomatic explanations are given, and when a state provokes agitation in other countries and violates their independence to such a degree as to render an armed intervention for their very existence indispensable. " But so long as such declarations of principles are only poet- ical aspirations, so long as foreign states have the power of repressing agitations within their own limits, they must abstain from invading the territory of a threatened state, and not act as the potentates of Europe did in the last century, when they invaded France under the pretext of a platonic declaration issued by the French constituency — that it would with arms support those people in foreign countries who should demand their freedom. This interven- tion was unjust, and has been the source of many great evils, because that declaration did not constitute a grave danger to the existence of the intervening states, as they possessed within themselves the power to suppress any rising of their own people. We hold that in- tervention is to be used only as an extreme remedy under circumstances of the most se- rious character. In this case it is not a viola- tion of our principle. For, certainly, that state which proclaims universal monarchy, or in- tends to enforce on a-nother people the ob- servance of its own principles,does not exercise a right belonging to it, because it oversteps the limits of its own territory ; and hence it follows that the intervention is just — nay, according to our views, there would be in this case only legitimate defense on the part of foreign states, but no intervention, as no internal affair of the threatening state is interfered with." * If the end of the last and the beginning1 of the present century saw all Europe combined against France, it was not on account of the internal changes which France thought necessary for her own political and civil reformation ; but be- cause she attempted to propagate, first, her principles, and afterward her dominion, by the sword.— Lawrence's Whea- ton's " Elements," p. 122. 624 NON-INTERVENTION" AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. " In like manner, every meddling of one State in the affairs of another state for the purpose of protecting its own interests or the interests of those who live under its administration, pro- vided these interests are based on justice, is le- gitimate defense, not at all contrary to the principle of non-intervention, which remains firm and unshaken." OBJECTIONS TO THE PRINCIPLE. — Having shown the justice and lawfulness of the prin- ciple sought to be established, the effort is then made to refute all objections by an examina- tion of the various cases of intervention. In relation to forms of government, it is held that the independence of states being admitted, it is natural that each gives to its own govern- ment the form answering to the wishes of the people who are to live under it ; and each has the fullest right of molding itself into a re- public rather than a monarchy, or into a rep- resentative rather than an absolute monarchy. Everybody is master of himself in his own house ; and since national sovereignty is abso- lute and inalienable, and there is no superior authority, it follows that every nation, either by itself or through its representatives, is the sole and supreme judge in the choice of its own head, and of the manner in which its sov- ereign powers are to be constituted, organized, and exercised : governments are made for the nations, not nations for the governments. This is the theory — that all government originates with the people; whatever form they please, they may give to its administration. Referring to the author of the "New European Policy," this view is presented: " The liberty possessed by every nation to govern itself internally has two very different aspects. The one regards the dictates of what is true and good ; the other the lawful relations with foreign states. With reference to the first aspect, certainly it is un- lawful for a people to act against the principles of moral and political reason ; as to the second, however, it appears manifest that within its territorial limit a state may make a good or ill use of its own right, in the same manner as the possessor of an estate may squander away his own property and sink from wealth to mendicity. If the loss and the guilt remain within the erring state itself, and if nothing goes out beyond its frontiers, except the erroneous example and influence, the legal confines of na- tions are still untouched, and the external au- tonomy remains inviolable. A different con- clusion would be reached if a people agitated by intestine discords and insurrections should send into the neighboring provinces secret emissaries, arms, money, prints, books, etc. Such a half-armed and perfidious manner of propagating its own maxims does certainly break the reciprocal faith of nations, and fur- nishes a right to repel it by the use of means suflficient to the end. But what else was done at Lubiana and Verona, except clothing with legal and solemn forms an armed propaganda of certain principles? What did the Austrian army teach by forcibly entering into Piedmont, the Romagna, and Naples, except the unlimited sovereignty of princes and the irreparable ser- vitude of subjects? What did the Duke of Angouleme intend to demonstrate to the Oas- tilian people with his bayonets, but this most singular proposition — that it was unlawful for Bonaparte to spread by force beyond the Pyr- enees the maxims of 1789, but that it was just and lawful for the Bourbons to spread by force the doctrine of divine right? Hence, either the independence and the internal sovereignty of states do not exist, and can receive a limit from the will and pleasure of some foreign states ; or it must be admitted that the right of armed intervention can never be used where that sovereignty, although it makes a wrong use of itself, yet does not in fact exceed its ter- ritorial limits ; and what it sends out beyond them is only the invisible and incoercible ac- tion of example and opinions, only the distant echo of words, the mysterious union of moral sympathies." * Again, it is argued by the writer that gov- ernments which are the best, and thoroughly based on justice and reason, are not disheart- ened at the sight of contrary examples; for, to false and subversive ideas they oppose sound and preservative ones : nay, the sight of a tumultuary multitude elsewhere, with its excesses of all sorts, would prove most useful to teach moderation and instruct their own people, as the sight of the drunken slave was a lesson of sobriety to the Spartan. England, separated from French soil by a narrow strait of the sea, was undisturbed by the half-re- publican, half-social revolution at Paris in 1848. Holland suffered nothing from it; Bel- gium nothing — a narrow country, without frontiers, and almost inclosed within France, but governed by the best institutions. Hence, either the example, the opinions, the princi- ples of your neighbor are corrupt and fatal ; and in this case it will suffice to show their wickedness and turpitude, even if this were not soon enough demonstrated by their effects ; or the work of your neighbor and the maxims he inculcates agree with truth and justice, and, in that case, your intervention for the purpose of overthrowing and trampling them under foot is as wrong and unlawful as it is powerless and ineffectual. Why does a dogma of truth and justice acquire with time and ex- ert a much greater power, by itself alone, than all the armies, the policies, and the statutory decrees can give it? A METAPHOR EXPLAINED. — To the lively metaphor urged by certain diplomatists a thou- sand times, to represent the injustice of the principle of non-intervention — viz., that when a neighbor's house is on fire, one does not hesi- tate and wait, but runs and enters, with every instrument he can get, to extinguish the^flames as soon as possible — they say we act in like manner when the terrific conflagration of rev- * Mauriani's " New European Public Law," chap. xi. NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. G25 olutious is burning near us, and threatens our own houses. To this objection it is replied that a less unfit comparison would be to say that, in your neighbor's house, they have be- gun to lead a licentious and disorderly life; much different, at all events, from your own. You at once perceive that you have no reason and no right whatever to intrude upon your neighbor, and compel him to change his mor- als and his ways of life, since he works no injury or loss to your property ; does not asso- ciate with your children, for the purpose of seducing and corrupting them ; does not, in a word, trespass on that limit within which the private liberty of citizens is maintained co-ex- istently. In fact, some aver that those changes and revolutions, on account of which the au- tonomy of states is broken up, are a destructive and devouring fire ; whereas others deny it, and consider it a better metaphor to say that political changes and revolutions must be likened rather to those vehement but mo- mentary remedies by the means of which na- ture cleanses, transforms, embellishes, and re- ordains its works. INTERVENTION WHEN ASKED FOR. — To the question whether the intervention when asked by the state itself is just and lawful, it is said in reply that many writers have acknowledged it to be just in a certain manner. But apart from this consideration it is urged aa neces- sary, in the first place, to see whether the in- tervention is asked for by the general will of the state, or by the governing power, or by the people respectively; for, when govern- ment and people unite to request the inter- vention of a foreign state, they perpetrate an injustice, because they abdicate their own in- dependence and sovereignty. The general will is that which ought to prevail, and an appeal to foreign mediation is unnecessary for accom- plishing its ends. If the intervention is called for by a people against their sovereign, it is equally unjust. A people that is pressed down by a tyrannic government rebels, and a civil war ensues, in which each of the opposite parties has a supreme power and a standing army; is there a necessity of recognizing in them the character of belligerents, and of in- tervening in favor of either ? To this question it is said, in reply, that if the principle of na- tionality is involved in the case — that is, if the contestants are of distinct nationalities— the intervention is just and holy; but if the case presents the spectacle of a truly civil war be- tween citizens of one and the same nation, the i intervention is unjust and wrong. Upon this question international science is divided. G-ro- tius, Vattel, Heffter, and Phillimore admit the intervention. The Italian school denies it. They say that foreign intervention is useless, because, to decide upon internal affairs, be- longs to the people ; and as civil contests are confined to internal affairs, all intermeddling with them must be abstained from; that one of the contending parties will win which has VOL. xxn. — 40 A the greater strength and number of adher- ents. Neither is intervention in favor of the people against a tyrant just; for the army, which defends the king, is nothing else than the armed nation, and when the people justly rebel the soldiers will of course fraternize with the insurgents. It is impossible to suppose that a man, in order blindly to follow the com- mands of his superior, will unsheath his sword, and push it against the breast of his father, or brother, or son. VIEWS OF NATIONALITY. — Where the prin- ciple of nationality is involved, it is above admitted that the intervention would be just and holy. This admission undoubtedly follows from the special views entertained of the sub- ject of nationality, and upon them is principal- ly based the division which separates the Ital- ian school from other writers. Some notice of these views should here be taken. It has been said by the distinguished Carutti that "the ill use of nationalities is the most enor- mous crime man has perpetrated on earth. In the eyes of those who look sharply into the past, slavery and the so-called castes are noth- ing but the consequence of the conquests of nations over nations. The generations who succeeded to the first invaders have received their ancestors' inheritance and maintained that servitude of individuals which had been originally imposed on the conquered people as a means of domineering over them. National personality is as much sacred as the individual, and the dominion of one nation over another nation is to the same extent iniquitous as the dominion of one man over another man; neither long possession, nor compacts, nor ben- efits conferred can justify it."* The chief ob- jection urged against the principle of nation- ality, to the end of denying it, has been brought by those who declared that it was a thing of difficult determination. It is said, in reply, that there are certain characters which, not- withstanding their imperfections, do yet con- stitute nationality. Not to speak of race, which embraces many nationalities, we have the language, which is the most potent factor of nationality; wherefore Fichte's saying is asserted to be always true — " the tongue is the nation." Some exceptions to the contrary notwithstanding, peoples who speak the same language have a feeling of their common origin, a feeling of brotherhood and affection, because language is the most powerful bond that unites men among themselves. History, manners, laws, religion, and territory are potent means of constituting nationality. But the greatest force of cohesion which becomes the most potent factor of nationality, and which joins again all the separate and dispersed parts of a nation, is the sentiment of political consoli- dation, and the consciousness of nationality which has been set down as a basis of this prin- ciple by Mancini, to whom has been ascribed the honor of having reformed " the internation- * "De principii del ^^ governolibero^"TibTiii, cap. i. 626 NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. al right (law) " by resting it upon the princi- ple of nationality.* Viewing this sentiment as true and just, and that every people has the right to form a state by redeeming itself from a foreign servitude, the question of interven- tion is presented. That is, the question whether or not it is lawful to intervene in favor of a people that rebels against foreign oppres- sion and claims the right of constituting itself into an autonomous and national state. The Italian school, professing the principle of non- intervention in an absolute manner, acknowl- edges the justice and lawfulness of intervention in this case. In explanation, it is said that " there is not true intervention in the case ; the question involved is not an internal one, but international. In fact, where there is not a constituent moral unity and a sameness of native country, there are virtually many states, and not one state; and therefore, if foreign armies rush in to help a people which^ sword in hand is justly demanding that autonomy of which it has been robbed, they do not properly make an act of intervention, because they do not use violence to meddle in the internal affairs of an identified political community, but to de- fend the cause of one nation against its exter- nal adversaries, and to give brotherly succor to a people that is unable to constitute itself into a national state." INTERVENTION BY TREATY. — Again, it is asked if foreign intervention in the affairs of a state is not just and lawful, when it takes place by virtue of a treaty or convention ? This is ac- knowledged to be right by the greatest number of writers.t In answer to the question, how- ever, it is said by the Italian writers that treaties and conventions are contracts made between state and state, and are therefore sub- ject to the same principles which regulate con- tracts. Now, the civil law declares null all con- tracts made against morality and against the laws. So treaties are null before the laws and morality, which contain a violation of morality and of justice ; which impair the essential rights of states, one of which is their independence. Therefore those which allow foreign interven- tion are null. If they are made by the gen- eral will, it is sufficient to say that no nation has the power to abdicate its own autonomy ; if the treaties are made by the sovereign, they are likewise null, because he, by constitutional right, has not the power to make treaties with- out the approbation of Parliament. If the sovereign is an absolute prince, he has not the power to make personal treaties in his favor and against the people whose chief and repre- sentative he is. Those treaties whereby the independence of a small and feeble state is guaranteed on the part of all the nations of Europe against the avidity of a powerful neigh- * Prelections " On Nationality as the Foundation of the Eight (law) of Nations," published by Professor Pierantoni. f Vattel, Book II, chap, xii, §196; Kluber's "Laws of Nations," §§ 45-S8 ; Marten's " Summary of the Laws of Nations," § 73 ; Wheaton, chap, i ; Heffter, § 46 ; Ahren's " The Philosophy of Eight," § 138. bor, are not to be condemned. For, in such case, there is no intermeddling in internal af- fairs, nor in the form of government. INTERVENTION AGAINST MERCENARY TROOPS. — Again, it is asked, If a government uses for- eign mercenary troops as a means of support to act despotically against its people, whether foreign intervention in favor of the people and against the government is lawful ? It has been shown that the intervention of foreign troops in favor of a sovereign against a people is un- just ; therefore a foreign state may rightly step in and defend this people for the purpose of repelling the external force brought in con- trary to the law of nations. So, likewise, the intervention of a state in favor of a people that rebels against the sovereign who is protected by mercenary troops, is just, because it does not aim at violating the autonomy and inde- pendence of the state. UNION OF STATES. — Again, it is asked, if one state can unite itself with another, and out of two independent states constitute one state ; and if in this case a foreign state may impede the annexation. The reply is, that " when there are many states politically independent of each other, yet belonging to one and the same nation, and they are willing to unite to- gether for the purpose of constituting them- selves into one national state, it is evident that they not only have the full right to do so, but by doing it they also integrate their own per- sonality, and supply a natural want of the peo- ples to form an individual total, called national state." Therefore it is said that nothing could be more unjust than that a foreign govern- ment should impede the fusion of several states into one national unity, because every nation has the innate right of constituting itself into one single state. It is also declared to be an example of the scrupulous observance of the principle of non-intervention, when the con- stitution of nationality is involved which was given in 1860, when, by virtue of this principle, proclaimed by Napoleon III and by the Gov- ernment of England, Italy was enabled to con- stitute its national unity by the annexations to Piedmont, under the dynasty of Savoy, of the other independent Italian states. Therefore it is concluded that when the principle of na- tionality is involved, all annexations are just and lawful, and the principle of non-interven- tion must be strictly observed. ANNEXATIONS. — Annexations based on na- tionality have of late prevailed extensively in Europe. The basis of the present kingdom of Italy was unity of race, which was declared to be confirmed by popular sentiment, as indi- cated by universal suffrage. This principle was the plea for the incorporation with Sar- dinia, in 1860-'61, of Tuscany, Parma, and Modena, the greater part of the Pontifical states, and also of the late kingdom of the Two Sicilies. The conquest of Lombardy from Austria, and its cession to Sardinia by France, had previously been made. On the same NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. 627 ground of national autonomy the cession of Savoy and Nice by Sardinia to France, by treaty in 1860, was defended. The King, in his proc- lamation to the inhabitants, said, "I could not forget that the great affinities of race, language, and customs render your relations with France more intimate and natural." * The people of Germany long entertained the idea of a gov- ernment based on a common nationality, with Prussia as the leader, before the consummation actually took place. At that period, also, the principle of nationality was invoked for uniting the conterminous peoples of common race in Turkey and Austria. It is also asserted that the annexation of one state to another, when, be- sides the proximity of territories, they have in common between them the same interests, sen- timents, origin, traditions, wants, and man- ners, would be equally just and lawful. But it is a condition that such annexations should be the effect of the free-will of the two peoples. " For, if these annexations were willed, instead, by one only of the two peoples, and submitted to by the other, then, there being violation of the liberty of a people, every intervention for hin- dering such annexation would be just and law- ful, because it would be a defense of the weak against the strong." It was alleged by those who resisted the annexation of some of the states of Italy, that an honest and impartial expression of the approval of the people had not been obtained. THE CASE OF SUCCESSION. — Again, it is as- serted that, in questions relating to successions, all interventions are unlawful, except when their purpose is to impede the fusion of na- tionalities ; that intervention in favor of vassal states is just, because it is an anomalous alli- ance rather than an intervention ; that it is just in favor of colonies which aspire to their own independence, also in the affairs of arma- ments; political equilibrium is combated as nothing else than a name employed to cover the ambition of some governments. THE CASE OF RELIGION. — In the case of re- ligion the following view is presented : " Any intervention having for its object to impose religion upon a people is unjust and unlawful, because it impairs the right which every man has to follow that which he believes to be true. Nor can we admit as just the intervention against a state which persecutes the followers of a given religion among its own people. . . . What shall we say of all those foreign interven- tions in favor of the papacy, which, under the pretense of defending religion, were stifling all liberty in peoples subject to the Catholic the- ocracy ? In the eyes of right, such interven- tions are unjust and unlawful, because neither the defense of religion (which was in no wise threatened), nor the need of propping a politi- cal power adverse to the religious character, odious to the peoples themselves over whom it dominated, are means that justify foreign in- * Martens, par Samwer, "Nouveau recueiL" tome xvi, ple. 2, p. 541. tervention in the internal affairs of a state. But time has given justice its due. The fa- mous breach of Porta Pia, on September 20, 1870, has avenged the oppressed: the political power of the papacy has fallen down for ever. Rome has become the capital of resuscitated Italy, and for ten years she has offered to the world the grand spectacle of her being the seat of a new kingdom, and the center of the Catholic faith. Liberty sits by religion : the spiritual independence of the Pontiff, more than to the law of the guarantees, a law of purely internal and not of international character, is intrusted to the honor and loyalty of the Italian people, who well know how to discriminate the sentiment of its own nationality and auton- omy from the respect due to the religious lib- erty of the supreme Pontiff, and to the faith of their ancestors." THE ROMAN QUESTION. — One might be led to suppose from the sentiments of this extract that* "the political popedom (temporal power) has vanished before the supreme right of the Italian nationality," and that the well-known " Roman question " had ceased to exist. But to allow such a conclusion to remain would be to mislead readers. Some explanation, there- fore, is here necessary. After the Government of Sardinia resolved to effect the " unification of Italy," and had prepared herself by tempori- zation to cope with her powerful adversaries, she found her greatest obstacle to success was the Roman Catholic Church. This was an or- ganization recognized by the European nations as sovereign and independent. It occupied a territory in Italy that had long been subject to the civil jurisdiction of its head, who received and sent forth embassadors, and it was thus admitted to the rank of a civil power among nations. As such civil power it was the fee- blest of all. But it likewise claimed to he a spiritual power, and asserted that it was organ- ized and commissioned by the divine Redeemer of all men to be his representative on the earth, and to teach, with power to effect a reconcilia- tion between him and them in their rebellion against him. These claims were recognized and respected and obeyed by the princes and subjects of most of the civil powers of Europe, among which were Sardinia and the states of Italy. Between the temporal and the spiritual there has been a perpetual conflict, and the question was now agitated in the public mind, why resort should not be made to civil liberty as the means by which to terminate the con- flict between church and state. Count Ca- vour, then the Prime Minister of Sardinia, con- fiding in the omnipotence of political liberty, after mature reflection, launched forth the fa- mous formula, " A free church in a free state." He made it the compass by which to guide his policy.t In the memorable session of Par- liament preceding his death he offered it as a * Mancini's Prelections, " The Life of Peoples in the Hu- manity," p. 214. t " Rassegna Nazionale," of Florence. 628 NON-INTERVENTION AMONG NATIONS, THE PRINCIPLE OF. guide to his successors; for himself it was ne- cessary to provide by moral means for the lib- erty and spiritual independence of the Pope. It was the duty of Italy, entering at whatever moment into Rome, to provide such guaran- tees that there would be no occasion to regret the disappearance of the temporal power. Hence arose the general idea of guarantees to be accorded to the Pope, when the government of liberty should regulate the relations of church and state upon the ruins of royal prerogatives and the sovereign jurisdiction of the civil pow- er in ecclesiastical affairs. After a few months Cavour died, and Ricasoli succeeded him. " The latter with his friends desired in the first place to make a serious trial of the formula of Ca- vour, and to conclude the religious question on such conditions that the Curia — as they be- lieved— would be, in the end, obliged to admit that the situation of the Church in Italy was better than in all the other countries of Eu- rope." * But Ricasoli fell in 1862 under the furious blows of the radicals, and with him went all projects relative to Rome and the Cu- ria. In 1866 a new ministry was formed, and he was again at its head. He was now con- vinced that, before taking a step, Italy should make known to Europe the real position in which she wished to place the Pope. The situa- tion which ought to be made for the papacy should be regulated by a law t promulgated in ecclesiastical right and freely approved by the Italian Government, f The retreat of the French troops would be the signal for the oc- cupation of Rome by the Italian Government, with the assent or, at least, with the tacit ap- probation of Europe, satisfied beforehand by the law thenceforth to be called the law of guarantees. The form of a law on the plan stated above was presented to Parliament, and received with so much opposition as to pro- duce a ministerial crisis. Two ministers re- tired in February and March, 1867, and Rica- soli followed in May. Four years later new political conditions obliged the Government to recede, and the project or bill so sharply re- jected in 1867 was accepted in 1871 with the addition of Title I. The events of 1870 offered an easy occasion to the Italian Government to occupy Rome. It was done on September 20th. The cabinets of Europe observed a mysterious silence. They maintained their embassadors around the Pope, a fact which, contrary to the hopes of the revolutionary element, signified that they considered him to be a sovereign. They acted then as if nothing had taken place on September 20th, although the Pope, since that date, had practically not been king. What, then, should the Italian Government do, and especially its prime minister Sella? The pa- pacy presented itself before his face, surround- ed by the College of Cardinals, representing Catholicity whole and entire, surrounded like- * "Deutsche Rundschau," of Berlin. t Le droit publique ecclesiastique. $ " Bassegna Nazionale." wise by a European diplomatic corps, which persisted in seeing in it a sovereign ; it was free and independent of all human power. Hence it was required to make a virtue of necessity and to inscribe, spontaneously at least in appearance, in the general laws a recognition of the sove- reign dignity of the Pope, and to confer on him all the attributes of royalty. This first prin- ciple being ad opted, it was necessary by enact- ment to legalize its consequences : recognize the authority and independence of the Sacred Col- lege, which, on the death of the Pope, could provide a successor and serve him as a full senate during his life. It was likewise neces- sary to recognize formally the European diplo- matic corps accredited near the Holy See. The first part, or Title I, of this law of guar- antees, so far as relates to the manner of exe- cution, was then, and continues, a general in- ternal act, but in its practical application it is necessarily clothed with the complete charac- ter of international law. All that applies to the Pope, the Sacred College, the diplomatic corps resident near the Holy See, bears the character of relations with a foreigner. Wheth- er willingly or not, it is a fact that Italy has de- sired by that law to reassure foreign powers against the fear which they had conceived lest innovations would be brought in their relations with the Holy See, in consequence of the pres- ence of the Italian Government at Rome. In reality they have kept the right to send, to change, to suspend their embassadors near the Pope, and the embassadors are recognized, treated, respected, not only in the former pon- tifical state, but in all the kingdom, in the same manner as the diplomats accredited near the King. By this law Italy has willed, likewise, that the chief of Catholicity shall preserve his former independence, remaining a stranger to the kingdom, or, as one says, that he should pre- serve his extra-territoriality in his own palace, or without, even to the frontiers of the coun- try, as if, although deprived of political power, he remained truly sovereign. By this law, again, Italy has willed that the foreigner who should be called to the cardinalate, or to any other position of ecclesiastical or pontifical ad- ministration, acquires ipso facto all the rights of an Italian citizen, so that he can be neither punished nor censured by reason of his exe- cution of orders of the Pope and in the normal fulfillment of his functions. "If this is not matter of international law, let some one say in what international law consists." * OTHER CASES OF INTERVENTION. — Let us re- turn to our subject. All intervention in rela- tion to commerce is also asserted to be unlaw- ful, unless it is based on treaties. So all inter- vention in civil wars, and in favor of humanity, is condemned. These conclude the cases passed under consideration. Without stopping to con- sider the various conflicts among European na- tions brought forward by this writer, in illus- tration of the principles he has endeavored to * " Eassegna Nazionale." NORTH CAROLINA. 629 establish, it will be sufficient to present the following extract from his concluding remarks: " In the first part of our work we have shown that the principle of non-intervention repre- sents the autonomy and liberty of nations, and that it is the fundamental principle of the law of nations. We have seen that, whatever di- plomatists and statesmen say of it,* notwith- standing, it is the absolute rule of right which admits of no exceptions, save only in the case of defending a people's nationality and independ- ence; in which case there is a brotherly suc- cor, or an anomalous alliance, if one may so term it, rather than a true intervention. In the second part we have examined into the various cases of intervention that have oc- curred in modern times, condemning and jus- tifying in conformity with these principles. "Now we must answer an objection which naturally presents itself before us. It will be said, Where is the worth of the principles for which you contend, since history informs us that they are constantly violated and that in- ternational law has a purely moral value, it being deprived of the power of compulsion? We answer that the intrinsic virtue of a prin- ciple is not destroyed by the force which op- poses or retards its practical application ; that the science of right has performed the duties of its mission when, resting upon evident dem- onstrations, it declares successful injustice to be iniquitous, and, holding it up to the execra- tion of the world, tends at least to impede its propagation and lessen its mischievous influ- ence on the destinies of mankind. There is certainly no tribunal superior to states, which might punish the violations of the principles of international law ; but we call to mind as pro- foundly true the maxim of the German poet, ' The world's history is the world's tribunal ! ' Yes, history is the people's tribunal ; and it is in its immortal pages we see the fatal effects produced by the violation of the principle of non-intervention ; the bloody wars of succes- sion, the dismemberment of Poland, the ter- rific republican wars and the wars of Napo- leon, the tragical end of Maximilian, are elo- quent examples which show the justice of the principle of non-intervention, and the perni- cious consequences produced by the violation of it. If there is no supreme tribunal, how- ever, which might enforce the observance of this principle, it is the duty of a wise and en- lightened policy to observe it and to cause it to be observed." NORTH CAROLINA. STATE OFFICERS, ETC. — Governor, Thomas J. Jarvis ; Lieuten- ant-Governor, James L. Robinson ; Secretary of State, William L. Saunders ; Treasurer, John M. Worth ; Auditor, William P. Roberts ; Su- perintendent of Public Instruction, John C. Scarborough; Attorney - General, Thomas S. * Wheaton and Calvo, writers on international law, and Guizot and Chateaubriand, politici ins, say that, in this mat- ter, principles of certainty can not be set down, and that all depends upon the circumstances of the practical policy. Kenan. United States Senators, Zebulon B. Vance and Matthew W. Ransom. Represent- atives in Congress (elect), Walter F. Pool, First District; James E. O'Hara, Second Dis- trict; Wharton J. Green, Third District; Will- iam R. Cox, Fourth District ; Alfred M. Scales, Fifth District ; Clement Dowd, Sixth District ; Tyre York, Seventh District; Robert B. Vance, Eigbth District; Risden T. Bennett, State at large. The apportionment act of Congress, in conformity with the census of 1880, gave North Carolina nine members of the House of Representatives — one more than the number of her Representatives in the Forty-seventh Congress. As the Legislature was not in ses- sion to define the limits of the additional con- gressional district, and as there was no statu- tory provision for the election of a Congressman by the " State at large," the question arose as to what course should be pursued so that the State would have the full representation to which she will be entitled in the Forty-eighth Congress. The Governor requested the opin- ion of the Attorney-General, his "constitu- tional legal adviser," which that officer gave, to the effect that there must be " an express warrant of authority to hold a legal election " ; that the election law of 1876-'77 makes no pro- vision for holding an election " for a member of Congress to be chosen by the votes of the State at large," but says that the State shall be divided into eight districts, designating the counties embraced in each; that, though the power to make or alter the regulations made by the State for holding elections of Senators and Representatives is among the powers dele- gated by the Constitution to the Federal Gov- ernment, that power was not exercised by the apportionment act, which only says that, if the State be entitled to an additional Representa- tive, he may be elected at large, and if the number be decreased, the whole delegation shall be elected at large, unless the Legislature has provided, or shall otherwise provide, before the time fixed by law for the next election of Representatives; that the apportionment act has not undertaken to designate the " places " or prescribe the "manner," or "make "any " regulations " for holding such election ; that the State statute fails to meet either contin- gency— an increase or decrease in the num- ber of Representatives ; that a change in the number necessitates a corresponding change in the election law, as well in the case of a gain of one member as if the number had been de- creased, and that, for a legal election, the machinery or details must be provided by the law itself, and not supplied by inference or im- plication. " The fact that the law authorizes the election of officers therein named, by gen- eral vote, furnishes the best reason that it does not apply to officers not therein named." He therefore recommended that an extra session of the Legislature be called, as any action would be " illegal unless authorized by some positive statute." On the receipt of this opinion, the 630 NORTH CAROLINA. Governor addressed a communication to the Council of State, composed of the Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, and Superintendent of Public Instruction, by whose consent alone he is authorized to convene the Legislature in extra session, which was as follows : STATE OF NOBTH CAROLINA, EXECUTIVE DEPAETMENT, KALEIGH, March 7, 1882. To the Honorable the Council of State. GENTLEMEN : The question which I submit to you to-day is, " bhall the Legislature be convened in extra session ? " Upon this question I ask your advice, and, if your advice be in favor of the call, what time will you suggest as likely to work the least inconvenience to the members ? The extraordinary occasion which, in my opinion, makes an extra session necessary, is the new appor- tionment act giving North Carolina nine members of the House of Eepresentatives of the Congress .of the United States. Since and before the passage of this act I have given the matter a thorough and close in- vestigation, and I can find no authority or machinery for the election of a member of Congress by the State at large. But desiring to get authoritative informa- tion on this subject, I asked the Attorney- General for his official opinion, intending to let his decision of the question be my guide. My letter to him and his re- ply are herewith submitted. My constitutional legal adviser having decided that there is no machinery by which a member of Congress for the State at large can be elected, there is nothing else left for me to do but to ask your consent and ad- vice to call the Legislature together to provide the necessary legislation. However others may feel and act, I am not willing that North Carolina, by any act or omission of mine, shall be deprived of any part of her representation and influence in the national Legisla- ture, nor am I willing to take part in holding an elec- tion which I am advised by the law officer of the State is without authority of law. I am, very respect- fully, Your obedient servant, THOMAS J. JAEVIS. The Council of State — the Secretary of State dissenting — decided that it was not necessary to put the State to the heavy expense of an ex- tra session, and that the election of the ninth member of Congress by the popular vote of the entire State would be a legal election. Three of the Democratic members of the pres- ent Congress concurred with the majority of the Council in opposition to the opinion of the Attorney-General, the views of the Governor, and the protest of the Secretary of State. The question is a nice one. Does the act of the Federal Congress which merely declares that in case a State be entitled to an additional rep- resentative, he may be elected at large, amount to such a change or alteration of the regula- tions of the State as to the " times, places, and manner of holding elections for representa- tives," as does away with the necessity of any State law on the subject ? The political campaign of this year was un- usually animated. Opposed to the regular Democratic party were the Republicans and " Liberals," the latter consisting chiefly of so- called Independent Democrats, who had be- come dissatisfied with their party and had co- alesced with the Republicans to defeat it. The "County Government " Bill and the "Prohi- bition" Bill, passed by Democratic Legisla- tures, were the points against which the coali- tion directed their main attacks. By virtue of authority granted by the Constitution of 1875 the Legislature of 1877 passed an act providing that the county magistrates should henceforth be elected by the Legislature, and the county commissioners, who levy the county taxes and administer the county affairs generally, should be appointed by the magistrates, instead of, as theretofore, elected by the people of the va- rious counties. The reason for this change was that in the eastern portion of the State the ne- groes, without property or intelligence, con- trolled the elections, and were piling up a mountain of debt which threatened to crush the people. The western section, though com- paratively free from this grievance, joined the east and passed the present "county system," as a matter of financial salvation. The Repub- licans and Liberals charged that the obnoxious law deprived the people of the right of local self-government, but the popular voice was outspoken in defense of the system as a choice of evils. The Prohibition (of liquor) Bill, which was submitted to the people and de- feated by a large majority a year ago, was charged to be a Democratic measure, and, though no longer a living issue, was used, prob- ably, as a sample of the evil designs of which the coalition supposed the Democrats to be capable, in order to defeat the regular Demo- cratic nominees. Of the nine members of Con- gress, including the member from the State at large, the coalition only succeeded in electing two opponents of the "Bourbon "Democracy. The following table, showing the comparative expenses of the State government during two years of Republican administration and two years of Democratic administration, which was used effectively during the campaign, reconciled a great many voters to the alleged anti-Repub- lican spirit of the " county system " : 1869. | 1870. 1880. 1881. Legislature Contingencies $191. 102 $161.431 76506 57.SS4 $17.695 13,G97 $56.259 21,215 Salaries 30,62S! 37,286 54,1 30 1 53.302 20.096 3S.213 20,060 37,920 Public printing 34,682 34.503 7.901 12.763 Total $387 048 '$349 406 $97 597 $148.217 The leading issues in the congressional can- vass made by the Democratic party, were the internal revenue taxation and the conduct of the internal revenue officers, and the reckless extravagance and corruption of their oppo- nents. FINANCIAL CONDITION. — The act of March 4, 1879, "to compromise, commute, and settle the State debt," expired by the prescribed limi- tation of the law on January 1, 1882. It pro- vided for the redemption of the principal of the bonded debt therein recognized, as foIloAvs : Bonds issued prior to May 20, 1861, 40 per cent, exclusive of $100.000 of old bonds sur- rendered under a special act by the Albe- inarle and Chesapeake Canal Company $5,477,400 00 NORTH CAROLINA. 631 Brought forward $5,471,400 00 Bonds issued since the close of the war, by authority of acts passed before the war, and registered certificates of the Board of Educa- tion, 25 per cent 8,261,045 00 Bonds issued under the funding acts of March 10, 1866, and August 20, 1868, 15 per cent . . . 8,888,600 00 Total $12,627,045 00 Bonds have been redeemed as follows : First class, as described above, 40 per cent. . . . $4,244,500 00 Second class; at 25 per cent 2,164,045 00 Third class, at 15 per cent 2,412,200 00 Total $S,820,745~00 New 4 per cent bonds have been issued as follows : For bonds at 40 per cent $1,697,800 00 For bonds at 25 per cent 541,011 25 For bonds at 15 per cent 861,830 00 Total $2,600,641 25 In this amount are included certificates is- sued in exchange for fractional suras less than $50, still outstanding, and receivable for new bonds, in amounts of $50, $100, $500, and $1,000. The old bonds yet outstanding and fundable under the act are — Redeemable at 40 per cent $1,232,900 00 Kedeemable at 25 per cent 1,097,000 00 Kedeemable at 15 per cent 1,476,400 00 Total $3,806,300 00 Should the General Assembly, at its session in 1883, extend the compromise act of March 4, 1879, the actual and prospective debt of the State will be : Actual debt bearing 4 per cent interest $2,600,641 25 Prospective debt bearing 4 per cent interest. . 988,870 00 Actual debt bearing1 0 per cent interest 1,720,000 00 Prospective debt bearing 6 per cent interest (old bonds now being renewed) 1,075,000 00 Total. $6,384,511 25 The receipts of the "Public Fund," which is charged with all moneys derived from taxa- tion and other ordinary sources of revenue, and credited with all disbursements of what- ever character, not connected with the Educa- tional Fund, for the fiscal year, ending Sep- tember 30, 1882, amounted to $755,881.44. From these are to be deducted $42,000, tax on fertilizers, appropriated to the exclusive use of the Department of Agriculture; $59,500 interest on mortgage bonds of the Western North Car- olina Railroad ; and $29,460 paid by the re- ceiver of the dividends accruing to the State from stock in the North Carolina Railroad, and applicable to payment of interest, October 1, 1882, on new "construction" bonds, making a total of $130,960, and which, being deducted from $755,881.44, leaves $624,921.44 available revenue. The total disbursements for the fiscal year amount to $629,112.37. Deducting from this amount $43,500 on account of Agricul- tural Department, and not properly a part of the general fund, and $58,555 paid as interest on the mortgage bonds of the Western North Carolina Railroad, the expenses legitimately chargeable to the fiscal year amount to $527,- 057.37. The balance to the credit of the Pub- lic Fund at the close of the fiscal year was $254,189.78, made up as follows: Accumulated funds to pay interest on the 4 per cent consolidated debt of the State $224,086 96 Amount received from receiver of North Caro- lina Eailroad 29,460 00 Amount applicable to general expenses 642 82 Total $254,189~78 This large balance to the credit of the inter- est fund is due to the fact that nearly $1,000,- 000 of the new 4 per cent bonds remain unis- sued because the redemption of the old bonds under the act of March 4, 1879, was discon- tinued on January 1. 1882, by the expiration of the time prescribed for the exchange. The revenue act of the State authorizes a tax of six cents on the hundred dollars' worth of property, for the general fund for the sup- port of the State government ; a tax of eleven cents on the hundred dollars of property, for the support and completion of the asylums for the insane ; a tax of five cents on the hundred dollars of property for the support of convicts and construction of the penitentiary, and a tax of six cents on the hundred dollars of property for the payment of interest on the public debt, making a total tax of twenty-eight cents per hundred dollars on the assessed value of prop- erty, the aggregate value of which, as shown by the report of the State Auditor, published November 30, 1882, amounts to $167,738,639. The estimated expenses of the State for each of the years 1883, 1884, and 1885, are: General Assembly, sessions 18S3 and 1S85, mile- age and per diem, each Executive Department Judiciary General expenses, including printing, contingen- cies, etc Penitentiary University of North Carolina Oxford Orphan Asylum Normal schools Institutions for Deaf, Dumb, and Blind Support and completion of Insane Asylums $55,000 00 21,500 00 37,000 00 50,000 00 75,000 00 12,500 00 5.000 00 8,000 00 36,000 00 140,000 00 Total $440,000 00 Interest on outstanding 4 per cent bonds 104,000 00 Total $544,000 00 As is the case in many other Southern States, the valuations of real and personal property for taxation in North Carolina are far below the cash value, and very unequal in the various counties. The limit of taxation fixed by the Constitution is 66§- cents on the $100 worth of property. Of this, as already stated, 28 cents are required to pay the expenses of the govern- ment, and the remaining 38f are needed to pay the expenses of the counties. If the property throughout the State were equitably and uni- formly assessed, it is generally believed the aggregate value of the real and personal prop- erty in the State would be fully $300,000,000, which would either allow a large reduction of the rate of taxation, or furnish a surplus which could be devoted to educational purposes, and thus largely increase the number and efficiency of the public schools. It is estimated that there are 490,000 educable children in the 632 NORTH CAROLINA. State, and the amount raised by State taxes for education has never exceeded $500,000. A final and satisfactory settlement has been made, and is now being executed, of the ques- tion so long in dispute between the State and the bondholders of the North Carolina Rail- road. The State is the owner of $3,000,000 of stock in that road ; private stockholders own $1,000,000. To pay for this stock the State issued her bonds in 1853-'54-'55, to run for thirty years, at 6 per cent, and to secure their payment pledged the dividends accruing on her stock for the payment of the interest, and the stock itself for the payment of the principal. In 1866 $205,000 of these bonds were taken up, leaving outstanding $2,795,- 000. The road was leased to the Richmond and Danville Railroad in 1871, for 6£ per cent on the capital stock; and soon after a suit, known as the Swasey suit, was commenced in the Federal Court to subject the rental arising from the lease to the payment of the interest on the bonds. A receiver was appointed, who has found the dividends to be sufficient to pay the interest. Under an act of the Legislature of 1879, providing for the adjustment of that part of the State debt incurred in aid of the North Carolina Railroad, three commissioners were appointed to make the settlement. After many delays from various causes, a plan of ad- justment was agreed on, and signed by bond- holders representing $2,000,000, and "by the commissioners, by which the old bonds are to be exchanged for new bonds of equal amount, with interest payable semi-annually at the rate of 6 per cent per annum, the surplus of the dividends on the stock owned by the State, af- ter paying the interest on the new bonds, to be used as a sinking fund for the payment of inter- est on such of the old bonds as have not been presented and proved in the Federal Court, and then for the payment of the interest and principal of the new bonds. Up to December 31, 1882, the Treasurer had issued, under this agreement, $1,720,000 new bonds. It is ex- pected that the remaining outstanding old bonds will be exchanged during the next year, and thus a valuable property will be saved to the State, without imposing any additional tax on the people. By this settlement the bond- holders " rebate to the State $240 of interest on each bond delivered for renewal." It is feared that an attempt will be made in the Federal courts to enforce the payment of the $22,000,000 " special-tax " bonds, fraudu- lently issued by the "carpet-bag" government in 1868 and 1869, and since repudiated by the laws and Constitution of the State. The hold- ers of these bonds, unable to surmount the constitutional provision that a State can not be sued by a citizen of another State, propose to transfer, or have already transferred, their claim to the State of New York, who may bring suit, it is supposed, in the Supreme Court of the United States, the Legislature of New York having passed a law to that effect. STATE INSTITUTIONS. — The catalogue of the University of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill, shows 199 students in attendance during this collegiate year, of whom eight were taking a post-graduate course. In addition to the regular courses of study, a u teacher's course " of two years was established during the year, which is designed to fit young men to be- come competent teachers either in public or private schools. It would be very well if other colleges at the South would follow this good example, for nothing — not even want of money — retards public education in the Southern States so much as the want of properly qualified teachers. The university is growing in numbers and usefulness, and rapidly recovering from the severe shocks it sustained from the war, and the misrule of several years after the war had closed. The institution re- ceived during the past year $12,000 from the State. The completion of the railroad be- tween Chapel Hill and Raleigh, which took place in May, was enthusiastically celebrated by a large concourse of people. Davidson College, under Presbyterian, and Trinity Col- lege, under Methodist, control, though patron- ized by all religious denominations, have been well attended, and have done good work in the higher education of the people. The latter in- stitution sustained a heavy loss in the death, on November 7th, of Dr. Braxton Craven, LL. D., president of the college. The other col- leges, academies, and high-schools through- out the State are all said to be in a prosperous condition. There are 817 churches in the State, of the estimated aggregate value of $789,025. During the year $84,402 have been expended for building and repairing churches. THE COMMON SCHOOLS. — The school law, passed at the last session of the General As- sembly in 1881, has been found to work ad- mirably. The means requisite to carry it out, so as to fulfill the design of its framers, can not be supplied by the State under the existing Constitution, which limits the authority of the Legislature to levy taxes to $2 on the poll and 66f cents on the $100 worth of property. When the expenses of the State and county governments are paid, the sum left to be ap- propriated to the support of the public schools is small, as compared with what is needed, and which the people seem to be ready to contrib- ute. The State Board of Education made ar- rangements early in the year for opening five normal schools for whites, and later for an equal number for colored pupils. These schools have been well attended, and promise to do much good. The Institution for the Deaf, Dumb, and Blind, according to the report for the two years ending December 31, 1882, provided during those years for 105 deaf and dumb and 91 blind inmates, who have been judiciously instructed in several useful handicrafts, as is shown by the satisfactory operation of the shoe, broom, and mattress shops in the me- NORTH CAROLINA. 633 chanical department of the institution. There is a separate department for colored people where, during the two years, 38 deaf and dumb and 22 blind pupils have been received and taught. This, it is claimed, was the first insti- tution of the kind at the South to make pro- vision for colored pupils. THE PENITENTIARY.— On the large buildings under construction for several years, and which have cost a large sum of money, satisfactory progress toward completion waa made during this year. The main prison was sufficiently advanced in December to allow of the transfer of the convicts heretofore confined in old, tem- porary buildings, to the new, well-ventilated and well -heated cells; $110,000 have been expended upon this institution during the past fiscal year. The total cost is upward of $1,000,000. As far as possible the convicts are made to earn their support, and thus relieve the tax-payer, by employing them wherever practicable on the public works. The old and decrepit and female convicts work on a farm near Raleigh, and their work has proved to be moderately profitable. On November 1st there were 996 convicts in the State ; of these, 137 were white and 859 colored. THE ASYLUMS FOR THE INSANE. — If the ne- cessary appropriations be made to complete the buildings now in process of construction for the accommodation of the insane, no State will have provided more liberally than North Caro- lina for the treatment of this unfortunate class. Besides the large asylum near Raleigh, con- taining on November 1st 265 patients — 140 males and 125 females — the Western Asylum at Morganton is now partially completed, and will be ready to receive patients early in the next year, and an asylum for insane colored people is being already built at Goldsboro, now con- taining over 100 patients. So much has in- sanity increased within the past quarter of a century, that it is doubtful whether even these three institutions will be adequate to treat the number of insane in the State. There were over 1,000 lunatics on November 1st, cared for in the various counties. During the year the State has expended $158,000 on these asylums. The Oxford Orphan Asylum has sheltered, fed, clothed, and educated during the year 145 or- phan children, at a cost of $14,032.66, to which the State contributed $5,000. The institution is under the auspices of the Masonic fraternity, who manage and control it, and contribute lib- erally to its support. RAILROADS. — The completion in May of the railroad from Wolf Creek to Paint Rock, makes the connection continuous between the North Carolina system of railroads and the East Tennessee, Virginia, and Georgia trunk line. The branch just finished crosses the French Broad at two places — handsome iron bridges, 440 feet apart, spanning the river at both points. The masonry-work of these bridges is all of black granite. The road from Ashe- ville to Pigeon River is completed. The grad- ing is finished to the top of Balsam Moun- tain, and the work between that point and the Co wee Tunnel, sixteen miles farther, is progress- ing. The tunnel is on the west bank of the Tuckaseegee River, and takes the road through Cowee Mountain, and then down the Tucka- seegee to Charleston, Swain County, crossing the Tennessee River near the mouth of the Nautehala, thence along that stream to Red Marble Gap, and, cutting through the moun- tains and striking the head-waters of Valley River, runs down that water-course to Murphy. The engineering difficulties in cutting through Balsam, Cowee, and Nautehala ranges are very great, rendering progress at these points appar- ently slow. The act passed by the last Legislature provid- ing for the sale of the State's interest in the Cape Fear and Yadkin Valley Railroad failed to be carried out because conditions were at- tached to it with which the purchasers refused to comply. The State owns $555,000 worth of the stock. The grading is almost completed to Walnut Cove, the work being done by con- vict-labor. The Atlantic and North Carolina Railroad from Beaufort to Goldsboro, ninety- five miles, was leased last year for thirty years to the Midland North Carolina Railroad Company for $40,000 per annum, on condition that the lessees should build a road from Goldsboro to Salisbury. Having only built twenty-two out of one hundred and fifty miles of this road, and suspended further work, the Atlantic Company have declared the lease forfeited, and have taken steps to recover possession. The State has a nominal interest in the Atlantic road to the amount of $1,266,000. This stock is worth less than ten cents in the dollar, and subject to a lien amounting to $248,000, with accrued in- terest since August, 1868. It is proposed that the next Legislature shall authorize the State to surrender her interest to the Midland or any other company, on condition that the road from Goldsboro to Salisbury or Charlotte be completed as rapidly as practicable. There is a strong party in the State in favor of the crea- tion of a Railroad Commission, and when the Legislature meets in January a bill for that purpose will be introduced and, it is believed, will be adopted. The suits brought by the State Treasurer against the Wilmington and Weldon, Seaboard and Roanoke, Raleigh and Gaston and Petersburg Railroad Companies, to recover taxes levied by the Legislature, have been decided in favor of the State. The ques- tion involved was whether the provisions of the charters of the defendant companies ex- empting them from taxation, protected them from the taxes levied by the General Assem- bly in the acts of 1877 and 1881. Their char- ters exempted their property from taxation, but the taxes in question were levied on their franchise, not upon the corporate property. The Raleigh and Seaboard Railroad has been completed this year from Williamston to Tar- boro, and the work between the latter point 634 NORTH CAROLINA. and Raleigh is in progress. The railroad from Halifax to Scotland Neck, twenty miles in length, was finished in April, opening a fine section of the State, The commemorative celebration of the Meck- lenburg Declaration of Independence took place at Charlotte, on May 20th. The streets were fairly decked with flags and banners, filled with citizen soldiers in bright uniforms, and at least 20,000 people from the surrounding country. Governor Jarvis and his staff, Senators Vance, Ransom, Wade Hampton, and Bayard were present. The Mecklenburg Declaration was read by Senator Ransom, and Senator Vance introduced the orator of the occasion, Thomas F. Bayard, of Delaware. The address was en- thusiastially received, especially the sentiments contained in the following extract : I wish T could impress upon you, gentlemen, and not upon you only but upon our fellow-countrymen everywhere, the fatal fallacy and mischief that under- lies and inheres to every proposition to use the money of the people — drawn from them by taxation, the powers of their government, the force of their govern- ment, under any name or pretext — for any other than include the mainte- credit, the protec- rywhere, among the just objects for the exercise of governmental powers ; but I wish to deny here and everywhere, now and at all times, the rightfulness of involving the welfare and happiness of the 50,000,000 men, women, and children of the country, whether by laying taxes upon them which are not needed for the support of their government, or paying bounties and subsidies to maintain lines of private business which are too un- skillfully or unprofitably conducted otherwise to sus- tain themselves, or promising the presence of our fleets or armies, or risking the issue of peace or war, or shedding the blood of our soldiers and sailors in aid of schemes of private greed or personal ambition under the guise of claims foreign or domestic. The fisheries of North Carolina constitute a large and valuable industry. Upward of 5,000 persons, 100 vessels, and 3,000 boats are employed in the business. The average an- nual product is upward of 30,000,000 pounds of fish, worth between $800,000 and $900,- 000. The catch of the " alewife " is larger in the waters of North Carolina than in those of any other State, being a little under 16,- 000,000 pounds annually. The shad-fisher- ies yield about 4,000,000 pounds, and, being marketed earlier, are worth more than those caught elsewhere. The mullet-fisheries are second only to those of the Florida coast. Of terrapins upward of 40,000 are caught annu- ally, of the estimated value of $11,000. Owing to the success which has attended the opera- tions of the fish-hatching commission, this in- dustry may be expected to grow rapidly in extent and value. BANKS. — There are fifteen national banks in the State, with a present capital of $2,501,- 000, and a surplus fund of $474,956. The in- dividual deposits at the last statement amount- ed to $2,889,789, and other deposits to $190,- 840; the loans and discounts to $4,738,012. A GENERAL REVIEW. — The year 1882 has been in the main a prosperous one. The pub- lic health has been generally good. In mate- rial progress, railroad construction, mining, and agriculture, the State has made a healthy though not rapid advance. The educational system has widened its sphere of efficiency, and has gained in popular favor. The financial condition is sounder and more hopeful than it has been for years, because directed and con- trolled by honesty, good faith, and economy in those who receive and pay out the people's money. The cotton-crop is undoubtedly short. The price is low, and the expense of making it was heavy. The uncertainty as to what Con- gress will do as to the tobacco-tax, has disor- ganized the tobacco-trade, but when the ques- tion is once settled, either one way or the other, it is hoped that the industry will revive. The area planted in cotton is becoming greater every year, and the improved culture is an- nually increasing the yield per acre. It is be- coming, however, a serious question whether nine cents per pound will cover the actual cost of production, without taking into the account any allowance for interest on the in- vestment. The Geological Museum, recently established and arranged in the building of the Department of Agriculture, gives a gratifying view of the resources of forest, field, and mine of the " Old North State." The exhibit of iron- ores from fifteen counties is large in number and variety. Handsome specimens of gold, sil- ver, copper, and plumbago are to be seen. The display of white and colored marbles, both rough and polished, of which the sup- ply is said to be inexhaustible, is very attrac- tive. Specimens of kaoline, mica, asbestus, marl, talc, granite, and sandstone are also shown. The exhibit of woods is remarkably fine, comprising 112 different varieties. The manufacturing enterprises, the number of which is increasing largely from year to year, are prosperous and remunerative. The people are more industrious and progressive. North Carolina used to be called uthe turpentine State," and later "the peanut State." Now she is known for her cotton, rice, grain, woods, minerals, tobacco, and manufactured goods, and her intellectual progress keeps pace with her material growth. There are, it is reported, 3,802 factories in the State, worth $13,045,639, employing 18,109 hands, who are paid $2,740,- 758 in wages, and who work up materials worth $13,090,937, and produce goods worth $20,- 095,037. The manufacture of pine-wood oil (an industry confined exclusively to Wilming- ton) has grown largely in proportions and im- portance. The oil is distilled from " fat pine " or "lightwood" at the rate of eighty gallons of oil to one cord of the wood. Its chief use is for the preservation of wood, especially for the timbers of ships and boats. It is becoming an article almost of as much importance as tar and turpentine. The receipts of produce at the port of Wilmington, for the year ending De- cember 31st, were: Cotton, 123,572 bales; OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. 635 spirits of turpentine, 88,669 casks; rosin, 476,- tine, 72,070 barrels. The exports for the same 367 barrels ; tar, 72,654 barrels ; crude turpen- time were: EXPORTS. Lumber. Spirits of turpeatine. Rosin. Tar. Crude turpentine. Cotton. Peanuts. Feet. 81.217,061 Casks. 84,620 Barrels. 105,414 Barrels. 55,938 Barreli. 2,179 Bales. 72624 Bushels. 58885 9,014,085 53,276 838,904 15,507 180 67 708 Total 40,291,146 87,896 444,818 71,445 2309 140 332 58 885 Among the articles of export from Wilming- ton the amount of peanuts is worthy of notice, having reached 58,885 bushels. The estimated value of the exports is $10,000,000. A compari- son of the American tonnage of steamships and sailing-vessels shows how rapidly the coasting transportation has been absorbed by steamers. The tonnageof Wilmingtonfor 1882 is asfollows: No. American. No. Foreign. 7* Steamships Tons. 73,591 1591 Barks Tons. 58S90 10 Barks 3,589 48 Brigs 11426 11 Brigs 2,923 11 1 048 198 Schooners 51,381 ?06 Vessels 71364 297 Vessels 131,434 o OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. ALLEN, Pro- fessor WILLIAM A., born March 27, 1808 ; died August 29, 1882. After graduating from Bow- doin College in 1833, he was called to teach Latin and Greek in the Methodist Seminary at Cazenovia, N. Y., remaining there about two years, when he took charge of the High School at Augusta, Me. In 1836 he went to Carlisle, Pa., where he was Professor of Natural Philos- ophy and Chemistry in Dickinson College, and in a few years assumed that also of English Literature and Philosophy. He remained there about thirteen years. In January, 1850, he was appointed President of Girard College in Philadelphia, which position he held until the end of his life, with the exception of a few years spent in retirement, and as President of the Pennsylvania Agricultural College. He was a writer of considerable thought, and the long and important office he held at Girard College testifies to his great abilities as an instructor. He at one time was President of the American Bible Society ; this, however, did not interfere with his college duties. His health had been declining for some years, and for several months before his death he was incapacitated for active duty. COLEMAX, LYMAN-, D. D., born June 14, 1796, in Middlefield, Mass.; died March 16, 1882, at Easton, Pa. President Coleman graduated at Yale College in 1817; he then held for three years the post of principal in the Latin Grammar School at Hartford, and was at the . expiration of that time made a tutor in Yale College, having among his pupils many who subsequently became eminent. Mr. Coleman studied theology, and for seven years was pas- tor of the Belchertown (Mass.) Congregational Church. After a year or two spent in foreign travel, and study in Germany, he devoted him- self to teaching, and was for five years Prin- cipal of the Burr Seminary in Vermont, and then held the post of Principal of the English Department of Phillips Academy in Andover. Next, he was Professor of German in Prince- ton College where he received the degree of S. T. D. ; then he became Professor of Latin in Lafayette College, Easton, Pa., and occupied the position for twenty years. Mr. Coleman was a man of great erudition and wide culture, and few surpassed him in teaching. He was the author of " Antiquities of the Christian Church " (1841), "Ancient Christianity" (1852), "Historical Text-Book and Atlas of Biblical Geography " (1854), " Prelacy and Ritualism " (1869), and other works. In all these books is the print of conscientious and laborious re- search ; their style is easy, and to the Biblical student they are of much value, and are still used as text-books. A short time before his death, he presented to the pastor of the Bel- chertown (Mass.) Congregational Church a valuable Hebrew concordance compiled by himself; accompanying the book was the fol- lowing message to his first and only parish : " Pity me, O my people ! for the hand of God hath touched me." He had been stricken with paralysis not long before. CROSMAN, GEORGE H., born in Taunton, Mass., in 1798 ; died in Philadelphia, May 28, 1882. In September, 1819, he entered West Point, and graduated in 1823. He served as brevet second-lieutenant of the Third Infantry, and was afterward promoted to the position of full second-lieutenant, Second Infantry. In 1828 he was promoted to the position of first-lieu- tenant of the Sixth Infantry, and in October, 1830, was made quartermaster. During the period of the "Black Hawk" War he was en- gaged in the hazardous and hard duty of quar- termaster in the Indian country, and in 1837 was promoted to the position of captain in the same regiment. He was also again made quar- termaster, and placed on staff duty. During the Mexican War he was in active service in Texas, and at the storming of Palo Alto took 636 OBITUARIES, AMERICAN". a conspicuous part. For service of meritorious character in this fight he was brevetted major. In 1856 he was put in charge of the quarter- master's department in Philadelphia, and in that year was brevetted a lieutenant-colonel. In 1860 he was sent to Utah, but returned to Philadelphia in 1861. In 1863 he was pro- moted to colonel, and made depot quartermas- ter, and in 1865 was given the highly compli- mentary position of brevet brigadier and major- general United States Army, for "faithful and meritorious service during the civil war." General Crosman was retired from the army in 1866, being over sixty -two years of age, but was on duty again in Philadelphia as Chief Quartermaster of the Department of the East. For some years past he had been living in re- tirement. DEFREES, JOHN D., born at Sparta, White County, Tenn., November 8, 1811 ; died at Berkeley Springs, West Va., October 19, 1882. In 1818 Mr. Defrees was apprenticed by his father to a printer in Ohio, in connection with which pursuit he studied law. His first vote was given to Henry Clay for President. In 1836 he was admitted to the bar by the Su- preme Court of Indiana, having removed to that State a few years previous, and in con- junction with his brother established a weekly newspaper. Mr. Defrees soon evinced political shrewdness, and was sent to the Legislature, where he distinguished himself sufficiently to be several times returned. In 1844 he resigned his seat in the State Senate, and bought "The Indiana State Journal," a weekly paper, pub- lished at Indianapolis. He located at the capi- tal of the State, and made his paper a daily, which he edited for a number of years. After the Whig party declined, and the Republican party was organized, he associated his interest with the new party, and in 1856 became the first Republican State Chairman, which posi- tion he occupied until 1860. Mr. Defrees was intimate with many of the leading politicians of that period, among whom were Clay, Crit- tenden, Webster, and Cor win. He was regarded as a very adroit politician, and was valuable to his party. President Lincoln appointed him to the office of Government Printer, which he filled for many years. DENNISON, WILLIAM, born in Cincinnati, O., November 9, 1815 ; died at Columbus, O., June 15, 1882. His father, a well-known and prosperous business-man, took great pride in his son William, and gave him a classical edu- cation. In preparation for college he had the benefit of the best schools in Cincinnati, and in 1831 he entered as freshman the Miami University at Oxford, O. In September, near the close of his twentieth year, he graduated with high honor, returned to Cincinnati, and commenced the study of law in the office of Nathaniel G. Pendleton and Stephen Fales. After completing his legal studies and being admitted to the bar, he began the practice of his profession in his native city. In politics Mr. Dennison was an original Whig ; through- out the existence of that party organization he was a firm, consistent, and zealously active member of it. In 1847 he was elected to a term of two years in the Ohio Senate ; he next served as President of the Columbus and Xenia Railroad, until 1859, when he was chosen by the Republican party Governor of the State. He was inaugurated January 9, 1860, and de- livered his first message to the Fifty-fourth General Assembly, January V, 1861. In April of the same year, at his suggestion, the Legis- lature of Ohio voted $3,000,000 to "protect the State from invasion and insurrection," and conferred additional power on the Executive to raise troops, etc. In response to the Presi- dent's call for 11,000 troops, Governor Den- nison offered 30,000 men, and sent agents to Washington to urge their acceptance, and the adoption of a vigorous policy in conducting the war. He took possession of the telegraph lines and railroads in the name of the State, and exercised much authority not conferred by law. He seized money in transitu from Washington to the State Auditor, and turned it over to the Quartermaster-General of the State, to clothe and equip the soldiers. Governor Dennison was a delegate to the Republican National Convention in 1864, and was elected chairman of that body. A great admirer of Mr. Lin- coln, and an ardent anti-slavery advocate, he was made Postmaster-General on the retire- ment of Montgomery Blair from the Cabinet, and he retained the post until President John- son declared his " policy " ; then he resigned at once, and retired into private life at Columbus. He was a candidate for Senator when General Garfield was chosen in 1880. DINSMOKE, SAMUEL P., born in Bristol, Me. ; died in New York city, March 22, 1882. Mr. Dinsmore graduated at Bo svdoin College in 1844. After that he studied law in Bangor, and was admitted to the bar in that city. Shortly after- ward he became editor of the Bangor " Mer- cury," and while holding that position had con- siderable influence in local politics. He took an active part in the campaign for Fremont, a candidate for President. Early in life he was a contributor to current literature, as well as during the period of his editorial labors, hav- ing written for " The North American Review," "The Republican Court " of Washington, and other publications. He came to New York to practice law in 1857, then was appointed to a position in the War Department by President Lincoln ; subsequently he held for a short time the post of financial editor of the " Evening Post." Mr. Dinsmore was a journalist over thirty-five years. GAEDINEE, SAMUEL BUELL, died January 5, 1882, at East Hampton, Long Island, in the sixty-seventh year of his age. He was a great- grandson of the Rev. Samuel Buell, the first clergyman settled on Long Island, and was a lineal descendant of Lion Gardiner, the founder of the famous family, which, for two hundred OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. 637 and forty-two years, have held rightful and indisputed possession of the first white-man's settlement formed within the present limits of the State of New York. Gardiner's Island is, probably, the oldest entailed estate in the coun- try ; it was purchased from the Indians by Lion Gardiner in 1639. It was then known as Manchonock Island, and the Indians willingly sold it for a few coats, hats, hatchets, and small trinkets. Gardiner changed its name to the Isle of Wight ; but, in course of time, it came to be designated only by the owner's name. The island is situated about one hundred and twenty miles from New York and fourteen from New London ; it lies in Gardiner's Bay, which sets in from the ocean at the extreme end of Long Island, with Orient Point on the north and Montauk land on the south. The sur- roundings are very beautiful. The island is nine miles long, a mile and a half wide, and contains thirty-three hundred acres, a goodly proportion of which is under cultivation. Im- mense quantities of grain, hay, live-stock, fruit, dairy-produce, timber, etc., are raised thereon yearly. The subject of this sketch succeeded his brother, John Griswold Gardiner, in the ownership of the island in 1861. He was a fine-looking, but quiet and unostentatious gen- tleman. GILLETTE, Rev. Dr. A. D., born September 8, 1807; died August 24, 1882. After passing through a successful course of studies at Madi- son University and Union College, he was or- dained a Baptist minister in 1831, and passed the greater part of his life in active service. In May, 1862, he was installed pastor over the Schenectady Baptist Church, where he remained for five years, was then called to Philadelphia, and afterward to New York, where he became pastor of the Broadway Baptist Church, a posi- tion which he held twelve years ; then he went to Washington, D. 0. In January, 1872, he was elected Corresponding Secretary of the American and Foreign Bible Society. GEMMILL, WILLIAM D., died in San Francisco, 1882, aged forty years. Mr. Gemmill was the son of a Philadelphia dry-goods merchant. At his father's death he inherited an ample for- tune, and, having a predilection for the stage, he abandoned his business in 1875, and, in con- junction with three other young gentlemen of means, he opened the Chestnut-Street Thea- tre, Philadelphia, with Byron's comedy, " Our Boys." After a short season, he inaugurated a series of Shakespearean revivals, in which money was spent with a lavish hand. The venture was not successful, and, for financial reasons, the management of the theatre was given up, and Mr. Gemmill went on the stage. He appeared in leading characters, and his impersonation of Hamlet was much praised. About two years ago he retired from the Chest- nut-Street Theatre, and since then belonged to different stock companies, and appeared fre- quently in the West. GODDARD, DELANO A., editor of the Bos- ton "Daily Advertiser," died on January 4th of congestion of the lungs. Mr. Goddard was bonr in Worcester, Mass., August 27, 1831, and was a graduate of Yale College. After having spent some years upon the Worcester " Spy," he became, in 1869, associate editor of the "Daily Advertiser," and shortly afterward editor-in-chief. He was a member of the Mas- sachusetts Historical Society, and was much interested in questions relating to the history and influence of his profession. Two years ago he read a paper before the New England Historico-Genealogical Society upon "News- papers and Newspaper Writers of New Eng- land," which formed the basis of an article contributed to the second volume of the "Me- morial History of Boston," entitled "The Press and Literature of the Provincial Period." An article on " The Pulpit, Press, and Literature of the Revolutionary Period," was also contrib- uted by him to the third volume of the same work. Mr. Goddard represented his native place in the State Legislature in 1862, and also in 1868, but beyond these he held no public positions. GUBEET, LOUISE, born in Philadelphia, Pa. ; died in Baltimore, Md., 1882. Her paternal grandfather was a French officer, and served under the first Napoleon. Her father was born in Cuba, and married a sister of the late Mil- nor Roberts, a civil engineer of distinction. At the age of eighteen months, Louise devel- oped the most wonderful musical talent, and, to the surprise of her family, sang with perfect correctness a little ballad that she had fre- quently heard others sing, called " By the Mar- gin of Fair Zurich's Waters." As she grew older the wonderful gift attracted the atten- tion of some of the most distinguished musi- cians of the time. At the age of fifteen she was selected by Mr. Cross, an experienced musician, to sing the "Inflammatus" from Rossini's " Stabat Mater," at a concert given by the Musical Fund Hall Society, in Phila- delphia, in preference to a number of ama- teurs who were also to take part. Her voice was the most exquisite soprano, and the night of the concert she sang the celebrated selection with such power and sweetness, that Perelli, the eminent Italian vocalist, who was conduct- ing the orchestra, was so much enraptured with the loveliness of her voice that he en- treated her father to grant him the privilege of training it. The request was complied with, and the knowledge of music that she had al- ready acquired under the instruction of Mr. Wolseiffer, a German professor of renown in her native city, enabled her very soon to be- come celebrated, and she was always the prominent voice in the numerous concerts and soirees got up for charitable purposes. She also sang in the choir of St. Augustine's church. While she was still pursuing her education, the Sisters of the Visitation from Georgetown, D. C., established a branch of their order in Philadelphia. Miss Gubert became one of their 638 OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. pupils, and, under the pious teaching of the Daughters of St. Francis of Sales, she formed the determination of embracing a religious life. In the mean time she was constantly solicited to appear in puhlic. Madame La- boide asked permission to take her to Paris and place her in charge of Meyerbeer, who, she said, would write operas for her voice. Madame Sontag, after hearing her sing, passed the highest encomiums upon her voice, and advised her to abandon the instruction of teachers, and follow the guidance of her own genius. After this a great difference was ob- served in her style ; she turned her attention to the German school, and acquired great dra- matic power and pathos. She possessed the rare quality of imparting her knowledge to others, which made her eminently successful as a teacher. A few years after her father's death she accompanied the Right Rev. Bishop Whe- lan to his episcopal city of Wheeling, Va., and in a short time she entered the Community of Visitation Nuns established there, where the spiritual name of Sister Mary Agnes was con- ferred upon her. Through her skill and energy their school acquired a reputation unsurpassed in the United States. Before the academy was removed to its present locality, at Mt. de Chan- tal, she was visited by all the distinguished mu- sicians who passed through Wheeling. Ade- lina and Carlotta Patti, Carl Formes the great basso, Thalberg the pianist, and other celebri- ties, had the privilege of hearing her sing, in obedience to. the commands of her superiors. Carl Formes was at once impressed with her rare dramatic power, and advised her to study the grand aria from " Oberon," " Ocean, thou mighty monster!" which afterward became one of her favorite and most celebrated pieces. Among her most prominent songs were " The Eii King," by Schubert, and the principal arias from " Der Freischutz." The last time that she sang in the convent was on the occasion of a first communion, when, without organ ac- companiment, she rendered, with the pathetic feeling for which she was so noted, one of Father Faber's hymns. HEALT, JOHN PLTJMMER, born December 28, 1810, in Washington, Sullivan County, N. H. ; died January 4, 1882, in Boston, Mass. His father, Joseph Healy, was a Representative from New Hampshire in Congress from 1825 to 1829, and a warm friend and admirer of Daniel Webster; these facts had an important bearing on the career of his son. The senior Healy was a man of noble character, although of limited means. He sent his son to Dart- mouth College, through which he passed, as poor boys do, eking out his pecuniary resources by teaching. Mr. Healy was graduated from Dartmouth in 1835, from which he received the degree of LL. D. in 1871. He came at once to Boston, and entered the law-office of Daniel Webster. By his diligence, quick apprehen- sion, and courteous conduct he won the warm friendship of Mr. Webster ; and, when he had completed his legal studies, became the famous statesman's law partner, a relation that he maintained until it was terminated by Mr. Webster's death. When Mr. Webster was Sec- retary of State, he offered Mr. Healy the chief- Sistieeship of California, which was declined, e was several times offered the chief -justice- ship of the Supreme Court of Massachusetts, but always declined, being content with his position of a trusted legal adviser, and the So- licitor of the City of Boston, which office he assumed in 1856, and continued to hold until March 30, 1881. While he was a general prac- titioner of law, he was connected for several years with the Massachusetts Legislature. He entered the House in 1840, and was made Sen- ator in 1854, serving his terms with ability. After he became City Solicitor, he devoted by far the greater part of his time to the duties of that office, which he discharged most effi- ciently. HATZLER, ELISABETH, born at Landau, France, in 1790, died in Philadelphia, January 1, 1882. She was a veteran of the Franco-Russian War of 1812. At the age of twenty she married George Hatzler, a sergeant of cavalry in the French army. Very soon after their marriage her husband was ordered to join the memorable expedition against Russia, and Madame Hatzler determined to go with him. Her hair was cut short, a soldier's uniform took the place of the feminine attire, and thus disguised she rode at her husband's side during the whole campaign. She was present at all of the principal battles, and at the burning of Moscow. After the pro- motion of her husband to the rank of a staff- officer, she had many opportunities of seeing the great Emperor, and on several occasions conversed with him. An accident to her hus- band separated them from the main army at one time, and for nine weeks Madame Hatzler dragged him on a hand-sledge over the frozen ground. Through a guide's treachery they were taken prisoners by the Cossacks, and held for months. They were exchanged in time to rejoin the French army and undergo the suf- ferings and privations of the disastrous retreat which almost annihilated Napoleon's forces. Through all these vicissitudes the sex of the woman remained undiscovered. Mrs. Hatzler emigrated to this country in 1846, and lived for twelve years on Fort Delaware, while it was being built by Major Sanders. Up to the time of her death she retained the full use of all her faculties, and it is said that since leaving the battle-field in 1814 she never suf- fered any results of her long exposure. She spoke English, German, and French fluently, and had also skill in the Russian and Italian languages. How, Mrs. MART KIRKPATRICK, widow of Rev. Dr. S. B. How, died in New Brunswick, N. J., aged eighty-nine years. She was the eldest and last surviving child of Chief-Justice Kirkpatrick, of New Jersey, whose wife was Jane Bayard, a descendant of Madame Anne OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. Bayard, sister of Peter Stuyvesant. She, with her four children, accompanied the last of the Dutch Governors to New York in May, 1647. Mrs. How's grandfather was a Revolutionary patriot, and a personal friend of Washington, Franklin, Hamilton, Lafayette, and Kosciusko, of whom Bancroft says, "Colonel John Bay- ard was personally brave, pensive, earnest, and devout." Mrs. How's health had been grad- ually failing for a few months, but her mind remained clear and unclouded till within a week of her death. Early in March, in conver- sation with her nephew, General James Grant Wilson, she mentioned having been present with her grandfather at the funeral services held in honor of Washington at New Bruns- wick, in December, 1799, and of her having seen and spoken with Hamilton on her first visit to Mrs. Bayard, of New York, in 1803. She spent a portion of the winter of 1811-'12 in Washington, where she became intimate with President Madison and his family circle, meeting most of the prominent people of that period. On one of her last visits to New York she saw a lady after a separation of seventy years. They were girls together at a fashion- able school, and parted to meet again as vener- able women of more than fourscore. Mrs. How was a philanthropic Christian lady. KELLOGG, ENSIGN H., died at Pittsfield, Mass., 1882, aged seventy years. He graduated at Amherst in 1836, and made the law his pro- fession. He was prominent in local political atfairs, and had been a member of the State House of Representatives, of which he was Speaker for two terms. He served also as Senator, and was the American representative on the late Fisheries Commission. KIMBALL, EUGENE, born in Rochester, N. Y. ; died in the same place, August 2, 1882, aged thirty-one years. He was formerly a fa- mous base-ball player, and belonged to the Cleveland nine in 1871 and 1872, as center- field and short stop. For eighteen years past he had been a professional billiard- player, and won distinction at cushion-carroms, which was his best game. He has played in private all over the country, and was widely known and esteemed as an upright, honest man, with many amiable qualities. His first public appearance as a billiardist was in a tournament in Roches- ter ; his last games were played in New York, in April and June, 1882. In the first-named month he played with Sexton, who gave him 150 points out of 500 ; he defeated Sexton by 99 points. In June he played a match with Daly on even terms, and was defeated. Slos- son, the champion, who knew Kimball well, pronounced him a first-class player, of great promise, showing signs of rapid improvement. LELAND, GEORGE S., born in Lansgrove, Vt., 1838; died in New York city, August 2, 1882. Mr. Leland received the regular Eastern common-school education, and at an early age became interested in the manage- ment of hotels. Before he was twenty-one he came to New York, and opened the well-re- membered Clinton Hotel, where the Nassau Bank and Kelly Building are now. In 1852 he went to the Metropolitan Hotel, and his talent and ability were soon noticed in the energetic management of that popular and profitable hotel. In 1861 he joined the army, and served in the war for the Union. He was well equipped mentally and physically for the exacting duties of the commissariat department, and sought usefulness there. His ability was soon recog- nized, and in a short time he was appointed chief commissary for the division, then qua.r- tered near Harper's Ferry, There he served faithfully and zealously. His business integ- rity was beyond question, and his usefulness conspicuous. He was personally known to President Lincoln, who sent him a major's commission and a complimentary letter. In 1864 his interest called him to New York, and he arranged to participate in the management of the Grand Union Hotel in Saratoga. Mr. George S. Leland and his brothers then had a chain of hotels extending from Saratoga to Albany, and from New York to San Francisco, where the great Palace Hotel was established. For a while Major Leland conducted the St. Charles Hotel, New York, and eleven years ago, with his brother Lewis, he opened the Sturtevant House in the same city. LINCOLN, MARY TODD, born in Kentucky; died in Springfield, 111., July 16, 1882. Her father, Robert S. Todd, was a prominent Ken- tucky politician. Mrs. Lincoln's marriage with Abraham Lincoln was very much opposed by her family. The parties each possessed strong- ly-marked peculiarities of disposition and tem- perament, and serious misgivings as to their happiness were entertained. Their married life was nevertheless marked by great affec- tion and contentment. At the time of the marriage, Mr. Lincoln was thirty-two years of age, and " merely a prairie-lawyer," as he was fond of describing himself in after-years. He was naturally of a slow imagination, and need- ed encouragement in the political field. It is believed that to the energy and ambition of his wife he owed much of his advancement, while it is admitted that he could always rise to the crest of the circumstances with which even his high and critical position as Chief Magistrate of a nation at war was surrounded. There were those who unjustly looked with suspicion upon Mrs. Lincoln, at the time of her entry into the White House, because of the tendencies of her family and her native State, but her life as the wife of the President proved conclusively that she was loyal to him and to the country of which he was the chosen head. She was nei- ther a woman of great refinement nor of a high degree of intellectuality, yet she possessed a strong faith in her husband as a man of great promise, and recognized in him qualities which were unseen and unsuspected by his fellow- men for years after her openly-expressed proph- ecies of his future. Mrs. Lincoln, like others 640 OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. of a naturally singular character and eccentric habits, suffered much unmerited contumely both before and since her husband's death. That catastrophe without doubt unsettled her reason, for, with all her weaknesses, she was attached to Mr. Lincoln by an affection that was even greater than the ambition with which it went hand-in-hand to seek his advancement. For many years she suffered from a combina- tion of real and imaginary ills, and that her bodily ailments were not all chimerical is proved by the closeness with which death fol- lowed the paralytic shock received a few days before. Those who for years have persisted in maligning Mrs. Lincoln should cast a glance at the sorrowful side of her life : her second son died in childhood ; her third son, William, a boy of unusual precocity, died during her first year in the White House ; Thomas Todd Lincoln, her fourth son, who was the life and plaything of the Executive mansion, died eight years ago, just as he was approaching man's estate, and after he had become the staff and solace of his stricken mother. Add to these afflictions the great one of having a loving and beloved husband killed by her side, during a short season of pleasure, after his re-entry upon a new and prosperous term of high office. Her death leaves but one representative of the family, which numbered five at the time of the entrance of its head upon the duties of the presidency — the eldest son, Robert Todd Lin- coln, the present Secretary of War. MAYNAED, HOEACE, born at Westboro, Mass., August 13, 1814; died at Knoxville, Tenn., May 3, 1882. He received an academic edu- cation at Millbury, Mass., and entered Amherst College in 1834, and graduated from it in 1838. The following year he removed to Knoxville, and was appointed Principal of flampden Sid- ney Academy. The next year he was elected instructor in East Tennessee College, which became a university in 1842, and served in that capacity for four years, when he was ap- pointed Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. He remained in that chair but one year; at the end thereof he entered upon the study of law, and after one year's preparation was admitted to the bar. Mr. Maynard fol- lowed his profession until 1857, when he was elected to Congress as the candidate of the Whig party ; two years after, he was re-elected, and again in 1861. He returned to Knoxville upon its occupation by General Burnside, in the fall of 1863. The war having ended, he was elected to Congress from Tennessee re- peatedly, once from the State at large, and other times from the Knoxville district, until 1875. Mr. Maynard was United States Minis- ter to Turkey, by appointment of President Hayes, for nearly four years, and Postmaster- General for a few months before General Gar- field's inauguration. He was a man of distin- guished abilities, was a forcible and clear speaker, and always entertaining. Having es- poused with Andrew Johnson the principles of the Republican party, he remained faithful to them. Just previous to his death lie had at- tended the State Republican Convention at Nashville. McCi. AY, WILLIAM B., died in New York city, in 1882, aged seventy years. He began his political career in 1840, and continued to be a public man up to 1861, when he retired to private life. He was elected to the Assem- bly in 1840, 1841, and 1842, and was a mem- ber of the Twenty-eighth, Twenty-ninth, Thir- tieth, Thirty-fifth, and Thirty-sixth Congresses. MCCANDLESS, WILSON, born in Pittsburg, Pa., June 19, 1810; died in the same town, June 30, 1882. His parents, although Scotch-Irish, were born in the United States. Judge McCand- less was a graduate of the Western University. He studied law with W. W. Fetterman, and was admitted to practice June 19, 1831. Being a close student, he soon made a reputation at the bar, and his powers of oratory won him a large connection. After a successful practice for more than twenty-five years, he was appointed by President Buchanan, on the 8th of Febru- ary, 1859, United States District Judge for the WTestern District of Pennsylvania, embracing a large jurisdiction. Long before his judicial ca- reer commenced, Judge McCandless took an active part in politics; he was a Democrat of the most aggressive type, and most persistent in maintaining the principles he espoused. His manner was polite and agreeable, and, no mat- ter how excited the discussion of political points might grow, he was able to command the respect and esteem of his most violent op- ponents. He was three times elector for Pres- ident and Vice-President of the United States, in 1844, 1852, and 1856, and was twice presi- dent of the electoral college of the State. In 1848 he was chairman of the Pennsylvania delegation in the National Democratic Conven- tion held in Baltimore. He was a member of the Masonic fraternity, and was Past-Master of Milner Lodge. On the occasion of the visit of John Quincy Adams to Pittsburg, in 1833, he delivered the address of welcome; also, the oration on the death of General Jackson, in 1848. MORRISON, JOHN IRWIN, died in Knights- town, Ind., July 17, 1882, aged seventy-seven years. He was a Pennsylvanian by birth, but was taken to Indiana when a child. His op- portunities for an education were meager, but his indefatigable energy and perseverance en- abled him to overcome all difficulties, and he finally " worked his way" through Miami Uni- versity, O. He entered the teacher's profes- sion, and soon became principal of what was for many years known as the ''Washington County Seminary," at Salem, Ind. He made this one of the best-known schools in the State, and its patronage was not limited to Indiana. His force of character enabled him to impress himself upon his students in an extraordinary manner. Among his former students were many who have risen to eminence. He was OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. 641 for three years Professor of Greek in the State University, and for many years one of its trustees. Mr. Morrison filled many offices of trust and honor. He was twice elected Treas- urer of his own county, and was a member of each House of the State Legislature. In 1852 he was a member of the convention that framed the present Constitution of the State, and as a member of the Committee on Education aided in shaping Indiana's excellent school system. In 1864 President Lincoln appointed him Com- missioner of Enrollment, and he was one of Governor Morton's trusted advisers in those perilous times. "While holding this position he was elected Treasurer of the State. His pub- lic career was as honorable as his private life was stainless. He was a man of rare intellect- ual attainments and force of character. NAIRNE, CHAELES MURRAY, born at Perth, Scotland, April 15, 1808; died at Warren- ton, Va., May 29, 1882. He graduated M. A. at St. Andrews University, in 1830, and two years later at Edinburgh. For some time he was assistant to the celebrated Dr. Thomas Chalmers, at Glasgow, and in 1847 came to this country. For a short while he taught in the principal classical school in Poughkeepsie ; leaving there, he came to New York, and es- tablished a private school, and in 1857 ac- cepted the professorship of Philosophy and Belles-Lettres in Columbia College. He con- tinued to hold his position until October, 1881, when, his health having become greatly im- paired, he was relieved from duty. Professor Nairne was a finished writer and a very at- tractive speaker ; occasionally he lectured upon the subjects he had made a life-study, and was regarded as one of the most accomplished scholars in those departments. He published a collection of " Lectures and Orations," as well as many pamphlets of lesser note. Professor Nairne was a man of great gentleness of char- acter, and in his lecture-room was particularly kind and courteous in his manner toward the students. PAINE, ROBERT, born in Person County, N. C., November, 1799 ; died in Aberdeen, Miss., October 20, 1882. When quite a boy his par- ents removed to Tennessee, where he received a good education. He joined the Methodist Conference of that State, and became a mis- sionary preacher. In 1830 he was elected President of La Grange College, Alabama, the duties of which position he discharged with ability for sixteen years. He was made bishop in 1846, during a very important period of the Methodist Church, when the Northern and Southern portions disagreed, and separate or- ganizations were formed. Bishop Paine pre- sided over the first General Conference of the new body that was held in Petersburg, Va., in 1846. He was made chairman of a committee to draw up a declaration of the intentions of the delegates from Southern States, in seceding from the General Conference. The question of dividing the Church property came before VOL. xxn. — il A the Supreme Court of the United States, and during the time Bishop Paine worked zealously and ably for the good of the Church. Since the war the Church has wonderfully recovered from her misfortunes, owing in a great meas- ure to his courage and untiring ability. He was also instrumental in establishing new missions in the Southern States, and even in Mexico and China. Bishop Paine was the author of a valuable work, which was pub- lished at the request of the General Confer- ence, the "Life and Times of Bishop McKen- dree." PEASE, ALFRED H., born in Cleveland, O. ; died in St. Louis, Mo., July 13, 1882. His descent was direct on his mother's side from Colonel David Humphreys, an aide to General Washington in the Revolutionary War; after- ward secretary to Benjamin Franklin, and Minister to Spain. At an early age Mr. Pease evinced a remarkable talent for music, but his parents, being averse to his becoming a pro- fessional musician, strove to counteract the tendency. At the age of sixteen he entered Kenyon College, at Gambier, Ohio, and at once displayed a wonderful taste for drawing and painting. In the prosecution of his studies he made the acquaintance of a young German, with whom he visited Germany under a plea of ill-health ; there his love of music mastered him, and he studied under Theodor Kinlack, court pianist of Prussia, who taught him the different schools of piano-music. Richard Wuerst instructed him in composition, after the manner of Felix Mendelssohn. Wieprecht, the Prussian Director of Military Music, taught him the science of orchestral scoring, and his compositions were received with favor by the Berlin public. With the foundation of his fu- ture career thus laid, Mr. Pease returned to America with happy prophecy of a success which he rapidly achieved. He was not con- tent, however, with the knowledge gained, and returned to Europe and studied for nearly three years under Von Bulow. As a com- poser, Mr. Pease stood at the head of the sec- ond rank, and his works are to be found in all the fields of composition, though his success was greatest in the orchestral and vocal. The list of his popular songs reaches nearly one hundred in number, and many of them have found favor with the most distinguished sing- ers of the time — Miss Kellogg, Mmes. Nillson, Albani, Parepa Rosa, Marie Roze, and others. As a composer he was original in melody and prolific in theme; he made many additions to church-music, but his most remarkable com- position was a memorial hymn, dedicated to an only brother and sister, who lost their lives in the New Hamburgh disaster, and whose ter- rible deaths seemed to cast a shadow upon him which, in a measure, accounted for the pursuit of the melancholy habit of drinking, which in- directly resulted in his own sad end. Mr. Pease was a resident of Buffalo, and went to St. Louis about the middle of May, 1882, from 642 OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. Chicago, where he had given a series of highly successful concerts; he stopped in St. Louis with an acquaintance until June 5, 1882, when he suddenly and mysteriously disappeared, and offers of large rewards by his friends, and the employment of private detectives, availed nothing in the search for the unfortunate man. His last dissipation began several days before his disappearance. He was identified, after death, as ODe who had registered at an hotel under the name of John C. Doehn, and his body was not recognized until after it had been conveyed to the morgue. PKUYN, ROBERT H., died at Albany, N. Y., 1882. Mr. Pruyn was Minister to Japan un- der President Lincoln; was a candidate for Governor in 1865 ; and was President of the National Commercial Bank of Albany, and of the Dudley Observatory, besides being trustee and director in several institutions. PUTNAM, JOHN PHELPS, born March 21, 181 Y, in Hartford, Conn.; died January 4, 1882. Judge Putnam's father was also a native of Hartford, and in his day one of its most promi- nent citizens — a merchant, a director of sev- eral insurance and banking institutions, and an alderman and mayor of the city successively. His grandfather came to the United States from the north of England and settled in Hart- ford in 1789. From what is known of the genealogy of the family, it is supposed to have been connected in England with the family of John Putnam who came over in 1634, and who was one of the oldest settlers of Salem Village, now Danvers, and also the ancestor of General Israel Putnam, of Revolutionary fame. Judge Putnam was a graduate of Yale College in 1837. Immediately after, he entered the office of the late Hon. William W. Ellsworth. He received a two years' course of instruction in the Har- vard Law School, where was also conferred on him the degree of LL. B. After that he en- tered the office of Sidney Bartlett, one of the oldest as well as one of the ablest members of the Suffolk Bar. Judge Putnam was admitted to the bar in 1840, when he immediately be- gan an independent practice in Boston, and for many years prosecuted it with excellent success. In addition to the exacting duties of profes- sional life from 1847 to 1858, he edited no less than fifteen volumes of the "Annual Digest" of the decisions of all the courts of the United States. Judge Putnam was for two years Judge of Probate of Suffolk County ; prior to that, he held for a number of years the office of Commissioner of Insolvency for the same coun- ty. He was one of the original Judges of the Superior Court, appointed on its organization in 1859. He was passionately fond of music, was President of the Apollo Club, and long identified with musical undertakings. It was mainly through his exertions that the great or- gan of Music Hall was procured. ROBBINS, CHANDLEE, Rev. Dr., born Feb- ruary 14, 1810; died September 11, 1882. A native of Massachusetts and a graduate from Harvard University in 1829, after passing through Cambridge Divinity School he was ordained pastor of the Second Unitarian Church in 1833, his predecessor being Ralph Waldo Emerson. He remained in charge there for forty-one years, and at the time of his resigna- tion he was the oldest settled pastor in Boston. In 1855 Harvard University bestowed upon him the degree of D. D. Dr. Robbins was a frequent contributor to literary and religious periodicals; he was also the author of "A His- tory of the Second Church" (1852), of "Mem- oirs of Maria E. Clapp " (1858), of " Memoirs of William Appleton " (1863). He was a mem- ber of the Massachusetts Historical Society, and editor of its " Proceedings." ROBERTS, SOLOMON W., born in Philadel- phia, Pa., August 3, 1811; died in Atlan- tic City, N. J., May 22, 1882. His ancestors were among the families of Welsh members of the Society of Friends who came over with William Penn. At the age of sixteen he went to Mauch Chunk as the assistant of his uncle Josiah White, the acting manager and superin- tendent of the Lehigh Coal and Navigation Company, and under his direction constructed the Summit-Hill Railroad, the first one com- pleted in Pennsylvania. He remained with the Lehigh Company until 1829, when he entered the service of the State as one of the engineers of the canal to be constructed on the Cone- maugh River. In 1831 he received the ap- pointment of principal assistant engineer in the construction of the Alleghany Portage Rail- road, and afterward held the position of resi- dent engineer and superintendent of transpor- tation. In 1836 he resigned in order to visit Europe in behalf of the Philadelphia and Read- ing Railroad. He remained abroad for two years, superintending the manufacture of rails for the Reading Company, in South Wales. While there he visited the works of George Crane, who had then just succeeded in his in- vention for smelting iron-ore in large quantities by the use of anthracite coal and the hot blast. Upon his return home, Mr. Roberts called the attention of the Franklin Institute to the new invention, and interested his uncle, Josiah White, to the extent of founding, with others of his associates, the Crane Iron- Works on the Lehigh, which were the successful beginning of Pennsylvania's immense iron-trade. From 1838 to 1841 he was the chief engineer of the Catawissa Railway. On its completion he ac- cepted the place of president and acting super- intendent of the Philadelphia, Germantown, and Norristown Railway. He was also Presi- dent of the Schuylkill Navigation Company from 1843 to 1845, and devised the plan by which navigation on that river was made fea- sible for boats of large tonnage. When the Pennsylvania Railroad was chartered, in 1847, Mr. Roberts declined an official position, but was elected for the purpose of representing its interest to the membership of the Lower House of the Legislature, where his experience in OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. 643 railroad matters enabled him to obtain impor- tant legislation on the subject, and also to se- cure the passage of an act incorporating a com- pany to construct the " Ohio and Pennsylvania Railroad " from Pittsburg to the State line. He became chief-engineer of this road and its ex- tension in 1848, and in April, 1853, saw it com- pleted to Crestline — for which town, and for that of Alliance, he selected both site and name. He remained with the company until 1856 as general superintendent, when he re- signed and moved to Philadelphia, from Pitts- burg, to accept the post of chief-engineer and general superintendent of the North Pennsyl- vania Railroad, which then extended only to Gwynedd. In July of 1857 he had it completed to Bethlehem, and thereafter devoted himself to the care of its constantly increasing business, refusing at various times the proffered presi- dency of other railway schemes. In July, 1875, he was one of the board nominated by the Franklin Institute, at the request of Mayor Stokely, to consider "the entire subject of the present and future water-supply of Philadel- phia." RUDEESDOBFF, EMMA MANSFIELD, bom at Ivanowsky, in the Ukraine government in Rus- sia, in 1822 ; died in Boston, Mass., 1882. Her father was a distinguished violinist. Madame Rudersdorff was a soprano singer of great suc- cess, making her first appearance professional- ly in Leipsic, in 1840, and subsequently filling engagements in opera in all the prominent cities of the Old World. RYEESON-, ADOLPHTJS EGEBTON, born at Char- lotteville, in the present Province of Ontario, Canada, March 24, 1803 ; died at Toronto, Ont., 1882. Rev. Mr. Ryerson, D.D., LL. D., was the son of a loyalist of the American Revolu- tion, who settled in New Brunswick, and af- terward in Upper Canada. He received a good classical education, became a Wesleyan minis- ter in 1825, and founded in 1829 the " Guard- ian" newspaper, the organ of the Canadian "Wesleyans. He was a delegate to the British Wesleyan Conference in 1833 and 1886 ; was appointed in 1841 Principal of Victoria Col- lege, Coburg, Ont., and in 1844 Superintend- ent of Public Schools for Upper Canada. In that capacity he made an extensive tour of observation in the United States and Europe, and published an elaborate report on methods of education in 1847, with a plan for the reor- ganization of the Canadian schools, which he labored for many years to improve. Mr. Ry- erson wrote largely on educational topics, and maintained warm controversies with the oppo- nents of the system he advocated. He was au- thor of a " History of Canada " and of a " His- tory of the United Empire Loyalists." SAWYEE, GEOBGE Y., died June 15, 1882, in Boston, Mass. He was a classmate in Bowdoin College of William Pitt Fessenden, of Maine; Henry W. Longfellow, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Franklin Pierce, and other distinguished gen- tlemen. In 1839-1841 he represented Nashua, N". H., in the Legislature, and, in one of the exciting political campaigns of that decade, he was the Whig candidate for Congress, falling a few votes short of the election. He was Judge of the Court of Common Pleas from 1851 to 1854, and of the Supreme Judicial Court from 1855 to 1859. Judge Sawyer declined an offer by President Pierce of the governorship of one of the Territories, and devoted himself, to with- in a few years, to an extensive law practice, being, in 1865, one of the commissioners that revised and codified the statute laws of the State. SCHEM, ALEXANDEE JACOB, a German- Amer- ican scholar, born in Wiedenbruck, Westpha- lia, March 16, 1826 ; died at West Hoboken, N. J., May 21, 1881. He studied theology and philology in the Universities of Bonn and Tu- bingen, and came to the United States in 1851. In 1854 he was appointed Professor of Ancient and Modern Languages in Dickinson College, Carlisle, Pa., but left this position in 1860 to devote himself entirely to literature. While in Carlisle, he edited, together with Rev. George R. Crooks, a Latin-English Dictionary (Phila- delphia, 1857). In 1860 he went to New York, where he received an appointment on the staff of the " New York Tribune." He was particu- larly noted for his encyclopedic and statistical labors, which he began in 1859 as a regular con- tributor to the "American Cyclopaedia," for which he furnished a large number of articles. He was also a regular contributor to the " An- nual Cyclopaedia " since the publication of the first volume in 1861, in the foreign and reli- gious departments. He also wrote a large num- ber of articles for McClintock and Strong's " Cyclopaedia of Theological, Biblical, and Ec- clesiastical Literature." He published the "American Ecclesiastical Year-Book (1860), and in 1868 and 1869 an "Ecclesiastical Al- manac," besides contributing to numerous other almanacs and year-books. In 1869 he severed his connection with the "Tribune," and as- sumed the editorial charge of the " Deutsch Amerikanisches Conversations-Lexicon," which was completed in 1874. He also published sev- eral editions of " Schem's Statistics of the World," a comparative statistical table similar to Hubner's Tables. In 1874 he was elected an assistant superintendent of public schools in New York city, which position he retained up to the time of his death. In this, as well as in his previous positions, he did much to promote among Americans a better understand- ing of German literature and science, and as assistant superintendent particularly, to pro- mote the study of the German language in the Eublic schools. Together with Henry Kiddle, e edited a " Cyclopaedia of Education " (New York, 1877), which was followed by two an- nual supplements under the title of "Year- Book of Education" (New York, 1878 and 1879). SMITH, IDA GEEELEY, born in New York city, 1850 ; died at Chappaqua, N. Y., 1882. 644 OBITUARIES, AMERICAN. OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. Mrs. Smith was the eldest daughter of the late Horace Greeley. She was educated at the Academy of the Sacred Heart, at Manhattan- ville, and at the age of eighteen graduated with high honors. During the campaign of 1872 she presided over her father's establish- ment with superior grace and dignity, enter- taining many of his most intimate friends. When Mr. Greeley's will was contested in De- cember, 1872, his daughter attended each sit- ting of the court, exciting much admiration by her refined manner and modest bearing. In May, 1875, she was married to Colonel Nicho- las Smith. It was to her that the late Corne- lius J. Vanderbilt paid the $50,000 borrowed of Mr. Greeley during the lifetime of Commo- dore Vanderbilt. SPOTTS, JAMES H., born at Fort Johnson, N. C., March 11, 1822; died, 1882, at Stanley, Falkland Islands. Rear-Admiral Spotts en- tered the naval service August 3, 1837, was promoted from midshipman to passed-midship- man in 1843, lieutenant in 1851, commander in 1862, and captain in 1866. His total sea-ser- vice was more than twenty-two years, and un- til the breaking out of the war the greater part of it was spent in the South Pacific squadron. He commanded the steamer Powhatan in both engagements with Fort Fisher, November, 1864, and January, 1865 ; in the engagement with Fort Anderson; and engagements along the banks of the Cape Fear River in the following month ; also, at the bombardment of the bat- teries above Dutch Gap, James River, in April of the same year. The late admiral's father was Major Spotts, the gallant officer who com- manded the Fourth Artillery in the battle of New Orleans in the War of 1812. WEBSTER, CAROLINE LE ROY, died in New York city, February 28, 1882, aged eighty-five years. Mrs. Webster's father, Jacob Le Roy, was a wealthy New-Yorker, well known in the city when its limits were less extended. She was in her youth a beautiful girl, intelli- gent and very attractive. In 1829 she was married to the distinguished Daniel Webster. Their nuptials were celebrated at a time ot great excitement, and full of special interest to Mr. Webster. Mrs. Webster was then in the prime of life, well informed and acquainted with national affairs, and was the confidante, companion, and honored counsel of her hus- band's most guarded thoughts. In his Wash- ington life, the wife of Daniel Webster par- ticipated to a marked degree, and, until the time of his death, she was the queen of society. Elegant in appearance, and blessed with a brill- iant mind, Mrs. Webster numbered among her visitors all the contemporaneous statesmen and diplomats of her husband's time. Her recep- tions were the most elegantly appointed events of^the national capital. Among the distin- guished guests who were always welcomed at her residence were Clay, Calhoun, Bulwer, Lord Ashburton, and Benton. During her travels in Europe, a few years after her mar- riage, she was received by nearly all the crowned heads, at one time being the specially invited guest of Queen Victoria. After the death of Daniel Webster, October 24, 1852, Mrs. Webster left Marshfield, Mass., where her husband breathed his last, and came to New York and resided. The loss of her husband was a severe blow to Mrs. Webster. She was a devoted wife, and had a deep appreciation of his superior in- tellectual qualifications. With the competence which she had in her own right, and the in- come from the annuity given her by the city of Boston, she was enabled to live in the mod- est and comfortable style that became the widow of an American statesman. She led a most secluded life, seldom appearing in public, but took great interest in everything pertain- ing to the memory of Mr. Webster. About twenty-five years before her death she was thrown from a carriage and received a serious injury, which at times seemed to obscure her memory of events, yet she would often relate lengthy incidents of her husband's life. Her last appearance in public was at the unveiling of the Webster statue in 1872, when she occu- pied a place of honor on the platform. OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. AINSWORTH, WILLIAM HARRISON, English novelist, died in London, January 3d, at the age of seventy- seven. His first book, " Sir John Cheverton," written in his youth while engaged to a law- yer, received the praise of Walter Scott, which incited him to adopt the profession of litera- ture. "Rookwood" (1834) and "Jack Shep- pard" (1839) enjoyed unbounded popularity. The latter was illustrated by Cruikshank in his finest vein, and was dramatized in eight differ- ent versions. The deeds of famous law-break- ers, which furnished the subject of these tales, did not afterward occupy Ainsworth's pen, because the robber school of romance, as it was called, was thought to have an immoral influence. Equally vivid pictures of old Eng- land, replete with antiquarian knowledge, were the later products of his industrious pen. AUERBACH, BERTHOLD, German novelist, died at Cannes, February 8th. That genial and prolific author was born, February 28, 1812, at Nordstetten, in Wurtemberg, and studied theology, history, and philosophy, becoming involved in the Burschenschaft movement, which led to his incarceration in 1836. While in prison he wrote "The Jews and Recent Literature," and soon afterward a philosoph- ical novel, " Spinoza " (1837). The finest prod- ucts of Auerbach's genius were objective pic- tures of the peasant-life of his native Black Forest, full of humor and pathos, as found in the " Dorf geschichten " and "Die Frau Pro- fesserin." His later works, " On the Heights " (1860), "DasLandhaus am Rhein," and " Wald- fried" were again more speculative and philo sopbical. Auerbach was an intensely patri- otic German, with a deep ethnic attachment to the Israelitish race from which he sprang; and the sudden wasting of his energy, in the OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. 645 midst of a vigorous old age, came from brood- ing over the antipathy to the Jews developed in the Fatherland. BLANO, CHARLES, French art critic, died Jan- uary 17th. He was born at Oastres in 1813. He learned engraving, but afterward devoted himself to art criticism. Except when drawn aside, through sympathy with his brother, Louis Blanc, into an attempt at political jour- nalism, his life was given up to the critical contemplation of art. His " History of Paint- ers " procured his appointment as Director of Fine Arts under the second republic. His "Grammar of the Arts of Design" is consid- ered the foundation of the scientific method of art criticism, and his popular writings on ar- chitecture and domestic decoration are classics of art literature. BUEKE, THOMAS HENRY, Under-Secretary for Ireland, was assassinated with the Chief Sec- retary in Phoenix Park, Dublin, May 6th. He was the son of an Irish gentleman who resided at Bruges, and was educated in Belgium and Germany. Born May 25, 1829, he received an appointment in Dublin Castle at an early age, and passed his life in the service of the Irish Ex- ecutive. He served as private secretary to three Chief Secretaries, and succeeded Sir Thomas Larcom as Under-Secretary in 1868. Although a Liberal, he was never displaced from office by the Conservatives. To the Irish Mr. Burke had early rendered himself obnoxious by his zaal in the Castle service. He was identified in the popular mind with many of the odious measures of the Government. He was haughty and reserved in demeanor, but among his own associates was a cheerful companion, and showed some very noble traits of character. CAVENDISH, Lord FREDERICK CHARLES, Chief Secretary to the Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, was murdered at Dublin, May 6th. He was the second son of the Duke of Devonshire, was born in 1836, was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and entered the public service as private secretary to Lord Granville, then Lord President of the Council, in 1859, retaining the post until 1864. In 1872 he served for a time as private secretary to Mr. Gladstone. He sat in Parliament as represent- ative for the West Biding of Yorkshire from 1865 to the day of his death. In 1873 he be- came a Lord of the Treasury, and when Glad- stone came into power again he was appointed Financial Secretary to the Treasury. When Forster resigned the Chief Secretaryship of Ireland on May 1, 1882, the office was given to Frederick Cavendish, after being first offered to Mr. Porter, Irish Solicitor-General. Two days after his appointment he was assassi- nated. He was industrious as a public officer, but seldom spoke in Parliament, except on education or some such subject in which he took a special interest. He showed consider- able ability in the Treasury. His amiable dis- position had made him many friends. CISSEY, ERNEST Louis COURTOT DE, French general and former Secretary of War, died at Paris June 16th. Born at Paris December 23, 1810, he was educated at the military school of St. Cyr, fought with distinction in Algeria, was made brigadier-general for gallantry at the battle of Inkerman, and commanded a di- vision in the Franco-Prussian War. He was chosen Secretary of War by Thiers on June 5, 1871, and labored energetically in reorganizing the system of national defense. He gave up his portfolio on May 30th, after the fall of Thiers, but was recalled May 22, 1874, upon the fall of the De Broglie ministry, and was reappointed after the retirement of the minis- ters upon the adoption of the republican con- stitution of February 25, 1875. He retained his portfolio in the Dufaure Cabinet, but was replaced by General Berthault upon the acces- sion of Jules Simon, December 13, 1876. In October, 1880, General De Cissey, who had been appointed a division commander, was cashiered in consequence of the discovery that a woman, with whom he was intimate, had obtained a knowledge of important secrets of the war office and communicated them to the German Government. DEOAISNE, JOSEPH, French botanist, died at Paris, February 8th. He was born at Brussels in 1807, and was brought to Paris with his widowed mother by his brother Henri, who had won fame as a painter. He went into the Museum of Natural History in 1824 as a simple gardener. After eight years of rude labor his aptitude and assiduity opened the way of pro- motion. He robbed himself almost entirely of sleep to acquire the botanical knowledge neces- sary in the positions he was called upon to fill. His reports on the new plants brought to the gardens gave him a place in the first rank of descriptive botanists. Original researches in vegetable anatomy and physiology extended his reputation. His studies on madder, the beet-root, ramie, the potato-rot, etc., were inspired by the desire of rendering useful ser- vices common among French scientists. De- caisne was appointed Professor of Culture to the Museum in 1851, and superintended the works until his death. Besides preparing the annual volumes on botany in the " Annals of the Natural Sciences," and voluminous publi- cations on his investigations in horticulture and the botany of fruit-trees, he wrote, with the aid of Le Maout, the "Systematic Treatise on Botany," which is as well known in America as in France. DRAKE, FRIEDRICH, German sculptor, died in Berlin, April 6th. He was born in Pyrmont in 1805, and commenced life as a mechanical en- gineer. An amateur carving, which fell into the hands of a dealer, was sold at a price which encouraged him to follow his artistic bent. He entered the studio of the famous Rauch, and was soon able to assist his master in all his works. His first work was a Madonna statue, which was followed by a dying warrior and a maid dressing vines. His statues of Goethe, 646 OBITUARIES, FOREIGN. Schiller, Rauch, Schinkel, and the Humboldts, spread his fame. He executed a number of monumental works in Berlin and other cities, among them two statues of Friedrich Wilhelm IV ; an equestrian statue of the present Em- peror, in Cologne; the groups on the Castle Bridge, in Berlin; the gigantic Victoria, on the triumphal column, at Berlin ; and many others, besides a long catalogue of minor pieces. DUCROT, AUGUST ALEXANDRE, one of the most distinguished officers of the French army, who was second to none in the energy and abil- ity with which he resisted the German invasion of 1870-'71, died at Versailles, August 16th. He commanded the First Corps, and, after the wounding of MacMahon, was provisionally in command of the entire army, until relieved by his senior, General Wimpffen. Escaping from the Germans after being taken prisoner at Se- dan, he made resolute and ingenious attempts to break the lines of the army which invested Paris. In the sortie of the Second Army of Paris on the southeast of Champigny, and in the last " supreme effort," at Montretout-Buzenval, on the east, the success of Ducrot was not equal to his merit. It was not through lack of bravery or devotion that his oath to return either dead or victorious from Champigny was not fulfilled. General Ducrot was born February 27, 1817, at Nevers, passed through the academy at St. Cyr, and received a commission in 1840. In the course of eighteen years he mounted to the grade of brigadier-general. He fought with distinction in the war of 1859 on the plains of Loinbardy. He served in Africa as general of division, and at the outbreak of the Prussian War was commandant in Strasburg. General Ducrot was falsely accused of breaking his pa- role and taking up arms after the capitulation of Sedan. DUPRE, GIOVANNI, the chief of Italian sculp- tors, died at Florence, January 8th. He was born March 1, 1817. His father, a wood-carver, was the son of a family which came with fallen fortunes from Lorraine. Giovanni learned the same trade. He practiced modeling in the stu- dio of a benevolent sculptor, and found patrons who enabled him to execute his first works. Dupre was a realist, but nobler in his concep- tions than any other modern follower of this tendency in sculpture. Among the best of his numerous productions are a " Pietd " in Sienna, a " Statue of Giotto " in the Uffizi at Florence, the " Triumph of the Cross " in the Church of Santa Croce, etc. GREY, Sir GEORGE, English statesman, died September 9th. His father, the first baronet, was the brother of Earl Grey, the Reform Min- ister. Sir George succeeded to the title in 1828. He was born at Gibraltar, May 11, 1799, took high honors at Oxford, and was called to the bar in 1826. He entered Parliament in 1832, and was made Under-Secretary for the Colonies in 1834, Judge- Advocate in 1839, and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in 1841. He advocated arbitrary measures in the Irish, Canadian, and Jamaican difficulties, but ad- vanced liberal views on certain Irish questions when in opposition. In the Cabinet of Lord John Russell he was Home Secretary, and in- troduced the harsh repressive measures adopt- ed during the Chartist and Irish agitations of 1848. In the Palmerston Government he again received the position of Home Secretary, and in 1866 the habeas corpus act was again suspended in Ireland at his proposal. He held no office during Gladstone's first ministry, and after its defeat retired from public life. KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE, Russian general, died May 14th. He was born in 1818. He rose rapidly in the army, and attained distinction in the Crimean War. After the war he was commissioned to arrange a plan, conjointly with General Miliutin, for the reorganization of the Russian army. He occupied the post of Governor of Lithuania for ten years, and was then appointed Governor of Turkistan. In Asia he extended the dominion of Russia, an- nexing successively Bokhara and Khiva, then Khokand in 1875, and was preparing to estab- lish quietly a Russian protectorate in Afghan- istan, when the resistance of the English, who made war upon his ally, Shere Ali, and the change in the political situation, led the Rus- sian Government to abandon their designs, and eventually recall the able and energetic general who had done so much to extend the power of the White Czar in Central Asia. LANZA, Signer, Italian statesman, died at Rome, March 9th. He was born in Piedmont in 1819. In 1848 he was chosen President of the Sardinian Chamber. He had been Minister many times in Italy, usually presiding over the Finance Department, but sometimes over that of Public Instruction. In 1866 he resigned his portfolio, and was chosen President of the Chamber in 1867. In 1870 he undertook to form a ministry, and being unable, took office under Sella, as Minister of the Interior. He retired in 1873, but continued to sit in the Chamber. LESLIE, THOMAS EDWARD CLIFFE, British political economist, died January 27th, aged fifty-five years. He was born in Ireland, the son of a clergyman of Scotch extraction, and was called to the English bar after studying at Trinity College, Dublin, and at LincolnVInn, London; but, turning his attention to litera- ture, he became a contributor to the quarter- lies, and received the appointment of Professor of Jurisprudence and Political Economy in the Queen's College, Belfast, a position which he filled for twenty-five years. Cliffe Leslie was the pioneer in England of the historical or inductive method as applied to political econ- omy. His criticisms call in question the uni- versality and value of the current maxims of the theoretical economists. Among his chief works are "Land Systems and Industrial Economy of Ireland, England, and Continent- al Countries" (1870), and a volume of essays on "Political and Moral Philosophy" (1879). OBITUAKIES, FOREIGN". 647 He was preparing a systematic treatise on economics, but lost his notes in 1872, and was not able to complete the work before his death. MANTEUFFEL, Baron OTHO THEODOE VON, Prussian statesman, died November 27th. He was born February 3, 1805. After studying at Halle, he entered the public service in 1827. He rose through various civil and diplomatic positions to he Minister of the Interior under Count Brandenburg, in 1848, and took a con- spicuous part in the suppression of the revolu- tion. During the reactionary period of the '50's Manteuffel was prominent in the coun- cils of the state. As director of the foreign policy he humbled his country before Eussia and Austria, but assumed a firmer tone in the peace negotiations at Paris in 1856. The re- actionary policy was cut short, and Baron Manteuffel permanently excluded from public affairs, upon the assumption of the regency by the present Emperor, in 1858. OSBORNE, BERNAL, English politician, died January 4th. Descended from a family of He- brew merchants, his father was Ralph Bernal. The son took the name of Osborne upon his marriage with an Irish heiress of that name. He was Secretary to the Admiralty under the Administration of Lord Aberdeen and under Lord Palmerston, until he lost his seat as member for Middlesex. Bernal Osborne was the Liberal wit of the House of Commons, but sometimes directed his sarcasms against his own party. PALMER, Professor, an English Oriental scholar, was killed by Arabs, together with two officers, while visiting the tribes of the desert near Suez in quest of military information. He was born at Cambridge in 1840. He com- menced life as a clerk in London, but had al- ready begun the study of Arabic. After sev- eral years he abandoned commerce and stud- ied at Cambridge University. He received the professorship of Arabic. He made several ad- venturous journeys in the East. In the last ten years of his life he published dictionaries of Arabic and Persian, grammars of various lan- guages, a translation of the New Testament into Persian and of the Koran into English, and many other works. RAFF, JOACHIM, a prolific Swiss composer; died at Frankfort, June 25th. Born at Lachen, in Switzerland, May 27, 1824, he commenced life as a school-teacher, but embraced the mu- sical profession on the strength of the favor- able comments elicited from famous musicians hy his first compositions. Although an advo- cate of the new school of music, which he de- fended in an able pamphlet on "The "Wagner Question," he cultivated various styles and classes of music, with an eye to immediate suc- cess and popularity. He was a successful song- writer, less successful in his three operas, hut a masterly composer of instrumental music of a high order, his chief productions being the symphony " Im Walde " and his celebrated " Leonora " symphony. ROSSETTI, DANTE GABRIEL, painter and poet ; died April 9th, at the age of fifty-four. He was the son of a noted Italian poet, who came to England as a political refugee. He became one of the most conspicuous representatives of the pre-Raphaelite school in art. He was a supremely gifted colorist, and as a delineator of female beauty he realized a type which con- trasted strikingly with the conventional Aca- demic prettiness. As a poet he employed lan- guage and rhythm to convey artistic impres- sions, and was the most typical and masterly of the modern sensuous school of English poets. The so-called aesthetic movement received its impulse and direction principally from the gen- ius of Dante Rossetti. RUSSEL, SCOTT, English engineer ; died June 8th, in the Isle of Wight, at the age of seventy- four. He was the son of a Scottish clergyman, and was destined for the Church, but was al- lowed to enter a workshop and follow his me- chanical taste. He afterward studied in Edin- burgh University, and when only twenty-four years old filled provisionally the chair of Natural Philosophy. He began at this time researches into the nature of waves, with a view to im- prove the models of vessels. He discovered the wave of translation and developed the wave-line system of naval architecture. He was placed at the head of the great ship-yards at Greenock to introduce this system of instruction. In his own works on the Thames he built other ves- sels on the new system, among them the Great Eastern, in which another improvement of his invention, the longitudinal double-skin princi- ple, was applied. Scott Russel was one of the first advocates of iron-clad war -vessels, and designed some of the first ironclads built for the British Government. His last work in naval architecture was the steamer to trans- port railroad - trains across the Lake of Con- stance. He planned important works in civil engineering, among them the dome for the Vienna Exhibition of 1873, a new high-level bridge across the Thames at London, etc. SCHWANN, THEODOR, German scientist; died at Liege, in January. He was born at Neuss, near Dusseldorf, December 7, 1810. He was as- sistant to Johannes Mtlller in the Anatomical Museum in Berlin from 1834 to 1839, then Pro- fessor of Anatomy at Louvain, and since 1848 at Lie"ge. Schwann was the author of the cell- theory, which was announced in 1839, and marks an epoch in biological science. THOMSON, Sir CHARLES WYVILLE, English scientist ; died March 10th. at the age of fifty- one years. He was the son of a surgeon, and was educated at Edinburgh University. He filled professorships in the Universities of Aber- deen, Cork, and Belfast. In 1867-'69 he took part in dredging expeditions of the Porcupine and Lightning, in 1870 took the chair of Pro- fessor of Natural History at Edinburgh, and in 1872 took charge of the scientific department of the Challenger expedition. He finished the first volume of the report of the three years' 648 OBLIGATION OF CONTRACTS. expedition in 1877, and published also a trea- tise on the " Depth of the Sea," besides numer- ous contributions to scientific journals. OBLIGATION OF CONTRACTS. That clause of the Federal Constitution which pro- hibits the States from passing any law impair- ing the obligation of a contract was elaborately considered by the Supreme Court of the United States in two important cases, decided early in 1883. In each case State legislation, relating to State bonds, was under review. One suit was brought by a holder of Virginia bonds, and the other by creditors of Louisiana. In each case the decision was in favor of the State.^ The opinions of the Court are of exceptional' interest and importance, as an exposition of the constitutional powers of the States in deal- ing with their creditors. THE VIRGINIA CASE.— In 1871 the principal of the State debt of Virginia, with its overdue and unpaid interest, amounted to more than $45,000,000. The principal of this indebted- ness had been incurred by the construction of various public works prior to the civil war. It was claimed that one third of this burden was to be borne by West Virginia, and this liability was recognized by the latter State in its first Constitution, adopted in 1863; but nothing was done by its Legislature toward making any provision for the payment of the debt. In 1871 Virginia undertook to make a settlement with its creditors, and for that pur- pose passed " an act to provide for the fund- ing and payment of the public debt." After reciting that two thirds of the debt was the just proportion of Virginia, the act provided that the owners of the bonds, stocks, or inter- est-certificates of the State, with some excep- tions, might fund two thirds of the amount of the same, together with two thirds of the in- terest due, in six per cent coupon or registered bonds of the State, having thirty-four years to run, but redeemable at the pleasure of the State after ten years, the bonds payable to order or bearer, and the coupons to bearer, at the Treasury of the State. The statute then declared that "the coupons shall be payable semi-annually, and be receivable at and after maturity for all taxes, debts, dues, and de- mands due the State, which - shall be so ex- pressed on their face ; and the bonds shall bear on their face a declaration to the effect that the redemption thereof is secured by a sink- ing fund provided for by the law under which they are issued." For the remaining third of the amount of the bonds thus funded, the act provided that certificates should be issued to the creditors, setting forth the amount, with the interest thereon ; and that their payment should be provided for ;.n accordance with such settlement as might subsequently be made between the two States, and that Virginia would hold the surrendered bonds, so far p& they were not funded, in trust for the holder or his assignees. A large number of creditors accepted these terms, surrendered their old bonds, and took new ones, with interest coupons annexed, for two thirds of their amount, and certificates for the balance. The amount of bonds sur- rendered was about thirty million dollars, for which new bonds, amounting to twenty mill- ion dollars, were issued. When the act of 1871 was passed, and when the interchange of bonds was made in conformity with its pro- visions, the law of Virginia afforded the hold- ers of the new bonds the remedy of .a manda- mus from the Supreme Court of Appeals, to compel collectors to accept the coupons in pay- ment of taxes. Such was the law governing the rights and the remedies of the holders of these bonds and coupons, when, on January 14, 1882, was passed "an act to prevent frauds upon the Commonwealth, and the holders of her securi- ties, in the collection and disbursement of rev- enues." After reciting that forged and spuri- ous bonds and coupons were in existence, the act provides that the officer to whom coupons, issued under the act of 1871, are tendered in payment of taxes, debts, or demands due the State, " shall receive the same, giving the party tendering a receipt, stating that he has received the same for the purpose of identification and verification." The second section provides that " he shall at the same time require such tax- payer to pay his taxes in coin, legal-tender notes, or national bank bills, and, upon pay- ment, give him a receipt for the same. In case of refusal to pay, the taxes due shall be collected as all other delinquent taxes are col- lected." Section 3 is as follows: He shall mark each paper as coupons so received, •with the initials of the tax-payer from -whom received, and the date of receipt, and shall deliver the same, securely scaled up, to the judge of the county court of the county or Tiustings court of the city in which such taxes, debts, or demands are payable. The tax- payer shall thereupon be at liberty to file his petition in said county court against the Commonwealth. A summons to answer which petition shall be served on the Commonwealth's attorney, who shall appear and defend the same. The petition shall allege that he has tendered certain coupons in payment of his taxes, debts, and demands, and pray that a jury be impan- eled to try whether they arc genuine, legal coupons, which are legally receivable for taxes, debts, and de- mands. Upon this petition an issue shall be made in behalf of the Commonwealth, which shall be tried by a jury, and either party shall have a right to excep- tions on the trial, and of appeal to the Circuit Court and Court of Appeals. If it be finally decided in fa- vor of the petitioner that the coupons tendered by him are genuine, legal coupons, which are legally receivable for taxes and so forth, then the judgment of the court shall be certified to the Treasurer, who, upon the receipt thereof, shall receive said coupons for taxes, and shall refund the money before then paid for his taxes by the tax-payer out of the first money in the Treasury, in preference to all other claims. Section 4 provides that whenever any tax- payer shall apply to any court for a mandamus to compel a collector to receive the coupons for taxes, it shall be the duty of the collector to make return to the mandamus that he "is OBLIGATION" OF CONTRACTS. 649 ready to receive said coupons in payment of such taxes, debts, and demands, as soon as they have been legally ascertained to be genu- ine." The act then prescribes the legal pro- cedure by which the issue of genuineness is to be joined and decided. The question raised by this legislation was whether the act of January, 1882, was in vio- lation of that clause of the Federal Constitu- tion which declares that no State shall pass any "law impairing the obligation of contracts." It was raised by Andrew Antoui, who, in March, 1882, tendered to Samuel 0. Greenhow, treasurer of the city of Richmond, a coupon of the issue of 1871 for $3.00, in payment of taxes. The tender was refused, whereupon Antoni applied to the Supreme Court of Appeals for a mandamus to compel its acceptance. The Treas- urer answered that under the law of January, 1882, he could not receive the coupon until its genuineness was established as prescribed by that law. To this return a demurrer was filed. The four judges of the Supreme Court of Ap- peals divided equally on the question of the constitutionality of the law of January, 1882. The mandamus was accordingly denied, and an appeal was taken to the United States Su- preme Court. The opinion of that court, up- holding the constitutionality of the act, was delivered by Chief-Justice Waite, in March, 1883. Elaborate dissenting opinions were ren- dered by Justices Field and Harlan. Justice Matthews concurred in the judgment of the majority, but dissented from the grounds on which it was based. The Chief- Justice pointed out that the Supreme Court of Appeals of Vir- ginia had held in two or three cases that in issuing the bonds of 1871 the State had entered into a valid contract with all persons taking the coupons to receive them in payment of taxes and State dues. The same principle was affirmed by the United States Supreme Court in the case of Hartman vs. Greenhow, de- cided at the October term, 1880, and reported in 102 United States Reports. "Any act of the State," says Chief-Justice Waite, " which forbids the receipt of these coupons for taxes is a violation of the contract, and void as against coupon holders." But the question here is, continues the opin- ion, whether the act of 1882 violates any im- plied obligation of the State in respect to the remedies that may be employed for the enforce- ment of its contract, if the collector refuses to take them. It can not be denied that, as a gen- eral rule, laws applicable to the case, which are in force at the time and place of making a contract, enter into and form part of the con- tract itself, and that this embraces alike those laws which affect its validity, construction, dis- charge, and enforcement. But it is equally well settled that changes in the forms of action and modes of proceeding do not amount to an impairment of the obligations of a contract, if an adequate and efficacious remedy is left. As the Supreme Court said in the case of Von Hoffman vs. Quincy (4 Wallace's Reports, 553), " it is competent for the States to change the form of the remedy, or to modify it other- wise, as they may see fit, provided no substan- tial right secured by the contract is thereby impaired. No attempt has been made to fix definitely the line between alterations of the remedy, which are to be deemed legitimate, and those which, under the form of modifying the remedy, impair substantial rights. Every case must be determined upon its own circum- stances. Whenever the result last mentioned is produced, the act is within the prohibition of the Constitution, and to that extent void." In all such cases the question becomes, there- fore, one of reasonableness, and of that the Legislature is primarily the judge. The Court ought never to overrule the decision of the Leg- islature unless a palpable error has been com- mitted. If a state of facts could exist that would justify the change in a remedy which has been made, the Court must presume it did exist, and that the law was passed on that ac- count. The Court has nothing to do with the motives of the Legislature, if what they do is within the scope of their powers under the Constitution. The right of the coupon-holder, continued the Court, is to have his coupon received for taxes when offered. The question here is not as to that right, but as to the remedy the hold- er has for its enforcement when denied. After comparing the old with the new remedy, the Chief-Justice said : The following changes are thus made in the old remedy : 1. The taxes actually due must be paid in money before the court can proceed, after the collector has signified in the proper way his willingness to re- ceive the coupons, if they are genuine and in law re- ceivable ; 2. The coupons must be filed in the Court of Appeals ; and, 3. They must be sent to the local court to have the fact of their genuineness and re- ceivability determined, subject to an appeal to the Circuit Court and the Supreme Court of Appeals. As the suit is for a mandamus, all the provisions of the general law regulating the practice not inconsistent with the new law remain, and, if the petitioner suc- ceeds in getting his peremptory Avrit, he will recover his costs. No Issues are required that it would not have been in the power of the collector to raise before the change was made, and there is no additional bur- den of proof imposed to meet the issues, so that the simple question is, whether the requirement of the advance of the taxes and the change of the place and manner of trial impair the obligation of the contract on the part of the State to furnish an adequate and efficacious remedy to compel a tax-collector to receive the coupons in payment of taxes, in case he will not do it without compulsion. The Court then proceeded to show that the change of remedy was not such as, in its opin- ion, was sufficient to impair the obligation of the contract. " The primary obligation^of the State," it said, " is for the payment of the cou- pons. All else is simply as a means to that end. It matters not whether the coupons have been refused for the taxes, if full payment of the amount they call for is actually made in money. A remedy, therefore, which is ample for the enforcement of the payment of the 650 OBLIGATION OF CONTRACTS. money, is ample for all the purposes of the contract. That, we think, is given by the act of 1882 in both forms of proceeding." The Court concluded as follows : In conclusion, we repeat that the question presented by this record is not whether the tax-collector is bound in law to receive the coupon, notwithstanding the leg- islation which, on its lace, prohibits him from doing so, nor whether, if he refuses to take the coupon and proceeds with the collection of the tax by force, he can be made personally responsible in damages for what he does, but whether the obligation of the contract has been impaired by the changes which have been made in the remedies for its enforcement in case he refuses to accept the coupon. We decide only the question which is actually before us. It is no doubt true that the commercial value of the bonds and coupons has been impaired by the hostile legislation of the State, but this impairment, in our opinion, comes not from the change of the remedies, put from the refusal to accept the coupons without suit. What we are called upon to consider in this case is not the refusal to take the coupons, but the remedy after refusal. Inasmuch as we are satisfied that a remedy is given by the act of 1882, substantially equivalent to that in force when the coupons were issued, we have not deemed it necessary to consider Avhat would be the effect of a statute taking away all remedies. Justice Field began his dissenting opinion by saying that the legislation of Virginia of 1882, which was sustained by the Court, appeared to him to be " in flagrant violation of the con- tract with her creditors under the act of March 30, 1871, commonly known as the funding act; and that the doctrines advanced by the Court, though not so intended, do, in fact, license any disregard of her obligations which the ill-ad- vised policy of her legislators may suggest." The clause of the Constitution, he continued, which declares that no State shall pass any law impairing the obligation of contracts, pro- hibits legislation thus affecting contracts be- tween the State and individuals equally as it does contracts between individuals. What, then, was the obligation of the contract en- tered into between Virginia and her creditors under the funding act of 1871, so far as the in- terest coupons are concerned ? The contract is, that she will pay the amount of the coupon, and that it shall, at and after maturity, be re- ceivable for taxes, dues, and demands of the State. And by its receivability is meant that it is to be taken by officers whom the State may authorize to receive money for its dues whenever tendered them. By the obligation of a contract is meant the means which the law affords for its execution, the means by which it could at the time it was made be en- forced. Justice Field then said : The receivability of the coupon, under the funding act of 1871, for taxes, dues, and demands, gave to it, as already said, its principal value. At that time there was provided in the system of procedure of the State a remedy for the specific execution of the contract, by which this receivability could be enforced. The legis- lation of January 14 and April 7, 1882, deprives the holder of the coupon of this remedy, and in lieu of it gives him the barren privilege, after paying the taxes, of suing in a local court to test before a jury the genu- ineness of the coupon and its legal receivability for them, and, in case he establishes these facts, of having a judgment to that effect certified to the Treasurer of the Commonwealth, and the amount paid refunded out of money in the Treasury, if there be any. To recover this judgment, he must pay the costs of the proceed- ing, including the fees of witnesses and jurors, and of the clerk, sheriff, and other officers of the court. This is a most palpable and flagrant impairment of the obligation of the contract. No legislation more de- structive of all value to the contract is conceivable, unless it should absolutely and in terms repudiate the coupon as a contract at all. It is practical repudiation. In Bronson vs. Kinzie this court, speaking by Chief- Justice Taney, said : u It is difficult, perhaps, to draw a line that would be applicable in all cases between legitimate alterations of the remedy and provisions which, in the form of remedy, impair the right. But it is manifest that the obligation of a contract, and the rights of a party under it, may, in effect, be destroyed by denying a remedy altogether, or may be seriously impaired by burdening the proceedings with new con- ditions and restrictions, so as to make the remedy hardly worth pursuing. And no one, we presume, would say that there is any substantial difference be- tween a retrospective law, declaring a particular con- tract or class of contracts to be abrogated and void, and one which took away all remedy to enforce them, or encumbered it with conditions that rendered it use- less or impracticable to pursue it." (1 How.. 317.) In Planters' Bank t-s. Sharp this court said : " One of the tests that a contract has been impaired is, that its value has by legislation been diminished. It is not, by the Constitution, to be impaired at all. This is not a question of degree or manner or cause, but of encroaching in any respect on its obligation, dispens- ing with any part of its force." (6 How., 327.) In Murray m. Charleston the court cited with ap- proval the language of a previous decision to the effect that a law which alters the terms of a contract by im- posing new conditions, or dispensing with those ex- pressed, impairs its obligation ; and added, speaking by Mr. Justice Strong, who recently occupied a seat on this bench, that " it is one of ^the highest duties of this court to take care the prohibition [against the im- pairment of contracts] shall neither be evaded nor frit- tered away. Complete effect must be given to it in all its spirit." (96 U. S., 448.) In Edwards vs. Kearzey this court said, speaking by Mr. Justice Swayne. so lately one of our number : " The remedy subsisting in a State when and where a contract is made and is to be performed is a part of its obligation, and any subsequent law of the State which so affects that remedy as substantially to im- pair and lessen the value of the contract is forbidden by the Constitution, and is therefore void." (96 U. S., 607.) And only two terms ago, in the case of Louisiana vs. New Orleans, this court said, without a dissenting voice, that u the obligation of a contract, in the con- stitutional sense, is the means provided by law by which it can be enforced, by which the parties can be obliged to perform it. Whatever legislation lessens the efficacy of these means impairs the obligation. If it tend to postpone or retard the enforcement of the contract, the obligation of the latter is to that extent weakened." (102 U. S.t 206.) How can it be maintained, in the face of these de- cisions, that the legislation of January 14 and April 7, 1882, does not impair the obligation of the contract under the funding act? It annuls the present re- ceivability of the coupon ; it substitutes for the spe- cific execution of the contract a protracted litigation, and, when the genuineness of the coupon and its le- gal receivability for taxes are judicially established, its payment is made dependent upon the existence of money in the Treasury of the State. If the language of the act, declaring that, when the genuineness of the coupon and its receivability for taxes are established, the taxes paid by its holder shall be refunded out of the first money in the Treasury in preference to other , claims, be deemed a sufficient appropriation to au- OBLIGATION OF CONTRACTS. 651 thorize the Treasurer to pay out the money, contrary to what has just been decided with respect to lan- guage much more expressive in the legislation of Louisiana, of what avail can it be to the owner of the coupon if the Treasurer refuse to refund the amount 2 There is no mode, according to the opinion of the majority, of coercing his action. No mandamus can issue, tor that remedy and all compulsory process have been abolished. Besides all this, as the coupons are mostly for small amounts, the costs of the suits to test their genuine- ness and receivability for taxes would be more than their value. Practically, the law destroys the coupons, and it was evidently intended to have that effect. . . . That there is any adequate and efficacious remedy substituted for the one in existence when the funding act was adopted, can not, it seems to me, be seriously affirmed. The remedy originally existing was effect- ive. No officer could refuse to receive the coupon without subjecting himself to personal liability. Af- ter a tender' no valid sale could be made for the taxes. And the creditor could invoke the compulsory process of the courts to secure a specific performance. Now all is changed. A law which practically destroys the value of the coupon is sustained. The officer is not bound to receive it, in the sense that he can not be compelled to take it. He can enforce the payment of taxes in money ; he can sell property, if necessary, to collect them ; he can wholly ignore the coupon, unless the holder should foolishly consent to incur double the amount in costs to establish by a jury trial its genuineness and legal receivability for taxes. Justice Field concluded his dissenting opin- ion in these words: "I find myself bewildered by the opinion of the majority of the court. I confess that I can not comprehend it, so for- eign does it appear to be from what I have heretofore supposed to be established and set- tled law. And I fear that it will be appealed to as an excuse, if not justification, for legis- lation amounting practically to the repudiation of the obligations of States, and of their sub- ordinate municipalities — their cities and coun- ties. It will only be necessary to insert in their statutes a false recital of the existence of forged and spurious bonds and coupons, as a plausible pretext for such legislation, and their schemes of plunder will be accomplished. No greater calamity could, in my judgment, befall the country than the general adoption of the doc- trine that it is not a constitutional impairment of the obligation of contracts to embarrass their enforcement with onerous and destruc- tive conditions, and thus to evade the per- formance of them." Justice Harlan said, in his dissenting opin- ion, that " if the act of January 14, 1882, be upheld in its application to bonds issued under the act of 1871, it is difficult to perceive that the constitutional inhibition upon laws impair- ing the obligation of contracts is of the slight- est practical value for the preservation of the rights of those dealing with States. Indeed, the act of January 14, 1882, in its necessary operation, as directly and effectually impairs the commercial value of the bonds and coupons issued under the funding act as would a statute which repudiated the bonds outright, and for- bade the receipt of their coupons, under any circumstances, for taxes, debts, or demands due Virginia." After explaining that the judgment of the Court was based on the ground that the obli- gation of the contract was not impaired by the changes made by the act of January 14, 1882, in the remedies for its enforcement, Justice Harlan proceeded : Here is the radical difference between the majority of my brethren and myself. To my mind— I say it with all respect for my associates who have reached a different conclusion — it is so entirely clear that the change in the remedies has impaired both the obliga- tion and value of the contract, that I almost despair of making it clearer by argument or illustration. Under the contract the tax-payer, it is conceded, is entitled to have his coupon received for his taxes when tendered ; while under the statute of January 14, 1882, the collector is forbidden to so receive it ; and the tax-payer, in order to protect his property against levy or distraint, and relieve it from the en- cumbrance created by the assessment of taxes, must pay his taxes in money, and then, if he wishes to get his money back, prove to the satisfaction of twelve jurymen the genuineness and legal receivability of his coupons. Under the cqntract, and the laws in force when it was made, the tax-payer is entitled, in the first in- stance, to enforce the receipt of his coupons for taxes by mandamus, the sole remedy then given to effect that result ; while under the subsequent legislation he is denied the right to a mandamus until he first pays his taxes in money, and then proves to the sat- isfaction of twelve jurymen that they are genuine coupons, and legally receivable for taxes. Under the contract and the laws in force when it was made, the tax-collector was not bound to resist an application for mandamus, and it is not to be pre- sumed that he would do so unless he doubted the genuineness of the coupons tendered in payment of taxes ; if, however, he did so, he became liable to pay the costs incurred by the tax-payer, when the latter succeeded ; while under the act of January 14, 1882, all discretion is taken from the collector, and he is required, although he may know t?te coupons to bs genuine and legally receivable for taxes, to decline receiving them for taxes until the tax-payer, having first paid his taxes in money, shall prove them, to the satisfaction of twelve jurymen, to be genuine. And the remedy thus given by the statutes, passed after the contract was made, for the enforcement of the tax-payer's admitted right to have his coupon re- ceived for taxes, when offered, is pronouncea to be adequate and efficacious, and not an impairment ot the substantial rights given by the contract. My brethren — distinctly admitting that the legislation of 1882 is in hostility to the State's creditors, and has impaired the commercial value both of the bonds and their coupons — in effect, hold that such legislation does not burden the proceedings for the enforcement of the contract with any new conditions or restrictions inconsistent with, or which impair, its obligations. I can not assent to such conclusion, believing, as I do, not only that it is in direct conflict with every ad- judged case cited, either by the court or by my brother Field, but that the new remedy is adequate and efficacious, not for the preservation and enforce- ment, but the destruction of the contract. The hold- ers of the bonds and coupons are placed by the legis- lation of 1882 in the position where it is useless and impracticable to pursue the remedies thereby given. have "deemed it impossible that any different view could be entertained. Justice Harlan concluded his opinion as fol- lows: Finally came the enactments of 1882, which have so changed the remedies existing when bonds were issued under the act of 1871 that tax-payers, holding 652 OBLIGATION OF CONTRACTS. coupons of such bonds, can not use them in payment of taxes without expending more money to enforce compliance with their contract than the coupons are worth. I can not agree that the courts of the Union are powerless against State legislation, which is so mani- festly designed to destroy contract rights protected by the Constitution of the United States. Without stopping to speculate upon the disastrous consequences which would result both to the business interests and to the honor of the country if all the States should enact statutes similar to those passed by Virginia, I suin up what has been so imperfectly said by me : If, as is conceded, Antoni is entitled by the contract to have his coupon received in payment of taxes, when offered for that purpose,, and if, as is also conceded in the opinion of the majority, he was en- titled, by the laws in force when the contract was made, to the remedy of mandamus to compel the tax- collector to receive his coupons and discharge pro tanto his taxes, it is clear that the subsequent statute does impair the obligation of the contract, by impos- ing new and burdensome conditions, which not only prohibit the collector from receiving coupons in pay- ment of taxes when offered, but require the tax-payer to pay his taxes in money, not to be returned to him unless, upon the occasion of each tender of coupons, he submits (without the possibility of recovering his costs of suit) to a jury trial, and proves to the satis- faction of twelve jurymen that the coupons tendered are genuine, and legally receivable for taxes. A separate opinion was also written by Jus- tice Matthews, who concurred in the judgment of the Court, but not in the grounds on which the Court rested its decision. He agreed that the State of Virginia, by the act of 1871, en- tered into a valid contract with the holders of its bonds to receive their coupons in payment of taxes ; and that any subsequent statute which denies this right is a breach of its contract and a violation of the Constitution of the United States. But for a breach of its contract by a State, no remedy is provided by the Consti- tution of the United States against the State itself; and a suit to compel the officers of a State to do the acts which constitute a perform- ance of its contract by the State, is a suit against the State itself. If the State furnishes a reme- dy by process against itself or its officers, that process may be pursued because it has con- sented to submit itself to that extent to the jurisdiction of the courts ; but if it chooses to withdraw its consent by a repeal of all reme- dies, it is restored to the immunity from suit, which belongs to it as a political community, responsible in that particular to no superior. Justices Bradley and Gray concurred in the judgment on both grounds : that stated in the opinion of the court delivered by the Chief- Justice, and that presented by Justice Mat- thews. THE LOUISIANA CASE. — In 1874 the Legisla- ture of Louisiana passed an act providing for an issue of bonds for the purpose of consoli- dating and reducing the floating and bonded debts of the State. The bonds were payable to bearer forty years from January 1, 1874, and bore interest at the rate of seven per cent per annum, payable semi-annually. The Gov- ernor, Lieutenant-Governor, Auditor, Treas- urer, Secretary of State, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and a person to be elected by these officers as a fiscal agent of the State, were created a Board of Liquidation, with power to issue the bonds and exchange them for all valid outstanding bonds and certain war- rants on the Treasury, at the rate of sixty cents in the new bonds for one dollar of old bonds and warrants. The act then provided for an annual tax levy of five and one half mills for the purpose of paying the principal and interest on the bonds, and declared that " the revenue de- rived therefrom is hereby set apart and appro- priated for that purpose and no other." It was made a felony, punishable by imprisonment for not more than ten nor less than two years, for the fiscal agent, or any officer of the State, or Board of Liquidation, to divert the fund from its legitimate channel. The act further declared that " the interest tax aforesaid shall be a continuing annual tax until the said con- solidated bonds shall be paid or redeemed, prin- cipal and interest ; and the said appropriation shall be a continuing annual appropriation during the same period, and this levy and ap- propriation shall authorize and make it the duty of the Auditor and Treasurer, and the said board, respectively, to collect said tax annually, and pay said interest, and redeem said bonds, until the same shall be fully dis- charged." By other sections it was provided that any judge, tax-collector, or any other officer of the State, obstructing tKe execution of the act, or failing to perform his official duty, should be guilty of a misdemeanor ; that each provision of the act should be a contract between the State and every holder of the con- solidated bonds ; that the tax-collectors should not pay over any moneys collected by them to any other person than the State Treasurer ; and that no court or any judge should have power to enjoin the payment of principal or interest of nny of the bonds, or the collection of the special tax therefor. Immediately after the passage of the act the following amendment to the Con- stitution was adopted : The issue of consolidated bonds authorized by the General Assembly of the State, at its regular session in the year 1874, is hereby declared to create a valid contract between the State and each and every holder of said bonds, which the State shall by no means and in no wise impair. The said bonds shall be a valid obligation of the State in favor of any holder thereof, and "no court shall enjoin the payment of the principal or interest thereof, or the levy and collection of the tax therefor ; to secure such levy, collection, and payment, the judicial power shall be exercised when necessary. The tax required for the payment of the principal and interest of said bonds shall be assessed and collected each and every year until the bonds shall be paid, principal and interest, and the proceeds shall be paid by the Treasurer of State to the holders of said bonds, as the principal and interest of the same shall fall due, and no further legislation or appropriation shall be requisite for the said assessment and collection and for such payment from the Treasury. Under this authority consolidated bonds to the amount of about twelve million dollars were issued. In 1879 a new Constitution was adopted. OBLIGATION OF CONTRACTS. 653 It took effect January 1, 1880. A part of this, called the "debt ordinance," reduced the interest on the consolidated bonds to two per cent per annum for five years, to three per cent for fifteen years afterward, and to four per cent thereafter, with a proviso that the holders of the bonds might exchange them for new bonds for seventy-five per cent on the dollar drawing four per. cent interest. The Constitution further declared that the cou- pons of the consolidated bonds should be re- mitted, and that " any interest taxes collected to meet said coupons are hereby transferred to defray the expenses of the State government." In January, 1880, after the above constitu- tional provisions went into operation, two suits to test their validity were brought by John Elliott, Nicholas Gwynn and Henry S. Walker, holders of bonds. One was -brought in the United States Circuit Court to enjoin the sev- eral officers of the State composing the Board of Liquidation from recognizing the " debt or- dinance " of the new Constitution, and from disregarding the provisions of the funding act and the Constitution of 1874. In the other suit, which was begun in the State Court and removed to the Federal Court, a mandamus was asked to compel these officers to apply the funds on hand to the payment of interest on the consolidated bonds, and also to proceed to collect the tax levied in accordance with the provisions of the act and the Constitution of 1874. The question raised by these suits, and brought before the United States Supreme Court, was whether the " debt ordinance " provisions of the Constitution of 1879 impaired, in violation of the Federal Constitution, the obligation of the contract entered into between the State and its creditors by the act of 1874 and the Constitution of that year. The Supreme Court said that the language of the act and the Con- stitution of 1874 "shows unmistakably a de- sign to make these promises and these pledges so far contracts, that their obligations would be protected by the Constitution of the United States against impairment; " and added that it is equally manifest that the object of the State in adopting the " debt ordinance " in 1879 was to stop the further levy of the promised tax, and to prevent the disbursing officers from using the revenue from previous levies to pay the interest falling due in January, 1880, as well as the principal and interest maturing there- after." The Court admitted that the State had violated its contract, but held that there was no means of compelling it or its officers to carry put the contract. It was clear that the State itself could not be sued by these bondholders without its own consent, and this had never been given. " Neither was there when the bonds were issued," said Chief-Justice Waite, " nor is there now, any statute or judicial decis- ion giving the bondholders a remedy, in the State courts or elsewhere, either by mandamus or injunction, against the State in its political capacity, to compel it to do what it has agreed should be done, but what it refuses to do." The persons sued are the executive officers of the State, and they are proceeded against in their official capacity. The suits are to enjoin them from doing what the Constitution of 1879 re- quires them to do, and to compel them to do what that Constitution prohibits them from doing. The question then is whether, notwithstand- ing the Constitution of 1879 on its face takes away the power of the executive officers of the State to comply with the provisions of the act of 1874, the contract can be enforced by coerc- ing the agents and instrumentalities of the State, w.hose authority has been withdrawn in violation of the contract, without having the State itself in its political capacity a party to the proceedings. The relief asked will require the officers against whom the process goes to act contrary to the positive orders of the su- preme political power of the State, whose crea- tures they are, and to which they are ultimately responsible in law for what they do. They must use the money in the Treasury and under their official control in one way, when the su- preme power has directed them to use it in another, and they must raise more money by taxation when the same power has declared it shall not be done. The parties prosecuting the suits do not, in direct terms, ask for the pay- ment only of the bonds and coupons which they hold. All that is asked will enure as much to the benefit of the other holders of similar obligations as to the particular parties to these suits. So that the remedy sought im- Elies power in the judiciary to compel the tate to abide by and perform its contracts for the payment of money, not by rendering and enforcing a judgment in the ordinary form of judicial procedure, but by assuming the control of the administration of the fiscal affairs of the State to the extent that may be necessary to accomplish the end in view. It was argued that the money in the Treas- ury collected from the tax levied for 1879 con- stituted a trust fund of which the individual defendants were ex-officio trustees, and that they might be enjoined as such trustees from divert- ing it from the purposes to which it was pledged under the contract. On this point Chief-Jus- tice Waite said : The individual defendants are the several officers of the State, who, under the law, compose the Board of Liquidation. That hoard is in no sense a custodian of this fund. Its duty was to negotiate the exchange of the new bonds for the old on the terms proposed. It had nothing to do with levying the tax, collecting the money, or paying it out further than hy purchasing the honds with any surplus there might be from time to time in the Treasury over what was required to meet the interest. The provision in the law that it shall be the duty of the Auditor, Treasurer, and the board, respectively, to collect the tax, pay the interest, and redeem the honds, evidently means no more than that the Auditor and Treasurer shall perform their re- spective duties under the general laws in the assess- ment and collection of the tax, and shall pay in the 654 OBLIGATION OF CONTRACTS. usual manner the interest and principal of the bonds as they respectively fall due, and that the board shall purchase and retire the bonds whenever there is a surplus that, under the law, is to be used for that pur- pose. The Treasurer of State is the keeper of the Treasury, and in that way is the keeper of the money collected from this tax, just as he is the keeper of other public moneys. The taxes were collected by the tax-collect- ors and paid over to the State Treasurer, that is to say, into the State Treasury, just as other taxes were when collected. The Treasurer is no more a trustee of these moneys than he is of all other public moneys. He holds them, but only as the agent of the State. If there is any trust, the State is the trustee, and unless the State can be sued the trustee cannot be enjoined. The officers owe duty to the State alone, and have no contract relations with the bondholders. They can only act as the State directs them to act, and hold as the State allows them to hold. It was never agreed that their relations with the bondholders should be any other than as officers of the State, or that they should have any control over this fund except to keep it like other funds in the Treasury and pay it out ac- cording to law. They can be moved through the State, but not the State through them. The Court concluded its opinion as follows : Little need be said with special reference to the suit for mandamus. In this no trust is involved, but the simple question presented is, whether a single bond- holder, or a committee of bondholders, can, by the ju- dicial writ of mandamus, compel the executive officers of the State to perform generally their several duties under the law. The relators do riot occupy the posi- tion of creditors of the State demanding payment from an executive officer charged with the ministerial duty of taking the money from the public Treasury and handing it over to them, and, on his refusal, seeking to compel him to perform that specific duty. What they ask is that the Auditor of State, the Treasurer of State, and the Board of Liquidation may be required to enforce the act of 1874, and " carry out, perform, and discharge each and every one of the ministerial acts, things, and duties respectively required of them, . . . according to the full and true intent and purport of that act." Certainly no suit begun in the Circuit Court for such relief would be entertained, for that court can ordinarily grant a writ of mandamus only in aid of some existing jurisdiction. (Bath County vs. Ames, 13 Wallace, 247 ; Davenport vs. Dodge County, 105 U. S. Keports, 242.) Our attention has been called to no case in the State courts of Louisiana in which such general relief has been afforded, and the jurisdic- tion of the Circuit Court was, therefore, in no way en- larged through the operation of the removal acts, even if this is a case which was properly removed — a ques- tion we do not deem it necessary now to decide. The remedy sought, in order to be complete, would require the court to assume all the executive authority of the State, so far as it related to the enforcement of this law, with any official duty in respect to the levy, collection, and disbursement of the tax in question until the bonds, principal and interest, were paid in full, and that, too, in a proceeding to which the State, as a State, was not and could not be made a party. It needs no argument to show that the political power can not be thus ousted of its jurisdiction and the judiciary set in its place. When a State submits itself, without reservation, to the jurisdiction of a court in a particular case, that ju- risdiction may be used to give full effect to what the State has, by its act of submission, allowed to be done ; and if the law permits coercion of the public officers, to enforce any judgment that may be rendered, then such coercion may be employed for that purpose. But this is very far from authorizing the courts, when a State can not be sued, to set up their jurisdiction over the officers in charge of the public moneys, so as to control them as against the political power hi their administration of the finances of the State. In our opinion, to grant the relief asked for in either of these cases would be to exercise such a power. Elaborate dissenting opinions were written by Justices Field and Harlan. The former admitted that the common law rule, that the sovereign can not be sued in his own courts without his consent, applies in this country to the State, under which designation are in- cluded the people within its territorial lim- its, in whom resides whatever sovereignty the State possesses. "But they act and speak in this country, at least in times of peace, only through the Constitution and laws. For their will we must look to these manifestations of it. If in that way they consent to suits, either directly against themselves by name or against any of their authorized agents, there can be no reasons of policy or of law against issuing pro- cess in proper cases to bring them or their agents before the court. And if in that way, that is, by their Constitution or laws, they di- rect their officers to do or omit certain things, in the doing or omission of which individuals are interested, and they provide appropriate remedies to compel or enjoin the performance of those things, there can be no reason why such remedies should not be resorted to when private rights are involved." After reviewing the legislative and constitutional enactments of 18V4, and the "debt ordinance" part of the Constitution of 1879, Justice Field remarked: " Of course the new Constitution in these pro- visions is a repudiation of the engagements of the act of 1874 and of the constitutional amend- ment of that year, and a direct violation of the inhibition of the Federal Constitution against the impairment of the obligation of contracts." He then said : Is this inhibition against the repudiation by the State of her engagements of any efficacy ? The ma- jority of the court answer, " No." I answer, adhering to the doctrines taught by a long line of illustrious judges preceding me, " Yes, it is" ; and, though now denied, I feel confident that at no distant day its power will be reasserted and maintained. In that faith I dissent from the judgment of my associates, and I shall continue to do so on all proper cases, until the prohibition inserted in the Constitution as a banner against the agrarian and despoiling spirit which both precedes and follows a breach of public faith is re- established in its original vigor. The question whether the court will restrain the di- version of the funds in the hands of the Treasurer, a member of the Board of Liquidation, is to be consid- ered precisely as though the new Constitution had never been adopted. The inhibition of the Federal Constitution is upon the State, and not merely upon her Legislature. All the authority which her people can confer, whether by constitutional enactment or legislative provision, is subject to the inhibition. Her people are at all times under the Constitution of the United States, subject to its restrictions as they are entitled to its privileges. They can not lawfully in- sert in any constitution or organic law provisions con- travening that instrument. . . . If the new Constitution had never been adopted, there could be no question as to the power of the State courts to require that the moneys collected be applied to the pavment of the interest. It would not only have been the duty of the Board of Liquidation OHIO. 655 to thus apply them, but it would have been a felony Brought forward $4.300,000 00 to refuse to do so. Now, whatever enactment, con- -Loan payable July 1, 1888, bearing 4 per cent stitutional or legislative, impairs the obligation of the r ^erest. ..... contract with tie bondholders, that is, abrogates or Canal loan' not beann& interest _ lessens the means of its enforcement, is void. There- Total funded debt $4 901 665 00 fore, the new Constitution, as to that contract, is to be treated as though it never existed. . . . The local debts at the same time were as No reason in law. therefore, any .more than in mor- follow : als, can be given why the mandates of the act of 1874 TIM* of nmintw «<* A«n 907 outfe ™able to enter towed in half an jayOdeii 6 hour after oil was pumped through the pipes. Joseph Judkins 268 The rubber tube became separated and was SEVENTEENTH DISTRICT. replaced by a lead pipe, which was also de- Jonathan T. Updegraff, Republican 14,1 65 stroyed by the rolling fragments of rock. He Sii^ck^^^ 13« a<;teA7ar,d fitteT? u£ an .^T^8 f ^e mouth N. c. Horton, Greenback 822 of Aberdeen Harbor, in which the lead pipe EIGHTEENTH DISTRICT. was protected by bags of cement. At Peter- William McKinley, Jr., Republican 1 6.906 head the oil w as discharged through three Jonathan H. Wallace, Democrat 16,S93 conical valves t wenty-five yards apart. In the ^r.elAT-B^rbS«r::::-.V.:::::-.::::-.:::-. IS Aberdeen experiment pipes of three fourths J. K. Buskirk i of an inch aperture, instead of inch-pipe as be- ™°kn ^^allace f fore, were employed, and two valves were ™L™ce::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::: 5 deemed sufficient. Mr. sweids defrayed the w. H. Wallace 2 expenses of all the experiments described, out J^nWh'a™aiiace' .'!.'! 5 of his own purse. He succeeded in drawing Major Wallace... '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.!!!'.!".'.!".'.'.".'."."'.!".".".!'.'. 8 the attention of the Government and of all Jonathan H. Wallace i engineers to the matter, and then left it in the NINETEENTH DISTRICT. hands of the Board of Trade, which carefully Ezra B. Taylor, Republican 15,739 watched the results of the trials at Aberdeen. 8%\A&n!2SS8£::: ::::::;::::::::: 1:S ite effect of on in calming waves has been Reuben T. Harmon, Greenback 553 known from the times of antiquity. Pliny TWENTIETH DISTRICT. speaks of divers spitting oil in the water to Addison s. McCiure, Republican 13,980 quiet the surface, so that the light will pene- ?avirLR{i p^i^'.^e.mocrat "'5JJ trate. The divers of the Mediterranean follow iKCpis^G^a^*:;:::::::.':;;:::::::::: IS the practice to the present day. Hunters of TWENTY-FIRST DISTRICT. the otter know the spot where they are de- Sylvester T. Everett, Republican 11,408 vouring their oily prey, from the calmness of Martin A. Foran, Democrat 15,946 the water. The track of a wounded whale or William H. Doan, Prohibition 1,999 pOrpoise \s^ \n like manner, indicated by the OIL, CALMING WAVES WITH. The streak of still water. It has often been re- calming effect of a film of oil spread over marked that a dead whale always floats in the surface of agitated water has been often calm water, however agitated the sea may be observed, although many have supposed the round about. The spearers of the salmon in ancient saying referring to it to be based upon the Scottish Highlands often pour oil on the OIL, CALMING WAVES WITH. OLEOMARGARINE. 661 water to enable them to see into the depth of the pools. The fishermen of the Bermudas and the oyster-fishers of Gibraltar employ the same device. The herring-fishers of England detect schools of oil-bearing fish by the still- ness of the surface. The same phenomenon enables the Cornish fishermen to find the sardine. The inhabitants of the Isle of St. Kilda attach cakes of the grease of sea-fowl to the sterns of their boats to prevent the waves from breaking and driving them against the rocks. The Shetland-Islanders understand the efficacy of oil in stilling the violence of the sea, for as they return in their frail craft from the fisheries when the weather is tempestuous, they cut out the livers of the cod which they have caught, as a last resort, and express the oil to save themselves from being swamped. Dr. Franklin was the public writer who recognized the value of oil in preventing ma- rine disasters. His attention was attracted to the subject by a letter recounting how a Dutch master saved his vessel from being over- whelmed in a tempest by pouring overboard a small quantity of olive-oil. Franklin was reminded of the fact that the water was al- ways still when there were whalers in New- port Harbor. He experimented in a pond upon a windy day, and found that only a spoonful of oil poured on the water from the windward side spread over a wide space, and produced an instantaneous calm. He repeated the experiment upon a stormy day in the sea off Portsmouth, New Hampshire. While the sea was covered with whitecaps round about, no waves broke in the wake of his boat. He noticed also that a bark was drawn into this smooth track as by a whirlpool. The Scotch publishers, Chambers, endeavored to impress upon the public the utility of this means of rescue, by publishing accounts of ship-captains on the subject. Individual captains have em- ployed oil to break the force of heavy seas, and made a practice of taking it with them for the purpose ; but the generality of mariners treated these well-attested instances with apathy and doubt. A New York captain in a report pub- lished in 1867, in the "Shipping List," attrib- uted the salvation of his vessel on two occa- sions to pouring out a few gallons of oil. Cap- tain Betts, of the King Cenric, bound from Liverpool to Bombay, weathered a hurricane only by suspending canvas sacks of oil from the ship's side, with small punctures to allow the oil to trickle out. Captain Richardson, of Bristol, overtaken by a storm near the Ber- mudas, escaped by the same means. The cap- tain of the Diamond, of Dundee, shipwrecked off Anholt Island, having heard of the escape of a storm-stressed whaler in the South Seas through the accidental breakage of some bar- rels of oil, furnished each boat with a few quarts of oil to pour over the stern, by which means the waves were kept from washing over them, and the crew reached land in safety. The diminutive sail-boat in which two Italian captains acquired notoriety, in 1881, by cross- ing the Alantic from Buenos Ayres, would, on several occasions have been lost if they had not used liberally their cargo of oil to assuage the seas. Since the revival of the subject through the efforts of Shields, sea-captains have been more impressed with the value of this simple safeguard. A captain recently arriving in New York attributed his escape from a storm in the North Atlantic to the oil- bags with which he had provided himself. Another captain withstood a terrific squall in the Bay of Biscay by the same means. A third, Captain Floreman, of the Dundee Clip- per Line, passing through a four days' gale on his return from Calcutta, suspended bags of oil from the vessel. Waves of the largest size rolled to within twice the length of the ship, but the area protected by the slowly escaping oil was a dead level. The cost, bulk, and weight of a provision of oil carried on board for safety, are offset by the saving of trouble and labor in a tempest, aside from the prime object of security of lives, ships, and cargoes. Many a life could be saved by attaching a small oil-bag to the life- buoys thrown to persons lost overboard, which can be pierced with a knife at the in- stant it is thrown out, and by the calming effect of the oil will reveal from afar the posi- tion of the swimmer. Vessels of oil provided with stopcocks on life-boats, and projectiles which would burst on striking the water and spread oil over the surface, have likewise been proposed for the life-saving service. OLEOMARGARINE. Properly speaking, this name is applied to the butter-fat obtained by the process of M. Ni6ge. Oleomargarine butter, or butterine (as it is called by some), is the product obtained by churning oleomarga- rine with milk, which, being colored and salted, has the look and taste of butter. About a dozen years ago, M. Hippolyte Ni£ge, a French chemist and philosopher, undertook various experiments, by direction of Government, to see if it were possible to find, for the use of the navy and poorer classes, a product suited to take the place of ordinary butter, and which could be kept without becoming rancid. By experimenting largely upon milk, he discovered that milk always contained butter-fat, even when cows had been partially or wholly de- prived of food. M. Niege next tried to produce this butter-fat from the fat of the cow, by arti- ficial processes ; and he finally succeeded in get- ting a pure and sweet fat, free from foreign odor, which, by churning with milk, was con- verted into what was considered excellent butter. The process by which this is accomplished may be described more in detail, as follows: The fat of the cow (or beef fat) is thrown piece by piece into large tanks containing te- pid water, where it remains for an hour or two, when the water is drawn off and fresh water brought into the tank. Each piece is then 662 OLEOMAKGAKINE. separately inspected and thrown into another tank containing pure water, where it remains about the same time as at first. Pieces rich in oil are the only ones thrown into this tank ; all the others are cut off and put into tierces, to be rendered into tallow. The fat in the sec- ond tank is again inspected and passed into a third, after which third washing it is a perfectly pure white fat. The next step is to elevate this fat, in cars holding about 600 pounds each, to -the top of the building or third floor, along- side the disintegrating machines. These are like the regular meat-hasher. This machine consists of a series of sharp blades set on an axis like the thread of a screw. A closely-fit- ting chamber or cylinder placed horizontally contains these blades. The cylinder is divided into two portions, hinged together on one side, and capable of being securely fastened on the other when the machine is in operation. When necessary to clean the machine, the upper half can easily be thrown back. The fat is dumped on a large trough supported above the cylinder. This trough or feeder has an aperture in one corner, which fits over a hole in the upper part of the cylinder through which the fat is fed to the machine. It is introduced piece by piece, and the revolving knives cut it very fine ; after which it is forced out through a fine sieve at the opposite end, and falls into kettles, ready for the next process. The comminuted fat is now in a state which enables it to be rendered at a very low temperature. This rendering is accomplished in a series of caldrons, jacketed and surrounded by water, as is seen in the ac- companying illustration. The water in the jacket is heated to the boil- ing-point by the introduction of live steam, which in turn heats the caldron containing the fat, causing it to melt at a temperature of from 1 14° to 122° F. Much care is taken to prevent getting above 122°, since the lower the tempera- ture is kept, the better is the product obtained. During this rendering process about 5 per cent of ordinary salt is added, which helps the mem- brane to settle. Each caldron or kettle holds about 2,300 pounds of fat, which is the usual product of an hour's work of the hashing machine. As soon as the fat falls into the kettle, the steam is turned on to heat the water in the jacket, after which the heat thus accumulated is found sufficient to finish the process. When the fat is completely rendered, cold water is poured into the jacket. Some- thing over two hours is occupied from the time the hasher begins before the fat is allowed to rest. Kevolving agitators keep the mass in constant mo- tion during the rendering process, thus equalizing the temperature and fa- cilitating the rendering. When the fat finally comes to a rest, a membrane (or "scrap") settles to the bottom of the kettle, and the pure fat is left on the top. Usually the separa- tion is complete and satis- factory; but in case the fat has become water - soaked in the washing process, it is necessary to agitate the whole mass rapidly several times, after which the membrane will sink to the bottom. The rendered fat is left at rest about half an hour, when the pure fat is ready to be drawn off and strained in- to the "settling-kettles." An emulsion of water and oil in the condition of froth floats on the surface of the rendered fat, which is ladled off. The ren- dered fat remains in the settling-kettles from one to three hours, and is kept at a tempera- ture of 118° to 122° F., the water in the jacket being kept at about 135°. When the settling is complete, and the refined fat is at the proper temperature, it is drawn off through a fine sieve into tanks or cars, which are immediately removed to the "seeding-room," which is kept at a temperature of 85°. In this room the fat begins to solidify very slowly, the more solid constituents crystallizing out at first, the whole mass at last assuming a kind of mushy consist- ency. The "seeding" or crystallizing process requires from thirty-six to forty-eight hours, and must not be hurried. When the rendered fat is in the proper condition, it is pressed so as to separate the butter-oil from the stearine. OLEOMARGARINE. 663 To accomplish this, the fat is packed in cloths set in moulds, to form packages 13 x 5J x 2 inch- es. These packages are placed on plates of gal- vanized iron in the press, one above the other. Each plate holds twelve bags, and from thirty- six to forty plates are used in each hydraulic press. The packages contain from two to three pounds of fat, so that each press, when filled, holds about 1,200 pounds. About an hour is required to fill a press. Before it is completely filled, the butter-oil flows from each package, from the weight of the plates above ; and when the press is entirely full, a gradually increasing pressure is applied, amounting at last to about 3,000 pounds to the square inch. This pres- sure is kept up until the butter-oil ceases to flow from the bags or pack- ages, leaving a cake of stearine perfectly dry, hard, and white. The press is then unpacked, and the cakes of stearine, taken from the bags, are in a condition to be packed for shipment. The butter- oil is received into a large reservoir, and if it is to be shipped it flows into perfectly clean tierces, where, after solidifying, it is sealed up. In this state the butter-oil will keep for an almost in- definite period. A large quantity is exported to Europe, to be churned with milk into butter. The name " oleomarga- rine" was given to this butter-oil because it was thought to be composed principally of oleine and margarine ; but Heintz and Gossman have shown that margarine is not a simple fat, but a compound consisting of palmitine and stearine. Hence the term is really a misnomer. The oleomargarine of commerce is largely used as a cheap cooking butter. It is a light- yellow substance, melts in the mouth like but- ter, and has a rather agreeable taste. When butter-oil is not to be used for shipment or consumption in its present state, it is pumped while warm from the reservoir, over to the dairy-room, where it is received in large cylin- drical kettles, which keep it at the proper tem- perature for use in the next operation. It is now to be churned with milk, and thus con- verted into "butterine," or "oleomargarine butter." The accompanying illustration rep- resents that section of the dairy-room known as the churning department. The churns in this room hold about 600 pounds of material, viz., 442 pounds of butter-oil, 120 pounds of milk, 37i pounds of cream-made butter, and If ounces of bicarbonate of soda. This mix- ture is churned for some five to ten minutes, when some coloring matter is added, and the churning continued for thirty to forty minutes longer. The first agitation forms a perfect emulsion, and the continued motion supplies to it a homogeneous color. At the time oleomargarine butter was first made in the United States, by Paraf, the con- tents of the churn, after the operation, were allowed to flow out into tubs, and, on being solidified, were worked on tables with salt, then packed, and offered in market. The but- ter thus made was crystallized, which gave it a gritty taste, and prevented its being sold. As no one experimented in the direction given by Niege, the sale was very limited for a year or so. Dr. Henry A. Mott, of New York, began a series of experiments to prevent crystalliza- tion, with excellent results, which have gen- erally been adopted by manufacturers. The process, as simplified and perfected by Dr. Mott, is as follows: The churned mixture, a creamy- looking emulsion, is allowed to flow from the churns directly on pounded ice, which is kept in rapid motion until the whole mass becomes solid. By this process crystallization of the butter is wholly prevented. The ice absorbs the sensible (and in part the latent) heat of the emulsion, not giving it time to crystallize. This congealed emulsion is left in contact with the ice for two or three hours, when the mass is dumped out on inclined tables. The larger pieces of ice are picked out, and the smaller ones melt out through the heat of the room, which is kept from 85° to 90°. The butter is then left to soften for six or eight hours. When 664 OLEOMARGAKINE. the mass has hecome soft and all the ice and ice-water been removed, the product is chopped up with wooden ladles, and then put into a small apparatus, which has for its bottom a coarse wire sieve, through which the product is pressed, so that it comes out in shreds of various length, and about an eighth of an inch in diameter. It is then placed on tables, and worked and salted by a revolving butter-worker turned by hand. The butter is now ready to be packed in tubs. In case prints or rolls are to be made, it stands for several hours until it gets harder. Dr. Mott suggested a further churning for a few minutes with milk, to in- crease the butter odor and flavor ; but it was found after a time to be more expensive than beneficial, and so was abandoned. M. Niege's process for preventing crystalliza- tion gives a butter far superior to that now produced. This fact was made known in 1880 by Mr. George Harding. Experiments conducted, under his direction, by Professors Chandler and Williams and Dr. H. A. Mott, resulted in the production of a butter superior in flavor, odor, and texture to any previously made. The process is as follows : The emul- sion from the churn is to be put into a tin ves- sel, which can be closed, having an agitator within which receives its motion from outside. This vessel is placed in water with pieces of ice, at a temperature of about 36°. The agita- tor is kept in motion as long as it can be turned, when the solidified whipped product is ready to be removed. A large ice-cream freezer of the capacity of forty quarts gives good results. As, by this process, the emulsion in solidifying does not come in contact with the ice or ice- water, the congealed mass retains its flavor and odor unimpaired. The butter thus obtained is considered very suitable for winter use, as it is much softer than that made by throwing the emulsion on ice. There are several large factories in the United States engaged in this industry. At the works of the Commercial Manufacturing Company, New York, 50,000 pounds of butter are made daily, and finds a ready sale at fifteen to twen- ty-two cents per pound, according to the season and the form in which it is put up. By law, every tub or package of butter sold must be branded " oleomargarine butter," so that there may be no mistake, and no selling this for but- ter obtained by churning the milk of the cow. In order to make 50,000 pounds of butter, 122,000 pounds of fat are required. This amount of fat yields nearly 42,000 pounds of butter-oil or oleomargarine, which, adding 20 per cent for milk and salt taken up, yield fully 50,000 pounds of butter. The returns, then, are: 50,000 pounds of butter, at 15 cents = $7,500 ; stearine, tallow, scrap = $3,300; total, $10,800. Expenses of working, wages, mate- rial, etc., show that the cost of making butter in this way is about 144 cents per pound. There are other factories in Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburg, Louisville, Chicago, St. Louis, Cin- cinnati, New Haven, Providence, and Boston. During July and August butter is not made, but the butter-oil is made and stored for use in the colder months. Dr. Mott has made a careful analysis of oleomargarine butter, from which it appears that its constituents are : Water, 11-203 ; butter solids, 88797 = 100. The constituents of cream butter are : Water, 11-968 ; butter solids, 88-032 = 100. Thus it seems plain that every element which enters into the composition of the best dairy butter is to be found in oleomargarine butter, and no element is present in the latter which is not present in the former. Oleomargarine butter which has, under the microscope, identically the same appearance as butter made from cream, but has less of the volatile fats in it, keeps sweet and pure for a much longer period than dairy butter — an advantage of no little consequence for various purposes. In addition to the above, it seems desirable to give the laws passed by the Legislature of New York on this subject, and also the patents under which imitation butter and cheese are made: CHAPTER 215. An Act to regulate the manufacture and sale of oleomargarine, or any form of imitation butter and lard, or any form of imitation cheese, for the prevention of fraud and the better protection of the public health. Passed May 24, 1882. The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows : SECTION 1. No person, persons, firm, or corporation manufacturing with intent to sell any article or sub- stance in semblance of natural butter or natural cheese not the legitimate product of the dairy, and not made exclusively from milk or cream, or both, with salt or rennet, or both, and with or without coloring matter or sage, but into which any animal, intestinal, or offal fats, or any oils or fats of any kind whatsoever not E reduced from milk or cream, or into which melted utter, lard, or tallow shall be introduced, shall add thereto or combine therewith any annotto or com- pounds of the same, or any other substance or sub- stances whatsoever, for the purpose or with the effect of imparting thereto a color resembling that of yellow (or any shade of the same) butter or cheese ; nor shall they introduce said coloring matter into any of the articles of which the same is composed. SEC. 2. No person, persons, firm, or corporation shall deal in, sell, expose for sale, or give away any article or substance in semblance or natural butter or natural cheese, described in the first section of this act and known as oleomargarine, or imitation butter and lard, or imitation cheese ; and no keeper of any hotel, res- taurant, boarding-house, or other place of public enter- tainment shall keep, use, or serve either as food for their guests or for cooking purposes any such imita- tion butter or cheese which shall contain any of the coloring matter therein prohibited, or be colored con- trary to the provisions of this act. SEC. 3. No person, persons, firm, or corporation shall manufacture, with intent to sell, deal in, sell or expose for sale any article or substance in semblance of nat- ural cheese not the legitimate product of the dairy, and not made exclusively of milk or crcam? or both, but into which any animal, intestinal, or offal fats or oils of any kind whatsoever, not produced from milk or cream, shall be introduced, unless the words " imita- tion cheese" shall be plainly stenciled, in plain Ro- man letters at least one half inch in length, with dur- able paint, upon the sides of each and every cheese, and also upon the outside of top and opposite sides of each and every box containing the same, in letters and with paint as 'before mentioned and described. OLEOMARGARINE. 665 SEC. 4. For the purposes of this act the terms " nat- ural butter" and "natural cheese" shall be under- stood to mean the products usually known by these names, and which are manufactured exclusively from milk or cream, or both, with salt and rennet, and with or without coloring matter or sage. SEC. 5. Every person, firm, or corporation violating the provisions of this act shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be punished by a fine of not less than $50 nor more than $200, or by imprisonment in the county jail for not less than ten nor more than thirty days, or by both such fine and imprisonment for each and every offence, in the discretion of the Court, one half of such fine to be paid to the complainant, the other half to be paid to the officer or officers having charge of the poor fund of the town where such prosecution occurs, for the support of the poor ; or, ii the poor of such town are supported by the county, then such moneys shall be paid to the officer or officers having charge of the poor fund of the county in which said town is located, to be used for the support of the poor of such county. But nothing in this act shall be so construed as to interfere with or abridge any right obtained, secured, or guar- anteed by any law of Congress, or by any patent duly granted by the United States Government. SEC. 6. This act shall take effect sixty days after it becomes a law. CHAPTER 214. An Act to prohibit the coloring1 of oleomarga- rine, butterine, and adulterated cheese. Passed May -24, 1882, three fifths being present. The people of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows : SECTION 1. Every person who shall use, or permit any person in his employment to use, annotto or any other substance for the purpose of coloring the article in semblance of butter known as oleomargarine, or but- terine, or any cheese which has been adulterated by the use of lard or any other greasy substance, with an intent to sell the same for food, or who shall sell or expose for sale any oleomargarine, butterine, or adul- terated cheese which has been colored contrary to the provisions of this act, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be punished by a fine of not less than $50 nor more than $200, or by imprisonment in the county jail for not less than thirtv nor more than ninety days, or by both such fine ana imprison- ment, for each and every oft'ence. But nothing in this act shall be so construed as to interfere with or abridge any right obtained, secured, or guaranteed by a law of Congress, or by any patent duly granted by the United States Government. SEC. 2. This act shall take effect on the 1st day of September, 1882. THE MEGE PATENT. United States Patent Office.— Commercial Manufac- turing Company (Consolidated) of New York, N. Y., assignee, by Mesne assignments, of Hippolyte Mege, deceased. Treating animal fats. (Specification form- ing part of reissued letters patent No. 10,137, dated June 13, 1882. Original No. 146,012, dated December 30, 1873 ; reissue No. 5,868, dated May 12, 1874 ; re- issue No. 8,424, dated September 24, 1878. Applica- tion for reissue filed May 20, 1882.) The processes set forth in the specification attached are those which have been fully de- scribed in the preceding pages of this article. What is claimed is : 1. The improved material here- in described, produced by treating animal fats so^as to remove the tissues and other portions named , with or without the addition of substances to change the flavor, consistency, or color, as set forth. 2. The pro- cess herein described of treating animal fat in the pro- duction of oleomargarine. The Commercial Manufacturing: Company Consoli- dated. CHARLES M. FIELD, President. Witnesses : GEORGE H. SONNEBORN, WILLIAM H. SONNEBORN. THE COSINE PATENT. United States Patent Office. — Garret Cosine, of New York, N. Y., " Improvement in Processes for making Artificial Butter. ' ' (Specification forming part of Let- ters Patent No. 173,591, dated February 15, 1876 ; ap- plication filed December 21, 1875.) To ALL WHOM IT MAY CONCERN: Be it known that I, Garret Cosine, of the city, county, and State of New York, have invented an improved process of making artificial butter, of which the follow- ing is a specification : My invention relates to the manufacture of butter for table use from oleine and margarine, as obtained from animal fats, fruits, and vegetable nuts, with lactic acid and loppered cream or milk. To obtain the oleine and margarine from animal fats, I take any given quantity of animal fat and cause the same to be cut or minced by any suitable machine for the purpose, after which I place the fat in a vessel and subject it to a heat that will cause the whole mass to become fused ; I then place the liquid fat in other ves- sels, and allow it to remain and cool until the degree of Fahrenheit is from eighty to ninety degrees, and when in this state I place a portion in bags of cloth. These bags are then placed in a press anil subjected to a high pressure, which causes the oleine and mar- garine to free itself from the stearine and fibrous tis- sue. The above shall be known and designated as oleine and margarine No. 1. The process above described will give the same re- sults as described by Chevreaul in k° Brande's Work of Chemistry," page 482, and published in the year 1829. To obtain the vegetable oleine and margarine, 1 use any one of the following articles of commerce, viz. : oilpeanut, oil sweet almonds, and oil olives. To produce the lactic acid, I take fourteen parts cane sugar, sixty parts water, four parts caseine, and five parts chalk. This mixture is kept at a temperature of 80° to 95° Fahr. for eight or ten days, or until it be- comes a crystalline paste of lactate lime. This is pressed in a'cloth, dissolved in hot water, and filtered. This solution is then concentrated by evaporation. The acid is obtained from this lactate _ by treating it with the equivalent quantity of sulphuric acid and fil- tering from the insoluble gypsum. The solution of lactic acid I make as follows : One drachm of lactic acid and sixteen ounces of water. The solution of lac- tic acid assists digestion ; it prevents the product from becoming deteriorated before use, and it assists also in giving the product a butyraceous consistency. ^ By the use of lactic acid all putrefactive and catalytic action is arrested, which action would take place if such acid were not added, and by this means there is prepared an article which is fit for use at any time, and which will preserve its original state and flavor. To obtain the loppered cream or milk, I take the cream as obtained from the surface of milk, or milk as obtained from the cow, and place it in open vessels, and allow it to remain until the putrefactive and cata- lytic action has taken place. When in this state it will be ready for use. To obtain the margarine from the oleine and mar- garine No. 1, I take a given quantity of oleine and margarine designated as No. 1, and place it in a water bath' and subject it to heat until the same assumes a semi-liquid state ; then I place it in bags of cloth. These bags are then placed in a press and_ subjected to a high pressure, when the oleine will free itself from the margarine. The above shall be known and designated as oleine No. 2. I find that the composition of butter made from cows' milk, Dalton 320, anc ....... one hundred parts — margarine, sixty-eight parts ; ole- ine, thirty parts ; butyrine, two parts. And it being a fact that butter made from cows' milk does not con- 666 OPIUM QUESTION IN CHINA AND INDIA. tain the same proportion of oleine and margarine in summer as in winter, it having a larger proportion of oleine in the winter, and having described the several articles that I use, and to enable others skilled in the art to make and use my discovery or invention, I will now give my improved process for making butter for winter and summer use. To manufacture butter for table use in the winter by my improved process, I take and place in a suitable vessel nine parts of oleine No. 2, one part of fruit or nut oil, one part of solution lactic acid, one part of loppered cream or milk, as hereinbefore described. I then cause the same to be rapidly agitated with a re- volving skeleton beater, until the whole assumes the consistence of butter made of cream taken from cows' milk, after which I add coloring matter, and then re- move the mass upon a table or other suitable recepta- cle, and then work it until all the fluid portions are expressed. I then add salt to suit the taste, when it will be ready for use. To manufacture the above for summer use? I take and place in a suitable vessel nine parts of oleine and margarine No. 1, one part of margarine as obtained from No. 1, one part ot solution lactic acid, one part of loppered cream or milk, as hereinbefore described, and proceed as I do in making the same for winter use. What I claim as my invention, and desire to secure by letters patent, is : 1. The process of making artificial butter by mix- ing together oleine and margarine from animal fats, and from fruit and vegetable nuts: and lactic acid, and loppered cream or milk, substantially as described. 2. The process of making artificial butter by mixing together oleine and margarine from animal fats, and lactic acid, and loppered cream or milk, substantially as described. 3. The process of preventing artificial butter from becoming deteriorated before use, and giving it a bu- tyraceous consistence, by mixing with it lactic acid, substantially as described. GARRET COSINE. Witnesses : JOHN K. LEFFERTS, E. W. COSINE. By a comparison in detail of what is set forth in the Cosine specification with the processes described in previous pages as forming the Mege patent, the reader can judge of the merits of the course pursued by each, and the results thus far attained. Whether oleomargarine but- ter is to be a permanent industry, may perhaps be open to doubt ; but it has capital and enter- prise enough embarked in it to give it a fair and thorough trial. OPIUM QUESTION IN CHINA AND IN- DIA. The Chinese Government have lately appealed to Great Britain for release from the tyrannous conditions exacted as the result of the two opium wars by which they are re- strained from prohibiting the import of, or placing deterrent duties upon, Indian opium. The Chefoo convention, which the British Gov- ernment has refused to ratify, and the treaties with the United States and with Russia, in which stipulations against the importation of the drug were inserted, indicate a determina- tion to grapple with the Chinese national vice with more energy than they have yet shown ; though the anti-opium clauses in the two treaties were placed there merely for effect, and the task is almost hopeless until the British and Indian Governments grant them the release for which they pray. Outside of official circles there is a growing sentiment in favor of allowing the Chinese to attempt the suppression of the vice and removing the immoral treaty obligations which tie their hands ; but the $40,000,000 of Indian opium revenue is an argument which weighs with the British public almost as strongly as with the . responsible statesmen, as its loss would probably have to be made good out of the pocket of the British tax-payer. The Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade, in recommending that the culture, which is carried on in Bengal under Government su- pervision, should be confined to supplying the demand for medicinal purposes, boldly propose to have the derangement which would follow in Indian finances averted by raising the rev- enue in Great Britain — the only rational solu- tion of the problem. The people of England naturally listen favorably to every objection, reasonable or specious, to a step which involves the payment of taxes for the benefit of their fellow-subjects in India — a reversal of con- ditions to which, perhaps, no considerations of morality or national honor can force them. The sincerity of the Chinese Government in their efforts to exterminate the opium-traffic are at once called in question. If they are in earnest, why do they not suppress the cultiva- tion of the poppy in China ? The only object of the Chinese is declared to be the transfer ot the opium revenue from the Indian Exchequer to their own, or the protection of the native opium. Such motives, which would be suffi- cient for any government not wearing the yoke of conquest, are considered iniquitous on the part of the Chinese. But when an honest pur- pose to destroy the evil which is sapping the vigor and morality of the Chinese people is made apparent, Sir George Birdwood and other veterans of the Indian civil service bring scien- tific arguments to prove that the debasing nar- cotic is really a blessing to the Chinese. The Rajpoots and Sikhs of India are instanced as vigorous races who are addicted to the exces- sive use of opium ; but its baleful effects are officially recognized in India in the laws prohib- iting its sale ; and when its destructive influ- ence became recently apparent in British Bur- mah, energetic measures were taken by the Indian Government to uproot the evil. It is only in China that the British apologists, with no foreign scientists and no Chinese authority of any kind to support them, contend that the opium-habit is beneficial. It supplanted spirit- uous liquors in China. The Indian opium is much weaker in the narcotic alkaloids than the Turkish drug. Chinese opium is more harm- less still. The Chinese do not eat opium nor drink laudanum or morphia, but smoke " chan- doo," an extract obtained by long boiling the preparation sold in the bazaars, which is already greatly weakened in narcotic power by various admixtures. The narcotic principles can not be inhaled in the single puff of smoke that comes from the pill which burns with a flash in the opium-pipe, because the alkaloids are not volatilizable. The resinous properties seem OPIUM QUESTION IN CHINA AND INDIA. 667 to be all that passes into the lungs of the smoker. They are probably the cause of the efficacy of the smokable extract as a prophy- lactic against pulmonary and bronchial diseases. The Chinese missionaries who forbid opium- smoking, as well as juvenile marriages, to their converts, commit a double mistake, and rear an enfeebled class, who are decimated by con- sumption. Another inestimable property of opium is its value as a febrifuge. The Hindoos who eat the crude opium find it a perfect safe- guard against malarial endemics. Sir George Birdwood considers opium beneficial to the nutrition of vegetarians, as it prolongs the pro- cess of digestion. The Hindoos who do not take opium suffer from indigestion from the time they are weaned till the end of their lives. The reason is, that the human intestines are not as long proportionately as those of the graminivorous animals, and do not allow the complete digestion and assimilation of vegeta- ble food. Smoking opium, as is the custom in China and the Indian Archipelago, he holds entirely harmless and indifferent, milder than tobacco, and the least alloyed of the pleasures of the senses, one which " seems to possess the true magic which spiritualizes sense." The residuum of the " chandoo " smoked by the rich is worked over with Indian hemp, tobacco, and nux vomica, and smoked again by the poorer classes. It is this " tye-chandoo," with its deleterious admixtures, which has given opium-smoking a bad name, although the mere vapor from even those substances can not be very harmful. The Chinese themselves contribute no testi- mony to the English defenders of the opium- vice. To them it is neither a u dietetic cor- roborant " nor a prophylactic against consump- tion or malaria, but a national curse. Even the victims of opium pronounce it an enslaving vice. It brings all other vices in its train. The dissolute, the idle, and the vicious are all opium-smokers. The indulgence is so expen- sive that it ruins both rich and poor in fortune, as well as character and health. The debili- tated, cachectic, sodden- witted wrecks of men, sunk in every vice, which are met with in appalling numbers in the cities of China, are believed by the Chinese to be the victims of opium. They trace poverty and immorality to this costly and demoralizing luxury with much greater unanimity than the people of America ascribe similar lapses of character and useful- ness to alcohol. In Assam the cultivation of the poppy was promptly suppressed, and the consumption restricted by the Indian Govern- ment, because the vice became so general that it threatened to depopulate the province. The same firm course is being now taken in Bur- mah. The report of the commissioner in Bur- mah presents a very different estimate of the effects of opium-smoking from those of the defenders of the Tientsin treaty, who represent it as no more harmful than smoking willow- bark. The papers now submitted for consideration pre- sent a painful picture of the demoralization, misery, and ruin produced among the Burmese by opium- smoking. These show that, among the Bunnans, the habitual use of the drag saps the physical and mental energies, destroys the nerves, emaciates the body, predisposes to disease, induces indolent and filthy habits of life, destroys self-respect, is one of the most fertile sources of misery, destitution, and crime. fills the jails with men predisposed to dysentery ana cholera, prevents the due extension of cultivation and the development of the land revenue, checks the nat- ural growth, of the population, and enfeebles the con- stitution of succeeding generations. The Chinese Government have always been sincere and consistent in their efforts to sup- press the opium-vice, but with intermittent energy, and through the agency of officials who are for the most part lax and shamefully corrupt. Opium was imported from India as a medicine a couple of centuries ago, but was first brought in considerable quantities and consumed as a luxury in the last quarter of the last century. The importers were the first British merchants who settled in China, agents of the East India Company at Canton, with whom a guild of native traders called the Hong merchants were permitted to hold dealings. As soon as the demoralizing effects of the drug were noticed, the authorities forbade its use, and in the year 1800 an imperial edict was issued entirely forbidding the import. The opium-trade grew in spite of the prohibition, and became established on a regular though still illicit footing. Bribes were taken from Dent, Jardine, and the other smugglers, and the opium was passed by the customs officials so systematically that the trade acquired a reg- ular character. In 1820, when it had increased to 6,500 chests, the opium-ships removed their anchorage to Lintin, farther out of sight of the authorities. The evil was as yet insignificant, and confined to the wealthy and official classes; but in the next twenty years it acquired seri- ous dimensions. For years the Government tried to enforce the law, but the opium im- porters armed their ships and landed their cargoes in defiance of the authorities. At length Lin Tseh-seu was sent to Canton in 1839 to put down the traffic. He besieged the factories at Lintin, seized the 20,000 chests of opium, valued at six million dollars, and threw it into the sea. Smuggling was resumed from Hong-Kong, and, when he beleaguered that place, war was declared. With all the humili- ating terms and the heavy indemnities exacted from the Emperor in the treaty of 1842, he could not be induced to legalize the opium- traffic. Hong-Kong became British territory, and smuggling was carried on in Chinese ves- sels flying the British flag. An arrest of pirates on such a vessel was the ground of the second opium war, by which the treaty of Tientsin, legalizing the 'trade, was extorted in 1858. In 1869 negotiations were commenced for a re- vision, releasing China from the obligation to permit the traffic. A convention, authorizing a slight increase in the import duty, was signed 668 OPIUM QUESTION. OREGON. by Sir Rutherford Alcock in 1871, but was rejected in London. The Chefoo convention, concluded between Sir Thomas Wade and Li- Hung-Chang in 1876, promised, in return for the opening of the four new treaty ports, that opium imports should remain in bond until all dues were paid. As this would have permitted China to restrict the traffic by increasing the local dues, the agreement was not ratified by the British Government. The efforts of the Chinese authorities to sup- press the native cultivation of the poppy have been as fitful and ineffectual as those directed against the smugglers. The task is much more formidable than it would be to check the imports if their hands were freed; but considerable progress has been made of late years. Up to 1848 the cultivation was restrained with toler- able success. Subsequently, and particularly after the Tientsin treaty, the laws fell into desuetude. The policy was actually contem- plated of encouraging the native cultivation until the Indian drug was driven from the market, and then crushing out the home pro- duction. The cultivation was probably ex- tending in Western China and Manchooria, but of late years honest and energetic administra- tors like Tso, Shen, Pao-Chin, Tseng, and Yien have cleared large districts of the plant. Tsu Tsung-tang has reported that the poppy has been banished from the northwest. In like manner more frequent attempts have been made to enforce the laws against consumption, .and thousands of shops have been closed within two or three years. But if a habit so preva- lent, and an interest on which so many depend for livelihood, could be suddenly suppressed in any country, it would be most difficult in that immense, loosely -jointed empire, where central government is only a fiction, where the provincial governors and chief officials of the empire follow independent policies in the present interregnum, where they are glad if they can gather the taxes without driving the people to revolt, and where the administrative machinery is very imperfect and the officers ill-paid and scandalously venal. The abolition of the Chinese opium-trade would entail serious difficulties in the govern- ment of India. There remains too little now of the enormous revenue drained from the in- digent population of India by barbarous taxes discarded in all free countries, after the rapa- cious hierarchy of officials and the great gar- rison of soldiers by which British rule is main- tained have been provided for, to return any satisfactory equivalent in public improvements of which the need is crying, and the schemes already matured, even with the opium revenue, which amounts to 17 or 18 per cent of the total. This forced contribution from China has increased from $10,000,000 in 1843-'44 to $42,000,000 in 1880-'81. It has supplied $672,- 000,000 of net revenue in the last twenty years. The extension of opium-culture in China has not caused the importations to decline ; the aggregate net revenue of the decade 1871-'81 has exceeded that of the preceding decade by about $60,000,000. The Chinese Government also raises a revenue from the import duty, which is fixed by the treaty legalizing the trade, and from internal transit dues, which some estimate at $7,500,000 a year. OREGON". The State officers chosen at the election on the first Monday in June, and in- augurated on September 13th, were Z. F. Moo- dy, Governor; R. P. Earhart, Secretary of State; Edward Hirsch, Treasurer; E. B. Mc- Elroy, Superintendent of Public Instruction; State Printer, W. H. Byars; Supreme Court Judge, W. P. Lord. The other Judges of the Supreme Court are Edward B. WTatson and John B. Waldo ; State Librarian, S. H. Condon. FINANCES.— The receipts of the State Treas- ury were as follows : From the four-mill tax, 1881 $193,932 61 From the four-mill tax. 1882 287.03091 From the earnings of the Penitentiary 11,054 25 From delinquent taxes 1,683 79 From private insane 2,716 07 From sale of stamps 4,651 £9 From sale of books 346 15 Miscellaneous sources 803 50 This, with balance on hand September 1, 1880. . . 57,794 26 Amounts to a total of $510,013 13 The current expenses during the fiscal years 1881 and 1882 amount to about $400,000, thus leaving a balance of $110,000 in the Treasury. The general bonded indebtedness of the State includes the soldiers' bounty bonds, the soldiers' relief bonds, the bonded debt arising out of the Indian difficulties of 1878, known as the Uma- tilla Indian war, and the bonded debt created by the act approved October 25, 1880, to com- plete the payment of the Modoc war bonds. The soldiers1 bounty bonds and soldiers' re- lief bonds are in the same condition they were at the close of the fiscal year 1880, except that the time when the State will be entitled to re- deem them, in accordance with the terms upon which they were issued, is so much nearer at hand, though it continues two years yet. The requisite funds have for a long time been in the Treasury, with which to pay them off, but the holders could not be compelled to receive pay- ment, and, as it appears, preferred to retain them as an investment. The bonded debt arising out of the Umatilla Indian war is yet outstanding, except so far as it has been affected under the provisions of said act approved October 25, 1880, entitled u An act to refund the war debt and maintain the public credit, and appropriate money and levy a tax therefor." At the last-mentioned date there was out- standing a bonded indebtedness known as " the Modoc war bonds," which amounted to $132,- 858.72, with certain accrued interest thereon. By the provisions of said last-mentioned act the State Treasurer was authorized to sell the bonds of the State of Oregon to such an amount as, with the surplus moneys not otherwise appro- priated, which had or might accrue from the OREGON. 669 three-mill tax levied pursuant to an act to pro- vide for a tax to defray the current expenses of the State, and to pay the indebtedness there- of, approved October 20, 1876, would realize enough money to pay in full the said Modoc war bonds, with the accrued interest. And for the purpose of paying the principal and in- terest on said Umatilla Indian war bonds, and the principal and interest upon the bonds of the State of Oregon so to be sold, a one-half mill tax upon the dollar was thereby levied. In pursuance of said act of October 25, 1880, said Treasurer did sell one hundred and twenty bonds of the State of Oregon, each being for the sum of $500, from the proceeds of which, with the surplus moneys accrued from said three-mill tax, he has redeemed the said Mo- doc war bonds. There have been realized the proceeds of one levy of the half-mill tax, which amounted to $29,628; and which has been applied upon the principal and interest of the said indebted- ness, as in and by said act provided. The por- tions thereof unliquidated are respectively the sums following : Upon the Umatilla Indian war bonds, $28,171 ; upon the bonds issued under the act of October 25, 1880, $60,000. A contin- uation of this tax four years longer will more than pay off the entire amount. This indebt- edness arose out of claims assumed by the State. This is all of the general bonded indebted- ness of the State, and if the Umatilla war claims and other claims referred to are allowed at any reasonable amount against the United States, they, together with the Modoc war claims al- ready allowed, will not only pay off all the in- debtedness arising out of those claims, but will bring into the State Treasury a surplus of sev- eral thousand dollars. There is a bonded debt payable to the Wil- lamette Falls Canal and Locks Company, or its assigns, out of the fund arising from the 5 per cent of the net proceeds of the sales of the public lands in the State, and the fund arising out of the sale of the 500,000 acres of land do- nated to the State for the purposes of internal improvements. The original amount of these bonds was $200,000. They bore interest at the rate of 7 per cent per annum. The 500,000 acre grant has all been sold, excepting 40,520 acres, and all of the amount sold has been deeded away, excepting 37,617.21 acres, two thirds of the purchase price of which has not been paid. The cash sums arising upon the sale of said lands, except the portion thereof consumed in expenses attending the management of the grant, have been applied in payment of said lock bonds, which has reduced the same to the sum of $68,000, and the Treasurer has sufficient money on hand to pay off about $30,000 more of them. There will probably be left of the proceeds of the said grant, after the lock bonds are re- deemed $56,000, besides the 40,520 acres of land. "Whatever is left of this grant belongs, it is presumed, to the common-school fund. There is another special indebtedness known as the road warrants. They were made pay- able generally out of the swamp-land fund. They amounted, two years ago, to $133,604. During the last two years a portion of them, amounting to about $14,000 of principal and about $5,500 in interest, has been taken up in payment of the 20 per cent payable on the pur- chase of swamp-lands, under the former act providing for the selection and sale of the swamp and overflowed lands belonging to the State of Oregon. The balance due upon these warrants is but a small sum compared with the amount and value of the swamp and overflowed lands the State is entitled to under the act of Congress of March 12, 1860; yet it will be likely to drag along until more of them, claimed by the State as swamp and overflowed lands, are certified to be such by the department at Washington having the matter in charge. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. — An act of 1880 pro- vided for the construction of an Insane Asylum building. This structure, when completed and furnished, will have cost, it is estimated, not less than $175,000. It was ready for inmates at the close of the year. The last Legislative Assembly organized the School for Deaf Mutes by providing for a board of directors to have the charge and manage- ment thereof. The plan has operated well, and relieved the Board of Education of a great an- noyance. The insane and idiotic, since the death of Dr. J. C. Hawthorne, which occurred about February, 1881, have been kept, under the con- tract made between him and the State, by Mrs. Rachel Hawthorne, widow of the deceased, and Dr. S. E. Josephi, administratrix and adminis- trator of his estate. The whole number in charge of said representatives is 315, of whom 221 are males and 94 females. The number of convicts in the State Peniten- tiary on August 31st was 178. The attendance during the year 188Q-'81 in the collegiate department of the State Univer- sity, according to the report of the president, was as follows: Highest number, 112; 48 women and 64 men. Lowest number, 55 ; 31 women and 24 men. Average for the year, women, 39£; men, 49; total average, 88£. Highest number of free students, 60; 19 women and 41 men. Lowest number of free students, 40; 17 women and 23 men. Aver- age for the year, women, 18 ; men, 32 ; total average, 50. Highest number of pay students, 52; 28 women and 24 men. Lowest number of pay students, 25 ; 14 women and 11 men. Aver- age for the year, women, 21 ; men, 18 ; total average, 39. In the preparatory department the attend- ance was as follows : Highest number during the year, 64; 34 girls and 30 boys. Lowest 670 OREGON. number, 31 ; 17 girls and 14 boys. Average for the year, girls, 251 ; boys, 22 ; total aver- age, 47*. At commencement a class of seven persons was graduated, one woman and six men, four of them in the classical course and three in the scientific one. LANDS GRANTED TO THE STATE. — Reference has already been made to the 500,000 acres do- nated for internal improvements. The grant of ten sections of land, for the completion of public buildings, has been fully realized. The grant of the salt-springs lapsed long ago, and no benefit will probably ever be realized therefrom. The seventy-two sections set apart and re- served for a State University have been select- ed, and about 29,000 acres thereof sold, leav- ing about 17,000 acres unsold. The 90,000 acres of land granted under the act of July 2, 1882, for an Agricultural College, have been selected, and about 26,000 acres there- of sold. The price at which they are required to be sold by the terms of the grant, $2.50 an acre, renders their sale slow. The sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections in each township, granted to the State for the use of schools, have been and are being sold from time to time, as the public surveys are ex- tended. The full benefits of this grant will not be realized until all the public lands in the State are surveyed. The several funds arising from the sales of the lands included in the said grants amount to the following sums respectively : The University fund, principal $62,000 The Agricultural College fund, principal 65,000 The common-school fund, principal 655,000 The investment of these funds, under the present rate of interest, has become very diffi- cult. " I think it absolutely necessary," says Gov- ernor Thayer, " to lower the rate specified in the present law from 10 per cent to 9 per cent or lower. I doubt whether half of the amount on hand will be called for during the next year unless that is done." Referring to the swamp -land grant, the Governor, in his message to the Legislature, At the commencement of my term of office there had only been approved, by the Surveyor-General, 43,653-94 acres. During the time of its continuance he has approved 443,789-36 acres, nearly all of which have been selected, and the proof required by the mode aforesaid furnished. Besides other selections have been and are being made, which, when com- pleted, will make the area of acres at least a half a million, from which the State should realize nearly that number of dollars. There should be remaining in that fund, after the road warrants are paid off, fully $300,000. This fund, like the 500,000 acre grant, has been unkindly dealt with. It has been rudely invaded, and a great portion of its substance purloined. Some portion of it may have been applied to useful purposes, but it would be very small when compared with the benefits that should be received by the State. The appropriations from it for the building of certain roads was somewhat after the manner of the disposal of the various grants by the United States to the State, for the building of roads from and to certain points. Gen- erally they went to enrich private parties. But the remnant may still be preserved and ren- dered highly useful. Ten per cent of the swamp- land fund is pledged by the laws of the State to the use of the common schools. Another portion should be ap- plied to the benefit of the State University, which will enable an institution that should be the pride of Ore- gon to gain a firm financial footing. Had such a policy been pursued a few years ago we should not have wit- nessed the humiliating spectacle of the prevention of a forced sale of its building only through the kindly intervention of a non-resident of the State. An insti- tution that sheds its light and luster far and wide be- coming a mendicant for foreign aid is not a pleasing subject of contemplation. SALMON. — On the regulation of the salmon- fishery, the Governor says : Nature has bountifully supplied the Columbia Eiv- er with salmon, a very excellent quality offish, which, if preserved, will afford 'to the people of the State and adjoining Territories a delicate and substan- tial article of food for all future time. The State has full control over the subject within its limits. That authority has never been delegated. It has complete power to regulate its fisheries. By proper legislation on the part of the State, and of Washington Territory, the salmon of the Columbia Kiver could be preserved and rendered a lasting bene- fit to the people of both sections of the country. This can be done by limiting the catch during the spawn- ing-season. It mav require the arbitrary exercise of authority, for no other kind will check the greed and rapacity of a portion of mankind — the class that will prosecute any business as long as it can be rendered profitable, regardless of the importance of the conse- quences that are certain to follow. One of two modes should be adopted. Either short- en the period in which salmon are allowed to be taken during the season, and regulate the kind and character of the appliances to be employed in taking them, so as to catch only the larger-sized fish ; or limit the catch of a season to a specified number. Either mode may require the appointment of an officer in- vested with authority to enforce the provisions of the regulation, but the exigency of the case will justify it. Some rigorous measure must be adopted to prevent the extirpation of those valuable fish from the waters of the Columbia Eiver. STATISTICS. — The following statistics are for the year 1881-'82 : Acres of land assessed. 5,- 201,654; value, $28,280,847; value of town- lots, $9,727,988 ; value of improvements, $9,- 993,906; merchandise and implements, $11,- 114,159; moneys, notes, and accounts, $15,- 432,444; household furniture, carriages, etc., $2,824,277; horses and mules, 114,024; value, $4,831,352; cattle, 269,412; value, $2,771,040; sheep, 854,750; value, $1,401,837; swine, 85,- 218; value, $193,816; gross value of all prop- erty, $86,531,716; indebtedness, $22,300,912; exemptions, $4,973,058; total taxable prop- erty, $59,257,746; State tax, $325,917.38; school-children, 61,641. LEGISLATURE. — The Legislature met on the llth of September, and adjourned on the 21st of October. The following are among the acts An act to establish a paid fire department for the city of Portland. An act to create the county of Crook, and OREGOK 671 to fix the salaries of the county judge and treasurer thereof. An act making provisions for the incorpora- tion of cemetery associations. An act for the protection of fish and game. An act to create the county of Klamath, and fix the salaries of county judge and treasurer. An act to incorporate the city of Philomath. An act to change the time of meeting of the Legislature of the State of Oregon. An act to authorize the Governor of the State to contract for keeping the insane and idiotic. An act to define the boundaries of Coos and Douglas Counties. An act to provide for the erection of a fish- way or ladder at the falls of the Willamette River, and to appropriate money therefor. An act redistricting the State into judicial districts, and to provide for time and place of holding the Supreme, Circuit, and County Courts, etc. An act to protect the ring-neck Mongolian pheasant in the State of Oregon. An act to protect laborers in timber and logging camps. An act providing for the establishing of State Normal Schools. The most important provision of the law regulating the salmon-fishery in the Columbia River is one prohibiting fishing on the bar or in its immediate vicinity. The bill provides that it shall be unlawful to fish with gill-nets, of any description whatsoever, on or in the vicinity of the Columbia River bar. Hereafter it will be unlawful to take salmon in the Co- lumbia River or its tributaries during March, August, and September, and during the "close times " in April, May, June, and July — such close times to be between six o'clock in the after- noon on Saturday and six o'clock on Sunday. The size of mesh for gill-nets is four and one eighth inches square. It is also made unlawful to put sawdust and mill-refuse into the Co- lumbia River or its tributaries. Severe penal- ties are prescribed for violation of these various provisions. Both branches of the Legislature ratified the proposed woman's suffrage amendment to the Constitution. The vote in its favor was unex- pectedly large, it being 21 yeas to 7 nays in the Senate, and 47 yeas to 9 nays in the House of Representatives. The resolution had previously passed the Legislature of 1880. It now goes to the people. Hereafter the Legislature will meet, and the terms of office of the State officers will end, on the 1st of January. Governor Moody and his colleagues will hold office until January 1, 1887. A heated contest over the United States sen- atorship continued through the entire session. The Republicans were divided, a majority of them supporting obstinately ex-Senator Mitch- ell. On the seventy-fifth ballot, on the last day of the session, just before adjournment, Joseph N. Dolph, of Portland, Republican, was chosen, receiving 51 votes, against 36 for all others. PARTY CONVENTIONS. — The Democratic State Convention met in Portland on the 5th of April, and nominated the following ticket: Congressman, William D. Fenton, of Yamhill ; Governor, Joseph S. Smith, of Portland ; Sec- retary of State, J. K. Weatherf ord, of Linn ; Treasurer, Hyman Abraham, of Douglas ; Su- perintendent of Instruction, W. L. Worthing- ton, of Wasco; State Printer, Wilbur Cornell, of Marion; Supreme Judge, E. D. Shattuck, of Portland. The platform adopted contained the follow- ing among other resolutions : The Democratic party of the State of Oregon, in con- vention assembled, cognizant of the important conse- quences depending upon its deliberations, and affirm- ing the principles of popular liberty and rights laid down by the founders of this Government, do declare as follows : 1. That we favor honesty, efficiency, and economy in every department of the Government, both State and Federal. 2. That we favor the equal protection of the rights of labor and capital under just laws. 3. That while we recognize and respect the legal rights of railroad enterprises, we demand that our Legislatures, State and Federal, enact such laws reg- ulating the same, as may be necessary to prevent un- just discrimination and oppression of the people. 4. That we denounce the present tariff system as class legislation favorable to the few and oppressive to the many ; and therefore demand an immediate revision thereof, a reduction of all import duties to a strict revenue standard ; and that the free list be so enlarged as to include all articles of mechanical, agri- cultural, and domestic use among the people, as far as the needed revenues of the Government will permit. 5. That the President' s veto of the Chinese Immi- gration Bill is a public misfortune. It sets the degrad- ing mark of competition with coolies of China upon the labor of the working-men of America, and it treats with contemptuous disregard the unanimous protests and appeals of the entire Pacific coast. In behalf of the people of Oregon we disapprove and condemn it, and declare it to be the duty of every citizen, regard- less of party j to express his disapproval with his vote as well as with his voice. . . . 8. That we are in favor of a repeal of the naviga- tion laws, and the removal of the duties on all mate- rials that enter into the construction of vessels^ so that American produce can be carried in American bottoms, and the American people be able to enter into competition for the carrying-trade of the world. The Republican State Convention met in Portland on the 20th of April, and nominated the following ticket: Congressman, M. C. George; Governor, Z. F. Moody; Secretary of State, R. P. Earhart ; Treasurer, Edward Hirsch ; Superintendent of Public Instruction, E. B. McElroy; State Printer, W. H. Byars; Judge of Supreme Court, W. P. Lord. The platform adopted contained the following, among other resolutions : The Republican party of Oregon, in convention as- sembled, do make and affirm the following declaration of our political principles : Resolved, 1. That we favor honest, efficient, and economic administration of every department of the Government. 2. That we favor the equal protection of the rights of labor and capital. 3. We are in favor of regulating the salaries of 672 OSTRICH-F ARMING IN THE UNITED STATES. county officers, so that they shall receive such com- pensations as are commensurate with their services. 4. That we regard the free-school system of our State as the special care and pride of the Kepublican party. 5. That it is the policy of the Kepublican party to foster and encourage the development of our State by the construction of railways which will place us in direct communication with our sister States. 6. That we hold all corporations to be strictly re sponsible to their liabilities under the law, and recog- nize the right of the Legislature to enact all reasonable limitations on corporate powers. 8. That we favor the enactment of a law by Con- gress, restoring to settlers the right to homestead and pre-empt in all cases where, by abandonment of en- tries and filing, they have hitherto not had the full benefit of these acts. 9. That the rapidly increasing manufacturing and wool-raising interests of the State demand the con- tinued fostering care of the General Government. 10. That the reciprocity treaty with the Sandwich Islands is an imposition upon the Government and the people, and should be speedily abrogated. t We here earnestly declare it to be our belief that Chinese immigration to the United States should be restricted, and we demand that our representatives in Congress shall persist in advocating the enactment of a law that will effectively accomplish this result. ELECTION EETTJENS. — The election in June resulted in the choice of the Kepublican ticket. The following is the vote : OFFICERS. Republicans. Democrats. Majority. Congressman 22,517 19,152 83C5 Governor Secretary of State. . . 21,481 22,052 21,290 20,069 19,586 18891 1,412 2,516 2399 Bup't Public Instr'n. State Printer 22,163 21,999 19,120 19,561 8,043 2,436 21434 20033 1401 The Legislature chosen at this election con- sists of 16 Republicans and 14 Democrats in the Senate, and 37 Republicans, 21 Democrats, and two Independents in the House. OSTRICH-FARMING IN THE UNITED STATES. This is a new branch of industry proposed for introduction, with promises of rich returns. In May, 1881, it appears that twen- ty-two South-African ostriches were shipped to this country, by way of Buenos Ayres, South America. The birds survived the long sea-voyage, and were placed in the Central Park inclosure, New York. As ostrich-farming has been a very profitable industry in South Africa since 1867, more than $6,500,000 worth of feathers being exported annually, it is urged that American farmers should turn their atten- tion to this new and alluring venture. The business is successful in Buenos Ayres, where the birds flourish and produce a superior quality of feathers. It is claimed that the United States, particularly the Southern, Southwestern, and Pacific States, are admirably adapted to the raising of these birds, who need only an inclosed paddock, or grass-field, with sufficient pastur- age to sustain them. They thrive, it is said, on clover, grass, weeds, grain of any kind, acorns, potatoes, beets, turnips, onions, car- rots, salt, small pebbles, and chopped bones. From what appear to be reliable statements, it is asserted that the product of feathers from one bird annually is worth $60, wholesale, in London. Where the pasturage is very good, the yield of one plucking has reached $150, which, however, is much in excess of what is ordinarily to be expected. There being two pluckings a year, it is deemed reasonable to expect at least $120 worth of feathers from each bird annually in the United States. An ostrich of two years old costs about $375 ; deducting from the yield a percentage for expenses and risks of mortality, the profit is still as much as 15 to 20 per cent on the in- vestment. Any farmer of stock can place (say) fifty birds on his land ; and as the trouble of caring for them is not great, it is claimed as certain that the returns will be large. The cost of four-year-old birds is estimated at $1,200 per pair, and for breeders $1,750 per pair. By the process of incubation it is expected that sixty chicks will be annually reared from a pair of breeders. The first plucking of feathers, at the end of nine months, is worth $5 or $6 per bird, and every six months thereafter, the yield is from $28 to $120 per plucking, according to the age of the bird. Naturally, the birds are timid, but they are readily domesticated, and become on the farm as tame as chickens, ducks, or geese. In the management of them, it is best that they be collected and counted about once a week. Every month they should be brought into a small inclosure, when each bird should be examined, and the ripe feathers plucked. The process of displuming them is quite simple. They are put in a corral, or small pen, so confined that they can not exer- cise their propensity for kicking, and while two men hold the bird, a third proceeds to pluck the feathers. A still safer and more sat- isfactory way is to put the bird in a box or stall made for the purpose. When the birds are breeding, each pair should have a small in- closure to themselves, say seventy yards square, and a little grain daily. As a rule, each wing of an ostrich produces twenty -four to twenty-six long feathers. In the male bird they are all pure white, except two, which are black and white, and usually termed " natural fancy feathers," In the fe- male the long wing-feathers are perfectly white and gray. In addition, the male bird produces at each plucking three ounces of smaller black feathers; the small feathers of the female are gray and drab in color. From the tail are plucked forty ounces of feathers, those from the male being white, and those from the fe- male white, and white and gray. If the judgment of those best acquainted with the subject be sound and correct, ostrich-farm- ing promises to become an active and profit- able pursuit. Further experiment will test the question fully. PARAGUAY. PARSONS, THEOPHILUS. 673 PARAGUAY (REPUBLICS DEL PARAGUAY). Provisional President, General B. Caballero ; Secretary of the Interior, Colonel Duarte ; Secretary of Foreign Affairs, J. S. Decoud ; Secretary of the Treasury, J. A. Jara ; Secre- tary of Justice and Public Worship, J. A. Ba- zaras ; Secretary of War, Colonel Duarte. The republic covers an area of 238,290 kilo- metres square, or 91,650 square miles. POPULATION. — The last census, that of 1876, fixes the population at 293,844 persons. Since the war of 1865-'70, the number of females greatly predominates. The number of foreigners is named at about 7,000 ; of these more than one third are Italians. Next to them, the most nu- merous are Brazilians, Argentines, Spaniards, and Portuguese. Since 1881 the number of Germans has rapidly increased, there being about 350 in the country. The capital, Asun- cion, contains 19,463 inhabitants. FINANCES. — The chief source of revenue is derived from the duties on imports, which in 1881 furnished an income of $412,740, silver. The export duty was abolished in 1877, but, since then, that on hides and Paraguay tea (yerba mate} has been re-established. The budget estimate for 1882 fixed the public ex- penditure at $313,429, of which the Depart- ment of the Interior was expected to absorb $134,583 ; Foreign Affairs, $10,440 ; Treasury Department, $42,948 ; Justice and Public Wor- ship, $60,564 ; and War and Navy, $64,894. PUBLIC DEBT. — Under the provisions of the treaty of peace with the nationalities that com- posed the triple alliance, Paraguay assumed to pay the expense of the war, as well as an in- demnity for the destruction wrought by the invading hosts of Lopez on the borders of Bra- zil and the Argentine Republic. The amount of the indemnity of the war has never been stipulated, but the inhabitants that had been sufferers in consequence of the invasion have drawn up their account establishing a joint claim of several million dollars. This bill Paraguay has formally acknowledged. The internal debt has been reduced by the sale of national property and of the railroad, and fur- ther through the working of a sinking fund created by 15 per cent extra duties levied, so that it now amounts to a mere trifle. On the other hand, the foreign indebtedness increases steadily, through accumulation of unpaid cou- pons. ARMY. — Every able-bodied citizen is held to serve his country ; yet, for economy's sake, the number of soldiers actually enrolled and doing service does not exceed 500 men, 350 of whom are infantry and 150 cavalry. Part of this little force is garrisoned at Asuncion, the re- mainder being scattered along the frontier. In time of war the National Guard is called under VOL. xxii. — 43 A arms. The entire country is subdivided into 70 departments, each of them under a chief of police. COMMERCE. — The imports amounted in 1880 to $1,030,000, the exports to $1,163,000, the duties collected thereon amounting to $320,000, while in 1881 the imports reached $1,278,000, and the exports $1,812,000, $430,000 being the customs revenue derived therefrom. The chief articles of import in 1881 were the following : Cotton goods, $263,000 ; wines, $112,500; flour, $40,800; rice, 25.100; malt- liquors, $24,400 ; bagging, $18,800; exports in the same year: Paraguay tea, 5, 000 tons; to- bacco, 3,600 tons; cigars, 2,000,000; oranges, 24,000,000, the balance being made up from hides, tanning-bark, starch, essence of orange- flowers (2,500 kilogrammes), woods, brandy, Indian corn, and leather. There is no railroad in operation except the Asuncion and Paraguay line, of 45 miles in length. The postal service only forwarded 67,335 letters in 1880, of which 20,796 were inland ; and in 1881 the amount had nearly doubled, 130,113 being forwarded, of which 34,117 were inland. The receipts were $1,872 in 1880, and $2,227 in 1881. The only line of telegraph is the one running parallel with the railroad. PARSONS, THEOPHILUS, died January 26th, at his home in Cambridge, Mass. He was de- scended from a long line of men eminent in Massachusetts since its colonization, and was the son of Chief-Justice Theophilus Parsons, of that State. He was born at Newburyport, in 1797, when that town was a flourishing com- mercial port. After graduating at Harvard in 1816, he spent a year in Europe, and then en- tered upon the study of the law in Boston, in the office of Judge William Prescott, father of the eminent historian. He first practiced his profession in Taunton, and afterward in Bos- ton. At this time he became a frequent con- tributor to " The North American Review " and lesser periodicals, among which were the "Club Room," edited by William H. Prescott; Walsh's " American Review," published in Philadelphia; Merrick's "Free Press," and the " New England Galaxy," of which he was for some time associate editor. He also founded and edited the " United States Liter- ary Gazette," which had but a brief existence. Among Professor Parsons's earlier literary pro- ductions, were a volume of " Sunday Lessons," setting forth the Swedenborgian doctrines, and one of essays treating of such subjects as "Prov- idence," "Life," and "Religion." It is, how- ever, as a writer upon legal subjects that Pro- fessor Parsons is best known. He was appoint- ed to the Dane Professorship of Law at Harvard 674 PENNSYLVANIA. in 1848, which position he held at the time of The 3i Per cents are selling at $106 his death Five years after his appointment he ffi J £ S£ « SgJ £;; = ' IS published his first important work, his well- known and authoritative " Treatise on the Law Before assuming such responsibility, the of Contracts." This was followed by " The Treasurer is justified in awaiting a legislative Elements of Mercantile Law" a year after- command. ward, and by " The Laws of Business for Busi- The sources of revenue to the State for the ness Men " in 1857. In 1859 he published his vear were as foll° w : "Treatise on Maritime Law," and in 1863 his Lands $5,60547 " Treatise on the Law of Promissory Notes Ta* .on corporation stock and limited partner- and Bills of Exchange." The "Treatise on Taxon^ssVeciiptsV:::.::::::::::::::::::':. the Law of Partnershi p " was published in Tax on coal companies 90,703 86 1867 and that on "Marine Insurance and Gen- BStSStj;^ : : " ". IS 3 eral Average" in 1868, and "The Political, Tax on gross premiums 82,057 Persona], and Property Eights of a Citizen of the united states" in 1875. Besides these, his Chief works, Professor Parsons Wrote On a Tax on collateral inheritances 476,852 02 variety of topics. One of his most interesting ^£«*S%^{E::^ J& % Works IS the biography of his father, Chief- Tavern licenses 493,86282 TrmHf»ft Parsons Retailers' licenses 805,984 92 u U1HJV" A.**^ "*• . >TT . _ _ Eating-house licenses 79,682 26 PENNSYLVANIA. STATE GOVERNMENT.— Brewers' licenses 9,188 42 The State officers during the year were the Billiard licenses 1 6,534 60 following : Governor, Henry M. Hoy t, Repub- iStion^ereMiclnses ! :::::: '.'.'. '.'.'. ! '. .' .' ! '.'.'. '.'.'. lican ; Lieutenant-Go vernor, Charles W. Stone ; Liquor licenses 86,076 50 Secretary of State, Matthew S. Quay ; Trees- SSSffl^:: ":: ::." ' 38 % urer, S. M. Baily; Auditor-General, John A. Theatre, circus, etc., licenses 6,040 so Lemon ; Secretary of Internal Affairs, Aaron ££?U81{on charters I80,wi 91 K. Dunkel; Attorney - General, Henry V. ?££^::~:~~--^ $38 Palmer; Adjutant-General, James W. Latta ; Penalties Superintendent of Public Instruction, E. E. ^^S^i^«::::.V:.V::.V::::: ia,i?5oo Hlgbee; Insurance Commissioner, J. M. Fos- Alleghany Valley Railroad Company 439,06941 tor; Judiciary, Supreme Court Chief-Justice ^^^^^^^:::---: $$ g George Sharswood ; Justices, Ulysses Mercur, Annuity for right of way lo'ooo oo Isaac G. Gordon, Edward M. Paxson, Henry Escheats 8,073 87 Green, John Trunkey, and James P. Sterrett. JM^jf0??;;.: "S? 59? FINANCES. Dividends on stock owned by the Common- At the close of 1878 the State debt was $21,875,620 86 Co^sdence-money ' ' ' At the close of 1882 the State debt was 20^225,088 28 JSJoSSnSS. . . „ .' .' .' .' .' .' .' '. .' .' .' .' .' .' .' '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. '. .' .' 1,551 27 Reduction of debt in four years $1 ,650,587 68 Total *7 068 529~66 From this total of State debt is to be deducted assets in sinking fund amounting to ^9_92,983_82 The ^^ expenditures for the same time The net State indebtedness December 1, were $5,024,766.41. 1882'is $12,232,099 46 qf this aggregate, more than $4,000,000 were In 1879 there was refunded an outstanding derived from taxes on corporations. The only debt of $2,000,000, bearing 6 per cent inter- item which, in any true sense, is a direct tax est, by a loan of a like amount, bearing 4 on the people, is that of $437,776.64, " tax on per cent interest, the premiums on which were personal property." This tax is derived from $30,002.83. money at interest, watches, and carriages. If In 1882 State loans of over $10,000,000, it is desirable to retain the taxes on the bearing in the main 6 per cent interest, were national banks, which yield the State nearly refunded by loans of $9,450,000, bearing inter- $350,000 annually, this "tax on personal prop- est at 3, 3-J, and 4 per cent per annum. The erty" can not be abolished, as the acts of Con- premium on these loans amounted to $449,562. gress creating the national banks forbid their The result of these operations has been to being subject to any greater tax than is im- reduce the annual interest which the State posed upon "other moneyed capital "in the pays upon its interest-bearing debt from $],- State. There is no tax for State purposes on 233,623.72 in 1878, to $874,460 in 1882, an real estate. Except certain corporate bonds annual saving of $359,163.72 on this account. and stocks, and the road-beds and shops and There is at present in the sinking fund mechanical devices of railroads, all property in $2,077,073.90 cash. As none of the State loans the State is liable to local taxes, for city, coun- are at present reimbursable, the Treasurer has ty, school, poor, and road purposes. The laws no lawful authority to apply this fund to the for their levy and collection are substantially reduction of the debt, except by going into the uniform, and sufficiently understood by the market and buying the bonds of the State at a people. premium. These bonds, at market rates, now For educational, penal, and charitable pur- bear premiums about as follow : poses, there were appropriated by the Legis- PENNSYLVANIA. 675 lature in 1881, for annual expenditure, sums as follow : Educational $1,463,764 15 Penal 367,198 75 Charitable 681,654 35 Total $2,512,617 25 EDUCATION. — The annual expenditures of all kinds for public schools were $8,263,244.54. The value of school-property is $28,346,560. Appropriation by the State to the common schools $1,000,000 00 Normal schools 82,000 00 Soldiers' Orphan Schools 881,764 15 Total $1,463,764 15 The number of school-directors is 15,000 ; there are nearly 22,000 teachers, and the num- ber of pupils enrolled is 950,000. To these extensive agencies may be added the numer- ous academies, colleges, and universities which are supported by voluntary contributions and private patronage. "I concur," says the Gov- ernor, " in the recommendation of the su- perintendent, that the minimum time during which the public schools should be open each year should be enlarged to six months ; as also that the appropriation made by the State to each district should be distributed on the basis of the average number of children in attend- ance, rather than on the basis of taxables in the respective districts, as is now the law. The State Normal Schools will doubtless be con- strained to present their condition and their claims to the Legislature. Some of them are badly involved in debt, and others, which have contracted no serious indebtedness, are with- out adequate equipment." The Soldiers' Orphans' Schools are now, by law, under the superintendency of the Depart- ment of Public Instruction. The reports show them in a healthy condition, physically, intel- lectually, and morally. There are now 2,963 children in these schools. By existing law it is provided that they shall be finally closed on June 1, 1885. It is estimated that at that date there will be on their rolls 1,770 children. The number of school districts in the State is 2,215 ; number of schools, 19,183 ; graded schools, 7,812 ; school directors, 15,625 ; su- perintendents, 102; male teachers, 9,051; fe- male teachers, 12,778 ; average salaries of male teachers per month, $35.12 ; female teachers, $28.89 ; average length of school terms in months, 6*99 ; number of pupils, 945,345 ; av- erage number of pupils, 611,317; cost of tui- tion, $4,863,717.91; cost of building, purchas- ing, and renting, $1,329,232.03 ; cost of fuel, contingencies, and interest paid, $2,058,294.- 64; State appropriation, $1,000,000 ; estimated value of school-property, $28,341,560. As com- pared with the preceding year, the increase in the number of districts is 7 ; schools, 348 ; grade schools, 555 ; decrease in number of male teachers, 308 ; increase in number of female teachers, 785 ; increase of salary of male teach- ers per month, $1.46 ; decrease of salary of female teachers, 14 cents ; increase of length of school term in months, '11 ; increase in num- ber of pupils, 13,596 ; increase in average num- ber of pupils, 13,596 ; increase in cost of tui- tion, $146,701.41 ; increase in cost of building, purchasing, and renting, $22,220.90; increase in cost of fuel contingencies, debt and interest paid, $59,617.26; increase in value of school- property, $1,736,239. In Philadelphia there were 2,113 schools, 81 male teachers, and 2,032 female teachers. The average salary of male teachers was $120.53 per month, and of female teachers $39.90. The number of pupils at the close of the year was 102,185, and the average attendance 91,894. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. — There are two peni- tentiaries in the State — one in Allegheny and one in Philadelphia. The Western Peniten- tiary has been in process of rebuilding for sev- eral years, at a cost of several hundred thou- sand dollars. The course of treatment pursued there is that known as the congregate system. The Eastern Penitentiary has reached about its limit of cell capacity. It is conducted on the separate confinement or individual treat- ment system. It has not met with the uniform approval of those who claim to be specialists in this branch of political economy, and social science congresses occasionally assume to con- demn its mode of dealing with its inmates. It has, for more than fifty years, held consistently to the statute creating it. " Much as the sys- tem has been controverted, I deem it just," says the Governor, "as one who has given some attention to this subject, to say that for convicts who have deliberately joined the crim- inal class — for those whose age or repeated conviction render them amenable to punitive rather than reformatory methods — and for those against whose violent passions or con- firmed habits society can find no protection but in incarceration, the separate system affords the most complete opportunities of treatment, and yields the best attainable results." There are two institutions in the State for the reform of juvenile offenders— the State Reform School at Morganza, Washington County, and the House of Refuge at Philadel- phia. The latter is a private, corporation, to which the State gives financial aid and official inspection, but in which it has no administra- tive control. It is fulfilling the purpose of its erection with substantial success. The Reform School at Morganza was origi- nally a local institution, but its property and its control are now in the hands of the State. The property consists of a valuable farm of several hundred acres, in a high state of culti- vation, well-constructed brick buildings, con- taining family rooms, dormitories, and work- shops, capable of accommodating about five hundred boys and girls. The State has in operation five hospitals for the care of the insane— at Norristown, Har- risburg, Danville, Warren, and Dixmont. The latter is not strictly a State institution, but receives liberal aid from the State. In them 676 PENNSYLVANIA. are accommodations for nearly four thousand patients. The buildings have cost several mill- ion dollars, and are constructed in view of the largest experience. In all of them, certain sums are required of the State for annual main- tenance. In 1879 the Legislature directed the erection of a State hospital for injured persons of the anthracite - coal region, for the counties ot Schuylkill, Carbon, Northumberland, Colum- bia, and Dauphin. This institution is now completed. The buildings are well arranged, the site is an eligible one, and the purposes of the act seem likely to be successfully reached. Besides these State Institutions, very liberal appropriations have been made in the interests of the defective classes in institutions not un- der State control. These institutions are the "Pennsylvania Working Home for Blind Men," the " Pennsylvania Institution for Instruction of Blind," both in Philadelphia ; " Training- School for Feeble- Minded Children," at Media; "Pennsylvania Institution for Instruction of Deaf and Dumb," at Philadelphia ; " Western Pennsylvania Institute for Instruction of Deaf and Dumb," at Pittsburg. Some thousands of dollars were also appropriated to purely private hospitals, in which were no State pa- tients, in the different cities of the State — Pittsburg, Williamsport, Wilkesbarre, Scran- ton, York, and Harrisburg. LIFE INSURANCE. — The magnitude of this in- terest may be estimated by the fact that in the years 1880 and 1881 the regular life companies of the State and other States authorized to do business in Pennsylvania received premiums from their business in the State amounting to $10,483.836. Of this sum, $3,025,109 was re- ceived by companies of the State, and $7,358,- 696 by companies of other States, upon which last-named sum a tax amounting to $221,768.- 88 was paid into the State Treasury for the privilege of doing business in the Common- wealth. During the same years companies organized under the laws of the State to insure lives upon the assessment plan, received, in the premiums and assessments, the sum of $5,500,989, upon which no tax was paid to the State; and paid for death-claims the sum of $2,959,302. The balance of $2,541,687 was appropriated by these companies to agents, officers, and ex- penses. Most of these companies engaged, without warrant of law, in business of a purely speculative character, and entire communities were demoralized by their nefarious operations. The evil attained such magnitude that it was found necessary to institute legal proceedings for their suppression, which has been happily accomplished through tho instrumentality of the proper authorities. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY. — The Board of Com- missioners of the Second Geological Survey make report of their work and their estimates for the future. The unfinished survey is mainly confined to the anthracite-coal region. Reasons are assigned for the delay and increased cost of this portion of the work, and the letterpress and maps illustrating it. They say : " But such work can not be done within the time nor for the money named in our former estimate. It will require at least three more years and $50,- 000. Whether the Legislature will be willing to expend that amount for the benefit of an interest the most important in the State — in fact, the most important of the kind in the known world, and which has contributed to the State Treasury, directly and indirectly, millions of dollars in taxation — is not for this board to say. If not, the work will be wound up as well as possible, leaving about two thirds of the anthracite region unsurveyed." NATIONAL GUARD. — As now constituted, the National Guard is composed of a single division, three brigades, fifteen regiments, three compa- nies of cavalry, three batteries of artillery, the battalion of State Fencibles, and two independ- ent companies, aggregating 8,220 officers and enlisted men. They are distributed throughout the State in such numbers and in such locali- ties as seemed likely best to subserve any duty to which they might be assigned. The Guard is well equipped, and armed in an ap- proved manner. The mobility and efficiency of the whole command have been well attested, both in camp and in route, on more than one occasion. The quartermaster and commissary departments have been fully proved in their capacity to furnish prompt and economical sup- plies. POLITICAL. — The campaign of the year wa8 notable. Dissatisfaction with the party organ- ization and management had for some time been growing among Republicans, and led in 1881 to the independent candidacy of Charles S. Wolfe for Treasurer, and to the formation of an organization opposed to the existing control of the party. These warnings were not heeded, but early in the year it became evident that the party managers, under the lead of Senator Cameron, had selected their ticket and ar- ranged their programme in advance of the convention, which would meet only to register their will. There was no objection, on per- sonal grounds, to the nominee selected for Governor. The objection of the Independents was against the system. The chief points of their creed were : the overthrow of " bossism," reform in the choice of delegates to State Con- ventions, civil- service reform, and the over- throw of the " spoils system." The action of the regular Republican Convention on these points, though advanced, was not satisfactory, to them. After the two conventions had been held, efforts were made to secure union, but they proved unsuccessful. To the split in the Republican party was added the wise action of the Democratic Convention, whose nominee for Governor was taken as a fit representative of the reform sentiment of the time. The Republican State Convention met in Harrisburg on the 10th of May, and nominated PENNSYLVANIA. 677 the following ticket : For Governor, General James A. Beaver, of Centre County ; Justice of the Supreme Court, William Henry Rawle, of Philadelphia; Secretary of Internal Affairs, John M. Greer, of Butler County; Lieutenant- Governor, William T. Davies, of Bradford County ; Congressman-at-large, Thomas M. Marshall, of Alleghany County. The follow- ing, among other resolutions, were adopted: Resolved, That as the sense of the great body of the Kepublican party of the State of Pennsylvania we de- clare : 1. That we unequivocally condemn the use of patronage to promote personal political ends, and require that all offices bestowed within the party shall be upon the sole basis of fitness. 2. That competent and faithful officers should not be removed except for cause. 3. That the non-elective minor offices should be filled in accordance with rules established by law. 4. That the ascertained popular will shall be faith- fully carried out in State and National Conventions, and by those holding office by the favor of the party. 5. That we condemn compulsory assessments for political purposes and proscription for failure to re- spond either to such assessments or to requests for voluntary contributions, and that any policy of polit- ical proscription is unjust and calculated to disturb party harmony. 6. That public office constitutes a high trust to be administered solely for the people, whose interests must be paramount to those of persons and parties, and that it should be invariably conducted with the same efficiency, economy, and integrity as are expected in the execution of private trusts. 7. That the State ticket should be such as by the impartiality of its constitution and the high character and acknowledged fitness of its nominees will justly commend itself to the support of the united Repub- lican party. Resolved, That it is the duty of the Federal Gov- ernment to adopt a policy which will result in observ- ing good faith toward aborigines by keeping intruders put of the Indian Territory, by enacting laws protect- ing life and property on reservations, by prohibiting tribe removals, by educating all Indian children in manual-labor schools, and by giving lands in sever alty, and eventually citizenship, to all self-supporting Indians who desire the same. Resolved, That the administration of President Chester A. Arthur, commenced under such sad and trying circumstances, has proved to be wise, con- ciliatory, and efficient, and is entitled to the cordial support of every Republican. Resolved, That under the administration of our worthy and able Governor, Henry M. Hoyt, the atfairs of our State have been wisely, honestly, and economically administered, the interests of the tax- payers of the State been carefully guarded, and the administration is worthy of the confidence of every citizen. _ Resolved, That the ticket nominated this day com- bines purity of personal character with eminent ability, is worthy of the hearty and undivided sup- port of every true Republican, and for its election we hereby pledge our earnest efforts. General James A. Beaver, of Centre County, the nominee for Governor, was born in Millers- town, Perry County, Pa., October 21, 1837. His father died when he was three years of age, and he was brought up by his grandfather, who lived in Mifflin County. He was grad uated at Jefferson College when nineteen years of age, with honor, and then settled at Bellefonte, Centre County, and entered the legal profes- sion. Upon the breaking out of the civil war, Beaver entered the service as captain of Com- pany H, Second Pennsylvania Infantry, and served as such during the three months' cam- paign. He entered the three years' service as lieutenant- colonel of the Forty-fifth Pennsyl- vania Infantry. He resigned his command on September 4, 1862, to take command of the One Hundred and Forty-eighth Regiment re- cruited in Centre County. He was shot through the body at Chancellorsville, and his wound was supposed to be fatal, but he was sent to Harrisburg and recovered. Before re- joining his regiment he organized and sent to the field the emergency men from Carnp Cur- tin who participated in the battle of Gettys- burg. He distinguished himself at Auburn Hill and Bristow Station. At Cold Harbor he was wounded in the hip, and promoted to the command of his brigade. At Petersburg, while rallying his forces, he was struck in the side by a piece of shell and thus received a severe wound. He came North and remained until the battle of Ream's Station, on the Wil- mington and Weldon Railroad, August 24, 1864, in which he lost a leg. The loss of his limb obliged him to retire from the service, and he returned to Bellefont, and resumed the practice of law. In 1865 he married the daughter of his law preceptor and partner. He is the President of the Board of Trustees of the Agricultural College of Bellefonte, was a delegate to the Chicago Convention, and, after Oliver's defeat for United States Senator in 1881, was brought forward as a compromise candidate, but was not accepted by the Inde- pendents. Mr. Marshall subsequently declined, and Marriot Brosius was substituted in his place. The Greenback State Convention met in Harrisburg on the 18th of May, and made the following nominations : For Governor, Thomas A. Armstrong, of Pittsburg ; Lieutenant- Gov- ernor, Mayor Powderly, of Scranton ; Supreme Court Judge, J. Adam Eake, of Northumber- land County; Secretary of Internal Affairs, J. Lowry Dewoody, of Venango County ; Con- gressman - at - large, Robert K. Tomlinson, of Bucks County. The platform adopted con- tained the following resolutions : Resolved, That we are against the monopoly of money by the national banking system, and are in favor of the Government issuing all currency and making it full legal tender. 2. We are against the monopoly of transportation and telegraphy, and declare that corporations, the creation of the State, be governed by the State in the interest of the people. 3. We are against the monopoly of the land, and demand the reservation of all public land, including the vast amount now forfeited by the great corpora- tions, for actual settlers. 4. We are opposed to all monopolies, and are in favor of equal rights, equal burdens, equal benefits, and special privileges to none. And whereas the right of labor to organize for dis- cussion and enforcement of its rights in this State has been assailed bv combined monopolies ; therefore — Resolved, 7. That this legal and constitutional right 678 PENNSYLVANIA. shall be maintained, and that associated labor shall have all the rights and privileges permitted to asso- ciated capital. An additional resolution was adopted de- claring that all pay shall be upon a basis of eight hours constituting a day's labor. The Independent Republicans assembled in State Convention in Philadelphia, on the 24th of May, and put forth a ticket consisting of the following names: For Governor, Senator John Stewart; Lieutenant-Governor, Levi Bird Duff, of Alleghany County; Secretary of Internal Affairs, Major G. W. Merrick, of Tioga; for Congressman-at-large, Colonel William Mc- Michael ; for Judge of Supreme Court, George Junkin. The following is the platform adopted by the convention : The Eepublicans of Pennsylvania who will not sur- render their political rightsj and who maintain the exercise of their own conscience and judgment con- cerning public affairs, haying assembled in State con- vention, make the following declaration of principles and purposes : 1. We declare our attachment to the principles of the Eepublican party — freedom, wisdom, nationality, equal rights before the law, maintenance of the pub- lic faith, protection to home industry — and we demand the record which has been so nobly made shall be wisely and fearlessly perpetuated. 2. We declare the nomination and election of James A. Garfleld to the presidency signified to us the tri- umph of true reform in the civil service, and enlarged liberty of action for the masses of the Eepublican party in the" nomination of candidates and the conduct of their party affairs, and we deplore the overwhelming evidence presented to us in Pennsylvania that the calamity of his assassination has been followed by the overthrow of these reforms in the hands of his suc- cessor. 3. We denounce the system which makes " patron- age " and " spoils " out of public offices ; we denounce the practice giving them to political managers for use in advancing personal and political ends ; we denounce the removal of faithful ana competent officers in the absence of public reason ; we denounce the practice of levying assessments and demanding contributions for party use from public officials ; we denounce severally and collectively the evils and corruptions which ac- company the conduct of the Government as the "spoils'" system, and which are inseparable from such method of administration ; and we denounce the system of" boss rule " and " machine " control,which, when tamely endured, makes leaders autocrats, and reduces the mass of citizenship into political bondage. 4. We declare our purpose to take up the work which fell when Garfield fell. We demand, in place of the "spoils system," the reformation of the civil service by law, so that appointive places therein may be freely open to all fit and industrious citizens, and removals therefrom shall be only for good and suffi- cient public cause. We demand instead of the prosti- tution of the public service to private uses, its recog- nition as a high and honorable trust to be adminis- tered for the people's benefit, with efficiency, economy, and integrity. We demand, instead of the insolence, the proscription, and tyranny of " bossism " and " ma- chine" rule, the free and conscientious exercise of private judgment in political affairs, and faithful dis- charge, by those who assume representative trusts, of the expressed will of the people. 5. We declare in favor of the following party re- forms : First, that delegates to State Conventions be chosen by the people in the manner in which the can- didates for General Assembly are chosen ; second, that representation in State Conventions be by counties, dan apportioned according to their Eepublican vote ; third, that State Conventions shall not be held with- out at least sixty days' notice, nor earlier than the second Wednesday of July, except in presidential years ; fourth, that Eepublicans who voted for the Eepublican candidate for President at the presidential election next preceding shall be entitled to join in the choice of delegates to the State and National Conven- tions. The Democratic State Convention met in Harrisburg, on the 28th and 29th of June, and nominated the following ticket: For Govern- or, Robert E. Pattison; Lieutenant-Governor, Chauncey F. Black ; Supreme Judge, Silas M. Clark ; Secretary of Internal Affairs, J. Simp- son Africa; Congressman-at-large, Mortimer F. Elliott. The following platform was adopted : The Democratic party of Pennsylvania, holding fast to the faith that all power not delegated by the Con- stitution is reserved to the States and the people : Upholding the sanctity of personal liberty, the se- curity of personal property, and the rights of local self- government ; demanding honesty and economy in the administration of government and the enforcement of all the provisions of the Constitution by the Legisla- ture and the courts of this Commonwealth ; declaring against monopolies and in sympathy with labor seek- ing its protection, and in favor of the protection of the industrial interests of Pennsylvania, at this time do solemnly protest against evils which the policy and practices of the Eepublican party, and the insolence of its long possession of office, have thus brought upon the country ; therefore — 1. We do protest against what is called the boss system and the plundering of office-holders by assess- ments of money for political purposes ; public offices are the property of no party, but are open to every citizen, honestj capable, and faithful to the Constitu- tion, qualifications which Jefferson declared were the requisites for office. 2. We protest against the spoils system ; it is a prostitution of the offices of the peoplej so that they become the mere perquisites of the politician. 3. We denounce all repudiation, State and Federal, because it is dishonest and destructive of that public morality upon which are founded the existence and perpetuity of our free institutions ; it should be made odious, and the political party that aids it with alliance and abets it with office deserves public condemnation. 4. We denounce spoliation of the State Treasury, and immunity by pardon of those convicted of crimes whose acts are flagrant subversions of official trusts and wrongs done the people. 5. We believe the Eepublican party, as now organ- ized and controlled, is based on fraud, force, and cor- ruption, and there can be no hope for true reform ex- cept by the ballot-box excluding it from place and power. 6. The Democratic party demands of the Legisla- ture an honest, just, and true apportionment. 7. Upon these declarations we invite the co-opera- tion of all honest citizens who, with us, desire the re- establishment of honest government. ROBERT EMORY PATTISON was born December 8, 1850, at Quantico, Somerset County, Mary- land. His father, the Rev. R. H. Pattison, was ordered to Philadelphia by the Methodist Epis- copal Conference when the son had reached his sixth year. There the latter passed through the successive grades of the common schools, and the Penn Grammar and Central High School. He became a law-student in 1869, and in 1872 commenced the practice of law, and was married. In 1877 he was elected PENNSYLVANIA. 679 Comptroller for the city of Philadelphia, and in 1880 re-elected by a large majority. Almost from his first induction into the of- fice of Comptroller, Mr. Pattison invested it with a degree of importance which the law had given it, but which none of his prede- cessors had done. He adopted and main- tained a wide view of the obligations of the office, and declined to hide behind technicali- ties that brought disgrace upon his predeces- sor. He refused to consider the office merely clerical, but investigated claims, and enraged ROBERT EMORY PATTISON. partisans by refusing to be a mere machine to deplete the city Treasury. In this inflexible purpose he recognized no claimant as Demo- crat or Republican. How the whole atmos- phere of that office changed under his vigor- ous, vigilant, and healthy administration, and what complimentary enmity he won from many whose schemes have been rendered hopeless by his relentless scrutiny and deter- mination, is a matter of public notoriety. In view of all this, and of the fact that dur- ing his term complete administrative reform had been inaugurated in the second city of the Union and the first in Pennsylvania, it was not strange that the Democratic State Conven- tion found in him its nominee for Governor. Year by year the political issue of administra- tive reform had become the supreme concern of intelligent men. Recognizing his special fitness to embody this issue, the convention gravitated toward him on the sixth ballot, and without any adjournment after it began to ballot. His nomination was the well-con- sidered action of an unusually earnest and in- telligent body, and that no mistake was made is assured by the universal approbation with which it was received, not only by the party press of the State, but by all the independent journals of any standing, while it challenged the opposition. At the election in November, 1882, Mr. Pat- tison was the successful candidate. The vote was as follows : Robert E. Pattison, Democrat, 355,791 ; James A. Beaver, Republican, 315,- 589 ; John Stewart, Independent Republican, 43,743 ; Thomas A. Armstrong, Labor, 23,484 ; Alfred C. Pettit, Temperance, 5,196. Governor Pattison was inaugurated January 16, 1883, in the presence of the largest gather- ing that, in all probability, ever witnessed a Governor of Pennsylvania inducted into office. His inaugural address was in entire harmony with the pledges he made during the campaign on the side of reform and retrenchment ; and shortly after he sent a message to the Legisla- ture, in which he recommended his policy in very vigorous terms, citing wherein true re- form could be secured, and urging in that con- nection the modification or repeal of certain laws, under which needless offices were created, and a waste of public funds was allowed. An acrimonious controversy followed, which re- sulted in the complete success of Governor Pattison's policy as it related to commissions and special legislation. A better feeling finally prevailed on all sides, save where personal am- bition had been baffled by the young Governor appointing a Cabinet of his own choice ; and, at date, every recommendation made to the Legislature has either been carried out, or bills introduced with that end in view. Nominations were also made by the Tem- perance party. ELECTION RETURNS. — The election in No- vember resulted in the choice of the Demo- cratic ticket. The vote was as follows : Democrat. Republican. Independent. Greenback. Temperance. Governor . . . 355791 815,589 43,743 28,484 5,196 Lieutenant-Governor 853,642 817,614 43.577 19,475 4,662 Secretary of Internal Affairs Congressman. 853.752 851 043 817.408 823.255 48,096 40,995 19,941 20,400 5,497 4.642 Judge 855,935 815,163 41,990 19,285 4,459 For district Congressmen, fifteen Republicans, ten Democrats, one Greenback-Republican, and one Greenback -Democrat were elected. The Legislature of 1883 will be constituted as fol- lows : Republican. Democrat. Senate 80 20 House of Representatives 88 TTs 113 133 680 PERSIA. PERSIA, an empire in Central Asia. The Shah is absolute ruler, with the power of dis- posing of the lives and property of his subjects. The present Shah is Nassr-ed-Din, born Sep- tember 4, 1829. He succeeded his father, Shah Mohammed, September 10, 1848, and is the fourth of the Kajar dynasty, which gained the throne after the civil wars of 1779-1794. The Shah has two sons, Muzaffer-ed-Din, the heir- apparent, born in 1850, and Djilal-el-Dauleh, born in 1853. The constitution of the empire is found in the laws of the Koran, and implicit obedience is paid to the Shah as vicegerent of the Prophet, governing according to the sacred precepts. The Shah formerly had only two ministers, the Grand Vizier and the Treasurer; but now the government is carried on in seven departments on the model of European cabi- nets, the other ministers being, however, sub- ordinate in authority. The Vizier directs the foreign policy and commands the military forces. The empire is divided into twenty provinces, each governed by a beglerbeg, or civil and military governor, who is often a member of the royal family. The towns and villages elect the magistrates who dispense jus- tice. AREA AND POPULATION. — The area is about 634,000 square miles, a great portion of which is desert. The population is approximately 7,653,600, of whom 1,963,800 constitute the city, 3,780,000 the rural, and 1,909,800 the no- mad population. The latter number comprises 260,100 Arabs, 720,000 Turkomans, 675,000 Kurds and Leks, 20,700 Beloochees and Gyp- sies, and 234,000 Bahtiares and Lures. In re- spect to religion, the population is divided into 6,860,600 Shiites, 760,000 Sunnites and other Mohammedan sects, 8,000 Guebres or Parsees, 19,000 Israelites, 43,000 Armenians, and 23,000 Nestorians and Chaldeans. The Imans Djuma and the Sheik-ul-Islam are official Moslem dignitaries, who receive emoluments from the Government ; but the Mushtaheds, who hold no official position, are the real chiefs of the clergy. There are only five members of this priestly order. The Mushtahed who resides at Kerbe- la, near Bagdad, is recognized as the head of all. In choosing their associates, the Mushta- heds always select the candidate acclaimed by the people, who are the actual appointing power. The Armenians have two bishops, one a Roman Catholic, and both residing in Ispa- han. The Christian sects are treated with per- fect tolerance, but the Jews and the Guebres are harshly used. Among the Mussulman population there are in every 1,000 inhabitants 495 males and 505 females ; among the Armenians there are 528 males and 472 females. A considerable proportion of the people of Persia receive a literary education and a larger portion possess the rudiments of education than in any country in Asia except China. There are many colleges supported by the Gov- ernment, where, besides religion, Persian and Arabian literature, and such science as is cur- rent in the East, are taught. Every family that is able employs tutors to instruct its sons. The population of Teheran, the capital, is about 200,000 ; that of Tabreez or Tauris, the chief commercial emporium, 165,000; that of Ispahan and Meshed, about 60,000 each; of Kerman, 42,000 ; of Reshd, Kasbin, and Yezd, about 40,000 each ; of Hamadan, Shiras, Ker- mansha, Dizfoul, and Kachan, about 20,000 each. There were only 42 post-offices in 1879 ; the total number of letters forwarded was 419,- 630. The principal cities are most of them connected by telegraph lines. There were, in 1879, 3,650 miles of lines and 5,950 miles of wires. The number of dispatches sent in 1878 was about 500,000. COMMERCE. — The external commerce of Per- sia is of small volume, the total exports amount- ing to about 1,250,000 tomans or $2,812,500, the imports to twice as much, or about $5,625,- 000. (The toman is a gold piece worth $2.25 ; the silver unit is the keran, of one tenth the value of the toman). The main part of the commerce of Persia centers in Tabreez, which is the market for the productions of Northern India, Samarcand, Bokhara, Cabool, and Beloo- chistan, and the emporium for the European trade, which is carried on by caravans with Constantinople by way of Trebizond. The principal article of import is cotton fabrics from England; the chief article of export is silk, which goes to France and England. Wool- ens, glass, paper, iron, copper, sugar, and tea are also imported. Among the other exports are tobacco, skins, carpets, opium, gums, wool, dates, cereals, and rice. AEMY. — Military service was formerly for life, but by the law of 1875 the time was fixed at twelve years. The system of drawing by lot, the conscripted being permitted to provide sub- stitutes, was ordained ; but it has not been put in practice. The nizams, or regular infantry, muster 77 battalions of from 600 to 800 men each. About 1,500 men, recently organized by Austrian officers, are armed with Werndl rifles. The chassepot had previously been par- tially introduced. The armories contain about 9,000 Werndls, a few thousands of chassepots, and 50,000 old breech-loading muskets. The cavalry consists of the excellently mounted ir- regular troops which the tribes are required to furnish in time of war, and two regiments or- ganized by Russian officers in the manner of Cossacks; the effective force is about 30,000. The artillery numbers 5,000 men, with 200 an- tiquated pieces, excepting 30 Uchatius guns given to five batteries instructed by Austrians. There is a militia, called the Tofangtchi, con- sisting of 24 companies of from 100 to 500 men each, which is employed only as a rural police. FINANCES. — The receipts in 1876 amounted to about $8,200,000, of which some $7,000,000 PERSIA. PERU AND BOLIVIA. 681 were collected in money and the rest in kind, counting a bushel of grain worth a little over 25 cents. The expenses were about $8,000,000. They comprised about $3,400,000 for the army, $1,500,000 for the court, $1,150,000 for the clergy, $350,000 for presents to great families, the Afghans, etc., $1,300,000 for foreign affairs, $250,000 for the other ministries, and $50,000 for colleges. About $600,000 came from direct taxes and $1,000,000 from customs. The direct taxes are levied upon the villages, towns, and districts, which are assessed for a fixed annual sum, the quota being adjusted from time to time by royal assessors. There is no public debt. The surplus revenue of each year is turned into the Shah's treasury. The present Shah is believed to have amassed a fortune of over $20,000,000, one half of which is repre- sented by diamonds. The incidence of the taxes falls directly upon the laboring popula- tion. The Christians, JeWs, and Parsees es- cape paying their proportionate share. The payments in kind are mostly used in the main- tenance of the army. FOREIGN RELATIONS. — The Shah has placed himself virtually under the protection of Rus- sia. By the treaty, concluded on March 10th, adjusting the boundary betwen Per?ia and the Russian possessions east of the Caspian, the Shah ceded to Russia the northeastern rim of the Iranian plateau. The Persian ruler, by this act, places his realm entirely in the power of the Russians, admitting them within the impregnable mountain bulwarks at the edge of the plateau. If the Russians have the acquisi- tion of Afghanistan in view, or if they enter- tained designs upon British India, the conceded territory gives them the command of a shorter and easier route to Herat than around the skirt of the plateau by way of Merv. Astrabad, 320 miles southeast of Krasnovodsky and 40 miles from the Persian port of Chikislar, has become the military and commercial center of Russia in the Transcaspian region. A railroad has been built from the port of Krasnovodsky to this post, placing it in steam communication with the Russian railroad system. The head of navigation on the Tejend, 350 miles above Herat, is only 60 miles distant from Astrabad. Herat is also approachable from Meshed by way of Keltechinar Pass, the distance being 220 miles, and between Meshed and Astrabad 50 miles. The economical value of the ac- quired territory surpasses its strategical im- portance. It embraces the foot-hills of the chains of Kubbet Dagh, Allah Akbar, and Mazderan, extending from Kizil-Arvat to Sa- rakhs. This district was the garden of an- cient Khorassan, and is still as fertile, well- watered, and salubrious, as ever. The raids of the steppe Turkomans have caused the rich valleys to be deserted within the last two cen- turies. According to the Russian maps of sixty years ago, Sarakhs did not form a part of the Persian Empire. The Persians had a fort formerly on the right bank of the Redsh, which they destroyed. They then established the present town of Sarakhs on the other side of the river, and the fortress, which has been manned with Persian soldiers for a quarter of a century. This corner of Iran is better adapted for Russian colonization than any territory ac- quired by the Czar in the khanates. Persia, in subjecting herself to political dependence on. Russia, places her hopes of commercial prog- ress in the Russians. The Russians are ex- erting themselves to extend their traffic on the Caspian, and the caravan-trade with the re- gions beyond. A railroad is spoken of, to be built within three years by the Persian Gov- ernment, from Teheran to the Caspian port of Reshd, and one to be built by Russia from Tiflis, through Erivan and Natchitchevan, to Julfa, and to be extended thence, by the aid of Russian capital, to Tabreez and Teheran. The dominance of Russian influence in Tehe- ran dates from the fall of the chief minister, Mirza Hussein Khan, who was deprived of his post on account of peculation. He returned to Meshed and commenced to fortify it, re- fusing to obey the orders summoning him to Teheran, until he suddenly died, it was said, of poison. His successor, Mirza Seid Khan, is said to stand in Russian pay. INTERNAL DISTURBANCES. — The chief of the Bahtiares, in the neighborhood of Ispahan, was murdered while on a visit to the governor, Djil- al-es-Soltanes, the son of the Shah. The prince was suspected of the crime, actuated by the growing influence and power of the chief. The son of the latter died in like sudden and mysterious manner a few days later. These events roused the Bahtiares to rebellion. The first force of 4,000 to 5,000 troops which was sent against them in August was defeated. While the Bahtiares raised the flag of rebel- lion in the south, the Turkomans continued to be the scourge of the north of Persia. Since the Russians received the submission of the Akhal Turkomans, and commenced paying court to the tribes of Merv, they appear to have been less eager to suppress marauding. The execution of a Turkoman chief, who was sentenced by the Russian governor of Astra- bad, aroused the vengeance of the widow of the chief, who rendered the whole district un- safe. PERU (REPUBLICA DEL PERU) AND BO- LIVIA. For details concerning territorial di- vision, area, population, etc., reference may be made to the "Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1873 and 1878, to the article "BOLIVIA" in the vol- ume for 1879, and to the article " PERU " in that for 1881. Since the year 1882 has passed by without an end to the strife between Chili and portions of the Peruvian population headed by partisan chieftains, and since no practical basis has yet been arrived at for the conclusion of a formal armistice as a forerunner to peace, we shall mainly confine ourselves to making some extracts from the book of Mr. Clements 682 PERU AND- BOLIVIA. R. Markham, " The War between Peru and Chili, 1879-'82" (New York: R. Worthington, publisher). In the preface we find the ensuing passage : " The authentic materials for a narrative of the war are now sufficiently extensive, although they are almost exclusively supplied from the Chilian side. The ground has been carefully described in a series of publications issued by the Chilian Hydrographic Department, enti- tled 'Noticias sobre las provincias litorales.' The official dispatches, diplomatic notes, and reports of correspondents are contained in the * Bole tin de la guerra del Pacifico,' published at Santiago periodically from April, 1879, to March, 1881. The history of the three cam- paigns has been written in copious detail by one of the most distinguished literary men in Chili, Don Benjamin Vicufia Mackenna. The author's powers of description, of delineating character, and of critical analysis are of a very high order. His industry in collecting materials is extraordinary, and it is equaled by his ability in arranging them. Vicufia Mackenna is, above all things, an historical biographer. He could not, if he would, omit a trait or an incident, however much its mention might tell against the view he advocates. His love of historical truth amounts to a passion. From no writer since the days of Ercilla are we more certain to get the good equally with the bad points of an enemy. His work is, therefore, invalu- able. " Don Diego Barros Arana, in his ' Historia de la guerra del Pacifico,' gives us the history of the three campaigns, as well as of the naval warfare. His narrative is less interesting and not nearly in such full detail as that of Vicufia Mackenna. We also have the memoir of the Chilian Minister of "War for 1881, which gave rise to an acrimonious paper war between the minister and the general commanding the army, and thus many things were made public. The general replied in a volume containing all the official dispatches. There are also a few mono- graphs of special actions, such as ' El Combate Homerico' and 'Estudios sobre la vida del Capitan Arturo Prat,' which are useful. Chili, assuredly, has been fully heard, but Peru and Bolivia, apart from official reports, are silent so far as we are aware. If books have been pub- lished, they have not become accessible here. The whole story, with the exception of private letters regarding the proceedings or the fate ot individuals, and mere official utterances, is told by Chilians. Impartiality and common fair- ness, therefore, demand the utmost care in judging of the acts and motives of their oppo- nents. If an unbiased stranger does not adopt the Chilian view with regard to the causes of the war, the justice of its continuance, and the character of some of the events, he at least ar- gues from the same premises. The facts have been supplied almost exclusively by one side ; and, if the historian feels obliged to condemn the proceedings of Chilian statesmen and sol- diers, he must, at the same time, commend the fairness of Chilian writers." From the book of Mr. Markham we bor- row the passage on " Peruvian railroads and finance " : ** On August 2, 1868, Colonel Balta was elected President of Peru. Led on by speculators and contractors, he was unfortu- nately induced to enter upon a career of ex- travagant expenditure with the help of foreign loans. He pushed forward the construction of railroads and other public works with feverish haste. In 1870 he raised a loan of £11,920,000 at 6 per cent, and in 1872 another of £36,800,- 000 to increase the old debt, and for the con- struction of public works. Colonel Balta also guaranteed a loan of £290,000 for a railroad ; so that the whole liabilities of his government became £49,010,000, besides an internal debt of £4,000,000. It seems almost incredible that these loans could have been raised, when the revenue of Peru was notoriously small and pre- carious. The speculators who undertook to advance such sums, only a portion of which ever reached Peru, must have known perfectly well that the continuous payment of the inter- est on them was simply impossible. These matters are not intelligible to an outsider ; but the historian will consider the unhappy people of Peru, not the exceedingly clever financiers who arranged the loans, and were well able to take care of themselves, as the victims. The railroads are largely in the hands of English capitalists. From Payta, the most northern port of Peru, there is a railroad, sixty-three miles long, to the city of Piura, facilitating the shipment of cotton - crops. Farther south a line, forty-five miles long, connects the port of Pimentel with Chiclayo and Lambayeque. The rice-crops of the Terrefiape Valley are brought to the port of Eten by a line fifty miles in length, which is said to be entirely the prop- erty of an English house. The railroad from Magdalena to the port of Pacasmayo, ninety- three miles long, taps the fertile valley of Je- quetepeque, and is a state enterprise. The su- gar and rice estates of Chicania reach the coast by a line of twenty-five mites from Ascope to Malabrigo. The city of Trux'illo is connected with its port of Salaverry by a line of eighty- five miles. The city of Huaraz, between two ranges of the Andes, is to have a railroad to the coast at Chimbote, one hundred and sev- enty-two miles long, but only fifty-two are as yet finished. The capital was connected with its port of Callao by a railroad, in 1851, and with the fashionable watering-place of Cho- rillos in 1858. Another line, forty-five miles long, goes from Lima to Chancay. South of Lima the vineyards and cotton estates of lea are joined to the port of Pisco by a line of forty- eight miles. The railroad from Mollendo to Arequipa was completed in 1870, and runs over one hundred and seventy miles of desert. In order to supply Mollendo with water, a pipe was laid alongside the line for eighty-five miles, starting near Arequipa, 8,000 feet above the PERU AND BOLIVIA. sea, and discharging 433,000 gallons in twenty- four hours. This is the largest iron aqueduct in the world. The line from the port of Ylo to Moquegua is sixty-three, and, from Arica to Tacna, thirty-nine miles long. There is also a system of railroads in Tarapaca, from the ni- trate-of-soda works to the ports, comprising when finished one hundred and eighty miles. All these lines were planned to meet existing needs, and they tap rich and valuable districts, but the great lines across the Andes were un- dertaken prematurely. One passes from Oallao and Lima, across the western and central Cor- dilleras to Oroya in the lofty valley of Jauja, and is to be one hundred and thirty-six miles long. It was commenced in 1870, and rises 5,000 feet in the first forty-six miles. It then threads intricate gorges of the Andes, along the ledges of precipices, and over bridges that seem suspended in the air. It tunnels the Andes at an altitude of 15,645 feet, the most elevated spot in the world where a piston-rod is moved by steam, and will terminate at Oroya, 12,178 feet above the sea. There are sixty- three tunnels. The bridge of Verrugas, span- ning a chasm five hundred and eighty feet wide, rests on three piers, the center one of hollow wrought-iron, being two hundred and fifty-two feet high. Of this Oroyo Railroad eighty-seven miles were completed when the war broke out, and it had cost £4,625,887. Another line crosses the Andes from Arequipa to Puno, on the shore of Lake Titicaca, which was opened in 1872, and is two hundred and thirty-two miles long. Steamers have been launched on the lake. The whole scheme of Peruvian railroads, if ever completed, would have a length of 1,281 miles, private lines 496 miles, and two projects partly private, altogeth- er 2,030 miles, and cost £37,500,000. In 1867 a telegraph company laid down a number of lines. The rule of Colonel Balta, though ru- inous to Peru from a financial point of view, was throughout a period of peace and internal prosperity, ending in the opening of an Inter- national Exhibition at Lima. His successor, Don Manuel Pardo, inaugurated August 2, 1872, was the first civilian who had been elect- ed. He found his country loaded with a debt of £60,000,000, and that a sum of £4,000,000 was needed to pay the annual interest. A con- tract had been made with Messrs. Dry f us, of Paris, in 1869, in order to pay off another debt of £4,000,000 by the sale of 2,000,000 tons of guano, the delivery of which was to commence in 1872. But the whole of the proceeds of the guano was more than absorbed in meeting the liabilities created by the foreign loans. Both demands could not possibly be met, and the payments of the interest on the loans ceased in 1876. They had been regularly met since 1849, and the failure was a great national mis- fortune. All that the new President could do was to curtail the expenditure in every branch, and he hoped to bring it down to £3,000,000. The customs receipts only amounted to £1,500,- 000 in 1875, and there were no direct taxes. He reduced the army, regulated Chinese immi- gration, promoted the exploration of navigable streams leading to the Amazon, organized an efficient volume for the collection of statistics and for a census, and supported the interests of literature. He was the best President that Peru has ever known." About the trade of his countrymen with Peru Mr. Markham observes: "As a customer of Great Britain, the Peruvian Republic held an important position. In 1878 Peru received woolen and cotton goods and other manufac- tures from us to the value of £1,369,836. In return, her exports to Great Britain in the same year were worth £5,232,305. The number of British vessels that entered Callao in 1877 was 720, of which 198 (tonnage, 194,973) were sailing vessels and 522 steamers. Englishmen, therefore, have material as well as moral rea- sons for regretting the ruinous disasters of so good a customer." With reference to the natural resources of Peru, Mr. Markham remarks: "Peru found a strange source of wealth, which was as fatal to her as the great influx of gold and silver was to the mother-country. The trade-winds are loaded with moisture from the Atlantic, which produces the rich vegetation of the Amazon Valley ; but when they reach the snowy ridges of the Andes the last drop of this moist- ure is wrung from them, and they come down to the Pacific coast without a particle. Guano can only accumulate, as a valuable manure, where there is no rain. The great deposits of nitrate of soda have also been formed in des- erts where there is no rain. The exhausted lands of the Old World needed these manures, the farmers were willing to pay high prices for them, and there were vast deposits on the isl- ands and headlands and in the deserts of Peru. A wise government would have treated this source of revenue as temporary and extraordi- nary. The Peruvians looked upon it as though it were permanent, abolishing other taxes, and recklessly increasing the expenditure. The guano demoralized public men, and is the chief cause of the country's ruin. The exportation of guano commenced in 1846, and from 1851 to 1860 the amount of shipping that loaded at the Chincha Islands represented 2,860,000 tons. Between 1853 and 1872 there were 8,000,000 tons shipped ; and in the latter year the Chin- cha Island deposits were practically exhausted. But other deposits were discovered. From 1869 to 1871 over 800,000 tons were shipped from the Guaflape Islands; and since 1874 large deposits have been discovered on headlands of the coast of Tarapaca. In 1875 the guano ex- ports amounted to 378,683 tons, valued at £4,- 000,000. The deposits of nitrate of soda have been worked since 1830 in the province of Tarapaca, the chief ports of export being Iqui- que and Pisagua. From 1820 to 1850 the ex- port amounted to 239,860 tons. It reached its maximum in 1875, when 326,869 tons left the 684 PERU AND BOLIVIA. country in one year. In 1877 the number of ships that cleared from the port of Iquique was 253. In 1878 the number of tons of ni- trate exported from the ports of Tarapaca was 269,327. Other industries rapidly rose in im- portance. The sugar estates on the coast were worked by negro-slave labor until the emanci- pation of 1855. Chinese laborers then began to arrive, and over 58,000 landed between 1860 and 1872. In 1859 the sugar exported from Peru was valued at £90,000 ; in 1876 it had increased to 71,700 tons, valued at £1,219,000, of which quantity 63,370 tons went to Great Britain. A very excellent kind of cotton is grown in the coast valleys, the value of the crops in 1877 being estimated at £160,000 ; and there are extensive vineyards. Rice is also cultivated in the north, besides olives, mul- berries, and cochineal. From the Andes the staple exports are silver and wool." Respecting political events in 1882 Mr. Mark- ham furnishes the ensuing general sketch: " The Provisional President, Pierola, resigned office in November, 1881, and, proceeding to Lima as a private citizen, he has since left the country. Generals Buendia and Silva retired into private life at the same time. Admiral Montero, in the forced absence of Dr. Garcia Calderon, then became the head of the Peru- vian Government as V ice-President in charge. He remained for some time at Huaraz, in the north of Peru; but in August, 1882, he went to Arequipa, where he was enthusiastically received. He proceeded to form a government. Captain Camilo Carrillo became Minister of the Interior; Dr. M. del Valle, of Foreign Affairs; Dr. Epifanio Serpe, of Justice ; Dr. F .F. Oviedo, of Finance; and Colonel Manuel Velarde, of "War. Colonel Iglesias, the hero of the Morro Solar, holds the military command in the north, with his headquarters in the Department of Caxamarca. He has summoned a representa- tive assembly of the northern departments to express their views regarding the terms of peace. The indefatigable Caceres, now pro- moted to the rank of general, is in command in the central departments, actively engaged in organizing an efficient force. At Arequipa the accomplished Captain Camilo Carrillo as- sembled a force of five thousand men, with several guns, and received arms and ammuni- tion by way of Bolivia. Since the arrival of Vice-President Montero at Arequipa, and the assumption of ministerial office by Captain Carrillo, the command of the troops in the south has been given to Colonel Belisario Sua- rez. Colonel Canevaro, who had recovered from the severe wound he received at the bat- tle of Miraflores, has taken the command of the National Guard. The Gcvernment of Peru has thus been reorganized, after the interval ot unavoidable confusion caused by the loss of the capital, and the paralyzing calamity of January, 1881. Bolivia has remained loyally true to her ally, and has also been occupied in the reor- ganization of her army. In September, 1882, Montero proceeded to La Paz to have an inter- view with General Campero, and the resolu- tion of the allies seerns to be to hold out until less hard and more just and reasonable terms of peace can be obtained from Chili. As for the Chilian occupation, enormous sums of money have been extorted at Lima from private per- sons, and a great number of leading citizens have been seized and imprisoned or transported to captivity in remote parts of Chili. The edu- cational establishments, including the Colleges of San Carlos and San Fernando, the School of Arts, and the National Library, have been converted into barracks, their treasures robbed or destroyed. The Peruvian students now have neither books, instruments, nor instruction. Meanwhile predatory raids have been made by the Chilians into the interior from several points on the coast. Soon after the occupation of Lima, Colonel Aristides Martinez, with an adequate force, was landed at Chimbote, and occupied the city of Truxillo. Another smaller force took possession of Pacasmayo. A third party made a dash at the silver-mines of the Cerro Pasco, and penetrated as far as Huana- co, where a revolting slaughter of half-armed Indians was committed. In January, 1882, a force of five thousand men occupied the val- leys of Tarma and Jauja, under Colonel del Canto, who placed garrisons in those towns, as well as at the Oroya bridge, in Concepcion, and in Huancayo. Other parties were sent to Cafiete, Chinca, Pisco, and lea, apparently with the sole object of plunder and useless bloodshed. In the Andean valley of the Jauja the descendants of the Huanca Indians made a brave resistance to the predatory in- cursions of the Chilian garrisons, armed only with spears and slings, and were mercilessly slaughtered, as their ancestors had been by Pizarro. But help was at hand. General Ca- ceres was actively engaged at Ayacucho dur- ing the first months of the year 1882 in organ- izing a force for the defense of the interior of Peru. In July he was able to take the field. Colonel del Canto, with the bulk of the Chilian force, was at Huancayo, and there was a gar- rison of seventy-seven men of the Chacabuco regiment in the town of Concepcion. The first encounter was at Marcabaya, a small vil- lage, two leagues from Huancayo. The Peru- vians then advanced to Concepcion, and, after a long defense of the barracks, the Chilian garrison was cut to pieces on July 9, 1882. Del Canto then assembled the other garrisons from Tarma, Juaja, and Huancayo, and re- treated by way of Oroya to the terminus ot the railroad at Chicla. He burned the town of Concepcion to ashes, in revenge for the Chilian reverse. " Meanwhile a small Peruvian force, under Colonel Tafur, had crossed the Oroya and en- camped on the heights of Chacapalca. He was surprised by two hundred Chilian carbineers under Lieutenant Stuven and forced to retreat with a loss of forty-eight prisoners. The Pe- PERU AND BOLIVIA. 685 ruvians still remained in threatening force in the neighborhood, and Stuven, embarrassed by his prisoners, proceeded to commit a cruel act, which shows how utterly demoralized the Chilians had become. He ordered the Peru- vian prisoners to be formed in a line and shot them down to a man. The wounded were dis- patched by the Chilians with their long knives. The retreat was then continued, and the in- vaders, covered with disgrace by this act of infamy, evacuated the valley of Jauja. Gen- eral Caceres then sent some troops, by a flank- ing march, to a point down the line of rail- way, to intercept the retreat of Canto. On the 22d of July the Chilian garrison, number- ing one hundred men, at San Bartolorne", a place on the railway about fifty miles from Lima, was resolutely attacked. But re-enforce- ments arrived from Lima, under General Gana, and the Peruvians retired over the mountains in good order. The Chilians destroyed several villages along the line, and finally retreated to Chorica, twenty-four miles from Lima. Gen- eral Caceres cleared this part of Peru of the invaders. He established his headquarters at Tarma, in August, 1882, and continued his la- bor of arming and organizing his forces. Hu- aacas, Tquichanos, Pocras, and Morochucos flocked in thousands to his standard, all eager to defend their beloved villages from invasion. But the task of arming and drilling them must needs be slow and difficult. Their leader, how- ever, is one who is not easily turned away from his purpose. Ayacucho is the home of Andres Caceres. He is surrounded by his own people. They know him as the man who has fought for his country in almost every action since the invaders landed at Pisagua. A similar need- IMPORT OF PERUVIAN PRODUCTS INTO THE DOMESTIC GOODS TO PERU. less extension of the horrors of war was planned by the Chilians in Northern Peru, where Colonel Iglesias conducted the defense. A force of three hundred men, landed at the port of Pacasmayo, advanced up the Jequete- peque Valley, with the intention of ravaging the Department of Caxamarca. Met by Igle- sias at San Pablo, twelve miles from Caxamarca, they were defeated, and fled back to Pacas- mayo, leaving their field hospital in the hands of the Peruvians. But they received re-enforce- ments, and eventually, like Pizarro before them, entered Caxamarca as conquering invaders. After converting two of the ancient churches into ruins, and burning several villages, they evacuated the historical city so famous for similar crimes committed there three hundred and fifty years ago. They then entirely de- stroyed the town of Chota, and finally retreat- ed to the coast in September, 1882. " Peru waits in broken-hearted suspense, but with undaunted front, for reasonable terms of peace. The province of Tarapaca to Camaro- nes must be ceded. The nitrate and guano must go with it, and also the claims on the rev- enue derived from nitrate and guano. These false riches have never been other than a curse to their possessors." As some peace settlement is likely soon to be brought about between Peru and Chili, it will not be amiss to study the commercial sta- tistics having reference to the trade of the for- mer with the three leading trading nations, the United States, England, and France, up to and subsequent to the outbreak of hostilities, in view of the revival in this Peruvian trade which may gradually be brought about after the re-establishment of peace : UNITED STATES, AND EXPORT OF AMERICAN IMPORT. Guano. Nitrate of coda. Raw f ugar. Total import from Peru. Domestic export to Peru. Fiscal years : 1869 1,860 Pounds. 14,398,063 Pounds. 15,710110 $1 386 310 $1,556,C34 1870... 44,129 15,298,521 13,826,590 2,557,833 1.858,244 1871 97 836 84 999 332 11 238 544 4 731 430 2 279 773 1872 11.654 27 133 564 9 079 577 1 668 983 4 439.995 1373 2,722 44,153 651 1 142 595 1 186161 2,671,534 1S74 5,482 44,393,855 1,223 £33 1,256,286 1,811,369 1875 17045 41 644 264 508700 1 291 235 2,443,657 1876 17364 85 488 433 13 200 1 426 043 1,001,722 1877 1^.481 29 221 104 16 86" 1 479 511 1,239.006 1878.. 20,982 30,452.962 257,06') 1, £3 1,591 975,507 1879 . 15,087 68,992,9^0 2,018,047 1,857,859 1.293,991 1880 400 14 973 850 2 121 244 861 308 907.603 1881 . . 24,676,514 7C0556 93.785 Total... 252.542 425,827,093 57,156.667 $21. 495,106 $22,573,720 During the fiscal year 1880 the chief arti- cles of domestic merchandise exported to Peru consisted of breadstuffs, $475,604; manufac- tures of iron and steel, $100,552; wooden- ware, $71,127; provisions, $70,935; quicksil- ver, $39,877; cotton goods, $23,995, and pe- troleum, $19,901. In 1882 our export of domestic merchandise to Peru reached $533,823, while we imported $3,029,676 worth of Peruvian products, mostly nitrate. Into the United States, 1859-'68. 1869-'78. " " 1879-80. IMPORTS FROM PERU. $6.048306 18.515.3S3 2 219,167 Into United Kingdom, lS59-'68. 1869-'78. 1879-180. Into France 1 S59-'6S . ...1869-'78. $26,782,856 $136.657.342 . 229,804.310 . 31,832,531 898,294,183 . $50,86^.800 . . 88,221.400 .1879-'80.... 13,804,856 152,395,056 Total imports, 1859-'80 $577,472,095 686 PERU AND BOLIVIA. EXPORTS TO PERU. From the United States, 1859-'63. . $10,143.625 1869-'78. . 21,2-23,865 1879-'80. . 2,2*8,493 From United Kingdom, 1859-'68. 1869-'78. 1879-'80. From France 1859-'68 . . 1869-178.. ...1879-:80.. 134,251,493 Total exports, 1S59-'80 $327,828,517 Total trade with the United States $60,373,844 United Kingdom 058,280,219 France 286,646,£49 Grand total $905,300,612 SHIPMENTS OF NITRATE OF SODA FROM THE WEST COAST. 1888. 1881. 1880. To the north of Europe . . To the Mediterranean . . . To the West Indies To the U. S. Atlantic... . To the U. S. West coast. . Quintals.* 9,108,800 153,180 24,528 1,237,593 178,925 Quintals. 6,284,857 73,526 1,204,183 157,114 Quintals. 4,005,453 45,631 689,855 121,567 Total 10,703 026 7 719 680 4 812 006 The preceding tabular statement shows that prior to the war, in spite of the gradual ex- haustion of the guano deposits in Peru, the export figures from that country were steadily on the increase in its dealings with the three nations named, the large nitrate of soda pro- duction more than compensating for any fall- ing off in guano. Importation, on the other hand, though also about doubling from the United States and England during the second decade we have given, had become stationary from France. During the twenty-two years specified, England did with Peru about twice the amount of business which was transacted between France and Peru, and more than nine times as much as the United States did with that country. This fully demonstrates the cor- rectness of Mr. Markham's remarks about the importance of Peru as a customer of England. Ruined and crippled as Peru is at present, it will, however, take a great many years ere that country will become again what it has been in this respect, if ever it does. BOLIVIA. (REpfj BLIOA DE BOLIVIA). — For par- ticulars concerning area, territorial division, and population, reference may be made to the "Annual Cyclopaedia" for 1877. The forma- tion of a new department, with Tupiza for its capital, is said to be contemplated. The President of the Republic is General Campero (since June 1, 1880), the First Vice- President is Dr. Aniceto Arce, and the Second Vice-President, Dr. B. Salinas. The Cabinet was composed of the following ministers : In- terior and Foreign Affairs, Dr. P. J. Silvetti ; Finance. Dr. A. Quijarro; Public Worship, etc., Dr. P. H. Vargas; War, General J. M. Rendon. The Bolivian Envoy Extraordinary and Min- ister Plenipotentiary to the United States is * One quintal = one hundred pounds Spanish. Dr. L. Cabrera, and the Bolivian Consul-Gen- eral at New York is Sefior Obarrio. The United States Minister Resident and Consul-General in Bolivia is Mr. G. Manney. The Metropolitan Archbishop is Dr. Puch y Solona (elevated in 1861), and there are the following bishops : La Paz, Dr. Juan de Dios Bosque (1874) ; Cochabamba, F. M. del Grana- do (1872); and Santa Cruz de la Sierra, J. J. Valdivia (1879). It is impossible to state the exact condition or number of the Bolivian forces during the past year, but it is to be presumed that the troops which spent most of the year at Oruro, under the command of the General-President, represent but a small proportion of the twenty thousand "fighting men" who were called to arms immediately after the commencement of the war with Chili. Previous to that time the regulation strength of the standing army was about three thousand, comprising eight generals, three hundred and fifty-nine superior, and six hundred and fifty -four subaltern offi- cers. This force, according to official reports, cost the republic $2,000,000 annually. In the budget for 1880-'81, the first return of the sort published by the Finance Depart- ment since 1873, the estimated revenue and expenditure were set down at $3,465,790 and $4,799,225 respectively, showing a deficit of $1,333,435. Among the items of expenditure may be mentioned that for the War Depart- ment, $2,871,959. No mention is made of there being any provision made for covering the deficit just alluded to. The tide of Bolivia's foreign commerce was effectually checked for a time by the war, and, when the reaction at length set in, the direc- tion of the current was for the most part com- pletely reversed. Although Bolivia had two ports exclusively her own, Cobija and Mejil- lone, it was found much more convenient to carry on trade through the Peruvian port of Arica, for which facility Bolivia paid a tax of five per cent to Peru. Soon after the begin- ning of the war, however, the Bolivian sea- ports proper and Arica were successively oc- cupied by the Chilians, and held in a state of blockade for a year. The first two have re- mained permanently closed to Bolivian traffic, and the demand by the Chilians of fifty instead of five per cent on goods passing through Arica in transitu for Bolivia must, if persisted in, eventually determine the withdrawal of Boliv- ian trade from that port. In the face of these adverse circumstances Bolivia sought and has found a comparatively ready channel to the Atlantic seaboard through the Argentine Re- Jublic. The route — being by mule, ma Salta or ujuy to Tucuman, thence by rail to Rosario, and lastly down the river Parana to Buenos Ayres— already offers many advantages, such as transportation at half the rates charged for merchandise intended for consumption on Ar- gentine territory, absolute freedom from du- ties, and the enjoyment, besides, of the privi- PETROLEUM, STATISTICS OF. 687 lege of free storage in the Argentine custom- I. Number of firms and corporations re- JT°!L- W^ libAeral C°nCeS8i°nS *hOW h°W II. ACfn'tof'capitaVinvested::: ' ' ' ' J """ $27 395 746 fully the Buenos Ayres Government compre- in. Hands employed: men, 9,498; women, 25- hends the future importance of the Bolivian T r oMHwn/w« .' 9,869 commerce. In the last-named city, and in Ro- v! u!££$?* amOUDt paid f°r $4,881,572 sario, agencies have been established; a large ' \ o'l ^Vu's ^fe^otritt ' lodging-houses and hotels have been opened 2 Fuel: where such conveniences were unknown ; new Anthracite coal, tons 179,997 industries have been established ; and frequent Bituminous coai,'tons .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' ^toS traffic has led to such improvement in the con- Value $580^983 dition of the roads that it is said to be now Va?ueC°rd8 selS possible "to ride in a carriage from Buenos Coke, bushels.' .".'.'.*.*.'.'."".'.'.'.'.'".'.'.'.'.'!! &5m Ayres to Potosi." Transportation companies H ™u£ $,3,518 run wagons over the route, carrying goods into Value . ....." ".".".V.'.'.'.V.".".'.".' l^'sis the interior of Bolivia, and taking back min- Kesiduum, gallons '..'.'/. njesjos erals ; and when the railway from Tucuman to Jue $229,215 Jujuy is completed, and it becomes possible to 8- ^hemica^-' travel direct from the Argentine capital to that ^vaiS' tOD8 3 city, freights will reach the lowest level of Sulphuric acid, tons'.' .' 45813 cheapness, and it is presumed that both North _ value "'. $i,206,V>2 and South Bolivia will finally transfer their Hydrochloric acid, pounds business from Valparaiso to Buenos Ayres. Soda-ash, tons.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 411 The Bolivian trade with the Argentine Re- Cals^soda'tons $1°fl public, for the year 1880 was of the total value Value '. .'. §86 OW of $2,013,642, against $683,045 for 1879, as fol- Sal-soda, pounds 96>43 lftws. Value $1,428 Aqua-ammonia, pounds 160,160 Exports to the Argentine Eepublic $32,007 Value $8,697 Imports from the A rgentine Republic 860,1 13 Lime, bushels 797 In tramitu from Bolivia 1,570,808 Value $159 In transits to Bolivia 51 214 Bone-black, tons 1 990 — Value $62,815 Total in 1880 $2,013.642 4. Packages: Totalml879 683,045 Barrels 9717306 Increase $1^ The transit trade from Bolivia through the Argentine Republic, in 1880, was as exhibited Value............................ $906,911 in the following table : Bung8' paint' etc>' value 645,412 ARTICLES. Value. Total value of raw materials $34,999,101 Bismuth $31.815 ^^ „ , ^ Quinine 84,866 VI- Products: Hides 15,608 1. Ehigoline, barrels 5.863 Tin 21.061 Value $29,117 Silver 1,416,958 2. Gasoline, barrels 289,555 Value $1,128,166 Total $1,570,308 8. Naphtha, barrels 1,212,626 „,, ,.,. .. . Value $1,833,395 The commodities comprising the transit trade 4. illuminating oil, barrels 1 1^002,249 through the Argentine Republic to Bolivia in . ™u MEMOIES OF THE YEAE. — The literary work of the year in physiology includes a third edition of Professor Mapother's work, revised by Dr. Knott ; a seventh edition of Dr. Dalton's work in a form which, while it is less voluminous than the previous editions, is none the less clear and precise ; and a second edition of Har- ris & Power's " Manual for the Physiological Laboratory." In periodicals have appeared re- searches on "Chlorophyll," by Pringsheim and Lankester; articles on the "Lymphatic Sys- tem," by Klein, and on " Saprolegnia in rela- tion to the Salmon Disease," by Walpole and Huxley; and "Notes on Echinoderm Mor- phology," by Herbert Carpenter, in the " Quar- terly Journal of Microscopical Science " ; a dis- cussion of " The Segmental Value of the Cra- nial Nerves," by Dr. Milnes Marshall, and a description of the " Cerebral Sinuses and their Variations," by Mr. J. F. Knott, in the "Jour- nal of Anatomy and Physiology " ; and papers by Martin and Sedgwick on " The Mean Pressure and the Characters of the Pulse Wave in the Coronal Arteries of the Heart," and by C. S. Roy on " Rhythmical Contractions of the Spleen Independent of Cardiac Movements," in the " Journal of Physiology." In Continental literature, Georges Hayem's " Lecons sur les Modifications du Sang " give the results of careful investigations of the changes presented by the blood under the in- fluence of various remedies and therapeutic agents. Malassez has specially discussed the development of the red corpuscles in the me- dulla of the bones, and Marjet the spontane- ous changes undergone by the colored corpus- cles preserved in plasma without access of air. Alexander Schmidt has given in Brown-S6- PIERPONT, JOHN. POLITICAL ASSESSMENTS. 693 quard's u Archives " a summary of researches on the physiological and pathological action of the leucocytes of the blood, in which he con- tinues to maintain that the white corpuscles contain a ferment which plays an important part in the act of coagulation. Investigations of the bodies called hsematoblasts and the transparent corpuscles have been made by Cadet, Bizzozero, Hart, and others; and Biz- 2ozero has suggested an instrument for the optical estimation of the quality of blood. Ob- servations made by Vignol, in Kanvier's labor- atory, indicate that in the lower vertebrates the heart possesses a local motor and a local inhibitory center. Duclaux has written a work on ferments and their relation to disease. MM. Dastre and Morat have considered the subject of the dilatation of the blood-vessels under the influence of the nervous system, and conclude that it is, in most instances, of a reflex char- acter. Dubar and Remy have studied the phenomena of absorption by the peritoneum ; Langley has worked out, with much success, the histology of the mammalian gastric gland, and the relation of pepsin to the granules of the chief cells. Honigsberg has compared the digestibility of meat, in various conditions, in artificial gastric juice, with conclusions deci- dedly in favor of the superior digestibility of roast meat. Vella has, by means of intestinal fistula and the subcutaneous injection of pilo- carpine, provoked the secretion of intestinal juice, with which he has emulsified fats, con- verted cane-sugar into grape-sugar, and di- gested proteids, and established an important difference in its action on muscle from that of gastric juice. Goultz has made some interest- ing researches into the effects of serious inju- ries upon the vertex convolutions, and on the occipital lobes of the brains of dogs. Mer- schewski has investigated the functions of the olivary bodies of the medulla oblongata, which he believes to stand in close relations with the functions of the cerebellum. Hippolyte Mar- tin has drawn interesting conclusions from the investigation of the structure of muscular tis- sue. Eulenberg has determined the duration of the latent period of the "tendon reflex" in the healthy adult to be, with but little vari- ation, •/•%• of a second. He regards it as some- thing more than a mere reflex phenomenon, and endeavors to prove that it is of a complex nature, while Dr. Watterville is disposed to regard it as a direct contraction. M. Eichet has published a very complete treatise on the physiology of the muscles and nerves, in which the chief facts now known in regard to the important lesions of these organs are clearly given. PIERPONT, Hon. JOHN, Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court of Vermont, died at his home at Vergennes, in that State, on the 6th of January. He was born in Litchfield, Conn., September 10, 1806, and was descended from the Pierreponts and Edwardses of colonial times. He began the study of law at the age of eight- een, in the office of Judge Gould, and three years afterward began its practice with his brother Robert in Rutland, Vt. He subse- quently removed to Pittsfield, and finally lo- cated in Vergennes in 1832, where he married, in 1838, a daughter of General Viley Law- rence, of that place. In 1841 he was repre- sentative of his town in the State Legislature, and was State Senator from Addison County in 1855-'57. He was elected Fourth Associate Judge of the Supreme Court of the State in 1857, and was advanced to the chief justice- ship in 1865, which position he held until his death. Judge Pierpont's health had been fail- ing for a year or so, his death being the result of a general breaking down of the system, rath- er than to any special disease. Judge Pierpont had two sons, one of whom died some years since, shortly after his removal to Chicago. The other son, Henry, married the adopted daughter of Hon. David Davis, of Illinois, and lives in the same city, as does also one of the daughters of the deceased. The other daughter and widow of Judge Pierpont reside in Ver- gennes. POLITICAL ASSESSMENTS. This was the subject of an unusual amount of public discussion during the year, caused chiefly by the action of the Republican Congressional Committee in calling upon officers, clerks, and others, in the service of the Federal Govern- ment, to contribute two per cent of their sala- ries for election purposes. Representative Jay A. Hubbell, of Michigan, was the chairman of this Committee, and D. B. Henderson secre- tary. The Executive Committee consisted of Senators Allison, Hale, and Aldrich, and Rep- resentatives Robeson, Hiscock, McKinley, Da- vis, of Illinois, Fisher, Page, Calkins, Ryan, Hubbs, Van Horn, and Houk. In May the committee began sending Government em- ployed a circular, of which the following is a copy (see CONGRESS, UNITED STATES, page 151) : HEADQUARTERS REPUBLICAN CONGRESSIONAL COMMITTEE, No. 520 THIRTEENTH STREET, NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C., May 15, 1882. (Here follow the names of the chairman, secretary, and Executive Committee.) SIB : This committee is organized for the protection of the interests of the Eepublican party in each of the congressional districts of the Union. In order that it may prepare, print, and circulate suitable documents, illustrating the issues which distinguish the Kepub- lican party from any other, and may meet all proper expenses incident to the campaign, the committee feel authorized to apply to all citizens whose principles ^or interests are involved in the struggle. Under the cir- cumstances in which the committee finds itself placed, the committee believes that you will esteem it both a privilege and a pleasure to make to its fund a contri- bution, which it is hoped will not be less than $ — . The committee is authorized to state that such volun- tary contribution from persons employed in the ser- vice of the United States will not be objected to in any official quarter. The labors of the committee will affect the result of the presidential election in 1884, as well as the congressional struggle, and it may there- fore reasonably nope to have the sympathy and assist- ance of all who look with dread upon the possibility of the restoration of the Democratic party to the con- trol of the Government. 694 POLITICAL ASSESSMENTS. Please make prompt and favorable response to this letter by bank-check, draft, or postal order, payable to the order of Jay A. Hubbell, acting treasurer, post- office box 589. Washington, D. C. By order or the committee : D. B. HENDERSON, Secretary. This action of the Congressional Committee led the New York Civil-Service Reform Asso- ciation to send to Government employes a com- munication, of which the following is a copy : CIVIL-SERVICE KEFORM ASSOCIATION, No. 4 PINE STKEET, NEW YORK, June 17, 1882. DEAR SIB : We understand that a circular has re- cently been sent to you from the Eepublican Con- gressional Committee, asking for contributions to- ward defraying the expenses of that committee at the coming election. We desire to inform you that in the opinion of coun- sel, as the members of the committee are officers of the United States Government, you, as an office- holder, are liable, under section 6 of chapter 289 of the United States Statutes, 1876 (supplement to the Eevised Statutes, page 245), to punishment by flue, or removal from office, or both, hi case vou subscribe, as desired. The National Civil-Service Eeform League proposes to bring the matter to the attention of the Attorney- General, and other prosecuting officers of the United States, and until their decision is given we should advise you prudently to refrain from com- plying with the request of the committee. Eespect- fully, GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS, President. EVERETT P. WHEELER, Chairman Executive Committee. WILLIAM POTTS, Secretary for the New York Civil- Service Eeform Association. The question whether a member of Congress incurred the penalties of the act of 1876 by soliciting or receiving money for political pur- poses from Government employes, was sub- mitted to Attorney- General Brewster, who gave an opinion to the effect that neither a Senator nor a Representative was an "officer" within the meaning of that statute. In August a second circular, of which the following is a copy, was sent by the Congressional Commit- tee to those persons in the Government ser- vice who had not responded to the first : WASHINGTON, D. C., August 15, 18S2. SIR : Your failure to respond to the circular of May 15, 1882, sent to you by this committee, is noted with surprise. It is hoped that the only reason for such failure is that the matter escaped your attention, ow- ing to the press of other cares. Great political battles can not be won in this way. This committee can not hope to succeed in the pend- ing struggle, if those most directly benefited by success are unwilling or neglect to aid in a substantial' manner. We are on the skirmish-line of 1884, with a conflict before us, this fall, of great moment to the republic, and you must know that a repulse now is full of dan- ger to the next presidential campaign. Unless you think that our grand old party ought not to succeed, help it now in its struggle to build up a new South, in which there shall be, as in the North, a free ballot and a fair count, and to maintain such hold in the North as shall insure good government to the country. It is hoped that by return mail you will send a vol- untary contribution, equal to two per cent of your annual compensation, as a substantial proof of your earnest desire for the success of the Eepublican party this fall, transmitting by draft or postal money-order, payable to the order of Jay A. Hubbell, acting treas- urer, post-office lock-box 589, Washington, D. C. By order of the committee : D. HENDERSON, Secretary. The levying of these political assessments or contributions was generally condemned by the press of both parties, as well as independent newspapers. Meanwhile a case had been begun against General Newton Martin Curtis, which resulted in a decision by the United States Supreme Court on the question of the constitutionality of the act of 1876. General Curtis was a Fed- eral officer in New York city, appointed by the Treasury Department. He was also Treas- urer of the New York Republican State Com- mittee, and in that capacity was charged with receiving money from Government employes who had been asked to contribute for political purposes by that committee. At the instance of the New York Civil-Service Reform Asso- ciation, General Curtis was indicted under the act of 1876, tried in the Circuit Court of the United States, found guilty on two counts of the indictment, and sentenced to pay a fine of $500 on each, or $1,000 in all. His counsel contended that Congress had no power to pass the act under which he was indicted, and that therefore it was unconstitutional and void. The Circuit Court affirmed the constitutional- ity of the law, and the case was brought before the Supreme Court on a writ of habeas corpus. The act of 1876 is as follows : That all executive officers or employe's of the Uni- ted States, not appointed by the President, with the ^cer or employe of the Government, any money or tperty, or other thing of value, for political pur- property Ana any such officer or employe" who shall offend against the provision of this section shall be at once discharged from the service of the United States ; And he shall also be deemed guilty of a misde- meanor, and on conviction thereof shall be fined in a sum not exceeding five hundred dollars. On December 18, 1882, the Supreme Court rendered a decision holding the act constitu- tional. In the opinion, written by Chief-Jus- tice Waite, it is pointed out that the above act rests on the same principle as that originally passed in 1789, making it unlawful for certain officers of the Treasury Department to engage in trade or commerce, to own a vessel, to buy public lands or other public property, or to be concerned in the purchase or disposal of the public securities of a State or of the United States; and that passed in 1812, which makes it unlawful for a judge appointed under the authority of the United States to engage in the practice of the law ; and that passed in 1853, which prohibits every officer of the United States from acting as an agent or attorney for the prosecution of any claim against the United States ; and that passed in 1863, prohibiting members of Congress from practicing in the Court of Claims; and that passed in 1867, re- quiring the dismissal of any officer or employ^ of the Government who requests any working- man in a navy-yard to contribute or pay any money for political purposes ; and that passed in 1868, prohibiting members of Congress from POLITICAL ASSESSMENTS. 695 being interested in contracts with the United States ; and that passed in 1870, which provides that no officer, clerk, or employe in the Gov- ernment service shall solicit contributions from other officers, clerks, or employes for a gift to those in a superior official position, and that no officers or clerical superiors shall receive gifts from their subordinates. After remark- ing that many other acts of a kindred charac- ter might be referred to, Chief-Justice Waite said: The evident purpose of Congress in all this class of enactments has been to promote efficiency and integ- rity in the discharge of official duties and to maintain proper discipline in the public service. Clearly such a purpose is within the just scope of legislative power, and it is not easy to see why the act now under con- sideration docs not come fairly within the legitimate means to such an end. It is true, as is claimed by the counsel for the petitioner, political assessments upon office-holders are not prohibited. The managers of political campaigns not in the employ of the United States are just as free now to call on those in office for money to be used for political purposes as ever they were, and those in office can contribute as liberally as they please, provided their payments are not made to any of the prohibited officers or employe's. What we are now considering is not whether Congress has gone as far as it may, but whether that which has been done is within the constitutional limits upon its legis- lative discretion. A feeling of independence under the law conduces to faithful public service, and nothing tends more to take away this feeling than a dread of dismissal. If contributions from those in public employment may be solicited by others in official authority, it is easy to sec that what begins as a request may end as a de- mand, and that a failure to meet the demand may be treated by those having the power of removal as a breach of some supposed duty growing out of the political relations of the parties. Contributions se- cured under such circumstances will quite as likely be made to avoid the consequences of the personal displeasure of a superior as to promote the political views of the contributor — to avoid a discharge from service, not to exercise a political privilege. The law contemplates no restrictions upon either giving or re- ceiving, except so far as may be necessary to protect, in some degree, those in the public service against ex- actions through fear of personal loss. . . . If there were no other reasons for legislation of this character than such as relate to the protection of those in the public service against unjust exactions, its con- stitutionality would, in our opinion, be clear ; but there are others to our minds equally good. If persons in public employ may be called on by those in au- thority to contribute from their personal income to the expenses of political campaigns, and a refusal may lead to putting good men out of the service, liberal payments may be made the ground for keeping poor ones in. So. too, if a part of the compensation re- ceived for public services must be contributed for po- litical purposes, it is easy to see that an increase of compensation may be required to provide the means to make the contribution, and that in this way the Government itself may be made to furnish indirectly the money to defray the expenses of keeping the po- litical party in power that happens to have for the time being the control of the public patronage. Po- litical parties must almost necessarily exist under a republican form of government, and, when public em- ployment depends to any considerable extent on party success, those in office will naturally be desirous of keeping the party to which they belong in power. The statute we are now considering does not interfere with this. The apparent end of Congress will be ac- complished if it prevents those in power from requir- ing help for such purposes as a condition to continued employment. Justice Bradley dissented from the opinion of the court. In his annual message to Congress in De- cember, President Arthur referred to the sub- ject of political assessments in the following language : I declare my approval of such legislation as may be found necessary for supplementing the existing pro- visions of law in relation to political assessments. In July last I authorized a public announcement that employes of the Government should regard themselves as at liberty to exercise their pleasure in making or refusing to make political contributions, and that their action in that regard would in no man- ner affect their official status. In this announcement I acted upon the view which I had always maintained and still maintain, that a public officer should be as absolutely free as any other citizen to give or to withhold a contribution for the aid of the political party of his choice. It has, how- ever, been urged, and doubtless not without founda- tion in fact, that by solicitation of official superiors and by other modes such contributions have at times been obtained from persons whose only motive for giving has been the fear of what might befall them if they refused. It goes without saying that such con- tributions are not voluntary, and in my judgment their collection should be prohibited by law. A bill which will effectually suppress them will receive my cordial approval. Early in January, 1883, the President signed the Civil-Service Reform bill, which contains the following provisions relating to political assessments : SECTION 11. That no Senator or Eepresentative or Territorial Delegate of the Congress, or Senator, Eep- resentative, or Delegate elect, or any officer or employe of either of said Houses, and no executive, judicial, military, or naval officer of the United States, and no clerk or employ 6 of any department, branch, or bu- reau of the executive, judicial, or military or naval service of the United States shall, directly or indi- rectly, solicit or receive, or be in any manner con- cerned in soliciting or receiving, any assessment, sub- scription, or contribution for any political purpose whatever, from any officer, clerk, or employe or the United States, or any Department: branch, or bureau thereof, or from any person receiving any salary or compensation from moneys derived from the Treasury of the United States. SEC. 12. That no person shall, in any room or build- ing occupied in the discharge of official duties by any officer or employe" of the United States mentioned in this act, or in any navy-yard, fort, or arsenal, solicit in any manner whatever, or receive any contribution of money or any other thing of value for any political purpose whatever. SEC. 13. No officer or employe" of the United States mentioned in this act shall discharge, or promote, or degrade, or in any manner change the official rank or compensation of any other officer or employe, or prom- ise or threaten so to do, for giving or withholding or neglecting to make any contribution of money or other valuable thing for any political purpose. SEC. 14. That no officer, clerk, or other person in the service of the United States shall, directly or in- directly, give or hand over to any other officer, clerk, or person in the service of the United States, or to any Senator or member of the House of Bepresenta- tives, or Territorial Delegate, any money or other valuable thing on account of or to be applied to the promotion of any political object whatever. _ SEC. 15. That any person who shall be guilty of vi- olating any provision of the four foregoing sections 696 PORTUGAL. shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and shall, on conviction thereof, be punished by a fine not ex- ceeding $5,000, or by imprisonment for a term not exceeding; three years, or by such fine and imprison- ment both, hi the discretion of the court. PORTUGAL, a monarchy in the south of Europe. The Constitution accorded by Dom Pedro IY, in 1826, was revised by the Cortes in 1852. The legislative power resides in the Cortes, which consists of two Chambers. The Chamber of Peers numbers about 150 mem- bers, nominated for life by the King. The Chamber of Deputies has numbered, since 1878, 149 members, who are elected by the people. The hereditary peerage was abolished in 1864. The number of peers whom the sovereign can appoint is not limited. The possession of an academical degree and an income equal to $1,500 confers eligibility. The franchise is limited to citizens having a clear income of $107. The Cortes meet and separate at fixed dates. The King has no veto on legislation. All laws concerning the army and general tax- ation must originate in the Chamber of Depu- ties. The King, Luis I, born October 31, 1838, was the son of Maria II and Prince Ferdi- nand of Saxe-Coburg. He has two sons, Carlos, born in 1863, and Affonso, bora in 1865. He succeeded his brother, Pedro Y, November 11, 1861. The executive authority is exercised in the name of the King by a Cabinet divided into seven d epartments and responsible to the Cortes. The ministry formed November 16, 1881, is composed as follows : President of the Council and Minister of Finance, A. M. de Fontes Pereira de Mello ; Minister of the Interior, T. Ribeiro da Fonseca ; Minister of Justice and Worship, Dr. J. Marques de Yillena ; Minister of War ad in- terim, General A. M. Fontes Pereira de Mello ; Minister of Marine and the Colonies, J. de Mello Gouvea; Minister of Foreign Affairs, A. de Serpa Pimentel; Minister of Public Works, Commerce, and Industry, Dr. E. R. Hintz Ri- beiro. AEEA AND POPULATION. — Portugal contains 36,510 square miles, not including the Azores, with an area of 966, and Madeira and Porto Santo, with 317 square miles, which islands form an integral part of the kingdom. The population of continental Portugal, according to the census of January 1, 1878, was 4,160,315 against 3,996,163 in 1868; the population of the Azores in 1878, 259,800 ; of Madeira, 130,- 584; total population of the kingdom, 4,550,- 699. Of this total, 2,175,829 were of the male and 2,374,870 of the female sex. The density of population was 127 to the square mile. The only towns of over 20,000 inhabitants were the capital, Lisbon, with a population of 246,343 (including the suburbs of Belem, population 30,029, and Olivaes, population 28,910), and the seaport Oporto, with 105,838 inhabitants. COLONIES. — The colonial possessions of Port- ugal have an aggregate area of about 694,400 square miles, and an aggregate population esti- mated at 3,333,700. Of this number 2,000,000 are the estimated population of the Angola possessions in Africa, about 311,000 square miles in extent ; 350,000 the estimated popu- lation of the Mozambique possessions, 381,000 square miles in extent; and 300,000 that of Timor, 6,200 miles in area. The Cape Yerd Islands contained, in 1879, 99,317 inhabitants, area 148 square miles ; St. Thomas and Prince's Islands, in 1881, 21,037, area 415 square miles; town of Macao, in China, in 1880, 59,959 ; Goa and dependencies, in 1881, 419,993, area 1,250 square miles; Daman and its district, 48,838, in 1881, area 30 square miles ; and Diu, in 1881, 12,636. COMMEECE. — The largest share of the com- merce of Portugal is with England, to which it ships wine of about the average value of $5,000,000 a year, and from which it receives cotton goods of four fifths that value, and which with the iron and woolen goods more than balance the account. The total com- merce in 1880 amounted to 34,948,000 milreis of merchandise imports and 24,716,000 milreis of exports. (The milreis or 1,000 reis is a gold coin which was equal in value to the old Mexi- can dollar, about $1.08.) There were cereals imported of the value of 6,000,000 milreis, tex- tile fabrics of the value of 5,738,000 milreis, metals of the value of 4,544,000 milreis, ani- mal food products of the value of 4,511,000 milreis, and tropical products of the value of 3,258,000 milreis. The chief exports were wines of the value of 9,693,000 milreis, animal food products of the value of 3,440,000 milreis, •woods of the value of 3,165,000 milreis, and fruits, etc., of the value of 2,856,000 milreis. Of the total imports of 1880, 15,233,000 mil- reis came from Great Britain, 5,298,000 milreis from the United States, and 4,140,000 milreis from France; of the exports, 10,783,000 mil- reis went to Great Britain and 5,964,000 mil- reis to Brazil. The total commerce of 1881 was much small- er, the imports amounting to 23,601, 000 milreis and the exports to 13,588,000 milreis. The imports of 1882 amounted to 24,875,000 and the exports to 17,488,000 milreis. The merchant navy numbered, in 1881, 41 steamers and 412 sailing-vessels. The number of vessels entering Portuguese ports in 1880, including coast-traders, was 7,331 sail-ships and 3,278 steamers. Somewhat less than 24 per cent of the tonnage was Portuguese. The length of railroads in operation in Octo- ber, 1882, was 1,045 miles. The length of the state telegraph lines at the end of 1880 was 2,730 miles, of wires 6,805 miles. The num- ber of paid dispatches was 633,219, of which 379,802 were domestic, 139,301 foreign, and 114,116 in transit. The receipts were 247,463 milreis against 336,015 in 1 879. The total num- ber of letters, papers, and postal-cards forwarded by the post in 1881 was 35,677,441, including 14,600,096 domestic letters, 9,409,208 newspa- PORTUGAL. POTTER, CLARKSON N. 697 pers, and 792,972 postal-cards, and 3,499,133 foreign letters and postal-cards received and dispatched. The receipts were, in 1879-'80, 495,060 milreis. AEMY AND NAVY. — The army is recruited partly by conscription under the law of 1864, introducing obligatory military service; but about one half the standing army is composed of enlisted volunteers. One half the conscripts are not required to receive instructions. The half who enter the army for the three years of active service are chosen by a second drawing of lots among the total number conscripted. The effective annual recruit averages about 10,000. Immunity from conscription is pur- chasable for about $200. The active army in 1882 numbered nominally 1,643 officers and 33,231 men on the peace footing, and 2,688 officers and 75,336 men on the war footing. There were in actual service on the 31st of July, 2,097 officers and 28,156 men, including 2,617 men on leave of absence. The navy in 1882 consisted of one ironclad corvette, 7 other corvettes, 9 gunboats, 2 tor- pedo-boats, and 12 other steamers, besides 16 sailing-vessels. It was manned by 280 officers and 3,034 seamen. FINANCES. — The average revenues for the last ten years have amounted to about $25,- 000,000, and the average expenditures to about $3,750,000 more. The total revenue in 1878- '79 was 28,944,484 milreis and the total ex- penditures were 34,118,700, of which 10,723,- 928 milreis were paid on the public debt, 7,167,- 885 for public works, and 16,226,887 for ordi- nary expenses. The estimated revenue for 1882-'83 is 29,654,012 milreis, of which 6,066,- 630 milreis are derived from direct taxes, 15,- 210,770 from indirect, and 2,578,234 from the railroads, posts, and other public property and enterprises. The estimated expenditures are 35,276,211 milreis, of which 13,089,321 are for the public debt; 5,763,870 for the civil list, pensions, interest, and capital payments on temporary debt, and financial administration ; 2,161,149 for public instruction, charities, pub- lic safety, subventions to municipalities, and other expenses in charge of the Ministry of the Interior; 627,372 for the Ministry of Worship and Justice ; 4,599,930 for the Ministry of War ; 1,663,721 for the Ministry of Marine and the Colonies; 308,486 for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs; 2,727,084 for the Ministry of Public Works; and 4,335,278 for outlay on public works, constituting the extraordinary expen- diture. The colonial budgets for 1882-'83 show 2,388,445 milreis of aggregate receipts, and 2,579,146 of expenditures. The public debt on June 30, 1881, amounted to 430,879,399 milreis, of which 232,929,349 milreis formed the domestic debt, newly funded at 3 per cent, and 197,950,050 milreis the for- eign debt, contracted in England. For over thirty years there has been no budget without a deficit. The funded debt in July, 1880, amounted to 391,667,650 milreis. In Decem- ber of that year a new foreign loan of £4,000,- 000 sterling was added. The interest on the debt is never fully paid. The foreign 3 per cent loans were issued at 50 per cent of their face value. In 1852 the interest on the debt, amounting then to nearly $100,000,000, was arbitrarily reduced to 3 per cent. In 1873 the floating debt was funded by the issue of a loan of $42,500,000 of 3 per cent bonds at 43£ per cent; but it has continued since to accumu- late. LEGISLATION. — In the royal speech at the opening of the Cortes on January 2d, new measures for the development of primary and secondary education, army and navy reforms, the building of railroads and highways, for establishing a financial equilibrium, and a new commercial treaty with France were announced. Although the legal period of the session was prolonged eight times and the Cortes sat one hundred and ninety-nine days, many of the measures introduced had to be postponed. The commercial convention with France was ap- proved. A syndicate which undertakes the construction of a railroad from Salamanca, in Spain, to Oporto and Beira Alta was guaran- teed 5 per cent interest, in spite of a violent opposition. POLITICS. — The Government continues to re- strain its vigorous opponents by force, break- ing up public meetings which discuss its policy with hostility. In the latter part of 1882 the anarchistic form of socialism, propounded by the Russian, Bakunin, which has many adher- ents in Southern Europe, particularly in Spain, began to manifest itself in the formation of secret societies and revolutionary conspiracies. POTTER, CLARKSON N., lawyer, born at Schenectady, N. Y., in 1824; died January 23, 1882, at his home in New York city. Mr. Potter was of Quaker descent ; his ancestors in this country settling at Warwick Neck, R. I., in 1640. His grandfather was Joseph Potter, who represented. Dutchess County, N. Y., in the Legislature shortly after the Revolution, and his father Alonzo Potter, Bishop of Pennsylvania. On his mother's side he was descended from the distinguished Eliphalet Nott, for a long time president of Union College, who preached the celebrated funeral sermon over Alexander Hamilton. Mr. Potter was graduated from Union College in 1842, and afterward studied civil engineering at the Rensselaer Institute. In 1843 he went to Milwaukee, Wis., then a small village, where he was employed for a time by the postmaster. He afterward found em- ployment as an engineer, and at the same time studied law, and in 1848 began the practice of this profession in his native State, which he continued until 1859, gaining a high reputation. In this year he retired, his brother, Robert B., succeeding him. On the breaking out of the rebellion his brother enlisted, and Mr. Potter resumed his practice at the bar. In 1868 he was elected to Congress from the Twelfth Dis- 698 POWER OF CONGRESS OVER WITNESSES. trict of New York as a Democrat, where he soon gained distinction. In this first term he served upon the Committees of Private Land Claims, of Commerce, and of Elections. He was re-elected in 1870, and served upon the Judiciary Committee. He was President of the Democratic State Convention in 1871, and was elected delegate to the Democratic National Convention in the following year. He opposed the nomination of Horace Greeley in this con- vention, but, as is usual, did his utmost for his election when nominated. He was re-elected to the Forty-third Congress, and served again upon the Judiciary Committee and upon a special committee on the South, appointed to investigate certain election frauds in Louisiana, on which Mr. Potter rendered valuable service. In 1875 he reported, from the Judiciary Com- mittee, a resolution with reference to the presi- dency, proposing that the term of office be six instead of four years, and that hoth the Presi- dent and Vice-President be ineligible for re- election. Mr. Potter declined a nomination to the Forty-fourth Congress, but was elected to the Forty -fifth, as also to the Forty-sixth. He took a prominent part in the discussions rel- ative to the disputed electoral votes of the States of Florida and Louisiana, in the presi- dential election of 1876, which question was finally settled, as is well known, by the ap- pointment of the Electoral Commission, which decided in favor of Hayes. Toward the close of the session of the Forty-sixth Congress, Mr. Potter moved for the appointment of a select committee to inquire into these same frauds, which was done. Mr. Potter's congressional life ended with this Congress, though he was urged to accept a nomination to the Forty- seventh. In 1 879 he received the Democratic nomination for Lieutenant-Governor of New York, but failed of election, though the con- test was so close that it was at first supposed he was elected. The following year he went abroad, making quite an extended tour. Since then, until the time of his death, he was en- gaged in the practice of his profession. His death was quite unexpected, he being taken suddenly sick in court while speaking upon a railroad bond case before the Court of Ap- peals, at Albany. The immediate cause of death was an acute attack of Bright's disease. POWER OF CONGRESS OVER WIT- NESSES. The important question as to the power of Congress to compel witnesses who are not members to testify before one of its committees, and to punish for contempt in case of refusal, was raised in April by the refusal of Jacob R. Shipherd to disclose the names of the stockholders in the Peruvian company, and to answer other questions put to him by the com- mittee of the House, directed to inquire into the course of this Government toward Chili and Peru when Mr. Elaine was Secretary of State. In view of the decision rendered early in 1881 by the United States Supreme Court in the Kilbourn case, the committee did not un- dertake to compel Mr. Shipherd to testify as to the facts which he declined to disclose. In that case the powers of Congress over witnesses were elaborately discussed by the Supreme Court. It appeared that in January, 1876, the House of Representatives passed a resolution which, after reciting that the Government of the United States was a creditor of Jay Cooke & Co., then in bankruptcy, and that that firm had had a large and valuable interest in "the matter known as the real-estate pool " in the District of Columbia, provided for the appoint- ment of a special committee of five to investi- gate the affairs of the u real-estate pool." Hal- let Kilbourn was summoned to appear before this committee, and to bring with him certain records, papers, and maps relating to the sub- ject-matter of the investigation. He appeared, but refused to produce the hooks and papers called for, and also to answer the questions put to him. He was thereupon adjudged guilty of contempt of the authority of the House, and by order of the House was arrested and sent to jail, where, in consequence of his refusal to testify as required, he was kept forty -five days, at the expiration of which he was released by a writ of habeas corpus granted by the Chief- Justice of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia. Kilbourn then brought an action for false imprisonment against Speaker Kerr, John G. Thompson, the Sergeant-at-Arms, who had made the arrest, and the members of the House who constituted the special committee. Mr. Kerr died before the service of process, and the action abated as to him. Thompson pleaded that in making the arrest he had acted as Sergeant-at-Arms of the House and by its orders. The other defendants alleged that they were members of the House, and main- tained that the order of arrest was an exercise of lawful authority. The plaintiff demurred to these pleas, and the demurrer being over- ruled, judgment was rendered for the defend- ants. An appeal was then taken to the United States Supreme Court. The issue thus joined raised the question as to the powers of the House over witnesses who were not members. On the part of the plaintiff it was contended that the House of Representatives had no power whatever to punish for a contempt of its authority. The defendants, on the other hand, maintained that such power undoubted- ly existed, and when the House had formally exercised it, it was to be presumed that it had heen rightfully exercised. An elaborate opin- ion on the subject was delivered by Justice Miller, and concurred in by all the other jus- tices. The Court pointed out that the power of Congress itself, when acting through the con- currence of both branches, is a power depend- ent solely on the Constitution. Neither branch, when acting separately, can lawfully exercise more power than is conferred by the Constitution on the whole body, except in the few instances where authority is conferred on POWER OF CONGRESS OVER WITNESSES. either House separately, as in the case of im- peachments. The Constitution grants to Con- gress no general power of inflicting punishment. It authorizes each House to punish its own members for disorderly behavior (Article I, section 15, clause 3). And in the clause pre- ceding it is said that they " may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each House may provide." There is, however, no express power conferred on either House to punish for contempt. The advocates of the power argued in favor of its implied existence on the ground of its exercise by the British House of Commons, from which, it was said, we derived our system of parliamentary law. The Supreme Court pointed out that the House of Commons was anciently clothed with judicial functions, and that by virtue of this fact it still retains, like any other court, the power to punish for a contempt of its authority. For that reason this power of the English Commons rests on principles which have no application to other legislative bodies, and certainly can have none to the House of Representatives of the United States — a body which is in no sense a court, which exercises no functions derived from its once having been a part of the highest court of the realm, and whose functions, so far as they partake in any degree of that character, are limited to punishing its own members and determining their election. " We are of opin- ion," said the Court, "that the right of the House of Representatives to punish the citizen for a contempt of its authority can derive no support from the precedents and practices of the English Parliament, nor the adjudged cases in which the English courts have upheld these practices." The Court then proceeded to indi- cate what powers may be exercised by Con- gress, as follows : As we have already said, the Constitution expressly empowers eacli House to punish its own members for disorderly behavior. We see no reason to doubt that this punishment may in a proper case be imprison- ment, and that it may be for refusal to obey some rule on that subject made by the House for the preserva- tion of order. So also, the penalty which each House is authorized to inflict in order to compel the attendance of absent members may be imprisonment, and this may be for a violation of some order or standing rule on that subject. Each House is by the Constitution made the judge of the election and qualification of its members. In deciding on these, it has an undoubted right to exam- ine witnesses and inspect papers, subject to the usual rights of witnesses in such cases ; and it may be that a witness would be subject to like punishment at the hands of the body engaged in trying a contested elec- tion, for refusing to testify, that he would if the case were pending before a court of judicature. The House of Representatives has the sole right to impeach officers of the Government, and the Senate to try them. Where the question of such impeach- ment is before either body, acting in its appropriate sphere on that subject, we see no reason to doubt the right to compel the attendance of witnesses, and their answer to proper questions, in the same manner and by use of the same means that courts of justice can in like cases. Whether the power of punishment in either House by tine or imprisonment goes beyond this or not, we are sure that no person can be punished for contumacy as a witness before either House, unless his testimony is required in a matter into which that House has ju- risdiction to inquire, and we feel equally sure that neither of these bodies possesses the general power of making inquiry into the private affairs of the citi- zen. . . . In looking to the preamble and resolution under which the committee acted, before which Mr. Kil- bourn refused to testify, we are of opinion that the House of Representatives not only exceeded the limit of its own authority, but assumed a power which could only be properly exercised by another branch of the Government, because the power was in its na- ture clearly judicial. . . . What was this committee charged to do ? To in- quire into the nature and history of the real-estate pool. How indefinite ! What was the real-estate pool ? Is it charged with any crime or offense ? If so, the courts alone can punish the members of it. Is it charged with a fraud against the Government? Here, again, the courts, and they alone, can afford a remedy. Was it a corporation whose powers Congress could repeal ? There is no suggestion of the kind. The word u pool," in the sense here used, is of mod- ern date, and may not be well understood ; but, in this case, it means no more than that certain indi- viduals are engaged in dealing in real estate as a com- modity of traffic, and the gravamen of the whole pro- ceeding is that a debtor of the United States may be found to have an Interest hi the pool. Can the rights of the pool, or of its members, and the rights of the debtor, and of the creditor of the debtor, be deter- mined by the report of a committee, or by an act of Congress ? If they can not, what authority has the House to enter upon this investigation into the pri- vate affairs of individuals who held no office under the Government ? The Court held that Sergeant - at - Arms Thompson was liable to suit for false impris- onment. But the other defendants were mem- bers of the House, and for that reason their case raised another important question. The Constitution declares that Senators and Repre- sentatives "shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the ses- sion of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other place." After citing this clause, Justice Miller said : " Is what the defendants did in the matter in hand covered by this provision ? Is a resolution offered by a member, speech, or debate, within the meaning of the clause ? Does its protec- tion extend to the report which they made to the House of Kilbourn's delinquency ? To the expression of opinion that he was in contempt of the authority of the House ? To their vote in favor of the resolution under which he was imprisoned? If these questions be answered in the affirmative, they can not be brought iu question for their action in a court of justice, or in any other place. And yet, if a report, or a resolution, or a vote, is not speech or de- bate, of what value is the constitutional pro- tection? ... It would be a narrow view of the constitutional provision to limit it to words spoken in debate. The reason of the rule is as forcible in its application to written reports 700 PRESBYTERIANS. presented in that body by its committees to resolutions offered, which, though in writing, must be reproduced in speech, and to the act of voting, whether it is done vocally or by passing between the tellers ; in short, to things generally done in a session of the House by one of its members in relation to the business before it. ... "It is not necessary," concluded the Court, " to decide here that there may not be things done in the one House or the other of an ex- traordinary character for which the members who take part in the act may be held legally responsible. If we could suppose the mem- bers of these bodies so far to forget their high functions, and the noble instrument under which they act, as to imitate the Long Par- liament in the execution of the chief magistrate of the nation, or to follow the example of the French Assembly in assuming the function of a court for capital punishment, we are not pre- pared to say that such an utter perversion of their powers to a criminal purpose would be screened from punishment by the constitutional provision for the freedom of debate. In this, as in other matters which have been pressed on our attention, we prefer to decide only what is necessary to the case in hand ; and we think the plea set up by those of the de- fendants who were members of the House is a good defense, and the judgment of the court overruling the demurrer to it, and giving judg- ment for those defendants, is affirmed. As to Thompson, the judgment is reversed, and the case remanded for further proceedings." Mr. Kilbourn prosecuted his suit against Sergeant-at-Arms Thompson, and, in April, 1882, recovered averdictof $100,000 damages. This, however, was soon set aside by the court on the ground of excessive damages. (See DIS- CIPLINARY POWER OF LEGISLATIVE ASSEMBLIES OVER THEIR MEMBERS.) PRESBYTERIANS. I. PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. — A general summary of the statistics of this Church, as published in connection with the *' Journal" of the proceedings of the General Assembly for 1882, is given in the table in the next column. The statistics for 1881 are added for comparison. The condition of the benevolent enterprises of the Church was represented in the reports made by the board having them in charge to the General Assembly in May, the principal items of which may be summarized as follows : Board of Ministerial Relief. — Contributions, $116,347; permanent fund, $277,256. Four hundred and sixty-six cases had been assisted during the year. Board of Publication. — Total receipts, $270,- 530, of which $222,046 were in the publishing department, and $48,484 were in the mission- ary department. Fifty-four missionaries had been employed, and had assisted 997 schools and organized 78 new ones. The board closed the year with a balance of $38,586. The Assembly SYNODS, ETC. 1881. 1888. Synods 88 23 Presbyteries 177 180 Candidates 62'? Licentiates 801 C01 Ministers 5 086 5 145 Elders 16501 is' 854 Deacons 4 596 Churches 5 598 5 744 Added on examination 25\344 29 ; X) Communicants 581 '401 592 128 Baptisms : Adults 8 174 9 078 Infants 17 4^9 19 026 Sunday-school membership CONTRIBUTIONS. Hoice missions ... .... 633,564 $458 098 654,051 $467 625 Foreign missions 475,626 190 799 465,219 14'-* 970 83 015 48 '609 Church erection 158 281 135 620 Eelief fund 63 454 66 022 Freedtnen 69 097 70 832 21 570 20 697 48'028 44 258 Congregational 6 338 579 6 862'640 Miscellaneous . . .... 817 744 929 910 Total $8,674,291 $9,249897 made important reductions in the administra- tion of the missionary department of the board. Board of Education. — Receipts for the year, $54,072. Four hundred and seventy students had been aided, of whom 74 were colored, 24 German, 3 Bulgarian, and one was a Hindoo. Board of Church Erection. — Receipts for the year, $157,185, of which $71,454 were from churches and individuals. The Committee on TJieological Seminaries reported, of the 13 institutions under its charge, that their entire real estate amounted to $1,- 626,153 in value, and their endowment and other funds to $3,693,739. Their income had been $220,717, and they had been attended by 515 students, 195 of whom had been graduated. Freedmen's Committee. — Receipts, $79,176 ; expenditures, $77,111. Good subscriptions had been received toward the erection of new build- ings, and other improvements, for Biddle Uni- versity and Scotia Female Seminary, amount- ing to $106,176. The missionaries consisted of preachers, catechists, and teachers, as fol- lows : Ordained ministers, of whom 56 were colored, 68 ; licentiates, all colored, 8 ; in all, 76. Catechists, all colored, 19. Teachers, males, of whom 29 were colored, 32 ; females, of whom 28 were colored, 46 ; in all, 79 ; mak- ing a total of 174, of whom 140 were colored. Whole number of schools, 58, with 108 teach- ers and 6,088 pupils. Number of chartered institutions, 5, in all of which were enrolled 1,641 students. The committee was author- ized to procure a charter from the State of Pennsylvania, and to extend its missions and schools into the Gulf States as soon as its cir- cumstances will permit. Board of Home Missions. — Receipts for the Home Mission department, $403,108; for sus- tentation, $46,013 ; total, $449,121. Thirteen hundred and three missionaries had been em- ployed, 6,195 persons added on profession of faith, 1,924 adults and 3,820 infants baptized, PRESBYTERIANS. 701 196 Sunday-schools organized, 81 churches built, at a cost of $218,128, 155 churches or- ganized, and 21 churches become self-sustain- ing, during the year. Whole number of mem- bers of the mission churches, 68,041 ; number in the congregations, 119,689 ; number of Sun- day-schools, 1,384, with 116,501 members. Number of church buildings, 1,121, having a total value of $3,095,806. Board of Foreign Missions. — Receipts from all sources, $592,289 ; expenditures, $591,- 639.88, leaving a balance of $649.80. Of this sum, $222,252.75 were from churches, $170,- 304.23 through the women's "societies, $111,- 356.57 from legacies, and $76,342.76 from mis- cellaneous sources. The mission fields occu- pied by the board are among the Indian tribes of the United States, in Mexico, South America, West Africa, Siam, China, the Chinese in Cali- fornia, Japan, Persia, Syria. In these fields were 140 ordained American ministers, 84 or- dained native ministers, 18 American male lay missionaries, 240 American female missiona- ries, 607 native lay missionaries, 16,484 com- municants; in the boarding-schools, 636 boys and 1,247 girls ; in day-schools, 12,743 boys and 4,066 girls ; making a total in all the schools of 20,064. The board was expecting to send out 30 new missionaries. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America met at Springfield, Illinois, May 18th. The Rev. Herrick Johnson, D. D., of Chicago, was chosen Moderator. The part of the proceedings to which the most general interest was attached was the correspondence with the Southern Presbyterian General Assembly relative to the restoration of fraternal relations, of which an account is given below. The attention of the Assembly was called on appeal to a case of dis- cipline in which a member of the church in Emlenton, Pa., had been excluded for dancing. This brought up the question of the interpreta- tion of an amendment to the constitution of the Church, which had recently been adopted, to the effect that appeals and complaints shall not be carried higher than the synods, unless the decision appealed from " affects the doc- trine or constitution of the Church." The ap- pellant in the present case confessed the facts charged, but denied that they constituted an "offense" in the constitutional sense of that word, thus presenting a case which, as the committee to whom the question was referred said in its report, should be held to be one affecting the constitution, and therefore prop- erly coming under the purview of the Assem- bly. Action was taken upon it as follows : "The Assembly finds that there are two branches to this case : the first involving the question of jurisdiction, and the second the merits of the case. This Assembly is not now able to determine either of these questions, on account of the meagerness of the records, and on account of irregularities which are alleged to have occurred in the trial of the court be- low. Therefore the Assembly, reserving its judgment both on the question of jurisdiction and the merits of the case, remands the whole case to the session of the church of Emlenton, with the direction to table new charges with adequate specifications, and cite the accused to answer, taking care that the evidence shall show the case to justify the judgment they may render." A committee was appointed to report to the next General Assembly the names of delegates to the next General Coun- cil of the Presbyterian Alliance, which is to meet in Belfast, Ireland, in 1884. Resolutions were adopted, deprecating the legislation of Congress with reference to Chinese immigra- tion, and expressing the hope " that such sub- sequent action may be taken by our Govern- ment as will be consistent with treaty obliga- tions, promote and foster the friendly rela- tions hitherto existing between China and the United States, and advance the cause of Chris- tian evangelization in that great empire." A paper on Sabbath Observance was adopted, in which the Assembly admonished all its people to bear in mind the sacredness of the day ; en- treated all members and officers of churches " to guard against real violations of the fourth commandment by performing labor on the Sab- bath, under the claim of necessity or mercy, where such claim can not be sustained by the Word of God " ; urged liberal measures to dis- seminate Sabbatarian principles among foreign immigrants ; committed the case as to mem- bers of the church to the sessions ; urged min- isters to represent the subject to their con- gregations; and resolved, "that inasmuch as prominent among the forms of Sabbath dese- cration prevalent in our times are those to which many railroad and steamboat companies and publishers of Sunday newspapers are ad- dicted, the Assembly earnestly counsel all our people not to be, as owners, managers, or em- ployees of such companies, or as shippers or passengers on the Sabbath, or as publishers or patrons of Sunday newspapers, partakers in the guilt of their flagrant forms of Sabbath- breaking." II. PRESBYTEKIAN CHTJEOH IN THE UNITED STATES. — The following is the summary of the statistics of this Church as officially published in connection with the "Journal" of the pro- ceedings of the General Assembly for 1882 : Synods Presbyteries Candidates ............ Licentiates Ministers Churches Ruling elders Deacons .............. Added on examination Total communicants Adults baptized Infants baptized 13 66 160 40 1,081 2,010 6,083 8,917 6,0(52 123,806 1,868 4,769 Number in Sunday-schools and Bible classes ...... 75,883 CONTRIBUTIONS. Sustentation .................................... $36,937 Evangelistic .................................... 25,809 Invalid fund .................................... 10,407 Foreign missions .............................. 46,638 702 PRESBYTERIANS. Brought forward $119,791 Education 41,014 Publication 8,820 Presbyterial 13,718 Pastors' salaries 540,745 Congregational 847,913 Miscellaneous 58,132 Total $1 ,130,133 The standing committees having the various denominational enterprises in charge reported to the General Assembly : Committee on Education. — Receipts, $11,767, or $1,452 more than the receipts of the previous year. One hundred and fourteen candidates for the ministry were returned, against 144 in 1881. Committee of Home Missions. — The receipts had been : for sustentation, $21,715, showing an increase of $3,189 over the contributions of the previous year ; for evangelistic work, $13,- 821 ; for the Invalid fund, $11,088. Aid had been given in the sustentation department to 180 ministers, who were serving more than 400 churches. Eighteen pastoral charges, em- bracing forty or fifty churches, had become self-sustaining. Fifty-five evangelists had been supported, and twelve laborers were conducting the colored evangelistic work with a commend- able degree of success. A bequest of $25,000 had been made by Dr. Stuart Robinson to the Invalid fund, as a permanent capital, with the expectation that the Church would raise the amount to one hundred thousand dollars. Committee on Foreign Missions. — The re- ceipts from all sources had been $69,309, of which $51,999 were from churches and indi- viduals, legacies, &c., $10,984 from women's missionary associations, and $6,326 from Sun- day-schools. The increase over the receipts of the previous year was $10,783. The mission- ary force under the direction of the committee included one hundred and four persons, consist- ing of twenty ordained ministers, one mission- ary physician, and twenty-six female missionary laborers from the United States ; thirteen na- tive ordained preachers, three licentiates, and forty-one native assistants, variously employed as teachers, colporteurs, and Bible readers. Connected with the missions were twenty schools, of which six were boarding-schools with about two hundred pupils, and nine were day-schools with three hundred pupils. The missions were among the Chickasaw Indians (27 organized churches and 1,008 members), in Mexico (3 churches, 220 members), Brazil (4 churches, 104 members, with an Institute at Campinas returning 57 pupils), Italy (a school at Milan), Greece, and China. The commit- tee had contemplated a mission in Africa, but had not yet been able to establish it. The receipts of the Tuscaloosa Institute for the Instruction of Colored Preachers had been $3,678. Eleven Presbyterians and eleven stu- dents from other denominations had been in- structed there, and four Presbyterians had been graduated. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States met at Atlanta, Ga., May 18th. The Rev. Dr. R. K. Smoot, of Aus- tin, Texas, was chosen Moderator. The renewal of fraternal relations with the Northern Pres- byterian Church was the predominant subject of discussion. An account of the action of both bodies in the matter is given below. A ques- tion of much interest was involved in the " Park case," which came up on appeal from the Synod of Memphis, and was supposed to involve the right of a colored presbyter to vote in the pres- bytery composed of whites. The Rev. Samuel Park, an uneducated colored man, a former slave, had been ordained by the Presbytery of Memphis to preach to the colored people, without being given the right to vote in the white presbytery. The formation of a colored presbytery appears to have been anticipated, but not carried into effect. Mr. Park was treated as a presbyter for seven years, when the issue was made as to his right to vote. The moderator decided that he had that right, and the presbytery, by a majority vote, overruled the decision of the moderator. The minority of the presbytery complained to the Synod of Memphis, which reversed the decision of the presbytery. The presbytery then complained to the Assembly against the decision of the synod. This brought up the constitutional question, Can the Presbyterian Church ordain a minister without giving him the right to vote in the presbytery ? The Assembly decided that, as " perfect ministerial parity is an essential and fundamental principle of Presbyterian pol- ity," and whereas Mr. Park had been duly and constitutionally ordained, and had been several times formally recognized by the presbytery as a duly ordained minister, it was the Assem- bly's judgment that he was in full ministerial connection with the presbytery, and conse- quently entitled to vote. Steps were taken to restore the management of the publishing in- terests of the Church, which were now carried on under arrangements with a company in St. Louis, to the exclusive control of the Assembly's Executive Committee, and to provide for the adjustment of the mortgage on the property in Richmond, Va., by the sale of bonds. RESTORATION or FRATERNAL RELATIONS BE- TWEEN THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN GENERAL ASSEMBLIES. — The Northern General Assembly, on the third day of its session, dispatched as a fraternal message to the Southern General As- sembly, "Fathers and brethren, we send you our hearty salutation. See 1 Peter i, 2." In the Southern General Assembly, on the second day of the session, a resolution was offered for the appointment of a committee to convey cor- dial greetings to the Northern Assembly, and to express a willingness to co-operate, as far as practicable, with that body in the work of home and foreign evangelization. This was formally referred to a committee, with the un- derstanding that it should be reported upon as soon as practicable. Before the committee was ready to report, the message from the PRESBYTERIANS. 703 Northern Assembly was received, and answer was sent to it, with the approval of the Com- mittee : u To the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, in session at Springfield, 111. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States at Atlanta, Ga., sends cor- dial Christian salutations, wishing you grace, mercy, and peace." The Committee of the Southern Assembly to which the propositions for seeking a restoration of fraternal relations were referred, reported, with a detailed state- ment of reasons, against entertaining them. This report was not acceptable to the Assem- bly, and the committee having received several suggestions in the way of propositions offered for consideration of forms for messages to be sent to the Northern Assembly, presented as its unanimous conclusion the following paper, which was adopted by the Assembly with only three dissenting votes : In order to remove all difficulties in the way of that full and formal fraternal correspondence for which, on our part, we are so earnestly desirous, we adopt the following minute : That, while receding from no principle, we do here- by declare our regret for and withdrawal of all ex- pressions of our Assembly which may be regarded as reflecting upon, or offensive to, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. Jtesolved, That a copy of this paper be sent by tele- graph to the General AssemblV now in session at Springfield, 111., for their prayerful consideration, and, mutatis mutandis, for their reciprocal concurrence, as affording a basis for the exchange of delegates forth- with. The Northern Assembly replied to this, May 20th : The moderator is instructed to telegraph to the moderator of the General Assembly in session in At- lanta, that his telegram is received with warm enthu- siasm by this Assembly, and, in order to remove all difficulties in the way of that full and formal fraternal correspondence between the two assemblies, which we are, on our part, prepared to accept, we adopt the fol- lowing, to wit : While receding from no principle, we do hereby de- clare our regret for and withdrawal of all expressions of our Assembly which may be regarded as reflecting upon, or offensive to, the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States ; and we re- new the expression of our warm fraternal regard for all who compose its communion, and our readiness to exchange delegates forthwith. In connection with this minute the modera- tor of the Northern Assembly telegraphed per- sonally to the moderator of the Southern As- sembly : As a matter of information, and in justice to all parties, I would say that our Assembly's action on your basis for fraternal relations was taken mutatis mutandis with great heartiness, only two or three dis- senting. Pending our action the following resolution was passed : Resolved, That, in the action now to be taken, we disclaim any reference to the action of previous As- semblies concerning loyalty and rebellion, but only to those concerning schism, heresy, and blasphemy. We were led in prayer after final action, and sang the doxology amid grateful and profound feeling. We shall welcome words from your Assembly con- cerning delegates. To these papers the Southern Assembly re- plied : If the action of your Assembly, telegraphed by your moderator to our moderator, does not modify the con- current resolution adopted by your Assembly and ours, we are prepared to send delegates forthwith. To which the moderator of the Northern Assembly replied : The action referred to does not modify, but it ex- plains, the concurrent resolution, and the explanation is on the face of the action. There is nothing behind it or between the lines. The dissolution of our Assembly is near at hand. We may be ready for final adjournment this evening. An exchange of delegates is impossible before Tues- day. Shall we each appoint delegates this day to visit the respective Assemblies next year ? We await your answer with deep and prayerful interest. And to this the following reply was adopted, and sent by the Southern General Assembly : ATLANTA, GA., May 27. To the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, in session at Springfield : It was unanimously resolved — 1. That the Assem- bly does hereby declare its entire satisfaction with the full and explicit terms in which the General As- sembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America has expressed its reciprocal con- currence in the paper transmitted to our Assembly on fraternal correspondence. 2. That we do unfeignedly rejoice, and render thanksgiving to God for an event suited to take away the reproach of alienation between bodies holding the same standard of faith and order, and tending to bring peace to our borders. 3. That, inasmuch as it is impracticable at this late day to have an interchange of delegates, the Assem- bly does hereby appoint the following to your As- sembly at its next session : Principals: Kev. William Brown, D. D., Kev. T. A. Hoyt, D. D., Hon. B. M. Estes. Alternates: Kev. E. P. Farris.D. D., Eev. H. C. Alexander, D. D., Hon. Patrick Joyes. E. K. SMOOT, Moderator. The Northern Assembly thereupon ap- pointed the following delegates on its part : Principals: Rev. S. J. Niccolls, D. D., Ed- win F. Hatfield, D. D., and Hon. S. M. Moore. Alternates: Rev. Arthur Mitchell, D. D., Rev. S. Iren&us Prime, D. D., and Hon. Will- iam E. Dodge. III. UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN NORTH AMERICA. — The following is a sum- mary of the statistics of this Church as they were reported to the General Assembly in May: Number of synods, 9; of presbyteries, 60; of ministers, 719, of whom 541 were re- turned as serving as pastors and stated sup- plies; of licentiates, 39; of students of the- ology, 50 ; of congregations, 826, of which 661 were served by pastors and stated supplies ; of members, 84,573 ; of Sunday-schools, 809, with 8,647 officers and teachers, and 72,596 schol- ars ; number of baptisms during the year, 629 of adults, and 3,720 of children. Amount of contributions : 704 PRESBYTERIANS. For salaries of ministers $401,493 For congregational purposes 265,717 To the boards. 140,716 General contributions 62,199 Total $930,125 Average per member 11 40 Average salary of pastors 868 00 Increase of members during the year, 1,636. The Board of Church Extension had re- ceived $23,334, and reported its liabilities to be $17,562, and that these were partly offset by a balance in the treasury of $10,148. The Board of Ministerial Relief had re- ceived $10,625, and returned twenty-two bene- ficiaries receiving aid regularly. Its endow- ment now reached $30,000, which was prin- cipally invested in Government bonds. The Board of Education had received $12,- 059, and reported investments and other assets to the amount of $16,260. It had aided twen- ty students of theology. The Board of Freedmetfs Missions had re- ceived $12,727, and reported an indebtedness, largely on account of real estate, of $12,727. It had 718 pupils in its day- and boarding- schools, and 1,000 in Sunday-schools. Fifty- seven students from its schools were engaged in teaching, and had about 2,500 pupils under their charge. The board sustains a college and industrial school at Knoxville, Term., and a considerable school at Chase City, Va. The Board of Home Missions had received $39,344. . It had 76 men able and willing to receive appointments, while the time of only 68 missionaries was asked for by the presby- teries. The 244 mission stations reported 11,- 564 members, and 12,964 attendants at Sun- day-school. The receipts of the Board of Foreign Mis- sions had been $77,872. The following report was made of the condition of missions on the first day of January, 1882 : Presbyteries, 2 ; stations (places where foreign missionaries are located), 8; out-stations, 69 ; foreign ordained ministers, 15 ; female missionaries, including the wives of missionaries, 27 (unmarried, 13) ; native ordained .ministers, 8 ; licentiates, 5 ; native teachers and helpers, 184 ; total foreign and native laborers in the two missions, 239 ; native congregations, 19 ; communicants, 1,- 565 ; increase, 370 ; decrease, 141. Total net increase, 229. Baptisms — adults, 130; infants, 189 ; total, 319. Sabbath-school scholars, 2,- 244 ; in other schools, 4,577 ; in all the schools, 6,151. Contributions for church and benevo- lent purposes, $5,058; for schools, $11,171 ; for books, $6,243 ; total by the natives, $23,272. Books sold and distributed (by the Egyptian mission), 27,150 volumes. Total value of the property in both missions, $122,268. Of the members, 1,168 were in Egypt, and 397 in India. The twenty-fourth General Assembly of the United Presbyterian Church in North America met at Monmouth, 111., May 24th. The Rev. Dr. David Paul, of Ohio, was chosen Moder- ator. The principal interest of the proceed- ings lay in the action which was taken on the subject of permitting the use of instrumental worship in the churches. An overture to re- scind the rule prohibiting the use of instru- mental music in worship had been sent down to the presbyteries to be voted upon. The re- port of the voting showed that 1,233 votes had been cast, of which 620£ were in favor of the repeal of the prohibition, and 612| were against it, while nine persons entitled to vote were returned as not voting. The proposition thus appeared to be carried by a majority of eight, although it had failed to receive the assent of a majority of the whole number of persons entitled to vote. The Assembly, con- sidering the measure lawfully carried, ratified the action, and declared, by a vote of 125 to 99, that the rule prohibiting the use of instru- mental music was repealed. In connection with this action, it further resolved that its decision was not to be considered as authoriz- ing instrumental music in the worship of God, but simply as a declaration of the judgment of the Church that there is no sufficient Bible authority for an absolutely exclusive rule on the subject. '''That while there may be a liberty here, it is a liberty which in itself, especially in the present state of the Church, should be stringently regulated and kept from abuse, or any use that would conflict with the required simplicity of Christian worship." And it instructed the lower courts "to ab- stain, and have all under their authority ab- stain, from any action in this matter that would disturb the peace and harmony of con- gregations, or unreasonably disregard the con- scientious convictions of members." The party in the Assembly opposed to this action maintained that the measure had not been lawfully carried in the presbyteries, be- cause it had not received a majority of the votes entitled to be cast, and contended that the nine votes not cast should be taken ac- count of; and they presented a protest em- bodying their views, in answer to which a paper was filed by the committee having the subject in charge, vindicating the action of the Assembly, and its interpretation of the consti- tution of the Church. A committee was appointed to prepare a brief statement of principles for use in mission work, and report to the next Assembly. The Assembly declared its readiness to co-operate with other churches in every proper way to secure the enforcement of legislation for the protection of Christian citizens in the enjoy- ment of their rights on the Lord's day. No progress was made in the negotiations with the Associate Reformed Synod of the South, for union. IV. REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH (SYN- OD).— The statistics of this body, as reported at the meeting of the synod in May, show that the ten presbyteries of which it is composed in- clude 108 ministers, 122 congregations, and PRESBYTERIANS. 705 10,661 communicants. The total amount of collections, including $79,147 for pastors' sala- ries, was $191,893. The income for foreign missions was $12,835. The Synod of the Reformed Presbyterian Church (O. S.) met at New Concord, Ohio, May 24th. The law of tithes was declared bind- ing on all Christians. Secret societies were de- nounced as unnecessary, sinful, opposed to the Master's example, and essentially hostile to the best interests of society. The " Anti-Chinese bill " was declared a breach of treaty obliga- tions, opposed to the spirit of the age, a gross violation of the law of God, and calculated to arrest missionary effort among the Chinese. The merits of the labors which had been spent upon the revision of the New Testament were recognized, but the synod declared itself com- pelled to withhold its entire approbation from the revised version, while it recommended it for study. The views of the synod with reference to the incorporation of a recognition of the prin- ciples of the Christian religion into the Consti- tution of the United States were reiterated, and the sum of $10,000 was appropriated in aid of the agitation of those views during the year. The question was brought up whether members of the Church in Iowa could, consistently with the Church's position respecting the Constitu- tion of the United States, vote in the election then pending on the amendment to the Consti- tution of the State prohibiting the manufac- ture and sale of intoxicating liquors. The synod decided that the matter should be left to the presbyteries and sessions, who were to see that the principles of the Church, allowing all civil action not inconsistent with its dissent from the Constitution of the United States, were observed. V. REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH (GEN- ERAL SYNOD). — The presbyterial reports of sta- tistics of this body are incomplete, but the num- ber of communicants is estimated at 6,700, of whom 3,500 are in the three eastern presbyter- ies, and 3,200 in the three western presbyteries. The receipts of the year for the Church Exten- sion Fund had been $653 ; for the Educational Fund, $289 ; and for the Endowment Fund of the Theological Seminary, $3,839. The ap- propriations for home missions were $2,000. The General Synod met at Darlington, Pa., in May. The Rev. W. J. Macdowell, of Brook- lyn, N. Y., was chosen Moderator. The attempt in the previous year to establish a mission in Roorkee, India, had failed, through the refusal of the appointed missionary to serve. VI. CUMBERLAND PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH. — The following is a summary of the statistics of this Church, as they were reported to the Gen- eral Assembly of 1882 : Number of presbyteries, 117; of ministers, 1,422; of licentiates, 224; of candidates for the ministry, 197; of congregations, 2,587; of members, 115,749; of scholars in Sunday- schools, 58,184. Contributions : For home mis- sions, $11,218; for foreign missions, $4,447; VOL. xxii.— 45 A for education, $8,062; for publication, $1,705; for church building and repairing, $105,876 ; for pastors, $183,037. Value of church prop- erty, $2,059,950. The General Assembly of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church met at Huntsville, Ala., May 18th. The Rev. S. H. Buchanan, D. DM of Little Rock, Ark., was chosen Moderator. The Board of Publication reported that its re- ceipts had been $43,240, and estimated its total resources at $61,250. The Board of Missions reported that its cash receipts had been $14,- 870, besides which considerable amounts, bring- ing the whole sum contributed for mission work to $21,337, had been paid directly to missionaries by local treasurers, or through the Woman's Board. The mission in Japan, now four years old, was making good progress. The American Indian Mission had assumed the support of its missionary. The contribu- tions for ministerial relief had been $598. A board to take charge of that cause had been incorporated. A Board of Education also had been incorporated. The most important busi- ness before the Assembly was the considera- tion of the revision of the Confession of Faith, upon which a committee had been laboring for a considerable period. The whole work was discussed with considerable interest, but no es- sential differences were revealed on any of the points except the articles on Sanctification and Divorce. On the former subject, the follow- ing expression of faith was adopted: "The doctrine of sanctifi cation is taught in the Word of God, and it is the duty and privilege of Christians to avail themselves of its inestimable benefits. The doctrine of sinless perfection is not authorized by the Scriptures, and is a dogma of dangerous tendency." The article on Di- vorce, as adopted, declares that "the marriage relation should not be dissevered for any cause not justified by the Word of God, and any im- morality in relation to its dissolution is cogniz- able by the State courts." The delegates ap- pointed by this Church to attend the meetings of the Presbyterian Alliance had not been admitted by that body, on the ground that the Church had not approved the constitution of the Alliance, and that the Alliance was not sat- isfied that its creed was in harmony with the consciences of the Reformed churches. The Assembly had since approved the constitution of the Alliance, and had referred the question of doctrinal position to a committee for con- sideration. That committee now made a re- port on the subject, which was adopted, in substance as follows : The founders of the Cumberland Presbyterian Church, in their licensure and ordination by the Presbyterian Church, were permitted to " except the idea of fatality," as they believed it to be embraced in the doctrine of unconditional election and reprobation, and an atonement limited to a definitely elected num- ber, as taught in the Westminster Confession of Faith. Subsequently, having for this been cut off from the Eirent Church, in fixing a standard of doctrine for the umberland Presbyterian Church, which they or- 706 PKESBYTERIANS. ganized, they adopted the Westminster Confession of Faith, modified in the following particulars : 1. That there are no eternal reprobates. 2. That Jesus died, not for a part only, but for all men, and in the same sense. 3. That all infants dying in infancy are saved. 4. That the Holy Spirit operates on all the world — on all for whom Christ died, in such a manner as to render all men responsible, and therefore inexcusable. By these exceptions it will be seen that we have an amended form of the Westminster Confession of Faith ; and, if this puts us out of harmony with the Consensus of the Keformed Confessions, we will be glad to have the fact clearly and unequivocally stated. That this may be certainly done by the next Council, delegates were appointed to attend the next meeting of the Alliance, to be held in Bel- fast, Ireland, in 1 884. On the subj ect of Sabbath observance, in reply to an invitation from a committee of the Southern Presbyterian Church to join in representations to the civil authori- ties against running railroad trains and deliv- ering mails on the Lord's day, the Assembly declared that : While we deplore the fact that trains are run and mail is delivered on the Sabbath, we do not see the consistency in invoking civil power to check the evil, while our business men make the demand for hand- ling and carrying freight, and while ministers and church members demand the running of trains and the delivery of mails on the Sabbath. We therefore recommend that this General Assembly insist upon the better observance of this day by all the members of the Church, to the end that a public sentiment may be cultivated in its favor. Co-operation was, however, pledged to " any judicious movement looking to the better ob- servance of the Sabbath." VII. PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN CANADA. — The dispute which arose, when the union of the Presbyterian churches in Canada took place in 1875, over the disposition of the Temporalities Fund, which had belonged to the organization known as the Presbyterian Church of Canada in connection with the Church of Scotland, was carried to the Impe- rial Privy Council, and was finally decided by that court early in the year. A number ot ministers, who held aloof from the union and upheld the organization in connection with, the Church of Scotland, resisted the transfer of the fund to the United Church. The mod- erators of the churches entering into the union secured from the Legislature of Ontario an act giving the possession of the fund to the United Church. This was contested in the courts, and, after a prolonged litigation, the Privy Council decided that the transfer was unlaw- ful, and an injunction could be issued prevent- ing the disposition of the funds for the advan- tage of the United Church. VIII. ESTABLISHED CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. — The Endowment Committee of this Church reported to the General Assembly in May that during the year eight new parishes, with a population of 24,670, had been endo.wed, mak- ing a total of churches endowed since the be- ginning of the scheme 312. The total revenue for 1881 amounted to £14,847, against £18,594 in 1880, and £14,581 in 1879. The income for home missions had been £9,130, and the expenditure had been £81 more than that amount. The sum of £1,520 had been voted to 53 mission stations, £3,285 had been granted to 77 mission churches, and £5,982 had been voted toward the enlargement or erection of 17 churches. The Committee on Christian Liberality reported a decrease of £38,343 in the total amount of contributions, the present amount, exclusive of seat rents, being £281,- 503, against £319,847 in 1880. The For- eign Missions Committee reported an im- proved financial condition. Its entire revenue had been £22,853, showing a marked im- provement on the revenues of former years, though it was still behind the sums raised by the Free and United Presbyterian churches for similar purposes. The income of the Jew- ish Mission had been nearly £1,000 below its expenditures ; and only one convert was re- ported. The General Assembly of the Church of Scotland met in Edinburgh May 25th. The Kev. Dr. William Milligan was chosen Mod- erator. For the first time the Assembly took formal notice of the agitation which is active in the other churches of the kingdom in favor of disestablishment, and resolutions were adopted to the effect that a committee be ap- pointed to watch over and take any steps that might be thought necessary and advisable in regard to any question or measure brought before the Legislature affecting the interests of the Church ; and, should opportunity arise, to aid by active good-will and co-operation in any movement having for its object the pro- motion of the cause of national religion and the interests of the true Protestant religion in Scotland; and that a pastoral letter be issued to the members of the Church, instructing them in its principles, and reminding them of the many blessings it had conferred on Scot- land, and of the duty under which its mem- bers lay to be loyal to an institution which God had so blessed, and transmit it unim- paired to future generations. The case of the mission at Blantyre, Central Africa, in which the Assembly of 1881 had felt itself obliged to censure some irregularities in ad- ministration and cruel acts toward natives, was brought up again by the petitions of the Eev. Duff Macdonald asking to be personally exonerated from the censure, and of Mr. John Buchanan for a reconsideration of the case. The Assembly adopted an expression modify- ing its censure as against Mr. Macdonald, testi- fying to the good work he had done, and de- claring that no good reason existed why he should not still be considered useful in Chris- tian work. The present management and condition of the mission were represented to be wholly satisfactory. The statement of doc- trine and formula to be used in the admission of native preachers, which had already met with the approval of the other Scottish Pres- PRESBYTERIANS. 707 byterian churches, was referred to a special committee, to consider and report upon it at the next session of the Assembly. A Scottish National Church Defense Society has been organized, to resist the movement for disestablishment. Its object is declared to be " to supply information respecting national re- ligion and the true position of the Church of Scotland, to intensify a sense of corporate unity among all having common views on this subject, and especially to organize all members of the Church, and all favorable to national religion, in defense of the national position of the Church." IX. FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. — The total revenue of the Free Church of Scotland, as re- turned for the year at the meeting of the Gen- eral Assembly in May, was £607,500, or £17,- 000 more than the revenue for the preceding year. The Committee of the Sustentation Fund reported an increase of £915 in the con- tributions. The Committee of Jewish Mis- sions had received £6,680, and reported the conversion of seven Jews. The income of the Foreign Missions Committee had been £82,- 726, and exceeded the income of any previous year. The operations of the missions were now carried on in thirteen fields, specified as those of Calcutta and Lower Bengal, the San- thals, Bombay, Poona, Deccan, Central India, Madras, South Caffraria, North Caffraria, Zulu- land. Livingstonia, the New Hebrides, and Syria. Among the publications of the year were a grammar and a dictionary of the Anei- tyum language of the New Hebrides. The General Assembly of the Free Church of Scotland met at Edinburgh, May 18th. The Rev. Dr. Robert Macdonald, of North Leith, was chosen Moderator. The session was occu- pied chiefly with the questions of disestablish- ment, the doctrinal position and relation to the Church of two of its members who had gained prominence as teachers and authors, and instrumental music, each of which was the subject of an active discussion. On the question of disestablishment, resolutions were adopted reaffirming the previous expressions of the Assembly in favor of disestablishment, and declaring that the Free Church " does not regard the maintenance of an established Church in Scotland as in present circum- stances a legitimate or useful way of express- ing national homage to Christ; while the con- tinued maintenance of the existing establish- ment by the State is unjust and oppressive." Petitions were presented from two Presby- teries asking for inquiry into a new book of Professor Bruce on "The Chief End of Reve- lation," which was regarded as divergent from orthodoxy on several points, and Dr. W. Rob- ertson Smith's work on the " Old Testament in the Jewish Church," in which a line ot thought was followed parallel with that of other works of the same author which had engaged the attention of previous assemblies. Principal Rainy moved, with reference to both cases, that, in all the circumstances, the Assem- bly deem it neither necessary nor expedient to take action in the matter ; and his motion was adopted. The question of the use of instrumental music in the services of the Church was remitted to a committee, to report to the next Assembly. Twelve overtures desiring a change in the formula of subscription by deacons were taken up, and referred to a committee to consider the whole matter and report to the next As- sembly. The Rev. George C. Cameron, of St. John's church, Glasgow, was appointed Pro- fessor of Hebrew in the college at Aberdeen, in place of Dr. W. Robertson Smith. X. UNITED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH OF SCOT- LAND.— The total number of members of this Church was reported to the synod in May to be 174,557, or 575 more than were reported in the previous year. The total income of the Church was £383,370, £725 more than the income of the previous year, and representing a higher amount than had ever before been returned. The Synod of the United Presbyterian Church of Scotland met in Edinburgh, May 8th. The Rev. Daniel Young, of Glasgow, was chosen Moderator. A decrease in the number of members of the Church had been reported at the last two previous meetings of the Assem- bly, but the statistical committee were able this year to report a net increase for the year of 575 members, although the number was still about 500 less than in 1878. The follow- ing declarations on the status of the foreign missions were adopted : That the Synod and Presbyteries of Jamaica, and the Presbyteries of Biafra, Caffraria, and Raipootana shall be regarded as standing in a federal relation to the Synod,"and as being no longer constituent parts thereof; that any missionary presbyteries which may hereafter be formed shall b'e regarded as occupying the same position; that no formula shall "be used within the bounds of a missionary presbytery until it has received the sanction of the synod ; that no decis- ion of a missionary presbytery or synod affecting- the status of any agent of the Mission Board, appointed by the home Church, shall take final effect, unless all the parties and the Mission Board acquiesce therein, or, otherwise, till it has been confirmed by the synod; that, in regard to all matters of administration affect- ing the property of the synod, or the agents appointed by the Mission Board, no decision of a missionary pres- bytery shall have any effect unless it is acquiesced in by the board; that,inthe event of congregations 'belonging to any of our missions joining with those of any other Church or Churches to form a United Missionary Pres- bytery, the rights of the home Church and its agents shall be reserved : and that members of missionary presbyteries, whether ministers or elders, and of other ordained missionaries of the Church, who- are in this country during the synod meeting, shall, under con- ditions named, be entitled to sit in the courb and take part in its deliberations, but without the right of voting. The synod declined to recognize the coun- cil of the Presbyterian Alliance in India as a final court of appeal in matters concerning native members. A proposed statement of doctrine and formula for native elders, licenti- ates, and ministers was submitted, with, an ex- 708 PRESBYTERIANS. planation that it had been found needful in all the mission fields to have simple formulas for the native candidates. It was found by all missionaries that it would never do to make use of the "Westminster Confession of Faith, the Larger and Shorter Catechisms, and the other standards in the native churches. Negotia- tions had been going on between the committees of the Established and Free Churches and of this Church for some time in regard to this matter; and the document now offered, which had been drawn up by the synod's committee, containing a simple statement of Christian doctrine, had been approved, in the main, by the committees of the Established and Free Churches. The statement and formula were adopted. The synod resolved to petition Par- liament in favor of the disestablishment of the Church of Scotland. An effort was made to have the synod rescind the action it had taken in 1872 on the use of instrumental music in public worship, and adopt fresh restrictive leg- islation on the subject, but it failed. XL PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN ENGLAND. — This Church is made up, according to the statis- tical reports for 1882, of 275 congregations, be- sides several preaching-stations, 264 ministers with charges, 24 missionaries, and 56 other min- isters, 56,099 communicants, and about 108,000 adherents. The number of church-sittings, as reported to the synod, was 141,903, showing an increase of 5,007 during the year. The Union Thanksgiving Fund, which was now completed, amounted to £155,839. The en- tire income of the Church for the year had been £208,226, against £205,603 in 1880. The Home Mission Committee presented a propo- sition that the synod undertake to create at least fifteen or twenty new congregations, each with a suitable church, within the next five years, and to raise £25,000 for church -building purposes. The Foreign Mission Committee re- ported that the annual expenditures on its work were not less than £13,500, while its in- come did not exceed £11,500. The missions were in the Amoy, Swatow, and Formosa dis- tricts of China, and returned 26 missionaries, 74 native evangelists, 37 native students, 316 adult baptisms during the year, and 2,342 com- municants, with 1,000 baptized children. Five native pastors had been settled over self-sup- porting churches, a second native presbytery had been formed, a medical mission had been established and another one revived, and a home for Bible women had been opened dur- ing the year. The Synod of the Presbyterian Church in England met in London, April 23d. The Rev. "William McCaw, of Manchester, was chosen Moderator. XII. PRESBYTERIAN CmjRcn IN IRELAND. — The statistics of this Church, presented to the General Assembly in June, show the entire number of communicants to be 102,825, as against 109,395 in 1881, and 122,792 in 1864. Reports were made of 558 congregations and 7 mission stations. The entire amount raised by the Church for all purposes had increased by £7,016 over the amount reported in the pre- vious year. The number of Sunday-schools connected with the Assembly was 1,101, with 8,552 teachers and 91,025 scholars. The Com- mittee on Elementary Education reported that 828 of the 7,590 schools of the National Board were under Presbyterian management. The report of Belfast College stated that the Pres-* byterian Church now required from its theo- logical students a university degree in arts, and also attendance on the Presbyterian Col- lege classes during the undergraduate course. The Committee on Colonial Missions reported that three ministers had recently been sent to New South Wales. Grants of £650 had been made to Canada and Manitoba College. Twenty-seven missionaries, of whom 21 were ordained ministers, had been employed in Can- ada, laboring with considerable success, espe- cially among the French-speaking population. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in Ireland met in Belfast in May. The Rev. T. Y. Killen, of Belfast, was chosen Mod- erator. The question of the use of instrumen- tal music in worship engaged a large share of attention. A resolution was adopted, by a vote of 360 to 345, ordering that the prohibition which the Assembly had issued in the previous year against the use of instrumental music in churches be carried out without delay. After- ward, a notice of motion, signed by sixty mem- bers of the Assembly, was read, stating that in the next year a proposal would be made to rescind the resolution which had been carried by so narrow a majority at the present Assem- bly. The Assembly recommended that the examinations before the Theological Commit- tee, instead of referring to the theological views and personal experience of the candi- dates, should embrace such subjects as Hebrew, Biblical Criticism, Greek Testament, Christian Ethics, Church History, and Systematic The- ology. XIII. REFORMED PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN SCOTLAND. — The Reformed Presbyterian Synod of Scotland met at Glasgow in May. A report was presented by the National Reform Com- mittee, which held that the fundamental evils of the British Constitution consist in the Word of God not being recognized as the standard of legislation ; that the headship of Christ is invaded by the British Crown ; and that epis- copacy, with its unscriptural hierarchy and lit- urgy, was established and endowed. The hold- ing of public meetings to agitate these views and the pressing of them upon members of Parliament were urged. XIV. WELSH CALVINISTIC METHODIST CHURCH. — The following are the statistics of this Church as they were reported to the Gen- eral Assembly at Bala in June. Number of ordained ministers, 600 ; of preachers, 357 ; of chapels, 1,324; of communicants, 118,635; of adherents, 279,189 ; of Sunday-school teach- ers, 22,262 ; of scholars in Sunday-schools, PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH. 709 163,373. Amount of contributions for the year, £157,348; value of church property, £1,000,000. The General Assembly met at Bala, June 15th. The Rev. T. Levi, of Aberystwyth, was chosen Moderator. XV. WALLOON CHURCHES. — The annual synod of the Walloon churches was held in Rot- terdam in July. The churches are in a condi- tion of decline, owing to the gradual dying out of the use of the French language, and only those at Rotterdam, Amsterdam, and the Hague, out of the seventeen organizations still in existence, seem to be prospering. In view of these facts, the synod appointed a commit- tee to collect materials for a history of the churches since their foundation by the Wal- loons, who sought a refuge in Holland in the time of the Reformation. PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH. Whittaker's " Protestant Episcopal Almanac and Parochial List " for 1883 gives statistics for this Church of forty-eight dioceses and six- teen missionary jurisdictions (of which twelve are in the United States and Territories and four in foreign mission fields), of which the following is a summary: Number of bishops, 66; number of clergy (priests and deacons), 3,513, or, including the bishops, 3,579 ; number of parishes, 3,047 ; number of missions, 1,310; whole number of communicants, 348,888; number of candidates for orders, 396 ; number of ordinations, 132 of deacons, 116 of priests; number of baptisms, 45,817 ; of confirmations, 26,091 ; number of Sunday-school teachers, 34,675 ; of Sunday-school scholars, 308,591. Total amount of contributions by the churches, $8,066,404. " Whittaker's Almanac " gives an exhibit of the ratio of communicants to the population in five decades, beginning in 1830, which shows the advancing growth of the Church as follows: In 1830 there was one communicant to every 410 of the population; in 1840, one to every 308 ; in 1850, one to 292 ; in 1860, one to 214 ; in 1870, one to 175 ; in 1880, one to 151. THE PRESIDING BISHOP'S FIFTIETH ANNIVER- SARY.— The fiftieth anniversary of the conse- cration of Presiding Bishop Smith, which took place, together with the consecrations of Bish- ops Mcllvaine, Doane, and Hopkins, October 31, 1832, was celebrated in the city of New York on October 31st. Special religious services were held on the previous day (Sunday), com- memorative of the event, in St. Paul's Chapel, when appropriate discourses were delivered by the Bishop of Albany and the Rev. Dr. Hop- kins. The celebration itself was marked by the presentation of congratulatory addresses from the clergy of New York, the bishops of the Church of England, the Episcopate of the Church in the United States, the Standing Com- mittee of the Presiding Bishop's own diocese of Kentucky, and the Executive Committee of the Church Temperance Society. A chalice and paten were presented to the bishop, as a memorial of the occasion, by churchmen of New York. BISHOP OF MISSISSIPPI. — At the regular an- nual council of the Diocese of Mississippi, which met in April, the Right Rev. Dr. John N. D. Wingfield, Missionary Bishop of Northern Cali- fornia, was elected Assistant Bishop to Bishop Green, whose advanced age and infirmities rendered such an aid necessary. Bishop Wing- field declined to accept the appointment. A special council of the diocese was called, and met on November 28th, when the Rev. Hugh Miller Thompson, D. D., Rector of Trinity Church, New Orleans, La., was chosen assist- ant bishop. CHURCH TEMPERANCE SOCIETY. — The Church Temperance Society was founded in 1881, with the aid of Mr. R. Graham, one of the general secretaries of the Church of England Temper- ance Society. Its general constitution is based on principles parallel with those on which that society is founded ; and it is intended to fur- nish a platform on which total abstainers and non-abstainers may work together and in har- mony for the promotion of temperance. It was organized with the presiding bishop as president, and the bishops of the dioceses were invited to act as vice-presidents. The formation of diocesan societies in the several dioceses was recommended, and work was be- gun at once for the establishment of local socie- ties. In March, 1882, letters were sent out to the secretaries of the diocesan conventions, suggesting to them that the organizing secre- tary of the society desired, provided their bish- ops approved of it, to obtain at as early a day as possible the passage of some resolution giv- ing official sanction to the work and objects of the society in their several dioceses, and invit- ing the choice of clerical and lay delegates to attend a National Church Temperance Conven- tion to be held in the city of New York in Oc- tober. These letters were answered by favora- ble replies. The convention was opened Octo- ber 29th with services in the churches of the city, after which business meetings and general public meetings were held on the 30th and 31st. At these meetings papers were read or addresses made on " Prohibitory and Licensing Law in the United States," the " Non-observ- ance of Liquor Law in New York City," " The Formation and Management of Parochial Tem- perance Societies," and "Juvenile Societies." At the final public meeting, over which the Bishop of Louisiana presided, Bishop Clark, of Rhode Island, spoke in commendation of the " broad, tolerant, and scriptural methods" of the society, and Bishop Dudley, of Kentucky, made an expression of similar significance. SOCIETY FOR THE INCREASE OF THE MINIS- TRY.—The receipts of the Society for the In- crease of the Ministry, for the year ending Sep- tember 1st, were $24,722; its expenditures were $23,269. The invested funds amounted to $54,927. Twenty-one scholars of the soci- etv had been admitted to holy orders since 710 PROTESTANT EPISCOPAL CHURCH. the last annual report. The society had re- ceived, since its organization in 1857, the total sum of $561, 701, of which, after deducting the receipts from legacies and the income from invested funds, $465,661 represented the con- tributions of the Church, at large through this agency to the cause of ministerial education. Appropriations had been made in aid of 1,016 scholars, of whom 600 had been ordained min- isters, and 518 were still in service. EVANGELICAL KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY. — The re- ceipts of the Protestant Episcopal Society for the Promotion of Evangelical Knowledge, for the year ending October 1, 1882, were $8,687, and its expenditures were $3,885. The society had put into circulation during the year books, tracts, and papers, the value of which was about $6,700. Its monthly journal, " The Par- ish Visitor," had a circulation of about 20,000 copies. DOMESTIC MISSIONS. — The general receipts of the Committee for Domestic Missions, for the year ending September 1, 1882, were $126,- 734; adding $70,956 of legacies left to the committee and $30,683 of special contributions, the total receipts were $228,373. The total sum available foi* the use of the committee was $210,951, of which it had $33,201 left at the beginning of the year. The committee em- ployed as evangelizing agents — among white people, 12 missionary bishops, 292 clergymen, and 5 women helpers, or 309 in all ; among colored people, 13 white clergymen, 15 colored clergymen, 5 lay readers, 4 teachers, and 18 women helpers — 55 in all ; among the Chinese, 1 Chinese clergyman ; among the Indians, 1 missionary bishop, 12 white clergymen, 13 native clergymen, 1 white catechist, 9 native catechists, 3 teachers, and 13 women helpers — 52 in all ; the whole number constituting a total of 417 laborers. In support of the mis- sions and missionaries, $141,417 had been ex- pended among white people, $41,666 among Indians, $13,667 among the colored people, and $8,718 at the central office. FOREIGN MISSIONS. — The receipts of the Com- mittee for Foreign Missions, for the year end- ing September 1, 1882, had been $173,848. Of this amount $20,459 had been contributed by the Women's Auxiliary, and $20,067 by the League in aid of the Mexican branch of the Church, for the benefit of the missions in Mexico. The missions were: in Greece, 1 teacher, 9 assist- ant teachers, and 700 students ; West Africa, 16 missionaries (including the bishop), 27 other laborers, 560 native and Liberian communi- cants, 392 scholars ; China, 11 missionaries and ministers, 94 other laborers, 320 native com- municants, 738 scholars ; Japan, 8 missionaries and ministers, 39 other laborers, 84 native com- municants, 117 scholars ; Hayti, 15 missionaries and ministers, 49 other laborers, 360 commu- nicants, 199 scholars, 1,258 attendants on wor- ship ; Mexico, 14 missionaries and ministers, 94 other laborers, 929 native communicants, 555 scholars, 3,646 attendants on worship. The list of missionaries includes the bishop in each mission, and, in Mexico, a bishop elect also, and the missionary physicians, when there are any ; the enumeration of scholars includes those in day- and boarding-schools, but not those in Sun- day-schools. The Mexican Church had been troubled with dissensions, and was represented as suffering from the want of accessible stand- ards of doctrine and worship, the Mexican lit- urgy not having yet been completed. AMERICAN CHURCH MISSIONARY SOCIETY. — The twenty-third annual meeting of the Amer- ican Church Missionary Society was held in Philadelphia, Pa., in December. The total re- ceipts of the society for the year had been $24,677, and it had a balance in the treasury, on the 31st day of August, of $2,894. Boxes of clothing and other articles had been sent to the missionaries, the total value of which was $3,724. Thirty-seven missionaries had been commissioned, and four had resigned, leaving thirty-three, or four more than had been en- gaged during the previous year, in the field. Their fields of labor had been in fifteen dioceses and missionary jurisdictions. A new plan of administration had gone into operation on May 1st, under which the society was saved the expense of salaries for its secretaries and of office-rent. The offices of financial secretary and general agent had been abolished; the of- fice of secretary had become voluntary, and was filled by a person who did its work gratuitous- ly ; and the necessary expenses of office-rent, printing, and other incidental matters were met by the gifts of a few friends especially contributed for those purposes. Thus every dollar of the income of the society now went directly to the support of its missionaries and the maintenance of its work. MISSIONS AMONG THE JEWS. — The receipts of the Church Society for Promoting Christianity among the Jews for the year ending in April, 1882, were $12,383 ; the expenditures were $7,- 173, leaving a balance in the treasury of the so- ciety of $5,210. During the year five new mis- sionaries had been appointed, and two new missionary schools had been established, giving, as the full measure of the present operations of the society, fourteen missionaries, with four missionary day-schools and four industrial schools. In these schools were about two hun- dred children. Missions were established in most of the large cities of the country. The society had mission houses in Baltimore and New Orleans. A house had been bought in New York, in which it was intended to provide a chapel, with accommodations for the mis- sionary day-school, the industrial school, the Sunday-school (of seventy Jewish children), a free reading-room, an office for the mission- aries, and a residence for one of them. By an inflexible rule, no temporal aid was ever given to proselytes. Aid had been given to the parochial clergy in efforts among the Jews in their own localities, and this branch of the work was now carried on in thirty-four dio- PUSEY, EDWARD B. 711 ceses and ten missionary jurisdictions ; while the number of clergy engaged in it had nearly doubled, having been for the past year two hundred and twenty-two. The Jews in two hundred and one cities and towns were now directly reached by the society. THE CHURCH CONGRESS. —The eighth annual Church Congress was held in Richmond, Va., October, 24th, 25th, 26th, and 27th. The opening address was delivered by the Bishop of Louisiana. Papers, to which were added extempore addresses in the general discussion of the several subjects, were read as follows: " The Position and Work of the Laity in the Church," Rev. George 0. Shattuck, Boston, Mass., and Rev. Arthur Brooks, New York; " The Priestly and Prophetic Functions of the Christian Ministry," Rev. William R. Hunting- ton, D. D., Worcester, Mass., Rev. S. D. Mc- Connell, Philadelphia, Pa.; "The Relation of the Church to the Colored Race," Right Rev. W. B. W. Howe, D. D., Bishop of South Caro- lina, Rev. J. E. C. Smedes, Raleigh, N. 0., and Rev. Henry Dunlop, Savannah, Ga. ; "The Powers of Standing Committees," Rev. Hall Harrison, Ellicott City, Md., Hugh W. Sheffey, LL. D., Stanton, Va. ; " Inspiration of the Scriptures," Rev. Frederic Gardiner, D. D., Middletown, Conn., Rev. A. M. Randolph, D. D., Baltimore, Md., John Dunlop, Esq., Richmond, Va. ; " Christianity and the Crim- inals," Rev. H. C. Potter, D. D., New York city, Charles H. Kitchel, Esq., New York; "Requirements for Confirmation," Rev. H. Y. Satterlee, D. D., New York city, Rev. C. W. Rankin, D. D., Baltimore, Md. PRUSSIA. (See GERMANY.) PUSEY, EDWARD BOUVERIE, D. D., D. C. L. Born in 1800, he was second son of the Hon. Philip Bouverie (who assumed the name of Pusey by royal license), and nephew of the first Earl of Radnor. His early training was re- ceived at Eton. He entered Christ Church, at Oxford, was graduated with honors in 1822, and the next year was elected a Fellow of Oriel Col- lege. He took orders in the Church of England in 1824, and devoted himself assiduously for some years to Biblical studies, both at home and in Germany. In 1828 he was appointed Regius Professor of Hebrew in the University of Oxford, to which is attached a canonry in Christ Church. This professorship he held con- tinuously until his death, and did good service to the cause of Hebrew learning and inter- pretation. The early associates of Pusey at Ox- ford were John Henry Newman and R. Hur- rell Froude, elder brother of J. A. Froude, the historian. To these should be added Keble. VVhately, Jelf, Hawkins, etc. In company with Newman and Froude, Dr. Pusey began, in 1833, that movement in the Church of Eng- land which is usually called by its admirers "the Anglo-Catholic movement," and which has had so marked and wide-spread effect up- on both doctrine and practice in that Church. Pusey joined with Newman, Froude, and oth- ers, in preparing and putting forth the some- what famous "Tracts for the Times"; and though he contributed only four to the series, yet he was looked upon as the leading spirit, and as giving character to the entire move- ment. He worked efficiently for the end had in view by his elaborate treatise on "Holy Baptism" (1840), his "Letters to the Arch- bishop of Canterbury" (1842), and to the " Bishops of Oxford and of London " (1851), and his numerous single sermons and pam- phlets. The party badges, "Puseyite" and "Puseyism," were coined and vigorously em- ployed, and though Dr. Pusey earnestly protest- EDWARD BOUVERIE PUSEY, D. D., D. C. L. ed against this use of his name, as if he were the originator of a new sect in the Church, yet the epithets were persistently applied, and have continued to hold their place in current reli- gious literature. On the publication (1841) of Newman's "Tract No. 90" (the last of the se- ries), which taught that subscription to the Thirty-nine Articles of the Church of England may be made by any clergyman who maintains his right to interpret them according to " Cath- olic " doctrine, Dr. Pusey was called upon to defend Newman's course and views. This he did in a letter to Dr. Jelf (1841), which ex- cited much attention at the time. In 1843 he preached a sermon before the university in which he advocated the doctrine of the real presence in the Lord's Supper. For this ser- mon he was brought before a board of judges, under a university statute, was condemned by them as holding substantially the Roman dogma of transubstantiation, and was suspended from the office of university preacher for three years. Although on most intimate terms with New- 712 RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES. man, Dr. Pusey did not join the latter in his secession to the Roman obedience in 1846, but remained in his place in the Church of Eng- land. Possessing wealth and its advantages, he gave his best energies to the guiding the Anglo-Catholic revival. The success of this great movement, which is patent to all observ- ers, was largely due to Dr. Pusey's high and de- served reputation for piety, purity of purpose, and learning; and the strength of the High Anglican or Ritualistic party in England is now greater than it has ever been since Arch- bishop Laud's and the non-jurors' days. Dr. Pusey was not only a diligent student, but also published a large number of volumes during his long connection with the University of Ox- ford. He was one of the editors of the " Libra- ry of Translations from the Fathers," and of the "Anglo-Catholic Library," and adapted for use among English Church people a number of Roman Catholic books of devotion, such as Scupoli's "Spiritual Combat," Surin's "Foun- dations of Spiritual Life," St. Anselm's " Pray- ers and Meditations," etc. His chief publica- tions were : " Causes of Rationalistic Character of Theology in Germany" (1828); "Remarks on the Benefits of Cathedral Institutions" (1833); "Parochial Sermons" (3 vols., 1848- '69); "Marriage with a Deceased "Wife's Sis- ter " (1849) ; " The Royal Supremacy not ar- bitrary," etc. (1850); "The Doctrine of the Real Presence, as contained in the Fathers " (1855) ; " The Real Presence the Doctrine of the English Church" (1857) ; " History of the Councils of the Church, A. D. 51-381 " (1857); "The Minor Prophets, with Commentary," etc. (1860-'62) ; " Letter on the Essays and Reviews " (1861) ; " Daniel the Prophet," nine lectures (1864); "The Church of England a Portion of Christ's one Holy Catholic Church, and a Means of restoring Visible Unity, an Eirenicon," a letter addressed to John Keble, and in reply to Manning's letter to Pusey (1865); "A Letter justifying holding Confes- sions for Forty Years past " (1878) ; " What is of Faith as to Everlasting Punishment? In reply to Dr. Farrar's Challenge, in his ' Eter- nal Hope'" (1880); and "Parochial and Ca- thedral Sermons " (1882), collected and issued just before his death. RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES. Statistics relating to the railroad corporations of the United States, their financial condition, business operations, etc., were first collected by the national Government in 1880, and are now reported by the tenth census. The returns show that on June 30th of that year there were in the United States 1,482 companies, 87,891 miles of completed road, 10,016 miles under construction, and 41,029 miles projected. The average (cost, value, and amounts), per mile of road completed and operated, of assets and lia- bilities, earnings, income, expenses, profit, divi- dends, and balance retained were as follow : ITEM. Amount. Average per mile of road completed and operated. Cost of construction of roads . ... $4112,367,170* $47,387t Cost of equipment . . ... 418,045,458 4,817 Value of lands owned (including buildings) 108,319,845 1,191 Value of telegraph lines and miscellaneous 204 913 196 2361 Stock and bonds owned (issued by other companies) 343,800 132 8,962 Total permanent investments . . . . $5,182.445,807 $59,718 Cash assets 353,973,981 4,079 Profit and loss to credit $110,697,228 $1,275 Total permanent and cash assets $5,536,419,788 $63,797 Capital stock paid in ... $2,613,606,264 $30,117 Funded debt 2,390,915,402 27,551 Total stock and funded debt . . $5,004,521,666 $57,668 Unfundeddebt 421,200,894 4,854 Total capital paid in and borrowed $5,425,722,560 $62,522 Gross transportation earnings $580.450.594 $6,689 Total income (all sources) 661,295,391 7,620 Transportation expenses 852,800,120 4,065 Total expenditures (all classes) 541,950,795 6,245 Net transportation earnings . . 227.650,474 2,623 Net income or profit 119,344,596 1,375 Dividends declared 70 550,842 813 Amount retained 48,794,254 5C2 * This amount includes funds expended upon partly completed miles of road under construction. It was impossible to obtain from railroad companies the respective amounts paid out for an exact number of miles entirely completed, t Average taken upon 86,782 miles of road operated by the companies reporting transportation earnings. RAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES. 713 INCOME OF. — The aggregate income is shown in the following exhibit : ITEM. Amount. Total. Aggregate. $580 450 594 Income from all other sources — rents . . . $58 543 710 27,801,087 RO R44 7Q7 $661 °V5 891 Less: Transportation expenses $352,800,120 1 879 848 126,442,310 Interest on unfunded debt 9,037,798 Kentals 51 790 719 $t">41 fl'SO 70% Deduct expenses over earnings $1,427,581 Deduct expenses over other income 13,286,921 14714. 'iftS 527 236 293 Net income or profit reported by companies having no deficits $134 059 098 Dividends declared : On preferred stock . . $6 893 268 On common stock 63,657,079 $70 550 842 Deduct dividends declared by companies having no net income '529'974 70 020 368 Balance retained $64,088,730* ASSETS OF. — The aggregate assets and liabilities appear in the following balance-sheet: ASSETS. LIABILITIES. Item. Amount. Total. Item. Amount. Total. Construction of roads Equipment .... $4,112,867,176 418,045,458 103,319,845 184,866,527 158,938,605 204,918,196 $5,182,445,807 853,973,981 122,494,870 Capital stock paid in— pre- ferred $304,471,942 2,309,184,322 $2,613,606,264 2,390,915,402 421,200,894 233,191,598 $5,658,914,158 Lands Capital stock paid in — com- mon .... Stock (of other companies) . . . Bonds (of other companies) . . Telegraph lines and miscel- laneous Funded debt Unfunded debt : Interest unpaid Dividends unpaid $68,750,288 13,059.983 85,573,270 258,817,353 Total permanent in vest - Notes payable Vouchers and accounts Profit and loss (reported by others) Cash $61,211,513 81,064,428 79,814,155 44,294,901 20,483,759 117,100,225 Bills receivable Due from agents and corn- Materials and supplies Sinking fund Debit balances Total cash and other assets Profit and loss (reported by Total assets Total liabilities $5,658,914,158 EARNINGS. — The aggregate transportation earnings were : ITEM. Amount. Total. $98,821,340 44,514,393 1,265,976 Per cent. 68-23 30-89 0-88 100-00 $144,101,709 8,828,259 10,472,813 ' 416,145,758 902,055 $580,450,594 Per cent. - 24-83 1-52 1-80 71-69 0-16 100-00 Total Express Mails . . . Local freight $233,683,202 176,909,131 5,548,425 56-16 42-51 1-33 Through freight . All other freight Total 100-00 Aggregate EXPENSE OF TRANSPOKTATION.— The following statement exhibits the aggregate transpor- tation expenses : * Against this balance stand the deficits of other companies, $15,244,476. 714 KAILROADS OF THE UNITED STATES. ITEM. Amount. Per cent. Per cent of earnings. 6-82 2-97 1-85 1-55 1-32 0-25 0-62 2-29 Repairs of road-bed and track $39,603,076 17,243,950 10,741,577 9,009,097 7,644,121 1,480,926 8,576,477 13,283,819 11-23 4-89 8-04 2-55 2-17 0-42 1-01 8-77 Renewals of rails ... Keoairs of bridges . Repairs of buildings Repairs of fences, crossings, etc ... Taxes Total maintaining road and real estate $102,583,043 29-08 17-67 Repairs of locomotives .... $21,830,963 10,558.824 22,595,553 $54,985,340 6-19 2-99 6 40 15-58 8-78 1-82 8-89 Repairs of passenger baggage, and mail cars Repairs of freight-cars Total repairs of rolling-stock .... 9-47 Passenger-train service $10,046,080 1,148.810 807,525 19,892,843 1,260,965 7,781,828 82,836,470 2,388,867 8,754,670 27,239,568 36,767,299 2,871 ,9o3 12,215,850 2,457,905 926,634 2,692,011 4,787,811 21,328,326 974,526 1,103,761 1,377,978 621,077 2-85 0-33 0-23 5-64 0-36 2-21 9-31 0-68 1-06 7-72 10-42 0-81 3-46 0-70 0-26 0-76 1-34 6-04 0-28 0-31 0-39 0-18 55-34 1-78 0-20 0-14 3-43 0-22 1-34 5-66 0-41 0-65 4-69 6-33 0-49 2-10 0-42 0-16 0-47 0-82 3-67 0-17 0-19 0-24 0-11 33-63 Passenger-train supplies . ... Passenger-car mileage Freight-train service Freight-train supplies Freight-car mileage Fuel for locomotives Water-supply Oil and waste Locomotive service Agents and station service. . Station supplies Salaries of officers and clerks Legal expenses Insurance Stationery and printing. ... Outside agencies and advertising Contingencies and miscellaneous Loss and damage, freight Loss and damage, property and cattle Loss and damage, personal injuries Expenses not analyzed Total operating and other expenses $195,231,737 Aggregate transportation expenses $352,800,120 100-00 60-78 Net earnings $229,078,055 1,427,581 89-22 Less expenses over earnings by some companies Total $227,650,474 NET EAENINGS. — The disposition of net earn- ings is shown by the following statement: Net earnings . . . . ; $229,078,055 Less expenses over earnings 1,427,581 Net earnings of whole system $227,650,474 Paid: Fixed charges, less income from other sources than earnings $187,270,827 80,844,797 $106,426,030 General expenses of lessor companies 1,879,843 Total $108,305,878 Dividends declared 70,550,342 Total expended $178,856,220 Balance held, whole system 48,794,254 Total $227,650,474 Actual balance reported bv some companies as surplus $64,038,730 Deficits reported by others 15,244,476 Net balance for system $43,794,254 Of the 1,016 companies which report an in- come (whether operating, lessor, or otherwise), 666 obtained a net income aggregating $134,- 059,098, and 350 report none whatever. There are 1,165 companies which report an aggregate capital stock (paid in) amounting to $2,613,606,264, of which 623 have earned a net income or a profit upon their stock. The bal- ance of 542 companies earned no profit what- ever ; 373 of the latter created deficits or had their income balanced by expenditures, and 169 companies had not yet commenced operations, their roads being under construction. The net income or profit available for divi- dends upon stock of these 623 companies ($2,- 103,068,246, or 80 per cent of the aggregate for the United States) amounts to $132,989,336, and is an average per cent of profit upon such stock of 6-32. The balance of stock is that which bears no profit, and amounts to $510,538,018, or nearly 20 per cent of the aggregate report for the country. Of this amount $449,905,903 is stock of companies having deficits, or having their income balanced by expenses, and $60,632,115 is stock of companies whose roads are yet un- der construction. PEOFIT PER CENT. — The average per cent profit, upon both capital stock paid in and fund- ed debt, was : Capital stock and funded debt $5,004,521,666 Total income 661,295,391 Total expenditures, less interest on funded debt. 415.50-.-K> Net income or profit 245,780,906 The above shows the income to be 13'21 per RED-CROSS SOCIETIES AND THE LAWS OF WAR. 715 cent of stock and funded debt ; expenditures, less interest on funded debt, 8-30 per cent of stock and funded debt ; net income or profit, 4-91 per cent of stock and funded debt. If those companies are only taken which report net income, and those which report deficits are excluded, then the net profit upon the stock and funded debt of such companies in the United States will average 5-2 per cent. The financial results are: Gross earnings $580,450,594 Transportation expenses 352,800,120 Net earnings $227,650,474 Less fixed charges and general expenses of lessor companies, reduced by income from all other sources than earnings 108,305,878 Amount available for dividends $119,344,596 Stock (preferred and common) $2,613,606,264 Per cent earned upon stock 4'566 Per cent declared upon stock 2 • 699 Per cent held 1-867 MILEAGE STATISTICS. — The following are rev- enue train mileage statistics of the railroad sys- tem of the United States : Total miles of road operated 86,782 Earnings per mile $6.638 Expenses per mile ' 4,065 Net earnings per mile 2,623 Freight-trains : Mileage 251,022,710 Earnings per mile $1 65 Expenses per mile 98 Profit per mile 67 Passenger-trains : Mileage 138,225,621 Earnings per mile (including express and mails)... $1 18 Expenses per mile 76 Profit per mile 43 FREIGHT AND PASSENGERS. — The details of the freight and passenger traffic are as fol- low : Freight tonnage : Number of tons carried Average miles hauled Tons, one mile .Revenue Keceipts per ton per mile. . . Cost per ton per mile Profit per ton per mile Passengers : Number carried Average distance Passengers carried one mile lievenue Keceipts per passenger per mile..* Cost per passenger per mile Profit per passenger per mile — Freight traffic : Tons carried, local. Tons carried, through Tons carried, total t Passenger traffic : Passengers, season % Passengers local Passengers, through 290,897,395 111 32,348,846,693 $416,145,758 1-29 cents. 0-76 cents. 0-53 cents. 2C9.5S3.340 23 miles. 6,189,240,914 $144,101,709 2-33 cents. 1-71 cent. 0-61 cent. 158,163,276 187,513,992 Passengers, total , 23,665,251 244,178,377 20,404,968 269,583,340 Freight tonnage : § Local 14,252,169,778 Through 18,075,963,652 Eevenue : Local $233,688,206 Through 182,457,554 Average rate per mile : Local 1 • 64 cent. Through 1- 01 cent. Local and through. . . 1 • 29 cent. Passengers carried one mile are not separate- ly specified for local and through. EQUIPMENT. — The equipment of all the roads in the United States comprised 17,412 locomo- tives, 12,330 passenger-cars, 4,475 mail, express, and baggage cars, 375,312 freight-cars, and 80,- 138 other kinds of cars; cost of equipment, $418,045,459. The aggregate number of all employes was 418,957; amount of yearly pay- rolls, $195,350,013. ACCIDENTS. — The following is a condensed summary of the reported accidents on all the roads in the United States during the census year: TO WHOM HAPPENED. Through causes beyond their control. Through their own carelessness. Aggregate. Total accidents. Killed. Injured. Killed. ~82 668 1,429 Injured. Killed. Injured. 61 260 43 331 1,004 103 213 2,618 1,348 143 923 1,472 3 544 3,617 1,451 62 687 4,540 2,923 65 All others Unspecified Total . 364 1,438 2,174 4,174 2,541 5,674 8,215 RED -CROSS SOCIETIES AND THE LAWS OF WAR. Many attempts have been made to bring about an international agree- ment for mitigating the horrors and mortality of battle, since the improvements in the rifle and the adoption of universal military service hare rendered war so much more calamitous and fatal than in former times. The first suc- cessful movement of this kind was started at the same time that the civil war was raging in the United States. CONFERENCES. — A conference of jurists and others interested in this object was held in Geneva in 1863. The Government of Switzer- land approved of the project for an interna- tional compact which they drew up, and the potent support and sanction of the French Empire were won. At a second conference the ten articles of the Geneva Convention were signed, August 22, 1864, by plenipotentiaries of France, Prussia, Italy, Spain, Holland, Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Switzerland, Portugal, Wur- temberg, Baden, and Hesse-Darmstadt. This convention "for the amelioration of the condi- tion of the wounded of armies in the field " imposes upon the victorious army the duty of caring for the enemy's wounded, and protects all surgeons and nurses and their hospital stores and materials. Military and field hospitals, in which wounded are cared for, are made neu- * Not including express or mails. t This amount includes 220,127 tons of companies which omitted to specify them as through or local. % Included in amount of local. § Of freight tonnage 20,713,261 tons were left unspecified. 716 BED-CROSS SOCIETIES AND THE LAWS OF WAR. tral, and all the attendants are to be free from molestation ; non-combatants bringing help to wounded are not to be hindered, and houses where wounded are must not be disturbed. The permanently disabled are to be released and allowed to return to their own country. In 1865 Great Britain, Turkey, Greece, and Meck- lenburg-Schwerin accepted the conditions of the convention ; in 1866 Austria, Bavaria, and Saxony joined the other nations, Russia in 1867, and the Pontifical States in 1868. In the latter year fifteen other articles, extending the provisions of the convention to naval war- fare, and enlarging the rights of the sanitary personnel, sick, and wounded, as neutrals, were added. The majority of the states, however, refused to ratify these supplementary articles. The badge by which the neutralized persons and places were to be recognized, the Swiss flag with the colors reversed, was stated in the articles of the compact. It is a red cross on a white ground. This symbol protects not only the regular hospital service of the belligerent armies, but volunteer nurses and surgeons. Societies of the Red Cross were formed in the different countries of Europe, and, in the tre- mendous wars which followed the conclusion of the humane compact, the governments found in the volunteer corps which gathered at the seat of war from the various countries of Eu- rope an invaluable aid to their sanitary depart- ments. The St. Petersburg declaration of No- vember 16, 1868, was a corollary to the Geneva Convention. It forbids the use of certain kinds of explosive shot as unnecessarily deadly, on the principle that the legitimate airn of warfare is to cripple the military resources of the enemy merely, and consequently weapons which de- stroy life and maim, when slighter wounds would be equally effective in disabling the enemy, are inhumane and illegitimate. Fifteen European states agreed to the proposition of the Russian Government, including all the great powers, besides Turkey and Persia. In 1874 Persia, Roumania, and San Salvador sub- scribed to the Geneva Convention; Monte- negro in 1875; Servia in 1876 ; the Argentine Republic, Bolivia, and Chili in 1879 ; and Peru in 1880. ORGANIZATION COMPLETED. — An internation- al organization was completed and cemented at a conference of Red-Cross societies held at Berlin in April, 1869. Measures were adopted with regard to the establishment of national societies in the different countries and their relations to the military authorities, and to pro- visions for the service in war-time, and the technical preparation and equipment. The international association embraced in its ob- jects also the relief of the injured and suffer- ing in calamities occurring in time of peace. A quarterly bulletin, published at Geneva, was established as the official organ of the associa- tion. The central control of the organization is vested in an international committee perma- nently established at Geneva. The national societies and their branches, recognized by their several governments, receive credentials from this committee to the authorities of the bel- ligerent states when they engage in the active work of the association in time of war. The International Committee consists of seven mem- bers. The president, Gustave Moynier, has held that office since the first organization of the association in 1863. OBJECTS. — The original object of the associa- tion, the reform of the laws of war in the di- rection of greater humanity, has been aban- doned for the magnificent field of practical work which was opened by the results of its original efforts. The theoretical aims were made the special task of an allied organization, the Institut de Droit International, which was founded by some of the men who gave the first impulse to the movement. The Institut pub- lished in 1880 a manual of the laws of war, revised in accordance with the newly accepted doctrines, which met with a favorable recep- tion in some countries, notably in Russia, France, Belgium, and the Netherlands. The eminent Bluntschli, lately deceased, besought on behalf of the society the approval of Field- Marshal Moltke for the new code, and received, in the early part of 1881, a remarkable reply. The great German strategist eulogized war as " an element in the order of the world ordained by God," in which the noblest virtues, courage, self-abnegation, and faithfulness to duty are developed, and without which "the wrorld would stagnate and lose itself in materialism." He declared that an international code of war can have no sanction or authority to execute it, and the only safeguards against the excesses of soldiery are discipline and an adequate com- missariat maintained on the part of the gov- ernment, and the religious, moral education of soldiers, and honor and sense of justice of com- manders. The proposition that an invading army should take only uin proportion to the resources of the country " he declared impos- sible to carry out. He expressed disagreement with the declaration of St. Petersburg, believ- ing that the more terrible the engines of de- struction, and the sharper and shorter the con- flict, the better for the nations engaged. The position of the reformers on the mooted ques- tion of the belligerent rights of irregular forces, volunteer corps, and those who take up arms "spontaneously" to defend their homes, the German commander could not be expected to accept after the relentless reprisals which were taken upon these classes of combatants during the French invasion. The Swiss, who have from ancient times owed their independence to their volunteer organizations, and the Nor- wegians, who are proud of their Landstorm, and hold the right of bearing arms to be the guarantee of popular liberty, are specially de- sirous to secure the recognition of volunteer bodies. They agree that these forces should be under the orders of the regular commanders, and that they should wear some distinguishing RED-CROSS SOCIETIES AND THE LAWS OF WAR. 717 uniform or badge. The establishment of the rights of people who rise in a mass to repel in- vasion is more hopeless, and all the nations of Europe will probably be forced to maintain a general Landwehr organization. PROPOSITIONS. — In 1874 a further proposal to extend the provisions of the Geneva Con- vention emanated from the Russian Govern- ment. In the conference which met at Brus- sels to consider the propositions presented by Baron Jomini, fifteen states took part. Sev- eral of them raised objections to the project of a declaration, which was agreed upon by a majority of the representatives, August 27, 1874; and a new proposition was formulated by the Russian Government in the beginning of 1876. The Russo-Turkish War intervened, and the negotiations were not subsequently resumed; but in that war Russia put into practice certain stipulations of the Brussels declaration which relate to the treatment of prisoners of war. With the authorization given by these trea- ties, the association of national Red-Cross soci- eties was founded, and soon grew up to be the most potent and extensive non-religious organi- zation for merciful works known to modern times. Their beneficent activity commenced in the Franco-Prussian War. Many hundreds of volunteer surgeons who did yeomen's service in both camps were maintained by the Red- Cross societies of England, Russia, Austria, Italy, and the smaller states. The German Red Cross established communications with the French, news of the wounded and captive were transmitted to friends across the lines, and the contributions to the French prisoners in Ger- many were forwarded from France through this agency. The German Central Committee dispensed in their own work during the brief campaign over $18,000,000. The English Red Cross in the Turkish War displayed great en- ergy and bravery as well as munificence in ful- filling its benevolent mission. The expenditures of the Russian and English societies during that war were enormous. In the decade which fol- lowed the definite organization of the interna- tional association in 1869, the Red Cross has been active at the scene of conflict in every war where it could receive the protection guaran- teed in the treaty— in Spain, Bosnia, South America, South and East Africa, in Central Asia on the Indus, at Cabool, and in the Turko- man steppes, where the Russian volunteer sanitary column took under its protection the Turkoman women and children who were be- ing ruthlessly massacred by the Russian sol- diery in revenge for the courageous defense of Geok Tepe. SOCIETIES. — The organization of the Red- Cross societies and their relations to the state and military authorities are very different in the various countries notwithstanding the ef- forts made at the conference of Berlin to es- tablish definite and uniform rules. The Neth- erlands Society, which, like the English, has been particularly active in practical work — in the Caucasus, South Africa, and Acheen — was founded by the King, and occupies a semi-offi- cial position, being placed under the control of the Ministry of War, and receiving an allow- ance from the military budget. In the other countries where the societies were initiated by the governments, the relations to the military authorities are close. In Sweden the first president of the society was the Crown Prince, the present King, and the organization is un- der the patronage of the Marine Department. In Spain the society was founded by Queen Isabella in 1864, and amalgamated with the order of the Knights of Saint John. In Italy also, as well as in Austria, England, Prussia, and elsewhere, the orders of Saint John or of Malta united with the Red Cross, which, under the patronage of the King, attained a high de- gree of organization and established regular relations with the army. In France the Red Cross was founded in 1864, and promoted by Napoleon III. In the war of 1870 it was more efficient than the sanitary department of the army. It has a highly developed and central- ized organization, and is composed of about one hundred different branches attached to the military districts and adapted to special objects. In Belgium, where much has been done for sanitary science, and in Switzerland, where the Red Cross originated, the organization and de- velopment of the societies have made little headway. In Russia the women took an active part in establishing the Red-Cross societies. These attained an extraordinary development during the Turkish War, and have since been very active in the Asiatic campaigns. The cen- tral organization has no organic connection witli the army, but the workers of the society are welcomed and aided by Russian command- ers. In Germany and Austria the organization is highly developed, and enjoys an officially recognized position, with the advantage or dis- advantage of official inspection and regular re- lations with the Ministry of War. In Austria- Hungary, as well as in Russia, and, to a greater or less extent, in Italy, England, Belgium, the Netherlands, and the Scandinavian countries, the ladies were prominent in the development of the societies. In England, which has con- tributed greater actual services under the Red Cross than any other country, and with greater disinterestedness, there is no centralized or- ganization. In the great European wars three separate associations directed the work of be- nevolence— the National Society of the Red Cross, the Order of St. John, and the Stafford House Committee. The first two have branches corresponding to the plan adopted by the inter- national congress, but lack a central control. POSITION OF THE UNITED STATES. — The Uni- ted States was the only great power remaining which did not officially recognize the rights to special protection secured to the bearers of the Red-Cross symbol, and which did not pos- sess a national society. Yet the most magnifi- 718 REFORMED CHURCHES. cent example of voluntary sanitary service in all history was displayed during the civil war, when seven thousand societies engaged in the work, and the Sanitary Commission dispensed over $20,000,000, besides the contributions of the individual societies. The improvements in military sanitation developed in the American war, principally by this volunteer organization — the means of speedy treatment, and of avert- ing hospital infection, such as the field hospi- tals, and hospital tents, cottage hospitals, etc., the ambulance system, convalescent camps, etc. — were the basis of the whole system of the Red-Cross service, which copied also the intelligence bureaus and other features of the work of the Sanitary Commission. The conferences at Geneva were attended by the United States Minister to Switzerland, but, pending the war of secession, the Amer- ican Government was unwilling to join in the agreement. The principles of the treaty were practically observed in the American war, and the magnificent services of the volunteer sani- tary organizations were a cheering example to the humane persons who were striving in this cause in Europe. Since then the International Red- Cross Association has several times ap- pealed to the United States Government to join in the compact, but the delicate questions of maritime law involved in the treaty, and other political considerations, have hitherto deterred the Federal Government from taking the step. In the autumn of 1881 a final effort was made to gain the agreement of the United States to the stipulations of the convention of Geneva, and assurances wyere given by Presi- dent Arthur of his willingness to accede. The President and the Senate subsequently ratified the convention ; the treaty was signed March 16, 1882. Pending the action of the Govern- ment a national society was formed and incor- porated under the laws of the District of Columbia, bearing the name of the American Association of the Red Cross. Miss Clara Barton was chosen president of the society. The constitution of the association specifies as its principal object — To organize a system of national relief and apply the same in mitigating the sufferings caused by war, pestilence, famine, and other calamities. Another article provides that — This association shall hold itself in readiness, in the event of war or any calamity great enough to be con- sidered national, to inaugurate such practical meas- ures in mitigation of the suffering and for the pro- tection and relief of sick and wounded as may be consistent with the objects above indicated. REFORMED CHURCHES. I. REFORMED CHORCII IN AMERICA. — This Church is composed of four particular synods, viz. — the Particular Synods of New York, Albany, Chicago, and New Brunswick — with thirty-three classes, which reported to the General Synod in June, 1882, statistics of which the following is a summary : Number of churches, 509 ; of minis- ters, 545; of families, 43,611; of communi cants, 80,167; of baptized non-communicant?, 29,669 ; number of Sunday-schools, 687, with 84,511 scholars ; number of baptisms during the year, 4,051 of infants and 859 of adults. Amount of contributions for religious and benevolent purposes, $200,248; for congrega- tional purposes, $902,368. The several boards having the care of the benevolent enterprises of the Church made re- ports to the General Synod in June, of which the principal items are as follow : Board of Education. — Total receipts, $8,670 ; net indebtedness, $5,625, against $7,093 in 1881 ; number of students aided during the year, 63. Board of Publication. — Receipts from busi- ness, $16,299; profits, $530; assets, $11,769. Number of new publications (including official papers and documents), 11. Widows' and Disabled Ministers'1 Fund. — Total amount of the "Widows' Fund, April 30, 1882, $55,391 ; amount of income from all sources, $3,557; cash on hand, $5,599. Amount of the Disabled Ministers' Fund, $49,614; amount of receipts during the year, $4,598; cash on hand. $3,915. Board of Domestic Missions. — Total receipts, $29,030; expenditures, $26,086. Sixty-four missionaries had been employed in 78 missions, of which 37 were in the West and 41 in the East, with, in all, 4,077 families and 5,979 members in communion. Connected with the missions were 89 Sunday-schools, having an average attendance of 8,247 persons. Eleven churches had become self-supporting during the year. The receipts for the Church-Build- ing Fund had been $9,186; and the expendi- tures $11,841. The receipts of the Board of^ Foreign Mis- sions had been $58,154. The missions — in In- dia, China, and Japan — comprised 9 stations, 101 out-stations, 16 missionaries, 24 assistant missionaries, 13 native ministers, 39 catechists or preachers, 37 churches with 2,625 communi- cants, 5 academies, 90 day-schools, with 2.210 scholars, and 14 theological students. The contributions of the native Christians during the year had amounted to $3,233. The synod decided to ask the churches for $72,000 for this work during the ensuing year. The receipts of the Woman"1 s Board of For- eign Missions were $14,662. The General Synod of the Reformed Church in America met in Schenectady, N. Y., June 7th. The Rev. Edward P. Ingersoll, D. D., of Brooklyn, N. Y., was elected president. A resolution was adopted expressing surprise, re- gret, and solicitude, at the recent legislation of Congress on the subject of immigration from China; and the hope that the Govern- ment might be induced soon to reconsider its action, " and to adopt such measures as will be likely to promote good feeling and friendly intercourse between China and our own coun- try, and which will at least not hinder the work of Christian evangelization in that distant REFORMED CHURCHES. RHODE ISLAND. 719 land." In response to a number of memorials on the subject of Masonry, the synod decided to refer all questions in regard to the standing and relations of persons already in commun- ion, and to the acceptance or rejection of ap- plicants for admission, to the several consisto- ries ; and further declared that while it felt re- strained, by constitutional limitations, from rec- ommending any course that would invade the innocent freedom of speech or of action guar- anteed to every church-member by the estab- lished law and usage of the Church, it would in the spirit of Christian kindness, while reaffirm- ing previous deliverances on the subject, " ad- vise all the parties concerned to abstain from any associations, and from pursuing any course of conduct, that would furnish a scriptural or reasonable ground of offense to tender con- sciences, or that would be likely to interfere with the love and confidence that should al- ways be found among the disciples of Christ." A committee of the synod had been engaged in preparing a revision of the translation of the Heidelberg Catechism, with the intention of consulting with a similar committee of the Re- formed Church in the United States, for agree- ment on a common version. The synod di- rected that the revision be submitted to the theological professors for their approval, and then published in suitable form. In answer to a number of memorials, asking for the substi- tution of the word " hades " for " hell " in the Apostles' Creed, the synod directed that the word "hades " be placed in a foot-note at the bottom of the page wherever " hell " oc- curs in the text of the creed. It was deter- mined that the correspondence of the Church with the bodies to which it is accustomed to send fraternal greetings be hereafter conducted by letter, " unless the distance and other cir- cumstances make it entirely convenient for the appointed delegate to represent us in person." Delegates were appointed to convey the greet- ings of the Church to the Christian Synod of the Reformed Church of the Netherlands, " and the meetings of any other Reformed Churches in Europe which they may visit." THE SUBJECT OF THE CREED. — A memorial from the Classis of Poughkeepsie, asking that the word " saving " be placed before the word " good " in the clause " incapable of doing any good and prone to all evil," of the confession required in the baptismal formula for adults, was vigorously discussed, and was finally re- ferred to a committee of five ministers and two elders, to consider and report upon it at the next meeting of the synod. II. REFORMED CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES. —This Church, formerly known as the German Reformed Church, is composed of six synods, viz., the Synods of the United States, of Ohio, of the Northwest, of Pittsburg, the Potomac Synod, and the German Synod of the East; with fifty classes, of which the following is a summary of the statistics, as they are given in the "Almanac for the Reformed Church in the United States" (Philadelphia: Reformed Church Publication Board) for 1883: Number of ministers, 751 ; of congregations, 1,420 ; of members, 163,669 ; of unconfirmed members, 99,732 ; of persons who communed during the year, 130,542. Number of Sunday-schools, 1,334, with 103,690 scholars; number of stu- dents for the ministry, 127; number of bap- tisms during the year, 12,711 of infants, and 892 of adults. Amount of contributions for benevolent purposes, $92,936 ; for congrega- tional purposes, $666,442. The Church has fifteen literary and theologi- cal institutions, a general board of Foreign Missions, five synodal boards of Home Mis- sions, four synodal boards for Beneficiary Edu- cation, a general society for the Relief of Minis- ters, a mission among the Indians under the direction of the Synod of the Northwest, and fifteen English and six German periodicals. The receipts for Foreign Missions during the year ending July 1, 1882, were $3,561. The foreign mission is at Tokio, Japan, where one missionary and his wife are employed. The total amount of the contributions of the Church for Home Missions during 1882 was $14,000. RHODE ISLAND. The State officers for the year were as follow: Governor, Alfred II. Littlefield ; Lieutenant-Go vernor, Henry F. Fay ; Secretary of State, Joshua Addeman ; Attorney- General, Willard Sayles; Treasurer, S. L. Clark. Among the most noteworthy recommenda- tions made by Governor Littlefield in his sec- ond annual message to the Legislature, on Jan- uary 31, 1882, he urges the necessity of adopt- ing effectual measures to alter the present sys- tem of education in the common schools of the State, so " as to fit the present generation of children, and their immediate successors, for the development of the manufacturing and mechanical industries carried on in Rhode Isl- and, as they will furnish the main employ- ment for our people"; adding, "To fit our youth for the greatest success in these pur- suits, they should receive a preparation which is now beyond their reach through any of the ordinary channels of education. Not only should good, elementary instruction be pro- vided, but our schools should be put upon the work of cultivating the eye and training the hand. To aid in this work, our children should be taught the elementary principles of physics and mechanics— those powers and fac- tors with which they are to be intimately con- nected for the greater part of their lives." As a means of improving the efficiency of the public schools of the State, he recom- mends " that special care should be taken to secure for them teachers of the requisite abil- ity, training, and culture ; the success of pub- lic schools in any State mainly depending upon the intelligence, the skill, the enthusiasm, and the moral force of their teachers." He commends to the serious attention of the General Assembly the propriety of establish- 720 KHODE ISLAND. ing a State Industrial School for the proper care and training of pauper and vagrant chil- dren, who, by no fault of their own, are often at tender age cast upon the public for support and education. He testifies that " there is a feeling on the part of many that such children should not be sent to the Reform School or to the Almshouse, but to some school which shall be entirely separate from all pauper or penal influences, and where such children may be trained in such a manner as shall be most like- ly to save the State from all expense for their support in the future, and from all responsi- bility for their conduct when they arrive at maturity." The January session of the Legislature was closed on April 21st. A large number of acts was passed, among which were the following: " An act for the more effectual prevention of cruelty to children"; "An act in addition to chapter 49 of the Public Statutes « of the appropriation for public schools '"; "An act making appropriation for the benefit of the Rhode Island School of Design " ; " An act providing for the appointment of the Super- intendent of Public Schools in the City of Newport " ; " An act in amendment of chap- ter 71 of the Public Statutes ' of the support and discipline of paupers '" ; " An act in amendment of chapter 253 of the Public Statutes ' of the State Reform School '" ; " An act to establish a State School for the Deaf." It authorizes the State Board of Education to establish a day-school for tho gratuitous edu- cation of deaf and semi-deaf children, and to pay for the traveling expenses of indigent pupils residing in the State, provided that such expenses do not exceed five hundred dol- lars a year ; and that the annual amount for the support and maintenance of the school does not exceed three thousand dollars. " Two acts in amendment of chapters 7 and 8 of the Public Statutes ' of registering, listing, and re- turning lists of voters, and of proof of their qualification to vote,' and 'of canvassing the rights and correcting the lists of voters'"; " An act in amendment of chapter 10 of the Public Statutes, section V to read, ' The Secre- tary of State shall provide a sufficient quantity of uniform, self-sealing envelopes, bearing as a device the form of an anchor with the word Hope on the outside, for use in the elections of general officers of Representatives in Congress, and of electors of President and Vice-Presi- dent of the United States.' " Among the resolutions of a public nature the subjoined were passed : " A resolution for the appointment of a joint select committee to consider matters in relation to changes in the Constitution " ; "A resolution instructing the committee on the revision of the Constitu- tion to consider the subject of biennial ses- sions of the Legislature"; "A resolution to propose an amendment to the State Constitu- tion." After much debate on these matters, the question was finally put to the vote on March 28th, when all the members of either House, excepting only one Senator and one Representative, adopted the following : RESOLUTION TO PROPOSE AN AMENDMENT TO THE STATE CONSTITUTION. Resolved, A majority of all the members elected to each House of the General Assembly voting therefor, that the following amendment to the Constitution of the State be proposed to the qualified electors of the State, in accordance with the provisions of Article XIII of the Constitution, for their adoption, to be de- nominated Article V of Amendments, to wit : ARTICLE V. The General Assembly may, a major- ity of all the members elected to each House voting therefor, authorize the qualified electors of the several towns and cities to elect as many delegates to a Con- stitutional Convention as the said towns and cities are respectively entitled to elect members of both Houses of the General Assembly, and the delegates, when elected, shall assemble in convention at a time and place to be provided by law, and may then re- vise, alter, or amend the Constitution ; but no such revision, alteration, or amendment shall take effect unless, when the same is first submitted to the quali- fied electors of the State for their adoption in a man- ner to be provided by law, three fifths of all the said electors voting thereon shall have voted in favor of such revision, alteration, or amendment. CONVENTIONS. — In preparation for the April election of State officers, the Republicans as- sembled at Providence on March 16th, and by acclamation renominated all of the incumbents for their respective offices, excepting Willard Sayles, Attorney-General, who declined, on account of his health, to be again a candidate. Samuel R. Colt, of Bristol, was nominated for Attorney-General ; Samuel Clark, of Lincoln, was nominated for Treasurer. No platform was adopted by the convention. The Democratic party of Rhode Island con- vened at Providence on March 22d, and nomi- nated the following State ticket: Governor, Horace A. Kimball, of Providence; Lieuten- ant-Governor, J. G. Perry, of South Kings- ton ; Secretary of State, Jonathan M. "Wheel- er, of Cranston ; General Treasurer, George P. Leonard, of Newport ; Attorney- General, Amos R. Perry, of Providence. The following platform was adopted : It is resolved by the Democrats of Ehode Island in convention : 1. That we are in favor of such a change in the State Constitution as will guarantee equal political rights to all citizens in the United States resident in this Commonwealth, whether of native or foreign birth. 2. We are in favor of reform in civil service. 3. That we are resolutely opposed to any affiliation of the Democratic party with a political faction which has for its cardinal principle repudiation of the pub- lic debt, either State or national. 4. That we demand of the national Government the most energetic measures tending to the immediate abolition in Territories of the United States of that relic of barbarism, too long a disgrace to the honor of our country and the civilization of the Christian world — polygamy. The Greenbackers also held their State Con- vention at Providence, on March 22d, but no nominations were made. At the election, in April, the Republican nominees were generally elected. The aggre- RHODE ISLAND. 721 gate number of votes polled for Governor was 15,523, of which Mr. Littlefield received 10,056. REORGANIZATION. — On May 30th the Legis- lature met again at Newport, " to proceed to the reorganization of the State government for the ensuing year." The Senate was called to order by the Governor, as its usual President, and John B. Sanborn, the last year's presiding officer of the House of Representatives, was re-elected Speaker. A numerous committee, consisting of five members from the county of Providence and three from each of the other counties, together with the Secretary of State and the Clerks of both Houses, was appointed "to count the ballots for Governor and general State officers, and report to grand commit- tee"; which committee, on canvass, made their report to the General Assembly in grand committee on the same day, declaring the offi- cers actually elected, namely : Governor, Alfred H. Littlefield ; Lieutenant- Governor, Henry H. Fay ; Secretary of State, Joshua M. Addeman ; Attorney-General, Samuel B. Colt; General Treasurer, Samuel Clark. All of these officers were legally sworn in immediately afterward. The following State officers were elected by the General Assembly on May 31st, both Houses having then met again in grand com- mittee for that purpose : State Auditor, Samuel H. Cross ; Assistant Attorney-General, Benja- min M. Bos worth, Jr. ; State Inspector of Beef and Pork, Henry M. Kimball ; State Inspector of Lime, Gilbert E. Whittmore ; State Inspector of Scythe-stones, 0. E. Chickering; State In- spector of Cables, Joseph P. Morton. The same grand committee, on May 31st, elected two Associate Justices of the State Su- preme Court, Pardon E. Tillinghast and George M. Carpenter. They elected also trial justices, a long list of justices of the peace, sheriffs and clerks of the several counties, members of the State Board of Education to fill vacancies, and notaries public. The next General Assembly in either House will stand as follows : In the Senate, Republi- cans 27, Democrats 8 ; in the House of Repre- sentatives, Republicans 68, Democrats 8. On June 2d the General Assembly adjourned to June 13th, that the legal time prescribed by the statute of Congress for an election of Sena- tor might elapse. Upon their meeting again, on June 13th, Senator Anthony was re-elected for a fifth term. On the same day both Houses passed " an act to approve, and publish, and submit to the electors a proposition of amendment to the Constitution of this State." The act declared the above-mentioned amendment approved by both Houses ; and fixed " the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November, 1882," as the day of election. Several acts and resolutions of minor impor- tance were passed on June 14th, relating espe- cially to appropriations, and the Newport ses- sion was closed on the same day. CONGRESSMEN. — For the November election VOL. xxu. — 46 A in 1882 the Republicans and the Democrats residing within the two congressional districts of Rhode Island severally met in convention at Providence, the former on October 20th, the latter on the 26th, to nominate their respective candidates for Congressmen. All of these four conventions were held, not only in the same city, but also in the same room — the Slade Hall, the convention for the second district having begun its work immediately after the first had adjourned, the delegates to the former waiting for the departure of those of the lat- ter, to occupy the chairs vacated. The Repub- licans from either district unanimously re- nominated the incumbents, namely, Henry J. Spooner, of Providence, for the First District ; and Jonathan Chace, of Lincoln, for the Second District. The Democrats as unanimously nom- inated Oscar Lapham, of Providence, for the First District ; and Jonathan M. Wheeler, of Cranston, for the Second District. COLORED VOTERS. — The colored voters of Rhode Island, who have long complained of the treatment which they have steadily re- ceived at the hands of the Republican party in the State — they being unrecognized as citizens, neglected, and totally ignored in regard to their political rights, excepting that of suffrage, which is eagerly sought for — assembled in con- vention at Newport on the 18th of October, 1882, to express and make publicly known their sentiments. About fifty delegates from the various parts of the State attended this convention, a large number of other colored men being also present as interested specta- tors. Several public speakers of high repute among them addressed the convention, set forth in plain language, besides other causes of com- plaint, that the colored voters were highly in- sulted by the party in power, as they were con- sidered not worthy being voted for for any of the public offices in the gift of the people; de- claring also that henceforward they intended to act independently of the Republican party on all political occasions, but vote for the per- son, whatever the party to which he might be- long, who would recognize them as citizens. An " address to the people," recounting their grievances, together with a series of resolutions, was unanimously adopted by this convention, the resolutions being as follow : Resolved, That the Kepublican party of pur State has failed to properly recognize the worthiness and faithful devotion of it's colored adherents ; that it con- tinues to do so in the face of earnest but respectful remonstrances. Resolved, That while we cling to those principles which have made the party acceptable to the people, and would adhere steadfastly to its nominations, we affirm our determination to support that person, let him be allied to whatever party he may be, if he shall convince us that he has the most regard for our rights and feelings as citizens of the State. Resolved, That we demand common respect, and a fair representation in the apportionment of prominent and other offices ; not simply because of the money considerations that usually accompany office, but that it may be seen that our class is respected and deferred to as are other citizens. 722 EHODE ISLAND. RODGERS, JOHN". Resolved, That we will hold in contempt, as a trai- tor to manhood and his race, that man who will per- mit his vote to be influenced by a tender of money or any other corrupting influence. The colored people of the State numbered 6,271 in 1875, and 6,592 in 1880. ELECTIONS. — At the election held on the 7th of November, the two Republican nominees were elected members of Congress. The amendment to the Constitution of the State was rejected. The votes approving the amendment, instead of being three fifths, were much less than one half of the whole number cast upon it throughout the State. In almost every town the nays were more numerous than the yeas, as follows : for the amendment, 4,393, and 5,125 against it. FINANCES. — The State debt on December 31, 1881, amounted to $2,521,500; at the same date in 1882, it was $1,606,500, as much as $952,000, which fell due on the first day of September, having been paid. The receipts and expenditures during the year 1882 were as follow : Eeceipts $888,419 34 Balance in the Treasury on December 81, 1881.. 210,789 90 Total $1,099,209 24 Expenditures 774,289 80 Balance in the Treasury on January 1, 18S3. $324,919 44 The deposits in the savings banks, on the 28th of November, 1882, amounted to $50,657,- 876.80, including $187, 067.49 of surplus profits on hand; which shows in the said deposits an increase of $1,548,948.37 over those of 1881. The whole number of depositors in November, 1882, was 112,472, showing also an increase of not less than 9,481 over their number in the preceding year. EDUCATION. — The present condition of educa- tion in Khode Island, with regard to the num- ber and kind of her school-houses, the num- ber of children of school age, and their attend- ance, is quite satisfactory. STATE INSTITUTIONS. — The charitable, re- formatory, and penal institutions supported by the State, and now grouped together at Crans- ton, upon the land known as " the State Farm,1' are also under excellent management and real- ize the purposes for which they have been es- tablished. The number of these institutions and of their respective inmates, on December 81, 1882, was as follows : "Asylum for the In- sane, 305 ; Workhouse and House of Correc- tion, 252 ; Almshouse, 221 ; Sockanosset School for Boys, 138 ; Oaklawn School for Girls, 24; State-Prison, 94 ; and Providence County Jail, 129 ; in all, 1,163. Adding the number of offi- cers with their families, residing at the institu- tions, the total population is about 1,250." The Governor states the increase in the num- ber of insane persons at the asylum to have been alarming for these several years, and that in 1882 this increase was two thirds larger than in 1881, the insane patients reported at the close of the said two years having been 303 and 281 respectively. RAILWAYS. — The railway lines have trans- acted during 1882 a considerably larger amount of business, in both passenger and merchan- dise transportation, than during the previous year — the total number of passengers in 1882 having increased to 3,822,220, and that of tons of merchandise to 672,391. The general ex- penses incurred by them, however, the Railroad Commissioner states to have so far increased during the year that in their net earnings there has been a decrease of $244,869.75. " Thirty-one accidents have occurred on these railroads during the year 1882, by which four- teen lives were lost, and twenty-two persons were injured." No additional mileage has been made during this year to the tracks of the railroads in the State. RICE PRODUCTION OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1879. The production of rice, in the several rice-growing States, for the year 1879, and the average yield to the acre, as returned by the census of 1880, were as fol- low : STATES. Acres. Pounds. Average yield per acre (pounds). Alabama 1,579 810, 8S9 514 Florida 2.551 1,294,677 508 84973 25 369 687 725 Louisiana 42,000 23 188 811 552 Mississippi 8,501 1,718,951 491 North Carolina 10,846 5,609,191 517 South Carolina Texas. 78,388 385 52,077,515 62 152 664 186 Total 174,173 110,131,373 682 RODGERS, JOHN, Rear-Admiral United States Navy, born in Harford County, Md., Au- gust 8, 1812 ; died in Washington, D. C., May 5, 1882. In his sixteenth year lie was appointed midshipman from the District of Columbia, and joined the Mediterranean squadron in the frigate Constellation, under the command of his father, Commodore Rodgers. In 1832 lie went to the Naval School at Norfolk, Va., and two years later passed his examination and be- came a passed midshipman. He then spent a year of study in the University of Virginia. From 1836 to 1839 he served on the Brazilian squadron, when he took command of the schooner Wave on the Florida coast. He was made lieutenant January 22, 1840, and assigned to the command of the schooner Jefferson. He was now occupied in hydrographic work among the Florida Keys, and in conducting hostilities against the Seminole Indians. He joined the Mediterranean squadron again in 1846, and remained there for nearly two years. During the three following years (1849-'52) he was again on duty on the coast of Florida, in fixing the position of shoals, reefs, etc., in as- certaining the direction of currents, and in pre- paring charts. In 1852 Lieutenant Rodgers joined the squadron which formed the Northern Pacific EODGEES, JOHN". ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 723 Survey Expedition, under Commander Ring- gold, and succeeded to the command when in the China Seas. His surveys of the Ladrone Islands, Loo-Choo, and other islands, added much valuable knowledge and increased the safety of navigation in those seas. In 1855 he sailed from Kamchatka, in the Vincennes, through Behring Strait into the Arctic Ocean, for the purpose of verifying the posi- tion of lands plotted by British officers on the Admiralty charts. He then sailed westward in search of the land plotted by Admiral Wrangel, but was turned back by ice-barriers. His return was occupied in marking his zig- zag course by line of soundings on the chart of "Behring Sea and the Arctic Ocean." This chart was published by the Government, and added to Rodgers's well-earned reputation. He reached San Francisco in October, 1855, and was gazetted with his officers by the Navy Department. On the breaking out of the civil war, Com- mander Rodgers was sent West to superintend the construction of the Benton class of iron- clads. Desiring more active duty, he was placed in command of an expedition of gunboats, which he led (May 15th) to the famous attack on Fort Darling. His courage and skill were shown on many occasions, on one especially, when, in the monitor Weehawken, he cap- tured, after a very brief engagement, the rebel ironclad Atlanta, in Warsaw Sound, Georgia, a vessel much his superior in tonnage and force. His most famous voyage was in the monitor Monadnock, which, under his command, navigated the Atlantic and Pacific, passing through the Straits of Magellan, and reaching San Francisco in safety. Commodore Rodgers was particularly ser- viceable in the harbor of Valparaiso, where he succeeded in preventing a bombardment of the city by the Spanish fleet. His tact, judgment, firmness, good sense, all deserve praise, and received high commendation from the Govern- ment. In December, 1866, he was assigned to the command of the Charlestown Navy Yard ; he was made rear-admiral December 31, 1869 ; and early in 1870 took command of the Asiatic fleet. His expedition to Corea and his prompt measures against the treachery of the natives showed those savages very plainly that the United States would never submit to outrage on their part with impunity. On finishing his Asiatic cruise, Admiral Rodgers was made commandant of Mare Island Navy Yard, California, since which time he has been in charge of the Naval Observatory. Hav- ing received the thanks of Congress, his official life was prolonged beyond the prescribed age. He took an active interest in all that related to the service in which the best years of his life had been spent. He became a member of the Light-House Board in May, 1878, and was elected chairman to succeed Professor Henry. He died full of years, and was honored and es- teemed by all who came in contact with him, for his many noble and excellent qualities of both head and heart. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. The ear- liest important official acts of Pope Leo XIII in the year 1882 were a series of beatifications, by which the public invocation and the expo- sition of the pictures of personages whose lives and miraculous powers had been duly investi- gated, were permitted in certain districts or to certain orders. These were, Blessed Alphon- sus de Orosco, Hermit of the Order of St. Au- gustine, born at Oropesa, Spain, October 15, 1500, preacher to Charles V, and a theologian of high rank, beatified January 15th with sol- emn ceremonies in the Aula of the Canoniza- tion; Blessed Charles da Sezze, a Franciscan lay brother, known in the world as John Charles Marchione, born at Sezze, October 22, 1613, died January 6, 1670, beatified January 22, 1882; and Blessed Humilis da Bisignano, also a Franciscan lay brother, known in the world as Luke Anthony, born at Bisignano, in Cala- bria, August 25, 1582, died there October 26, 1637, beatified January 29, 1882. AN ENCYCLICAL. — In an encyclical, dated February 15, 1882, and addressed to the arch- bishops and bishops of Italy, Pope Leo XIII, after reviewing the increasing assaults on reli- gion and the spread of antichristian ideas, urges them to labor' to counteract them: "In order to nourish and increase awakened virtue, it is necessary to see and provide that societies may be increased and flourish, in number, co-opera- tion, and good accomplished; that the main object of these societies should be to maintain and arouse faith and other Christian duties. To this class belong associations of youth, of artisans, those intended for assembling Catho- lics at stated times, societies for the relief of the poor, for the observance of holy days, in- struction of the children of the poor, and the like. And as it imports in the highest degree for the Catholic weal that the Roman Pontiff should be, and be known to be, free from all peril, annoyance, and difficulty, let these asso- ciations strive, by remonstrances, and by every form of action within the law, for the cause of the Pope. Let them endeavor and do, nor take rest till there is restored to us that lib- erty in fact, and not in figure, with which, as in a compulsory bond, is joined not only the Church's good, but a favorable course of Italian government and the tranquillity of Christian nations." He urged the daily or most frequent dissemination of sound principles and doctrines to oppose the flood of irreligious and commu- nistic theories constantly offered to the unwary. Cardinal rules are given for writers. ^ The bish- ops are urged also to renewed care in the due training of candidates for the priesthood in properly organized seminaries. A form long in use, by which certain ancient sees in lands overrun by the Mohammedans were designated as in partibus infidelium, was suppressed by the Congregation "de Propa- ganda Fide," and approved by Pope Leo XIII, 724 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. February 28th. Where bishops are appointed as coadjutors or auxiliaries, they are made bish- ops of some one of these ancient sees ; and, where necessary to distinguish the fact of non-residence, the formula titular bishop is to be used. CARDINALS. — On the 29th of March the Pope pronounced two cardinals reserved in petto December 13, 1880, Francis Ricci Paracciani, Majordomo, and Peter Lasagni, Secretary of the Sacred College, both of the order of Cardi- nal Deacons ; and also created cardinals, Domi- nic Agostini, Patriarch of Venice ; Charles M. A. Lavigerie, Archbishop of Algiers; Mgr. Lluch y Garriga, Archbishop of Seville, who died before the close of the year, and Edward McCabe, Archbishop of Dublin. At a second creation, September 26th, "Wladimir Czacki and A. Bianchi were also made cardinals ; but during the year Cardinals Donnet, Lluch y Gar- riga, and Sanguigni died. DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS. — Events were now beginning to show tint many of the great powers felt that harmonious relations with the Sovereign Pontiff, the spiritual head acknowl- edged by a large part of their subjects, tended to render them more hearty in their support of the civil institutions under which they lived, and, in times when most radical and disorgan- izing theories were spreading, the influence of a Church essentially conservative was an ele- ment of strength, began to renew their inter- course with the Holy See by regular diplomatic representatives. Baron Von Schloser, ambas- sador from Prussia, arrived in February. Rus- sia, France, Brazil, with other American States, followed, and even England prepared at last to enter into diplomatic relations with the Holy See, which legislative enactments no longer forbade. This recognition that the papal sovereignty was diminished only, not destroyed, by the capture of Rome in 1870, only served to bring his anomalous position into a more striking light. A trivial incident brought from Italy a direct denial of the very sovereignty recognized by Catholic, Protestant, and Greek states. CASE OF MAETINUOOI. — Martinucci, an archi- tect employed in the works in the Vatican, dismissed for misconduct in 1879, considering himself aggrieved, brought suit in one of the Italian courts against the Cardinal Secretary of State and the Majordomo. As a claim on the pontifical treasury, it was virtually, though not in form, a suit against the Pope himself, and avowedly for matters arising within the precinct where he was, by the recognition of all, sovereign. To obviate a recurrence of such cases, Leo XIII, on the 25th of May, by a motu proprio, declared that " we can not in such ques- tions of internal order permit the intervention of foreign authority," and he established two commissions, each composed of three prelates, to be appointed by him, for the adjudication in the first instance, and on appeal, of all com- plaints against any administration of the palace arising on contract or quasi contract. The Italian court, though the question of jurisdic- tion was at once raised by the advocate Coraz- zini in the name of the Vatican, overruled it, declaring the Vatican to be within the juris- diction of the courts established by the Italian Government. It dismissed the case (August 16th) on the merits; but it was carried to a Court of Appeals, which (November 13) af- firmed the decision of the lower court, both as to jurisdiction and as to the merits of the case. The whole question was discussed, and Men- ghetti, in his "Stato Chiesa," avowed that the law of guarantees was " only a temporary affair, intended to quiet Catholic powers and popula- tions, the real object being to put an end in time to the exceptional and privileged situa- tion it created for the papacy, and to make the Sovereign Pontiff return to the common law." Other leaders held the same views, Borighi, in the " Nuova Antologia," saying distinctly : "The rights of the Pope are inviolable only because the Italian law makes them so." The Cardinal Secretary of State addressed a note to the nuncios at the European courts, and the po- sition of the Pope was brought up directly for diplomatic action. In the excitement against Austria, arising out of the Overdank affair, an attack was made, on December 29th, in the Pi- azza Sciarra, at Rome, on the carriage of Count Paar, the Austrian embassador to the Pope. The Italian court before which the offender was brought ignored the diplomatic character of Count Paar, and held the offender "for an offense against an office of the administrative order." In his allocution of December 24th the Pope said : "This year the work of persecution has not stopped. We will not speak of the in- creasing audacity of a shameless press, nor of the unworthy insults it launches with impu- nity for this end against all that is respected and sacred. We form no new plaints on the many Italian dioceses long left without pas- tors, although seasonably provided by us, nor on the spiritual loss which the faithful popula- tion receive. But we must mention a new attempt made on our inviolable rights. They have pretended to maintain that the very site of our abode is no longer to be respected or inviolable ; whence it results that in the very precincts of our apostolic palace we are no longer free to exercise our sovereign rights." In fact, the Italian law did not recognize in the Pope the immunity which the Pope's nun- cio enjoyed at every European capital. GERMANY AND THE POPE. — The state of the Catholic Church in Prussia and the German Empire was not improved in 1882, although the Government allowed some vacant sees to be filled. Several dioceses were still without bishops, and hundreds of parishes without priests. The Government had made some effort to obtain of the Pope a surrender of rights without repealing the May laws. In 1878, during the illness of the Emperor, the ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 725 Imperial Prince addressed Pope Leo XIII. The same year Prince Bismarck met at Kis- singen Mgr. Masella, nuncio at Munich, but would not consent to a revision of the May laws. The next year he had interviews with Cardinal Jacobini at Vienna and Gastein, and Mr. Huebler was sent to Vienna to prepare for negotiations. Early in 1880 the Pope, in a letter to the Archbishop of Cologne, showed a willingness, for the sake of delivering the Catholics from their spiritual destitution, to do anything not absolutely incompatible with the discipline of the Church. Finally, in 1882, Mr. Schlozer was sent to Rome as Prussian embas- sador, and negotiations were begun, but little progress was made. Leo XIII at last, in or- der, if possible, to bring the matter to a definite settlement, addressed the Emperor in person : I. YOUR MAJESTY : At the last opening of the Prus- sian Landtag your Imperial and Royal Majesty ex- pressed to your people your heartfelt joy at the re- establishment of friendly relations with the head of the Catholic Church. Your utterances were so kind to- ward us that they were exceedingly agreeable, and we are forced to tender your Majesty our especial thanks. We do so with heartfelt satisfaction. Since the beginning of our pontificate our confi- dence in the noble and generous nature of your Maj- esty has been so great, that we felt sure of the return of religious peace and tranquillity of conscience to the people under your powerful scepter ; and now the re- establishment of diplomatic relations, and the interest which your Majesty evinces, strengthen our hopes. Your Majesty's long experience and high good sense teach you the necessity of the observance of religious duties by the people for the fulfillment of those which foil on them as citizens and subjects. This is espe- cially the cas3 at present, when society is shaken to its very basis. We can assure your Majesty that the Cathol'ie Church is animated by a similar spirit, and, unless obstructed, she has the will and the power to extend it everywhere. It is our earnest desire to have the holy influence of the Church used for the advan- tage of both the people and the Government, and for such a purpose to seal relations of friendship and peace. If the imperious duties of the apostolic ministry, filled with responsibility to both God and man, force us to ask that the new ecclesiastical legislation of Prussia— at least in the points essential for the exist- ence and life of the Catholic religion— may be defini- tively softened and improved, your Majesty j far from ascribing it to a lack of conciliatory disposition, will please acknowledge that we ask it in the interest of peace, which could not be true and lasting were it_not established on a solid foundation. This pacification, while it will satisfy one of the most ardent desires of our heart, and bind with stronger ties to the_throne of your Majesty the souls of all your Catholic sub- jects, will no doubt form the most beautiful and .pre- cious crown of your long and glorious domination. With this hope we raise to Heaven the most fervid supplications for the prosperity of your Majesty, and of your imperial and royal family. From the Vatican, December 3, 1882. To the Imperial and Royal Majesty of William I, Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia. This elicited the following reply : BERLIN, December 22, 1882. I thank your Holiness for the letter which you ad- dressed me on the 3d of this month, and I reciprocate with all my heart the kindly feelings it manifests. This letter confirms me in the hope that your Holi- ness will derive, from the satisfaction you share with me at the restoration and activity of my legation, a new motive for replying, by an equal advance, that of my Government, which has rendered the occupation of most of the episcopal sees possible. I am of opinion that such an advance, if made in the matter of the designation of ecclesiastical nomi- nations, would be more advantageous to the Church than to the State, because it would open the possi- bility of filling the ecclesiastical posts which have be- come vacant. If, in consequence of an advance of the clergy in this matter, I could feel assured that the desire for an understanding is reciprocal, I might lend my hand to the submission for a fresh examina- tion by the Landtag of my monarchy of those Jaws which were useful in the period of the struggle for the defense of the contested rights of the State, with- out their being necessary in a permanent manner for pacific relations. It is with satisfaction that I avail myself of this oc- casion to assure your Holiness once more of my de- votedncss and personal veneration. (Signed) WILLIAM. Countersigned BISMARCK. II YOUR MAJESTY. The letter which your Imperial and Eoyal Majesty sent us last December by the hands of Signor Schlozer, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary from Prussia to the Holy See, has confirmed in us the hope, long time enter- tained, of a complete settlement of the religious con- troversies in the kingdom of Prussia. The readiness of your Majesty to co-operate in a revision of ecclesi- astical legislation, indicates the conclusion of a com- Elete agreement at no distant date. For this favora- le disposition of your Majesty we express our thanks and satisfaction. We have directed our Cardinal Secretary of State to write a note to Signor Schlozer, which note we be- lieve has already been brought to the knowledge of your Majesty's Government. In that note we desired that the royal Government should be assured of our will, manifested on many other occasions, to permit the bishops to notify the Government of the candi- dates selected for the pastoral benefices. And, in or- der to get nearer to the views and wishes of your Majesty, we have also made known our disposition, after the requisite notification, to fill up the parishes actually vacant, without awaiting the complete revis- ion of the existing laws. We have, however, asked meantime that the meas- ures now binding the exercise of the ecclesiastical power and ministry in the instruction and education of the clergy be modified, because a modification, we believe, is indispensable to the very life of the Catho- lic Church. She desires that her bishops shall have the power to train and instruct her sacred ministers vigilantly, and according to the spirit of the Church. The State could not exact less than this for its own functiona- ries. A reasonable freedom in the exercise of eccle- siastical power, and in the ministry, for the welfare of souls, is also an essential element of life in the Church. It would be useless to nominate to parishes new candidates, if they were forbidden to act in con- formity with the duties imposed upon them by the pastoral office. Once in accord on these points, it will be easy, with a reciprocal good will, to come to an understanding on other conditions necessary to insure a true and lasting peace, the final aim of mutual wishes. Meantime we pray your Majesty to accept the re- peated expression of the fervent supplications that we do not cease to raise for the full prosperity of your Majesty, and of the imperial and royal family. I/lX'. JT» A. .A. Ill* From the Vatican, January 30. 1888. To his Majesty Imperial and Royal William I, Emperor of Germany and King of Prussia. 726 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHUECH. ROUMANIA. RUSSIA AND THE CHURCH. — While the nego- tiations between Prussia and the Holy See were thus protracted, from the unwillingness of Prus- sia to recede from the extremely harsh legisla- tion adopted against the Catholic Church, the relations between Russia and the Pope had been speedily adjusted. The persecution of Catholics in Russia had lasted for twenty years ; hundreds of bishops and priests had been exiled to Siberia or other districts ; men had been forced into their places who went over speedily to the State Church ; whole districts were com- pelled to accept that Church and its ministry. The Russian Government, relaxing its severity, set at liberty Bishop JBorowsky, who had been for twelve years interned at Perm, and released others soon after. The Russian embassador, M. de Bouteniew, on December 24th, signed a convention with the Cardinal Secretary of State by which the Latin Catholics, and especially the United Greeks — that is, Catholics follow- ing the Greek rite, but united to the Holy See — secured a degree of liberty and peace that they had not enjoyed for years. FRANCE AND THE CHURCH. — In France the Government continued its system of hostility. By a law of March 18th, a set of books on civic morality, compiled by Paul Bert and other writers in a spirit hostile to Christianity, were introduced into schools. The books were con- demned at Rome, and several bishops, in pas- toral letters, announced to parents that they could not conscientiously permit their children to learn them. For this the bishops were cited before the courts. Steps were then taken to suppress all religious instruction in schools, and all Christian emblems were removed. Ab- bot Couturier and his Benedictine monks were forcibly evicted from their monastery at So- lesmes by a force of soldiers and gens cFarmes. As a compensation for the church property seized by the Government, it had been estab- lished that a yearly stipend was to be paid to each priest doing parochial duty, and that, in each commune where the collections did not meet the expenses of maintaining the Church, the deficiency was paid by the commune. In 1882 a law exempted the commune from this obligation. PORTUGAL, ETC. — Portugal and Belgium were in a somewhat similar position with regard to the Pope, and, at a later period, Chili also. The nomination to the bishoprics is in these countries claimed by the State, and in each of them nominations were made which at Rome were not deemed such as could in conscience be approved by the Pope. Threats were made of suppressing episcopal sees in Belgium and Portugal. UNITED STATES. — In the United States pro- vincial councils were held at Cincinnati (March 4th) and San Francisco (April 29th), and a synod at New York (November 8th). A new see was erected at Grand Rapids, Mich. Bishop Lynch, of Charleston, one of the most learned and able members of the hierarchy, died February 26th. Several cases affecting the discipline or property of the Catholic Church were before the courts. In Sheehan vs. Twigg, the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, following decisions in Michigan and elsewhere, held a bishop not per- sonally liable to a priest for his salary. In Ohio, a case against Archbishop Purcell was tried early in the year, but no decision was rendered in 1882. The Vicar-General of the diocese, Very Rev. E. Purcell, had for years received deposits of money, which he invested or loaned so injudiciously that he failed, owing some millions, and had no books to show how the money had been employed. The Most Rev. John B. Purcell, as Archbishop, assumed the responsibility of his brother's acts, and on this the creditors claimed all ecclesiastical property held in the Archbishop's name. The main questions at issue were, whether a trustee can, by assuming the acts of another, deprive his cestui que trust of their property winch he holds merely as trustee ; and, further, whether any particular church was liable to the cred- itors beyond the amount it may have received as a loan or grant from the insolvent. Actual count showed two fifths of the church-goers in Boston and seventeen twenty-fourths of those in St. Louis to be Catholics. The foreign missions showed exertion, peril, and death. In China, the missionaries in north- ern Honan were often in danger of death, and were compelled to fly from one place to another to escape the mandarins. A missionary was killed at Peishun, but in southern Honan and in Tchely the missionary reported more than sixteen hundred adult converts. Progress was also made in Tonqnin. In Zanzibar the Sultan showed such favor to the missionaries that the Pope sent him an elegant mosaic work. The general life of the Church was shown in pilgrimages to Rome, and in the centenaries of St. Francis of Assisium and St. Teresa. Among the pilgrimages, one from Spain began to assume a political aspect, but the Pope, de- clining to receive one except as organized by the bishops severally, prevented any political demonstration. An encyclical letter, addressed to the archbishops, bishops, and other ordina- ries of Spain (December 8th), sought to restore harmony. The centenaries of St. Francis (Sep- tember 8th) and St. Teresa (October 15th) were especially encouraged by the Pope, who, in a brief, warmly commended the extension of the Third Order of St. Francis as a remedy for our times. Both celebrations were made a means of reviving piety. The Propaganda, by a circular of October 20th, invited Catholic missionaries in all parts of the world to send contributions to the great ethnological collection, the Borgia Museum, in the Vatican. ROUMANIA, a kingdom of Eastern Europe, formerly a province of Turkey. Absolute in- dependence was proclaimed May 22, 18T7, and was recognized by the powers at the Congress of Berlin, June 13, 1878. The Principality of KOUMANIA. 727 Roumania was erected into a kingdom March 26, 1881. The Constitution was elaborated by a Constituent Assembly in 1866. It delegates the legislative power to the Senate, of seventy members, and the Chamber of Deputies, of one hundred and forty-five members. The mem- bers of both Houses are chosen by electoral colleges for each district. Every citizen able to read and write is a voter. The King has a suspensive veto on legislation. The King, Carol I, is the son of Prince Ho- henzollern-Sigmaringen, born April 20, 1839. He was elected Prince of Roumania in 1866, after the abdication of Alexander John, who was elected Hospodar npon the union of Mol- davia and Wallachia into the Principality of Roumania in 1861. The executive authority is exercised by a council of seven ministers. The Cabinet, as re- constructed in August, 1882, is composed of the following members : President of the Council and Minister of War, Ivan Bratiano; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Demetrius Sturdza ; Minister of the Interior, G. Chitzu ; Minister of Finance, G-. Lecca; Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works, Colonel N. Da- bija; Minister of Public Instruction and Religion, Aurelian. ABE A AND POPULATION'. — The area of Rou- mania, as fixed by the Treaty of Berlin, is about 49,979 square miles. By that treaty the Bes- sarabian provinces annexed by the Treaty of Paris to Roumania, embracing 3,270 square miles, and containing about 140,000 inhabitants, were restored to Russia ; and a territory in- cluding the islands of the delta of the Danube, the Sandjak of Tultcha, and a strip south ot the Dobrudja, 5,935 square miles in total ex- tent, and containing about 357,000 inhabitants, were annexed to Roumania. The population of the kingdom is known only by estimates. The official estimate of the total population in 1882 was 5,376,000. In Roumania, as it was before the Treaty of Berlin, the estimated pop- ulation of 5,073,000 souls included 772,700 strangers, to wit: 400,000 Israelites, 200,000 Bohemians, 85,000 Slavs, 39,000 Germans, 29,- 500 Hungarians, 8,000 Armenians, 5,000 Greeks, 2,000 French, 1,000 English, 500 Italians, and 2,700 Turks, Poles, Tartars, and others. The 106,943 inhabitants of the Dobrudja comprise 31,177 Roumanians, 16,493 Turks, 28,715 Bul- garians, and 30,558 of other nationalities. The Greek Orthodox is the state religion. The numbers of adherents to this faith are esti- mated at 4,529,000 ; of Roman Catholics, 114,- 200; of Protestants, 13,800; of Armenians, 8,000 ; of Lipovans, 6,000 ; of Israelites, 400,- 000; of Mohammedans, 2,000. This estimate does not include the population of the annexed sandjaks, which increased considerably the numbers of Mussulmans and Lipovans. The principal cities are Bucharest, the cap- ital, containing, in 1879, 221,000 inhabitants; Jassy, containing 90,000; Galatz, 80,000 ; Boto- chani, 39,941; Ploesti, 33,000; Braila, 28,272; Berlad, 26,568; Craiova, 22,764; Giurgevo, 20,866 ; Focsani, 20,866 ; and Piatra, 20,000. FINANCES. — The revenues of Roumania are derived principally from a poll-tax of nine lei and other direct taxes, from the tobacco mo- nopoly, and from the profits on the state prop- erty. Following is a summary of the budget for the year ending March 31, 1883, in lei (the lei is equivalent to a franc, the French system of money, weights, and measures having been established in 1876) : RECEIPTS. Lei. Directtaxes 25,190,000 Indirect taxes 51,886,000 Public property 18,481,600 Of the ministries 17,282,522 Various receipts 7,317,922 Tithe for collection of direct taxes 2,519,000 Total 122,627,044 EXPENDITURES. Lei. Publicdebt 45,458,431 Council of Ministers 63,560 Ministry of Finance 13,755,997 Foreign Affairs 1,550,001 " Justice 4,276,496 " Education and Worship 11,331,890 War. 26,404,838 " Public Works 8,705,212 " the Interior 9,705,959 Contingent fund 1,374,660 Total 122,627,044 The public debt stood on April 1, 1882, as follows, the amounts in lei or francs : LOANS. Original Issue. Outstanding. Year of extinction. Stern Brothers 1864 7 per cent . . ... . 22,889,437 8,767.500 1888 81,610,500 17,515.000 188» 44,600,000 40,869,500 Converted local 1880 6 per cent . .... 31,600,000 81,865,200 1924 Funded, 1881, 5 per cent 148,200,000 147,750,000 1931 Total, general 278,899,937 245,767,200 51,535.640 51,442,159 1968 9,985,320 9,744,962 8,770,215 1,683,685 1886 237,500.000 236,605,000 1923 Treasury bonds, 1881, 5 per cent. .' 47,948,000 47,948,000 1899 Total, special 850,789,175 347,423,806 Total debt 629,689,112 598,191,006 .... ARMY.— The military law of June 11, 1868, again by the law of June 8, 1882. The mili- was modified in 1872, 1874, and 1880, and tary forces are divided into (1) the active army, 728 ROUMANIA. composed of the regular army and its reserve, and the territorial army with its reserve ; (2) the militia; and (3) the civic guard in the towns and the gloate or levy in mass in the rural dis- tricts. Every able-bodied Roumanian must be enrolled in the regular army — three years in the active army and five in the reserve, or in the territorial army, in which the term is like- wise eight years ; five in the infantry, and four in the cavalry, active. Lots are drawn to de- termine to which army a young man is to belong. Those legally exempt and those who have served their time are enrolled in the militia up to their thirty-seventh, and in the third class up to their forty-seventh year. The peace effective of the regular army is 1,200 officers, 18,532 men, 2,945 horses, and 180 guns ; the strength of the territorial army is about 100,000 men and 90 guns. Roumania has a naval force of 4 steamers and 14 small gunboats. There were 780 miles of state railroads in operation on July 1, 1882, and one belonging to a company, 140 miles in length. The total cost of construction was 376,450,000 francs; the gross receipts in 1881, 22,800,745 francs; the running expenses, 16,854,441 francs. There were 420 miles of new lines in construction. The postal traffic in 1881 embraced 6,873,317 private letters and a total of 12,504,199 letters, circulars, etc., besides 415,469 packages and 381,110 postal orders. The length of the state telegraph lines in 1881 was 3,320 miles; length of wires, 5,420 miles. The number of private domestic dis- patches was 648,234 ; of private foreign dis- patches, 292,797 ; total number of dispatches, 1,150,188. The total receipts were 4,028,727 francs. COMMEKCE. — The imports of Roumania in- creased from 82,927,228 lei in 1871, to 274,757,- 458 in 1881; the exports from 177,682,783 to 206,518,3-17 lei. The exports consist entirely of cereals and other agricultural products. The values exported of the chief classes of articles in 1881 were as follow, in round numbers : Cereals, 157,200,000 lei ; animals, 16,600,000 ; textile materials, 7,100,000 ; wood, 5,200,000. The following were the chief classes of im- ports : Textiles, 98,400,000 lei ; metals and met- al manufactures, 48,600,000 ; leather, 36,500,- 000; wood and its manufactures, 13,900,000. Of the total imports 135,000,000 lei came from Austria- Hungary, 50,500,000 from Great Brit- ain, 31,800,000 from Germany, 22, 700, 000 from France, and 16,400,000 from Turkey and Bul- garia; of the exports, 82,200,000 lei went to Great Britain, 72,100,000 to Austria-Hungary, 19,300,000 to France, 11,400,000 to Turkey and Bulgaria, and 1,600,000 to Germany. ^ DANTTBIAN COMMISSION. — The European Commission of the Danube was created by the Treaty of Paris in 1856, and continued and en- dowed with larger powers by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. It has its seat at Galatz, and has delegated to it, as the representative of the seven contracting powers and of Roumania, certain sovereign rights over the Danube be- low Galatz, viz., to exercise police jurisdic- tion, to frame and promulgate regulations which have the force of law, to levy imposts, raise loans, and apply the proceeds to works of public utility. According to the convention signed at London, March 31, 1871, the existing commission continues its functions twelve years from that date. The works finished and to be finished by the commission were de- clared perpetually neutral. The accounts of the commission for 1881 show 3,448,190 francs of receipts, of which, 1,985,052 came from fees and tolls, and 1,463,- 138 from other sources. The expenses were 2,606,095 francs, of which 1,111,685 were for the service of the debt; 289,458, administra- tive expenses; 711,098, technical se'rvice; and 493,854, various charges. The debts of the commission consisted on January 1st of the unpaid portion of an advance made by the Sublime Porte, and transferred to Erlanger & Co., amounting to 2,469,371 francs, to be re- paid by 1883, and of a loan contracted in 1868, amounting to 312,540 francs, due in 1882. The commission possessed as assets a reserve fund of 1,000,000 francs, and the year's surplus of 842,095 francs, besides a pension fund of 264,- 856, and a pilotage fund of 46,564 francs. The commerce of the Danube is almost ex- clusively in grain. Most of the vessels arrive in ballast. The participation of the different nations in the navigation of the river is shown in the following table, giving the number and tonnage of vessels cleared in 1881 : FLAG. Steamers. Sailing- vessels. Total. English . 516 50 83 58 44 Tons. 496,666 44,173 42.699 45,669 5,530 2,862 2^68 13,249 No. 1 Tons. '7| 2.328 487' 84,518 18 4,306 39 5'l87 845 83.834 24^ 6,688 15 2,967 *6 'eio 528 537 101 58 83 345 27 15 8 19 1,711 Tons. 41IS.W4 128,691 47,005 45.669 10.717 38,834 9,550 2,967 2,168 13,859 Greek Austrian Russian . Turkish Italian 3 's 13 Roumanian Others Total 770 653,016: 941:140,438 793,454 The number of vessels which sailed from Danubian ports in 1880 was 1,813, of 658,- 063 tons aggregate burden, embracing 583 steamers, of 467,189 tons, and 1,230 sailing- vessels, of 190,874 tons. The exportation of grain from the ports of the lower Danube was 5,403,421 quarters in 1881, against 4,251,- 331 quarters in 1880, and 5,394,729 in 1879. FOREIGN RELATIONS. — The Danubian ques- tion engrossed the attention of the Roumanian people more than the important subjects of in- ternal reform which were broached in 1882. The Government in apologizing upon the de- mand of Austria, and under the pressure of Germany and Russia, for the bold declaration in the royal address of 1881 (see u Annual Cy- clopedia"" for 1881), did not abandon the EOUMANIA. 729 principle therein asserted. The French mem- ber of the Danube Commission, Barrere, of- fered a substitute for the Austrian proposal for a commission to regulate the navigation of the Danube between the Iron Gates and Galatz, under the presidency of Austria. Barrere's project was, that instead of Austria retaining the presidency and casting vote in the new commission, the delegates of each of the pow- ers participating in the Danubian Commission should exercise them in turn, alternating annu- ally in alphabetical order, according to the French nomenclature. This proposition was opposed by Roumania, for the same reason that the original avant projet was opposed, since for the first two years Germany and Austria would have the presidency of the new commission. A counter-project was proposed by Roumania, according to which a supervis- ing commission should be created, to be com- posed of two delegates appointed by the Danu- bian Commission, and one each from the ripa- rian states, Bulgaria, Roumania, and Servia; the delegates of the Danube Commission to be changed half-yearly, and to be taken from the states participating in the commission in al- phabetical order. Another Danubian question arose in the lat- ter part of the year, in which the Roumanian Government had to defend itself against the pretensions of Russia, as it had against those of Austria-Hungary, in the question of a mixed commission, to control the navigation between the Iron Gate and Galatz. When the Da- nubian Commission were preparing to have soundings made in the Kilia outlet, the Russian Government proposed to send engineers to participate in the surveys, on the ground that, as a riparian power, Russia was interested in plans for rendering navigable the Kilia branch. This branch of the Danube is the boundary between the Bessarabian provinces, ceded back to Russia by the Berlin Treaty, and the territory acquired by Roumania from Turkey. The Russian authorities ordered soundings to be taken independently of the operations of the commission, but the season was too far ad- vanced for anything to be done before spring. The Roumanian Government protested at once against having the Kilia branch placed in an exceptional position, basing its protest upon the existing treaties which give the Danubian Commission jurisdiction over all three mouths of the river. The matter at issue is of tech- nical as well as of political importance. The Kilia branch is as large as the Sulina branch, both being smaller than St. George's Channel. Operations which would make the Kilia branch navigable might interfere with the navigation of the Sulina branch, which was chosen as the international route of communication by the commission, and upon which they have ex- pended their funds. Both the Kilia question and the difficulty with Austria were postponed till the meeting of plenipotentiaries at London, in 1883, at which the question of renewing the powers of the Danubian Commission was to be decided, and all matters relating to the Danube reviewed and resettled. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. — In the begin- ning of the year the Bratiano-Rosetti Cabinet was broken up. The opposition of the land- lords, who form the majority of the Senate, to Rosetti's projects of agrarian reform, led to the dissolution of the Liberal combination, as much as the external cause of the recantation of the brave words in the royal address respecting the sovereignty of Roumania over the Danube within her borders. The Minister-President succeeded Rosetti in the Interior Department, being relieved of the portfolio of Military Af- fairs, of which he had charge ad interim, by General Anghelesco, while G. Lecca took charge of the Department of Finance. Chitzu became Minister of Justice, the other ministers remain- ing in their places. Rosetti's reform was intended to place the peasantry on a similar footing with the labor- ers of other countries in regard to their labor- contracts with the land-owners. When serfage was abolished in 1864, the lands apportioned to the emancipated serfs formed only a small portion of the tillable soil, and were far from sufficient to support them. The peasantry were not particularly well disposed to their former lords. Measures were adopted for the purpose of compelling them to work on the land, which gave the landlords almost the same powers over laborers who entered into contracts with them as those which they had exercised over these laborers as serfs. Rosetti resigned his seat in the Cabinet, in order to press his agra- rian reform more effectively. The measure passed the Chamber of Deputies in the form in which it was brought in by the Govern- ment. In the Senate it was considerably al- tered by amendments, which secured it the support of the land-owners belonging to the Government party, and which were accepted by the Chamber. According to the old law, the contracts, into which the peasants were obliged by their neces- sities to enter, could extend over several years, and could be enforced by stripes as well as by fines. The new law abolishes whipping and money-fines, and reduces the number of days which the peasant can be compelled to labor. It also limits the duration of such labor-con- tracts to two years. Rosetti introduced a supplementary bill, which also became law, by which the state as- sumed the debts of the peasants which they had engaged to discharge by future labor, and is to be repaid by the peasants in annual pay- ments extending over a series of years. The Jewish question in Roumania was a sore one before it became acute in other parts of Eastern Europe. The heedlessness of the landed gentry in money matters, and their repugnance to affairs, made them peculiarly dependent upon the Jews, who monopolized the mercantile 730 ROUMANIA. RUSSIA. and financial business of the country. The right of citizenship and of owning real estate was denied them. Without these mediaeval re- strictions the land-owners could not have pre- served their estates. In the recent advances of Roumania toward equal rights and consti- tutional liberty the civil disabilities of the Jews have been removed, but only in form. In the revision of the Constitution in 1879 all con- fessions were placed on an equal legal footing. Every application for naturalization must be passed upon by the Legislature. No Hebrew has any prospect of receiving the rights of citi- zenship, however long his family may have been settled in Roumania. Not only have the old restrictions been thus retained, but attempts are made, since the participation of Rouma- nians in mercantile and other middle-class oc- cupations, to exclude the Jews from the call- ings which have hitherto been followed by them exclusively. Legislation for this purpose is directed ostensibly against all foreigners, in order to satisfy the provisions of the Constitu- tion. In the last two years, by a series of laws and Cabinet orders, foreigners have been shut out from all licensed and semi-official occupa- tions. According to the license law of 1874 foreigners were denied the privilege of keeping public-houses in the villages. A ministerial order recently extended this regulation to the smaller towns. In like manner foreigners have been excluded from the tobacco-traffic. The professions of the law and teaching have been also closed to them. More recently a law was enacted, according to which no foreigner can be licensed as a broker on the bourse. In the custom-house regulations, voted by the Legis- lature in the session of 1882, the right of official intercourse with the custom-house was restricted to Roumanian citizens. This rule affected not only the Jewish custom-house brokers, but all importers, actual foreigners as well as Jewish merchants. The Austrian Gov- ernment protested against it, as contrary to treaties. It was not enforced by the Rouma- nian authorities on this account. The new restrictions against the Jews, which threatened to deprive many of them of their livelihood, caused the Jewish community to think of emi- grating from this inhospitable country. A large number of Roumanian Israelites embraced Oliphant's scheme of recolonizing Palestine, until the emigration to the cradle of the race was stopped by the action of the Turkish Gov- ernment. The Chambers passed a measure providing for the definitive acquisition of the entire rail- road network by repaying and dissolving the Roumanian Railroad Company. They also voted for building several new railroads and laying out others. A new military law was enacted, by which the effective strength of the army was in- creased. In August occurred another ministerial crisis and a reconstruction of the Cabinet, again in a conservative direction. Demeter Sturdza en- tered the Cabinet as Minister for Foreign Af- fairs, Bratiano taking the portfolio of Military Affairs, and Chitzu that of the Interior, while Anghelesco and Urechia, the Minister of Edu- cation, retired, the latter giving up his place to Aurelian, who, like Sturdza, belongs to the moderate wing of the National-Liberal party. Statesco took the portfolio of Justice. C. A. Rosetti, the intellectual leader of the National Liberals, after retiring from the min- istry and carrying his agrarian reform bill as an independent member, took up the question of electoral reform, which he pressed vigor- ously in his organ, the "Romanul." Before the close of the spring session he resigned his seat in the Chamber, as a protest against the opposition which his reforms met, not only from the Conservatives, but from the aristo- cratic element in the National-Liberal party. This party, recently so preponderant, showed signs of disruption. Its weakness is not due merely to the divergence of opinion on the reforms advocated by Rosetti, in which social questions the politically strong aristocratic ele- ment are inclined to stand by their order, but also to the repugnance of this same element to the class of professional politicians which has sprung up in the party, and the corruption, more or less shielded and glozed over by the leaders. RUSSIA, an empire in Eastern Europe. The law-making, executive, and judicial authority is concentrated in the person of the Czar, who is also the spiritual head of the Church. His absolute will is unlimited, except by the law of succession, embodied in a decree of Peter I, requiring the Emperor and his family to be members of the Greek Orthodox Church, and one of Paul, issued in 1797, introducing heredi- tary descent in the order of primogeniture, with female succession only in default of male heirs. The latter rule annulled the decree ol Peter I, issued in 1722, ordaining that the Czar should select his successor from among the royal family. The government of the country is under the supreme direction of the Emperor's private Cabinet. Subordinated to the Imperial Cabinet is the Council of the Emperor, divided into a legislative, an administrative, and a financial department, the functions of which are to su- perintend the administration of the laws, and to suggest alterations and amendments. A second great council is the directing Senate, which is the highest court of judicature, besides exer- cising a control over the other tribunals of the empire. It is divided into eight sections, each of which acts as the court of final resort in a particular branch of the law. A third great governing body is the Holy Synod, which has the direction of ecclesiastical affairs. All its decisions must be ratified by the Czar. The Imperial Cabinet is divided into eleven departments. The Minister of the Imperial Household is General Count "Worontzov Dash- RUSSIA. 731 kov, who succeeded Count Alexander Adler- berg in 1871. At the beginning of 1882, Prince Alexander Michael Gortchakoff was still Min- ister of Foreign Affairs, over which department he had presided since 1856, though N. De Giers has had the practical management for some years. When the long-deferred retirement of Prince Gortchakoff took place in March, he was succeeded by De Giers. The Minister of War is General Count Vannoski, who was ap- pointed March 29, 1881. General Count Ig- natieff, who was appointed Minister of the In- terior, March 29, 1881, was succeeded by Count Tolstoy in June. The post of Minister of Public Instruction vacated by the latter was filled by Baron Nico- lai. The Minister of Finance, Bunge, took the place of Count Abaza, during the ministry of Ignatieff. The Minister of the Navy is Rear- Admiral Chestakov, who succeeded Rear- Ad- miral Petshurov. The Minister of Domains is M. Ostrovski, the successor to P. A. Valouiev. The Minister of Public Works, or Highways and Communications, is Rear- Admiral C. Pos- siet, appointed July 23, 1874. The Comptroller- General, Solski, was appointed in October, 1879. The President of the Council of Minis- ters is Reutern. All the ministers and heads of administrative departments are members of the Council. AREA AND POPULATION. — The Russian Em- pire covers one seventh of the land-surface of the globe. The total area is about 8,379,500 square miles. The area of the geographical divisions of European Russia and their popula- tion in 1870, the approximate area of the Asiatic possessions, and their population as ascertained at various dates between 1873 and 1880, are shown in the following table. (See EUROPE, AEEA OF.) GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS. Square miles. Population. Great Russia 880,798 24,005,459 Little Russia 80226 7 635 361 546470 15 143 716 South Russia. 163 381 5,819,302 "Western Russia Baltic Provinces 161,897 67,269 9,822,259 3.269,462 Total Russia Proper Poland 5,895,041 49,157 65,695,559 6,026,421 Finland 144 221 1 857 035 87069 1,849 278 Total Russia in Europe . . 2,175,483 85 756 75,428,293 8 521 203 Armenia 9,920 176,073 Trans-Caspian Territory Central Asia 126,300 1,165,800 203,000 5,036,000 Siberia 4 824 500 8 911 200 Total Russia in Asia Total empire 6,212,276 8 387,764 12,847,476 88,275,769 The following are the cities containing over 50,000 inhabitants in European Russia : CITIES. Population. CITIES. Population. Kharkov 101,175 Lodz 57,000 Kasan 94,170 Orel 53,505 Vilna 88,693 Simferopol 52,5S5 Saratov 86,418 Berditchcff. 52,568 Nikolaiev 82,805 Dunaburg 52.201 Elizabethgrad 63,064 Samara 51,947 Astrakhan 57,T04 Revel 5o •*:>'.) Tula 57,874 Cronstadt, Taganrog, Orenburg, Voroneje, Rostov on the Don, Helsingfors, capital of Finland, Minsk, Nijni-Novgorod, Kovno, Jito- mir, Mohilev, and Vitebsk contain between 40,000 and 50,000 inhabitants. In Russia in Asia the largest cities are : Tiflis, population 104,024 ; Tashkend, containing about 100,000 ; Andijan, 43,000 ; Samarcand, 36,000 ; Khokand, 35,000 ; Stavropol, 34,328 ; Irkutsk, 33,800 ; and Tomsk, 33,795. The number of emigrants from Russia from 1871 to ^1880 amounted to 2,807,000, against a counter-immigration of 2,455,000 ; a loss to the empire of 352,000 souls, or about 35,000 yearly. Only those who received regular passes are counted among the emigrants. The immi- grants are nearly all Germans. COMMERCE. — The total value of the mer- chandise imports of 1880 was 622,812,000 rubles, against 587,713,000 in 1879 ; of the ex- ports, 498,672,000, against 627,768,000 rubles. The commerce with Europe and America amounted to 578,334,000 rubles of imports, and 476,365,000 of exports in 1880; with Fin- land, to 11,442,000 rubles of imports and 9,602,- 000 of exports ; with Asia, to 33,036,000 rubles of imports and 12,705,000 of exports. The commerce with the individual countries in 1880 was as follows, in rubles : COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports. Germany. 274 268 000 138,122 000 Great Britain .' 150,485,000 148,640,000 France 22 410 000 57 600 000 Austria-Hungary 23 062 000 82,547,000 Netherlands 7 51S 000 28,205,000 Turkey 20,370.000 15,340,000 Belgium 7 423 000 18 899,000 China 22 780,000 2.520,000 United States 10,204,000 5,234,000 15 972 000 1(1,000 2 925 000 12,125,000 Italy 6.810,000 5,118,000 1 786 000 9,956,000 Persia 6 860,000 8,940.000 Other countries. ... 20,805,000 10,477,000 CITIES. Population. St. Petersburg 876,575 Moscow 611,974 Warsaw 339,341 Odessa 193,513 CITIES. Population. Riga 169,688 Kherson 128,079 Kiev 127,251 Kichinev 112,137 There were 6,423,000 rubles of imports from the United States reported for 1879 and no exports to that country. The exports of cereals in 1880 amounted to 226,410,000 rubles, against 363,261,000 rubles in 1879 ; the imports of colonial produce, 74,- 649,000 rubles, against 50,462,000; the total imports of articles of consumption, 133,543,000 ; exports, 302,696,000 rubles. The exports of textile materials were 95,718,000 rubles, im- ports 66,953,000 ; the imports of raw metals 66,953,000 rubles, against 56,596,000 in 1879 ; the total imports of raw materials, 159,302,000 rubles, exports 153,177,000. The imports of yarns were 41,213,000 rubles, against 61,749,- 000 ; of textile fabrics, clothing, etc., 34,229,- 732 EUSSIA. 000, against 35,520,000 ; of machinery and other metal manufactures 94,391,000, against 79,- 972,000 rubles ; the total imports of manufac- tured objects, 177,536,000 rubles, total exports 4,833,000. The total imports of all other classes were 107,953,000 rubles, total exports 15,659,000 rubles. The imports of precious metals amounted to 12,390,000 rubles, against 13,874,000 in 1879; the exports to 28,778,000, against 7,116,000 rubles. The above analysis does not include the trade with Finland, or that with Asiatic countries. The imports of tea in 1880 were valued at 22,355,000 rubles, against 18,648,000 in 1879. Textile materials were imported from Asia of the value of 1,451,- 000 rubles, and exported to Asia in the amount of 4,193,000. There was an export of 2,916,- 000 rubles of precious metals to Asia and no imports thence in 1880, as compared with a net export of 2,174,000 rubles in 1879. The number of ships entering Baltic ports in 1880 was 8,240, of which 5,696 were with car- goes; the number entering the ports of the Black Sea 5,265, with cargoes 2,493 ; the num- ber entering the ports of the White Sea 882, with cargoes 337; the number entering the ports of the Caspian Sea 971, with cargoes 919; the total number entering Russian ports 15,358, of which 5,948 were steamers. Of the total number, 2,746 sailed under Russian colors, 2,660 under English, 2,573 under German, 2,047 under Swedish, 1,380 under Turkish, 1,088 under Greek, 892 under Danish, 668 under Austrian, and 576 under Dutch. The mer- chant marine in 1878 numbered 3,643 sailing- vessels, of the aggregate tonnage of 308,230 tons, and 259 steamers, of about 74,324 tons. PETROLEUM REGION. — The petroleum of the Caucasus is expected to come into competition with the American in Europe as soon as the pipe-line from Baku to Batoum, on the Black Sea, is completed. At Batoum the oil will be pumped into tank-steamers. The total area of the Baku petroleum region is about 1,200 square miles, judging from the limits of surface oil and gas wells. The region is almost without water or vegetation. Scattered over the sur- face of this desert are dried-up salt lakes and ex- hausted mud-volcanoes, with numerous springs and pools of oil and gas wells. The boring has been principally confined to the peninsula of Apsheron. Nearly every well that is sunk strikes oil. Many have been abandoned, owing to lack of means or the low price of petroleum. Flowing wells yielding from 2,000 to 4,000 bar- rels a day are common, and pumping wells yielding from 300 to 600 barrels. The total product rose from 500,000 barrels in 1873, to between 3,000,000 and 4,000,000 in 1881, be- sides enormous quantities which were wasted for lack of tanking and transportation facili- ties. The export by sea amounted to 2,946,000 barrels in 1881, against 1,702,200 in 1879. RAILROADS. — The extensive network of rail- roads has aided greatly in developing the com- merce of Russia, internal as well as foreign. From 1838 to 1865 the number of miles con- structed was 2,385 ; in the five years, 1866-'70, 4,343 miles were built, in the next five years 5,071 miles, and in the last about 3,000 miles. The total length in operation on the first of January, 1882, was 14,076 miles, not including nearly 600 miles in Finland. The Czar ap- proved the plans of the Minister of Railroads in 1875 and previously, for enlarging the exist- ing system to the extent of 6,000 miles. The projected lines include the proposed great Si- berian railroad and seven railroads through the coal-basin of the Don. Of the 45 railroad companies in existence in 1879, 10 had con- structed their lines without Government aid. Of the 35 guaranteed companies, 15 were guar- anteed to the full amount of their capital. The charters of the companies are most of them terminable after periods of from 75 to 85 years; but those of some of the smaller railroads run for only 37 years. The gross re- ceipts of the railroads in 1878, with a mileage of 13,611 miles, were 211,905,758 rubles; the working expenses, 133,120,261 rubles, their aggregate capital was 1,450,288,196 rubles, 49 per cent of which was held by the Govern- ment. TELEGRAPHS. — The length of telegraph lines in 1880 was about 59,140 miles; state lines, 54,080 miles ; the lines of the railroad com- panies, 2,235 miles; Anglo-Indian line, 2,270 miles ; Aland Island cable, 60 miles ; private lines, 250 miles ; military and police telegraphs, 240 miles. The aggregate length of wires was about 134,600 miles. The number of dis- patches sent was 7,298,429 ; private inland dis- patches, 5,768,255 ; foreign dispatches received, 500,126; foreign dispatches sent, 496,955; in transit, 77,223; official dispatches, 455,870. The receipts amounted to about $6,133,000. The expenditures were $2,828,000 for wages; $1,682,000 for other working expenses and maintenance; and $743,000 for the construc- tion of new lines. POST-OFFICES. — The number of post-offices in 1 880 was 4,458 ; of employes, 15,235. The number of letters and postal cards delivered was 128,817,612; circulars, etc., 9,960,727; newspapers, 88,168,700; total, 226,947,039, against 206,502,269 in 1879. The receipts were 14,132,929 rubles, the expenses 15,299,- 179 rubles. AGRICULTURE — The number of serfs belong- ing to nobles and other private persons, eman- cipated in accordance with the ukase of March 3, 1861, was about 22,000,000, who were the property of 109,340 owners. The number of crown serfs emancipated was 22,225,075 of both sexes. The owners transferred the lands which the peasants cultivate to the village com- munes, receiving in compensation a commuta- tion of the value of the labor of the serfs at 6 per cent annual interest — that is, a capital sum of 100 rubles for every 6 rubles of an- nual profit from the labor of the serfs. Of this sum 20 per cent was paid at once by RUSSIA. 733 the communes and 80 per cent was advanced by the Government, to be repaid by the peas- ants in 49 annual payments. The crown peas- ants received their lands on the condition of paying for 49 years the annual poll-tax previ- ously paid by them. Of the total cultivable lands of Russia Proper '-£$ per cent are in towns, 34T6¥ per cent belong to the crown, 3| per cent are attached to mines, 15T6T per cent are held by crown peasants, 5 per cent by former serfs, 19TV per cent belong to noblemen and other former proprietors of serfs, and 20f per cent is not brought into cultivation. The agricul- tural distress which followed the emancipation of the serfs in Great Russia is by many attrib- uted to the retention of the old Russian insti- tution of agrarian communism. The German nobility of the Baltic provinces emancipated their own serfs in 1819, and the latter have served their former lords as agricultural labor- ers, or by the purchase of land become indi- vidual proprietors. These provinces are greatly in advance of Great Russia in agriculture and in popular intelligence. The Czar's Govern- ment has occupied itself constantly with plans to arrest the agricultural decadence and relieve the distress of the mujiks. Much was expected from the abolition of the salt-tax in the earlier period of Loris MelikofFs ministry ; but although, the Government lost 15,000,000 rubles of rev- enue, the price of salt remained almost the same as before. Ignatieff approached the sub- ject, with an ostentatious display of national, Panslavistic sentiment, by calling together com- missions of "experts," the most important of which was the one on the liquor question. Another outcome of these expert investiga- tions was the reduction of the purchase-money to be paid by the peasants, and the decree that all payments in service should cease at the end of 1883. A third remedy which was adopted is the colonization of communes which are un- able to support themselves on their allotments upon vacant crown-lands. The latest remedy for the agrarian distress is the progressive abo- lition of the poll-tax, announced in a ukase, June 14th. From the 1st of January, 1883, the lower class in the cities and certain classes of peasants are relieved of the poll-tax, while the Finance Minister is to present to the Czar next year a scheme for replacing the whole poll-tax with other revenues. ARMY AND NAVY. — The military force is di- vided into the active and the territorial armies. The first consists of the standing military and naval forces. The territorial army comprises those who have escaped being drafted into the active army after four annual drawings, those who have served their time in the ac- tive army and its reserve, the Cossack irregu- lars, and bodies composed of foreign elements. There are 19 army corps, of which the Guards and the Grenadiers each constitute one, and the troops of the Caucasus two. There are 852 battalions of infantry, 24 of engineers, 348 squadrons of cavalry, and 337i batteries of ar- tillery, with 1,406 guns, in the regular army in active service. The war organization of the regular army comprises 1,766 battalions of in- fantry, 412 squadrons of cavalry, and 484£ bat- teries of artillery, with 3,772 guns. The artil- lery have been furnished since 1878 with new cannon in cast-steel. By a decree of August 30, 1882, the 14 regiments of lancers and 14 regiments of hussars have been transformed into dragoons. The effective of the regular army in 1882 is shown in the following table : REGULAR ARMY. PEACE FOOTING. WAE FOOTING. Men. Horse.. Men. Horses. Infantry .... 625,617 85,860 108,610 20,624 11,149 61,727 21,252 661 1,915,703 94,466 210,772 43,352 82,296 93,440 118,300 14,020 Cavalry Artillery Engineers . . Total. 840,711 94,789 2,264,293 258,056 The irregular army consists of the Cossacks of the Don, the Kuban, the Terek, Orenburg, the Ural, Siberia, etc., who under the new regu- lations furnish the regular army with all its light cavalry. The peace establishment counts about 45,000 Cossacks ; their war effective is 156,341, formed into 880 sotnias, or squadrons. The entire peace establishment of the Russian army is 974,771 men. The army can be in- creased in war to 2,733,305 men. The active army in 1881 numbered 907,248. The recruit for 1882 was fixed at 212,000 men. The num- ber of years of service in the line was increased by one year, and the class of one-year volun- teers introduced. Notwithstanding the need and desire of the Government for economy, the military expenditures are increased. The war- like impulse which stirred Russia in the spring resulted in more energetic endeavors to per- fect the military organization, and strengthened the country for offensive or defensive opera- tions on the western borders. A new strate- gical railroad was built on the Austrian fron- tier from Prinsk to Jabinsk, and one laid out to run from Vilna to Kovno, joining the first near Prinsk. A sum exceeding 15,000,000 ru- bles has been set aside to carry out the plans of General Kaufmann for the fortification of the western frontier, a scheme which has been postponed on account of the financial difficul- ties of the Government. The expenditure is to extend over several years. (See NAVIES OF Eu- EOPE.) FINLAND. — The Grand Duchy of Finland possesses a constitutional government. The population on December 30, 1880, was 2,060,- 782, comprising 1,756,381 speaking Finnish, 294,876 Swedish, 4,195 Russian, 1,720 German, 961 Lapps, and 14,052 of foreign birth. The budget for 1882 places the total revenue at 36,320,714 marks. (The Finland mark is of the value of a franc. The gold standard was adopted in 1877.) Of the total revenue 10,000,- 000 marks are derived from customs, 4,540,- 734 EUSSIA. 200 from the land-tax, 2,050,000 net from the railroads, 4,225,000 from the tax on the manu- facture of liquors, and 5,741,444 from the re- serve fund for military purposes. The esti- mated expenditures are 35,131,146 marks, of which 8,580,064 marks are for military pur- poses, including the expenses of reorganization, and 4,020,600 for the service of the public debt. The total debt amounted on the 1st of Janu- ary, 1882, to 61,422,865 marks, the principal part of which was contracted in Germany. The total imports in 1881 amounted to 154,- 800,000 marks, 68,400,000 from Russia, 40,600,- 000 from Germany, 17,400,000 from Great Brit- ain, and 11,200,000 from Sweden and Norway ; the exports to 107,300,000 marks, of which 49,900,000 went to Russia and 20,700,000 to Great Britain. FINANCES. — The total receipts of the impe- rial Treasury from ordinary sources in 1880 amounted to something over 651,000,000 ru- bles. (The silver ruble is the legal unit of ac- count, and is worth 73'4 cents ; the circulating medium is paper money, which is exchanged at a discount of from 10 to 20 per cent and over.) The receipts were 138,000 rubles more, and the expenditures 113,354,000 rubles more, than the budget estimates. The ordinary receipts for 1882 are estimated in the budget approved by the Emperor Janu- ary 2d, at 654,217,870 rubles; the miscellane- ous receipts known as the " budget d'ordre," and balanced on the expenditure side of the ac- count, at 22,165,068 rubles; the extraordinary receipts, consisting of borrowed money appli- cable to railroads and other works of utility, at 83,121,574 rubles ; the balance in the Treas- ury at 2,500,000 rubles; total estimated re- ceipts from all sources, 762,004,512 rubles. The estimated total expenditures are as follow : Or- dinary expenditures, 658,595,151 rubles ; " bud- get d'ordre," 22,165,068 rubles ; extraordinary expenditures, 72,744,293 rubles ; excess of re- ceipts, 8,500,000 rubles. The state revenue for the half-year ending June 30th showed an act- ual increase of 18,985,079 rubles, and the ex- penditure a decrease of 23,621,226 rubles as compared with the same period of 1881. The foreign loans of Russia are payable mostly in pounds sterling, the domestic debt in paper currency. The foreign debt on Janu- ary 1, 1880, reduced to paper rubles, the ex- change value of which in London, at that date, was equal to about 50 cents, stood at 672,488,- 519 rubles, against 720,270,163 rubles on Janu- ary 1, 1879 ; the funded domestic debt at 1,367,- 385,206 rubles, against 1,080,271,995 rubles in 1879; total consolidated debt, 2,039,873,725 rubles, against 1,800,542,158 in 1879. In Asia the power of the White Czar ad- vances with great strides. The Shah of Per- sia, recognizing the importance of railroad con- nections with Russia, allowed the Russians to rectify their boundary so as to include an out- lying portion of his own dominions of great natural resources as well as of military impor- tance (see PERSIA). The mercantile pioneers who flocked to Kuldja to take advantage of the new commercial treaty with China, met with obstacles to their commerce with the interior. General Kolpakovsky, appointed Governor-Gen- eral of the Steppes and commander of the new- ly-formed military district of Omsk, has the task of looking after the relations with China. General Tchernaieff, the conqueror of Khokand, was appointed Governor-General of Turkistan as the successor of General Kaufmann. GOKTCHAKOFF. — Prince Gortchakoff handed over the direction of the Foreign Office to M. de Giers, March 22d. He was eighty-four years of age, and his retirement had been many times announced but deferred through his reluctance to resign the position he had so long held. For more than thirty years he was the director of the foreign policy of Russia, and the most influ- ential statesman of Europe until his aims were thwarted and his power eclipsed by Bismarck. His secretary, who succeeds him, had for five years acted as his substitute and is well known to all the courts of Europe. He was particu- larly acceptable to Germany, his appointment being considered a pledge of peace after anti- German sentiments had been fanned into a flame by the speeches of the impetuous Gen- eral Skobeleff, foreboding, it was feared, the selection of Ignatieff, who was supposed to have aspired to the position, and a policy of Slavic extension. The rank and title of Chan- cellor of the Empire were continued to the brilliant diplomatist who had served the state for sixty-five years. MINISTER GIERS. — Nicholas Carlovitch Giers was born May 21, 1820. His family came origi- nally from Sweden. He entered the Asiatic Department of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs at the age of eighteen. His first important service was in Austria during the Hungarian campaign of 1848. He held diplomatic posi- tions in Turkey and Roumania, was sent as a special agent to Bessarabia during the Turkish "War of 1855, became Consul-General to Egypt in 1856, and to Wallachia and Moldavia in 1858. From 1863 to 1869 he was embassador to Persia, where his services helped greatly to ce- ment amicable relations with the Shah. After serving as Minister to Switzerland and to Swe- den, he took charge of the Asiatic Department in 1875. In 1876 during a temporary absence of Gortchakoff, in 1877 during the seven months of the Turkish war, and in 1878 during the attendance of Prince Gortchakoff at the Con- gress of Berlin, he had sole charge of the min- istry, which he has retained to all practical in- tents ever since, as the Chancellor's age and in- firmities prevented him from transacting busi- ness for any continuous period. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. — The reforms which were discussed during the last years of Alexander II and the first year of the present reign have been abandoned through the de- cision, or indecision, of the uncrowned Czar. At the notable Cabinet sitting of March 20, RUSSIA. 735 1881, the project of representative institutions elaborated by Count Loris Melikoff, which would have been signed by the late Czar if the murderous arm of the Nihilist had been stayed for a few days, was approved by a majority of nine against five. Pobodonoszeff and the other defenders of the autocratic principle prevailed upon the Ozar to reverse the decision of the Council. Ignatieff, as the representative of pure Russian ideas, was called to the place of the defeated Melikoff. He did not differ, how- ever, from the rest of the leading statesmen upon the question of the necessity of introduc- ing self-government. The Russian people — that is, the eighty millions of serfs lately emanci- pated— were reduced to the verge of that state of misery which leads to anarchy and revolt. The political disorders of Russia are of long standing, but the conversion of a nation of slaves into freemen has brought graver dis- orders of a social nature. The country has retrograded economically since emancipation. The emancipation was imperfect, like all such acts. The rural economy and the distribution of land could not be adapted to the new con- ditions of labor, while the laborers themselves were naturally demoralized by their sudden freedom. Thriftlessness, indolence, and drunk- enness are the national vices of the Russians. The peasants received their lands with the obligation of paying for them in a term of years. The peasants have fallen into the pow- er of money-lenders; agriculture has gone backward; idleness and vodka-drinking have increased ; live-stock and implements have dis- appeared; and dishonest merchants have in- jured the market for the produce of the land and labor by mixing different grades of wheat. At the same time the burden of the Govern- ment has increased. The debt, which is the heritage of many wars and generations of ex- travagance and corruption, has grown to larger proportions. The country is again flooded with a fluctuating, debased paper currency. The Government is unable to borrow more money abroad. All sections of the educated class call for radical changes in the system of government, while socialists proclaim all accu- mulated wealth to be applicable to the needs of the people. Count Ignatieff appointed many commissions to inquire into the grievances of the people. In combating those which arose from social and economical causes he had the approval of the Czar. The socialist doctrines, apart from their political and revolutionary tendencies, agree with the theory of the czar- dom. The responsibility of the Czar for the happiness of the people was confirmed in the manifesto of May 10, 1881, written by Pobo- donoszeff, in which the Czar asserted the prin- ciple of the autocracy, and swept away the con- stitutional doctrines involved in the proposi- tion of Loris Melikoff. Ignatieff, in view of the financial straits of the Government, the agita- tion against the bureaucratic system, and the impoverishment and misery of the people, saw the necessity of calling trusted representatives of the people into counsel, in order to relieve the bureaucracy of some of the odium, and avert a revolutionary catastrophe. True to the Slavistic ideas of which he was the repre- sentative, and, as such, obtained the confidence of the Czar, he elaborated a scheme for the re- vival of an ancient Slavic institution, the repre- sentative body called the Zemski Sobor, which the Czars before Peter the Great convoked for consultation. The anti-Jewish agitation was connived at under the administration of Ignatieff. The liquor-sellers, who catered to the drunken hab- its of the peasantry ; the usurers, who profited by their distress ; and the merchants, who prac- ticed deceits from which they suffered, belonged to the Jewish race. Count Ignatieff allowed the peasantry full license in their barbarous excess, with the design of ridding the country of the Jews, who with all their faults were a useful and necessary class. The Jews peti- tioned for months to have a ukase issued for- bidding the persecutions. The local officials, taking their cue from their superiors, in many cases permitted the outrages to take place un- hindered. Jews were punished for defending themselves with weapons, while their assailants went free. The regulations restricting their rights of residence and free migration, which had long been inactive, were strictly enforced, as also the laws requiring them to close their shops on Sundays and Christian holidays. The atrocities were exaggerated in the reports pub- lished abroad, but they were sufficient to drive thousands of families out of the country, and seriously unhinge mercantile business in many parts of Russia. The worst excesses occurred in Little Russia, or the Ukraine. A false ukase was read in some towns, declaring that the Czar gave up the Jews to the people for pillage. The belief that the persecutions were approved by the Government was generally prevalent. The Israelites of Europe made efforts to ob- tain diplomatic intercessions for their brethren in Russia, but none of the Governments ven- tured to make representations on the subject. Sir Charles Dilke stated in the English Parlia- ment that consular inquiries corroborated only one case of murder in Balta, a town in South Russia principally inhabited by Hebrews, where shocking riots occurred at Easter, 1882. Pres- ident Arthur was freer in his promises than the heads of European Governments, declaring that he would exert himself as far as possible to induce the Russian Government to effectual- ly protect the Jews, and that the minister in St. Petersburg had been instructed to protect the rights of American Jews in Russia. There were five committees in European countries and one in America organized for the relief of the Jewish refugees. The number aided during the year 1881 was about 25,000, of whom some 15,000 were settled in the United States, 2,000 were dispersed over Europe, and 8,000 were sent back to Russia. The exodus 736 RUSSIA. in the earlier months of 1882 was greater than in 1881. At length, toward the end of May, and just before the dismissal of Ignatieff, it was publicly made known that the Government was re- solved to punish severely all outrages against Hebrews and their property, and dismiss gov- ernors and other officials who failed of their duty in this respect. During the twelve months of Ignatieff's min- istry he not only set on foot many commissions of investigation into the causes of social and political disorders, but he took positive steps to loosen some of the fetters which aggravated certain sections of the nation. The difficulties with the Vatican were terminated to the content- ment of the Catholics, who form 72 per cent of the population of Poland. The matter was not finally settled until the visit of Minister Giers to Rome in the autumn. The Pontiff obtained the right, withheld for many years, to nomi- nate to vacant Polish sees. The use of the Po- lish language was allowed in the Catholic semi- naries in Poland, where Polish and Russian were both made obligatory, and even in the seminary in St. Petersburg. The Poles received permission, retracted after the retirement of Ignatieff, to have a newspaper and theatre in St. Petersburg. Of greater importance were the concessions granted to the Old Believers and other sectaries, who number over 14,000,- 000, and constitute the most industrious and law-abiding class of the population of Muscovy. Practical measures for the solution of the liquor question were taken under Ignatieff. Plans were adopted for the migration of peasants from unproductive districts. With the Finance Minister he established a land-bank. Ignatieff marked out for himself a clearer and more comprehensive policy than his pre- decessor, Melikoff. He was a Panslavist, but not an Old-Russian of the type of Katkoff and Pobodonoszeff. He formed plans which he thought would end the revolutionary crisis and satisfy the aspirations which have been seething in Russian society for half a century, and can no longer be confined by repressive measures. Another man with creative inten- tions would not have taken office on the pledge of the May manifesto, affirming the inviola- bility of the autocracy. Ignatieff, to realize his ideas, had to extricate himself from his false position, and resorted to the wiles which had earned him, when in Turkey, the epithets of "father of lies" and "Menteur Pasha." He never commanded the confidence of the public, nor did he gain that of his imperial master, though he came to be considered indispensable as the " tamer of the Nihilists." by the ener- getic action of the police in unearthing revolu- tionary conspiracies, and the fact that no at- tempt on the life of the Czar occurred. The outbreaks against the Jews and the Germans were permitted, not merely as an escape-valve for agricultural distress, but as a development of the anti -European spirit. Ignatieff was wise enough to see that the empire could not be preserved, much less extended over the other Slavs, by recasting everything in the Musco- vite mold. Hence he encouraged the revival of national Esthonian and Lithuanian senti- ments, relaxed the restrictions on the Poles and their religion, and endeavored to place the persecuted sectaries on the same legal footing as the Orthodox. Ignatieff was obliged to pre- sent his main scheme prematurely, because his influence with the Czar was already shattered. It was to give the Russian people a voice in the government, but was prefigured as the re- vival of an ancient Russian institution which had nothing in common with European consti- tutionalism. This old representative institu- tion was the Zemski Sobor, or National Assem- bly, the convocation of notables, which the Czars before Peter occasionally ordered when they wished an indorsement of their acts by the estates of the empire. Pobodonoszeff, Pro- curator of the Holy Synod, the Czar's old tutor, who has constituted himself the guardian of autocracy, warned the Emperor of the intent and consequences of this disguised constitu- tional innovation. The Cabinet voted against the project, and Count Ignatieff asked to be re- lieved of his post. On the 12th of June the Czar gave him his dismissal, and appointed Count Tolstoy Minister of the Interior. The new minister appointed to deal with the problem of Nihilism, and the causes of discon- tent, was the same who, by introducing the classical system of Katkoff in the higher schools, when Minister of Instruction from 1866 to 1880, had aggravated the political fer- ment which he sought to destroy, and first caused it to take the form of revolutionary Nihilism. Among the thousands of students who were left hopeless and breadless by the change in the academical standard, the nucleus of the Nihilistic party was formed. The revo- cation of these rules was the first remedial measure of Melikoff. Tolstoy's elevation indi- cates the close of the epoch of remedial reform, and of the immediate prospect for any kind ot representative government. The representa- tives of the policy which the Czar chose to follow — Katkoff, Pobodonoszeff, and Tolstoy — promise to restore the filial devotion of the Russian people to the Czar, and their fidelity to the national Church, by rigidly repressing all independent political and religious thought. The measures of Ignatieff for the relief and pro- tection of the sects were rescinded. An act of the Holy Synod allowing the appointment of popes without any seminary training indicates the reliance of the ruling party on ignorance to retain the people within the fold of the Or- thodox Church, and upon persecution to drive back the sectaries. The new minister, whose policy was to preserve the autocracy and the bureaucratic system, its concomitant, applied himself assiduously to reforming the abuses in the administration, which had become more flagrant than ever under Ignatieff, whose com- RUSSIA. RUSSIA, RELIGIOUS LIBERTY IN. 737 plaisant nature would not allow him to dismiss a subordinate for any cause. Tolstoy was by training a rigorous bureaucrat of unimpeacha- ble integrity, who was not inclined to suffer negligence or irregularity, apart from the con- sideration that the success of his policy de- pended on reforming the abuses of the bureau- cratic government. The Tolstoy government depends principally upon lightening the burden of taxation to stem the tide of discontent, and followed the scheme of tax reform already in- augurated by Ignatieff. Pobodonoszeff, as the Czar's representa- tive in the Holy Synod, proposed to lay deep the foundations of loyalty and orthodoxy by turning all the public schools into parochial schools. He directed the popes and bishops to anathematize atheists and Nihilists, and strictly catechise their parishioners so as to check any tendency to freedom of thought on religion or politics. Count Tolstoy announced, nevertheless, a plan for the toleration of the " least harmful " of the sects, meaning the Old Believers of Muscovy. NIHILISTS. — Ignatieff took more thorough police measures against political conspirators than Loris Melikoff, who hoped that the Nihil- istic fury would abate after constitutional re- forms, until the murder of Alexander II ren- dered Melikoff and his reforms impossible. "When, after a few months of quiescence, the Nihilists again raised their heads, and published threats against the new Czar, who was securely immured in Gatchina, the police found the office of the "Tchernay Peredel," their most violent organ, and arrested there a lady of the noble class, Marie Constantinovna Kryloff, and three others. This was before the attempted murder of General Tcheverin by the young noble Sankoffsky. On February 21st the twen- ty Nihilists accused of being implicated in the eleven great crimes, beginning with the mur- der of General Mesentsoff and ending with that of the Czar, were tried and convicted, ten of them being sentenced to death as accomplices in the regicide, which sentence was commuted to hard labor in the Siberian mines. On March 30th General StrelnikofF, Public Prosecutor at the Kiev Military Tribunal, was assassinated. Notwithstanding numerous arrests the "Na- rodnaya Volia " appeared occasionally, and the Nihilists were evidently aiming at the life of the closely-guarded Emperor. The coronation was indefinitely postponed. In April a mine was discovered under the Moscow Cathedral, where the coronation was to take place. A plot to blow up the Kremlin was also detected. In June a band of conspirators, forty in num- ber, was arrested in St. Petersburg. They met at the house of a veterinary surgeon, and com- prised ladies, military officers, and, among oth- ers, a man filling a confidential post in the Ministry of the Exterior. The garrison of the Peter and Paul prison was discovered to be infected with Nihilism to such an extent that a considerable number of condemned persons VOL. xxn. — 47 A who were supposed to be in Siberia were found to be living in the fortress, in the enjoyment of many indulgences. The Czar never showed himself outside of his voluntary prison, except on three occasions, when he visited St. Peters- burg, and on the visit to Moscow, in Septem- ber, 1881. A number of societies were formed with the object of combating Nihilism. The Sviaschen- naia Drujina, or Holy League, was formed by nobles and rich merchants, and employed a great number of hired agents. It borrowed the secret method and organization of the Ni- hilist committees. The head of the organiza- tion was Pobodonoszeff. The Dobrovolnaya Ochrana, or Volunteer Guard, was formed of military and civil officers. It was directed by Count Vorontzoff Dashkoff, the Minister of the Imperial Household, and had the support of Count Ignatieff. This society had also a political aim, that of constitutional and land reforms, which was expounded in a journal called the " Northern Lights," published at Leipsic. Among other associations of a simi- lar character was the Anti-Terrorist' Society, still more secret and Nihilistic than the Drujina, which stood in some relation to the police, and endeavored to spy out the movements of the Russian revolutionists in the other parts of Europe as well as in Russia. RUSSIA, RELIGIOUS LIBERTY IN. The condition of the vast Russian Empire, in re- gard to religious liberty, or toleration of con- flicting opinions and views, is anything but encouraging or satisfactory. Dissenters from the established Church of every kind and de- scription exist largely in Russia, and, though nominally millions are entered on the records as belonging to that Church, they do not acknowl- edge their obligations to the Church of the land, but protest most earnestly against inva- sions of the rights of conscience. Religious complications frequently occur, and the Gov- ernment has its hands full in endeavoring to unravel and manage these annoying difficulties. Not long since several hundreds of Tartar fam- ilies in the eastern district of Ufa and Kazan abandoned the " Orthodox " or state Church, and openly gave in their adhesion to Moham- medanism, to which they had all along been attached. What to do with these and the like cases is a puzzle to the authorities. In the western district, i. e., Poland, there are large bodies of inhabitants who once belonged to the Greek-Umat faith. Officially, as far as Gov- ernment is concerned, this faith is dead, hav- ing expired some forty years ago, and those professing it are counted in with the "Ortho- dox." But, though not calling themselves "Uniats" any longer, many of these joined the Roman Catholic body in Russia, and re- fuse to be considered "orthodox." What is to be done in such cases ? No one seems to know. In the south, in the heart of "Little Russia," the old conservative region, dissent has made considerable progress. The sect of 738 SCOTT, LEVI. SERVIA. the Stundists has sprung up there, and is said to be increasing rapidly, owing chiefly to the excellent moral effects wrought on its adher- ents by its teachings and example. According to the law, as it now stands, all these ought to be compelled to return to the bosom of the es- tablished Church ; but expostulation produces no result, and it is doubtful if persecution by force will be any more effective. The Stun- dists are well organized, and claim for them- selves the same rights as are possessed by the Baptists and other Protestant denominations in Russia. Some think then, that, in view of all these difficulties and perplexities, the best thing to be done is to establish universal liberty of con- science and freedom in religious matters. Not only is this best in principle, but as a matter of policy, and, for the good of the " Orthodox" Church itself, it ought to be done. Give the Church its fair field, say the advocates of this view, and rouse up its clergy and members to a just sense of their true position and privi- leges ; let the truth which the Church teaches have its rightful opportunity to appeal to the people on the one ground of truth and right, freed from the trammels of state interference and state control, which are odious to the masses, and the Church will not only be able to hold her own, but will commend the sound- ness of her doctrine, as set forth in the old Catholic creeds, to the minds and hearts of multitudes throughout the empire. Whether the Government, under the manifold evils and dangers to which Russia is now exposed, will have wisdom and discretion sufficient to meet the present emergency, is not at all certain, and yet remains to be seen. S SALVADOR. (See "Annual Cyclopaedia," 1881.) SCOTT, Rev. LEVI, A. M., D. D., senior Bishop of the Methodist Episcopal Church of the United States, died July 13, 1882, on the farm near Odessa, Del., where he was born in 1802. His early life was without educa- tional advantages, and he was brought up on the farm and only attended school during the winter. He undertook to learn the trade of tanner when sixteen, but after four months' work he abandoned this, and then took up carpentering at Georgetown, D. C. His health, however, gave way after a short time, and he returned to the farm and followed the pursuit of a cabinet-maker until he was twenty-one. At this time he was converted, and thereafter devoted himself to preparation for the ministry. In 1826 he was appointed by the Philadelphia Conference to Talbot Circuit, Maryland, and in the next year was transferred to the Dover Circuit, Delaware. The following year he was ordained deacon, and appointed to the St. George's charge, Philadelphia, which he re- tained until 1830. In this latter year he mar- ried Miss Sarah H. Smith, of Westchester. His health breaking down from excessive labor, he was compelled to ask for a supernumerary posi- tion. He was placed on Kent Circuit, Mary- land, in 1833, where he remained but one year, being made presiding elder of the Delaware district in 1834. From this time on he occu- pied various positions in the Church, always with great credit. In 1840 he became princi- pal of Dickinson College Grammar School, in 1 which position he continued three years. In 1840 the Wesley an University conferred on him the degree of A. M., and six years later the college of his native State conferred upon him the honor of D. D. In 1848 he became assistant book agent of the Methodist Book Concern of New York. In 1852 he was elect- ed a bishop, in the official work of which office he was actively engaged until 1872. A few years before his death he was stricken with paralysis and deprived of his faculties, which he never recovered. SERVIA, a kingdom in Eastern Europe, formerly a province of the Turkish Empire, which became self- constituted in 1829, and was acknowledged to be complely independent in the Treaty of Berlin. The executive power resides in the King, assisted by seven ministers. The legislative authority is vested in the King and the Skuptchina, or National Assembly, which consisted in 1882 of 160 members. The King appoints 40 members, and the rest are elected by the citizens paying direct taxes, at the rate of one member to 2,000 electors. The Senate, wyhich existed formerly, was trans- formed by the Constitution of 1869 into a Coun- cil of State, charged with the elaboration of laws, but without legislative functions. The members of the ministry are as follows : President of the Council and Minister of For- eign Affairs, M. Pirotchanatz ; Minister of Jus- tice, D. Radovitch ; Minister of Finance, T. Miyatovitch ; Minister of Public Works ad in- terim, M. Garashanin; Minister of War, Gen- eral T. Nikolitch; Minister of Public Instruc- tion and Worship, S. Novakovitch. Garasha- nin was Minister of the Interior until his un- popularity, due to repressive regulations, led to his retirement in the latter part of 1882. There is no nominal occupant of the Ministry of the Interior since his resignation. Prince Milan Obrenovitch, who was born in 1855, and succeeded to the throne after the as- sassination of his uncle, Prince Michael, was proclaimed King by an act of the Skuptchina of March 6, 1882. General Tchernaieff pro- claimed Milan King of the Servians in 1876, during the Servian war with Turkey, but the act was disavowed by the Government, of SERVIA. 739 which Ristich was then the head. The Ser- vian Government did not accede to this eleva- tion, through the opposition of Austria. Since the preponderance of her influence over the King and Government, the fears of Austria have been removed. During the troubles with Herzegovina, the Prince understood that there were no objections to his assumption of the royal title. The Hapsburg Government hoped by this guarantee of the independence and in- violability of Servia to appease the anger of the Servians at the measures taken for the subju- gation of the Herzegovinians, and to arrest the revival of great Servian aspirations. Obren, from whom the reigning house of Servia has its name, was a wealthy Knez, or chief, of the last century, whose widow mar- ried a clansman, and by whom she had a son, Miloch Techo, the founder of the dynasty. This young farmer distinguished himself at the siege of Belgrade when the Servians, under the Haiduk leader, Kara George, wreaked vengeance for centuries of tyranny upon the Turks. When independence was established in 1804, there fol- lowed the long conflict between the Haiduks and the Hospodars, or Knez. The Servians are democratic by nature, and the popular party won and placed its leader, Black George, at the head of the state. After the reconquest by the Turks in 1814, and their terrible reprisals, they found a tool in Miloch, who had succeeded to the estates of Obren. This Hospodar was the supporter and adviser of the vizier Solyman in his tyrannies, and became the possessor of un- limited wealth. After wreaking vengeance on his rivals, he saw the way clear for a bold stroke, and, playing false to the Turks who had conferred on him the opportunities for plunder and made him Overknez of his district of Rond- nik, he joined the combatants for liberty who held the mountains, and proposed to them to take the lead of the rebellion. The revolt was successful with the aid of Kara George, who came back from exile. Miloch betrayed the former prince to the Turks, and every other dangerous rival he assassinated, but the people supported him as their only hope of liberty, and he succeeded in making peace at last on favorable terms. The position of the new ruler of Servia was strengthened year by year, but never defined until in 1829 he summoned the Skuptchina, the Parliament which had been established by Kara George in place of the smaller Soviet of Turkish times, and after surrounding them with soldiers made the re- quest that they should swear allegiance to him as hereditary Prince of Servia, and petition the Sultan to recognize him in that capacity. A firman came from Constantinople granting full autonomy to the Servians, and commuting the Turkish taxes into an annual tribute. Miloch proclaimed a constitution embodying Greek and Slavic customs, and declaring all Servians free and equal. Each commune was obliged to pay indemnities for the crimes of its members and deliver up the culprit to justice. Miloch ruled as a capricious despot, never summoning the Skuptchina, and entirely unrestrained by the constitution, or by the new one which he pro- duced when called to account for his tyrannies by Russia. Avarice was his ruling passion, and his methods of extortion were more intolerable than Ottoman exactions. In 1839 the outraged Servians revolted. Miloch abdicated in favor of his popular oldest son, Milan. A Skuptchina installed Milan and his brother Michael as joint rulers with greatly restricted powers, but three years later they were driven out by the adher- ents of Kara Georgevitch, the son of the lib- erator. In 1859 the house of Obrenovitch was restored by another revolution, in the person of Prince Michael, the first enlightened ruler that Servia ever knew. He was succeeded by his nephew, Prince Milan, now King. The house of Obrenovitch was first formally recog- nized by Europe as hereditary princes of Ser- via in 1869. AREA AND POPULATION. — The area of Servia is 48,590 square miles. The computed popula- tion on December 31, 1880, was 1,700,211, as compared with 1,669,337 as returned in the census of 1878. Of the latter number, 865,422 were males and 834,789 females. The popu- lation in 1866 was divided among the differ- ent nationalities in the following proportions : Serbs, 1,058,189; Wallachians, 127,545; Bo- hemians, 24,607; Germans, 2,589; other na- tionalities, 3,256. The population belonged to the Greek Catholic Church with the exception of 2,049 Israelites, 6,306 Mohammedans, 4,161 Roman Catholics, and 463 Protestants. Belgrade, the capital, contained in 1878, ex- clusive of the garrison, 26,970 inhabitants, and about 30,000 in 1882. The next largest town is Nish, with about 20,000 inhabitants. COMMEEOE. — The principal commercial inter- course is with Austria. The only other trade is with Turkey and Roumania. The chief arti- ticle of export is live hogs, which feed in great herds on the acorns, which abound, and are driven to the markets in Hungary and the ad- joining parts of Austria. The extent of the foreign trade for the three years last reported was, in francs, as follows : YEAR. Exports. Imports. 1S73 $81,711,207 $26,675.688 1874 85,881,876 81,788,196 1875 85,014,874 81,219,248 The quantities of the leading exports in 1875 were as follows : EXPORTS. Quantities. Cereals (kilos) 24,961,742 Cattle (number) 24,586 Hogs(number) 867,643 Sheep and goat skins (number) 1,117,184 FINANCE. — The revenue is derived mainly from direct imposts, including a general poll- tax. The budget for 1881-'82 places the total receipts at 32,635,000 dinars (1 dinar = 1 franc), derived as follows : Capitation tax, 11,600,000 dinars ; patents, 150,000 ; customs, 4,200,000 ; 740 SERVIA. food-taxes, 750,000; tobacco excise, 900,000; salt monopoly, 400,000; tobacco monopoly, 250,000; mining monopoly, 40,000; liquor excise, 800,000 ; fees, 1,600,000; public prop- erty and enterprises, 1,770,000; receipts of fund for public instruction, 1,050,000 ; of fund or public sanitation, 900,000 ; sinking fund of public debt, 2,575,000 ; balance in the Treas- ury, 2,000,000; otber receipts, 10,175,000. The expenditures were estimated at 32,616,192 francs. The chief items were 7,409,937 francs for the service of the public debt, 8,933,595 for war, 4,846,747 for the Ministry of the In- terior, 2,636,389 for the Ministry of Education and Worship, and 2,408,820 for the Ministry of Public Works. By the financial operations of the present ministry the public debt has advanced to over 100,000,000 francs. It consisted before of a smalt internal loan and the foreign loan of 20,- 000,000 francs, both raised to pay the cost of the Turkish War. The Government was in- volved in losses through the failure of the Union G6n6rale and its Austrian branches. These were variously reported to be from 17,- 000,000 francs to much larger amounts. The Austrian Treasury in some indirect way came to the assistance of Servia, and by its sacrifices aided in extricating the King's Government from its embarrassment. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. — The political crisis, which began with the refusal in 1880 of Ristich, the Liberal Premier, to sign a com- mercial treaty with Austria and to agree to the Austrian railroad prospectus, reached its climax in 1882. The treaty was thought by the Min- ister and the Skuptchina to confer unequal benefits upon Austria and the railroad conven- tion to be designed to convert the Servian railroads into strategical routes for the use of the Austrian army in the event of a war with Russia. A threatening note from Vienna drove Ristich to resign. The new Skuptchina was elected through Austrian influences. Pirot- chanatz took the helm. The treaty was con- cluded, and the railroad convention approved. The construction of the railroads was undertak- en by the Union Ge'ne'rale of Paris. The failure of this enterprising society in February, occur- ring at the time when the Servians were ex- cited by the conflict between Austria and their neighbors of kindred race, the Herzegovinians, caused the struggle to be renewed. The Radi- cals interpellated the Government with regard to the losses sustained by the nation through the failure of Bontoux's company. Pirotcha- natz made evasive and unsatisfactory replies. On the refusal of the ministry to give the in- formation demanded, fifty-five members left the House and resigned their seats. This re- duced the Skuptchina to less than the three fourths necessary for a constitutional quorum. It suspended its sittings pending the elections to the vacated seats, which took place in May. Of the members who had thrown up their mandates, forty -nine were again returned, though the Government had exerted a pressure on the constituencies which was unexampled even in Servia. The King and his ministers had alienated the entire population. The op- position had started with the friends of demo- cratic doctrines, of whom there were forty in the Skuptchina elected to carry out the designs of Austria. The Prince, in humbling himself to Austria and sacrificing Servian interests, aided in the spread of these advanced ideas. The party obtained a strong hold among the rural population. The adherents of Ristich joined them. The clergy, with the Russophile Metropolitan Michael at their head, threw the weight of their influence into the scale. The Government took the unfortunate course of deposing the Metropolitan Michael. Other violent acts added to the general detestation that was felt for the King and his Cabinet. A breach of the Constitution was committed in a neglect to order a general election after the resignation of the fifty-five members, but the newly-made King would not have felt safe on his throne if he gave the country an oppor- tunity to express its condemnation and antip- athy. The return of the forty-nine members placed the Government in the same dilemma as before. Pirotchanatz was alarmed and con- founded, and immediately offered his resigna- tion. The Radical party offered the terms on which they would allow the government to go on. These were, that they should be taken into the committees of the House and have the just share in legislation which had been denied them, and that steps should be taken to call a Great Skuptchina to revise the Con- stitution and secure the larger liberties de- manded by the whole nation. The King or- dered Pirotchanatz to remain at his post, and procure a majority and a quorum by any means. The elections of the returned Radi- cals were pronounced null and void by the rump Assembly, and the candidates next on the poll-lists declared elected. To give them their seats without certificates of election, which the local authorities refused to make out, was the final act of the coup d'etat. The mock Assembly sat a few weeks, and then ad- journed to avert danger. The frame of the popular temper was critical in the extreme. If it had not been for fear of provoking an Austrian military intervention and bringing worse ills upon their country, the Servians would have chased their King out of his do- minions. The anger of the people found an exponent in Ilka Markovitch, a political en- thusiast, who made an attempt on the life of King Milan on October 23d. This lady was moved to the act by a private grievance in ad- dition to motives of fanatical patriotism : her husband, a valiant officer, had been shot with- out cause, by .orders of a military tribunal, during the Turkish War, and her property con- fiscated by the Government. The King was in consternation, and turned to Ristich, en- deavoring to rally to the support of the throne SEWAGE DISPOSAL. 741 the Liberals as well as the Progressists. The Cabinet again offered their resignations, but the King induced them to remain, declaring that he did not intend to change his advisers, but wished to unite the friends of authority and order against the revolutionary demands of the Radicals. The adherents of Ristich, who had followed a philo-Russian policy, and those of Pirotchanatz, who would reduce the country to political and economical vassalage to Austria, were mere coteries, while the ma- jority of all classes were inimical to the King and the system with which Pirotchanatz and Ristich were identified. The most intelligent classes, as well as the main body of the people, were imbued with the democratic doctrines of the Radical party. These doctrines showed the influence of the socialistic theories of Ba- kunin. The demands of the party were, demo- cratic institutions, complete freedom of speech and the press, a radical readjustment of taxa- tion according to advanced theories, and the largest development of local self-government. SEWAGE DISPOSAL. A sanitary and en- gineering problem of the highest moment is the question of the disposal of city sewage, and of its utilization in restoring the abstracted ele- ments to the soil. The question of sewage dis- posal is simpler and also more urgent on the Continent of Europe, where the English system of sewers for the reception of all waste and excrementary matter has not been generally introduced. Among German and other Con- tinental sanitarians the sewer- pipe system is now generally condemned. The people of Paris have long desired to get rid of their barbarous and unwholesome system of privy-vaults and night-carts. The happy results of the utilization of the sewage for fer- tilizing purposes at Gennevillers suggested the plan of connecting the vaults with the sewers and turning the whole of the night-soil, which amounts to five or six million pounds per diem, into the general sewerage, to be conducted away to enrich the soil in the depths of the forest of St. Germain or some more distant region. Physicians and hygienists protested on ac- count of the dangers of the exhalations from the vents and culverts and the conveyance of the germs of disease to the lands to be ma- nured. Berlier's system of pneumatic voidance was devised to meet this want. It has been applied on a scale sufficient to test its merits in the Pepiniere barracks, which lodge one thousand men constantly. The water-closets empty into a cubic receptacle, which contains a sieve for the retention of foreign substances. The sieve can be shaken from the outside to allow all decomposible matter to pass through. The receivers communicate with a number of cylindrical vessels. The cylinder contains a large float, which ends below in a rubber globe fitting tightly in the aperture of the outlet- pipe. When enough material has entered to raise the float, it is rapidly evacuated by rea- son of the difference of air-pressure in the pipe and outside. The rubber valve then closes again the conical orifice of the evacuat- ing-pipe. A vacuum of fifteen centimetres of mercury is sufficient for the operation. The active circulation of the air in the pipes pro- duced by the aspiration of the air-pump has the effect of thoroughly mixing and liquefying the excreraental materials. This prevents the stoppages in the pipes which occur when pneu- matic pressure is employed. The material is drawn into a reservoir in the works at Leval- lois-Perret, from which it is distributed by means of a force-pump to distances of from fifteen to thirty miles. An engine of twenty- horse power drives both the air-pump and the rotary force-pump. The air-pump is of the hy- dro-pneumatic type, in which the piston works in water. It is much more powerful than is needed for the purpose, being capable of pro- ducing a vacuum of seventy centimetres of mercury in a few minutes. No smell escapes from the receiving or voiding apparatus or the iron pipes with joints of lead. In Dantzic, Berlin, and Breslau the sewage has been applied to irrigation with satisfactory results, economical and sanitary. The system of filtering and precipitation with chemical agents was tried in Germany, but the purifica- tion was imperfect. The plan of conducting the sewage waters upon farming-lands was adopted. The water is cleansed of the grosser solids before being pumped into the conduits. At Dantzic, about a third of a sandy tract of 1,250 acres has been fertilized, and is rented for gardening at from $20 to $28 an acre. The company which built and carries on the works has the use of the land for thirty years. The death-rate has diminished 21 per cent. The surplus water, which is drained into the Vistula, retains one eighth of the organic matter, one sixth of the ammonia, and one half of the mineral impurities of the original sewage- water. The municipality of Berlin bought two large tracts, one of which, at Os- dorf and Friederikenhoff, has been reclaimed with the sewage, and lets for high rents. Bres- lau disposes of its sewage on the same plan. The lands irrigated with these rich liquids are said to be not insalubrious. When the plots of waste land on which about a foot of the solids have been allowed to accumulate are dried and broken up no ill odors or unhealthy exhala- tions are given off. The German experience of this method of turning noxious drainage- matter into a means of supporting life is that the expenses of pumping, etc., are abundantly recovered. Schloesing's process of precipitating by re- frigeration the ammonia of excremental matter in the form of ammoniacal phosphate of mag- nesium supplements Berlier's methods of suc- cessfully removing the most dangerous and offensive portion of the refuse of great cities and rendering it useful. The system of Hanson for the purification and utilization of sewage has been in use at 742 SKOBELEFF, MICHAEL D. SMITH, JOHN 0. Tong, near Bradford, in England, for several years. Black ash- waste, a by-product of alkali- works, is used in conjunction with lime in the purification, and is said to remove the germs of infection. There is from one and a half to two tons of waste produced for every ton of soda. The waste contains the sulphur used in , the pyrites-kiln, amounting to one fifth or one sixth of its weight. It is in the form of sul- phide of calcium, and under the action of the atmosphere hecomes the disulphide. Brought into contact with caustic lime this precipitates in the forms of monosulphide and sulphate, carrying off all the sewage impurities. These deodorizers are stirred with the sewage in cis- terns, and the sewage is then conducted into settling-tanks. The residuum is used as ma- nure. The sewage furnishes the hydraulic power to work the apparatus. SKOBELEFF, MICHAEL DIMITRIEVITCH. This illustrious Russian general died at Mos- cow, July 7th, of a stroke of apoplexy, before he had passed the thirty-seventh year of his age. Born near Moscow, in October, 1845, the son of an officer of the Guards, and grandson of a distinguished general who had risen from the ranks, he studied at the University of Mos- cow ; but, being expelled for engaging in a students' riot, he obtained a commission in the Guards, and, serving in Poland in 1863, was promoted to a captaincy. He served in the Caucasus a couple of years, and then in Cen- tral Asia, winning the reputation for daring courage which was the source of his magnetic influence over the soldiery, and the secret of his success. Pie was made a colonel, and at- tached to General Kaufmann's staff. He took part in the expedition against Khokand, and on one occasion is said to have ridden with 150 Cossacks into the enemy's camp the night before the proposed attack, and caused the whole force of 6,000 or 7,000 to throw down their arms and take to flight in terror. In this campaign he was promoted to the rank of major-general. He was given the com- mand of the next year's expedition, and at the head of 4,000 men he subjugated Khokand. While officiating as governor of the new prov- ince, the Turkish War broke out. Skobeleff hastened to the seat of war, and was one of the first to cross the Danube, which he accom- plished on horseback. He held no command at first, but as a leader of forlorn hopes and volunteer for every dangerous and difficult ser- vice he was one of the most conspicuous fig- ures in the army. In the second attack on Plevna he led three regiments, and, after hold- ing the captured position twenty-four hours, fell back for lack of support with a loss of nearly three fourths of his detachment. He was afterward placed in command of his fa- mous Sixteenth Division, with the rank of lieutenant-general. He turned back the left flank of the Turkish army at the passage of the Balkans. He took the village of Shenova from Vessel Pasha, after Mirsky and Kadetsky had failed. He led the advance upon Adrian- ople, proceeding by forced marches, and then advanced to occupy Tchataldja. Skobeleff took a watchful interest in the welfare of his men. His division was the best fed and best clothed in the Russian army, and not infrequently their general advanced money from his private means to secure their comfort. General Sko- beleff was a brilliant strategist, and, being al- ways near his men in battle, could manoeuvre them more effectively than the generals who kept in the rear. In 1880 General Skobeleff was placed in command of the expedition against the Tekke- Turkomans. The impetuous hero of Plevna here showed himself more cautious than his predecessors, and through his prudence suc- ceeded where they had failed. Before advanc- ing upon Geok Tepe he had a railroad of con- siderable length constructed, and forwarded ample supplies of ammunition and provisions. With 10,000 troops he subdued the 40,000 Turkomans of the Akhal-Tekke country, his losses amounting to 937 men. He wished to advance to an oasis south of Merv, but was recalled by the Czar, who feared embroilment with Persia. A speech made by Skobeleff in Paris, to the effect that a conflict was unavoid- able and imminent between Russia and the German powers, caused some political anxiety in the early months of 1882. General Skobeleff was a tall, slender, active man, of intellectual features. He required un- questioning obedience to his orders. He lost no occasion for exhibiting to his soldiers his own reckless bravery. He dressed himself conspicuously in white, and rode a white horse in battle, wearing his neatest uniform, display- ing his decorations, and carrying a jewel-hiked sword. SMITH, JOHN COTTON, D. D., rector of the Church of the Ascension, New York city, died at his home, January 9, 1882. Dr. Smith came of a distinguished New England family, his father, Thomas M. Smith, having been Presi- dent of Kenyon College, and his uncle, John Cotton Smith, at one time Governor of Con- necticut. He was born at Andover, Mass., August 4, 1826. Graduating from Bowdoin College in 1847, he studied divinity at the Theological Seminary at Gambier, O., and in 1850 was ordained priest. In 1852 he be- came assistant minister at Trinity Church, Bos- ton, where he remained nearly eight years. In 1860 he entered upon the duties of rector of the Church of the Ascension, New York, in which position he remained until his death. As the head of a wealthy congregation, Dr. Smith was engaged in many and various works of a charitable and reformatory nature. He was greatly interested in the subject of tene- ment-house reform, and gave much attention to mission and industrial schools, in which he was amply supported by the liberality of his congregation. Among the works carried out by members of his church were the building SOUTH CAROLINA. 743 of Ascension Hall and the Church of the Holy Spirit at Gambier, O., where he received his theological education, Aspinwall Hall, and the Alexandria Theological Seminary, and the Church of the Ascension at Ipswich, Mass., the charge of which latter he was accustomed to assume during his yearly vacation. As a churchman he was liberal in his views and sympathies, and did much to strengthen and foster this spirit. As a consequence, he was in sympathy with Christian work without re- gard to denominational limits. He was alive to the movement of modern thought, and fre- quently discussed scientific, literary, and social subjects and their relation to Christianity. He was an eloquent preacher and scholarly writer. Among his published writings are: "The Lit- urgy as a Basis of Union " ; u The Charity of Truth"; "The Church's Law of Develop- ment " ; " Oxford Essays and Reviews " ; " The Homeric Age"; "The Principles of Patriot- ism;" "The United States a Nation"; and, "Evolution and a Personal Creator." He was the editor for some years of " Church and State," a paper started as the representative of the liberal branch of the Church. Dr. Smith was personally greatly esteemed by his congregation, and held in affectionate regard by the many poor in whose behalf he had so long labored. He leaves a wife and four daughters and two sons. SOUTH CAROLINA. STATE OFFICEKS.— Governor (elect), Hugh S. Thompson; Lieu- tenant-Governor, J. 0. Sheppard; Secretary of State, J. N. Lipscomb ; Comptroller-General, W. E. Stoney ; Treasurer, J. P. Richardson ; Attorney-General, 0. Richardson Miles; Su- perintendent of Education, A. Coward; Ad- jutant and Inspector-General, A. M. Massi- gault ; Commissioner of Agriculture, A. P. Butler; Railroad Commissioners, M. L. Bon- ham, T. B. Jeter, L. J. Walker. United States Senators, Wade Hampton, M. 0. Butler. Mem- bers of Forty-seventh Congress, D. Wyatt Aiken, J. S. Richardson, J. H. Evins, E. W. M. Mackay, Robert Small (colored). Members- elect of Forty-eighth Congress — First District, Samuel Dibble; Second District, George D. Tillman; Third District, D. Wyatt Aiken; Fourth District, John H. Evins ; Fifth District, J. J. Hemphill; Sixth District, G. W. Dargan; Seventh District, E. W. M. Mackay. FINANCIAL CONDITION, ETC. — On retiring from office at the close of the year, Governor Johnson Hagood concluded his message to the Legislature by the following cheering statement as to the condition of the State : " The exhibit before you of the affairs of the State is that of a well-ordered, smooth- working, and economic government, and of a happy and prosperous people." The report of the Comptroller-Gen- eral for the fiscal year ending October 31st seems to justify Governor Hagood's utterance. According to that report, the total bonded debt of the State is $6,571,825.43, made up as fol- lows: Consols (valid) .............................. Deficiency bonds ............................ State scrip, Agricultural College .............. To be ftinded for ante-bellum principal and in- terest ..................................... To be ftinded for post-bellum principal and in- terest ..................................... To be funded for " fundable interest" ......... To be funded for bills of the Bank of the State. $5,429,92854 501,992 24 19 1,800 00 168,924 47 178,512 50 105,289 68 878 00 Total $6,571,82548 The annual interest on the above is as fol- lows: On funded debt ($6,123,720.78) at 6 per cent. . . . $867,428 25 On debt not yet funded ($448,104.65) at 6 per cent 26,886 28 Back interest on deficiencies, 1879-1881 200 00 Total $394,509 53 To pay this interest a tax is authorized of three and one tenth mills. The total value of the real property in the State is $85,384,863 ; of the personal property, $45,180,179 ; and of the railroad property, $14,877,250, making an aggregate of $145,442,292. The revenues of the State for current ex- penditures are derived from the net earnings of the Penitentiary, which amounted this year to $40,000 ; from the royalty on the produce of the phosphate-mines, amounting to $138,- 254 ; and from a general tax of one half of a mill on the dollar of taxable values. This last- named tax and the tax for interest on the public debt make the total general tax amount to three and six-tenths mills. As the interest upon the State debt is pay- able before the general tax is fully collected, the Legislature has authorized in each of the past two years a temporary loan in anticipa- tion of the taxes. While this is readily effect- ed at small expense when the money market is easy, a time might come in which it would be more difficult or impracticable. To insure the maintenance of the public credit at all times, Governor Hagood made the following recom- mendation to the Legislature : The debt will soon mature, and to refund it at a more favorable rate of interest is an end to be kept steadily in view. A failure to meet promptly the in- terest under any circumstances would injuriously af- fect this purpose. Again, our taxes are paid semi- annually, and the first payment is optional, the tax- payer being charged interest if he defers payment of his whole tax till the time of the second payment. Under these circumstances, to return to a collection of the taxes for interest before the interest is due, it is necessary to make the first semi-annual payment of taxes compulsory, and then for one year to increase the tax levy sufficiently to raise the sum for which, in the experience of the Treasury, it has been found necessary to make over-drafts upon the banks. We are experiencing a period of exceptional prosperity, and there will be no better time to accomplish this desirable end. If the measure commends itself to your honorable body, the additional sum to be raised this year will be about $100,000, and will necessitate the addition of A mill to the 3ft mills previously es- timated. The whole tax levy will then be 4ft mills. The levy for last year was 4% mills. It will still be necessary for one year longer to authorize the tempo- rary loan, because the first payment of interest for 1884 will occur before any part of the tax you now au- thorize is collected, and will have to be met out of funds now in the Treasury, which are not sufficient for the purpose, and at the same time to carry on the government until the taxes of 1883 are collected. 744 SOUTH CAROLINA. After meeting all the demands of the fiscal year, there is a cash balance in the Treasury, available for the ensuing year's expenses, of $98,017.47. The estimated annual expenses of the government, including those of the Legis- lature, amount to $305,460, which, with the interest on the debt, $394,509.53, makes the total amount to $699,969.53. Speaking of the indebtedness of South Car- olina, Fisk and Hatch say : The interest on the State debt is promptly and regu- larly paid every January and July on the consols either at the State Treasury or in New York, and on the " deficiencies " at the State Treasury. . . . The present government seem to be in earnest in their in- tention to keep faith with the public creditors. The taxes are honestly levied and carefully collected. The revenue is kept at a point where all claims can be un- doubtedly met, and the affairs of the State are eco- nomically administered. EDUCATIONAL. — During the year there has been a marked increase in the number of schools, in the number of teachers employed, in the school attendance, and in the school fund. The number of schools is 3,183; of teachers em- ployed, 3,413, of whom 1,287 were colored ; of school attendance, 65,399 white, and 80,575 col- ored. The exact amount of the school fund for 1882 has not been ascertained, as full reports of the school taxes collected during the fiscal year have not been made to the Comptroller- Gen- eral; but sufficient is known to warrant the conclusion that the fund is considerably in ex- cess of that reported last year, which amounted to $452,965.44. The average length of the school session throughout the State has been four and one half months. The school law of 1878 created a State Board of Examiners, con- sisting of the State Superintendent of Educa- tion and four persons appointed by the Gov- ernor, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, who constitute an advisory body, with power to review all decisions of the county boards, to adopt rules for the govern- ment of public schools, to prescribe rules for the examination of teachers, to prescribe and enforce the course of study, and to appoint in each county two persons who, with the County School Commissioners, shall constitute the Board of Examiners of the several counties of the State. Marked improvement is observable in the character and attainments of the teachers, owing to the good effects produced by the State Normal Institutes — one for white and one for colored teachers — maintained in part by State appropriations and in part by the trustees of the Peabody fund. By constitutional provis- ion it is made the duty of the Boards of County Commissioners of the several counties to levy and collect an annual tax of not less than two mills on the dollar of all the taxable property in their respective counties for the support of the public schools. The proceeds of this tax and of the poll-tax constitute the school fund. Since the adoption of this amendment of the Constitution the school-tax has steadily in- creased every year, owing in great measure to the increasing wealth and prosperity of the State, and partly to a more rigid and honest collection of the poll-tax. The opportunities now offered for higher education in South Car- olina are greater than at any time in her past history. The South Carolina College and the State Military Academy have been placed, by liberal appropriations by the General Assem- bly, upon a broad and liberal basis, and a large number of students are now in attendance at both institutions. The branch of the univer- sity, known as the South Carolina College, sit- uated at Columbia, is endowed with the por- tion of the fund donated by Congress which is set apart for the benefit of white students. It was reorganized in the spring of this year by the establishment of five additional professor- ships, making ten in all, and one of which is agriculture and horticulture. It opened with one hundred and forty-eight students in at- tendance. Governor Hagood made the follow- ing suggestions in his last message to the Leg- islature in regard to the course of instruction to be pursued : The development hereafter to "be given to this insti- tution should, in order to meet the just expectations and demands of the age and the requirements of the Act of Congress, to which it owes all of its permanent endowment, be largely in the direction of applied science. It should be made the home of the practical arts and sciences as well as of the classics. It should be able to send forth the youth of the State well equipped for the practical pursuits and avocations of life, and hence technical training should be as anx- iously provided for as liberal culture. The agricultural department should be so developed as to materially aid in building up the agricultural in- terests of the State. Not only should the opportunity be given to the rising generation of farmers to acquire the scientific principles upon which their calling is based, but the farmers themselves should have the benefit of the experiments and tests of a Avell-con- ducted experimental farm located in their midst. The Military Academy, which, previous to the war, was second only in thoroughness of instruction to that at West Point, and whose active operations were interrupted in 1865 by the Federal Government taking possession of its building, known as the Citadel, was re- opened on the 2d of October, the building having been restored to the State in March. There are 177 cadets in attendance, of whom 68 — two from each county — are maintained by the State as beneficiaries, and are required for two years after their graduation to teach in the public schools of the county from which they receive their appointment. They are taught, clothed, subsisted, and supplied with the necessary academic appliances free of charge. The other students pay $300 per annum, which is the estimated cost of the institution of each cadet. The Academy has been made by law a branch of the univer- sity. In addition to these State institutions, there are also in active operation the College of Charleston, Furman university at Green- ville, Erskine College at Due West, Wofford College at Spartanburg, Newberry College at Newberry, and Adger College at Walhalla. SOUTH CAROLINA. 745 Claflin College, also a branch of the univer- sity, at Orangeburg, is set apart for the benefit of colored students. It is endowed with a por- tion of the fund donated by Congress for the promotion of agriculture and the mechanic arts, with small aid to its normal school from the Peabody fund. There have been 344 stu- dents in attendance, of whom 24 were in the Collegiate Department, 136 in the Normal School, and 184 in the Grammar School. The Normal School is probably doing the most im- portant work. Both graduates and under-grad- uates find ready employment in the public schools for colored children in the State. An agricultural farm of 150 acres is attached to the institution, and is profitably worked, chiefly by students1 labor, under the instruction of a superintendent. During this year the trustees of the Peabody fund appropriated to South Carolina $5,375, of which $3,225 were devoted to the education of teachers, and $2,150 to the public schools. The total number of persons in the State between the ages of six and sixteen years is as follows : Whites. Colored. Total. Male 51 440 90 897 142 337 Female 49 749 89 578 139 327 Total 101 189 180,475 281 664 THE LUNATIC ASYLUM. — In scientific treat- ment, and in all that promotes the comfort and well-being of its afflicted inmates, the Lunatic Asylum of South Carolina compares favorably with those of other States. The Legislature and people regard this benignant charity as one which patriotism, philanthropy, and Christian- ity demand that they should support liberally ; and, having intrusted the management and im- mediate control to a wise and capable board of regents and superintendent, they freely give those officers the necessary means to maintain the patients in comfort, and at the same time to make such repairs, improvements, and addi- tions to the buildings and grounds as the con- dition of the institution and the increasing number of those asking admission may require. The number of patients under treatment dur- ing the year was seven hundred and fifty-five, who, with the exception of very few who are supported by their relatives, are maintained altogether by the State. The superintendent has successfully adopted, to a greater extent than in other asylums, the policy of " release on probation." He believes that it is benefi- cial to certain classes of patients — such as those who, after considerable progress to restoration, cease to improve ; some cases of melancholia, not suicidal, which, after several months1 resi- dence, instead of being benefited, are still more depressed by the surroundings of the asylum ; the large class whose constant fretting to go home counteracts all other influences ; and those whose physical condition would probably be benefited by the change. The policy has also proved advantageous as affording means to determine whether restoration to reason has been really established, or whether it is merely the intermission of recurrent insanity. Dur- ing the year ninety-three patients of the above classes were sent home, of whom thirty-five have been discharged as cured, thirteen as improved, six as unimproved, yet able to be cared for at home, six have died, eighteen recently released are at home, and sixteen have returned. Of the present inmates, 54 are regarded as curable, 87 doubtful, and 409 incurable. The receipts of the asylum for the year — of which the State contributed $114,315.92 — were $119,868.63, and the expenses, including repairs, improve- ments, and extension of grounds, $119,466.20. The per capita cost of maintenance is $140. There is a farm attached to the asylum, the chief advantage of which is that it affords healthful employment to the patients, but it is also a source of material profit. Of the 550 patients now present, 330 are white and 220 colored. Of the sixty increase during the year, twenty-seven were white and thirty-three col- ored ; and a comparison of this report with those of previous years, shows that the pro- portion of the colored to the white insane is steadily increasing. THE INSTITUTION FOE THE DEAF AND DUMB AND THE BLIND. — This institution for the edu- cation of the unfortunate youth of the State is located at Cedar Springs, in Spartanburg County. During the year sixty-two pupils have been in attendance. Steps have been taken to S'ovide for the colored deaf and dumb and ind children. THE PENITENTIAET. — On November 1st there were 824 convicts in the Penitentiary, of whom 778 were colored and 46 white. Of these, 224 were leased to the phospate-mining companies, 121 to the railroads, 25 were employed on the farm, and 454 kept within the walls of the prison. Of those in prison, 97 were employed making shoes, 120 on the Columbia Canal, and the remainder at various minor industries. The report of the superintendent exhibits the fol- lowing figures : Balance on hand at the begin- ning of the fiscal year, $21,199; earnings for the year, $94,236; expenses proper of the Penitentiary, $50,989 ; per diem and mileage of Board of Directors, $1,267 ; paid on canal, $8,096 ; paid into the treasury, $40,000 ; and remaining in hands of superintendent, $14,901. In the period from 1868 to 1876, besides the earnings of the convicts, it required an average annual appropriation of $62,800 from the State Treasury to support the institution. The con- victs, under the present system — both those within and without the prison — are well fed and clothed, properly cared for generally, and their sentences of penal servitude humanely executed. THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE has only been established for two years, but, under earnest and judicious management, its great usefulness is already manifest. This depart- ment of the State government is maintained 746 SOUTH CAROLINA. by the proceeds of a tax of twenty-five cents per ton on the sale of commercial fertilizers in the State, which realized this year' $23,704. It is charged with the inspection and super- vision of the sale of fertilizers ; with the du- ties of a Fish Commission ; with the manage- ment of the State's interest in the phosphate- mines; with the development of the agricul- tural and mechanical interests of the State, and with the promotion of immigration. The following are the general results of agricultural operations in South Carolina in 1882 : There were planted in corn 1,356,305 acres, which yielded 17,045,735 bushels, or 12f per acre. The increase in yield over that of 1881 was 110 per cent. The area in oats was 362,373 acres, against 258,343 acres in 1881 — an in- crease of 40 per cent. The yield was 7,929,- 970 bushels, or an average of nearly 22 bushels per acre — an increase as compared with 1881 of 170 per cent. The yield of wheat increased 97 per cent over that of the previous year, averaging 9|- bushels per acre. The increase in acreage was 20 per cent, or 34,846 acres. The yield of sugar-cane increased 146 per cent. The average product was 127 gallons of sirup per acre. The increase in the yield of sweet- potatoes was 80 per cent ; average production 95 bushels per acre. The acreage in cotton decreased 3 per cent as compared with 1881, yet the yield increased 114,500 bales of 500 pounds each ; an increase of 26 per cent. The average product was 198 pounds of lint- cotton per acre. The money value of the crops of South Carolina in 1882 exceeded that of 1881 by $18,572,525. In addition to the increase in other farm products, the record for the year shows an increase of the crops of 1882 over those of the preceding year of 28,193,277 pounds of rice; 198,677 gallons of sorghum- molasses; 181,838 bushels of Irish potatoes; $42,243 in sales of garden produce; 49,787 pounds of honey; 324,056 pounds of butter; 58,522 head of poultry, and 179,626 dozen eggs. Twenty-five per cent of these large crops were fertilized with home-made composts, and 10 per cent less commercial manures were pur- chased than in 1881. The value of the excess of the products of 1882 over those of last year amounted to more than the entire value of the farm supplies bought in 1881. The farmers sold large quantities of grain, and kept an abundance for home consumption. The most valuable and beneficent of the products of South Carolina are the apparently inexhausti- ble phosphate deposits of the Charleston Basin, whose value was first discovered in 1867, and whose importance to the agricultural world it would be difficult to measure. In 1870, three years after the discovery, the shipments of phosphate rock were only 1,989 tons. In 1882 the shipments were 140,772£ tons. These phos- phate deposits in the rivers, creeks, marshes, and lands on the coast of South Carolina are the most valuable property that she owns, and the royalty of $1 per ton on the amount of rock mined, which the mining companies pay into the Treasury, constitutes about one fourth of the entire revenue of the State. All min- ing operations are conducted under charters, grants, permits, or licenses from the State, and the two systems prevailing are known as " ex- clusive" and "general" rights. By exclusive right is meant such territory as the State, by legislative enactment, has granted to companies or individuals to be worked exclusively by the grantees. General rights permit holders to work in any streams not controlled by exclu- sive-right grants. The former are far the most valuable, because they are permanent. The State's royalty from exclusive rights amounted this year to $125,956 out of $138,254, and of this sum one company — the Coosaw — paid $111,071. Since 1870 the State has received from this source $948,852. In the absence of an accurate survey by competent scientific men, there is a contrariety of opinion as to the ex- tent of the phosphate territory, and how long the material will last. One opinion is that the phosphate underlies 250,000 acres of land, and is practically inexhaustible ; and others think that the phosphatic deposits of merchantable quality and accessible position would not ex- ceed 5,000,000 tons. They constitute the most available material now known as a basis for fertilizers. Analysis shows that they contain from 25 to 28 per cent of phosphoric acid, equivalent to 55 or 60 per cent of bone phos- phate of lime. The mining companies, of which there are thirty-six, and the individuals engaged in this industry give employment to 2,500 per- sons, who receive annually at least $500,000. In addition to this, very large amounts are in- vested in the manufacture and manipulation of these phosphates by the Charleston fertilizer companies, of which there are twenty, the most prominent being the Etiwan, Ashley, Waudo, Stono, Pacific, Atlantic, Achepoo, and Port Royal Companies, who sold during the year 75,000 tons of fertilizers, or more than double what they sold four years past. The discovery of these deposits has added nearly $1,000,000 to the receipts of the State Treasury ; brought $18,000,000 into the State, as capital invested in this industry; built up the port of Charles- ton; furnished freight and business for the railroads, and made an actual cash reduction of 25 per cent in the general tax levy; besides which it has indirectly benefited the entire country, and restored the fertility of thousands on thousands of acres of exhausted land in many other States as well as in South Carolina. Na- ture, capital, labor, and genius combined to make this wealth — more valuable than gold- beds or diamond-fields — useful and beneficial to the world. South Carolina ranks as the twentieth in the list of fish-producing States, with 1,005 fisher- men, and products valued at $212,482. Her shrimp-fisheries are more extensive than those of any other State, and nearly as great as those of all other States combined. During the year SOUTH CAEOLINA. 747 the Fish Commission has distributed 166,000 California salmon, 945,000 shad, 4,545 Ger- man carp, 58 blue bream, and 50 black bass. MANUFACTURES. — The water-power of South Carolina has been estimated at 3,000,000 horse- power, of which it is said only 15,000 horse- power is now used by all kinds of mills in the State, leaving a very large margin for future development. The cotton-mills in the State contain now 180,701 spindles and 4,120 looms, paid in wages during the year $728,900 to 4,262 hands, and have a capital of $4,547,000. This does not include the Pendleton Factory ; the Charleston Manufacturing, which began opera- tions at the end of the year ; or the Pelzer Mills, which suspended for repairs and enlargement. The stock of all these factories, except five, is above par, and the stock of these five is at par. The Langley stock is quoted at $173, the G-ran- iteville at $170, the Piedmont at $150, the Ready Eiver, Clifton, and Camperdown at $125, the Farryville and Pelham at $120, and the Cedar Shoals and Valley Falls at $1 10. The dividends paid rapge from 10 to 20 per cent. The State has wisely supplemented the natural induce- ments she offers to capitalists in her water- power and her products, by legislation which exempts capital invested in factories from all taxation, except the two-mill school-tax, for ten years. An effort was made at this year's session of the Legislature to repeal this law, but it was overwhelmingly defeated. The same Legislature granted charters to nine new facto- ries, with an aggregate capital of $1,725,000. The financial condition of the city of Charles- ton is much improved, and may now be said to be perfectly sound. At the beginning of this year its debt amounted to $4,264,050, being $1,000,000 less than it was ten years ago, and $500,000 less than it was in 1881. The interest on the debt amounts to $183,474. In 1870 it amounted to $314,557. This reduction of prin- cipal and interest was not effected by scaling or readjusting, but by paying the principal and by refunding the matured debt in long- date non-taxable bonds bearing a low rate of interest. In 1881 the debt was $95 for every man, woman, and child in Charleston. Now it is $85. The Legislature wisely repealed the power heretofore exercised by the city, to bor- row money and contract debts ; and now the municipal government is absolutely prohibited from contracting any debt in excess of the in- come of the current year, unless the debt to be incurred shall be approved first by a vote of two thirds of the City Council ; second, by two thirds of the voters of Charleston at a special election ; and, third, by the General Assembly of the State. The trade of Charleston, for the commercial year ending August 31st, was large- ly in advance of that of the preceding year. The value of the trade of the year was $74,- 839,904, against $71,211,000 last year. In na- val stores the receipts of spirits of turpentine increased from 51,386 casks to 65,000 casks ; the receipts of rosin from 231,417 barrels to 256,000 barrels ; lumber from 18,610,857 feet to 45,000,000 feet. The State Legislature was convened in extra session on June 27th for the purpose of divid- ing the State into seven congressional districts, instead of five, so as to provide for the two additional members of Congress to which the State became entitled under the last apportion- ment act. The full text of the redistricting law is as follows: An Act to divide the State of South Carolina into Seven Con- gressional Districts. SECTION 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of South Carolina, now met and sitting in General Assembly, and by the au- thority of the same : That the State of South Carolina shall be divided into seven congressional districts, as follows : The First Congressional District to be composed of the county of Charles ton, except James Island, Folly Isl- and, Morris Island and the islands lying between them, the lower harbor of Charleston Harbor and the ocean coast-line from and below high-water mark ; the towns of Mount Pleasant and Somerville, and so much of the parish of St. James Goosecreek as lies between the western track of the South Carolina Kail- way and the Ashley River, in the county of Berkeley, and below the county of Colleton ; the townships or Bell's, Burns, Cam, Dorchester, George, Givham, Hey ward, Koger, Sheridan, and Verdier, in the county of Colleton : the townships of Branchville, Caw -caw, Cowcastle, Edisto, Elizabeth, Goodland, Hebron, Lib- erty, Middle, Newhope, Union, Willow, Eocky Grove, and Zion. in the county of Orangeburg; and the county of Lexington. The Second Congressional District to be composed of the county of Hampton ; the townships of Brox- ton's and Warren in the county of Colleton, the countv of Barnwell, and the counties of Aiken and Edgefield. The Third Congressional District to be composed of the counties ot Abbeville, Newberry, Anderson, Oconee, and Pickens. The Fourth Congressional District to be composed of the counties of Greenville and Laurens, the coun- ty of Spartanburg, except the townships of White Plains and Limestone Springs ; the county of Union, except the townships of Gowdeysville and Drayton- ville, and the townships of Centre, Columbia, and Upper, in the county of Kichland, and the county of Fairfield. The Fifth Congressional District to be composed of the county of York, the county of Chester, the townships of White Plains and Limestone Springs, in the county of Spartanburg ; the townships of Gowdeysville and Draytonville, in the county of Union, and the counties of Lancaster, Chesterfield, and Kershaw. The Sixth Congressional District to be composed of the county of Clarendon, the townships of Lake, Lee's, Johnson's, and Surnter, and the town of Kings- tree, in the county of Williamsburg, and the counties of Darlington. Marlboro', Marion, and Horry. The Seventh. Congressional District to be composed of the counties of Georgetown and Beaufort, the lower township of the county of Richland, the county of Sumter, the townships of Amelia, Goodby's, Lyons, Pine Grove, Poplar, Providence, and Vance's, in the county of Orangeburg ; the townships of Anderson, Hope, Indian, Kings (except the town of Kingstree), Laws, Mingo, Penn, Eidge, Button's, and Turkey, in the county of Williamsburg ; all of the counties of Charleston and Berkeley, excepting such portion thereof as are hereinbefore designated as a part of the First Congressional District ; the townships of Collins, Adam's Bun, Glover, Fraser, Lowndes, and Blake, in Colleton County. 748 SOUTH CAROLINA. SEC. 2. In every case in which, under the provisions of this act, the townships or parts of townships of any county may not all be in the same congressional dis- trict, it shall be the duty of the proper board of county canvassers of such county in canvassing the votes of said county to report separately the result of the vote of such township or parts of townships for the con- gressional district to which they may respectively belong. SEC. 3. In any case in which a voting precinct may form part of more than one congressional district, if no other provision be made bv law, the commission- ers of election for the county in which such precinct is situated shall provide for such precinct separate hoxes for every congressional district within which the said precinct may be, and each voter at such pre- cinct shall deposit his ballot for member of Congress in the box provided for the congressional district within the limits of which said voter may reside. SEC. 4. That all acts and parts of acts inconsistent herewith are hereby repealed. SEC. 5. That this act shall take effect immediately on its approval. Approved July 5, A. D. 1882. A statement from the Census-Office gives the following summary of white and colored voters in the new congressional districts: DISTRICTS. White. Colored. White majority. Colored majority. First District 12445 18 884 1 439 Second District 11,446 16283 4 S37 Third District 13 359 12 707 652 Fourth District Fifth District Sixth District Seventh District 17,670 11,805 12,480 7 695 16,985 12,669 13,468 82 898 685 '864 988 25 193 Acts were passed amending the election law and the law defining the election precincts, and joint resolutions proposing to amend the Con- stitution relating to the time of holding elec- tions, and relating to the formation of new counties were adopted. The former constitu- tional amendment proposes that " the general election for Senators and Representatives shall be held in every second year, in such manner, at such time, and at such places as the Legis- lature may provide"; and the latter, as to new counties, proposes to strike out in section 3, Article II. of the Constitution the words " but no new county shall be hereafter formed of less extent than six hundred and twenty-five square miles, nor shall any existing counties be reduced to a less extent than six hundred and twenty-five square miles," and insert in lieu thereof the following : " Provided that no new county shall be formed which has a pop- ulation of less than one one-hundred and twenty-fourth part of the whole number of inhabitants of the State, and an area less than four hundred square miles, nor shall any exist- ing counties be reduced to a less area than four hundred square miles." The extra session of the Legislature ended on July 5th. Its total expenses were $15,409.40. The Democratic Convention met at Colum- bia, on August 1st, to nominate candidates for Governor, Lieu tenant-Govern or, and other State officers. Prior to the meeting it was generally believed that the choice for Gov- ernor would be either General Bratton or General J. D. Kennedy; but after the first ballot, the names of both those gentlemen having been withdrawn, Hugh S. Thompson was nominated by acclamation. He was not a candidate, and was not prominent in party politics. His service to the State for several years had been in the cause of education, having served, with great distinction and suc- cess, six years as Superintendent of 'Educa- tion, and it was determined that he should be elected President of the State University, made vacant by the resignation of the Hon. W. Porcher Miles. The Greenback - Republican - Independent Convention met at Columbia September 5th, and nominated a full ticket for State officers, J. Hendricks McLane being the candidate for Governor. The combined opposition made strenuous ef- forts to defeat the Democratic candidates, and much money was spent, but the campaign re- sulted in the election of the entire Democratic ticket, and of six out of the seven members of Congress. Under a rigid execution of the elec- tion laws peace reigned throughout the State on election-day. The General Assembly met again in regu- lar session at Columbia on November 28th. On December 5th Governor Thompson took the oath of office and delivered his inaugural address. The most important measure of the session was the act to regulate railroads, pro- viding for the appointment of three commis- sioners; making it unlawful for any railroad company doing business in South Carolina to charge more than " a reasonable compensation for the transportation of passengers or freight of any description " ; prohibiting any unjust dis- crimination in freight or passenger rates ; for- bidding the charge of greater toll for transporta- tion for a short than is charged for a long dis- tance, and forbidding all rebates or drawbacks, or lesser rates to favored individuals than are charged to the public. An act to amend the usury law was also passed, providing that no greater rate of interest than seven per cent per annum shall be charged upon any contracts arising in the State, except on written con- tracts wherein by express agreement as high a rate as ten per cent may be charged. An act was passed compelling those who are sent to the Lunatic Asylum, and who are able to do so, to pay their own expenses. Another im- portant act was that providing for " the more speedy development of the Columbia Canal," by which $15,000 and the labor of at least two hundred convicts — equivalent to $21,900 more — were given for the construction of this work. Another measure of public interest was the act to exempt certain counties in the Stato from the operations of the general stock law, which requires owners of stock of all kinds to keep them fenced in. As this act requires the counties seeking exemption to pay for the fences which are to separate them from the counties where the law is in force, by a tax SPAIN. 749 levy on the assessed value of all the stock in those counties, and as the total value of all the stock would not pay the cost of the fences, the law will either be inoperative or it will amount to a confiscation of the property of those who are supposed to need relief from the stock law. The act making appropriations to meet the ex- penses of the government and pay the interest on the public debt provided for an appropria- tion of $765,614.22. After a session of twenty- one working days the Legislature adjourned on December 23d. SPAIN, a monarchy of Southern Europe. The Constitution of June 30, 1876, vests the legislative powers in the King and the Cortes. The Cortes consist of two Houses, the Senate and the Congress, each possessing the same powers. The Senate is composed of three classes of Senators : Senators by right, to wit, princes of the blood, grandees of Spain, and the chief functionaries of the state, army, and Church; Senators nominated by the crown for life, who, with the Senators in their own right, must not exceed 180 in number; and Senators elected by public corporations and citizens paying the highest rate of taxes, who must not exceed the same maximum number. The Congress, or Chamber of Deputies, is com- posed of members elected for five years by electoral colleges, in the ratio of one Deputy to every 50,000 inhabitants. The clergy are ineligible. Deputies accepting an office, pen- sion, or decoration, must resign — a regulation which does not apply to Ministers. The Cor- tes meet annually. The King as well as each Chamber possesses the right of initiative, but financial measures must be first submitted to the Lower House. Ministers are impeachable by the Chamber of Deputies, and triable by the Senate. Each province has its local As- sembly. The Roman Catholic is the religion of the state, but all other faiths are tolerated. By the royal decree of August 8, 1878, the Isl- and of Cuba can send deputies to the Cortes in the proportion of one to every 40,000 free inhabitants. Alfonso XII, the King of Spain, is the son of Queen Isabella and the Infante Francisco. He was born in 1857, and proclaimed king De- cember 31, 1874. The heir-apparent is the Infanta Maria de las Mercedes, born September 11, 1880, the offspring of the King's second marriage, in 1879, with Maria Christina, Arch- duchess of Austria. The Ministry is composed of the following members: President of the Council, Pedro Manuel Sagasta, appointed February 8, 1881 ; Minister of Foreign- Affairs, A. Aguilar, Mar- quis de la Vega de Armijo ; Minister of Jus- tice, Alfonso Martinez; Minister of Marine, Ad- miral F. de Pa via y Pa via ; Minister of Finance, Tomaro F. Comacho ; Minister of War, G-en- eral A. Martinez de Campos ; Minister of the Interior, Victor Gonzalez ; Minister of Com- merce and Agriculture, S. L. Albareda; Min- ister of the Colonies, F. de Leon y Castillo. AREA AND POPULATION. — The area of the kingdom, including the Balearic and Canary Islands and a small district in Africa opposite Gibraltar, is about 195,000 square miles. The total population of the forty-nine provinces, ac- cording to the census of December 31, 1877, was 16,625,860, comprising 8,134,659 males and 8,491,201 females. There were only 26,834 resident foreigners. The increase of popula- tion has not been over 75 per cent in the last hundred years. In the seventeen years pre- ceding 1877 it was at the rate of J per cent per annum. The density of population is 90 per square mile, about half that of France. Nearly 46 per cent of the surface is unculti- vated. The following cities contained in 1877 over 50,000 inhabitants: Madrid, 397,690; Barce- lona, 249,106; Valencia, 143,856; Seville, 133,938; Malaga, 115,882; Murcia, 91,805; Saragossa, 84,575; Granada, 76,108; Cartha- gena, 75,908; Cadiz, 65,028; Jerez, 64,533; Palma, 58,224; Lorca, 52,206 ; Valladolid, 52,- 206 ; Cordova, 49,855. COMMERCE. — The total amount of the foreign commerce of Spain, for the last three years re- ported, was as follows, in pesetas, or francs : YEAR. Imports. Export*. 1877 .. 588,357,949 515,926,185 1876 553 652 287 445332544 1S75 570 297,467 452,021,575 The commercial intercourse with the prin- cipal foreign countries is shown in the follow- ing table, giving the exports and imports in millions of pesetas, or francs, and tenths of millions, for the last two years reported : COUNTRIES. IMPORTS. EXPORTS. 1875. 1876. 1875. 1876. Great Britain . . . 194-7 149-9 60-7 4-5 15-6 17-0 9-2 6-9 143-5 163-6 59-7 4-4 17-7 16-0 16-3 10-8 156-4 78-6 15-5 40-1 5-8 2-0 8-8 6-1 178-8 90-9 12-0 19-8 8-8 8-6 4-5 8-1 United States Belgium Sweden and Norway . . . Italy Algeria The total imports of 1881 amounted to about 576,000,000 pesetas. The imports of wines and liquors in 1881 were valued at 45,000,000 pesetas; of tropical produce, 45,700,000; ani- mal food products, 29,500,000; total articles of consumption, 130,300,000; the exports of wines and liquors at 268,500,000, of fruits, etc. (oranges, raisins, nuts), 49,400,000; cereals, 24,800,000 ; total articles of consumption, 359,- 700,000. The imports of textile materials amounted to 93,800,000 pesetas : wood (cork), 34,200,000, coal 22,900,000, hides and leather 17,200,000, raw metals 16,300,000, total raw materials 187,000,000 ; the exports of raw met- als (lead and copper) to 84,900,000, minerals (pyrites) 76,000,000, total raw materials 180,- 000,000. The imports of manufactures amount- ed to 143,000,000 pesetas, in which total tex- 750 SPAIN. tile manufactures are represented by 60,500,000 pesetas, machines, vessels, etc., by 34,500,000, yarns by 21,700,000, and metallic articles by 12,700,000. The exports of manufactured ar- ticles consisted of corks of the value of 14,500,- 000 pesetas, and playing-cards of the value of 3,100,000 pesetas. The merchant marine consisted on January 1, 1881, of 2,236 vessels, weighing 560,125 tons, of which 347, of 233,686 tons, were steamers. There were about 3,875 miles of railroad in operation in 1878. The length of the state telegraph lines in 1880 was 10,075 miles. The number of dis- patches in 1880 was 2,222,429, of which 1,397,- 451 were domestic, 508,417 international, and 316,561 official. The receipts were about $800,000, the expenses $1,190,000. The number of post-offices in 1880 was 2,536; number of letters carried 81,422,000, postal cards 1,045,000, circulars, etc., 5,703,000, newspapers 40,247,000; total, 128,417,000. The receipts were 9,407,954 francs, expenses 7,599,- 820 francs. COLONIES. — The area of the colonies of Spain and their population in 1877 were as follow : COLONIES. Square mllei. Population. Cuba 43220 1 394 516 Porto Rico a 550 646 862 Total, America 46,770 2,040,878 Philippine Islands 65100 4 819 269 Caroline Islands and Palaos 905 420 28,000 5 610 Total, Asia 66,425 4,852,879 Fernando Po and Annobon 483 5,590 Total colonies 113 678 6 399 847 The population of Cuba consisted of 764,164 whites, 344,050 free negroes, 227,902 slaves, and 58,400 Chinese. The number of slaves de- creased by 136,000 between 1870 and 1877. A bill for the abolition of slavery in Porto Rico was passed in 1873. The bill for the gradual extinction of slavery in Cuba, introduced in the Cortes in November, 1879, provides that all slaves over fifty-five years old should be- come free forthwith ; that slaves from fifty to fifty-five years old should be liberated Septem- ber 17, 1880 ; from forty-five to fifty, in Sep- tember, 1882 ; from forty to forty-five, in 1884 ; from thirty-five to forty, in 1886 ; from thirty to thirty-five, in 1888 ; and all the rest in 1890. After 1880 the sum of 100,000 piasters is an- nually reserved in the Cuban budget to pay an indemnity of 350 piasters for each slave eman- cipated. The population of Cuba in 1879 was 1,424,649; of Porto Rico in 1880, 754,313. The population of Havana in 1873 was about 230,000; of the city of Porto Rico, in 1860, 18,132; of Manila, 270,000. The exports of Cuba amounted to $76,235,- 726 in 1876, $66,836,204 in 1877, and $70,881,- 525 in 1878. The chief article of export is sugar, from 90 to 91 i per cent of which is sent to the United States. The quantity exported in 1879 was 1,698,392,000 pounds, as compared with 1,265,195,000 pounds in 1878, 1,242,793,- 000 in 1877, 1,487,808,000 in 1876, 1,864,991,- 000 in 1875, and 1,925,400,000 in 1870. Be- sides sugar there were exported from Havana in 1880 9,873 pipes of rum, 12,433 barrels of molasses, considerable quantities of honey and wax, a small quantity of coffee, 12,464,936 pounds of tobacco, and 153,141 thousands of cigars. The number of vessels arriving at the port of Havana in 1880 was 1,426, of 1,020,131 tons, against 1,752, of 1,103,439 tons, in 1879, and 1,626, of 979,946 tons, in 1878. Of the arrivals in 1880, 663, of 493,550 tons, were American ships; 491, of 291,481 tons, Span- ish; 151, of 120,130 tons, English; 33, of 56,389 tons, French; and the rest principally German and Norwegian. There were about 860 miles of railroads in operation on the Isl- and of Cuba in 1880, and 2,800 miles of tele- graph lines. The expenditures of Porto Rico are esti- mated for the year 1879-'80 at $3,506,500. The value of the merchandise exported in 1878 was $10,422,400. There were exported 1,659,519 quintals of sugar, 4,922,707 gallons of molasses, 171,885 quintals of coffee, 51,346 quintals of tobacco, 150 quintals of cotton, 6,477 quintals of hides, and 38,247 gallons of rum. The value of the exports from the Philippine Islands in 1879 was 18,813,452 pesos; of the imports, 18,031,547 pesos. Sugar constitutes over 56 per cent of the exports, of which product 2,145,423 peculs, of 135 pounds, were exported in 1879. ARMY. — The Spanish army is becoming reor- ganized on a plan submitted to the Cortes by the King. By the law of January 8, 1882, the period of service is fixed for all arms at twelve years : three in the active army, three in the active reserve, and six in the second reserve. The period in the colonial army is eight years, four with the colors and four in the second re- serve. The peninsular army is recruited by con- scription and enlistment, the colonial wholly by enlistment among the men under thirty-five years of age who have served their time in the active army. Immunity from service is pur- chasable for 1,500 francs. Every Spaniard is otherwise obliged to enter the service. The number of reserve battalions and of depots will range from 104 to 140, corresponding to the number of battalions of the line. Each depot district has a reserve battalion formed and an active depot battalion partly filled, which re- ceives the recruits and transfers the number needed to complete the corresponding line bat- talion, and which will call in the men on leave in civil employments and the active reserve in case of mobilization, and after furnishing the complement of the line and the first reserve complete itself, if necessary, to make up the second reserve army. The cavalry and artil- lery receive the same territorial system of SPAIN. 751 organization. By these measures an army of 400,000 instructed and easily mobilized troops is expected to develop. The effective of the standing army for 1882-'83 is fixed by the decree of July 3, 1882, at 94,810 men, with 28,000 additional during the three months of instruction. The provincial militia has been dissolved. The effective strength of the army in Cuba was fixed at 26,579 men ; of the force in Porto Rico at 3,318 ; of that of the Philippines at 10,035. The civic guard, or police troops, numbered T80 officers and 14,756 men in 1882 ; the carbi- neers, or custom-house guard, on the coasts and frontiers, consisted of 92 companies and 22 mounted sections. (For details of the Spanish navy, see NAVIES OF EUROPE.) FINANCES. — The sources of revenue and heads of expenditure are set down in the budget ap- proved for the year ending June 30, 1883, as follow, in pesetas (one peseta = one franc) : RECEIPTS. Pesetas Direct taxes 280,979,000 Indirect taxes 164,409,000 Customs 115,458,000 Stamps and regie receipts 221,585,000 Receipts from state property 28,860,225 Miscellaneous 21,706,000 Total 782,997,225 EXPENDITURES. Civil list 9,800,000 Legislation i 859 250 Public debt 223,( W2,050 Indemnities and pensions 47 750 005 Presidency of the Council l',10l'600 Ministry of Foreign Affairs 8,580 900 Janice 51 ,625, 675 War 126,272,700 Marine 86,127,800 the Interior 45,:369,t)UO Public Works 90,117.400 Finance 20,581,925 Direction of state monopolies 124/J57,87.'i Administration of mortmains 522.510 Total T82,689,250 The burden of the public debt was such that in 1871 the Minister of Finance declared that the kingdom was on the verge of bank- ruptcy. After that occurred the heavy mili- tary expenses of the civil war. The army ex- penditure has been less since 1878, but deficits have occurred regularly. The present Minis- ter promised in 1881 a reform in the finances which would secure a surplus in the future. The capital of the public debt, consisting of the consolidated debt due the United States ; do., transferred to the Danish Government ; foreign and domestic perpetual rentes ; bonds in favor of civil corporations and of the clergy ; public improvement bonds and foreign and domestic loans, on September 1, 1881, and the interest charge of the year, were as follow, in pesetas : LOANS. Nominal capital. Interest. Consolidated debt due the United States 5 per cent 8 000 000 150000 Consolidated debt transferred to Danish Government, 3 per cent 8 250 000 97 500 Foreign perpetual rentes, 1 per cent. . . . 4 092 894 000 40 928 940 Domestic perpetual rentes, 1 per cent 8 245 160 194 82 451 602 Bonds in favor of civil corporations 1 per cent 539 373 783 5''393'737 Bonds in favor of the clergy, 1 per cent 858 300 102 Public-highway bonds, 2 per cent . 10 754 000 215080 Public-works bonds 2 per cent 10 824 000 21 6 4SO Railway subsidy bonds 2 per cent 614'409?000 12 288 180 Debt for materials . . . . .... 170326 ' l'708 Salary arrears 9 567 895 Redeemable foreign loans 254,402,000 5 088 040 Redeemable domestic loans 471 647 821 9 432 956 Total 9 613 T53,121 106264218 FOREIGN RELATIONS. — The progress of Spain in orderly government and prosperity, and the projected reforms in the army and navy, im- pel her to lift her head somewhat higher in international affairs. Expansive desires are manifested in the direction of Morocco, and greater bitterness is felt at the possession of Gibraltar by Great Britain. Several occasions of jealousy and misunderstanding occurred with England during 1882, while the relations with other powers were confined to questions of the terms on which the commercial treaties are to be renewed. The occupation of the northern end of Borneo, by a company under an English charter, led to a protest, on the ground that Spain had sovereign rights over the territory, dating from 1521, and acknowl- edged by the Sultan of Sooloo (see BORNEO). The denial of this position by the British Gov- ernment caused dissatisfaction, which grew more intense upon England's action in the Egyptian question. The Spanish Cabinet asked leave to take part in the conference at Con- stantinople. All the powers gave a favorable reply except France, which avoided a direct answer, and England, which returned a posi- tive refusal. A difficulty arose with reference to some Cuban patriots, which placed England in the position of a suppliant. Maceo, Rodriguez, and another political prisoner, while being trans- ferred to a penal colony, escaped from custody and took refuge in Gibraltar. The Spanish consul, being apprised by the police, informed the English authorities that these men were fugitives from justice, and requested that in order to save trouble and delay they should be expelled at a certain hour so that the police might capture them on Spanish soil. This was done by the compliant officials, who thought nothing more about it until a storm of indignation arose in England at the viola- tion of the right of asylum. The British Gov- ernment made earnest representations, which 752 SPAIN. the Spanish Minister answered with the same sort of arguments which he had been accus- tomed to receive from London ; but when it was put in the light of a favor, the Spanish au- thorities finally released two of the prisoners. A projected pilgrimage to Kome caused so- licitude in the early part of the year. It was feared that it might develop into a Carlist demonstration, or into one in favor of the restoration of the temporal power of the Pope, which would cause complications with the Italian Government. Correspondence on the subject was carried on with the Quirinal and with the Vatican. The attitude of the Arch- bishop of Toledo, Cardinal Moreno, and of the Papal Nuncio, increased the distrust. Yet the development of the affair revealed the fact that the clergy of Spain were not disposed to iden- tify themselves with the failing cause of Don Carlos, but rather to put their trust in the Conservative-Liberal party. The Clerical rep- resentatives in the Cortes assumed an aggres- sive attitude toward the Sagasta government, not only in regard to the proposed civil mar- riage and education lawsr but on the question of the treatment by the Cabinet of the question of the temporal sovereignty of the Pope in its relations with the Italian Government. LEGISLATION. — The projects of Comacho for the reform of the finances were approved by the Cortes before they adjourned, on December 30, 1881. The Finance Minister proposed a 4 per cent loan of 1,800,000,000 pesetas, to cover the privileged 6 per cent debt and the floating debt, and asked discretionary power to effect an arrangement with the Spanish and foreign holders for the conversion of the consolidated debt. The provisional understanding arrived at in 1876 secured to the creditors 1 per cent interest to January 1, 1882, and after that date 1J per cent. Comacho's project was to con- vert the loans into 4 per cent bonds, scaling down the capital so as to secure the creditors 1-62^ or 1-65 per cent instead of T25 per cent interest on the face value of the existing bonds. He negotiated at once with the domestic cred- itors, and came to terms in the beginning of February on a smaller reduction. The com- promise secures the bondholders If per cent per annum on the old bonds converted into 4 per cent new bonds, but the arrangement does not go into effect until July 1, 1883. The French and Dutch bondholders agreed to the same terms, but the English refused to accept the commutation. In the interval they receive 1£ per cent. The foreign creditors were treated with on the same basis. This arrangement adds 43,000,000 pesetas to the annual burden of taxation. The augmentation of the army and navy, on which the King and his Govern- ment were determined, increases the amount of extra taxation to sixty or seventy millions. Comacho met with difficulties on every side in attempting to carry out his comprehensive schemes for obtaining the necessary increase in the revenue. The main feature in the new financial policy was the reform of the tariff in the direction of free trade, which had been impending since Sagasta came into power, and was now to be applied in a sweeping manner in the new com- mercial treaty with France. The people of Catalonia are an excitable race, thoroughly imbued with federalistic sentiments. The tu- multuous populace of Barcelona, and the other factory towns, were already embittered by the octroi regulations. The manufacturers, to pro- voke disturbances and coerce the Government to preserve their monopoly of the domestic woolen and cotton goods market, suddenly closed their workshops. The Conservatives, who always supported protectionist doctrines, encouraged the belief that the French treaty would take the bread out of the mouths of the working-people. The Socialists, who can mus- ter an army of adherents among the operatives of Catalonia, and who in Spain combine the national tendency to revolutionary methods with the violent doctrines of anarchism, joined the cry, in the hope of turning the movement in a social-revolutionary direction. These va- rious incitements produced symptoms of an in- surrection in May. Mobs congregated in the streets and squares of Barcelona. They de- stroyed the octroi offices, and ordered stores and workshops to be closed where the pro- prietors had not followed the general example. Bands inarched through the country, proclaim- ing the independence of Catalonia. The Gov- ernment was prepared for the outbreak. The military force in the province was strongly re- enforced. Captain-General Blanco was ener- getic and active. The insurgents were met by troops wherever they appeared. In two weeks order was restored, and the proclamation of martial law recalled. The Liberal-Conservative opposition took a strong stand against the financial policy of the Ministry, so as to be ready to resume the reins of government if the Constitutional-Liberal Ministers failed in their difficult task. Orovio, Cos-Gayons, and the other former Finance Min- isters, opposed the composition of the creditors, on the ground that the country could not stand the additional burden. They hoped that the popular discontent over the new taxes would impel the King to dismiss the Cabinet and re- call his Conservative advisers. The Ministers, who had yielded somewhat in the matter of the taxes, insisted on carrying the French treaty without alteration. The Cortes reas- sembled on March 20th. The Conservatives, re-enforced by the Catalonian representatives, when the French treaty came up in the Cortes, tried to have it made terminable on one year's notice ; but it was passed, by a four-fifths ma- jority, in the Cortes, and went into force for the period of ten years, on May 15th. The arrangement for the conversion of the consoli- dated debt was ratified. The Government made important concessions to the protectionists in the final framing of the general tariff law, STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. 753 which was passed shortly before the close of the session, on July 7th. This law provides for the gradual reduction of all duties to 15 per cent as against countries allowing equal advantages in their commercial treaties with Spain, but allows retaliatory duties to be im- posed when another country raises its duties on Spanish products. All duties between 15 and 20 per cent will be reduced to 15 per cent. The excess over 15 per cent of duties above 20 per cent is divided into three parts, one part to be remitted immediately, one after the lapse of five, and one after ten years. The reduc- tions are made discretionary with the Govern- ment. The Ministry were deterred by the pro- tectionists from acceding to the demand of the representatives of the Antilles to have the priv- ileges secured by the oppressive, antiquated colonial system to the flag and products of the mother-country abolished. The postponement of this reform stands in the way of the conclu- sion of a reciprocity treaty with the United States, which is earnestly desired by the in- habitants of Cuba and Porto Rico. The ad- vantages in Cuba, which the shipping and the grain-growing and other agricultural interests in Spain adhere to, deter the American Con- gress from abating the sugar duties. The ques- tion of the wine duty in England prevents the conclusion of a satisfactory commercial treaty with Great Britain. Mr. Gladstone, who, for politico-commercial reasons, enforced by moral and sanitary arguments, secured a reduction of duty on the light wines of France, for fiscal reasons is unable to place wines of greater alcoholic strength on the same footing. The concessions which Comacho was obliged to make in the trade taxes, the octrois, and also in the patent duties, lessened the prospects for escaping the annual deficits while adding greatly to the expenditures. The reduction of the tariff is calculated to increase the revenue, by increasing imports and diminishing smug- fling ; but the slower the reform, the less the reasury is benefited. After the important step taken in the French treaty the Government halted in its course, allowing the treaties with Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, Portugal, Sweden and Norway, Denmark, Greece, Rus- sia, Turkey, and Switzerland to expire, and their commerce to come under the provisions of the general tariff, except in the case of Ger- many, and one or two other countries, where the treaty was prolonged until December 15th. The difficulty of the fiscal situation was en- hanced by bad harvests in Andalusia and other parts of Spain. While commanding the con- fidence of the King in their financial policy, and thus able to resist the assaults of the Con- servatives, an opposition was organized which threatens to unseat the Ministers. STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. The proceedings instituted against various persons charged with fraud in the conduct of the mail service of the United States on the "Star Routes" — or lines upon which the mail can not be carried by VOL. xxii. — 48 A railroad or steamboat — were continued during the year. (For their inception, see u Annual Cyclopedia" for 1881, article UNITED STATES.) Early in January, several persons were arrested and subsequently indicted for furnishing fraud- ulent bonds to accompany bids for mail ser- vice, or for becoming surety on such bonds, without possessing the necessary qualifications. In February, evidence in the case of what was known as the Dorsey combination was laid be- fore the Grand Jury of the District of Columbia by Mr. George Bliss, acting as special counsel for the Government. The alleged combination consisted of John W. Dorsey, John M. Peck, and John R. Miner, who had originally made the bids and obtained the contracts ; Harvey M. Vaile, to whom, as a sub-contractor, the routes were afterward transferred ; Stephen W. Dorsey, who was accused of having directed the course of the contractors, and aided them with his influence as a Senator ; M. C. Rer- dell, S. W. Dorsey's secretary, who was said to have been a supervising agent and manager for the combination in Washington; Thomas J. Brady, Second Assistant Postmaster-General, who had official direction and control of the star-route service ; and W. H. Turner, who was a clerk in the contract office, with control of the territorial routes under Brady. Mr. J. L. Sanderson, a contractor, was also included in this first indictment. The combination had originally 134 routes, upon which the compen- sation for service under the contracts amounted to $143,169. This was raised, by " increase and expedition " — that is, by increasing the number of trips to be made per week, shortening the time for each trip, and making allowances therefor — to $622,808. On twenty-six of the routes the increase of pay had been from $65,- 216 to $530,319. Upward of eighty witnesses were examined before the Grand Jury, and a presentment was made against the accused per sons on the 20th of February. Mr. W. W. Ker, of Philadelphia, was engaged by the Attorney- General to draft the indictment and otherwise assist in the prosecution of the case. The for- mal indictment was agreed to and brought into the Criminal Court of the District of Co- lumbia, before Judge Wylie, on the 4th of March. It was a voluminous document, and set forth the relations of the several parties to the mail service, and the facts in regard to the management of the routes, and alleged fraud in securing increase of compensation, and con- spiracy to defraud the Government on the part of the defendants. On the 9th of March, and two days following, most of the indicted persons appeared before the Court and gave bail for their appearance at the trial. The case came up for the arraignment on the 16th, but was postponed until the 25th. Motion was then made by the defense to quash the in- dictment, and after some argument a further postponement was had. On the 29th of March Mr. R. T. Merrick, of Washington, consented, at the request of the Attorney-General, to as- 754 STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. sist in the prosecution of the case as Govern- ment counsel. Argument was begun on the motion to quash the indictment on the 31st of March, the Government being represented by District Attorney Corkhill, Mr. Bliss, Mr. Ker, and Mr. Merrick, and the defense by Messrs. Ingersoll, Totten, Wilson, Shellabarger, Chandler, and others, and five hours were al- lowed to each side. The chief grounds on which it was claimed that the indictment should be quashed was that the defendants had not been bound over by a commission to await the action of the Grand Jury, and that the jury had found the indictments without having the cases properly brought before them by order of the Court. The motion was de- nied on the 10th of April, and the Court held that the indictment was good and sufficient. The defendants being then called upon to plead, Mr. Totten stated that he wished to file a plea in abatement on behalf of Brady and Turner, on the ground that persons other than the District Attorney had free access to the Grand Jury when the indictment was under consideration, and the jury was improperly influenced. On the following day, April llth, after hearing argument, the Court ruled that the proceedings of the Grand Jury room could not be inquired into. In closing his decision, Judge Wylie said : " The plea must be entered, or, if the defendants stand mute, the trial will pro- ceed under the terms of the law. The only objection, that some of the parties have been indicted under their initials instead of their full Christian names, is of no consequence now, and it can form the basis of a plea in abate- ment hereafter. My opinion is that the Grand Jury acted improperly, but that does not affect the indictment ; and I therefore decide that this plea in abatement is not allowable, and that the Court ought not to receive it." Some of the defendants refused to plead, but pleas of " Not guilty " were entered for all except S. W. Dorsey, who had failed to appear. His recog- nizance had been declared forfeit, and a war- rant issued for his arrest. On the 19th of April he appeared in court and pleaded " Not guilty," and the order for forfeiture of his bail was set aside. A motion on behalf of the defendants for a bill of particulars was denied on the 20th of April. Judge "Wylie said it was not necessary that an overt act should plainly appear in the indictment, if the existence of the conspiracy was established. It was, however, necessary to prove that one or more of the accused had com- mitted acts in furtherance of the conspiracy. He thought the indictment was faulty in not describing the alleged forged papers with suf- ficient fullness, but the question was whether there was not enough other evidence set forth to fulfill the requirements of the law. Re- dundancy in an indictment was not a fault, and if there was enough evidence of the commis- sion of overt acts to secure the conviction of one of the alleged conspirators without the admission of these papers, the indictment was good. On the 22d, the motion to quash the indictment as to Rerdell, on the ground that he had been indicted under his initials as M. C. Rerdell, instead of his full name as Mont- fort C. Rerdell, was granted. The Court held that all authorities were agreed, that when an indictment designated a man by initials only, without explanation, it was defective. If "it had declared that the name was unknown, or that the person was ordinarily known by cer- tain initials or abbreviations, it would have been sufficient. Rerdell was rearrested and brought before the police court on the 24th. On the preliminary trial there, which began on the 26th, ex-Attorney-General McVeagh and ex-Postmaster - General James testified that Rerdell had made a statement or con- fession to them, in which he said that he had been the manager for the Star Route combina- tion in behalf of S. W. Dorsey. No bids had been made in Dorsey's name because he was then a senator, but when he left the Senate a division of the routes was made. Rerdell said that he had kept a set of books which showed that certain payments had been entered under the names of Smith and Jones, which names represented Brady and Turner. Mr. James said that Rerdell had told him that Brady re- ceived either 33£ or 40 per cent of the extra compensation when increase or expedition was granted, and that one half the fines remitted had to be paid to him. Rerdell was further said to have declared that when the congres- sional investigation was made, and a call for the books was anticipated, a complete new set had been made by him to prevent the discov- ery of these payments. It was said that Dor- sey regained his influence over Rerdell, and induced him to retract the so-called confession. The time set for the trial was May 4th, but on that day further motions to quash the in- dictment were made in behalf of Brady and Turner, on the ground that they held official positions and acted on their discretion, and that they were improperly joined with the others. Judge Wylie held that a conspiracy was a single crime, and that all engaged in it were on the same footing without regard to the official relations of some of them. J. W. Dor- sey was not in court, and his counsel was somewhat warmly accused of violating a pledge to secure his presence whenever the trial was to take place. In consequence of his absence an adjournment was taken to the 16th, when he appeared, and gave bail. At that time counsel for the Government announced that they had concluded, instead of having Rerdell reindicted separately, to get a new indictment against all the alleged conspirators ; otherwise they might be compelled to have two trials, going over practically the same ground. On account of this determination there was a further postponement until May 25th, to await the action of the Grand Jury. The trial of Rerdell in the police court was also suspended. STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. 755 On the 20th, the new indictment was pre- sented. The name of Sanderson was omitted, the date of the conspiracy was changed, new allegations of overt acts were introduced, and other supposed defects of the old indictment were remedied. Efforts were made on the part of the defense to have the new indictment quashed on much the same grounds as those on which the former one had been attacked, but it was sustained, and the trial peremptorily set down for June 1st. In rendering his decision, Judge Wylie said : This was the third, or perhaps the fourth, time he had been called upon to pass upon the sufficiency of this indictment, or the other, which was substantially the same. The indictment seemed to be very ex- plicit. It detailed the duties of the officers of the Posfr-Office Department. Twenty-two contracts were specified in it as forming a basis tor action against the defendants. It charged that the second assistant postmaster-general, the chief clerk, Turner, and the contractors had entered into a conspiracy to defraud the Government. It was a conspiracy of the most aggravated description. The date alleged was May 27, 1879. The means— the false papers— were al- leged ; the object — to obtain money illegally from the Treasury — was set forth. The present law required the conspiracy to be accompanied by the commission of overt acts. There were 36 such overt acts set forth in the indictment. After a critical test, only one or two had been found insufficiently denned. He did not know that the Government would ever be able to make out a conspiracy, but he was bound by the facts presented. He took it that every word in the indictment was true. He could not, from his own knowledge, say the amounts paid were not ex- cessive, but was bound to accept the averment con- tained in the indictment to that effect. As far as the forged papers were concerned, in his opinion any paper calculated to impose upon and influence im- properly the postmaster-general was illegal. The de- fense said they had a right to know under what stat- ute they were being proceeded against. " They have that right," said Judge Wylie, and he proceeded to read section 5,440, Ee vised Statutes. " There are sev- eral other statutes that would apply. Any one of them would answer." Turner, perhaps, did not make as conspicuous a figure as some others in the con- spiracy, but in his position he was a necessity to the success of the conspiracy. This fact, and the addi- tional one that no overt acts were alleged against him, had been made the basis of his counsel's argument. But he may have been as guilty as any in the con- spiracy, ana for the present ne would hold that Turn- er had been amply connected with the conspiracy. Although not present at all, one may be bound by the acts of a fellow-conspirator where the conspiracy is concerned. " God knows," said Judge Wylie, " it would be a horrible state of society if a criminal could escape when brought before a court by denouncing the law." On the 1st of June, the day set for the trial, there was a panel of twenty-six petit jurors in attendance, and during their preliminary ex- amination the question was raised as to the number of peremptory challenges to which each side was entitled. It was contended, on the part of the prosecution, that each side was entitled to three challenges, and no more ; while counsel for the defense claimed that the Government was entitled to none at all, while each of the defendants was entitled to four. A conflict between the General Statutes of the United States and those relating to the District of Columbia in this respect gave rise to elaborate arguments on this point, and the Court finally decided that the Government should have three challenges, and each of the defendants four. In the process of obtaining a jury the prosecution had exhausted its right of challenge when five men were placed in the box, while the defense had used only fourteen of its twenty-eight challenges when the jury was complete. The panel was exhausted, and four talesmen were called by the marshal ; but there was no delay in obtaining a jury. It was made up as follows : Foreman, William Dick- son, real estate and claim agent ; Matthew Mc- Nelly, shoe-dealer; John B. McCarthy, printer ; Edwin J. McLain, lawyer; William K. Brown, teacher ; Edwin D. Doniphan, shoe-maker ; Henry A. Olcott, livery-stable clerk ; William Holmead, grocer ; Thomas Martin, barber ; George W. Cox, dealer in gentlemen's furnish- ing goods ; Hugh T. Murray, clerk ; Zachariah Tobriner, broker. Of these, Brown and Mar- tin were colored. In asking the judge to warn the jury against talking with other persons about the case or reading the comments of the newspapers, Mr. Merrick, in behalf of the Gov- ernment, reminded the Court that certain jour- nals in the interest of the accused were wont to abuse everybody connected with the prosecu- tion, and. had even attacked the judge himself. " After this case has been tried," said Judge Wylie, " I will direct the attention of the Grand Jury to these publications." This remark led Colonel Totten to rise and declare that when the newspaper business should be ventilated, the defense would be on hand and pay atten- tion to the papers all over the country which had vilified their clients and manufactured pub- lic opinion against them. The opening of the case on the part of the Government was made by Mr. George Bliss, who began his address on the 2d of June and completed it on the 5th. He went over the allegations of the indictment with regard to the nineteen routes, and made explanations tending to show conspiracy and fraud, and promised to substantiate these by evidence. The opening for the defense was made by Judge Jeremiah Wilson, one of the three law- yers directly representing Brady and Turner, and Judge McS weeny, of Ohio, who was of counsel for the Dorseys. This occupied the 6th, 7th, and 8th, though on the^ latter day a beginning was made in the taking of testi- mony. On the same day the judge took occa- sion to remark upon certain references which had been made in the newspapers to the jury, especially as to the manner of selecting the last two jurors from talesmen called by the marshal. After speaking of the facts, Judge Wylie said : I have seen so much injustice done to jurors and to litigants, and to courts who are engaged in the admin- istration of justice, that I feel called upon in this case to declare that these charges, in my opinion, are with- out foundation. These flying rumors are calculated to do great harm. There is a law which subjects par- 756 STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. ties to prosecution for libel in consequence of articles published, the effect of which is to obstruct the admin- istration of justice, and I do think it will be the duty of the District Attorney to call the attention of the Grand Jury to some of these newspapers, and see if we can't have justice administered fairly, according to law, without having jurors disparaged and misrep- resented on mere conjecture or fancy ; and I trust that the jurors in this case will see the propriety of guard- ing their own conduct while the cause is pending, so as not to subject themselves to good grounds of suspi- cion, or even to the appearance of improper conduct. I will only lose faith in the jury when driven to by something more than newspaper articles. Gentlemen of the jury, your position is one of much delicacy. Don't allow any person to approach you or to suggest their own views, or make any intimation whatever, whether they are connected with the trial of this cause or appear to be unconnected with it. You don't know what motives may influence suggestions from persons outside. Keep your own counsel, follow your own judgment and conscience. Keep yourselves un- contaminated by the world outside. An attempt was made, on the 9th, to introduce the evidence regarding the statement or " con- fession " of Rerdell, which had in substance been given in the police court by ex- Attorney-Gen- eral McVeagh, ex-Postmaster-General James, and Inspector Woodward. This was objected to, and after a controversy between counsel it was barred out as incompetent until the exist- ence of a conspiracy should be shown by other evidence. The Court said that conspiracy was a crime which required more than one partici- pant. The rule of evidence was, that no one person's confession could be used to convict another. The other rule was, that, before bind- ing one conspirator by the statements of an- other, there must be an agency shown. In this matter the conspiracy was the offense. In mur- der it is the death, and if a man should confess to having murdered another, it would not bind him. It must be first shown that the man was dead, or that there was a reasonable probabil- ity of his death. He was of opinion that the evidence was not admissible at this stage. As to the assertion of the prosecution, that the jury must determine when the evidence was sufficient to prove the existence of the conspir- acy, it was, he believed, wrong in principle, and in his opinion the matter is entirely within the judgment of the Court. When he was sat- isfied from the evidence of the existence of a conspiracy, he would allow this testimony to be introduced. After reading several authori- ties, Judge Wylie concluded by saying that a person could only convict himself by a confes- sion, and could not even do that until the crime was first made out. As the trial proceeded, it was evident, from the efforts of the counsel for the defense to ex- clude testimony, that it was their purpose to confine and restrict the admission of evidence as closely as possible. Very many of their ob- jections were overruled, and exceptions were noted. The evidence related to the methods of the Contract Bureau, to the facts concerning the routes, the methods of service, its require- ments, etc., in great detail. In overruling the objections of the defense to the evidence of some of the drivers and sub-contractors, which was intended to show the fraudulent character of the petitions and affidavits of contractors, the Court said : Now, the Government in this case has undertaken a mighty task. It has combined some seven or eight defendants in one conspiracy, and it has charged that the subjects of the conspiracy were nineteen different contracts and sub-contracts, and it has undertaken to make out its case against all these defendants under this combination of contracts and sub-contracts, and under charges specially setting forth the overt acts done by the conspirators and through the medium of the Post-Offlce Department and the Treasury Depart- ment, and it is a scheme of the most comprehensive character, and one which it is called to establish. That is all. But the Court, in looking at the offer of evidence in any particular case, must regard the evi- dence in relation to the comprehensiveness of this in- dictment and of the scheme of the prosecution. It is necessary that there should be a conspiracy. If the conspiracy be established, as charged in this indict- ment, then it comprehends all these nineteen or twenty different contracts and the service under those con- tracts. From the relation of the conspiracy those con- tracts become blended. They are put into the con- cern as constituting one capital. The law in regard to the overt act, in pursuance of the conspiracy, re- quires one overt act. And one overt act by any one of the conspirators is enough for the purpose of the prosecution. The conspiracy must be made out. A conspiracy is different from a combination in this, that the conspiracy must have a corrupt character. A combination or a partnership is lawful. If all these parties had entered into a combination, each one to put in his contract or his sub-contract as his contri- bution to the common capital, with a view of dividing the profits, that would have been perfectly lawful. There would be nothing wrong in that, either morally or in the eye of the law. That would not, of course, be the subject of a criminal prosecution. It was neces- sary, therefore, not only that there should be a com- bination, but that there should be an evil combination — that is, a conspiracy with an evil purpose. It is not required that the indictment, in charging the evil pur- pose, shall set out the specific act to be proved. It is necessary that the indictment snail contain some aver- ment to change the lawful combination into an un- lawful conspiracy, and that is done when the indict- ment charges the combination first, and then charges that it was done for the purpose of committing a fraud upon the Government by means of false petitions, false papers, false affidavits, and so on. ... In my view the conspiracy has not yet been made out. We are going along in that direction, but with what suc- cess for the Government, or with what failure for the Government, the future alone will be able to disclose. For the present, regarding the evidence as respects this route as tending to show that there was a fraud on the part of one of these defendants alleged to be a member of the conspiracy, that there was a fraud con- templated by him in his conduct of that route, for which he was the contractor, and in contemplation of the future progress of this cause, in which the Gov- ernment will be required to show that this fraud was put in as a part of the common capital stock of this concern, I shall allow the evidence to go in. Objection to testimony regarding the details of service on different routes was subsequently strongly urged. It was contended that the in- quiry could not go beyond the papers and al- leged fraudulent petitions on which the second assistant postmaster- general had granted his orders. The judge, in overruling the objection, said : " A conspiracy may be made out by many minute circumstances. If they are numerous enough and significant enough they may amount STAB-ROUTE TRIAL. 757 to proof." The indictment had charged, he continued, that the object of the conspiracy had been to get through General Brady, by many means, money not earned. The peti- tions might all be genuine, but they were only a part of the means, and the Government could support the charge by other evidence in accord- ance with the provisions of the indictment. This decision let in the testimony of mail-car- riers and others on the routes. In ruling out the records of the Inspection Division in re- gard to fines on the 27th of June, Judge Wylie remarked that he had seen in this case a great many petitions from men of the highest stand- ing in the country, asking for increase or ex- pedition on these routes. On the face of these papers he could not see anything calling for the condemnation of Brady because he had com- plied with the petitions. Brady was not ex- pected to go over the routes, but must act on the petitions. "You have not," he said, " brought home to him any facts showing that, in ordering expedition, he acted from improper motives, for he is backed by these petitions, and the recommendations of men of high standing acquainted with the country and its develop- ment. If I can see anything in the evidence to bring home to him a reasonably strong sus- picion of improper motives, I will not hesitate to go into this further ; but no evidence of this kind has been offered, and the contracts seem to be sustained by the petitions, which justify him. Am I to allow the time of the Court to be taken up with an investigation of fines and remissions? I shall exclude this evidence at present." Afterward he declared that the Government had impeached Brady in the in- dictment and by speeches, but not by evidence thus far. In reply to Mr. Merrick's suggestion about protests from postmasters and others, the judge said: "If a postmaster complains or protests to the department after an order has baen made, is the second assistant to trust him against all the petitions and recommendations on which he acted, and break up the arrange- ment on that account? " An episode which attracted some attention occurred early in July. The Grand Jury had been previously dismissed until October, but on the 7th of July an order was signed direct- ing it to reconvene on the following Monday. This action was taken in consequence of the fol- lowing request from District Attorney Cork- hill : " In view of exigencies which have arisen, I have to request that an order be issued di- recting the grand jurors to convene at as early a day next week as possible. This request is made because of information received from Messrs. Bliss, Merrick, and Ker, representing the Government as special counsel, that mat- ters have recently come to their knowledge which require the organization of the Grand Jury at an early day, in order to prevent cer- tain prosecutions, which it is their duty to in- stitute, from being barred out by the Statute of Limitations. I am led to believe that the matter referred to will not occupy the attention of the Grand Jury more than a couple of days." The purpose of calling together the Grand Jury was to lay before it evidence regarding the San Antonio & Corpus Christi route in Texas, upon which J. B. Price was the con- tractor. This evidence was to be given chiefly by John A. Walsh, formerly a banker in Wash- ington, and was expected to implicate Senator Kellogg, of Louisiana, in the alleged frauds. The Grand Jury received the instruction of the Court on tha 12th of July, and proceeded to listen to the proffered testimony. Shortly after retiring they reappeared, and inquired if the jury had discretionary powers as to allow- ing the prosecuting officer of the Government to be present. The judge replied that the jury could not exclude him ; he had a right to be present, if he desired, while witnesses were un- der examination, but not when the members of the jury consulted among themselves. The foreman asked if the prosecuting officer had a right to be present during the entire time of the examination, and received an affirmative answer. On the following day the Grand Jury reported that they found no ground for any new indictment, and were dismissed. Mr. Walsh thereupon caused to be published the substance of his testimony, and claimed that the Grand Jury had been improperly influenced to ignore the charges laid before them. On the 17th of July, Senator Kellogg published the following explanation : With reference to the interviews published in two New York journals this morning, in which John A. Walsh attempts to connect me with the Star Koute cases, I have only this to say : The Grand Jury of the District of Columbia, composed of twenty-three of the best citizens of Washington (the majority of whom are opposed to me politically), last week carefully and thoroughly examined the checks, etc., in Walsh's possession, and heard all he had to say which tended in any way to connect me with the Star Eoute cases. I understand that every member of that jury exoner- ated me from any complicity with these cases. The statements of Walsh are composed of truth and false- hood, which are so skillfully woven together^ as to create an impression unfavorable to me. It is true that 1 had the misfortune to have some business rela- tions with Walsh in his capacity of banker. I am sure that if the testimony of Walsh before the Grand Jury were given to the public as it was given to the Grand Jury, the public could not resist reaching the same conclusion that the Grand Jury reached. The purpose of Walsh, evidently, in making a public statement, is to place himself in a better light before the public than that in which the Grand Jurjr left him when they came into court and said by their action that his testimony was not worthy of belief. The action of the Grand Jury relieves me of the necessity of replying to Walsh's statements in detail. If I deemed it necessary, I could readily and satisfactorily explain how Walsh came into possession of the checks referred to by him. I am confident, however, that the public are satisfied that the Grand Jury found that the possession of these checks by Walsh did not result from any illegitimate or dishonorable business transaction on my part. The whole matter having been settled by the legally constituted authorities, I do not propose now to discuss it in the newspapers. If, however, when the Grand Jury again meet, they desire to institute an inquiry as to whether Walsh has been guilty of perjury in stating that he divided the 758 STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. proceeds of the postal draft referred to by him between myself and Mr. Brady, or in making other statements affecting me, I shall hold myself ready to go before them for examination. W. P. KELLOGG. About the same time an agreement was made between representatives of the Government and what was known as the Salisbury and Parker combination to submit to arbitration the questions involved in charges against those contractors. The Board of Arbitration was to consist of the second assistant postmaster-gen- eral, Mr. Elmer, one of the counsel for the prosecution in the Star Route cases, or a per- son named by him, and Robert G. Ingersoll, of counsel for the defense, or a person named by him. The next question of importance to come up in the trial of Brady and others was that of admitting the testimony of Mr. John A. Walsh, who was called as a witness on the 18th of July. Counsel for the Government stated that it was intended to prove by him " that at about the same time when the routes mentioned in this indictment were increased and expedited, Brady had ordered increase and expedition on other routes, including the one held by Mr. Walsh ; that Brady said to Walsh that when contractors got such expedition they paid him 20 per cent for the order ; that he said to ex- act such a percentage was his invariable prac- tice in such cases ; that he said this was well known among contractors ; that, having ordered expedition on Walsh's route, Brady claimed that Walsh owed him 20 per cent ; that he said to Walsh that Walsh must have understood this, and that if he did not understand it he must be a fool ; that he said he (Brady) did not expedite routes for fun ; that Walsh must pay as others paid ; that Brady made a calcu- lation, and said that there was due him from Walsh more than $30,000, and that he took up from the table the promissory notes he had given Walsh for his loans and put them in his pocket, saying that these had been a mere form, and that Brady had also told Walsh that the petitions were only a matter of form, to serve as an excuse for the orders made by him." The admission of this evidence was strenu- ously resisted, but Judge Wylie decided to ad- mit it. In rendering his decision on the 20th of July, he began with the statement that the question of the admission of this evidence was one of great difficulty and of importance to the case. He acknowledged that at the open- ing of the case he had believed that the decla- ration of one of the defendants could not be re- ceived until it had been shown that the decla- ration had been made in the furtherance of the conspiracy. But in this offense the authorities all lay down the rule that it might be proved by evidence of distinct, separate acts done by the different conspirators, and the law allows all of their acts, even declarations, to be proved if they are connected with the case. If they go toward making up the entire proof in their collective form, their admission is not irregu- lar, and the law allows of their being proved. Now, as regards the declarations or admissions of the several parties, of course they are not evidence against the other parties unless they have been done in the furtherance of the ob- jects of the conspiracy. But the evidence now offered for the Government was not for the purpose of showing criminal intent on the part of the other defendants. If the admis- sions of one party could be received against himself, the admissions of all could likewise be received. Greenleaf's rule, Judge Wylie said, was that the evidence against individuals could be received even though it was a joint suit. While all of the text-books were very emphatic in excluding the declaration of one defendant so far as it applied to others, they were all careful to make the reservation that it could be received against himself alone. So he was of opinion that the evidence offered was admissible. But as to the offer, it went to show only that Brady was in the habit of extorting and receiving money from parties. Now it seemed by no means a strained con- struction, that if the facts set out in the offer were testified to and believed, it would show that there was a corrupt administration of the affairs of the department. It would, however, depend greatly upon the amount of credit the jury would be willing to attach to this evi- dence, but upon its face the Court regarded it as pertinent to the case, and would admit it. After Walsh's testimony was completed, an offer was again made to prove the confession of Rerdell through certain witnesses, including ex- Attorney-General McVeagh and ex-Post- master-General James. On the question of the competency of this evidence, Judge Wylie made a ruling on the 24th of July, concluding as follows : It is very true that no extra-judicial admission is sufficient to establish what is called the corpus delicti, and that rule applies as well to a case of conspiracy as to any other criminal prosecution. A man can not be convicted of murder on his admission. It must be proved that there was a dead body, that a man was killed, and then his admission will be taken as very strong evidence against him. In regard to conspir- acy, the corpus delicti is the combination of the par- ties, not the criminal combination of the parties any more in the case of conspiracy than in the case of murder, because finding a man dead does not prove that anybody has committed a crime. In conspiracy, combination takes the place of death in the case of murder. The combination is the corpus delicti. The confessions of the parties may show the criminal char- acter of the combination, just as, in the case of death, the confession of the man charged will convert the death into a murder. It i^ not murder because the man is dead. So in conspiracy : the combination is not conspiracy until the fraud upon the part of the combiners, the members of the combination, is estab- lished. And I think, having shown the combination between the parties with a view to obtaining money from the Government under these contracts, that is the corpus delicti in this case. The criminal purpose is another thing. That may be established by the acts of the several parties, or by their several decla- rations. It is unquestionably the law, whatever dicta you may bring from books, that in a trial for conspir- acy the charge may be made out by proving the acts STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. 759 of one of the conspirators at this point and at this time ; by another of the conspirators at another place and at another time ; by a third at another place and at another time, all having connection with the same subject. I think that no Court would venture to de- cide otherwise. The law is too well settled in regard to that. If, then, a man's act at one time, alone, dis- tinct from others, another man's act at another time and distinct from all others, and a third one's acts at another time and distinct from all others, may be given in evidence for the purpose of weaving together the joint offense of conspiracy, then why should not the several declarations of these parties ? I recognize fully the well-established point that no act of a con- spirator can be given in evidence to charge his co-con- spirators, unless that act was an act done in further- ance of the common object. That rule springs out of the law of agency. Unless a man is authorized to bind his fellow, his acts can bind nobody but himself. But if there be a joint partnership in civil matters or a criminal combination in offenses, there is a common partnership between them for the purpose of the com- bination, and they are each partners of the other in regard to that, so that the acts and declarations in furtherance of the common object will bind not only themselves, but bind their fellows. But when a com- bination, that is, the corpus delicti, has been shown, then I think the criminal character of that combina- tion may be established by the several acts of the par- ties hi the combination, each one, to be sure, bound only by his own declarations^ or acts. It is somewhat inconsistent, and it is very difficult sometimes to con- fine a piece of evidence to its legitimate purpose. After the purpose of the conspiracy has closed and the conspiracy is scattered, the members have no agency from each other, so that their acts bind nobody but themselves severally. But I do not know any authority, none has ever been brought to my atten- tion, to the effect that after the corpus delicti has been shown, a man is not able to bind himself by his own confession. If one man in the combination can bind himself, each of the others can ; and if they all con- fess, the combination is then proved to be a conspir- acy, a criminal offense in contemplation of law. Now, as I said before, there are combinations that are law- ful and there are combinations that are criminal. In the present case, it can not be denied that the evi- dence already before the Court is sufficient to show that these several contractors had intimate mutual re- lations and interests between themselves in these sev- eral contracts. It can not be denied that there is evi- dence, and a good deal of it, tending to show, and tending strongly to show, that there was a great abuse of discretion an'd power on the part of the second as- sistant postmaster-general in regard to these orders for expedition. Here is a combination in business ; in intimate relations in business ; money paid to enor- mous amounts without really any adequate returns to the Government ; money paid by the second assist- ant postmaster-general " to these parties ; contracts entered into for service at one day in the week and then suddenly, in a very brief period, without appar- ently a motive in the world^ increased to seven times as much, and that seven times service doubled by three or four times expedition of the whole, so that a small contract for $2,300, or something like that, would run up to $50,000, or $60,000, or $70,000. Well, now. these are things that are not to be whis- tled out of sight. They are not to be pooh-poohed away by a breath of one's mouth. Here are facts, in my opinion, going to establish what is called the cor- pus delicti. All that is needed to make, in my judg- ment, the charge criminal conspiracy, is the corrupt motive : and, as in the case of murder — the case of homicide, rather— the case of death, the death itself may be perfectly innocent, produced by nobody from any criminal cause in the world, but it may become criminal, and in the highest degree criminal, by a con- fession. The confession becomes united with the death, which was before innocent in the eye of the law, and converts it into & murder ; and so here, all this combination between these parties may have been an innocent combination with a lawful purpose. Men have a right to make money. They, in general, have a right to make the best contracts they can get in making contracts of that character, especially with the Government of the United States. It is a com- mon trade. So, although all this combination, all this arrangement, may be innocent enough, yet it may be suddenly converted by the acknowledgments of the parties into a crime, because of the criminal purpose with which it is accompanied and the fraud- ulent means with which it was carried into effect. The evidence for the prosecution was closed on the 28th of July. Among the witnesses who had been summoned was ex -Senator Spencer, of Alabama. Mr. Spencer was at one time in Washington during the trial, but when called did not appear. It proved that he had gone to the West, and, although he was hi the employment of the Government as a commissioner of Pacific railroads, his attendance was not secured, and his where- abouts were said to be unknown. The evi- dence for the defense was begun on the 31st of July. The first witnesses were senators and others, who had joined in petitions, or made recommendations of an increase or ex- pedition of service. An effort was also made to show the policy of the Post-Office Depart- ment in maintaining a liberal mail service, to assist in the development of newly-settled dis- tricts, but the evidence for this purpose, in- cluding that of ex-Postmaster-General D. M. Key, was excluded. In ruling out this testi- mony Judge Wylie said : " This Court is not going to sit, and is not now sitting, to decide a nice question of policy. We are engaged in trying a crime against the Government and laws of the United States. The Court knows no policy for the Government except such as is set out in the law, and no offender against the Jaw can screen himself by produc- ing postmaster - generals or senators or rep- resentatives who urged a certain policy upon him. He had the right under the law to ex- pedite. He had the right under the law to increase the service. The policy of the Gov- ernment is to be found in the laws, and to be measured by its law ; not otherwise. The Su- preme Court of the United States has decided that in the interpretation of the laws you can not look to the debates in Congress. They say that the policy of the Government is expressed in its laws, and the laws are not to be inter- preted even by the debates that took place on their passage. It was said that this policy was the policy adopted by the second assistant postmaster-general under certain advice, and that it was a right policy. Well, suppose it was right : suppose he had the power to adopt this policy, and the policy was correct in prin- ciple : what does that tend to do in this case ? What influence has that upon this case ? Why, Lord Bacon defended himself against the charge of bribery by saying that his decisions were right. He took bribes for deciding cor- rectly, but he was properly convicted of brib- ery, and stripped of his gown and reduced to 760 STAR-EOUTE TRIAL. disgrace. Well, suppose that this policy was right. Admit that it was right. We are not trying a question of policy. We are trying a question of crime. And suppose that the of- fense charged in this indictment is neverthe- less made out, what becomes of your policy ? The policy passes for nothing, no more than the correctness of Bacon's decisions could be a shield against the charge of bribery. It is not the policy we are inquiring about; it is the charge of corrupt conspiracy for the purpose of establishing those routes, or rather for the purpose of expediting and increasing the ser- vice." The only one of the accused placed upon the witness-stand was Harvey M. Vaile, whose in- terest in the contracts was first acquired in August, 1878, and the testimony for the de- fense closed on the 7th of August. One day was occupied with rebutting testimony, at the close of which Mr. Bliss presented an affidavit with reference to the witness Spencer, cover- ing a statement of the efforts to secure his at- tendance, and the facts which it was expected to prove by him. In this it was said that Spencer could testify that on one occasion he was present in the room of the defendant, S. W. Dorsey, when the latter took from his pocket and placed in an envelope six bills of $1,000 each, and laid the envelope with the bills in it on the table, telling him he expected the defendant, Thomas J. Brady, to call in a short time, and he wished to show him (Spencer) what sort of a man Brady was, and how he (Dorsey) did business , that in a short time Brady called, and that, after a few mo- ments of casual conversation, Dorsey told him that some one had left an envelope for him, and that Brady took the aforesaid envelope, put it in his pocket without opening it, and soon afterward left, carrying it with him ; that prior to that time, and when speaking of Brady's calling, the said Dorsey had stated that Brady was a thief, and had further said that he (Dorsey) was interested in mail con- tracts; and it was further stated, on informa- tion and belief, that Spencer could testify that, at a time subsequent to the conversation, Stephen W. Dorsey came to the room of said Spencer, in the Everett House of New York, in great trouble and despondency, and stated to him (Spencer) that his clerk had " gone back on him," and had "given away" the whole story, and had betrayed the whole busi- ness, with more to that effect ; and that some days later the said Dorsey stated to said Spencer that the matter had all been fixed up ; that Mr. James W. Bosler had sat up with the said clerk all night, and had finally succeeded in persuad- ing him to make an affidavit denying his ori- ginal statement. A counter affidavit was filed by Mr. Inger- soll, denying the allegations of Mr. Bliss's statement. A sworn denial was also made by General Brady, and filed by the defense. The summing up on the part of the prosecution was begun on the 9th of August, by Mr. Ker, who occupied three days in addressing the jury and bringing together the facts, as he claimed they had been proved by the evidence produced. The first address for the defendants was made by Mr. R. B. Carpenter, who began on the 14th and concluded on the 15th, and was followed immediately by Mr. R. T. Mer- rick for the Government. Mr. Merrick ad- mitted that the case had not been proved as to Turner, but claimed that all the other in- dicted persons, save Peck, who was dead, had been proved guilty of the crime charged. He was followed by Mr. Chandler for the accused. In the course of his address a colloquy oc- curred between counsel and the Court as to the necessity of convicting all or none of the defendants. Judge Wylie stated, without mak- ing any formal ruling, that " so long as there are two to be convicted, the Government may fail as to all the others. If the jury are satisfied that two are conspirators, a conviction is prop- er, though the charge in the indictment was against them and many others." The address of Mr. Chandler was completed on the 17th of August, and the argument for the prosecution was taken up by Mr. Bliss and continued for the greater part of two days. On the 21st, Mr. Williams and Mr. Totten addressed the jury for the defense, and were followed the next day by Mr. McSweeny on the same side. He occupied two days, when Mr. Merrick again took up the case on behalf of the prosecution, and summed up the evidence in an address, which covered three days of the sessions of the court. He was followed by Mr. Wilson and Mr. Henkle for the defense. The latter, who was counsel specially for Mr. Vaile, oc- cupied nearly three days, and concluded on the 4th of September. On the last of these days he was somewhat sternly checked by the Court for persistently attempting to com- ment upon what ex-Postmaster-General Key might have testified to. Mr, Henkle was fol- lowed by Mr. Ingersoll, who occupied part of two days. The closing address for the Gov- ernment was made by Attorney-General Brew- ster, who began on the 6th and concluded on the 7th of September. At the close of the session on the latter day, Judge Wylie, after arranging for the presentation of the prayers of counsel as to the points of the charge to the jury, made the following statement : Several of the members of the jury have come to me with the information that they have been ap- proached with propositions most manifestly of a cor- rupt kind. The first intimation I had of this kind was several weeks ago. Several more 1 can not call them intimations, they are square and direct in- formations given to me privately for the purpose of asking me what they (the jurors) should do. My advice was to say nothing about it. The Court did not want to interrupt the progress of the arguments of the case by any such side question as this. But I ad- vised them to be careful. This thing has grown, and within the last twenty-four hours it seems that these wolves, which have been around this jury, have be- come fiercer, more determined. I felt so much indig- STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. 761 nation that I was almost ready to advise the jurymen to shoot the men on the spot. That is the way I felt about it, but I gave no opinion. But villainy of this kind, scoundrehsm of this degree, deserves no mercy. I do not say in what interest these suggestions have been made— I do not want to convey any information on that subject — but J want to advise this jury to re- pel with scorn and indignation any base attempt of this character on their virtue and integrity. The in- sult is of the last intensity, and I do hope that when we get through this trial fairly you may have infor- mation enougli to enable the Court to lay its hands on men of this kind — on these men who have approached you in this way. I have called your attention to this subject with another view— to give a warning to men of this kind of what they are about, and that the offi- cers of the law will do their duty. If it is possible to ferret out these scoundrels, it shall be done. Give them no quarter. Spurn them with the end of your toes. No baser vermin infest the earth than men en- gaged in this kind of business, and the insult to you is that they suppose that you are just as base, just as low, as they are themselves. No man should allow a whisper of this kind to be made to him without spurn-: ing it with the utmost scorn and contempt, if he goes no further. I do not advise violence at any time. Of course I do not. But next to the insult that is given to a man's wife is an insult of this kind to a juror. His honor should be as sacred and as carefully guarded as he would guard the honor of his wife. Having said this much collaterally at this point, we can now take a recess. Protests were made by counsel of a desire to have the subject thoroughly looked into. The case was submitted to the jury on the 8th of September. In his charge to the jury, Judge Wylie spoke as follows regarding the features of the indictment and the necessities of proof under it : This indictment may be said to have five features. The first is the historical part of the indictment. The second charges a conspiracy. The third describes the overt acts alleged to have been committed in pursu- ance of the conspiracy. The fourth alleges the overt acts. The fifth charges the partition of money alleged to have been fraudulently taken from the Government of the United States. As to the historical part, we know all about that, because it is found in the acts of Congress establishing the Post-Office Department. You need trouble yourself in no respect in regard to that. As to the means used in carrying out the con- spiracy, you need trouble yourselves nothing about them. Whether they are properly described or not in the indictment, is of no consequence in this trial. As to the distribution of the money, that is a matter that will be determined by your finding on the ques- tion of conspiracy and the overt act. If you find the conspiracy, the distribution of the money follows. You can not find the existence of this conspiracy as charged in this indictment without finding that the conspiracy was for the purpose of dividing the money among themselves and of defrauding the United States. So, if you find the conspiracy, you find the truth of this part of the indictment. In fact, the only con- sideration about which the jury need concern them- selves in their deliberations is whether there was a conspiracy, followed by overt acts. It has never been held on the trial of an indictment for conspiracy, that the Government was bound to prove the exact means described in the indictment. So, when the indict- ment declares that there are several contractors having nineteen different contracts, and that they were mu- tually interested in the contracts, that is a matter of historical detail or description, or means not entering at all into the charge of conspiracy. Whether these parties were mutually interested in the several con- tracts or not, is of, no consequence. The conspiracy did not give them a common interest in those con- tracts, but it was a conspiracy in regard to those aev- . eral contracts. The parties remain several owners in their own contracts, but bound together by the tie of the conspiracy, and it was in that view that the Court held that an overt act, done under one of those contracts, was an overt act as to them all, because they were all a common subject of conspiracy. ... It is in your power to acquit every man of these de- fendants, except two, and find them guilty. It fur- ther follows that if you should acquit one of these conspirators, and the overt act was his, and there were no other overt acts in the case, you can not convict any of them. The defense claims that the conspiracy must be made out as to all these con- tracts, and that unless the conspiracy is established under each of the contracts there must be an acquittal of all of the defendants. That is not so. If you should be of opinion that there was a conspiracy between the defendants, though relating to but one of the contracts, that will sustain the indictment. These matters are the means and instruments of making out the charge of conspiracy, and if there is enough left in the evi- dence showing that there was a conspiracy as to one of the routes, followed by an overt act, the conspiracy is established. Surplusage in an indictment will not vitiate it. If it did, bad luck to many indictments. This indictment is one, and charges one offense. Though long, it contains but one count. The in- struction of the Court is asked on the question wheth- er, if there be two conspiracies proved, there can be a conviction. I am of opinion that there can not be. You may acquit part of the defendants wholly and convict others, but if you be of opinion that the proof shows two conspiracies, that will not do, and the in dictment fails. Now, as to the proof of the indictment. The peo- ple who commit crimes avoid the light, and all crimes are more or less difficult to establish for that reason. But as to conspiracies, they are peculiarly products of darkness. They are very seldom reduced to writing. They are entered into generally in an informal way. The parties may not come together at all. They may live in different parts of the country. But if by any means they come to a mutual understanding for the purpose of committing a crime against the Govern- ment, that is a conspiracy, provided it be followed by an overt act. It is said that you ought not to convict a man upon circumstantial evidence, unless it be of the clearest and most convincing character. The rule is that you should be satisfied in your own minds be- yond a reasonable doubt. But the reasonable doubt ought to arise out of the evidence in the case; it ought not to be a conjecture. It ought to be a doubt supported by a reason. The jury ought to be careful to see that the doubt is right, and arises from evidence. The Court then proceeded to recall and com- ment upon the facts in the case of one small route in Dakota which had been originally let to J. W. Dorsey at $398, which was afterward consigned to Vaile, contrary to law, through the device of a sub-contract, and upon which expedition and increase had been ordered until the compensation was $6,133.50. The revenue of the route for the year ending June 30, 1881, was $240. There had been petitions for in- crease backed by a request of the delegates of Dakota in Congress ; but there had also been petitions of postmasters, supported by similar influence, asking for a restoration of the old schedule of time, which had been disregarded. Having recalled these facts, the judge expressed himself as satisfied that the law of Congress permitting the Postmaster-General to place service upon the Star Routes was drawn in a liberal way in order to allow him to exercise 762 STAK-KOUTE TRIAL. his discretion fairly in regard to the increase of service and expedition whenever the public interest required such increase to be made. But here was an increase made at a heavy ex- pense when the revenues had hegun to run down. It could not be negligence. Negli- gence itself was a crime, when the injury fell upon the innocent and when the negligence was gross. There was no evidence in the his- tory of this route to show that this remarkable result sprang from negligence. Manifestly it was purposely done ; it was done with a mo- tive. The question for the jury to consider, in trying this case, was whether the action of the second assistant postmaster-general was a mistaken exercise of his discretion, or was taken purposely, and with such a motive as ought not to inspire any man. It had been argued in this case, that if increase of service and increase of expedition have been allowed — granted, rather — in instances where there have been fraudulent papers, fraudulent affi- davits, untrue affidavits, still, if the public ser- vice had been promoted, the acts of these parties, if they be criminal, are not subject to punish- ment, because they result in no injury to the public. He thought there was no soundness in such a view as that. That was doing evil that good may come, and that was neither good gospel nor good law. In regard to the proof of the conspiracy, several prayers had been pre- sented, containing the principle that the con- spiracy must be proved independent of the overt act; that the conspiracy could not be established a posteriori. Now, that was not so, and it had never been so. The proof of the conspiracy may be made out from the conse- quences that followed from the conspiracy. On another important point the Court said : The doctrine is maintained in several of the prayers, that if the jury believe that expedition was ordered on false affidavits, and there were genuine papers on file, they must attribute the order to the influence of the genuine papers. Is the bad saved by its alliance with the good ? That, gentlemen, is not to be toler- ated. That doctrine can not be tolerated in any court. There is nothing so odious in a court of justice as fraud. It is not only vicious itself, but it contaminates every thing that is associated with it. It is like a drop of poison in a tumbler of pure water. The party who commits a fraud very often finds it convenient to use truth for a scheme of falsehood. Truth and falsehood are always quarreling when left to themselves. The truth is, that falsehoods are of so impish a nature that they quarrel among themselves. But fraud is not exactly identical with falsehood. Fraud is a double cousin to falsehood, no doubt. But fraud, for its own purposes, will make use of truth or falsehood indis- criminately. Truth is impressed very often into the service of fraud, and can not get away. I have seen fraud of the most abominable character with a line of truth in its front, and all its impish tribe behind. The more of truth fraud can work into its service, the bet- ter chance is there for its success. But it is no less fraud after all. So that the fact that truth is some- times found under the banners of fraud, is not to bo suffered to justify the case of fraud. In conclusion, the judge made an earnest ap- peal to the jury to disregard all improper ef- forts to influence their action. The jury went out about noon on the 8th of September, and the Court took a recess until 6 o'clock to await the verdict. At that hour it was announced that they had not agreed " except as to one of the defendants " ; and they were directed to retire for further consultation, and a recess was taken until 10 o'clock the next day. At that time no agreement had been reached, but the foreman desired to ask of the Court for further instructions, and handed up a paper. Judge Wylie said the jury had a right to be instructed by the Court upon any difficulty regarding the laws. As to the ques- tion of fact, that was their province. It seems, from the question, that the jurors were divided in opinion in regard to whether there were one or two conspiracies after May 30, 1879. That he understood to be the substance of the ques- tion now presented to the Court. It was a question of fact. He had endeavored to advise the jury yesterday in regard to the law to be applied to the fact in regard to this question. He could only repeat now substantially what was said yesterday — that if the jury were of opinion that the evidence showed that there were two conspiracies instead of one, it was impossible to find a verdict under the indict- ment. This was an indictment for one conspir- acy, but it was not necessary that all of the de- fendants should be guilty, or none. It might be that some were not guilty of the conspiracy, arid others guilty. As to the effect of the in- terchange of interest between certain of these defendants, which, it was claimed, took place about March 30, 1879, the Court had instructed the jury that no mere change of interest in the contracts ought to affect at all the question of conspiracy. If the conspiracy continued still, the interchange of interest between the mem- bers of the. conspiracy would have no effect whatever on the conspiracy itself. In reply to the question whether the date of an overt act as proved must agree with the date as set forth in the indictment, the Court replied : This indictment is based on the statute approved May 17. 1879. You, gentlemen, have been sworn to try 'the ' case of conspiracy under that law, and the character of the conspiracy is set out in this indict- ment. If you believe that these defendants, or any of them, are guilty of this conspiracy, that is one step set- tled. When you reach that conclusion, sink a post there. That question being settled, the next one is as to the overt acts. There are forty or fifty pages of this indictment employed in setting out distinct overt acts. If any one of those overt acts is correctly set put, and sucn an act corresponds with the indictment, it is enough, though all the others may be incorrectly set out. I called your attention yesterday to the Ver- milion and Sioux Falls route. I compared the overt act set out in the indictment with the overt act as it is proved in this case. The overt act in this case as proved corresponded in date and form to the overt act charged in the indictment, if you believe the evi- dence. 1 did not think it was necessary to go over all these overt acts seriatim, but I confined myself to a specimen. If in your judgment there is one conspir- acy established as in existence since May 20, 1879, and it was in existence at the date of these overt acts, or any one of them, committed by any of the defend- STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. 763 ants belonging to this conspiracy, the case is made out. Counsel interposing here with requests as to instruction on certain points, the Court declared that the time had gone by for that, and refused to be interrupted, continuing : The law requires that the overt act shall be proved as laid. There must be one or more overt acts identi- cal with the charge in the indictment. The proof must be that some overt act described in the indict- ment has been made out. There are about forty overt acts described in the indictment, and if none of them are described correctly according to the evidence ex- cept one, and you find that the proof in regard to that one corresponds exactly with the description of the overt act in the indictment, that, I tell you upon my responsibility under the law, is sufficient. In regard to the overt act on the Vermilion and Sioux Falls route, if there be a paper in a case requiring interpretation, that interpretation belongs to the Court, and there is no question between the Court and the jury on such a proposition as that. It _is absolutely the business of the Court to interpret written instruments. I read in the indictment the description of the overt act in regard to a certain route, and I read on the jackets produced here a description of an overt act done by one of the de- fendants, and that description corresponded verbatim to the last and minutest particular with the descrip- tion in the indictment. It became the duty of the Court to say to you, gentlemen, that if you believe that the jacket is a genuine paper, and the order, signed "Do it. Brady," was written by Brady, there is no escape that the overt act is proved. I think now, gen- tlemen, I have made myself as plain as I am capable of doing. Exception was taken to some of the remarks of the judge, and a colloquy ensued, during which the Court repeated to the jury, " Be sure you have a conspiracy, and then be sure that some overt act (one or more) performed by one' of the conspirators is proved as laid, and, so far as you are concerned, the question is settled." In reply to a statement of Mr. Totten, that he excepted to all the Court had said, the judge replied : " I do not think that what I have said is at all gratifying to the gentlemen. I think that they do not like the law, and they have a right to except to it, and to hold the Court re- sponsible to a higher tribunal." In reply to an exception of Mr. McS weeny to 'the expression " there is no escape " from certain conclusions, the Court said : I will explain that, too. We are talking so that we can get the proper grounds for a decision in this case, and I shall be ready at all times to talk with the jury in regard to any difficulty they may have. As to the validitv of the indictment, you are not judges. The Court has passed upon the indictment _as a valid in- dictment long ago. We are engaged in trying not whether the indictment is a well-drawn instrument, but whether the evidence sustains the indictment. There is a conspiracy charged to defraud the Govern- ment, and there is only one conspiracy charged. You may find any two or more of the defendants guilty under this indictment. If the others are guilty of something else, they must be acquitted. Now, as to the overt act. If an overt act set out on the indict- ment is an overt act done by one or more of the con- spirators, and that act is proved, I do not see where there is any gap left between the conspiracy and the overt act. If you are satisfied that the conspiracy ex- ists, and then that an overt act has been proved as set forth in the indictment, the two elements necessarv for a verdict are linked together by hooks of steel. Where an overt act is proved in writing, the Court has a right to say whether that overt act corresponds in form to the overt act described in the indictment. It is for you to say whether those papers were brought from the department, whether this signature of Brady is a forgery or not, whether the execution of that order has been proved. But I am bound to say, that when a man's signature has been proved on one side, and not disputed on the other, it makes a pretty strong prima facie case. Some of the jury remarking upon the diffi- culty of recollecting the dates and particulars of the evidence, Mr. Ingersoll expressed a will- ingness that they should have a copy of the record. This was objected to, but it was agreed that they might have recourse to their own notes, which they had been required to leave behind them in the first instance. The jury was dismissed, and not again recalled until 6 o'clock p. M., at which time the fore- man said : " We desire to report to the Court that the jury have come to an agreement as to some of the defendants named in the indict- ment, not as to others." The Court was un- willing to accept a verdict in that form, say- ing : " The verdict of the jury, in my judgment, ought to be complete. You have a number of defendants here. Those who are guilty (if there are any) will have to submit, of course, to a verdict. Those who are innocent (if there are any) are entitled to the verdict of the jury. I do not mean to say that if, after a fair test, the jury should come into court and say that they are able to agree on a verdict as to some, but that they are really unable to agree as to others, the Court might not accept such a ver- dict. But it would only be after a longer trial on the part of the jury." In reply to a sug- gestion of Mr. Ingersoll, that if the jury were ready to acquit any of the defendants they might as well have the benefit of it at once, the judge said : " When it comes to the time when the Court is prepared to discharge the jury, and the jury should say, ' We find certain of the defendants not guilty, and are unable to agree as to others,' that would be the time for the Court to determine that question. But that time has not come. I think that no in- stance could be found in which a court of com- mon law has accepted a verdict of acquittal as to one to-day, as to another to-morrow, and as to another the next day, or proceeded on any other such principle as that." The jury were shut up for another night, and, although the next day was Sunday, the Court met for the purpose of receiving their report, there having been no adjournment, but only recesses, since Friday. No agreement had been reached on that day, and the marshal was directed to en- force the common-law rule, and shut the jury up in their room until a verdict was reached. On Monday, September llth, it was decided to accept as final such report as the jury had to make. At the morning session of the court on that day, the foreman, in reply to the usual question as to agreement, said : " I will report, sir, that the jury stand the same as they did 764 STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. Saturday night. "We have decided as to four of the defendants, and do not agree as to the others." The judge was unwilling to discharge the jury at that time, and they again retired, to be recalled in the afternoon. There was then no change in the result of their deliberations, and Judge Wylie said : "I have come to the conclusion to accept your verdict." " I am in- structed," said Foreman Dickson, " by thejury, upon this indictment to make the following re- turn : As to John M. Peck and W. H. Turner, not guilty ; as to J. R. Miner and M. 0. Rer- dell, guilty ; as to J. W. Dorsey, as to S. W. Dorsey, as to H. M. Vaile, and as to T. J. Brady, the jury are unable to agree." By order of the Court the name of Peck, who was dead, was omitted, and the verdict was recorded. The verdict seemed to give satisfaction to no one. Notices of motions for arrest of judgment and new trials were given immediately in behalf of Miner and Rerdell. The judge, in discharging the jury, followed the customary compliments with the remark that the verdict was not such as he would have been glad to receive, but he added : " It is your verdict, your work ; you are responsible for it, and the Court is not." The foreman asked if he could present a sworn statement regarding attempts to bribe jury- men, but was not permitted to do so at that time. It transpired that on the final ballot in the jury-room the vote stood eleven for con- viction and one for acquittal in the case of Vaile, ten for conviction and two for acquittal in the case of Brady and J. W. Dorsey, and nine for conviction and three for acquittal in the case of S. W. Dorsey. Jurymau Holmead voted for acquittal in the case of Vaile ; Brown and Holmead in that of J. "W. Dorsey ; Brown and Dickson in that of Brady; and Brown, Dickson, and Holmead in that of S. W. Dorsey. The Attorney-General gave directions at once for preparation for a retrial of those regarding whose guilt the jury had disagreed, and the motions for a new trial of those who were con- victed were promptly granted. The investigation of the charge that at- tempts were made to corrupt or improperly influence the jury was placed by the Depart- ment of Justice in the hands of Mr. H. H. Wells, as special counsel. Mr. Dickson pro- tested against this course, as the department was itself implicated, but it was explained as necessary on account of the press of business in the District Attorney's office. The charges related to alleged attempts upon Mr. Dickson, the foreman of the jury, and upon Juryman Brown in the interest of the Government, and upon Juryman Doniphan in the interest of the defense. Mr. Dickson had put his charge in the form of a sworn statement before the close of the trial. It was this which he endeavored to bring to the attention of the Court, and which he wras afterward accused of using in the jury-room for the purpose of improperly influencing the verdict. He declared that on the 22d of August, at a popular resort known as Driver's, he had been approached by Henry A. Bowen, who represented himself to be a special agent of the Department of Justice, and who intimated to him that $25,000 would be at his command if he favored a conviction of the defendants in the pending trial. He de- clared that Bowen exhibited papers in proof of his appointment as special agent, professed to have authority from the department for his offer, and appeared to be acting with the con- currence of Mr. Brewster Cameron, one of the subordinates of the Attorney-General. The charge with reference to Juryman Brown was that one Frank H. Fall, employed as a special agent by the Department of Justice, had tried to secure his signature to an agreement that he would vote for conviction, for $2,500. Ac- cording to the affidavits relating to this mat- ter, Fall had employed Thomas R. Foote, who carried on the negotiation with Brown through Arthur Payne. Juryman Holmead also testi- fied that Fall had talked to him about the posi- tion of thejury, and the suspicion with which some of its members were regarded by the prosecuting counsel. In the case of Doniphan, it was said that one Frederick 0. Shaw, who had been originally on the jury panel, but had been challenged by the prosecution, had ap- proached him with an offer of money in behalf of S. W. Dorsey, if he would vote for acquittal. This was testified to by Doniphan himself. Mr. Wells made a report to the Attorney-General of the result of his investigations, near the end of October. With reference to the case of Dickson, after stating the points of the testi- mony which he had been able to collect in regard to the conversations with Bowen at Driver's, he gave the following as his conclusions : Henry A. Bowen had no authority from the De- partment of Justice, or any officer or subordinate thereof, to make any offer to or treat with Mr. Dick- son on any subject relating to the Star Eoute trial. That Mr. Bowen did not bribe, offer to bribe, or at- tempt, in the language of the statute, " to corruptly influence " the action of Mr. Dickson as a juror. That conversations did take place between Dickson and Bowen during the progress of the trial that were highly improper and unbecoming, but that the fore- man did not believe that Bowen was acting or speak- ing with the knowledge or approval of the Attorney- General, or any person in charge of or connected with the prosecution of the Star Eoute case: that he did not believe that any real attempts at bribery were made or intended, but that he did believe that Bow- en's purpose was to find out " whether the jury could be bought" ; and that Dickson, though so believing, prepared his sworn statement on the night of the con- versation, and made an unwarrantable use of it before the Court and with the jury in the jury-room, when they were considering their verdict, with the apparent purpose of securing the acquittal or preventing the con- viction of some or all of the defendants. That Dick- son sought an interview with Cameron, apparently for the purpose of obtaining from him some proposal, sug- gestion, or intimation, to be used before the jury tor the purpose of bringing the conduct of the Attorney- Generaiand his subordinates into dishonor and con- tempt, and thereby to influence the jury to acquit the accused. His conclusion with reference to Brown's case was put thus : STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. 765 It is apparent from the whole history of the alleged attempt upon Brown's virtue, that it was not done with the knowledge, in behalf of, or in the interest of, the prosecution ; that its guilty authors were nei- ther the agents nor acted with the knowledge or ap- proval of any officer of the Department of Justice. It was a deliberate and carefully prepared conspiracy against the administration of "justice, which view is confirmed strongly by the following considerations and circumstances : 1. That the Government could have no interest or desire to bribe jurors to convict'. It would seem that those charged with the administration of justice would, from their position, have a natural desire that a full, fair, and impartial trial should end. if the ac- cused were innocent, in an honorable acquittal. 2. There was no fund in the Treasury of the United States out of which the large sums alleged to have been offered hi bribes could have been fixed, without making a public record of the infamous transactions, and specifying therein not only the amount and ob- ject of the disbursement, but the names of the per- sons to whom it was paid ; nor could it be done even then without the connivance of other departments of the Government. 3. As soon, too, as the first intimation reached any officer of the Department of Justice that improper suggestions had been made, or it had been claimed that any one had authority to make such proposals, the authors thereof were summarily dismissed, and their pretended authority indignantly denied. 4. That every person who had made such false claim of authority, including Fall and Taylor, when charged therewith admitted the falsity thereof; and all persons present at any conversations between offi- cers of the department who employed them or gave them their instructions deny that any such authority was ever given them. 5. That Brown, who, it was charged, had been bribed in another case ; Taylor, who had before served a term in the penitentiary, and who procured Fall to be em- ployed because of the latters connection with the prior bribery : Nelson, who had received money from Fall to pay Brown for "hanging the jury" in the Long case ; Laws, who claimed that he was the man who engaged Brown in that case, and who also claimed that he had been engaged by the defense to work Brown in this case ; Foote, who employed Payne to bribe Brown, and brought him to Fall's of- fice, seeing, as he says, Fall daily in reference to that matter ; and, indeed, every one of the vile creatures who touched this infamous transaction, come forward without shame, but for what consideration I do not know, and put the proof of their guilt, in the form of affidavits, into the hands of counsel for the defend- ants. Their crime was not lessened, but rather aggravated thereby. If any of them have had promises of im- munity, they were not made by the Government, its officers, counsel, or agents, and I therefore recommend that for the offenses thus committed by them, both severally and jointly, they be jointly and severally indicted and tried under the laws and statutes applica- ble to such cases. This recommendation reters to Frank II. Fall, Arthur Payne, Thomas A. Foote, and any other persons discovered to have participated, aided, or abetted in that transaction. As to some of them, however, I must add that, for a successful pros- ecution, it will be necessary that the Government should be furnished with the affidavits published by Mr. Ingersoll, for which I have applied, and I assume they will be furnished. The facts in the case of Doniphan were reca- pitulated in the report, and the counsel stated that there was " such a clear and unequivocal case of violation of the law against corruptly attempting to influence the action of a juror, as to leave no doubt of the propriety of a crimi- nal prosecution of the person attempting to corrupt this juror." He accordingly recom- mended that " Frederick C. Shaw, and all other persons who may be found to have aided or abetted in the offense, be immediately prose- cuted on that charge. Warrants were issued for the arrest of Fall, Foote, Payne, and Shaw, and, after a preliminary examination in the po- lice court of Washington, they were held for the action of the Grand Jury. In the course of the examination in the case of Payne, who was the first to be arraigned, George D. Miller, one of the Government detectives, admitted that he was accustomed to reveal to the defense infor- mation which he had collected in the service of the Government. He was subsequently dis- missed. In the course of Mr. Wells's investi- gation, a sworn statement was made by Mr. Brewster Cameron, agent of the Department of Justice, explaining the employment of Fall. He had been introduced to Mr. Cameron' by Edward Taylor, an employe of the department ; and James Leonard, of the Marshal's office, declared that he had positive knowledge that Juryman Brown had accepted a bribe in a former case. Fall desired to be employed for the purpose of collecting and presenting the proof of this, and was so employed. He after- ward suggested that, if he could have com- mand of three or four clerkships, he could con- trol the action of two jurors. The suggestion was promptly resented, and Fall was at once dismissed from the service of the Government. The statement of Mr. Cameron was supported by affidavits, including one from Fall himself. During the month of December, William Dickson, who had been foreman of the Star- Route jury, underwent trial in the Washington Police Court on a charge of violating the law in reading his statement to the jury for the purpose of influencing their action. The result of it was that he was held to await the action of the Grand Jury, and in January, 1883, both he and the others charged with attempting to influence the jury corruptly were indicted. The new trial of the defendants in the Star Route case was set for December 4th, the open- ing of the new term of the Criminal Court. Judge Wylie presided as before. The names of two of the defendants were eliminated, that of Peck by death, and that of Turner by ac- quittal ; and those remaining were Thomas J. Brady, Stephen W. Dorsey, John W. Dorsey, Harvey M. Vaile, John R. Miner, and Montfort C. Rerdell. On the llth of November Mr. George Bliss, of counsel for the Government, had made a report to the President, in which he complained of the attitude toward the case of the Marshal of the District of Columbia, Col. Charles E. Henry ; the Postmaster of Wash- ington, D. B. Ainger ; the Assistant Postmas- ter, M. M. Parker; and the foreman of the Government printing-office, M. D. Helm, the last-named being also the manager of a news- paper which had defended the accused and assailed the prosecution. The report of Mr. 766 STAR-ROUTE TRIAL. Bliss was referred to Attorney-General Brew- ster, who, on the 24th of November, addressed a letter to the President reviewing the action of the marshal, postmaster, assistant post- master, and foreman of the Government print- ing-office, and referring to the conduct of George E. Spencer, also an officer of the Gov- ernment, who had evaded the process of the Court as a witness, and to the course of the police of the District of Columbia. In conclu- sion, he said : After serious and prolonged deliberation over all the details of the case, my investigation satisfied me that the men who were inaicted were guilty men, and merited the extreme punishment of the law. They had projected, under cover of official power and under color of official authority, a systematic plan of delib- erate robbery of the public Treasury. To carry out that plan, they had laid their hands upon a fund dedi- cated by law to a great public service — a service that is conspicuously one of the fruits and causes of our civilization, our social comfort, our commercial pros- perity, our national growth. Millions of that money they perverted to their own private gain, and divided it for their own personal purposes. It was a condign act of infamous conspiracy, and as such deserves the severest punishment the law can inflict. Such men are traitors to social and official duty, and they are public enemies, against whom the authority of the law must be exerteu without hesitation or reluctance. The higher their past position the greater their sin— the sterner must be their punishment. I desire to call your attention to the fact that the officers of the law, and those who have directly been aiding me in the discharge of my duty in this business, have been from the first encircled with snares, pitfalls, and every spe- cies of vile device that could be invented to harm them, hinder their usefulness, aad prevent the ad- ministration of justice. Some portions of this com- munity who surround these defendants, and who have enjoyed, or do still enjoy, minor official positions, know no allegiance to any one but this band of rob- bers, and render no service to any one but these evil employers. From motives of gain, or other corrupt considerations, they are saturated with affinities for these bad men ; and they have contributed, by every means in their power, at the bidding of their masters, to obstruct public justice and to defame its officers, with the hope of securing the acquittal and escape of the worst band of organized scoundrels that ever ex- isted since the commencement of the Government. This communication was followed promptly, on the 25th of November, by the removal from office of Henry, Ainger, Parker, Helm, and Spencer. Mr. Clayton McMichael, of Philadel- phia, was subsequently appointed Marshal of the District. On the 1st of December, Stephen "W. Dorsey addressed a card to the public in explanation of his connection with Star Route contracts. He took occasion to refer to his political service, his activity in the canvass of 1880, and his inti- mate relations with General Garfield and other prominent Republican leaders. He attributed his prosecution to the hostility of Postmaster- GeneralJames and Attorney -General McVeagh, whose appointment as members of the Cabinet he had opposed. He denied all charges of con- spiracy and fraud, and claimed that his con- nection with the Star Route service sprang from an innocent and well-meant effort, in the first instance, to render pecuniary aid to his brother and brother-in-law (Peck), who had become contractors against his advice, and afterward to save himself from loss through the loans and advances which he had made. He maintained that the facts which he stated showed — 1. That at the beginning of President Garfi eld's administration ^ two members of his Cabinet, whose personal hostility to me had grown out of my active opposition to their appointment to the positions they held, led them to seize upon the old Star Route scandal and use it as a weapon to break down my influence with the Administration. 2. That to do this, it was necessary to fill the public press with revamped falsehoods that had long since been worn and patched, and for this purpose there were established in the offices of the Attorney -General and Postmaster-General literary bureaus, beginning April 1, 1881, and up to this writing there has not been a day in a week nor a week in a month that the papers all over the land have not denounced me in unstinted terms, with no more evidence to justify their accusations than there is against every other person in the land. 3. That at a trial lasting more than four months, which took place after the country had been raked with a fine-toothed comb by detectives to find some- thing damaging to me, there was not one line, word, or syllable of evidence produced against me. In the printed record of the court proceedings, containing more than 3,000 page^,, there is not a scintilla of evi- dence that could be fairly charged as reflecting upon the uprightness of my conduct. When the new trial began, Mr. W. W. Dav- idge and Mr. William A. Cook appeared as ad- ditional counsel for the defense. The time until the 14th of December was occupied in obtaining a jury. The question of the number of challenges to which the defense was entitled was reopened and argued at length, and Judge Wylie came to the conclusion that his former ruling had been erroneous — that they were en- titled to only four peremptory challenges in all. In reading his new decision, he said that he would lose no time in explaining the con- flict with his previous ruling. The statute re- lating to that subject (No. 838 of the Statutes for the District of Columbia) provided that a defendant shall be entitled to four per- emptory challenges, but had no provision as to a case where there was more than one defend- ant. But a section of the Revised Statutes (819) did contain such a provision — to the effect that in all other cases (less than felony), civil and criminal, each party shall be entitled to three peremptory challenges, and that where there are several defendants or several plain- tiffs, each side shall be deemed a single party for the purpose of challenges. This latter sec- tion was the law in this District, and had been since December, 1872. The two statutes should be read together (they not being in conflict), and, therefore, he ruled that the defendants in this case were entitled to four (not three) per- emptory challenges for all of them. Another question was also raised as to the necessity for the personal attendance of the accused. Mr. S. W. Dorsey was troubled with an affection of the eyes, which was said to necessitate close confinement to his room. To test the question, a motion was made by Mr. STEVENS, WILLIAM B. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 767 Merrick that Mr. Dorsey be compelled to ap- pear in person in the court-room. This was ap- proved by his counsel, who took the ground that his presence was necessary to a fair trial, but that he was unable to attend, and the trial as to him could not proceed. The Court held that the defense could be just as well main- tained in the absence of a defendant, except in case he proposed to testify in his own behalf. The Court would be prepared to meet that point when it came up, but refused to postpone the trial. Mr. Ingersoll then moved for a sev- erance on the part of S. W. Dorsey, and the continuance of the case as to him, but this was refused. The challenges on both sides were exhausted when ten jurors had been obtained. The jury, as completed on the 14th of Decem- ber, was made up as follows : John H. Crane, commission merchant; John Hughes, carpen- ter; Clarence Shields (colored), carpenter; Reese Evans, stone-cutter ; Frank Kenshaw, grocer ; John B. Sheriff, truck farmer ; John H. Vernon, restaurant-keeper ; Jackson How- ard (colored), hotel fireman ; Mason Lowery, laborer ; D. 0. Green, real-estate broker ; Mi- chael Horgan, blacksmith ; Edward C. Gill, dealer in paints and oils. Mr. Bliss, for the Government, proceeded at once to open the case. His address was finished on the 19th, and Mr. Chandler began the open- ing for the defense, which was continued by Mr. Ingersoll on the 21st and 22d. The taking of testimony was not begun until January, 1883. STEVENS, Right Rev. WILLIAM BACON, D. D., LL. D., Bishop of the Diocese of Penn- sylvania, born in Bath, Me., July 13, 1815. WILLIAM BACON STEVENS, D.D.,LL.D. Having lost his father in early life, he spent his youth in Boston, Mass., and entered upon a course of study at Philips Academy, with reference to preparation for the ministry. In consequence of impaired health he gave up for a time his studies in this line, and turned his attention to the science of medicine. Soon after, he took a long sea-voyage, and while in China he prosecuted medical studies, also aid- ing Dr. Parker, then in charge of the American Hospital in Canton. On his return home he was graduated, in 1837, M. D. at Dartmouth College. Two or three years later he settled in Savannah for the practice of medicine, and soon after was appointed historian of the State of Georgia, in the discharge of the duties of which position he published "A History of Georgia, from its First Discovery to the Adop- tion of the Federal Constitution in 1797," two vols., 8vo. Having completed his preparations for orders, he was ordained to the ministry in the Protestant Episcopal Church in 1843, and the next year became Professor of Belles-Let- tres and Moral Philosophy in the [Jniversity of Georgia. In 1848 he was called to the rector- ship of St. Andrew's Church, Philadelphia, a position which he filled with great usefulness until his election in 1861, and his consecration, January 2, 1862, as Assistant Bishop of Penn- sylvania. On the death of Bishop A. Potter he became bishop of the diocese in July, 1865, and has ever since been busily occupied in the duties of his station. For several years he was in charge of the American Episcopal churches on the Continent of Europe, and in 1878 he attended the Lambeth Conference and preached the closing sermon in St. Paul's Cathedral. Bishop Stevens has published a number of works, in addition to his " History of Geor- gia"— viz., "The Parables of the New Testa- ment practically Unfolded " (1855), " The Lord's Day, its Obligations and Blessings" (1857), "The Past and Present of St. Andrew's" (1858), "A Charge to the Clergy " (1864), be- sides numerous single sermons, tracts, etc. SWEDEN AND NORWAY, two monarch- ies of Northern Europe, united August 15, 1815. The Constitution of Sweden consists ot the law of 1809 on the form of government, the law of succession of 1810, the law of 1812 on the liberty of the press, and the amended statute on the formation of the Diet adopted June 22, 1866. The King must be a member of the Lutheran Church. He has the right to declare war and conclude treaties, and pos- sesses legislative powers in matters of political administration. All other laws are made by the Diet, but must have the assent of the crown. The Diet consists of two Houses, both elective. The First Chamber consists of 137 members, one to every 30,000 inhabitants, cho- sen for the period of nine years by 25 provin- cial assemblies and the municipal corporations of Stockholm, Goteborg, Mai mo, and Norrkop- ing. The Second Chamber consists of 204 members, elected directly for three years, in the proportion of one member for every 10,000 inhabitants in the towns, and for every rural district of under 40,000 inhabitants, and two for rural districts of more than 40,000 inhab- 768 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. itants. The franchise is limited by a property qualification. The executive power is exer- cised by the King under the advice of a Coun- cil of State, consisting of ten members. The Constitution of Norway, established No- vember 4, 1814, vests the legislative authority in the Storthing. The Storthing is elected in- directly for three years. Vacancies are filled by the persons receiving the second largest number of votes at the triennial election. The number of members is 114. The King has command of the military and naval forces, and makes all appointments, but must nominate Norwegians. He can veto any measure not of a constitutional character, but if it is passed by three different Storthings it can not be ve- toed a third time. The members of the Stor- thing divide themselves into two Houses — the Lagthing, consisting of one fourth of the mem- bers, and the Odelsthing, composed of the other three fourths. Bills originate in the latter body, and may be rejected by the other, unless the Odelsthing calls for a joint sitting, in which case a two-thirds majority of the whole Stor- thing is necessary to enact the measure. The Storthing may resolve itself into a court for the impeachment and trial of Ministers, Judges of the Supreme Court, or members of the Storthing. Articles of impeachment are passed by the Odelsthing, and are tried by the Lags- thing and Supreme Court, sitting together. The executive power is exercised by the King through a Council of State, composed of two Ministers and nine Councilors. One of the Ministers and two Councilors reside at Stock- holm with the King. The King of the two monarchies is Oscar II, Fredrik, born January 21, 1829, who succeeded Ms brother, Carl XV, September 18, 1872. He is the fourth sovereign of the line of Ponte Corvo, which originated with Bernadotte, one of Napoleon's marshals, who was elected Swed- ish heir-apparent in 1810, and ascended the throne, under the name of Carl XIV Johan, in 1818. The heir-apparent is Oscar Gustaf Adolf, son of the King, born June 16, 1858. The Swedish Cabinet is composed of the fol- lowing members : Minister of State, Count Ar- vid Rutger F. Posse, appointed April 19, 1880; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Baron Carl F. L. Hochschild, appointed April 27, 1880; Dr. Johan II. Lov6n, appointed Councilor June 5, 1874 ; Dr. Nils H. Vult von Steyern, Coun- cilor and Chief of the Department of Justice, appointed April 18, 1880 ; Baron Carl Gustaf von Otter, Councilor and Chief of the Depart- ment of the Navy, appointed April 18, 1880 ; Fredrik L. S. Hederstierna, Councilor at the head of the Interior Department, appointed April 18, 1880; Dr. Carl Gustaf Hammarsk- jold, Councilor in charge of the Department of Ecclesiastical Affairs, appointed August 27, 1880 ; Councilor Johan C. E. Richert, ap- pointed August 27, 1880; Councilor O. R. Themptander, of the Department of Finance, appointed March 8, 1881 ; K. A. Ryding, Coun- cilor in charge of the War Department, who succeeded Otto F. Taube June 16, 1882. The Norwegian Council of State is composed of the following members : Minister of State, residing at Christiania, Christian A. Selmer, appointed November 1, 1880 ; Councilor at the head of the Navy and Post-Office Depart- ment, Rear-Admiral Jacob Lerche Johansen, appointed June 17, 1872 ; Councilor in charge of the Department of Justice and Police, J. Helmboe ; Councilor in charge of the War Department, Major - General Adolf Frederik Munthe, appointed October 19, 1877; Coun- cilor at the head of the Interior Department, Christian Jensen, appointed October 13, 1879; Councillor in charge of the Department of the Revision of Public Accounts, Dr. O. A. Bachke, appointed October 18, 1879 ; Councilor in charge of the Department of Education and Ecclesiastical Affairs, N. C. E. Herzberg, who succeeded Jens Helmboe, transferred to the Department of Justice January 30. 1882 ; Min- ister of State residing near the King, Otto R. Kierulf, appointed November 1, 1871; Coun- cilors of the Delegation at Stockholm in 1882, N. Vogt, appointed Councilor May 13, 1871, and C. H. Schweigaard, December 22, 1880. SWEDEN. — AREA AND POPULATION. — The area of the kingdom is 170,979 square miles, 3,517 of which are covered by the Lakes of Vener, Vetter, Malar, and Hjelmar. The area, in square kilometres, and population of the Lan, or provinces, according to the decennial census of December 31, 1880, were as follow : LAN. Area. Population. Stockholm, city i i 168,775 Stockholm, district f 7,643 j 147,021 Upsala 5313 111 019 Sodermanland . .... 6 841 147 186 Ostergdtland 10 9T7 267 133 Jonkoping 11,574 196,271 9 997 169 786 11493 245105 Gotland . . . . 8.152 54668 Blekinge Christianstad 8.010 6,511 137,477 230,619 4795 349 810 Halland 4913 135,299 Goteborg and Bohus Elfsborg 5,101 12,825 261,114 288,947 8561 257 942 19314 268,417 Orebro. 9,118 182,263 Westmanland .... 6,814 128,491 Kopparberg Gcneborg 80,040 19815 190,138 178,728 25,046 169,195 Jemtland 52,218 83,623 Westerbotten 59,098 106,435 Norrbotten 106,818 90,761 Total . 440,997 4.565,668 The population was divided into 2,215,243 males and 2,350,425 females. In 1870 there were 3,809 Baptists, Mormons, and Methodists ; 190 Reformed, 573 Roman Catholics, 30 Greek Catholics, and 1,836 Israelites; the rest of the population belonged to the established Luther- an Church. There were 6,711 Lapps and 14,- 932 Finns, born in Sweden, and 12,015 foreign- ers, principally Germans, Danes, Norwegians, SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 769 and Finlanders. The population of the king- dom, according to the annual enumeration made December 31, 1881, was 4,572,245. The number of marriages in 1880 was 28,919, ot births 138,303, of deaths 86,794; excess of births over deaths, 51,509. The mean annual emigration between 1850 and 1860 was 1,690 ; between 1860 and 1870, 12,245; in the year 1870, 29,003; 1871, 17,- 450; 1872,15,915; 1873,13,580; 1874,7,791; 1875, 9,727; 1876, 9,418; 1877, 7,610; 1878, 9,032; 1879, 17,637; 1880, 42,109. The cities containing over 25,000 inhabitants in 1881 were: Stockholm, 176,745; Gothen- borg, 78,313; Malmo, 39,512; Norrkoping, 27,231. COMMERCE. — The exports and imports both more than doubled between 1870 and 1880. The chief exports are timber, pig-iron, and grain. The largest imports are textile manu- factures, coal, and colonial produce. The total imports in 1880 were valued at 282,788,000 crowns, against 226,442,000 in 1879, having grown from 82,469,000 crowns in 1860; the total exports at 236,643,000 crowns, against 186,164,000 crowns in 1879, and 86,496,000 crowns in 1860. The extent of the commerce with the principal foreign countries was as fol- lows, in crowns, in 1880 : COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports. Great Britain 77,743,600 55 848 009 123,810,000 23 931 0(10 61 764 000 17 096 000 France ... . . 6 467 000 28 699 000 Norway Belgi um 16,774,000 8,705,000 7,955,000 12,258,000 Kussia 17 454 000 2 012 000 Netherlands 8,384 000 6 139 000 United States 11,770,000 2 869 000 Finland 8,773,000 5,089,000 Of 9,618 laden vessels, of 1,513,395 tons, entering Swedish ports in 1880, 5,216, of 762,- 442 tons, bore the Swedish flag ; 647, of 123,- 456 tons, the Norwegian; and 3.755, of 627,- 497 tons, were foreign vessels. The merchant navy consisted, in 1880, of 2,252 vessels, of 105,062 tons, including 607 steamers, of 31,509 tons, engaged in domestic commerce, and 2,133 vessels, of 455,631 tons, including 165 steam- ers, of 55,089 tons, trading abroad. There were 3,860 miles of railroad in opera- tion at the commencement of 1882, of which 1,370 miles belonged to the state and 2,490 miles to companies. The number of post-offices in 1880 was 1,785. There were 38,078,616 letters and postal-cards, 3,699,789 printed inclosures, and 26,952,716 newspapers forwarded in 1881 ; together 68,- 731,121, against 63,709,363 in 1880. The length of telegraph lines in 1881 was 5,225 miles; length of wires, 12,795 miles. The number of dispatches sent was 1,118,081, comprising 591,276 domestic, 398,534 interna- tional, and 128,271 in transit. The receipts were 1,304,495, the expenses 1,205,966 crowns. ARMY AND NAVY. — There are five different VOL. xxii. — i9 A classes of soldiers. The enrolled troops (Varf- vade) arid the cantoned troops (Indelta) form together the regular army. The first are re- cruited by enlistment. The latter class receive, partly from private landholders and partly from the crown domains, a house and parcel of land, and annual pay in money or in kind. The third class is the conscripted troops (Be- varing), in which every able-bodied young man is enrolled ; but only a part of them are instructed. There are besides two special bod- ies, the Gotland militia, which is not obliged to serve outside of the island, and the volun- teer rifle association, which numbered 11,065 men in 1881. The regular army in 1882 num- bered 35,106 men, exclusive of officers. The enrolled troops numbered 2,230 infantry, 1,066 cavalry, 4,343 artillery, and 894 engineers, to- gether 8,533 men ; the cantoned troops, 23,016 infantry and 3,557 cavalry, together 26,573 men. The strength of the conscripted army was 135,337; of the Gotland militia, 7,762. The navy consisted, in 1882, of forty-four steamers, with 155 guns, including one line-of- battle ship, one frigate, four corvettes, four monitors, ten small monitors, two torpedo- boats, and nineteen gunboats. The four mon- itors and ten of the gunboats were ironclads. There were besides five sailing-corvettes and five brigs, carrying 105 guns. FINANCES.— The budget for 1883 makes the total ordinary receipts 20,590,000 crowns (by a treaty signed May 27, 1873, and the supple- mentary treaty of October 16, 1875, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark adopted a common decimal monetary system: the Swedish krona, Norwegian and Danish krone, is equivalent to 26-8 cents), derived from the land-tax (5,995,- 000 crowns), domain farms (2,900,000 crowns), capitation tax (640,000 crowns), tonnage dues (1,200,000 crowns), net railway receipts (6,200,- 000 crowns), gross telegraph receipts (1,330,- 000 crowns), gross receipts from forests (1,000,- 000 crowns), and miscellaneous sources (1,325,- 000 crowns) ; the total extraordinary receipts, 53,770,000 crowns, derived from customs du- ties (27,500,000 crowns), postal receipts (5,100,- 000 crowns), stamps (3,000,000 crowns), spirit- tax (17,000,000 crowns), beet-sugar impost (70,000 crowns), and income-tax (4,100,000 crowns) ; the net receipts of the Bank of Swe- den, 1,600,000 crowns; unexpended balance, 2,789,137 crowns; total receipts of the Treas- ury, 78,749,137 crowns. The ordinary expen- ditures are fixed at 58,536,711 crowns: 1,338,- 000 for the royal household, 3,-753,000 for the Department of Justice. 613,800 for that of Foreign Affairs, 17,205,000 for that of the Army, 5,375,000 for the Navy Department, 4,396,360 for that of the Interior, 10,132,551 for that of Education and Worship, 2,430,000 for pensions, and 13,293,000 for financial ad- ministration. The extraordinary expenditures are placed at 7,827,589 crowns: 2,413,000 for the army and navy, and 5,414,589 for other purposes. The expenditures on account of the 770 SWEDEN AND NORWAY. public debt are set down as 10,187,932, and the balance to be carried over as 2,196,905 crowns, which makes the budget of expenditures bal- ance the total receipts. The army and the ec- clesiastical establishment are maintained main- ly from the produce of the domainial estates, which are not entered in the budget, nor are the 304,700 crowns contributed for foreign affairs by Norway. The cost of education is defrayed in great part out of the communal and provin- cial revenues. The public debt of Sweden was contracted entirely for the construction of railroads. The total amount outstanding on January 1, 1882, was 234,715,896 crowns. Of this 34,843,500 consisted of the internal loans of 1870 and 1872, at 5 and 4 per cent interest respectively ; 190,- 872,396 crowns was the amount of the foreign loans contracted at 4£ and 5, and latterly at 4 per cent interest, in England, Germany, and France, the last of which was raised in 1880, and amounts to 70, 785,000 crowns; and 9,000,- 000 crowns constitute an unfunded loan of 1879, repay able 'before November 1, 1885. LEGISLATION. — The Swedish Diet separated May 22d, after a session of four months' dura- tion. The great questions of the regulation of the land-tax and the reorganization of the army have been before the country many years. A number of ministries have been shipwrecked in the effort to effect these reforms, which are intimately connected with one another. The present ministry proceeds more cautiously with the army reform. The development of a mili- tary force upon modern models of the most modest proportions would require a considera- ble augmentation of the revenue, of which there is no prospect. The present organization is sufficient to permit a military demonstration with 20,000 men, which will meet every re- quirement, as Sweden has little to fear from its neighbors. The military and naval items in the budget were voted, with the exception of that for continuing the fortifications at Carls- borg, which was considerably reduced. The more important subject of the readjustment of the land-taxes, which press very unequally upon the small owners, is dealt with only in vague promises. The Posse Ministry is a busi- ness Cabinet, which offers no political pro- gramme. It commands no firm majority in the Diet, but in its conservative course, while the resources of the country are slowly devel- oping, it obtains a support from all parties, though the rural party, from which the Prime Minister came himself, opposes many of his financial measures as extravagant. The com- mittee on the national defense developed a plan in December, by which the regular army would be increased to 25,000 men, and a re- serve maintained which would furnish a total war effective of about 75,000 men for the field army. The Diet rejected by a considerable majority the proposition to introduce corn du- ties. A resolution in favor of extending the right of suffrage was passed by a decided ma- jority in the Second Chamber, but was rejected by the First Chamber. NOEWAY. — AREA AND POPULATION. — The area of Norway is 122,869 square miles. The total population, according to the last decennial census, taken December 31, 1875, was 1,806,- 900, divided into 876,762 males and 930,138 females. The town population was 326,420; rural population, 1,480,480. The population in 1880 was estimated at 1,913,500. The num- ber of marriages in 1880 was 12,585 ; of births, 58,862 ; of deaths, 30,532 ; excess of births, 28,330. Besides the Norwegians prop- er, there were, in 1875, 7,594 Finns, 14,645 settled Lapps, 1,073 nomad Lapps, and 8,396 of mixed blood. The number of foreign-born residents was 37,350, of whom 29,340 were Swedes, and the rest chiefly Finlanders, Danes, and Germans. Besides the adherents of the state Church, there were 2,759 Methodists, 1,184 Reformed Lutherans, 819 Baptists, 542 Mormons, 502 Roman Catholics, 432 Quakers, and 1,000 of other denominations. The fol- lowing cities contained over 20,000 inhabitants ; Christiania, 76,054; Bergen, 34,388; Trond- hjem, 22, 544 ; Stavanger, 20,288. The emi- gration for the last ten years, reported, was as follows: 1871, 12,276; 1872, 13,865; 1873, 10,352; 1874,4,601 ; 1875, 4,048; 1876, 4,355; 1877, 3,206; 1878,4,863; 1879,7,608; 1880, 20,212. COMMERCE. — The average value of the total imports in the years 1876-'80 was 161,300,000 crowns; of the exports, 102,300,000 crowns. The staple exports are timber and wood, fish, and, in smaller quantities, pig-iron and copper- ore. The total imports in 1881 amounted to 164,997,000 crowns; in 1880, 150,871,000 crowns. Total exports in 1881, 120,934,000 crowns; in 1880, 108,739,000 crowns. The largest trade in 1881 was with the following countries : COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports. Great Britain 42,876,000 40,886,000 45 225,000 16,460,000 Sweden 15,231,000 13,823,000 20,251,000 6,556,000 France 9.740,000 8,302,000 9 979 000 6,197,000 Spain 2953,000 12.391.000 Holland 6,624,000 7,300,000 The imports from the United States in 1881 were 2,929,000 crowns in value, and the ex- ports to the United States 62,000 crowns. The number of arrivals in Norwegian ports in 1880 was 11,556 vessels, of 1,971,209 aggre- gate tonnage, of which 6,703 vessels, of 1,337,- 294 tons, were Norwegian, and 5,688, of 982,- 096, or less than half, with cargoes. Norway has the largest merchant fleet, in proportion to her population, of any country. The number of vessels at the end of 1880 was 8,095, against 6,993 in 1870; the aggregate registered ton- nage, 1,518,658, against 1,007,908; the number of sailors employed, 60,832, against 49,337. SWEDEN AND NOKWAY. 771 The steam fleet consists of 334 vessels, of an aggregate tonnage of 58,062 tons. The length of railroad lines in operation at the end of 1882 was 950 miles. The telegraphs, as in Sweden, belong to the state. The length of the lines at the end of 1881 was 4,705 miles; of wires, 8,550 miles. The number of internal dispatches was 498,- 024; received from abroad, 188,731; sent abroad, 160,433; in transit, 24; total, 847,212. The receipts were 967,608 crowns; expenses, 965,431 crowns. There were besides 725 miles of railroad lines, with 1,455 miles of wire. The number of post-offices in 1881 was 938. The number of letters forwarded was 11,013,- 340 domestic, and 15,544,789 including the for- eign; the number of newspapers, 12,465,530. The receipts amounted to 1,804,070 crowns, the expenses to 1,852,728 crowns. ARMY AND NAVY. — By the laws of 1866 and 1876, the military forces are divided into the line troops, the landvcern or militia, the train, and the landstorm or final levy in mass. The army of the line numbers 750 officers and 18,- 000 men, which number can not be exceeded even in war-time, without the assent of the Storthing. It is raised principally by con- scription. The landvmrn is not liable to ser- vice beyond the borders. The naval forces are recruited mainly by en- listment, but in default of volunteers are com- pleted by conscription among the sailors. The navy consisted in July, 1882, of thirty-seven steamers, carrying 152 guns, including four iron-clad monitors, two frigates, two corvettes, a ram, and twenty-eight gunboats of different FINANCES. — The ordinary receipts of the Treasury amounted in the year ending June 30, 1881, to 34,618,100 crowns. The extraor- dinary receipts, consisting of loans and local contributions for the construction of railroads, raised the total receipts of the Treasury to 41,- 630,000 crowns. The gross revenue from cus- toms was 15,858,100 crowns; from the liquor- tax, 3,500,800; from the malt-tax, 2,251,000; from railroads, 3,671,000; from posts, 1,713,- 600; from mines and domains, 1,128,600. The heads of expenditure were : 9,394,700 crowns for financial administration ; 6,580,100 for the army; 6,377,900 for the navy, posts, and tele- graphs; 4,981,300 for the Interior Department, including the operation of the railroads ; 4,111,- 600 for justice,, police, and sanitary service ; 2,970,200 for the university and other ex- penses of the Department of Instruction and Worship (not including about 1,000,000 crowns derived from special funds); 1,141,300 for the Council of State and Ministries; 408,500 for the Storthing; 435,400 for the civil list and appanages ; 499,700 for foreign affairs ; and 94,- 500 for incidental expenses. The outlay of 6,234,400 crowns on railroads brings the total expenditures up to 43,681,800 crowns. The total amount of the public debt out- standing on June 30, 1881, was 104,512,000 crowns, all bearing 4£ per cent interest, except a loan contracted in 1880 at 4 per cent. Against the debt the Government holds assets which nearly offset the entire amount. These consist of productive funds, administered by the De- partment of Finance, amounting to 29,700,000 crowns, cash and credits amounting to 5,200,- 000 crowns, and railroad shares to the amount of 62,900,000 crowns— together, 97,800,000 crowns. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. — The republican movement in Norway assumed during the year 1882 larger proportions than at any previous time, the struggle between the King on the one side and the Storthing or national Parliament on the other culminating in a rebuke of the former. The union of Sweden and Norway dates back to 1814, when King Charles XIII received Norway from the allies as the price of his assistance in the war against Napoleon. According to the Constitution of Eidsvold, adopted November 4, 1814, Norway was de- clared "free, independent, indivisible, and in- alienable." This Constitution gave to the country a form of government virtually repub- lican. Under a monarchical form, Norway is really a republic of peasants, in which the aris- tocracy of other monarchies is represented by a strong peasantry. The King can not dissolve the Storthing until it has been in session three months ; and, though he may veto a measure, his veto may be overruled by the action of three successive Storthings. Its foreign repre- sentation is united with that of Sweden, but its army is not, the Constitution providing ex- pressly that Norwegian troops are not to be taken out of the country without the consent of the Storthing, while the same consent is necessary to bring Swedish or foreign troops into Norway. Conflicts between the King and the Storthing occurred almost from the very time of the union. King Charles John XIV, who ascended the throne in 1818, made many unavailing attempts to reduce the country to closer submission to royal authority. The pres- ent conflict began in 1872, when the Storthing carried by a vote of 80 to 29 a bill inviting the ministers to be present at the meetings of the Storthing as is the case in other constitutional countries. The King refused his sanction to this bill, but it was passed by two successive Storthings, and had, therefore, as its friends claimed, become a law. But the King again refused his sanction, and a new struggle arose on the nature of the King's veto. On June 9, 1881, the Storthing declared the bill, thrice carried by the legal majority, to be valid law in the kingdom of Norway. The resolution was met by a firm protest" from the crown. The crown's claim for an absolute veto has been pushed further. Lately it was employed to frustrate the per- manent sitting, the Storthing's appointment of a parliamentary committee, and even some of its financial bills. The other reforms of the liberal programme — such as the introduction of 772 SWITZERLAND. juries, a reasonable extension of the right of suffrage, a reorganization of the army on the model of the Swiss system of militia — are all met by an unyielding resistance on the part of the Government, and as little regard is paid by the Peasant party to guarantees claimed by the crown. The political excitement during the preparations for the new elections was very intense. A speech of the poet Bjornsterne Bjornson, one of the leaders of the Peasant party, clearly shows the ideas entertained by this party. He said: "If any one, even were he a minister, should say that royalty can not do without the veto, we would have to answer most emphatically, that in such a case the Nor- wegian people would have to give up royalty. The issue of this election can be nothing less than the veto or royalty." The new elections returned to the Storthing a more formidable majority of the Peasant party than ever, and in the new Storthing, which meets in February, 1883, all the means placed in their hands by the Constitution will be used by them to main- tain their will. The proposition to increase the appanage of the Crown Prince, on the oc- casion of his marriage, was rejected for the second time in June. A new commercial treaty was concluded with France, which went into force May 15th. The duties on artificial flowers, silk fabrics, gloves, watches, wine, and on feathers, sardines, and anchovies, were con- siderably lowered. SWITZERLAND, a federal republic in Cen- tral Europe. A closer union was formed un- der the fundamental laws adopted in 1848, and the Constitution of April 19, 1874. The legis- lative and executive authority of the confed- eracy is vested in the State Council, or Stande- rath, composed of 44 members, chosen by the twenty-two cantons, two for each canton, and the National Council or Nationalrath, chosen by direct election at the rate of one member for every 20,000 inhabitants. Every male citizen over twenty years of age is a voter. Clergymen are not eligible. Both Chambers united form the National Assembly. The ex- ecutive authority is delegated to the Bundes- rath, or Federal Council, consisting of seven members, chosen for three years by the Fed- eral Assembly. The President and Vice- President of the Federal Council are elected by the Federal Assembly for the term of one year, and are not eligible for the next consecu- tive term. The seven members of the Council preside each one over a separate department of the administration. The Bundesgericht, or Federal Tribunal, decides upon questions in dis- pute between the cantons among themselves, or with the Federal Government. It consists of 11 members, elected for six years by the Fed- eral Assembly. The Federal Tribunal is also the court of final resort for all cases. The Federal Assembly sits at Bern, the Federal Tribunal at Lausanne. The cantons have their local government, based upon the principle of the direct sover- eignty of the people. In the smaller cantons, as in Appenzell, Glarus, Unterwalden, and Uri, the laws are passed by the full vote of the citi- zens, meeting at stated periods in open-air as- semblies. In others the acts of the legislative bodies are submitted to the people for con- firmation or rejection. In the more populous cantons the legislative authority is delegated to the Cantonal Great Council, chosen by uni- versal suffrage. The acts of the Cantonal Councils and of the Federal Assembly are subject to the veto of the people, when a referendum or reference to the popular vote is demanded by a certain number. Federal laws are submitted to the popular vote when demanded by 30,000 citi- zens, or by eight cantons. The President of the Federal Council for 1882 was S. Bavier, of the canton of Grisons; the Vice- President was L. Ruchonnet, of the canton of Vaud. The members of the Coun- cil and their departments were as follow : Politics, S. Bavier, the President; Interior, Dr. K. Schenck, of the canton of Bern ; Jus- tice and Police, L. Ruchonnet, the Vice-Presi- dent ; Military Affairs, F. W. Hertenstein, of the canton of Zurich ; Finance and Customs, B. Hammer, of the canton of Soleure ; Com- merce and Agriculture, N. Droz, of the canton of Neufchatel; Posts and Railways, Dr. E. Welti, of the canton of Aargau. AREA AND POPULATION. — The population of Switzerland, as determined by the census of December 1, 1880, was 2,846,102, divided into 1,394,626 males and 1,451,476 females. The area in square kilometres, and the population of each of the cantons and half-cantons into which the confederacy is divided, with the number of Protestants and Roman Catholics in each, and of persons speaking the German, French, and Italian languages, are shown in the table on the following page. The number speaking the Roumansch lan- guage is 38,705, of whom 37,794 live in Grau- btinden. There were 6,675 speaking other languages than those enumerated. The num- ber of foreigners returned was 211,035, of whom 95,253 were Germans, 53,653 French, 41,530 Italians, 12,859 Austrians, 2,812 British, 1,285 Russians and Poles, and 1,111 Americans. The number of Israelites was 7,373 ; of persons of other faiths than the above, 10,838. The number of marriages in 1881 was 19,425 ; of births, 88,503 ; of deaths, 67,341 ; excess of births, 21,162. The population live mostly in small towns and villages. The only towns with over 25,- 000 inhabitants, in 1880, were the following: Geneva, 68,320; Basel, 61,399; Bern, 44,087; Lausanne, 30,179 ; Zurich, 25,102. Geneva is the seat of the watch and jewelry industry, and Basel, of silk and other manufactures. The soil is very equally divided, there being but half a million of the two and a half million inhabitants of Switzerland who possess no property or heritage in land. Of every 100 SWITZERLAND. 773 CANTONS. Area. Population. Protestants. Catholics. German. French. Italian. Zurich 1 724 817 576 283 134 80 298 813 762 — Bern 6S&9 532 164 Hg Lucerne 1 SCO 134 806 £ 419 Uri 1 076 23 694 524 908 51 235 474 15 356 277 Unterwalden Lower 290 11 992 90 Glarus 691 84218 27097 7 065 831()95 27 Zu" 239 22 994 1 218 Fribour°r (Freiburg) 1 669 115 400 18 188 97*113 Soleure . . '783 80424 17 114 63 037 764 35 65 101 44 236 421 59 271 46*670 294 38348 88*897 4 154 AppenzelL, Exterior '260 51 958 48 088 8 694 51 '742 47 1 •'", lf>9 12 841 545 12 294 St Gallen' 2 019 21 1 ('491 83 441 126 164 7184 94991 53'l68 41 711 48 664 115 Aargau 1,404 198645 108 029 88893 197 862 3C6 Thurgau 988 99552 71 821 27 123 99 026 205 237 Ticino (Tessin) 2818 130 777 858 130 017 1 054 Vaud ( Waadt) 3222 238 730 219 427 18 170 21 692 212 164 Wallis (Valais) 5247 100 216 866 99'316 81 962 67 214 1*018 Neufchatel 807 103 732 91 076 11 651 24 489 77 525 1 346 Geneve 279 101,595 4S359 51 557 11 500 86*414 2 199 Total 41 389 2 846 102 1 667 109 1 160 782 2 080 792 608 007 161 923 square miles 20 are pasture-land, 17 forest, 11 arable, 20 meadow, 1 vineyard, and 30 uncul- tivated, including lakes, mountains, and rivers. Emigration was formerly considerable. It declined for several years, but has recently as- sumed larger proportions than ever, owing to the stringency of the military service, and the agricultural attractions of the United States. Between 1868 and 1875 the average annual emigration was 5,170. In 1876 the number of emigrants was 1,741 ; in 1877, 1,691 ; 2,608, in 1878; 4,257, in 1879; 7,255, in 1880; and in. 1881, 10,935. Of the latter number 9,996 emigrated to North America. COMMERCE. — The value of the exports and imports is not published by the custom-house authorities. All merchandise is classified un- der the heads of goods taxed by weight, ad valorem goods, or live-stock. The imports consist chiefly of articles of food ; the ex- ports of cotton and silk manufactures, watch- es, straw hats, and machinery. The importa- tion of live-stock, in 1881, was 254,997 head, the exportation, 106,296. Nearly all other articles are measured in quintals. The com- merce with the adjacent countries in the classes of goods taxed by the quintal was, in 1881, as follows, in metric quintals, of 220 pounds avoirdupois : COUNTRIES. Imports. Exports. France 6143,414 989,895 11,203,579 1,187.501 Austria 1,708,571 248,197 Italy 859,727 219,090 The principal exports in 1879 consisted of 84,000 quintals of silk fabrics, 347,280 of cot- ton manufactures, 1,532 of watches, and 106,- 193 of machinery, besides the exports of cheese and other articles of food. The railroads open to traffic in the beginning of 1881 had a length of 1,600 miles, or over one mile to every ten square miles of surface. There were thirteen companies. The total capital invested was 962,165,525 francs; the cost of construction, 747,350,802 francs ; the number of passengers conveyed in 1880, 21,- 608,581 ; merchandise transported, 5,817,008 tons ; receipts, 60,020,371 francs, of which 23,- 880,719 was from passengers and 31,706,747 from freight; operating expenses, 31,497,203 francs. The length of the state telegraph lines at the beginning of 1882 was 4,140 miles; of wires, 10,100 miles. The number of domestic messages was 1, 837,385 ; of international, 879,- 727 ; dispatched and received, in transit, 329,- 798; official, 83,079; total, 3,129,989. The receipts were 2,453,972 francs; the expenses, 1,963,666 francs. The number of post-offices in 1881 was 803; the number of letters carried, 80,751,538, of which 24,530,310 were foreign ; the number of newspapers sent from Switzerland and Ger- many, 51,472,806; arrived from Germany and Austria, 1,171,913; number of passengers on postal coaches, 829,269; receipts, 15,998,837 francs; expenditures, 13,964,554 francs. The most remarkable feature of the Swiss post-office is the large amounts of money it transfers in money orders, and the numbers of packages and boxes it forwards. The money orders in 1881 amounted to over 240,- 000,000 francs. There were about 12,500,000 small parcels received and delivered within the limits of the Confederation, and 11,000,000 re- ceived from or forwarded to foreign countries. There were, moreover, 6,806,901 boxes and large packages distributed. According to the returns of the Universal Postal Union at Bern, the countries constitut- ing the Union received and dispatched 3,866,- 000,000 letters, 649,000,000 ordinary postal- cards, 1,000,000 postal-cards with answers pre- paid, 1,983,000,000 newspapers, 1,098,000,000 printed inclosures, 64,000,000 samples, and 98,000,000 small parcels. The amount of money paid in post-office orders aggregated 774 SWITZERLAND. over $1,600,000,000. There were 3,418,000,- 000 letters delivered in Europe ; 1,246,000,000 in America; 75,000,000 in Asia; 36,000,000 in Australia, and 11,000,000 in Africa, making 3'5 letters for every inhabitant of the earth, according to the returns of the Postal Union, and those of countries not yet forming a part of the Union. AEMY. — The Federal army is composed of the regular army (Bundesanszug), to which all are liable between the ages of twenty and thirty-two, and the reserve (Landwehr), which comprises all the male citizens between thirty- three and forty-four years of age. The strength of the regular army on the 1st of January, 1882, was 115,754; of the reserve, 92,178 men; together, 208,216 men. FINANCES. — The total receipts of the Federal Treasury, in 1881, were 43,383,026 francs, of which 655,568 were derived from public prop- erty, 214,708 from capital at interest, 17,436,496 from customs, 15, 998,837 from posts, 2,496,039 from telegraphs, 1,274,084 from the mint, 1,- 705,981 from the military administration, prin- cipally the half of the military tax accruing to the Federal Treasury, 3,243,378 from the Fed- eral laboratory, powder-factory, and other monopolies, and 357,935 from other sources. The total disbursements were 42,717,493 francs, of which 1,870,583 were for interest and re- payments, 816,522 for the general cost of the Government, 4,845,603 for the departments, 12,614,971 for the army, 14,129,741 for the post-office, and 8,440,073 for the telegraphs, mint, laboratory, and other purposes. The budget for 1882 makes the total receipts 41,929,000 francs, and the total expenditures 42,294,000 francs. The combined net receipts and expenditures of the cantons and those of the Federal Gov- ernment, for 1876, are shown in the following summary, giving the amounts in francs : NET RECEIPTS. Cantons. Confedera- tion. Total. Forests 2,061,818 2,061,813 Domains . .... 1,011,446 102,559 1,114,005 State industries. 593,676 593.676 4 147 474 804848 4,452,817 Direct taxes 16.454,289 965,764 17,420,003 Indirect taxes 15,037,268 15,845,985 30,883,253 Miscellaneous 437,805 20,582 458,387 Total 39 743 726 17 239,733 56,983,459 NET EXPENDITURES : Interest and repayments. . Legislation and administra- tion 8,007,420 8,673.652 1,220,046 1,275,219 4,227,466 4,948,871 Military 2 1 69 408 12 606,889 14 776 297 Justice 2 779 666 188,183 2,962 849 Prisons 1.080187 1,080,187 Police 2,697,822 17,773 2,715,595 Sanitary affairs 258 977 642 259 619 Agriculture.commerce, etc. Finances 1,534.104 889 909 883,222 816,197 1,917.826 1.206.106 Public Works 11173406 1,789,419 12,962,825 Education,arts and sciences Worship Public charities 8,898,009 8,121,991 2 508 548 888,334 Y5.666 9.286.343 8,121,991 2.523,543 Miscellaneous 809,979 107,575 417,554 Total 44 103 078 18 303 499 62 406 572 The debt of the Confederation amounted on the 31st of December, 1881, to 36,947,044 francs, and the assets to 52,939,752 francs. The aggregate cantonal debts, in 1877, amount- ed to 252,793,373 francs, and the aggregate assets to 456,267,202 francs. All of the twen- ty-five cantons and half -cantons except seven had assets in excess of their liabilities. The excess in both Bern and Zurich was over fifty million, and in Aargau over twenty-five mill- ion francs. A new commercial treaty was concluded with France, after some delay, owing to the demands of the French protectionists. The trade with France is large and important, es- pecially to the Swiss dairy interest. The ex- ports of Swiss cheese to France rose from 600,- 000 francs in 1856 to 8,500,000 francs in 1881, corresponding to a weight of 55,000 metric quintals. Conventions were arranged with France also on the subjects of the residence of the citizens of one country in the other, and the protection of literary and artistic property, and of trade-marks. The opening of the St. Gothard Tunnel and the project of a new Fran- co-Swiss railroad are described elsewhere. FOKEIGN RELATIONS. — The Swiss Govern- ment, which took the lead in furthering the Postal Union, the Red-Cross Association, and similar humane and utilitarian international projects, proposed in 1882 two new subjects for international agreement. One was a com- mon basis of factory legislation. This was re- jected by the various governments — by the German, because factory laws were considered a matter of internal moment ; by the French, because it did not wish to be bound in this question by international regulations ; by the British, on the ground of the unequal industrial conditions of different countries; and by the Austrian and Italian, because the basis of com- mon legislation was not elucidated in the pro- posal of the Federal Council. The second prop- osition was for an international standard of fineness for the precious metals, and reciprocal recognition of the official inspection of each country. This was rejected by all the Euro- pean governments. POLITICS AND LEGISLATION. — The elections of November, 1881, gave the Radical party a ma- jority in the National Council. This party, opposed by the aristocratic and clerical ele- ments in the French and Italian cantons and by the German party in German Switzerland, does not represent an absolute majority of the nation. In consequence, the right of the ref- erendum was exercised in 1882, to an extent which makes the efforts of the last generation to establish a national government in the place of the former loose confederation of semi- independent states appear fruitless, and the National Assembly a useless institution, since its decisions are alway overturned by the ple- biscite. The most important question which has exercised Switzerland in recent times is that of national defense. It was the growth TAIT, ARCHIBALD 0. 775 of enormous armaments in the great nations contiguous to Switzerland which first impelled her people to determine upon a real national union in 1848, which remained an empty dec- laration until the adoption of the Constitution of 1874. The preservation of the popular veto as a safeguard against excessive centralization, and as embodying the Swiss principle of pop- ular sovereignty manifested in its primitive form in the Landsgemeinden of the small can- tons where the whole body of the people de- liberates upon the laws, entirely frustrates the intentions of the Constitution, when exercised as in 1882 to annul the laws of the national Government simply because they emanate from central authorities. A scheme for national fortifications was elaborated by a commission of experts. Its main points were suggested by Colonel Frei, of Basel, who in 1882 received the appointment of Minister to Washington. Colonel Frei is specially fitted for his present post, as he formerly resided in the United States, and fought on the side of the North in the American war. He was taken prisoner and was confined in Andersonville Prison, where he came in contact with the notorious keeper, Wirtz, also a Switzer, from Zurich. The projected fortifications were to be erected on the French frontier, where roads, railroads, and fortresses have been erected by the French Government in recent years, presumably for the purpose of an inroad into Germany through Switzerland, in the case of another German war. The objections to the plans of the mili- tary engineers were not merely the cost, but the suspicions of France which they implied, to which country the Radical-Liberal party is bound by sympathetic ties. The fortification project is consequently postponed. The rejection by a plebiscite of a reform in the military service law indicates the attach- ment of the Swiss people to their old militia system and their opposition to centralization. Their repugnance to the burdens of a central- ized, military state is manifested in the in- creasing emigration to America, and the year- ly decline in the military recruit and in the effective strength of the Federal army. The national Legislature passed in 1882 a law mak- ing vaccination compulsory. The anti-vacci- nationists, who are more zealous than numer- ous, obtained the necessary 30,000 names to a memorial demanding a referendum. When the question came to a vote, the law was vetoed by a large majority, although in several of the cantons vaccination was already compulsory by acts of the local Legislatures, to the gen- eral satisfaction of the people who voted against the national measure. The question of public education, which agitated all Catholic and in a less degree Protestant countries also, came up for final solution in 1882. The law which was passed by the Nationalrath, introducing compulsory secular education, carries out a provision of the Federal Constitution to that effect. The Catholics and a section of the Protestants demanded a plebiscite on this law, and ob- tained the necessary number of names to the memorial with ease ; but the popular vote sustained the act of the Legislature by a large majority. TAIT, AECHIBALD CAMPBELL, D. D., D. C. L., Archbishop of Canterbury, and Primate of all England, born in Edinburgh, December 22, 1811, died in London, December 3, 1882. His early education and training were received in the Edinburgh Academy and University of Glasgow. In 1830 he went to Oxford, where he entered Balliol College. His university career was more than ordinarily brilliant and satisfactory. He took the degree of B. A. in 1833, and obtained a first in the school of Literae Humaniores. Soon after he was elected Fellow of his college, and in due time became Tutor and Dean, taking his M. A. degree in 1836. He was also ap- pointed select preacher in 1843, and his success as a tutor and lecturer, especially in logic, was far beyond the average. He aided materially in placing Balliol College in the front rank of the colleges at Oxford. His habit of doing all his work in the very best manner and to the extent of his ability, and his practical good sense, fairness, and earnest desire to oblige and benefit all with whom he had dealings, made him numerous friends, whose regard and esteem he never lost. In 1841 he was one of the " Four Tutors " who publicly protested against Tract No. 90, and the whole system of inter- pretation of the articles and standards of the Church of England, which John Henry New- man and the Tractarian School were then urg- ing with great power and effect. As Mr. Tait left the university the next year, he topk no further active part in this controversy. In the summer of 1842, by the death of Dr. Arnold, of Rugby, the head-mastership of the school became vacant, and though the candi- dates for the succession were numerous, and some of them were men of mark and influence, the lot fell upon Tait. His success, in follow- ing so popular and so able a man as Arnold, was remarkable, and proved again his good sense and possession of qualities of a high order. In 1843 he was married to Miss Catha- rine Spooner, daughter of Archdeacon Spooner, a lady who proved in every sense of the word a " helpmeet " to him in his varied career and high positions in the Church. His married life was one of happiness and peace, notwithstand- ing the severe afflictions which came upon him in the loss of five young daughters by scarlet 776 TAIT, ARCHIBALD C. fever, at Carlisle, in the spring of 1856, and subsequently of his only son, Crawford, who died, after a lingering illness, in 1878. The active zeal and diligence of Dr. Tait at Rugby began to tell seriously upon his health and strength, and it was intended to give him an opportunity for rest and recreation that he was appointed to the deanery of Carlisle in 1851. But his principles allowed no such course as cessation from labor; and so diligent the sum of $5,000,000. This money was ap- propriated to the erection of churches, schools, and parsonages in the poorer suburbs of Lon- don ; above seventy new districts have become separate and endowed parishes ; and Scripture readers in large numbers, as well as women de- voted to mission work, besides a large accession of working clergy, have done and are doing something, at least, toward supplying the spir- itual wants of the masses. ARCHIBALD CAMPBELL TAIT, D.D., D. C. L. was he in the discharge of the duties of his office — in preaching, in visiting the poor, in looking after the public charities of the town — that, when a bishop was wanted for the great diocese of London, Dr. Tait was placed in it, in 1856, at the direct suggestion of Queen Victo- ria. His labors in this new sphere were abun- dant and unceasing. He felt deeply the need of endeavoring to do something more than had as yet been accomplished for the myriads of the poor in the vast metropolis, and he gave his whole soul to the work. So successfully did he urge upon the wealthy classes their duty in this matter, that, in the course of ten years, the "Bishop of London's Fund " was raised to On the death of Archbishop Longley, in 1868, Dr. Tait was appointed his successor. He had been offered the archbishopric of York some years before, but declined this elevation, pre- ferring to remain and carry on the work un- dertaken in London under his auspices. He was the first Scottish-born Archbishop of Can- terbury, and his appointment was due, beyond doubt/mainly to the Queen. The first measure of importance in which he was called upon to take part, in his new position, was that of the disestablishment of the Irish Church, in 1870. The political necessity of this measure he felt and acknowledged, while at the same time he worked with others in striving to secure to the TARIFF REVISION. 777 church people in Ireland all the benefits pos- sible under the changed state of things caused by disestablishment. In 1870 he was relieved of some of his heavy duties by the appoint- ment of Dr. Parry as suffragan Bishop of Do- ver, and he visited Italy for the benefit of his health. He presided over the Pan-Anglican Synod at Lambeth, in 1867 ; the Church Con- gress at Croyden, in 1877 ; and the Conference of Anglican Bishops in 1878. Mrs. Tait died in 1878, and the effect upon the archbishop was extremely depressing. His chief publica- tions were : " Charges to the Clergy," in the years 1858, 1862, and 1866; "The Dangers and Safeguards of Modern Theology," sermons, etc., in 1861 ; " The Word of God and Ground of Faith," eleven discourses, 1863, 1864 ; sepa- rate sermons, addresses, etc., at different times, together with articles in the "Edinburgh Re- view " and " North British Review." His latest publication was " The Church of the Future," a diocesan charge delivered to rural deaneries, in August and September, 1880. TARIFF REVISION. The existence of a large surplus revenue, the consequent tend- ency to extravagant expenditures, the rapid re- demption of Government bonds, which form the basis of the national currency, and a grow- ing conviction that the industrial and commer- cial interests of the country are oppressed and deranged by heavy taxation, have in the last two years produced a rapidly increasing agita- tion in favor of a thorough revision of the tariff laws of the United States. The effect was felt at the session of Congress which met in December, 1881, but political sentiment was so divided on the subject that it was evidently impossible to secure agreement on any careful measure of reform. The Republican party had a controlling majority in the House of Repre- sentatives, in which revenue measures origi- nate, and, while it had no clearly defined posi- tion regarding the tariff, the preponderating sentiment was in favor of preserving, so far as possible, the protective features of the existing law. The Democrats were in a general way pledged to reform, and a tariff for revenue only, but among them there were wide differ- ences of opinion, some being as strongly at- tached to protective doctrines as any of the opposing party. The need of reducing the revenue was acknowledged on both sides, and the demand for a revision of the tariff was rec- ognized, but there was no chance of agree- ment on any practical measure. The result ol prolonged discussion was the reference of the question of tariff revision to a commission, and an unsuccessful effort to pass a bill to remove or reduce certain of the internal revenue taxes. (See CONGRESS.) THE TARIFF COMMISSION.— The Tariff Com- mission was to consist of nine persons from civil life, to be appointed by the President, with the advice and consent of the Senate. On the 7th of June the President sent to the Senate for approval and confirmation the names of William A. Wheeler, of New York ; John L. Hayes, of Massachusetts ; Henry W. Oliver, Jr., of Pennsylvania ; Austin M. Garland, of Illi- nois ; Jacob Ambler, of Ohio ; John S. Phelps, of Missouri ; Robert P. Porter, of the District of Columbia; John W. H. Underwood, of Georgia ; and Duncan F. Kenner, of Louisiana. Mr. Wheeler declined the appointment, and several gentlemen to whom it was offered, including Mr. A. A. Low, of New York, the Hon. Hugh McCulloch, and the Hon. Erastus Corning, refused to accept it. Mr. Phelps, of Missouri, also declined, and the two vacant places were filled on the 16th of June, by the appointment of Alexander R. Boteler, of West Virginia, and William H. McMahon, of New York. The action of Congress in providing for the commission was generally regarded as in the interest of conservative changes in the tariff, and the maintenance of its protective features, so far as practicable consistently with the desired decrease of revenue. This impres- sion was confirmed by the character and posi- tion of the men appointed as commissioners. Mr. Hayes, who became chairman of the com- mission, was closely identified with the inter- ests of growers and manufacturers of wool, was secretary of their national organization, and the publisher of a journal in Boston devoted to their affairs, and had long had a local rep- utation as an able defender of the protective policy. Mr. Oliver was closely connected with the iron interests of Pennsylvania, being large- ly interested in two extensive establishments at Pittsburg. Mr. Garland was an extensive sheep-raiser, officially connected with the Wool-Growers' Association, and in favor of pro- tecting the raw materials as well as the man- ufactured products of the country. Mr. Am- bler was a man of considerable experience in public life, having seen both legislative and ju- dicial service in his own State, and represented one of its districts in Congress for two terms. He was a decided protectionist, and his ap- pointment was favored by that interest in Ohio. Robert P. Porter, who became the sec- retary of the commission, was chiefly known as a statistical writer, and one of the leading workers in the United States Census Bureau. Mr. Underwood was a man of long experience in public life in the South, and understood to be favorable to the policy of building up man- ufacturing interests in that section with the aid of protection. Mr. Boteler was connected with the Whig party before the civil war, and was regarded as conservative in his views on the tariff. Mr. Kenner was extensively en- gaged in sugar-planting in Louisiana, and rep- resented the claims of that interest. Mr. Mc- Mahon held a prominent position in the New York Custom-House^ and was selected on ac- count of his familiarity with the details of the collection of duties, the difficulty in adminis- tering the laws, and the general requirements of the customs service. He died before the report of the commission was made, but 778 TARIFF REVISION. not before its work was substantially com- pleted. The Tariff Commission first came together at the summons of the Secretary of the Treas- ury, and held a meeting at the Ebbitt House, in Washington, on the 6th of July. It merely organized and considered plans. An address was made to the members by the president, Mr. John L. Hayes, of Massachusetts, in which he said : You will doubtless agree with me that this com- mission has no other functions than those provided by laws, and that its essential duties are defined by the third section of the act constituting the commis- sion, which is as follows : " It shall be the duty of the commission to take into consideration all the vari- ous questions relating to the agricultural, commercial, mercantile, manufacturing, mining, and industrial in- terests of the United States, as far as the same may be necessary for the establishment of a judicious tariff, or the revision of the existing tariff laws upon a scale of justice to all interests." It would be im- proper for me to anticipate the conclusions which should be made by your collective wisdom by any interpretation of my own of the law defining your functions ; but I may, perhaps, be allowed to refer to one phrase in the law constituting the commission, which I think you will agree with me should be the key-note of our deliberations. The law declares that the objective point of our labors is the establishment of a judicious tariff, or a re vision of the existing tariff laws upon a scale of justice to all interests. With this end in view, no special industry can have undue advantage ; no private interest can be sub- served ; no duty promoting one industry, yet oppress- ing another, can be justified, and the relations of the industries to each other, no less than the special ne- cessities of eachj must be considered. Moreover, , through the conditions of justice to all interests made imperative by the law, the constitutional or theoret- ical scruples which might have existed as to the origi- nal propriety of the existing national tariff policy must be waived. A radical or subversive change in the present general economical policy of the country is virtually interdicted, and a judicious, not a revolu- tionary tariff— a revision, not a destruction, of exist- ing tariff laws— is declared to be the object to which our labors shall conduce. I have said that this commission has no other func- tions than those expressed in the law. But there is a paramount and implied condition hi all service to the state, namely, the obligation to regard the interests of the nation, or those all-embracing benefits summed up in the words national prosperity. If, in the defini- tion of the subjects which should receive the consid- eration of the commission, some are omitted which we can scarcely doubt were intended to be kept in view ; if questions of revenue, if the interests of con- sumers, of science, of literature, and of art, are not specially referred to, they may be all included under the implied obligation resting upon us to consider the interests of the nation as a whole. . . . By making the national interests paramount to those of section, class, or industry, we may also find a solution of many questions of opposite individual or sectional in- terests, and may avoid many difficulties by reinein - bering, while not unmindful of justice to existing in- terests, that protective duties snould be imposed or withheld, not for the benefit of individuals or special industries, but for the good of the nation. If, through the spirit and methods of our labors, we should be "so fortunate as to conduce to the result that sectional- ism and partisanship shall sink in the aim for the general good, and the policies and names of protec- tion, free trade, and revenue reform, shall be merged in the broader system and phrase— a national policy — the moral will equal the material benefits of the new economical departure. Sessions were continued in Washington for several days for the completion of preliminary work, and the hearing of testimony was begun at Long Branch, N. J., on the 19th of July. The commission held its sittings at that place until the 22d of August, twenty-nine days being occupied with its investigations there. The witnesses who appeared before it were for the most part representatives of protected in- terests, who were anxious for the retention of high duties. The first witness was a chemical manufacturer from Philadelphia, who said that there were 1,549 chemical establishments in the country, with an aggregate capital of $85,- 000,000, and annual sales amounting to $118,- 000,000, and employing 30,000 people. He was not in favor of reducing duties on manufactured chemicals, but made a suggestion that there should be no tax on raw materials not pro- duced in the country, but should be one on such as are produced in the country, varying in amount according to the importance of the material. Chemical manufacturers, he said, were now independent of Great Britain and the rest of the world, and wished to remain so. His testimony was followed by that of a representative of the Manufacturing Chemists' Association of the United States, who said that they did not object to a revision of the tariff or to reduction of some of the duties. This state- ment was followed by an argument in favor of restoring a 20 per cent duty on quinine. On the 25th of July the commission adopted the following rules regarding the admission of tes- timony: 1. Oral testimony shall be confined to statement of facts relating to or affecting some one or more of the subjects which, under the law, are proper to be con- sidered by the commission, except that when the wit- ness is shown to be an expert upon any such subject he may give his opinions as such expert in relation thereto. 2. The witness may, in the first instance, make his statement without inquiry, or in answer to inquiries, as the commission may from time to time direct, and each witness who testifies shall be subject to exami- nation and cross-examination by any member of the commission. 3. The commission will also receive written state- ments, communications, or arguments upon any sub- ject proper for its consideration ; but such statements, communications, or arguments will not be published, except by the direction of the commission. 4. Persons desiring to be heard in oral argument upon any subject wifl make application to the com- mission in writing, specifying the subject on which they desire to be heard and the time desired. The commission reserves the right, in each instance, to de- termine whether it will hear such proposed argument, and, if it does, what time shall be allowed, and to fix the time and place for the argument. And such argu- ments will not be published except by special order of the commission. 5. Persons who are assigned a hearing on argument are requested to furnish to the commission n state- ment in writing of the points they propose to make, and to be careful in quoting authorities to furnish a list of those cited. On the 26th, the Assistant-Secretary of the Treasury, H. F. French, submitted an argu- ment in favor of simplicity in classifications TARIFF REVISION. 779 and tables, and the avoidance of ambiguity and complexity in the provisions of the law. He was followed by a representative of the Malt- sters' Association, who desired more effective protection against Canadian competition. Then a representative of salt-manufacturers declared that they could not endure any reduction of the duties on salt. An importer and manu- facturer of aniline colors and dye-stuffs favored reduction of duties, saying that 1,200,000 pounds of imported dyes in 1881 paid $1,500,- 000 in duties, and that those which cost $1 a pound in England were sold for $4 in the United States. He was followed by a repre- sentative of the New York Free-Trade Club, in favor of a thorough and radical revision of the tariff. On the 27th there were more argu- ments in favor of a duty on quinine, in the course of which it was stated that the total consumption was 4,000,000 ounces, of which 1,600,000 are consumed in the United States. There were five factories in this country and thirteen in Europe, and the price, which was $4 an ounce when the duty was abolished, had declined to $2. A concern, with an invest- ment of $150,000, produced 200,000 ounces a year. A New York importing house presented a schedule of modified duties for carpetings, silks, woolen fabrics, dress-goods, linens, and cottons. On the following day the linen, hemp, and jute interests put in an appearance, and asked for more protection. There was also a manufacturer of carriages who asked for higher duties. Assistant - Secretary French, on the 31st of July, continued his explanation of the complications and difficulties of the existing tariff system, and advocated the establishment of a customs court. The same day a repre- sentative of the drug interest argued for a revis- ion and simplification of duties, and favored in general the putting of raw materials on the free list. A representative of the New Or- leans Cotton Exchange demanded that jnte- butts, iron cotton-ties, and Manila and Sisal hemp be put on the free list. On the 1st of August the question of sugar duties was brought up, and on this and other occasions it was shown that the Louisiana planters demanded the maintenance of high rates on raw sugars, the refiners favored a reduction on raw but not on refined sugars, and the importers favored a reduction all around. On August 3d an im- porter and dealer in antiquities desired to have them put on the free list ; and a manufacturer of fertilizers asked that sulphur-ore be admit- ted free. On the 4th there was a statement regarding the cultivation of jute in this coun- try, which favored the retention of the existing duty. The Gold-Beaters' Union demanded an increase of duty on gold-leaf; an importer of paint materials favored a reduction of duties; and an importer of linens took the same ground. This was the general position of importers, while that of manufacturers was for the main- tenance or increase of rates. In the early part of August the commission spent two days in New York, examining the methods of the cus- tom-house and appraiser's office. On the 10th, at Long Branch, a hearing was given to manu- facturers of saddlery, hardware, and morocco- leather, the former in opposition to a reduction of duties, and the latter against discrimination between tanned and finished morocco. There was also an argument from a dry-goods im- porter in favor of free raw materials and lower rates for manufactured goods. The same day there were statements in favor of continued protection of sugar-planters and silk-raisers, from persons connected with those interests. These statements show the general character and drift of the testimony as it continued at Long Branch. A maker of cutlery demanded protection for pocket-knives ; a representative of tobacco-growers wanted a duty on Sumatra tobacco-leaf which should prevent its use for cigar- wrappers here, for which it was especially adapted ; silk-growers wanted high duties on raw silk ; and so on. One special interest after another appeared and argued for a tinkering of the tariff which should add to their profits. Growers of raw materials wanted protection ; manufacturers favored free materials, but pro- tective duties on manufactured products ; im- porters and dealers in foreign goods asked for a reduction of duties, but only an occasional voice was raised in behalf of consumers, and little was heard regarding the wider interests of the nation as a whole. On the 23d of Au- gust the commission went to Boston, and spent the three following days in taking testimony there. A variety of manufacturing interests was represented before the commission, promi- nent among which was that of sugar-refining, which protested against high duties on the low grades of foreign sugar. From Boston the commission went to Rochester, N. Y., where there was one session, on the 29th of August. Communications were received there in favor of admitting living trees, flower-seeds, and iron- ores free of duty. Numerous other communi- cations were read at this session, but they had been previously received, and were from vari- ous parts of the country. On the 30th there was a session at Buffalo, at which a reduction of the duties on aniline dyes was opposed, and a reduction of those on pottery was favored, by certain Philadelphia and Boston importers. The only local interest of importance that put in an appearance was that of the maltsters, who desired protection against Canadian malt, but asked for the free admission of barley. August 31st was spent at Cleveland, Ohio, where the principal demand was for an increase of duties on hoop-iron. There was also an argument in favor of protecting the Lake Superior iron-ore interest. At Detroit, Mich., on the following day, a charcoal pig-iron manufacturer argued in favor of retaining the duties on that article, and sundry other interests put in their claims for protection. One day was spent at Indian- apolis and two at Cincinnati, where the iron in- terests were largely represented, and generally 780 TARIFF REVISION. urged the maintenance of high protective du- ties. The potteries and glass-works put in sim- ilar claims. At Louisville, Ky., on the 6th of September, the tobacco interest came to the front to urge the abolition of internal revenue taxes; and communications were received in favor of retaining the duties on sugar, molasses, and rice. The three days following this date were spent at Chicago. The time was largely taken up with the reading of communications received from different parts of the country, though the representatives of some local inter- ests claiming protection appeared. The com- mission was at Milwaukee September llth, at St. Paul September 12th and 13th, and at Min- neapolis September 14th. At the latter place complaint was made of the duty on Canadian wheat, and the retaliatory Canadian duty on flour. Two days were spent at Des Moines, la., and two at St. Louis, September 18th and 19th. At the latter place the lead and zinc interests claimed protection against foreign competition, and arguments were made in favor of maintain- ing the duties on sugar, molasses, and rice. Here an advocate of free trade appeared in be- half of the farmers and great producing classes of the West, claiming that the burden of pro- tecting special interests fell upon them. From St. Louis the commission went through the South, spending one day at Nashville, one at Chattanooga, two at Atlanta, Ga., one at Sa- vannah, one at Charleston, S. C., one at Wil- mington, N. C., and one at Richmond, Va. They heard arguments in favor of protecting sugar, rice, and peanuts, reducing duties on cot- ton-ties, abolishing internal revenue taxes on tobacco, etc. Everywhere the communications and statements came chiefly from representa- tives of special industries or from organizations concerned with local interests. The commis- sion reached Baltimore September 29th, and spent two days there, hearing statements re- garding chemicals, fertilizers, etc. Six days, beginning with October 2d, were spent in the city of New York. There the commercial and importing interests were found to be in favor of a general reduction of duties, but claims were conflicting according to the special ben- efits sought from tariff legislation. Manufac- turers spoke generally for the abolition of du- ties on raw materials, and their maintenance on the finished product. After leaving New York the commission spent three days at Pitts- burg, Pa., one at Wheeling, W. Va., and three at Philadelphia, where it closed its public hear- ings on the 16th of October. An intention to visit the Gulf States and the Pacific coast was abandoned for lack of time. Twenty-nine places were visited in all, seventy-eight days were occupied in taking testimony, and the number of statements received, oral or writ- ten, was 604. The testimony occupied 2,625 printed pages. After the investigations of the commission were completed, some time was spent in pre- paring the report, which was submitted to Con- gress on the first day of the session, December 4th. The commission disavowed any purpose of attempting to construct a new system, or apply different principles from those on which the existing tariff was based. They said in their report : The practical question presented to the commission is that of reconciling the interests of revenue, includ- ing the considerations of its sufficient maintenance or possible reduction, with justice to the interests of the nation involved in the preservation of its industries and the security of its labor. The legislation to be recommended is for the present, and not for posterity, which must meet its own emergencies, and the deter- mination of this question involves considerations of expediency, not the least of which is that the measures recommended be such as shall be acceptable to the country and its representatives in Congress. It must accept the facts that discrimination in the imposition of import duties, a discrimination for the most part positive and avowed, and always, at least, with an in- cidental reference to the defense of the national in- dustries, has been the policy of the country for gen- erations ; that in consequence of this policy thousands of millions of dollars have been invested in special pursuits ; that the whole business of the country has been adjusted to the conditions of things growing out of this policy, and is inseparably identified with it ; and that a subversive or radical change in the present economic system would throw labor out of employ- ment, ruinously depreciate values, and create a gen- eral industrial and commercial disaster. With these views, with the unmistakable evidences of public opinion against radical changes, with the whole cur- rent of the testimony before the commission in recog- nition of the necessity of preserving the general struc- ture of our tariff system, with the clear sanction of the law creating this body, and its injunction to render justice to all interests, the commission has deemed it proper to limit its work to a revision, although a sub- stantial revision, of the existing tariff. The general purpose was to conform to the existing discriminations, and preserve the des- ignations and phraseology of the law while making such changes in rates as were deemed expedient. "Early in its deliberations," says the report, "the commission became convinced that a substantial reduction of tariff duties is demanded, not by a mere indiscriminate popu- lar clamor, but by the best conservative opin- ion of the country, including that which has in former times been most strenuous for the pres- ervation of our national industrial defenses. Such a reduction of the existing tariif the com- mission regards not only as a due recognition of public sentiment and a measure of justice to consumers, but one conducive to the general industrial prosperity, and which, though it may be temporarily inconvenient, will be ultimately beneficial to the special interests affected by such reduction." Entertaining these views, it says, further on : The commission has sought to present a scheme of tariff duties in which substantial reduction should be the distinguishing feature. The average reduction in rates, including that from the enlargement of the free list and the abolition of the duties on charges and commissions, at which the commission has aimed, is not less on the average than 20 per cent, and it is the opinion of the commission that the reduction will reach 25 per cent. The reduction, slight in some cases, in others not attempted, is in many cases from 40 to 50 per cent. The actual amount of the total re- TARIFF REVISION. 781 duction can not be stated with precision, partly from want of time to make the calculations required for such details in the brief period intervening between the final determination in particular cases and the preparation of this report ; and there is no exact standard by which to estimate the amount of reduction in revenue, on account of the varying character, amount, and prices of commodities in the importations of different years. If the reduction reaches the amount at which the commission has aimed, and if there is any truth in the allegation of the opponents of the present economic system, that a duty on articles such as are produced in this country, whether in manufac- tures or agriculture, enhances the price to the con- sumer, not only of what is imported, but of the whole domestic production, to an amount of which the duty is a measure, the reduction proposed by the commis- sion would benefit consumers to the extent of hun- dreds of millions of dollars. As to the principle generally followed in making reductions, it is said that the effort was " to make the reduction apply to commodities of necessary general consumption, and to di- minish or withhold the reduction upon com- modities of high cost, requiring more labor, and which being consumed principally by tho more wealthy classes could bear higher duties, at the same time supplying revenue and en- couraging the higher arts without being op- pressive in their operation." It is further stated that tho purpose was ;'to make a dis- crimination in the rate of the duties imposed upon a manufactured product and the raw ma- terial or partially manufactured product of which it is made, the object being to impose a higher duty upon the latter." By way of showing how momentous were the interests to be affected by tariff legislation, the commission presented the following table, and the sub- joined explanatory remarks, showing the prog- ress of the United States in manufacturing industry during the period of the last thirty years : CENSUS YEAR. Number of establishments. Capital. Average number of hands employed. Total amount wagek paid during year. Value of materials. Value of product*. 1850 123 025 $533 245 351 957 059 $236 755 464 $555 123 822 $1 019106616 I860 140 433 1 009855715 1 311,246 378,878 966 1,031,605092 1,885,861 076 1S70 252,148 2118208769 2,053,996 775,584,343 2.488,427,242 4,232,325,442 1880 253,840 2,790,223,506 2,738,950 947,919,674 8,394,340,026 5,369,667,706 It is to be noted that the figures given for 1870 are upon the basis of the then depreciated currency, while the figures for 1880 are upon a gold basis. The above table shows that capital increased in the decade ending in 1860 about 90 per cent ; during the period between 1860 and 1870, about 110 per cent ; and for the last decade only about 32 per cent, to which should be added the difference in the standard of val- ues. That at the close of the first decade referred to, the number of hands employed increased 37 per cent ; between 1860 and 1870, 75 percent ; and between 1870 and 1880, about 33 per cent. From 1850 to 1860 the wages paid increased 60 per cent ; from 1860 to 1870, 105 per cent ; and from 1870 to 1880, as we come down again to a gold basis, 22 per cent. The materials used from 1850 to 1860 increased 86 per cent ; from 1800 to 1870, 141 per cent ; and from 1870 to 1880, 36 per cent. The value of the products of these manufactures increased from 1850 to 1860, 85 per cent ; from 1860 to 1870, 124 per cent ; from 1870 to 1880, 27 per cent. The progress of the nation in manufactures during the last forty years has been, for capital invested, 423 per cent ; for hands employed^ 180 per cent ; for wages paid, 300 per cent; for materials used, 511 per cent ; and for value of products, 427 per cent. The growth of industries during the last decade, upon the whole, has been a healthy and prosperous one, and yet it lias not more than kept up with the growth of population. The increase in population during the last ten years has been about 30 per cent, whereas it has been shown that the increase of capital invested in manufactures has been 32 per cent ; in the number of hands employed, 33 per cent ; in the amount of wages paid, 22 per cent ; in the value of materials consumed, 36 per cent ; and in the value of the products, 27 per cent. According to Mr. Mulhall, an English statistician of recognized authority, the total value of the products of English manufactures for 1880 was about $4,000,- 000,000. The table above given shows the value of the products of our own manufactures to be, in round numbers, $5,370,000,000, giving the United States the eminence of being the greatest manufacturing country in the world. The commission presented a series of sched- ules of duties to be imposed under its proposed revisions of the law, and also various changes in the administrative methods of the revenue system. Among the latter were the substitu- tion of a single entry-fee at the custom-house, for numerous and annoying small fees ; giving authority for certain procedures already in use without the sanction of law ; giving facili- ties for the importation of the personal effects of immigrants ; providing that the weights and measures employed in invoices may be those in general use in the country of exportation ; requiring invoices of merchandise subject to ad valorem duties to be made out in the cur- rency actually paid therefor, as well as that of the country from which importation is made ; limiting the requirements of triplicate invoices to articles subject to ad valorem duties only ; making it imperative that, before certifying to an invoice, the consular officer shall require an oath, affirmation, or declaration that the in- voices are correct ; providing more equitable, rigid, and efficient penalties for under- valua- tions; providing for an appraisement, separate and distinct in all cases ; permitting the exam- ination of bulky goods for appraisement at other places than the public stores. Provision was also made for the repeal of the require- ment of the existing law that land transporta- tion costs and charges should be added to the basis of computation for ad valorem duties, and a bill was submitted for establishing a customs court for the determination of disputed ques- tions arising under the tariff laws as to the classification of duty on imported merchan- dise, etc. The schedules of duties were fourteen in 782 TAEIFF REVISION. number, lettered from " A " to " N." Sched- ule " A " comprised chemical products which were before included in " sundries." The capi- tal invested in the interest was said to have in- creased nearly 200 per cent in ten years, while the amount paid in wages had more than doub- led, and the value of the product had increased from $47,397,388 to $117,407,054. Many ar- ticles, mostly raw materials of manufacture, previously subject to duty, were placed on the free list ; and most of the changes in rates were in the direction of reduction. Counting addi- tions to the free list, the general reduction of duties on chemical products was 25 to 30 per cent of the old rates. Schedule " B " com- prised earthenware and glass-ware. No change was recommended in the duty on brown earth- enware and common stone-ware, and that on white and printed earthenware, white and decorated china, porcelain, and parian ware was increased 15 per cent. It was claimed that this increase was largely offset by the abo- lition of duties on packages, inland freights, and charges and commissions. The old rates on window and plate glass were retained, and those on cut, engraved, printed, colored, and other fancy glass-wares were raised from 40 to 50 per cent ad valorem. Schedule u C " cov- ered metals. Increase of production in the principal industries affected by this class of duties is shown in the census statistics to be from 1,434 establishments in 1850 to 3.532 in 1880, from 22,370 to 298,862 hands employed, from $16,370,760 to $416,041,643 of invested capital, from $7,165,248 to $122,648,191 paid in wages, from $43,797,854 to $380,304,950 value of materials used, and from $83,954,529 to $604,553,460 value of products. In the commission's revision of the schedule of duties specific rates were substituted for ad valorem, and the changes were in the direction of reduc- tion throughout the list. No material change was made in the duty on iron-ore, but fifty cents a ton instead of 20 per cent ad valorem was recommended. The rate for pig and scrap iron was three tenths of one cent per pound, a slight increase for cast scrap-iron, and a re- duction for pig-iron. The rate on steel rails was reduced from $28 per ton of 2,240 pounds to eight tenths of a cent per pound. Duties on the different kinds of bar-iron were reduced from 10 to 20 per cent on the old rates ; those on sheet-iron were not materially changed ; varying reductions to a moderate extent were made on hoop, band, and scroll iron. Reduc- tions on hardware, tools, etc., varied from 20 to 50 per cent. The duty on tin plates was considerably increased. The reductions recom- mended on steel ranged from one fourth of one cent per pound on the lower class to about 30 per cent on the higher grades of crucible steel. On iron and steel wire the reductions ranged from 20 to 30 per cent ; on manufac- tures of copper, lead, and zinc, from 15 to 25 per cent. All compound duties were discarded. The high duty on copper-ore was retained. The duties on woods comprised in schedule " D " were not changed. Schedule " E " con- tained the duties on sugar, which were simpli- fied and reduced. The polariscope test of sac- charine strength was adopted, and the reduc- tions were equivalent to 21-70 per cent on sugars below No. 13 Dutch standard, and 10 per cent on those above that grade. No changes were made in the duties on tobacco included in schedule F, except to abolish the compound duty on cigars, making the rate $3 per pound. Schedule G included provisions. In this there were few changes, and those in the direction of reduction, but specific duties were substituted for ad valorem. Schedule H embraced liquors, and no material change was made, except to abolish allowances for breakages. Schedule I included all cotton goods. Compound duties were abolished, specific rates generally adopted, and the classifications were simplified. Some reduction was effected in the duties, though they remained at rates equivalent to from 30 to 60 per cent of the cost of the goods. Schedule "J" (fiax, hemp, etc.) was simplified, but no material change was made in the rates of duties. Next to the metals schedule that of wrool and woolens, designated as "K," was regarded as the most important. Here alone compound duties were retained. It was claimed that reductions were effected amounting to from 18 to 40 per cent, being greatest on the cheaper goods, but duties were retained on raw material as well as manufactured products. In the silk sched- ule (" L ") specific were substituted for ad valo- rem duties, and a reduction effected said to be equivalent to about 23 per cent. The product of manufactured silks had increased from $12,- 739,362 to $41,033,045 in the single decade from 1870 to 1880. Books and papers were taken from "sundries" and classified in a sepa- rate schedule designated " M," but no material change was made in the duties. Schedule " N " included sundries. The free list was somewhat enlarged. The total value of merchandise imported into the United States in 1881 was $650,618,999.63, of which $202,557,411.68 came in free of duty, and $448,061,587.95 were dutiable. The amount of duties collected was $193,800,879.67. The total amount of the manufactured products of the country in 1880 is put at $5,369,667,706, and classified as follows under the tariff sched- ules in the report of the commission : Product! In 1880. $117,407,054 SCHEDULE. A. Chemicals B. Earthen and glass ware C. Metals 604,553,460 D. Woods 509,485,6 1 1 E Sugars 181,404,520 F' Tobacco"" 118,665.866 G. Provisions 1,036,572,580 H. Liquors 142,122,048 I. Cotton 210,950.383 j Flax 5,518,866 K. Woolens 267,182,914 L Silk 41,038,045 M and N.' Sundries, books, etc 1,159,989,616 liemainder 945,825,550 Total ... $5,8(59,667,706 TARIFF REVISION. 783 While the classifications and rates of duty fixed in the schedules were not satisfactory to all the members of the commission, they re- ceived their final assent. Commissioner Un- derwood, however, did not concur in the recommendation for the establishment of a customs court. Commissioners Ambler, Por- ter, and Underwood withheld their approval from the retention of compound duties in any case. Commissioner Ambler did not concur in recommending the abolition of duties on what are known as "dutiable costs and charges," considering those to be a legitimate part of the cost of the goods. Commissioners Garland and Ambler recommended the adop- tion of a system of valuation for goods, subject to ad valorem duties, based on the value of the goods in the markets of the United States at the time of their importation. With these qualifications, the report was signed by all the members of the commission, except Mr. Mc- Mahon, who died before it was finished. The report was referred, on the first day of the session of Congress, to the Ways and Means Committee of the House of Representa- tives, which proceeded to construct a bill of its own, based on the suggestions of the com- mission. The Finance Committee of the Sen- ate also set about framing a measure which was attached as an amendment to the House bill for reducing internal revenue taxes which had passed the lower branch at the preceding session. The Senate bill was the first to be reported, and was called up for consideration on the 10th of January. The House bill was reported by the Ways and Means Committee on the 16th. A caucus of the Republican members of the House, held on the 19th, de- cided that it should be brought up for con- sideration on the 21st, and have preference over all other legislation, except appropriation bills, until disposed of. It was not, however, brought up until the 25th. Both the House and Senate bills contained many variations from the rates proposed by the commission, and some changes in classification were made. The Ways and Means Committee of the House had taken a number of articles, including qui- nine, from the free list and subjected them to duties, and had raised the rates in many cases, especially in the metals and wool and woolen schedules. In the Senate bill there were fewer instances of increase, while some re- ductions were made from the rates proposed by the commission. The two bills were under discussion, and subject to amendment, for sev- eral weeks. Many changes were made in the Senate bill, the general disposition appearing to be in favor of reduction, while there was a strong pressure of special interests to main- tain or advance rates. The schedules which excited most debate were those including lum- ber, iron and steel, sugar, and woolen manu- factures. By the 20th of February the House had practically abandoned all effort to dispose of its own measure, and had failed in an effort to pass a bill for the reduction of internal revenue taxes by a two -thirds vote under a suspension of the rules. On the date men- tioned the Senate passed its bill, by a vote of 42 to 19. Nine Democratic Senators voted for the bill, and 18 against it — Mitchell, of Pennsylvania, being the only Republican re- corded in the negative. The bill as passed by the Senate was satis- factory neither to the revenue reformers nor to the high protectionists. The latter class had the predominating influence, and were determined to secure further modifications by forcing the matter into the hands of a com- mittee of conference, without permitting a direct vote on the question of concurrence in what was nominally an amendment of the House revenue bill, or on the question of passing the bill. The measure might be passed under a suspension of the rule by a two-thirds vote, or it might corne up for concurrence or non-concurrence in the Senate amendment, when the question could be settled by a ma- jority vote. The chance of its being reached under the rules for the latter action was slen- der, and a rule was proposed by Mr. Kasson, of Iowa, permitting the House to take up the bill for concurrence or non-concurrence at any time by a majority vote. Those who desired to make further changes in the rates, were not willing to risk the chance that the bill might pass by a two-thirds vote under a suspension of the rules, if a motion to that eifect were made, and were afraid that the Senate amend- ment would be concurred in, should a vote on that question be taken under the proposed new rule. Their desire was to shut off every al- ternative but a reference to a committee of conference. A caucus of Republican mem- bers of the House was held on the 22d of February, and, after considerable discussion, the following resolution was adopted : Resolved, That in the opinion of this caucus the House should vote to non-concur in the Senate amendment to the House revenue bill, and should refer the same to a committee of conference of five members from each House. Although there were 118 members present at the caucus, only 85 votes were cast for the resolution. Mr. Kasson tried to get a decla- ration in favor of so amending the rules as to "enable the majority of the House to reach and finally act at this session upon the reve- nue and appropriation bills," but did not suc- ceed. On the 24th the House Committee on Rules reported the following : That during the remainder of this session it shall be in order at any time to move to suspend the rules, which motion shall be decided by a majority vote, to take from the Speaker's table House bill iNo. 5,538, with Senate amendments thereto, entitled " A bill to reduce internal revenue taxation," and to declare a disagreement with the Senate amendments to the same, and to ask for a committee of conference there- on, to be composed of five members on the part of the House. If such motion shall fail, the bill shall re- main on the Speaker's table unaffected by the decision of the House on said motion. 784 TAKIFF REVISION. As the united opposition of the Democrats was anticipated to this so-called amendment to the rules, it was necessary to secure a Re- publican quorum to adopt it. An effort was made on the 26th, but without success. Prompt- ly on the following morning, however, the rule was adopted by a vote of 129 to 22, most of the Democrats refraining from voting. The question of the constitutional right of the Senate to originate revenue measures was then raised. Mr. Hammond, of Georgia, offered a resolution declaring that the action of the Senate, in substituting for the House bill to reduce internal revenue taxation, a proposition imposing both import duties and internal taxa- tion, was in conflict with the true intent and purpose of the clause of the Constitution which requires that all bills for raising reve- nue shall originate in the House of Represent- atives, and declaring further that the bill with Senate amendments shall lie upon the table. A substitute was offered by Mr. Haskell, of Kansas, as follows: Whereas, House bill No. 5,538, entitled " An act to reduce internal revenue taxation, and for other pur- poses," under the form of an amendment in the Sen- ate to title 33 of the Eevised Statutes, which provides for duties on imports, has been so modified and changed, by the introduction of new provisions, containing among other things a general revision of the statutes referred to, as both to increase and reduce duties on imports, and in many instances to repeal and in oth- ers to amend the laws imposing import duties ; and Whereas, In the opinion of the House, it is believed that such changes and alterations are in conflict with the true intent and purpose of tho Constitution, which requires that all bills for raising revenue shall origi- nate in the House of Eepresentatives : therefore — Resolved, That if this bill shall be referred to a com- mittee of conference it shall be the duty of the con- ferees on the part of the House on said committee to consider fully the constitutional objections to said bill as amended by the Senate and herein referred to, and to bring the same, together with the opinion of the House m regard hereto ^ before said conference, and if necessary, in their opinion, after having conferred with the Senate conferees, said conferees on said com- mittee may make report to the House in regard to the objections to said bill herein referred to. This was adopted by a vote of 139 to 122. Mr. Kelley, of Pennsylvania, then moved to sus- pend the rules, take from the Speaker's table the internal revenue bill, with Senate amend- ments, non-concur in those amendments, and appoint a conference committee, to consist of five members on the part of the House. Agreed to — yeas 148, nays 110. This was a party vote, except that Messrs. Converse, Curtin, Ermen- trout, Hardenbergh, Klotz, Ladd, Morse, Mutch- ler, Phelps, Wilson, and Wise, of Pennsylvania, voted with the Republicans in the affirma- tive, and Messrs. Brumm, Burrows, of Missouri, Campbell, and Updegraff, with the Democrats in the negative. The conferees first appointed on the part of the Senate were, Senators Morrill, Sherman, Aldrich, Bayard, and Beck. Those on the part of the House were, Kelley. McKin- ley, Haskell, Randall, and Carlisle. The first three in each case were Republicans, and known high-tariff men. The others were Democrats, and, with the exception of Randall, revenue reformers. On the next morning, February 28th, Mr. Randall asked to be relieved from service on the conference committee, and the request was granted. Mr. Morrison, of Illinois, and Mr. Tucker, of Virginia, having succes- sively declined to serve, Mr. Speer, of Georgia, was appointed to the vacant place. In the Senate, on the same day, in view of the con- stitutional question raised in the House after the conference was asked for, the following resolution was adopted without a division : Resolved, That it is the opinion of the Senate that the conference on the House bill 5,538 (the internal revenue and tariff bill) should be full and free, and that if the Senate conferees become advised that any limitation has been placed by the House upon the ac- tion of their conferees the Senate conferees shall retire and report the fact to the Senate for its consideration. At the first conference, on the evening of February 28th, the House resolution regarding the Senate's right in respect to revenue bills was presented, and Senators Bayard and Beck took the ground that it made it necessary for the Senate conferees under their instructions to report without further conference. Their Republican colleagues did not agree with them, and on the following morning Messrs. Bayard and Beck asked to be relieved from further service on the committee. They were excused, and Senators Voorhees and McPherson were named. Mr. McPherson declined, and Mr. Har- ris was named. He declined also, and then Mr. Voorhees asked to be excused. Messrs. Morgan and Gorman were next named, and asked to be excused. The same result fol- lowed with Messrs. Davis, of West Virginia, and Jones, and with Messrs. Butler and Mnxey. It being intimated that no Democrats could be found to serve, Senators Ingalls and Mahone were appointed. The former declined, as did Mr. Miller, of California ; and finally Mr. Mc- Dill was named, and the committee was once more complete. The committee reached an agreement and made a report to the two Houses on the evening of the 2d of March. In the Senate, after an explanation of the report by Mr. Morrill, and a short debate, in which Mr. Beck opposed the changes that had been made, a vote was reached at 12.30 A. M. of March 3d. It resulted in an acceptance of the report by a vote of 32 to 31. The report was not consid- ered in the House until the regular session of March 3d, when Mr. Kelley made an explana- tion, and a debate followed, in which Mr. Car- lisle was the chief opponent of the committee's work. A vote was taken at 5.30 P.M., and the report was agreed to — 152 to 116. Twenty Democrats only voted for the bill, and 16 Re- publicans voted against it. The day's session continued into the morning of Sunday, March 4th, and before the adjournment the tariff bill was signed by the President. The effect of the bill is a matter which it is difficult to calculate in advance of any expe- rience of its working, and opinions differ as to TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES. 785 the extent of the reduction in revenue to be sus. The following are the statistics of the effected. Mr. Kelley, m explaining the action telegraph companies • of the conference committee in the House, esti- mated the total reduction at $65,000,000 to From messages $70,000,000, of which $35,000,000 to $40,000,- £rom other source's .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.' .'.'.'.'.'.".'.'.'. '.'.'.'. !'.!!!! a^JS? 000 would be taken from the internal revenue. Net All internal revenue taxes were repealed ex- cept those affecting whiskey, beer, tobacco, and Salaries .4836 m bank circulation, and those on tobacco were Generai expenses !'.'.'. '.'.'.'. '.'."'. !!"/. 2sod'i5s materially reduced. Those entirely abolished 5&Y expenses were the taxes on bank capital and ch ecks, and Total '.'.'.'. I '.'.'.".".'.I'.'.!' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' .' ." " .' .' 10,218,281 on matches, patent medicines, and perfumery. CHARGES AND OTHER ITEMS. Those on tobacco were reduced one half, viz., Interest paid on debt *5C4 341 from sixteen to eight cents per pound, a pro- sinking-fluid appropriation ! " " 1 1 " ! " " ." I " " ! 40^000 portionate reduction being made in the case of Netincome" BS2J'i cigars and cigarettes. Of the final changes in Dividends teetered! I!!"!!.'!.*!.".!.'!! !.T. !*.'!.'.'."! 4,i36j49 the rates of duty the following may be men- BALANCE FOR THE TEAR. tioned as most important: Those on common f"1!?1.118 $1,882.971 earthenware increased from 50 to 55 per cent ad valorem ; but it was claimed that this was ^ w ASSETS * offset by excluding packing and transportation Cash ° !e.\'.\'.\'.\::.\\':.\^.\\\\'.'.':'' ^'SsnS charges. Painted and gilded earthenware was ?ills receivable I"".".".!"."!! 'i79,n269 transferred to the class of china and porcelain, iSS^S*™1** and made to pay 60 per cent. The rate on iron- ore was increased to 75 cents per ton, the com- r_r,tnl Btor>v LIABILITIES. pound duty under the old law amounting to 57 ^^^:.\\v;:.\\\\\,v.v.v.;:..;;;.:v:.:v. $ SSI cents, and that recommended by the commis- other debt il20i',67i sion being 50 cents. The old rate on steel rails ^fiSlfcv.V.V." ^ .'.V.'.! ! ! 5?SSS was $28 per ton ; it was fixed by the confer- ence committee at $17. There was a moder- Alf. . .. . ate reduction on pig and bar iron. In the large Au*^$aS£!^;... 968,62i and important schedules of cotton and woolen Amount $75,907^250 materials and goods there were many changes, l8NumbTrofS shaves. . . 889 148 but the reduction m rates was comparatively Amount $66,529',200 small, and in some cases they were increased. MESSAGES TRANSMITTED.! Mr. Kelley, in his explanation, stated that cot- Number for the press 8,154,898 ton goods, which previously paid 35 per Cent Number for other persons 28,548,788 ad valorem (such as stockings, hose, shirts, and 8i,703,isi drawers), would have to pay 40 per cent; and DESCRIPTION OF LINES. while there was a reduction of about 18 per Total length of lines— miles 110,726 cent on wool (the raw material), the duties on R^^'J^'^^: IJg? all-wool fabrics was increased from 6 and 8 Principal terminus stations 205 cents a yard and 35 and 40 per cent ad valorem, Number of P°les set durme the year 243'848 to 9 cents a yard and 40 per cent ad valorem. AVERAGE NUMBER OF PERSONS EMPLOYED. Jute-butts were taken from the free list and General officers 172 subjected to a duty of $5 a ton. The duty of g'erltt?106"0161*8 9 661 25 per cent on printed books was retained. In Messengers'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.".'.".!!!'.'.".'.;.".! 2^469 the SUgar schedule there Was reduction in the Line-repairers and other employe's grades below number 13, Dutch standard, to ' M|W8 2f cents a pound, amounting to about 15 per The census report on the telephone system cent of the old rates. On the higher grades of the United States gives returns of 148 com- the reduction was about 28 per cent. panics and private concerns, which had 34,305 There was ample evidence that the result miles of wire, 54,319 receiving telephones, and was satisfactory to no considerable class of 3,338 employes, citizens, and that the work of revising the ' tariff was not regarded as by any means com- p^a**3R5^ plete. The reduction in revenue was very ments, but the assets, liabilities, etc., of such companies, be- moderate, that in the burden of taxation still Sab^fs^stk?61' railroad accounts' are not inclnded ta less, while the complications and uncertainties t Twenty-seven of the seventy-seven companies make no of the tariff were hardly diminished. The new Jgg* the ^£fgSJS^fKl^Tt law was to take effect July 1, 1883. operation, two make no report, the Baltimore and Ohio is TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES. Sta- operated by the railroad company, and the Gold and Stock tisticsof the telegraph and telephone compa- ^^S^^^ STS^SS^ mes Of the United States Were Collected by the ceipts from messages, have kept no record of the number of national fi-nvprnmAnt-fnr tliA fii-at timA in 1 RRO messages sent. The receipts from these companies are only U b-OVernment tor tne first time in IbSO, a ]ittlegmore than 2 per cent of the total receipts from mes- and are given m the reports of the tenth cen- VOL. xxn. — 50 A 786 TENNESSEE. TENNESSEE. STATE OFFICERS. — Gover- nor, Alvin Hawkins ; Secretary of State, D. A. Nunor; Treasurer, M. T. Polk; Comptroller, James N. Nolan; Superintendent of Public Schools, W. S. Doak (died in July), succeeded by G. S. W. Crawford ; Commissioner of Ag- riculture, Statistics, Mines, and Immigration, A. W. Hawkins; Attorney-General, B. J. Lea; Adjutant-General, Ernest Hawkins. Judges of the Supreme Court : J. W. Deadrick, Chief- Justice ; T. J. Freeman, Peter Turney, W. F. Cooper, and W. J. McFarland, Associate Jus- tices. United States Senators, Isham G. Harris and Ho well E. Jackson. Members of the Forty- seventh Congress : J. D. C. Atkins, L. C. Houk, J. F. House, Benton McMillan, W. E. Moore, A. H. Pettibone, C. B. Simonton, W. C. Whit- thorne, Richard Warner, and George G. Dibrell. Speaker of the State Senate, George H. Mor- gan ; Speaker of the House of Representatives, H. B. Ramsey. Members (elect) of Forty-eighth Congress— First District, A. H. Pettibone, Re- publican; Second District, L. C. Houk, Re- publican; Third District, George C. Dibbrell, Democrat ; Fourth District, Benton McMillan, Democrat; Fifth District, James D. Tillman, Democrat; Sixth District, A. J. Caldwell, Dem- ocrat ; Seventh District, J. G. Ballentine, Dem- ocrat ; Eighth District, John M. Taylor, Demo- crat ; Ninth District, Rice A. Pierce, Democrat ; Tenth District, Carey Young, Democrat. FINANCES. — The biennial report of the Treas- urer, dated December 20, 1882, states as fol- lows: Balance in Treasury December 20, 1880 $222,424 39 Amount received to December 19, 1881 1,087,147 18 Amount received to December 19, 1882 783,076 84 Total $2,092,648 41 Amount paid out on Comptroller's payable warrants from December 20, 1S80, toDecem- ber20,1881 $680,231 87 Amount paid out from December 20, 1881, to December 20, 1882 904,401 46 Total $1,584,633 33 leaving a balance on hand December 20, 1882, of $508,015.08. The State tax levy for 1882 was 20 cents on the $100, which, on the as- sessed value of the taxable property in the State, amounting to $221,929,813, should pro- duce $443,859.60, of which up to December 20th only $142,823.72 were collected, leaving unaccounted for or uncollected $301,035.88. The taxable property of the State for the year is as follows : Acres of land, 25,199,578, valued at ... . . $146,657,833 Value of town lots 48.725.735 Value of other property 26,546,245 Total value $221,929,813 This is a decrease of $3,360,060 as compared with 1881 ; but the value of personal property in 1882 shows an increase of $10,412,907 as compared with that of the previous year. The State debt, upon which no interest has been paid since July 1875, with the exception of those bonds held by educational and chari- table institutions, and by the widow of Presi- dent James K. Polk, has agitated the State during the entire year. The decision of a ma- jority of the Judges of the Supreme Court of the State, in the case of Henry J. Lynn et als vs. M. T. Polk et als, delivered in February, declared the act of April, 1881, "to settle and compromise the bonded indebtedness of the State," to be unconstitutional and void. This act was designed to fund the entire debt at 100 cents on the dollar in bonds bearing 3 percent annual interest, payable in ninety-nine years after date of issue, but redeemable at any time after five years at the pleasure of the State, and the act further provided that the interest coupons of the new bonds be receivable, at and after maturity, for all taxes and debts due to the State, and that the Secretary of State, Comptroller and Treasurer should constitute a "funding board" to carry out the purposes of the act. The court, by three of the judges (Judges Turney, Freeman, and McFarland), against two (Chief-Justice Deadrick and special Judge Ewing), held that the 3 per cent adjust- ment was legal, but that the part of the act making the coupons receivable for taxes was illegal, because the Legislature has no power to contract away the State revenues for such a time, or to make any contract which a subse- quent Legislature can not modify or repeal. Said Judge Turney : If the proposal to compromise is held good and shall be accepted by the bondholders, it will then be out of the power of any Legislature to at all interfere with the law under any circumstances. The provis- ion that the coupons shall be receivable for taxes and all debts due the State becomes a contract. The language of the provision gives to the holder the right to employ such means and legal process as will compel compliance, and so far the financial agency will be transferred to the creditors and through them to the courts, taking the management and control of the Treasury out of the hands of the Legislature and placing them beyond the protection of the courts of the State. The moment the contract is executed it becomes the subject of Federal jurisdiction, and all the State courts are subordinate jurisdictions, and whatever may be the rulings of the State courts, and whenever the suit may be instituted for the enforcement of the contract, the Supreme Court of the United States will have the final and, of course, conclusive jurisdiction. Its decisions will be binding upon the State courts. This will be a surrender of sovereignty. The State will no longer be its own guardian, with power to make provisions for its support and existence, but will be the ward of the Federal Government for ninety- nine years, its estate to be administered at the beck and nod of the bondholder, a centralization of the worst form. A further consequence of the act will be a surren- der by the State of its inherent as well as constitu- tional right of determining when and in what court and in what form it may be sued, or of withholding or withdrawing its liability to suit at its pleasure. It is the right and duty of the State to hold its own purse-strings, to be its own financial agent, to provide for its own necessities, and to maintain its own sover- eignty. These rights and duties must be exercised and performed at any cost and under all circum- stances. If the act before us is declared to be constitutional, they are all gone by an absolute transfer to the bond- holders to be administered in a foreign court. TENNESSEE. 787 Chief-Justice Deadrick, in pronouncing the dissenting opinion, said : 1. I am of opinion that the title of the act, " to compromise ana settle the bonded indebtedness of the State of Tennessee," sufficiently expresses the subject thereof; that it contains but one subject, the several sections of the act being pertinent to the object ex- pressed in the title, and therefore it is not void, as be- ing repugnant to section 17 of Article II of the Con- stitution of Tennessee. 2. I am further of opinion that the courts of the State have no power to review or reverse the legisla- tive action of the General Assembly, except for the reason that such action is violation of the Constitu- tion ; and that such action, if within their constitu- tional power, can not be questioned by the courts of the State upon allegations of fraud and bribery. 3. I am also of opinion that tax-paying citizens may file their bill to protect themselves from the injurious operation of a threatened and impending act wnich is alleged to be unconstitutional, although such act is about to be performed under the apparent authority of the State. The court may inquire if there exists legal authority for the act ; if so, it will not impede or obstruct it. On the other hand, if it appears it is pro- hibited by the fundamental law, it should restrain it upon the ground that the injurious act about to be done is unauthorized by law. 4. I am, therefore, or the opinion that the constitu- tionality of the act is fairly presented to this court for its decision and that the question for our deliberation is, Had the Legislature the power to pass it ? And in my opinion it had the power— there being no exhi- bition or restraint in the Constitution to prevent it from doing so. I, therefore, concur with Judge Ewing hi holding that the act is constitutional and valid, and that the Chancellor's decree dismissing the bill should be af- firmed. The General Assembly which passed the 100-3 act, was convened by Governor Haw- kins in extraordinary session, for the express purpose of adjusting the debt, and passed an act on May 19, 1882, known as the " 60-6 act," authorizing the funding of the debt by issuing new bonds for sixty cents on the dollar, bear- ing 3 per cent interest for the first two years, 4 per cent for the next two years, 5 per cent for the next two years, and 6 per cent there- after, and declaring that the funding under this act should cease after January 1, 1883. The necessary steps were taken to execute this law immediately after its passage, but at the close of the year the Comptroller reports that the holders of more than half of the outstanding bonds had declined to avail themselves of its provisions. It is reported that, under this act, only $13,706,812.77 of the old bonds and ac- crued interest have been funded, that is, at 40 per cent off, new bonds for $8,226,540 have been issued, leaving upward of $14,000,000, bonds and overdue interest, still unfunded. This act was passed in acceptance of the prop- osition made by Mr. Eugene Kelly, of New York, as the chairman of the bondholders' committee, and as authorized to act in their behalf by a reported majority in numbers and amount of the holders of Tennessee bonds. The failure of all the bondholders to avail themselves of the compromise offered by this act within the specified time, left the question of the debt still as a bone of contention be- tween those who favored the full payment of the debt, and were opposed to the compro- mise, and those who advocated the payment of a much smaller proportion of it than the act contemplated, and it consequently became a leading party issue in the canvass preceding the fall elections. The Democrats were di- vided into two parties, the " State-Credit " and the " Low-Tax " parties, and the Republicans expected, by alliance with the " State-Credit " Democrats, to carry the State, and obtain the power and patronage of the government. The total bonded debt, as reported by the Comptroller on April 1, 1882, was $20,206,800 Op The accrued interest amounted to 8,188,551 50 Total liability April 1, 1882 $28,889,851~50 The Eepublican State Convention met May 3d, at Nashville, and nominated Alvin Haw- kins for re-election as Governor. The Democratic Convention, representing both wings of the party, met on June 20th, and on the fifth ballot nominated General W. B. Bate as the Democratic candidate for Gov- ernor. The nomination was afterward made unanimous. The division of opinion on the question of the State debt caused a protracted discussion on the majority and three minority reports of the committee on resolutions and platforms, resulting in the adoption of the ma- jority report, which is as follows : The Democracy of Tennessee, in State Convention assembled, declare : 1. That the Democrats of Tennessee, with their ma- jority of the popular vote, are the rightful guardians of the honor and good name of the State, and that they willingly accept the duty and responsibility of preserving them from taint or suspicion, and that it is equally their right and duty to settle its indebted- ness. 2. That while we accord to all an honest difference of opinion, we regard the enactment of the 60-3-4-5-6 as unwise, because it is, in our opinion, not in accord with the views of the people. 3. That there is a portion of the State debt, such as the bonds issued for the building of our Capitol, for the purchase of the Hermitage, etc., and commonly known as the State debt proper, with accrued inter- est, the validity of which has never been disputed by any portion of our party, we consider as a valid and sacred obligation of the State, and favor the payment of the same in full, leSs war interest. 4. That we tender to our creditors a settlement of the remainder of the State debt, by paying one-half the principal and accrued interest by issuing the bonds of the State bearing interest at the rate of 3 per cent per annum for the first ten years, and 4 per cent interest from thence to their maturity. 5. That we are unalterably opposed to every species of monopoly as destructive of liberty and the best in- terest of the people, and to this end we favor the es- tablishment of a commission, the object of which shall be to regulate the tariffs charged by the railroads of the State so as to put an end to the unjust discrim- ination by said roads in favor of througn as against local freights. 6. That wo favor the time-honored doctrine of in- struction, and recognize the right of the people at all times and upon all questions to communicate their views to their representatives. 7. That we favor an efficient public-school system, and the liberal education of all the children of the State. 8. We arraign the Kepublican party for its venality 788 TENNESSEE. and corruption in the administration of the State and Federal Government, and for its total disregard of all civil-service reform ; and do hereby declare our un- qualified opposition to the practice of said party in levying upon the employes of the Government a tax for political purposes. Upon the adoption of the platform, a pro- test against it was made by about 150 dele- gates, among whom was ex-United States Sen- ator Bailey, who afterward left the conven- tion, and organized a conference, with General W. H. Jackson as chairman. Their objection to the platform was that it was " an effort on the part of the debtor factions to harmonize their differences at the expense of the public creditor, and to determine judicially upon that which should alone be adjudicated by a sol- emn court of justice, or else by voluntary agreement between the debtor and creditor." Having adopted a resolution directing the chairman to appoint an Executive Committee, and instructing that committee to call a con- vention of u the true Democracy of the State to meet at Nashville, July llth, and having ap- pointed a committee to prepare and publish an address to the public, stating their reasons for withdrawing from the convention, the con- ference adjourned. The address set forth in forcible terms the committee's unqualified ap- proval of the " 60-3-4-5-6 " compromise, and stated that the new terms proposed, " although unjustly discriminating between the creditors," not only does not lessen the sum to be paid by the people, but makes it greater than that to be paid under the settlement made by the Legislature. The convention of the " State Credit " wing of the Democratic party met on the llth of July, passed resolutions approving the act of May 20th, opposing repudiation, advocating a liberal system of public schools, favoring the establishment of a railroad commission to reg- ulate freights, etc., so as to prevent unjust discrimination, and arraigning the Republican party for its extravagance, disregard of the organic law, its tendency to centralization, and its protection of monopolies. After the adop- tion of the platform, Mr. Jo'seph H. Fussell was nominated as the "State-Credit" candidate for Governor. The Greenback party also nominated a can- didate, John E. Beasley. Their platform op- posed the payment of any part of the debt, except a small portion of the " State debt proper," and not even that, unless the people at the ballot-box voted in favor of it. This party held that all the " railroad " bonds were illegally issued. The canvass was active and heated, resulting in the election of General W. B. Bate, by a ma- jority of 27,454 over Hawkins, 114, 127 over Fus- sell, and 109,211 over Beasley, in a total vote of 224,204. The result of the election is under- stood to be an expression of the popular will against the " 60-3-4-5-6 " funding act, and in favor of an adjustment by the next Legisla- ture on the following terms : 1. The payment of the " State debt proper " in full, less war interest, in bonds, payable in as short a period as possible, and bearing the same interest per annum as the original bonds. 2. All bonds held by educational and charitable institutions, and the 29 6 per cent bonds belonging to Mrs. James K. Polk, to be paid in full. 3. The remainder of the debt to be settled at fifty cents on the dollar, principal and interest (including war interest), in bonds to run for thirty years, with privilege of earlier redemption, and to bear in- terest at 3 per cent per annum. It is sought to excuse this repudiation of the " 60-6 " act, under which nearly half of the debt has been funded, on the ground that its passage was open to suspicion of corruption, that the people not only did not sanction it, but posi- tively instructed many of their representatives who voted for it to vote against it, and that the terms which are now contemplated and approved by the people are the best they can afford to offer. The following is said to be a correct statement of the bonds originally is- sued, and constituting the " State debt prop- er. 500 bonds issued to Union Bank of Tennessee. 2,500 bonds issued to Bank of Tennessee ...... 1.166 bonds issued to build the Capitol of Ten nessee ..................................... 48 bonds issued to purchase the Hermitage. . . . 1,258 bonds issued for stock in turnpikes ...... 449 bonds issued for stock in Hiwassee Eailroad Company .................................. 202 bonds issued for stock in East Tennessee and Georgia Railroad Company .................. 200 bonds issued for stock in La Grange and Memphis Kailroad ........................... $500,000 00 2,500,000 00 866,000 00 48,000 00 1,262,856 66 449,000 00 202,000 00 217,250 00 Total, 6,323 bonds, amounting to ........... $6,044,606 66 A bill was passed by the Legislature at its second extra session to redistrict the State ac- cording to the congressional apportionment, although the number of representatives — ten — is not increased. After the bill was enrolled, signed by the Speakers of both Houses of the General Assembly, and approved by the Gov- ernor, it was discovered that three counties — Rhea, Meigs, and Cumberland— were not named in the bill. The defect was not detected until after the Legislature had adjourned. The At- torney-General and other prominent lawyers advised the Governor that the bill was void, on the ground that, if the Legislature, in divid- ing the State into congressional districts, could leave out three counties, they could leave out a greater number ; that the Legislature ought to be convened to remedy the defect, or that the election should be held under the old and only valid law. The Governor did not follow this advice, and the election was held under the imperfect bill, which, in the opinion of many, makes it invalid, and may cause the State to lose her representation in the Forty- eighth Congress, until a perfect bill shall be passed and a good election had. The mem- bers-elect of the next General Assembly belong mostly to the Democratic party, and are di- vided, as to party, as follows : TENNESSEE. 789 Senate — Democrats 25 Republicans 8 Democratic majority 17 House— Democrats 74 Republicans 24 Green backers 1 Democratic majority 49 Democratic majority on joint ballot 66 EDUCATIONAL. — Under the laws of Tennes- see, each county, city, and incorporated town is authorized to levy a tax for school purposes. In the towns and cities good graded schools have been established. The system of free schools is gradually becoming more efficient and more popular. The scholastic population this year was 549,179, of whom 408,364 are white and 140,815 are colored. The number of pupils enrolled was 207,680 white and 56,- 676 colored. The average number of days of free school instruction was 73. The receipts for the year from the State were $121.438 The receipts for the year from the counties were 671,257 The receipts for the year from other sources were. . 149,630 Total $942,320 The expenditures during same time were $821,883. The estimated value of school property amounts to $1,078,794. The higher education of the youth of the State is well provided for at the Vanderbilt University, Nashville; Tennessee University, Knoxville; Wesley an University, Athens; Cumberland University, Lebanon ; University of the South, Sewanee; Southwestern University, Clarke- ville ; Southwestern Baptist University, Jack- son ; and Fiske University, for colored stu- dents, Nashville. All the above, except the University of Tennessee, are controlled by some one of the religious denominations. Be- sides these, there are a number of colleges, academies, and well-established private schools. The State Normal College, at Nashville, is de- signed exclusively for the professional educa- tion of teachers and " practice in all grades of instruction." It receives its support from the Nashville University, from the State ($10,000 in 1882), and from the Peabody Educational Fund. The contribution from this fund to the public schools of Tennessee, including the Nor- mal College, has been $12,800 during the year ending October, 1882. STATE INSTITUTIONS.— The benevolent insti- tutions sustained by the State are the School for the Blind and the Asylum for the Insane, at Nashville, and the School for the Deaf and Dumb, at Knoxville, all of which are liberally supported by the State, and are well managed. As is the case in so many other States, the capacity of the Insane Asylum is insufficient to accommodate the number of patients seeking admission. The total cost of the maintenance of the institution for the two years ending De- cember, 1882, was $139,952.27, or at the rate of $69,976.13^ per annum— a rate of $176.26 per patient per annum. In the State-Prison of Tennessee the con- victs are leased to individuals or corporations as in Georgia and other States. The report of the Comptroller states that the receipts from the lessees of the Penitentiary for the two years ending December 20th, amounted to $83,042.37. The existing lease will expire early in the next year. A commission was ap- pointed in July, by Governor Hawkins, to con- sider the expediency and expense of removing the Penitentiary beyond the limits of the city, and report to the Legislature. Public opinion in Nashville is strongly in favor of the re- moval. MINERAL WEALTH, MANUFACTURES, ETC. — The immense mineral wealth of Tennessee con- sists in her vast mines of iron, coal, marble, and zinc. From a small industry, marble-quar- rying has grown so that in one county alone (Knox), capital to the extent of $250,000 is em- ployed in the business, and lesser sums are em- ployed with great profit in several other coun- ties. The income of the -quarries in operation, for 1882, was a fraction under $300,000. The marble is taken out in blocks, by means of drills, and is sold by the cubic yard. The de- mand for it, especially in the North, is exten- sive and rapidly increasing, and, notwithstand- ing the heavy cost of drilling, it is readily sold at prices highly remunerative to the quarry- owners. It is of a grayish-white color, and is as durable as Scotch granite. It can be highly polished, and in the process the various veins and tints of color are brought out. Analysis shows it to contain 98'486 of carbonate of lime, and tests prove its capacity to bear 12,000 pounds pressure to the square inch. From one quarry, owned and worked by Messrs. Tripp & Seaman, near Knoxville, specimens of forty va- rieties of marble have been obtained. Orders have been received for the shipment of large quantities to Pennsylvania and other Northern States. The zinc-works at Clinton, Anderson County, turn out 3,000 pounds of metal per day, and other zinc-works are about to be es- tablished at Knoxville. The coal area of the State is 5,100 square miles in extent, embracing the whole of the Cumberland plateau. Through- out this vast region there are from one to seven workable seams of coal. There are fourteen large mines, besides a number of less impor- tance, now being actively worked. The total coal product of the State for the year exceeds 600,000 tons. The iron interests are being rap- idly developed. Though the number of fur- naces now engaged in the manufacture of iron is not nearly as large as in former years, the aggregate production is much larger. Four companies, having seven stacks, and using coke as fuel, are producing an aggregate of 500 tons of pig-iron per day. Five furnaces, which use charcoal for fuel, make about 112 tons daily. It is pretended by those interested in iron-mak- ing that iron can be made in Tennessee by the new processes, and put on the cars, at a price not exceeding the cost of the ore at Pittsburg, the difference being in the transportation of the raw material ; and it is confidently antici- pated that, when the manufacture of pig-metal 790 TENNESSEE. is fully developed, and the home market of rail-mills, rolling-mills, nail-mills, and found- ries is created, the Tennessee furnaces can make iron from $5 to $7 per ton cheaper than those in Pennsylvania. The new hot -blast coke-furnace at South Pittsburg, owned by the Tennessee Coal, Iron, and Railroad Company, under the management of Mr. Warner, is re- ported to have made in June ninety-eight tons of iron in one day. This company has a capi- tal of $3,000,000, and owns three furnaces, with an average daily capacity of 200 tons. There is being built at Chattanooga a first-class 100-ton furnace, which will be in operation early in 1883. There are 4,326 manufacturing establishments in the State, employing a capital of $20,092,845. In these factories there are employed 19,575 male adult and 1,196 female adult operators, and 1,764 children under fif- teen years of age. The total annual wages amount to $5,254,775. The value of the ma- terials consumed is $25,710,125, and the value of the products is $37,074,886. The unsettled financial condition of the State for many years past has undoubtedly retarded the develop- ment of manufactures ; but the success of those which are in operation has proved that with her abundant stores of coal, iron, and timber, her immense water-power, and her contiguity to the great cotton-fields of the Southern States, manufacturing enterprise may be made profitable in Tennessee. At present, Nashville, Knoxville, and Chattanooga are the chief manufacturing places in the State. RAILROADS. — The following tabular state- ment shows the length of the several railroads in the State ; also the assessed value per mile ; and the aggregate value of all the railroads in the State, compiled from the returns of the railroad assessors for September, 1882: NAMES OF RAILROADS. Number of mile.. Assessed value per mile. Aggregate aisessed value. Alabama and Great Southern 4-85 $11,993 75 $58 170 00 Chicago, St. Louis and New Orleans 125-05 14,801 53 1,850,931 72 Chesapeake, Ohio and Southwestern 81-18 5,000 00 435900 00 Cincinnati, Cumberland Gap and Charleston 40-17 5,275 71 211 995 53 Cincinnati Southern 1,514-36 17,686 46 2,678,867 75 Coal Creek and New Eiver 1-00 3,800 00 8,800 00 Duck River Valley 86'67 8,551 00 130215 05 East Tennesee, Virginia and Georgia. . 273-72 14,177 88 8 880 769 81 Knoxville and Augusta . ... 16-31 8,204 38 52 2C3 40 Knoxville and Ohio 41-26 9,688 40 899,743 51 Louisville, Nashville and Great Southern — (Main stem and branches) 428-59 14,221 49 6 095 187 01 Memphis and Charleston 10S-00 12.405 02 1 839 742 45 Mobile and Ohio 128 84 15,570 00 2006,141 67 Mississippi and Tennessee 13-06 17,031 95 222,437 27 Nashville, Chattanooga and St. Louh— (Main stem and branches) 455-74 14,290 5fi 6512797 28 Nashville and Tuscaloosa 21-79 2.908 21 68370 00 Nashville and Florence 12-00 7,666 67 92,000 00 Nickajack 1-125 2,993 78 8,368 00 Oakdale and Cumberland Mountain 9-16 7,890 83 72 280 00 Kogersville and Jefferson 16-00 2.666 90 42 670 50 Tennessee Coal and Iron Railroad Company. . .... 24-00 10,000 00 240000 00 Ship Island, Ripley and Kentucky. 5-00 8,720 00 18,600 00 "Western and Atlantic 22-00 27,519 07 605,419 67 Total . 2022-95 $27 016 100 12 Average value per mile, $13,354 80. Increase of mileage over last report, 107'86 miles. Increase of value over last report, $10,640,205.72. By the purchase from the State of Georgia of the Mason and Brunswick, and by its exten- sion from Mason to Atlanta, thence to Rome and Dalton, Ga., the East Tennessee, Virginia and Georgia Railroad Company will soon con- trol a continuous line from Norfolk, Va., to Brunswick. It also has branches from Knox- ville to the Kentucky line, connecting with the Louisville and Nashville Railroad to Louisville, Ky., with the Selina, Rome and Dalton Rail- road, to Selma, Ala., and Meridian, Miss., and with the Kentucky Central to Cincinnati ; also a branch from Morristown to Paint Rock, on the North Carolina line, where it connects with the Western North Carolina Railroad through North Carolina ta Wilmington. The total mileage directly under its control is 1,432 miles, but directly and indirectly it controls 2,170 miles. AGRICULTURE. — Hitherto the agricultural methods in vogue in Tennessee have been very primitive, and little attention has been paid to the fertilization of the soil or to improved modes of culture. Within a recent period marked improvement in this particular is per- ceptible, and when it becomes general the pro- ductive power of the arable lands in the State will be doubled. Recently some persons have turned their attention to the rearing of silk- worms, and have succeeded encouragingly. The mulberry thrives in all parts of Tennessee, and the silk which has been produced is said to be of a very fine quality. The Swiss colo- nists at Grutli, on the Cumberland Plateau, have been especially successful in silk-culture. The colony at Rugby, which has been so often represented as a total failure, has been recruit- ed by a number of thrifty families from Ohio, and is now showing signs of healthy vitality. Another thriving colony has been recently es- tablished at Allardt, in Fentress County, by fifty German families from Michigan. A small TENNESSEE. 791 German settlement has also been formed in Gibson County, which promises to be the nu- cleus of a much larger colony. Immigration, like every other enterprise involving the in- vestment of labor and capital in Tennessee, has been materially retarded by the unsettled condition of the finances of the State, and the popular agitation to which it has given rise. The Southern Sunday-School Association met at Tullahoma on September 17th, with a view mainly to the selection of a fixed place for the annual gathering of Sunday-school and Christian workers, in order to promote the education of the people in literature, arts, sci- ence, temperance, and all things conducive to their elevation religiously, morally, socially, and intellectually, after the manner, as far as practicable, of the meetings at Chautauqua. The selection of a location was left to a com- mittee, who, after visiting several places, se- lected Monteagle, Tenn., in the vicinity of the University of the South, at Sewanee. The Quadrennial General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, met in Nashville, in May, and continued in session from May 3d to the 25th. The following report of the Committee on Education, in reference to the educational wants of the negro population in the South and Southwest, was discussed and adopted: Your committee have had under consideration that part of the bishop's address which relates to the claims of the negro population in the South and Southwest so far as their educational wants are concerned, and beg leave to submit the following report : 1. We note with pleasure the statement coming from so competent a source, that this people, upon whom our Church has in times past bestowed such labor, but who more recently in their changed rela- tions have, for the most part, been turned away from us, are again becoming accessible to our ministry, and we heartily concur in the recommendation that the opportunity thus afforded to preach to their congrega- tions be diligently improved. 2. To the claims of the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in America, which sustains a peculiar and providential relation to the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, the address invites especial attention, chiefly lor the purpose of determining what may be done by us to assist them in obtaining facilities for providing themselves with suitable pastors and teach- ers of their own race. They have no institution under their management for the education of those who are to occupy their pulpits and preside in their schools. Their preachers and teachers, if educated at all, must, for the most part, be educated by those who are not in sympathy with their organization. If they are to make any progress, or even to maintain their exist- ence, they must provide for the education of ^ those who are to take charge of their schools and religious congregations. Of themselves, they are not to do this ; they have neither the money to establish schools nor the men competent to conduct them, and they look to us for aid. As what we have done for them in setting them up for themselves creates the necessity of doing more for them, so this fact justifies the expectation on their part that we have not already done or are not now doing enough. Our people in the South have cheer- fully borne their share in providing by general and special legislation for the educational wants of the col- ored race. We have endeavored to encourage in every way the promotion of common-school education among them. But in the secular schoolsj their preachers and missionaries can not get the training essential to their work. The Colored Methodist Episcopal Church, which looks especially to us tor encouragement and aid, is in pressing need at this point ; therefore — Resolved, That our bishops be authorized and re quested to appoint, in consultation with the bishops of the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church, in Amer- ica, a preacher or layman of our church, properly qualified for the work, who shall be a commissioner of education in aid of the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in America, whose duty it shall be to solicit subscriptions, contributions, donations, and bequests, from whatever source he may find available, for the purpose of creating an educational fund for the bene- fit of said Colored Methodist Episcopal Church in America. Resolved, That our bishops be also authorized and requested to appoint three members of our Church, who, together with the Commissioner of Education and three members of the Colored Methodist Episco- pal Church, to be appointed by their bishops, shall constitute a Board of Trustees, for the custody and control of their educational fund when it shall have been raised. Resolved, That the Commissioner of Education, herein provided for, be appointed a committee of one to see that the said Board of Trustees be completed in legal form by securing proper acts of incorporation. Afl of which is respectfully submitted : W. P. HARRISON, Chairman. A proposition was made to change the name of the " Methodist Episcopal Church, South," to the " Methodist Episcopal Church in Amer- ica," which gave rise to a long debate. On motion of the venerable Dr. J. B. McFerren, the matter was disposed of by directing that it be " referred by the bishops to the several an- nual conferences during the ensuing four years, and that they report the result of the note to the General Conference of 1886 for ratification." The College of Bishops having been reduced by death and by the infirmities of some of the older incumbents, the Conference decided to elect five new bishops. Accordingly, Eev. Drs. A. W. Wilson, of the Baltimore Con- ference; John C. Granberry, of Vanderbilt University ; Kobert Kennon Hargrove, of the Alabama Conference; Linus Parker, of the Louisiana Conference; and Atticus G. Hay- good, of the North Georgia Conference, were elected. Dr. Hay good declined to accept the office. The Conference determined not to elect any one in Dr. Haygood's place. The other four bishops-elect were ordained with impressive ceremonies at McKendree Church, on May 18th. The College of Bishops, as it now stands, consists of Rev. George F. Pierce, D.D., Eev. Hubbard II. Kavanaugh, D.D., Rev. Holland N. McTyeire, D.D., Rev. John 0. Keener, D. D., Rev. A. W. Wilson, D. D., Rev. J. C. Granberry, D. D., Rev. R. K. Hargrove, D. D., and Rev. Linus Parker, D. D. Bishop Robert Paine, who was present at the Conference, though in very feeble health, died at his residence at Aberdeen, Miss., late in the autumn. During the session of the Confer- ence the distinguished preacher, theologian, and author, Rev. Dr. Thomas O. Summers, of Yanderbilt University, died, after a short illness, at his home in Nashville. 792 TEXAS. The Eleventh Quadrennial General Confer- ence of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, will take place at Richmond, Va., in May, 1886. TEXAS. STATE OFFICERS.— Governor, 0. M. Eoberts ; Lieutenant-Governor, L. J. Storey ; Secretary of State, T. H. Bowman ; Treasurer, F. R. Lubbock ; Comptroller, W. M. Brown ; Attorney-General, J. H. McLeary ; Commis- sioner of the General Land-Office, W. C. Walsh ; Commissioner of Insurance. Statistics, etc., A. W. Spaight; Adjutant-General, W. H. King. United States Senators, Richard Coke and S. B. Maxey. Members of the Forty-sev- enth Congress : First District, John H. Reagan ; Second District, D. B. Culberson; Third Dis- trict, Olin Wellborn; Fourth District, Roger Q. Mills; Fifth District, G. W. Jones; Sixth District, Columbus Upson. Members-elect of Forty-eighth Congress : First District, Charles Stewart; Second District, John H. Reagan; Third District, James H. Jones ; Fourth Dis- trict, D. B. Culberson ; Fifth District, John W. Throckmorton ; Sixth District, Olin Wellborn ; Seventh District, Thomas Ochiltree; Eighth District, J. F. Miller ; Ninth District, Roger Q. Mills ; Tenth District, John Hancock ; Eleventh District, S. W. T. Lanham. GROWTH OF THE STATE. — No stronger proof can be afforded of the wonderfully rapid growth of Texas during the past decade than that given by the last Congressional Apportionment Act, under which, at the election on November 7th, she was entitled to elect five additional Repre- sentatives in the Lower House of the Federal Congress. And not only has she grown in population, but her advance in everything that constitutes the material prosperity of a people has been equally rapid and equally great. In a vast territory which a few years ago was only accessible to the traveler on horseback, and at a serious risk of life from the tomahawk of the Comanche and the lawlessness of the desperado, the whistle of the locomotive, the church-bell calling to divine worship, the voice of the school-teacher, the hum of the machine- shop are now heard in every direction, and millions of acres of fertile lands, as profitless as if they were a desert, are now dotted with the homes of thrifty husbandmen, rewarding with abundant crops the intelligent industry which has subdued them to civilization. Where " they might take who had the power, and they might keep who can," was the law of property ; where personal rights were defended only by the pistol and the rifle, and where the name of God was never heard but to be blas- phemed, law and order now prevail, and the (mandates of justice and of the preached word are heard and respected. In no State are the revelations of the last census as startling in their proofs of progress as they are in Texas. FINANCIAL CONDITION. — In consequence of the increased valuation of property, the close collection of taxes, and the generally increased prosperity of the country, the receipts of the State Treasury have exceeded the disburse- ments for the year. In order that this excess might not remain unproductive in the Treas- ury, while the outstanding bonded debt was drawing regular interest, the surplus revenue was used to purchase and cancel State bonds. In the reduction of the bonded debt, the ap- propriations made by the Legislature for sink- ing fund, surplus revenue, and a part of the proceeds of sales of public lands, have been used whenever a purchase on favorable terms could be made. No part of the above funds can be used for any other purpose than to re- tire outstanding bonds — the sinking fund being subject to investment by the Treasurer, and the surplus revenue by the Treasurer, with the advice and consent of the Governor and Comp- troller. The total amount of bonds retired and canceled, according to the Treasurer's re- port of September 1, 1882, is $958,290. The total outstanding bonded debt of the State on December 31st amounted to $4,037,730, of which $1,712,200 bear 6 per cent interest; $1,254,000 bear 7 per cent; $1,068,900 bear 5 per cent ; and $2,630 bear 4 per cent. Of this amount the special funds in the Treasury — the school funds, the university, and other funds — hold $2,547,100, the interest on which is an- nually paid to those funds for the benefit of the State, leaving $1,492,530 in the hands of individuals. The public credit is now so high that it has not been possible for the State to buy her 6 per cent bonds at less than 40 per cent premium. The bonds retired have been chiefly those which had the longest time to run to maturity, and bearing the highest in- terest. In the past three years the debt has been reduced, in round numbers, $1,400,000, and the annual interest has been diminished $140,000. The reduction in interest during the year has been $65,950.60. The balances in the Treasury to the credit of the several funds, on December 31, 1882, are as follow : State revenue (currency) $500,121 96 Common schools, university, asylums, and other special funds (currency) 888,827 92 Common schools, university, asylums, and other special funds (bonds) 4,927,510 1 2 Total balances in currency and bonds $6,316,460 00 The ordinary necessary expenses of the State government for one year are as follow : Executive office •• $29.700 00 State Department 84,785 00 Treasury Department 18,300 00 Comptroller's office 47,850 00 General Land-Office 55,060 00 Department of Insurance 10,300 Fish Commissioner 4,700 Adjutant-General 96,350 00 Attorney-General H.260 00 Judiciarv Department 376, 525 i Deaf and Dumb Asylum 85,350 00 Blind Asvlum 27,05000 Lunatic Asylum 55,00000 Public schools — one fourth revenue 491,240 Quarantine. 85,00000 Interest on public debt 244,062 00 Sinking fluid 80,75400 Capitol-Building Commission 10,660 00 Total.... .- $1,663,44600 TEXAS. 793 The Comptroller's estimate of annual rev- enue, at present rate of taxation (thirty cents on $100 of value), ad valorem, poll and occu- pation taxes, based on the actual assessment for 1882, is as follows: Ad valorem tax assessed for 1882 $1,235,844 00 Revenue poll-taxes 146,518 00 Occupation taxes 626,000 00 From redemption of lands sold by State 50,000 00 Collections from insolvents 9,000 00 Ad valorem tax in unorganized counties 86,000 00 Special taxes 100,000 00 Office fees from several departments 100,000 00 Total $2,303,862 00 Expenses of assessing and collecting 838,391 00 Excess of cash on hand December 81, 1882 Receipts for 1883 $2,000,000 Ordinary expenses of the govern- ment for 1888 1,663,446 Excess of receipts over disburse- Total net revenue $1,964,911 00 The Comptroller remarks, in reference to the above : " We may safely assume that our annual revenue, now flowing into the Treas- ury under our regular government system, is in net amount $2,000,000. The annual in- crease, the rates of taxation and regularity of collections remaining constant, there will be at least 10 per cent annual increase in the ad valorem tax, or about $125,000." The present assured financial prosperity and the relief from the embarrassments which beset the government of Texas prior to 1879 are attributed chiefly to the provision of the Con- stitution of 1876 requiring the annual sale of lands for taxes. Since 1879 the State has had annually increasing surplus balances, notwith- standing successive reductions of taxes, and now the revenue system is so perfected that an almost exact calculation may be made as to the annual income, and expenses may be in- curred under the guidance of settled experi- ence. In financial estimates it is very difficult to determine with perfect accuracy the excess of cash in the Treasury, as an unexpended and reserve balance at any particular period ; be- cause there may be outstanding unpaid war- rants that have not been presented for payment, representing, perhaps, large sums, and other numerous small considerations confuse as to exact results in estimates. But, by comparing the condition of the Treasury on August 31st, which showed a balance of $526,545.62, and the balance on December 31st— $500,121.96— it is fairly deducible that, if a balance fluctu- ating from $500,000 to some sum in excess remains constant during a period of several months— all expenses of the government being promptly paid — an actual excess of revenue over expenditure of at least $500,000 may be counted on. If, then, it be assumed that the further revenues for the year 1883 shall be sufficient to support the government under ex- isting appropriations, and that alt taxes for the year shall be collected and paid into the Treas- ury, amounting, according to the Comptroller's estimate, to $2,000,000, there would be, on De- cember 31, 1883, the increase of unused balance in the Treasury, of the difference between^ this amount and the aggregate of appropriations. To illustrate this mode of determining the cash, balance in excess in December of next year : ments. $500,121 96 886,554 00 Total excess, December 81, 1883 $886,775 96 This estimated balance will necessarily vary in proportion as the appropriations may be in- creased or diminished ; but it shows to what ex- tent extraordinary appropriations may be made without the necessity of borrowing money. The policy of investing the special funds be- longing to the public free schools, university, and asylums, as they accumulate from time to time, in State bonds purchased at 40 per cent premium, is seriously questioned, and by many earnestly condemned as a permanent loss to those funds ; because when the period is reached when all the money that can belong to those special funds shall be deposited in the Treasury, if, in the process of investing those funds, there be consumed a part of the permanent funds in payment of premiums on the interest-bearing securities, the final consumption of the perma- nent fund will be inevitable. It is suggested that this could be obviated by the passage of a law directing the premium and costs paid for the interest-bearing securities in which the invest- ments are made, to be paid out of the annual available fund, and not the permanent fund of those institutions. As stated on November 6, 1882, 500 State bonds, of $1,000 each, bearing 7 per cent interest, belonging to the public schools, etc., were purchased at 40 per cent premium : Bonds purchased $500.000 00 Premium paid 200,000 00 Commissions, etc 644 60 Total expended $700,644 00 The following is a statement of the assess- ments of property in the State for 1882 : Number. Value. 94,157,501 $177,760,740 64 2S5 5S4 4,216 80,410,850 7.639 280,243 Land certificates, acres Steamboats, sailing-vessels, etc. 701,091 804 168,291 111,580 423,291 5,829,974 Tools,eimplements, machinery, 5,304,266 Materials and manufactured ar- ticles 409,382 Horses, cattle, sheep, hogs, etc. 72.805.214 22,311.922 9 794,812 22,199,618 Add approximate assessment of lands in unorganized counties "$411,925,476 8,000,000 owned uy Total value of property. . . . $419,925,476 The State tax is 30 cents on the $100 of value. The county tax is limited by the Constitution to one half of the State tax. The poll-tax is $2, of which $1 and one fourth of the ad va- lorem tax constitute a part of the available school fund. The average value of lands is 794 TEXAS. $1.89 per acre. The assessment of 1882 shows an increase of llf per cent over that of 1881. The special tax on occupations yielded, during the fiscal year, $567,134.60. RAILROADS.— Six or seven years ago the rail- ways in Texas were comparatively few and short. Now, in 1883, she has 5,908 miles ot railroad, running in every direction, furnishing highways for the transportation and markets for the sale of her produce and stock, bringing between $30,000,000 and $40,000,000 into the State, and opening to civilization and produc- tive industry millions of acres of land, pre- viously penetrated only by the savage or the fugitive from justice. Of the number of miles of railroad given above, 4,926 have been built within the last ten years ; and 1,461 miles, costing $44,525,000, within the year ending September 1st. The following are the railroad lines, and their extent, in operation in the State : Miles. 590 837 972 50 935 738 534 305 176 335 114 105 104 57 Missouri Pacific and Texas Pacific Kailroads International and Great Northern Texas and Pacific Galveston and Houston Galveston, Harrisburg and San Antonio, and Mexican and Pacific Extension Houston and Texas Central Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Texas and St. Louis (narrow gauge) Texas-Mexican (narrow gauge) Houston, East and West Texas (narrow gauge) Fort Worth and Denver City Texas and New Orleans Sabine and East Texas New York, Texas and Mexican Gulf, West Texas and Pacific Austin and Northwestern (narrow gauge) Texas Western Texas Trunk Eio Grande and Pecos 26 Kio Grande 22 Texas Transportation Company 8 Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe (in Texas) 8 Missouri, Kansas and Texas (in Texas) 5 Total miles of railroad December 1, 1882 5,974 Suit was instituted in the District Court, last March, by the State against the International and Great Northern Eailroad Company, seek- ing a forfeiture of its charter, and of the land grant of twenty sections per mile for the road between Jefferson and Laredo, for alleged fail- ure to construct the road as required by the charter — that is, " at the rate of at least forty miles each year, or of eighty miles every two years." The court decreed that the land grant be adjudged forfeited upon all the railroad be- tween Jefferson and Laredo, not completed at the filing of the suit, viz., from Austin to La- redo, and from a point north of Longview to Jefferson. THE CAPITOL. — The new Capitol, now in process of construction at Austin, will be one of the largest and handsomest public buildings in the United States. It will be built of fos- siliferous limestone, found in large quantities in the immediate vicinity. The interior will be finished with various kinds of Texas marble. The basement -floor will consist of fifty-one rooms, to be occupied by the Comptroller's and Treasurer's department, specie-vaults, and heating apparatus. The second floor will be set apart for the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, Governor's reception-rooms, por- trait-gallery, library, committee - rooms, etc. The third floor will be occupied by the State House and judicial officers, court-rooms, judges' rooms, Attorney-General's and Marshal's office, etc. The fourth story will consist of a num- ber of rooms not yet designed for any specific purpose. The whole will be surmounted by a dome, which, it is said, will be the highest in America. The estimated cost of the material and labor will be $1,480,000; but it is sup- posed that it will cost fully $2,500,000 to com- plete it. The contractors are to receive for the building, when finished according to the plans, 3,000,000 acres of land, situated in the extreme northwestern part of the State, in what is known as the " Pan-handle." The dimensions of the building, at greatest meas- ure, are 666£ feet long by 288 feet 10 inches wide. The dome will be 311 feet high. The excavations were commenced on February 1st. The contractors — the Rock Island (Illinois) Syn- dicate— have agreed to have the building u fully completed and delivered on or before Janua- ry 1, 1888." The lands to which they will be entitled when the Capitol is completed could be readily sold for $1.50 per acre, so that re- ally the cost of the buildings, at the present price of the land, will be $4,500,000, and it is probable that by January, 1888, the lands will be worth fully fifty per cent more than at present. At the extra session the sum of $50,000, and the material of the old burned Capitol, were appropriated to purchase or erect suit- able temporary buildings for the Executive, judiciary, and Legislature of the State. Just after the stone-work of the building was fin- ished, and the roof placed upon it, a severe wind and rain storm caused a large portion of the walls, which the contractor had failed to bond, to fall. When this happened, $27,300 of the $50,000 had been already expended, leav- ing only $22,700 to repair the damage and complete the building. The contractor went forward, finished the work, and now trusts to the next Legislature to reimburse him. BouNDAEY-LiNE. — The long unsettled ques- tion as to the boundary-line between Northern Texas and the Indian Nation has been revived by the researches reported by Mr. John M. S wisher, acting as agent on the part of Texas. The dispute arises, it is said, from the fact that the United States Commissioner nized the South Fork of the Red River as the continuation of that stream, while the Texas authorities have always held that the North Fork is the true river. Several successive Le- gislatures of Texas have affirmed the claim of the State to the territory known as Greer County, which lies southeast of the Pan- handle, between the North and South Forks of Red River, and it is asserted in support of this claim that, although the bed of the South Fork is more extended than that of the North Fork, TEXAS. 795 it is often dry, while the latter has an unceas- ing flow of water. Congress has been asked to settle the boundary by law. The fact that Indian reservations have been defined up to the line of the North Fork, that none have been laid off south of that line, in Greer County, and that that county has been set apart by Texas statutes for specific purposes, would seem to argue that the General Government has doubts as to the validity of its claim. The Legislature, at its extra session, provided for the settlement of the controversy by appoint- ing a commissioner to trace the boundary-line in conjunction with a commissioner on the part of the Federal Government. EXECUTIVE AND LEGISLATIVE AFFAIRS, ETC. — The Governor called the Legislature to meet in extra session on April 6th, to reapportion the State into congressional districts, the Ap- portionment Act of Congress having given Texas five additional Representatives ; to pro- vide a temporary Capitol, the old Capitol hav- ing been accidentally burned in November, 1881 ; to authorize necessary improvements in the Lunatic Asylum; to make provision for a new lease of the penitentiaries at the expi- ration of the existing lease at the close of this year ; to take action as to the government and funds of the University of Texas and its branches ; to legislate for the disposition of the public lands ; to pass laws for the regulation of the railroads in the State; and to reduce taxation as far as may be consistent with the support of an efficient State government. The convention of the Democratic party met at Gulveston, in July, to nominate State officers. The choice fell on John Ireland for Governor ; Marion Martin for Lieutenant-Gov- ernor ; W. J. Swain for Comptroller ; F. R. Lubbock for Treasurer ; John D. Templeton for Attorney-General, and W. C. Walsh for Commissioner of the General Land- Office, all of whom were elected by large majorities. The congressional elections resulted in the re- turn of ten Democrats and one Independent (Mr. Ochiltree). STATE AFFAIRS. — The political contest was between the Democrats proper and a coalition of Republicans, Greenbackers, and Independ- ents. The failure of the Galveston Conven- tion to renominate Governor Roberts disaffect- ed some Democrats and caused Mr. Ireland to run behind the rest of the ticket. The great- est interest was felt in the congressional con- test between Hancock and Davis in the Tenth District, Finlay and Ochiltree in the Seventh, and Culberson and Dohoney in the Second. The wool-growers, who are in favor of a high protective tariff, opposed Mr. Hancock, who was pronounced in favor of a " tariff for reve- nue only." His opponent, Mr. E. J. Davis, Governor of Texas in the time of reconstruc- tion, was pledged to support protection on wool and woolen goods. The canvass was ani- mated and energetic, but generally peaceable. The creation of the Commission of Appeals, to aid the Supreme Court and the Court of Appeals in civil cases, has produced a marked improvement in the greater dispatch of judicial business, thus preventing the unreasonable de- lays which have been so long a just cause of complaint. The inferior courts, too, have been much improved by the appointment to the bench of lawyers of greater ability, experience, and integrity. In the exercise of Executive clemency, Gov- ernor Roberts has been controlled by the pur- pose to make good conduct and reformation in the Penitentiary the main ground of commuta- tion of the penalty or of pardon, teaching the convict to rely on self-effort rather than out- side influence. On account of the facility afforded criminals to cross the Rio Grande to escape arrest and prosecution, the Governor constituted all the county and district judges whose jurisdiction reached that river lt extra- dition agents " on the part of Texas ; and, upon communicating the fact to the Governors of the border States of Mexico, assurances were received that those officials would take similar action on their side of the line. Since this was done no trouble has occurred. The Frontier Battalion and Special Police Force have done good service in arresting criminals and pre- serving peace and good order in the western and southwestern parts of the State. The In- dian depredations have practically ceased alto- gether. The expense of this force has been re- duced during this year to $60,000. The quarantine regulations for the protec- tion of the people against yellow fever have been systematized and much improved, while all proper precautions have been taken not to obstruct commercial intercourse with tropical countries. Mr. A. "W. Spaight, the Commissioner of In- surance Statistics and History, prepared and published during the year a very valuable and interesting book upon the "Resources, Soil, and Climate of Texas," in which every county is fully described. An admirable descriptive map is affixed to the work. Existing law au- thorizes the Governor to appoint a " State En- gineer," who shall have the right to compel all railroads that connect with each other in the State to make their connections regular and proper, so as to accommodate the traveling public on said roads, and the right and power to compel the railroad companies to draw the passengers and freight of each other on their respective roads ; and, upon a refusal to com- ply, the Engineer is empowered to take charge of the contumacious road and its rolling-stock, and report it to the Governor, who shall then order that the road shall be run for the benefit of the State, until arrangements are made for compliance with the law. But, as the Legis- lature made no appropriation for the payment of the salary and expenses of the Engineer, or for the cost of taking charge of and operating a railroad, the law is a dead letter. Several of the Texas railroads are reported to be in 796 TEXAS. default in the payment of the interest on their indebtedness to the Public Free School Fund. The account of the railroad companies with the Permanent Common-School Fund is com- puted in the Comptroller's report up to May next year, and is as follows : COMPANIES. Amount of debt. Interest due. Sinking fund. Houston and Texas Central Railroad.. Washington County Kailroad Galveston and San Antonio Kailroad. Texas and New Or- leans Kailroad Texas and Pacific Kailroad $511,280 99 86,655 90 506,252 32 506,465 87 172,773 75 $15,338 42 20,797 34 15,187 56 15,198 97 5183 31 $5,112 80 6,932 41 5,062 52 5,064 65 1,727 18 $1,783,428 83 $71,700 50 $23,900 11 The Washington County Railroad has been in default since November 1, 1879. EDUCATIONAL. — The permanent fund of the public free schools has increased by the sale of its lands from $1,629,000 to $5,361,000 on De- cember 31st, with a probable increase within a short period of upward of $1,000,000 by the sales of the reserved lands. The lands belong- ing to the Permanent Common -School Fund, as estimated by the Commissioner of the Gen- eral Land-Office, amount to 33,000,000 acres. In addition to this, four leagues (17,712 acres) of land are set apart to each county for school purposes, aggregating 4,002,912 acres. The annual interest on purchase-money notes re- ceived for land belonging to the available school fund is $227,390.86. The estimated an- nual amount set apart for the support of the public schools is $491,240, derived from one fourth of the general revenue, all the annual poll-tax levied for school purposes, and all the interest on the Permanent School Fund, includ- ing bonds and other interest-bearing indebted- ness, belonging to the Permanent School Fund. The amount apportioned in cash to the sev- eral counties, cities, and towns, for the scho- lastic year was $1,086,273. The free schools have been much improved during the year. The duration of the term of instruction has been increased, and the scholastic population, between the ages of eight and fourteen years, shows an increase of 10 per cent, being, in 1882, 295,344. Two normal schools have been established, one for white pupils — the Sam Houston Formal Institute at Huntsville, Waller County — and one for colored pupils, the Prairie View Normal School, near Hempstead, Walker County. At these schools, one hundred and fifty-five white and forty-three colored students have been trained and educated to become teachers in the public free schools, and their expenses for tuition, board, books, etc., have been defrayed by the State. The Peabody Educational Fund has contributed liberally to both these schools. Normal institutes have been held during the summer, which have been numerously attended by the teachers through- out the State. It is proposed to offer for sale, at a long credit, the lands set apart for edu- cational purposes, fixing the minimum price at two dollars per acre~ The failure of the Legislature to adopt the recommendation of Governor Eoberts to raise the minimum price of these lands from fifty cents to at least one dollar per acre, has resulted in a sacri- fice of millions of acres of these school lands. Since the adjournment in May of the special session of the Legislature, which re- fused to pass a bill to protect these lands, up to December 31st, applications have been filed for 6,350,480 acres, at fifty cents per acre. It appears from the report of the General Land Office, made in March, that the public lands, including reservations, are barely sufficient to meet the outstanding land-scrip. An idea may be formed of the lavish way in which these lands have been granted, from the single in- stance of the grants to the Texas and Pacific Railroad Company, amounting to nearly 5,000,- 000 acres of land, now selling for from one dol- lar to five dollars per acre, according to location and quality. The commissioner estimates the vacant and unappropriated lands at 15,953,730 acres, and the certificates as calling for 22,900,- 480 acres, leaving a deficiency of public land of 6,946,750 acres. The University of Texas comprises the main college at Austin, the Medical College at Gal- veston, the Agricultural and Mechanical Col- lege at College Station, on the Houston and Texas Central Railroad, in Brazos County, and a branch for colored students, for the estab- lishment of which initial steps have been taken. The munificent endowment of this as yet in- choate institution consists of 1,219,900 acres of the public lands, cash, land notes, and State bonds, amounting to $503,364.30, provided by the Constitution and laws for its maintenance, and the proceeds of the sale of the public lands donated to the Agricultural College by the Federal Congress in 1862, amounting to $209,- 000. The first of a number of buildings on a grand scale is now in course of construction, and, it is expected, will be completed by the middle of the summer of 1883, so that the col- lege can be put in operation by September of next year. The corner-stone of the building was laid by the Masonic order with impressive ceremonies, on November 22d, in presence of the Governor, the other prominent officials, and a large concourse of people from all parts of the State. The structure will occupy the center of the plateau set apart for the univer- sity-grounds. The main frontage will be toward the south, with a length from east to west of 280 feet, and a depth from south to north of 195 feet, exclusive of wide porticoes. The en- tire building will be four full stories in height, providing ample and well-arranged rooms for all the purposes of a college of the first class. When inaugurated, the law of its creation requires that male and female students shall be admitted on equal terms, and that no other charge shall be made than an initiation fee, TEXAS. 797 which is limited to $30. It is believed that the present endowment of the university will be largely increased by additional appropri- ations, so as from the beginning to insure the establishment of a university of the first class on a firm foundation. The Agricultural and Mechanical College, formerly a literary high- school, has been made an agricultural and me- chanical college in reality, instructing the stu- dents in the science and art of agriculture, in the mechanic arts, and in natural science gen- erally. Tuition is free, and board is given at the low rate of $130 for the scholastic year; and, in addition, the board expenses and books of 93 students, selected by competitive exami- nation from the 31 senatorial districts, are paid by the State. The number of matriculants on December 31st was 200. The present outfit of this college is very insufficient, both in farm machinery and in stock. The directors of the institution, in their last report, point out these deficiencies, and ask for an appropriation of $50,000 to purchase a well-stocked and fully equipped farm, and additional tools and me- chanical appliances for the workshops. Means are also asked to provide quarters for 200 ad- ditional students. The State Democratic Con- vention, at Galveston, adopted the following in relation to the public schools as a part of their platform : We favor the fullest education of the masses, white and colored, in separate common schools, and the ad- vanced education of the youths of the country in our higher schools and State University. We favor the maintenance of normal schools for the instruction of teachers. We favor the submission to the people of a consti- tutional amendment authorizing the levy and collec- tion of a special school-lax, separate from the general revenues, to the end that an efficient system of public free schools may be maintained, and that the State tax may be reduced to the actual necessities of the State government. We favor the protection of the public school lands of the State from waste and sacrifice, and pledge our- selves to secure returns from said lands, commensu- rate with the real value of the same. There are a number of well-conducted and numerously attended colleges — mostly denomi- national— and private academies throughout the State, the principal of which are, the Methodist College, at Fredericksburg, Gillespie County; Marvin College, at Waxahachie, in Ellis County ; male and females colleges at Go- liad and Sherman ; Woodland Female College, at Paris; Trinity University (Presbyterian), at Tehuacana Hills, and Polytechnic Institute, at Mexia, Limestone County ; Waco University (Baptist), and Female College (Methodist), at Waco; Southwestern University (Methodist), and Hound Rock College, at Georgetown, Will- iamson County; and Soule University and Chapel Hill Female College in Washington County. The Methodist denomination are about to establish a college at San Saba. STATE INSTITUTIONS. — There are two State Penitentiaries, one at Huntsville, Walker Coun- ty, and one at Rusk, Cherokee County. The policy of the Legislature with regard to these institutions is to provide as far as practicable for the accommodation and profitable employ- ment of the convicts within the walls of the Penitentiary, and abandon, gradually, the prac- tice of leasing the convicts for outside labor. At the close of this year, the two penitentiaries were leased for fifteen years from the 1st of January, 1883, for $10,000 per annum for each, commencing with 300 convicts at Rusk, to be increased in equal numbers each year, until the number reaches 800 at the end of the third year, and with 400 convicts at Huntsville, in- creasing to 600 by the end of the third year. About 900 convicts, in numbers not less than 60, were leased on August 15th for five years to individuals for work on farms, at an average of $15 per month for each convict, yielding, after paying cost of guards, etc. (about $9), a net revenue of $6 per month for each convict. The lessees of the two penitentiaries assume and agree to carry out these contracts for farm- labor made by the State. The convicts are said to be well fed, clothed, and lodged, to be humanely treated, and worked for not more than ten hours per day. The net proceeds of the lease of the convicts, according to the last report made in 1882, amount to $255,134.47. The Asylum for the Education of the Blind, and the Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, at Austin, have been well managed and efficient, as far as the means appropriated for their sup- port and enlargement would permit. The Asylum for the Insane is totally inadequate to accommodate even one half the applicants for admission, who are now confined in the jails, homes, and log-cabins in all parts of the State. Credible persons state that in many places, families too poor to hire nurses or keepers have confined their insane relatives in pens, feeding them, like wild beasts, through the spaces be- tween the logs, and that many of these unfor- tunate people have perished from want of proper care and ordinary good treatment. One hundred and one thousand, nine hun- dred and four acres of the public lands have been set apart to each of the State asylums- Deaf and Dumb, Blind, Insane, and Orphans' Asylum. EXPORTS OF PRODUCE.— The following is an exhibit of the value of the products of Texas actually exported during the year ending Au- gust 31, 1882 : Cotton, 878.854 bales Wool, 22,299,652 pounds Hides, 13,572,795 pounds Cattle, 681,367 head Horses and mules, 43,724 head Cotton-ceed, cake, and oil Sugar and molasses Miscellaneous 8.4->7.5b8 $81,238,554 The falling off in the cotton-crop of 1881-'82, as compared with the previous year, amounted to 381,393 bales. The cattle, sheep, and wool interests of Texas are second only to those of agriculture, and 798 TROLLOPE, ANTHONY. TUBERCULOSIS, ORIGIN OF. embrace directly and indirectly fully one third of the State. Within the year, with improved facilities of transportation and the demands of. an increased population, the value of cattle has doubled. At present sheep are only raised in Texas for their wool — very few for mutton. This is caused by the cost of transportation. It is estimated that there are now 7,000,000 sheep in the State ; hence, allowing four acres to each sheep, 28,000,000 acres of land are used as sheep-walks. The wool-clip of this season received at San Antonio was 5,700,000 pounds. Great improvements have been made within the last twelve months in the manage- ment and handling of cattle in Texas, and the grade is constantly improving by the introduc- tion of blooded stock. The present price of beef-cattle ranges from $25 to $35. Ten years ago the same class of cattle were sold for from $12 to $15. The business of the port of Galveston for the commercial year ending August, 1882, has been much greater than was anticipated. The partial failure in the corn-crop and a heavy falling off in the cotton-crop were calculated to lessen the volume of commercial transac- tions. While the money value of the State's exports for the year is in excess of that of the year previous, so much of the surplus went forward to purchase meat and breadstuffs, stringency in commercial matters was ex- pected ; but the year has passed without any disaster worthy of record. Of the 878,854 bales of cotton produced in the State, 476,891 were exported from Galveston. Though the sugar-crop was light, the receipts of consign- ments from plantations direct to Galveston have been larger than in any previous year, amounting to 8,000,000 pounds. The consign- ments of wool amounted to 218,280 pounds. Of molasses, 255,598 gallons were received. The trade of the city of Houston during the year amounted in value to $22,786,431. TROLLOPE, ANTHONY, an English novelist, died December 6th. He was born April 24, 1815. His mother was the talented authoress of " Widow Barnaby," whose caustic reflec- tions on American manners, written after a long residence in the United States, did much to protract the estrangement between Ameri- can and English society. Anthony Trollope was educated at Winchester and Harrow Schools. He obtained a clerkship in the Post-Office, with which department he was connected for the best part of his life. His business faculty and power of work were so remarkable that he pursued an honorable career in the public ser- vice parallel to his assiduous and prolific liter- ary activity. He took a prominent part in the development and direction of the postal service in Ireland, and in later life was intrusted with the negotiation of intricate postal arrange- ments with various European governments. He commenced to write novels as a distraction from his official labors. Of his earlier novels there were republished and acknowledged the " Macdermotts of Ballycloran " and the " Kel- lys and O'Kellys," published in 1847 and 1848. The first work which brought him fame and substantial pecuniary returns was " The War- den," followed by a continuation, " Barchester Towers," usually accounted his finest produc- tion. These are life-like pictures of the social and domestic life of the English clergy. They were followed by a stream of others, all in the same realistic vein, and nearly all treating of the life of the upper classes of English society, gradually extending in their range of subjects from the clergy to the country gentry and no- bility, and then to the dissipations of town, and in his later novels, with less success, to political society. Characters which he drew with pains and success he often reintroduced in succeeding works. His remarkable powers of observation, which enabled him to write with accurate knowledge of the daily habits and professional practices appertaining to the various classes of people which he introduced in his fictions — clergymen, country gentlemen, sportsmen, officers, lawyers, doctors, mer- chants, or politicians — enhance the air of re- ality which pervades his novels. Anthony Trollope was probably the most prolific writer of fiction in the English language. His style and method are the same throughout, though the merits of his works vary widely. The quality of each individual work is remarkably even, those which were originally well con- ceived being worked up with care, and not marred through errors in dramatic judgment or negligence in literary workmanship. The most widely read of his novels, besides those mentioned above, are "Dr. Thome," "The Bertrams," " The Three Clerks," "Castle Rich- mond," "Framley Parsonage," a Orley Farm," "The Small House at Allington," "Rachel Ray," "Miss Mackenzie," "The Claverings," "The Last Chronicle of Barset," "The Duke's Children." Although Trollope dwelt more on the exter- nal aspects of society, some of his characters, such as Mrs. Proudie, the Warden, Rev. Mr. Crawley, Palliser, Dr. Thome, the Duke of Omnium, Scatcherd, etc., are as clearly con- ceived and strongly drawn types as those of any of the analytical novelists. Besides his double work as author and official, Anthony Trollope was a keen hunter, and found leisure to indulge freely in this British pastime, and also to travel when his strength needed re- cruiting. His practical knowledge and power of observation enabled him to write, after his brief trips to America, Australia, and South Africa, some of the best books of travel, par- ticularly his volume on "The West Indies and the Spanish Main." His biographical studies of "Julius Ceesar" and "Cicero" were less within the scope of his acquirements. He wrote also an admirable memoir of Lord Palm- er ston. TUBERCULOSIS, BACTERIAL ORIGIN OF. It has been suspected, since the discov- TUBERCULOSIS, BACTERIAL ORIGIN OF. ery of the fungoid origin of various infectious and epidemic diseases, that tubercular disease was also caused by microphytic germs. In- vestigators in this new branch of etiology stud- ied this disease particularly for a year or two. Its infectious character was established, but its bacterial origin could not be proved by the usual test of inoculation from infusions. Dr. Robert Koch, who had already performed dis- tinguished services in this field, finally suc- ceeded in detecting the specific bacterium. He found a characteristic and previously un- known bacillus in all tubercularly altered or- gans. They are very slender, and have a length of from one quarter to one half the diameter of the red corpuscles of the blood, rarely as great as the whole diameter. They resemble the Lepra bacilli, but are not so thin, nor, like them, tapering at the extremities. Wherever the tubercular process is in its early and active stage, these bacteria are present in great numbers, crowded together in small, dense groups, often forming regular bundles. These groups frequently occupy the interior of the cells. On the outside of the cheesy new-growths great numbers of single bacilli are observed. When the climax of the tuber- cular eruption is passed, they decrease and may totally disappear. This characteristic bacillus is found in pul- monary tuberculosis, cheesy bronchitis and pneumonia, tubercles of the brain, intestinal tubercles, scrofulous glands, and fungous in- flammation of the joints. It is present in all cases of spontaneous consumption in animals, having been observed in cattle, hogs, poultry, monkeys, porpoises, and rabbits. In monkeys dead of consumption the bacilli were found in countless bunches pervading the lungs, spleen, liver, diaphragm, and lymphatic glands. This bacterium has no motion except the motion of growth. Its life-period is only a few weeks. Koch supposes that the germs attach them- selves to the floating particles of the air, and are inhaled with these into the lungs, and that this is the usual manner of infection. They get into the air, as he surmises, from the ex- pectorations of phthisical patients, in which he also found the bacilli. As the dried bacilli were found to retain their fertility for weeks, the dried sputum of consumptives can spread the seeds of disease far and wide through the air. This discovery must have an important in- fluence on the diagnosis and treatment of con- sumption. It is the first infectious disease of human beings which has been positively proved to be of parasitic origin. The prophy- lactic precautions suggested by Koch's discov- eries are very promising. Unlike the anthrax bacillus, the specific germ of tuberculosis thrives only in the living body. The sputum of con- sumptives should be carefully disinfected ; and, since the identity of Perlsucht of domes- tic animals and the tuberculosis of human beings has been established, the meat and milk TURKEY. 799 of infected animals ought to be inspected and destroyed. TURKEY, an empire in Europe and Asia. The fundamental laws are derived from the precepts of the Koran and the Multeka. When not in conflict with the sacred Mohammedan laws the will of the Sultan is absolute. The Constitution proclaimed by Abdul-Hamid, De- cember 23, 1876, is modeled upon European forms of government; but, like the previous Constitution of Sultan Abdul-Medjid, it has not been carried into effect. The reigning Sultan is Abdul-Harmd II, born September 22, 1842, who succeeded to the throne upon the deposition of his brother Mu- rad, August 31, 1876. Murad, who was de- clared by the Council of Ministers to be an im- becile, had succeeded his uncle, Abdul- Aziz, deposed May 30, 1876, on a similar pretext. Abdul- Aziz died soon after in consequence of an act of violence, which was officially report- ed to have been committed by his own hand. Abdul-Hamid is the thirty-fifth in descent of the house of Othman. The crown descends to the oldest male member of the imperial family. All children born in the harem of free women or of slaves are legitimate and equal in rank. The inmates of the harem are usually brought from abroad, most of them from Circassia. A certain number, usually seven, are chosen by the Sultan as Kadyn, or Ladies of the Palace ; the rest, called Odalik, serve these in the ca- pacity of servants. The chief of the guard of eunuchs is equal in rank with the Prime Min- ister, or Grand Vizier. The executive and legislative authority is ex- ercised under the Sultan by the Grand Vizier, who is the head of the temporal Government, and the Sheik-ul-Islam, who is the chief inter- preter of the Koran and head of the Ulema, or council of learned men summoned to debate and expound the laws. The Ministerial Council of the Sublime Porte was composed at the end of 1882 of the follow- ing persons: Said Pasha, Grand Vizier and Minister of Foreign Affairs ; Akif Pasha, Presi- dent of the Council ; Ghazi Osman Pasha, Min- ister of War ; Hassan Pasha, Minister of Ma- rine; Mahmud Neclim Pasha, Minister of the Interior; Djevdet Pasha, Minister of Justice; Munir Bey, Minister of Finance ; Subhi Pasha, Minister of Commerce and Agriculture; Musta- pha Pasha, Minister of Public Instruction ; As- sym Pasha, Director of Vakufs (sacred prop- erty) ; Hassan Fehmi Effendi, Minister of Pub- lic Works ; Ali Saib Pasha, Chief of Artillery. The Sheik-ul-Islam is Ahmed Essad Effendi. The Kizlar Agassi, or chief of the eunuchs, is Hafiz Bahram Agha. The empire is divided into vilayets, which are subdivided into sandjaks, and these into kazas. Over each vilayet is placed a vali, or governor, who is assisted by a council. AREA AND POPULATION. — The area of the Turkish Empire in Europe, Asia, and Africa, before the war of J 877-78, was estimated to 800 TURKEY. be 1,742,874 square miles. The estimated popu- lation was 28,165,000. By the creation of the independent tributary state of Bulgaria, and the autonomous province of Eastern Roumelia, the delivery of Bosnia and Herzegovina to Austrian administration, and the cessions of territory to Roumania, Servia, Montenegro, and Greece, the area of the dominions under the rule of the Sultan in Europe was reduced from 138,264 to 56,868 square miles, and the popu- lation from 8,315,000 to 3,982,000. The total area of the dominions immediately subject to the Sultan in 1882 was 3,087,850 square kilo- metres, or about 1,180,000 square miles, though the authority of the Government is weakened in parts of Asiatic Turkey. The total popula- tion of the immediate possessions was esti- mated at 21,633,000. The total area of the vassal, tributary, and nominally subject states and provinces was 3,148,400 square kilometres, about 1,200,000 square miles; total population, 20,580,400. The area, in square kilometres, and population of the divisions of the Ottoman Empire, including the tributary and nominally dependent states, are given in the following table : POSSESSIONS. Area. Population. Immediate possessions in Europe Eastern Roumelia Bosnia and Herzegovina 1C5,43S 35,901 4,490,000 815,951 J 1,158,440 Sandjak of Novi-Bazar j 168 000 Bulgaria, tributary principality... Total Turkey in Europe 63,972 326,376 1,993,983 8,631,400 Immediate possessions in Asia. . . Samos, tributary principality 1,SS9,055 468 16,132,900 39,108 Total Turkey in Asia 1,889,523 16,172,000 Yilayet of Tripoli 1,033,350 1,010,000 Egypt protectorate 2 937 000 16 400 000 Total in Africa 4,020 850 17,410 000 Total Ottoman Empire 6,236,250 42,213,400 The approximate population of the chief cities of Turkey in Europe is as follows : Con- stantinople, between 600,000 and 700,000 ; Sa- lonica, between 60,000 and 80,000 ; Adrianople, from 60,000 to 62,000 ; Philippopolis, 24,053 ; Serajevo, 21,377. The approximate population of the chief cities of Turkey in Asia was as fol- lows: Smyrna, 150,000; Damascus, 150,000; Aleppo, 70,000; Beyrut, from 60,000 to 70,- 000; Brussa, 60,000; Erzerum, 60,000; Kai- sarie, 60,000; Bagdad, 40,000 ; Mosul, 40,000; Manissa, 40,000 ; Sivas, from 35,000 to 40,000 ; Marash, 35,000; Trebizond, 32,000; Urfa, 30,- 000 ; Van, 30,000 ; Jerusalem, 28,000 ; Amassa, 20,000. Fully one half of the population of Turkey in Europe, about 17£ per cent of the popula- tion of Turkey in Asia, and 1 per cent of that of the African possessions, altogether about 23 per cent of the Sultan's subjects, are Christians or Jews of the various Oriental and Occidental rites. The heads of the different Churches, especially the Greek and Armenian Patriarchs, as well as the High Rabbi of the Jews, are dignitaries possessing much power and influ- ence, being recognized as chiefs of their reli- gious communities by the Ottoman Government. The Patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church is Joachim III. The Exarch of the Bulgarian branch of this Church is Yossif. The name of the Patriarch of the Orthodox Armenians is Narses ; of the Patriarch of the Catholic Ar- menians, Azarian ; of the civil head of the Latin community, O. Varthalites Effendi ; of the Prot- estant community, Agop Effendi. The Cha- cham Bashi, or Grand Rabbi, of the Hebrews is Moses Levi Effendi. The Latins, or Chris- tians using the Roman liturgy, consist of Greeks, Armenians, Bulgarians, and Croats. The Ma- ronites, the Melchite Greeks, the Latins, and the United Syrians have patriarchs residing at Antioch. The Patriarch of the Chaldeans re- sides at Mosul. COMMERCE. — The average value of the im- port trade is estimated at $104,000,000; the average total export trade at $96,000,000. Constantinople receives about $48,000,000 of the imports and ships about $34,500,000 of the exports. The leading articles of export are cereals, tobacco, wools, opium, meerschaum, oil of rose, gum, and skins, besides cotton, which began to be cultivated in 1860, fruit, wine, honey, wax, morocco leather, madder, carpets, etc. The commercial intercourse is mainly with Great Britain, Italy, Austria, and Greece. The principal ports, next to Constantinople, are Smyrna, Chio, and Salonica. The total number of arrivals in all the ports in the year ending March 1, 1879, was 183,730; tonnage, 19,513,559, against 12,810,003 tons in 1877-78. The number of steamers arriving in 1878-'79 was 20,174; tonnage, 13,978,439. The move- ment of shipping in the port of Constantino- ple in 1880 embraced 12,532 sailing-vessels, of 1,201,546 tons, and 4,787 steamers, of 3,616,- 636 tons. Of the steam tonnage about 47 per cent was English, 13 Russian, 12 Austrian, 10 French, 5 Turkish, and 2 Greek ; of the other tonnage about 41 per cent was Greek, 31 Turk- ish, 15 Italian, 6 Austrian, and 2 Russian. The merchant marine consisted in 1879 of 220 sail- ing-vessels, of 34,500 tons, and 11 steamers, of 3,350 tons, engaged in foreign trade. Includ- ing coasting-vessels, the total tonnage was 181,500. The first railroad in Turkey was built in 1865. At the beginning of 1877 there were 965 miles in operation in European Turkey, and 172 miles in Asia Minor. The length of telegraph lines in 1879 was 17,950 miles; of wires, 31,782 miles. The number of dispatches in 1878 was 1,344,702, of which 523,230 were domestic, 291,453 in- ternational, and 530,019 official. The receipts amounted to about $1,200,000, working ex- penses $970,000. The post-office, previous to 1876, was en- tirely managed by foreigners. In September TURKEY. 801 of that year the Government established an in- ternational post-office. The number of letters in 1874 was 2,439,000, including postal-cards; of printed inclosures, 75,000; of newspapers, 1,250,000. ARMY. — A plan for the reorganization of the army was confirmed by the Padishah in the latter part of May, 1880. According to this scheme, which is being carried out as rapidly as possible, the army i& divided into the Ni- zam, or active army, the two bans of the Eedif, corresponding to the German Land- wehr, and the Mustafiz, corresponding to the Landsturm. The total period of military ser- vice is twenty years: three years of active service in the regular infantry, and four in the other arms; three and two years respect- ively in the active army reserve ; four years in each ban of the Redif; and six years in the Mustafiz. The empire is divided, as formerly, into seven military districts. Each of these fur- nishes a corps in the active army, and one in each ban of the Redif, except 'the seventh, Yemen, which furnishes the active corps only, and that only for service within the boundaries of the province. The militia forces of Crete and of Tripoli are not embraced in the organ- ization. Each of the 18 corps consists of 2 divisions of infantry, 2 brigades of 2 regiments in each division; 2 battalions of riflemen; 1 division of cavalry, consisting of 3 brigades of 2 regiments each ; 1 regiment of field artillery ; and 1 battalion of pioneers, besides the train, a company of telegraphists, and the commissary and sanitary services. Each infantry and cav- alry regiment has its depot. The full, war effective of the active army, when completely organized, will be, excluding the depot and local troops, as follows : NIZAM. Infantry Cavalry Artillery Pioneers .... Train . . . Total. War footing. . . . 468,000 . . . 64,800 . . . 67,600 . . . 10,800 9,000 , . . 610,200 The actual strength of the active army, as far as the organization had proceeded in 1881, was 10,311 officers, 150,106 men, 26,140 horses and beasts of burden, and 650 pieces of artil- lery. Of the two Redif armies only 40 of the 384 battalions existing in cadre were under arms. The total nominal strength of the army, according to the new organization scheme, is 1,208,000 men. The Christian population are not liable to arms, and the inhabitants of the district of Constantinople, on both sides of the Bosporus, are by prescriptive right exempt from military service. In the last Russian War the extreme efforts of the Government could not bring, according to the official figures, over 490,000 men into the field, or 4-3 per cent of the population subject to military service. Taking into consideration the facts that the Albanians have lost all feeling of fidelity to the Caliph, and are clamoring for autonomy ; VOL. xxn.— 51 A that the Arabs of Mesopotamia and Syria are no more to be depended upon, while* Y.-HK-II needs Turkish garrisons to keep it in subjec- tion ; that the Kurds will not serve the Sultan, having furnished for ample pay scarcely 6,000 troopers in the Russian War, and that the Greek islands and Tripoli require troops from without to maintain the Sultan's authority, it is not likely that the Padishah will ever com- mand an army of anything like the proportions set down on paper. To put 400,000 men in the field is probably the extent of his resources. (For an account of the Turkish navy, see NAVIES OF EUROPE.) FINANCES.— The finances of the Ottoman Government have been in a state of confusion since the issue of the first foreign loans to meet the expenses of the Crimean War. Before 1873 the budget estimates were drawn up to exhibit a surplus or an even balance, although large deficits occurred annually. Since then the budgets have shown deficits, but are no indica- tion of the actual amounts. No accounts of actual receipts and expenditures are published. The expenditures are supposed to have exceed- ed the receipts of recent years £10,000,000 or more. In 1878-79 the deficit, owing to the Russian War, rose to £36,000,000. The rev- enue of that year was not over £14,000,000. Since the war, and the loss of some of the richest provinces, the revenue is not more than £10,000,000 or £12,000,000. The Turkish for- eign debt consisted mostly, before the recent conversion, of 5 and 6 per cent bonds. The large loans of 1865 and 1874 were issued at less than 50 per cent of their face value. In 1876 the payment of interest was stopped entirely. The internal and floating debt was reported in the budget of 1874-'75 to be not over £13,000,000. According to some esti- mates, it amounted in 1878 to £75,000,000; but in the debt statement made on the occasion of the recent settlement with the foreign credit- ors it is declared not to exceed £20,000,000. From 1876 to 1881 the Government raised money for its present needs by the issue of a vast quantity of paper currency. At the end of 1878 there were said to be over £90,000,000 of paper money in circulation. Its value de- clined until eventually it was refused in com- mercial transactions altogether. The Turkish Government, by a note dated October 23, 1880, invited the holders of Turk- ish bonds to choose delegates to consult with the Government regarding the settlement and future payment of the debt. The compromise- effected with the representatives of the bond- holders was sanctioned by a decree of the Sul- tan promulgated December 28, 1881. The total amount of the bonds was £190,997,980 ; of the unpaid interest up to March, 1882, £61,- 803,905; total debt, £252,801,885. This sum was reduced to £106,437,234. For the service of the debt certain revenues were placed at the disposition of the bondholders from Janu- ary 13, 1882, until the debt shall be extinguished, 802 TURKEY. to wit, the products of the monopolies of to- bacco and salt, and of certain taxes and tithes. These will be administered by a special com- mission called the Council of Administration of the Ottoman Public Debt. Of the proceeds of these revenues four fifths will be applied to the payment of interest, and one fifth to the reduction of the capital. To the payment of the capital will be applied also the quotas of the Ottoman debt to be assumed by Servia, Montenegro, Bulgaria, and Greece. The bank- ers of Galata, who had prior rights to a portion of these revenues as a guarantee for advances amounting to 8,170,000 Turkish pounds, were indemnified by reserving 590,000 Turkish pounds (£1 Turkish = $4.30) annually out of the mortgaged revenues for the payment of 5 per cent interest on their debt and its gradual extinction. If the yield of the ceded revenues is more than 5 per cent of the reduced debt, the excess will be turned into the Turkish Treasury. The tobacco monopoly, which is one of the resources ceded to the bondholders, is to be farmed out in the same manner as the Italian regie. The loans comprised in the resettlement are the general consolidated debt, the loans of 1858, 1860, 1862, 1863-'64, 1865, 1869, 1872, and 1873, and the Turkish lottery railroad loan. The loans of 1854, 1871, and 1872, are secured by the largest part of the Egyptian tribute. The loan of 1855, guaranteed by France and England, consumes the balance of the tribute and an annual sum of £197,602 sterling besides. The service of the domestic debts is provided for in the budget of 1880-'81. The European bondholders do not expect to receive from the ceded revenues over 1J per cent interest per annum on the reduced capital. The budget for the year ending March 13, 1881, was as follows, in piasters (1 Turkish piaster = 4-3 cents) : RECEIPTS. Tax on land products 225.000,000 Military exemption tax 46,000,000 Tithes... 500,000,000 Customs 180,000,000 Sheep-tax 165,000,000 Tobacco 100,000,000 Various duties 96,993,000 Government land 5,200,000 Forests 6,010,000 Salines and mines 72,309,000 Posts 6,300,000 Telegraphs... 15,700,000 Receipts of Navy 86,505,000 Receipts of Ministry of War 28,500,000 Receipts of Artillery Department 4,009,000 Sanitary duties 5,135,000 Egyptian tribute 76,500,000 Eastern Eoumelian tribute 24,000.000 Other tributes 13,372,000 Miscellaneous sources 8,991,000 Total 1,615,584,000 EXPENDITURES. Foreign debt service 209,647,961 Internal debt service 89,812,441 Floating debt service ... 241.8C3.946 Civillist 86,497,324 Senate 2,406,019 Chamber of Deputies ... 6,593,981 Council of State 1,880,400 Brought forward 588,702.072 Audit 1,006,640 Prime Ministers Office 2,291.364 Magistracy 15,081,843 Administration of Interior 52,704,152 Prisons 8,780,680 Posts and telegraphs 24,959,098 Other expenses of Interior 619,300 Ministry of Foreign Affairs 19,810,232 Justice 32,809,850 Public Instruction 8,100,093 Public Works 10,330,004 Commerce and Agriculture 15,163,720 Finance 133,200,717 War 536,804,944 Marine 81,154,650 Artillery Department 86,144,487 Pious foundations 33,573,414 Pensions and charities 52,552,851 Total ordinary expenditures 1,703,925,116 The estimated extraordinary expenditures are 210,951,243 piasters, making the total ex- penditures 1,914,876,359 piasters, or about $82,340,000, to 1,615,584,000 piasters or $69,- 470,000 of revenue, leaving an estimated defi- cit of 299,292,359 piasters. FOKEIGN AND DOMESTIC POLITICS. — The Sul- tan was drawn into a closer friendship with Germany as the only great power which was not ready to devour some portion of his do- minions. Upon the formation of the Gam- betta Cabinet there were prospects of a mili- tary alliance in the event of a war of revenge. When Bismarck saw that there was no reason to apprehend a French war, he endeavored to discourage the hopes of the Sultan of recover- ing Tunis and re-establishing his authority over the whole of North Africa. As against the designs of Gambetta in Egypt, Germany was prepared to support the position of the Porte ; yet, in the development of the Egyptian ques- tion, the German advice to the Sultan was to accept the course of England as inevitable — with less effect, however, than was met with in persuading Abdul-Hamid to acquiesce in the encroachments of Austria. Friendship with Austria and England and a suspicious at- titude toward France and Russia on the part of Turkey, subserved in different ways the in- terests of Germany. The eastward advance of Austria promotes the political and commercial expansion of Germany. In the Egyptian ques- tion, besides wishing to avert the danger of a European war, the German Chancellor was satisfied to have England seize in advance the " compensation " which Russia would proffer to Great Britain in the final division of the " sick man's " estate, and thus help to hedge the Muscovites out of the Balkan Peninsula. The failure of Germany to support the demands of the Sultan in the Egyptian question caused a diminution in his faith in German amity and reliance on the advice of his new friend. The Porte sent a circular note to the powers on October 3, 1880, when the combined fleets were preparing for the Dulcigno demonstra- tion, stating what it was ready to do to carry out the unexecuted clauses of the Berlin Treaty. In the same note it offered to arrange a com- position with the bondholders. The Sultan's motive in volunteering to provide security to TURKEY. 803 the foreign creditors was the fear of an Inter- national Financial Commission, which would place Turkey in the position of Egypt. He proposed to include in the arrangement the Russian War indemnity and the floating debt. His scheme for getting rid of the bondholders' claims, the floating liabilities, and the war ran- som together would not cripple the treasury, since the only actual source of revenue which he offered to cede to the creditors was that of the "six contributions," which was already sequestered and administered by the Galata bankers. The others were patent dues and an increase in the customs duties, revenues which were not in existence, and which could not be raised without the consent of the powers. The delegate of the bondholders, Bourke, refused to include the Russian indemnity, and insisted that all the proposed revenues and something additional must be reserved to secure the com- promised foreign debt. The negotiations with the bondholders' delegates were pushed to a conclusion, and the danger of an international commission and European tutelage removed. The question of the Russian War indemnity, which was before an element of danger, now became an indifferent matter. The Russian Government made great efforts to obtain a settlement in the way suggested by the Porte. The first precedent of the transfer of specific revenues and their control to creditors was the arrangement with the Galata bankers in 1879, to which the Sultan was driven in his financial straits. By the extension of like privileges to the bondholders political dangers were averted without financially embarrassing the Govern- ment. An arrangement on similar lines with the Russian Government would involve politi- cal danger and pecuniary sacrifices at the same time. The Turkish Prime Minister suspected that Russia desired to obtain the financial ad- ministration of some province in Asia Minor as a preliminary step toward annexation. After many months of tiresome negotiations, during which the projects which the Sultan agreed to in his palace he rejected through the Porte, and the propositions of the Porte were shelved at the palace, a convention was finally con- cluded in May, 1882. Instead of the forty millions of war indemnity, the Russian Govern- ment agreed to accept an annuity of 350,000 Turkish pounds, secured on the sheep-tax of the Vilayet of Aleppo and the tithes of the Vilayets of Konieh, Adana, and a part of the Vilayet of Sivas. These revenues are to be collected by the Ottoman Bank, under the supervision of an agent of the Russian Govern- ment, who is not officially recognized by the Porte. This peculiar Byzantine arrangement will enable the Ottoman Government to evade its engagements, if so disposed. The Prime Minister, Said Pasha, endeavored to obtain the Sultan's consent to a programme of reform which would rescue the administra- tion from the degeneration resulting from the interference of the corrupt retainers of the pal- ace, restore the Porte to its functions as the exponent of the internal and foreign policy, and regain the respect of Europe by a coi. external policy and progressive internal im- provements, including the Armenian reforms provided for in the Treaty of Berlin. Said's protest against the Sultan's irregular methods, in which he had before pliantly acquiesced, was provoked by the action of the Sultan in the Russian indemnity negotiations in conclud- ing arrangements with the Russian Minister through a palace official without the partici- pation of the Porte in any way. Said was subsequently called into consultation, when he vexed the Sultan by protracting the negotia- tions. At the beginning of May, Said Pasha was summarily dismissed from the premiership. The autocratically inclined Abdul- 1 1 amid felt thwarted and restricted by the independence of judgment and decision of character of the First Minister. He easily persuaded himself, when Said's firmness in defending the interests of Turkey brought him into collision with the cabinets of Europe, that his vigorous but sup- ple Minister was lacking in the right qualities, and that he could guide the foreign policy more ably himself. The succeeding First Minister, Abdurrahman Pasha, was known as an efficient and honest provincial governor in Asia, but without experience in European diplomacy. During his brief tenure of office, the intercourse was entirely between the embassies and the pal- ace, through the roundabout channels to which Said Pasha had skillfully accommodated him- self without allowing his functions to be super- seded. After a few weeks, Abdurrahman asked to be relieved. The statesman to whom the Sultan now turned insisted upon the cessation of palace interference. He was finally constrained to recall Said Pasha, who was reappointed Vizier in the second week of July. The Egyp- tian crisis occurred during Abdurrahman's brief ministry. The Minister advised the Sul- tan to co-operate with Europe, and seek to have the intervention in Egypt intrusted to Turkey. Abdul-Hamid, set in his Islamic pol- icy, and listening only to the palace party, lost every opportunity of taking part in the settle- ment of the Egyptian difficulties, and only tried to repair his blunders when it was too late. (See EGYPT, for account of the Constantinople Conference, and Turkey's action in the Egyptian affair.) The Armenian question was pressed upon the consideration of the Porte before the Egyp- tian crisis, but was then allowed to drop. Rus- sia assumes the role in Armenia which she played in Bulgaria ; but the Sultan is not afraid of the Armenians accepting the Russian cham- pionship when the choice lies between Turk- ish rule and Russian. One of the antiquarian national movements has been set on foot in Armenia, looking to the re-establishment of the ancient Armenian monarchy ; but it is even more artificial than the similar movements 804 TURKEY. which took place in European Turkey. Rus- sia has massed in Russian Armenia an army which is said to number seventy thousand troops, exclusive of the necessary garrisons. This suspicious movement was met by strength- ening the Turkish force in that region, and ex- tending the fortifications at Erzerum, so as to make it a fortress of the first class. The hopes of the Sultan of soon reorganizing his empire on the basis of Islamic ideas seemed to decline as the year advanced. In May a circular to the powers demanded that the con- sular courts should be abolished, and the rights of foreigners in civil and criminal cases con- fided to the jurisdiction of the national tribu- nals— a demand which was subsequently not pressed. The Sultan called to his aid German experts to help arrange the ways and means and the technical details of reforms in the mili- tary organization, finances, and civil adminis- tration of the empire, which would develop the Mohammedan character of the Ottoman state, and at the same time satisfy Europe and preclude future interference. Three important commissions were appointed to investigate ques- tions of administrative reform, which entered upon their labors in the autumn. The first, consisting of the Finance Minister, Munir Pa- sha, and the two Germans, Wettendorf Pasha and Bertram Effendi, was to elaborate a scheme for the organization of a new system of finance. Another of the commissions, composed of the Sheik-ul-Islara and the Minister of Justice, Djevdet Pasha, occupies itself with legal re- forms, including a scheme of abolishing the extra-territorial jurisdiction of the powers in criminal cases. One of the results of the Is- lamic policy pursued by Abdul- Hamid has been the withdrawal of European capital from the country, the outflow of specie, a decline in the value of real estate, and a period of commer- cial stagnation, enforced idleness, and popular misery. European speculators continued to clamor for railroad concessions, for the deliv- ery of the undeveloped mines of the country into their hands, and for other privileges ; but the Sultan refuses to grant any commercial con- cessions or opportunities, particularly in Ana- tolia. At the end of November a conspiracy to kill or depose Abdul-Hamid was reported to him. In the panic which ensued, the ministry was dismissed, and for several days every one was held in suspicion. Achmet Vefyk, a former Grand Vizier, whom Said Pasha had a few weeks before dismissed from the governorship of Broussa for disobedience, was appointed to succeed him as First Minister. Two days after- ward Said was again recalled and the former ministers reappointed, including Mahmud Ne- dim, the Minister of the Interior, Said's deter- mined enemy, through whose intrigues, in a great measure, his dismissal had both times been brought about. The Mohammedan religious ferment of the last few years, which Abdul-Hamid has en- couraged in order to divert to his own support as the spiritual head of Islam and strengthen his waning power, turned out to be a source of weakness instead. Owing to his inability to prevent the French from annexing Tunis or the English from conquering Egypt, the Arab races in Asia and Africa manifested a disposition to reject the authority of the Ottoman Caliph. A dangerous agitation broke out in Arabia dur- ing the Egyptian War. The Grand Shereef of Mecca, Abdul-Moutahib, encouraged by Arabi Pasha, conceived the idea of heading a rebel- lion against the Sultan and proclaiming himself Caliph. Great excitement prevailed among the Hedjaz and Bedouin tribes ; but before there was any open insurrection the aged Shereef was deposed by order of the Sultan and placed in confinement. Abdullah Doun Pasha was commissioned to officiate pending the appoint- ment of a new Shereef. His brother, Aoun Refik, was selected by the Caliph in Septem- ber. When he arrived, his brother tried to make use of the popular disaffection to main- tain himself in the position. Aoun Refik is a younger brother of Shereef Hussein, who was assassinated in 1879 at Jeddah. The new Grand Shereef is esteemed a refined and en- lightened man, entirely free from bigotry. While the Arabs of Yemen and the Hedjaz manifested a spirit of rebellion which has not been seen since the opening of the Suez Canal enabled the Turkish Government to send iron- clads to the Red Sea, the Tripolitans exhibited similar signs of discontent and sedition. The African Mussulmans, more fanatical than their fellow-believers in Arabia, are attracted to the pretended Mahdi, Muhamed-es-Seuoussi, who from the heart of the Libyan Desert exerts a secret and formidable power throughout North Africa, and causes much anxiety to the French in Tunis and Algiers. The fact that on No- vember 12, 1882, commences the year of proph- ecy in which a Moslem Messiah is to appear, is one cause of the unusual excitement through- out the Ottoman Empire. Arabi Pasha was deemed by some to be the destined deliverer. The chief Senoussi, who pretends to exhibit all the signs of the prophecy, being in the for- tieth year of his age, the son of a Muhamed and a Fatima, with arms of extraordinary length, etc., is abler than the rival Mahdi who defies the military power of the Egyptian Govern- ment in the Soodan (see EGYPT). The Kurdish Sheik Obeidullah, whose fo- rays in Northwest Persia, in 1880, threatened to provoke hostilities between the Sultan and the Shah, and who on one of his marauding ex- peditions threatened the important city of Ta- breez, came to Constantinople and^surrendered himself upon the summons of the Sultan in the latter part of 1881. His followers ceased their depredations while their chieftain was kept as a hostage at Constantinople. At the end of the summer of 1882 he was allowed to escape, and went back to the abode of his tribe in the region of Lake Van. He afterward consented UNITARIANS. 805 to live in retirement at Mosul; but while be- carried off to a stronghold in the mountains ing conducted thither he was rescued from his called Huronma. A Turkish force was sent to escort by the Kurds, headed by his son, and recapture him in October. U UNITARIANS. The annual meeting of the American Unitarian Association was held in Boston, Mass., May 30th. The Hon. Charles Allen presided. The receipts of the treasury for the year had been $35,000. The number of societies contributing to the funds of the As- sociation had increased from 148, in the pre- ceding year, to 193, and was now larger than at any time during the fifty-seven years of the history of the body. The work of the society had included the continued assistance of feeble societies in New England; the maintenance and enlargement of efforts in college towns ; enlargement of the number of missionaries in new States and Territories ; free distribution of tracts and books ; aid to societies in New Orleans, La., Evansville, Ind., and Philadel- phia, Pa. ; and the establishment of a mission to the Scandinavians in the Northwest. The Association resolved to ask the churches for $50,000 for the coming year. The Women's Auxiliary Conference had re- ceived during the year $2,866, and had sup- ported a missionary in Dakota, and aided some poor societies. A considerable amount of work of a similar character had been per- formed by branch associations. The National Conference of Unitarian and other Christian Churches in the United States met at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., September 29th. Governor Long, of Massachusetts, pre- sided. About 600 delegates were present, and the total attendance upon the meetings was 2,200. The report of the General Council gave a summary of the work which had been ac- complished by the Conference since 1866, and added in respect to the work of its own term of two years (the two years since the last meeting of the Conference), that $18,000 had been raised to build a church at Ann Arbor, Mich. ; the effort to raise $50,000 for the The- ological Seminary at Meadville, Pa., had failed ; and only about two thirds of the $50,000 which the previous Conference had decided were needed yearly for missionary work had been raised. A large increase had, however, taken place in the contributions during the year. The Rev. A. D. Mayo had spent two years in the South, under the auspices of the Conference, in the interests of public educa- tion. The Western Conference reported on the building of churches, and the advance of ts efforts in Colorado and New Mexico. Its financial affairs were prosperous, and its soci- eties were enjoying a healthy increase. The Middle and Southern Conference had no mis- sionaries at work, but most of its societies were in good condition. The New England churches had furnished during the past two years more than $800,000 for church and be- nevolent work. A report was presented from the American Unitarian Association, and the subject of a union between that body and the National Conference was considered. An amendment to the constitution of the Confer- ence was adopted, explaining that " while we believe that the preamble and articles of oar constitution fairly represent the opinions of a majority of the churches, yet we wish distinctly to put on record our declaration that they are no authoritative test of Unitarianism, and are not intended to exclude from our fellowship any who, while differing from us in belief, are in general sympathy with our practical pur- poses and aims." A resolution in favor of to- tal abstinence was adopted. The Conference was informed that Mr. Wade had pledged him- self that when the committee of the Confer- ence on the endowment of the institution to be called after him, the Wade Theological School, at Cleveland, Ohio, had secured $150,- 000 toward that object, he would add $350,- 000 ; and that if the committee would raise $50,000 more, he would add a like sum, so as to make the whole endowment $600,000. The Conference resolved that an endeavor should be made to raise $50,000 annually, during the next two years, for the American Unitarian Association. After the adjournment of the Conference, an address was issued by its Council, setting forth the work of the body, and the character of the enterprises for which it asked contri- butions. The address stated that of the $800,- 000 raised for church-work by the New Eng- land churches, more than $250,000 were spent on enterprises outside of the churches them- selves ; invited co-operation in the endowment of the Wade Theological Seminary ; mentioned that $30,000 had been raised toward the amount of $50,000 sought for the endowment fund of the Meadville Theological School; commended an enterprise for raising $10,000 for a church in the university town of Mad- ison, Wis. ; apportioned among the several conferences the amount they were expected to contribute toward providing $50,000 for the work of the American Unitarian Associ- ation ; and asked for $1,500 in support of Mr. Mayo's educational mission in the South. The National Unitarian Conference in Eng- land was held in Liverpool, in May. Mr. James Heywood, F. R. S., presided. Free exchanges of views were made in the essays which were read on various topics of interest to the Uni- tarian churches. The fifty-seventh anniversary of the Brit- ish and Foreign Unitarian Association was 806 UNITED BEETHEEN CHUECH. UNITED STATES. held in London during the first week in June. Mr. David Ainsworth, M. P., presided. Ques- tions were discussed respecting the means of attracting the people to public worship, and concerning the interests of Sunday-schools, and moral and religious education. UNITED BRETHREN CHURCH. The " United Brethren Year-Book " for 1883 gives statistics of this Church, of which the following is a summary : Number of conferences (includ- ing one in Sherbro, Africa), 51 ; number of churches, 4,463 ; of members, 159,547 ; of itin- erant preachers, 1,257; of local preachers, 963 ; number of meeting-houses, 2,322, the probable value of which is $2,974,313 ; number of par- sonages, 389, the probable value of which is $282,284; number of Sunday-schools, 3,180, with 25,690 officers and teachers and 165,743 scholars. Amount of contributions : For sala- ries of ministers, $387,710; for ministerial aid, $3,136; for missions, $45,293; for woman's missions, $4,948 ; for church-erection, $1,742 ; for support of bishops, $6,661 ; for colleges and seminary, $36,450 ; for ministerial education, $1,477. Total amount of contributions for all purposes, including church expenses, $811,209. Number of bishops, five. One general religious paper, six Sunday-school and missionary journals, and a woman's mis- sionary paper, in the English language, and one general religious paper and one Sunday-school journal in the German language, are issued from the publishing house in Dayton, Ohio. The educational institutions comprise twelve colleges and seminaries and the Union Bibli- cal Seminary at Dayton, Ohio. The twenty -ninth annual session of the Home, Frontier, and Foreign Missionary Society of the United Brethren in Christ was held in Lebanon, Pa., beginning May 26th. The re- ceipts of the treasury of the society had been $49,674, while its net liabilities amounted to $26,154. The amount of the permanent fund was reported to be $52,998. The receipts and expenditures for church extension had been $2,327 each. The society had in its home de- partment 214 missionaries in 31 self-sustain- ing conferences, with 15,532 members, 3,563 ot whom had been added during the year. The amount expended by branch treasuries in the department of work had been $21,165. In the foreign department, nine missionaries were employed in Germany, and reported con- siderable success. The Sherbro Mission, in West Africa, reported six American missionaries, ten native assistants, a number of itinerating students and mechanics, and five stations occu- pied and two about to be opened at Shengay, with two stations at Bempeh ; while the work of the mission was or would be extended to about one hundred towns. The Woman's Missionary Association had received $5,909. It was interested in work in the African and German missions, and was con- templating the opening of a Chinese work on the Pacific coast of the United States. UNITED STATES. The year was charac- terized by few events of national importance in the United States. The change of administra- tion which occurred in the fall of 1881 showed its effects in the most gradual manner, the Pres- ident being cautious in making official changes, as well as in all matters pertaining to public policy. At the beginning of the year three members of the Garfield Cabinet remained, viz.: Eobert T. Lincoln, of Illinois, Secretary of War ; William H. Hunt, of Louisiana, Secre- tary of the Navy ; and Samuel J. Kirk wood, of Iowa, Secretary of the Interior. In April Mr. Hunt and Mr. Kirkwood retired, the former receiving the appointment of Minister to Eus- sia. William E. Chandler, of New Hampshire, was appointed Secretary of the Navy, and H. M. Teller, of Colorado, Secretary of the Interi- or. The appointment of Mr. Chandler excited some opposition in the Senate, on political grounds, but he was confirmed on the 12th of April, by a vote of 28 to 16, several Democrat- ic Senators not voting. Mr. Teller's appoint- ment was not opposed. In March an appoint- ment of Associate Justice on the bench of the Supreme Court was made, in consequence of the retirement of Mr. Justice Hunt, for whom special provision bad been made, by Congress continuing his salary, although he had not served ten years. The first name sent in for the vacant judgeship was that of Epscoe Conk- ling, of New York, which was received on the FREDERICK T. FRELINGHTJY9EN, SECRETARY OF STATE. [Born in Milltown. New Jersey, August 4, 1817; graduated at Rutgers College in 1836; admitted to the bar in 1889; Attorney-General of New Jersey in 1861 and 1866; United States Senator from December 3, 18C6, to March 3, 1869, and from March 4, 1871, to March 3, 1S77. His appoint- ment to the highest position in President Arthur's Cabinet was confirmed by the Senate December 12, 1S81.] 24th of February. For some days it was left uncertain whether Mr. Conkling would accept the place, but on the 3d of March, after the UNITED STATES. 807 appointment had been confirmed, he wrote a letter to the President declining. In this he said : u It will ever be a matter of pride and satisfaction that you and the Senate deemed me fit for so grave and exalted a trust. But, for reasons which you would not fail to appre- ciate, I am constrained to decline." The place was then offered to Senator George F. Ed- munds, of Vermont, who also declined. The appointment was then tendered to Judge Sam- uel Blatchford, of the Circuit Court, and by him accepted. He was promptly and unani- mously confirmed, and the Supreme Bench, for the first time in several years, was fully occu- pied. The name of Aaron A. Sargent, of Cali- fornia, was submitted to the Senate in the lat- ter part of February, for the position of Min- ister to Germany, and the appointment was confirmed in March. An appointment which attracted some attention and produced consid- erable opposition was that of Eoland Worth- ington to be Collector of the Port of Boston. He was identified with what was known as the "Stalwart" wing of the Republican party, and was opposed by both the Senators and several of the Representatives from Massachu- setts. The appointment was sent in early in April, and, after considerable opposition in the Senate, was confirmed on the 15th of May, by a vote 38 to 14. Near the beginning of Au- gust General U. S. Grant and Mr. William H. Trescot were appointed commissioners to nego- tiate a commercial treaty with Mexico. Among the other important appointments of the year were those of Alphonso Taft, of Ohio, to be Minister to Austria; John Russell Young, of New York, Minister to China; William W. Astor, of New York, Minister to Italy ; James R. Partridge, of Indiana, Minister to Peru; Nicholas Fish, of New York, Minister to Bel- gium ; William L. Dayton, of New Jersey, Min- ister to the Netherlands ; Eugene Schuyler, of New York, Minister-Resident and Consul-Gen- eral in Greece, Servia, and Roumania; John M. Francis, of New York, Minister to Portu- gal ; M. J. Cramer, of Kentucky, Minister to Switzerland; C. 0. Andrews, of Minnesota, Consul-General at Rio Janeiro ; and Adam Ba- deau, of New York, Consul-General at Havana. The first session of the Forty-seventh Con- gress continued until the 8th of August. The main features of legislation were contained in the bill granting a pension of $5,000 a year to the widow of President Garfield, approved February 16th ; the Anti-Polygamy Bill, March 22d ; the Apportionment Bill, increasing the number of Congressional Representatives to 325 ; the Anti-Chinese bill, restricting Chinese immigration for twenty years, vetoed April 4th, and the modified bill limiting the restriction to ten years, approved May 6th; the Tariff Com- mission Bill, approved May 15th ; the bill ex- tending the charters of national banks, ap- proved July 12th ; and that providing for dis- tribution of the remainder of the Geneva award, approved June 5th. The appropria- tionp exceeded $251,000,000. The bill appro- priating nearly $19,000,000 for the improve- ment of rivers and harbors was vetoed «>n the 1st of August, and passed, notwithstanding tho President's objections, on the following day. (For particulars of congressional action, see CONGRESS; for action under the Tariff Com- mission Bill, see TARIFF REVISION.) The political movements of the year were confined to the several States, but received a national significance from the fact that mem- bers of Congress were to be chosen, and in a number of States Legislatures were to be elect- ed which would have occasion to choose Unit- ed States Senators. In the more prominent Northern States causes of dissatisfaction ap- peared to be at work which especially affected the Republican party. The change of the na- tional Administration in the fall of 1881 had produced an attitude of sensitiveness and sus- picion on the part of the wing of that party which had sympathized with General Garfield CHARLES J. FOLGER, SECRETARY OP THE TREA8TOY. [Bora in Nantucket, Massachusetts, April 16, 1813; graduated at Hohart College, Geneva, New York, in 1S86 ; admitted to the bar in 1889 ; elected Judge of Ontario County Court in 1851 : elected State Senator in 1801, 163, '65, '67, and '69; appointed by President Grant Assistant United States Treasurer in New York, In 1869 ; elected Associate Judge of the Court of Appeals in 1870, and Chief Judge in 1(80 ; was appointed a member of President Arthur's Cabinet October 27, 1881.] in his contest with certain leaders with whom the new President was supposed to be closely allied. Some of the appointments occasioned criticism, and there was apparent a lack of cor- diality between the Administration and a cer- tain portion of the Republican party. More- over, the course of Congress in failing to meet and directly deal with the questions of reform in the civil service and revision of the tariff, together with its persistency in appropriations deemed extravagant, aggravated the feeling of UNITED STATES. dissatisfaction. Added to these were a variety of local causes of disaffection. In Pennsylva- nia the Kepublicans were divided by an Inde- pendent revolt, the cause of which was to be found in the methods of party management under the lead of Senator Cameron. The re- sult was the defeat of the Republican candi- dates for State offices in November — Pattison, the Democratic candidate for Governor, receiv- ing 355,791 to 315,589 for Beaver, Republican, and 43,743 for Stewart, Independent. (See PENNSYLVANIA.) In New York, while there was no Independent movement, the revolt in the Republican ranks proved to be much great- er than in Pennsylvania, and resulted in the BOBERT T. LINCOLN, SECRETARY OF WAR. [Born in Springfield, Illinois, August 1, 1848; graduated at Phillips Academy, Exeter, New Hampshire, in 1860, and at Harvard College in 1864; was commissioned Captain and Assistant Adjutant-General of Volunteers, February 11, 1865, and served on General Grant's staff till June 10, 1865; admitted to the bar in 1867. Appointed a member of President Garfield's Cabinet, March 5, 1881, he retains the same position under the present Administration.] unprecedented majority of more than 190.000 for the Democratic candidate for Governor, who was elected to succeed a Republican. (See NEW YORK.) Still earlier, in October, the Democrats had won a notable victory in Ohio, where, in addition to more general causes of dissatisfaction, the Republicans were divided on the question of regulating the liquor-traffic. (See OHIO.) Elections were held during the year as follow : Alabama elected State officers and Legisla- ture August 7th, and Congressmen November 7th. Arkansas elected State officers and Legis- lature September 4th, and Congressmen No- vember 7th. California, Colorado, Connecti- cut, and Delaware elected Governor, Legisla- ture, and Congressmen November 7th. Florida elected only Legislature and Congressmen, on the same date. Georgia elected State officers and Legislature October 4th, and Congressmen November 7th. Illinois elected Treasurer, Su- perintendent of Instruction, Legislature, and Congressmen November 7th. Indiana elected minor State officers, Supreme Judges, Legisla- ture, and Congressmen November 7th. Iowa adopted a prohibitory amendment of her Con- stitution June 27th, and elected minor State officers and Congressmen November 7th. Kan- sas elected State officers, Legislature, and Con- gressmen November 7th. Kentucky elected Democratic Clerk of the State Court of Appeals August 7th, and Congressmen November 7th. Louisiana elected Congressmen only, Novem- ber 7th. Maine elected Republican Governor, Legislature, and Congressmen September llth. Maryland elected State Judges and Congressmen November 7th. Massachusetts and Michigan elected State officers, Legislature, and Congress- men November 7th. Minnesota elected Legis- lature and Congressmen November 7th. Mis- sissippi elected Congressmen only. Missouri elected minor State officers, Legislature, and Congressmen, and voted upon an amendment concerning the State judiciary, November 7th. Nebraska elected State officers, Legislature, and Congressmen, and voted upon a woman's suffrage amendment, November 7th. Nevada elected State officers, Legislature, and Congress- man November 7th. New Hampshire elected Governor, Railroad Commissioners, Legisla- ture, and Congressmen November 7th. New Jersey elected Legislature and Congressmen No- vember 7th. New York elected Governor, Lieutenant-Govern or, Chief Judge of the Court of Appeals, Assembly, and Congressmen, and voted upon amendments making the canals free, and providing for the election of additional Supreme Justices, November 7th. North Caro- lina elected Associate Judge of the State Su- preme Court, six Superior Court Judges, Legis- lature, and Congressmen November 7th. Ohio elected minor State officers and Congressmen October 10th. Oregon elected State officers, Legislature, and Congressman June 5th. Penn- sylvania elected State officers, Legislature, and Congressmen November 7th. Rhode Island elected State officers and Legislature April 5th, and Congressmen November 7th. South Caro- lina elected State officers, Legislature, and Con- gressmen November 7th. Tennessee rejected a proposition to hold a Constitutional Conven- tion August 3d, and elected Governor, Legisla- ture, and Congressmen November 7th. Texas elected State officers, Legislature, and Congress- men November 7th ; and Vermont the same on September 5th. Virginia elected Congressmen only, November 7th. West Virginia elected Judges of the Supreme Court of Appeals to fill a vacancy, Legislature, and Congressmen Octo- ber 10th. Wisconsin elected Legislature and Congressmen November 7th, and voted upon amendments relating to residence and registra- tion of voters and the election of county offi- cers, and providing that general elections of State and county officers, except judicial, shall be held biennially in the even years after 1884, those who were chosen in 1881 to hold over UNITED STATES. 809 until 1885 if the amendment was adopted. (For particulars of the State canvasses and the re- sult of elections, see the several States.) The general result of the elections for Con- gressmen was to give the Democrats a large majority in the House of Kepresentatives of the Forty-eighth Congress. The result of the senatorial elections of the winter following gave the Republicans just one half of the memhers of the Senate, reckoning the Virginia Readjust- ers with the Opposition. The subject of po- litical assessments figured among the influences which affected the course of events. (See PO- LITICAL ASSESSMENTS.) Among other incidents of public affairs was the organization of the Utah Commission and the trial of the Star-Route case. (See STAE-RODTE TRIAL.) WILLIAM E. CHANDLER, SECRETARY OP THE NAVT. [Born in Concord, New Hampshire, December 28, 1835; graduated from Harvard Law School in 1855; served three terms in the New Hampshire Legislature, as Speak- er in 1863 and 18(54 ; appointed by President Linco'n Judge-Advocate-General of the Navy Department, March 9, 1865 ; held the office of First Assistant Secretary of tho Treasury, with Hugh McOulloch, for two years. Selected by President Arthur as a member of his Cabinet, his ap- pointment was confirmed by the Senate April 12, 1882.] The case of Guiteau, the assassin, was car- ried to the full bench of the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia on questions raised hy the defense. The decision was rendered on the 22d of May. Regarding the question of jurisdiction, it was held that the crime con- sisted in the blow which caused death, and where that blow was struck the crime was committed. On that ground the jurisdiction of the criminal court was sustained. The other exceptions were overruled, the motion for a new trial was denied, and the judgment of the court below was confirmed. Application was made for a re-argument before the court, on the ground that there were new considerations to be urged, but to this application the Court re- plied on the 5th of June : " In the case of Gui- teau, the judges who listened to the argument in that case have come to the conclusion that they have exhausted their powers upon it. They have heard it patiently, fully, and fairly, and re-argument would bring them to no other conclusion than that which they have already arrived at; and they decline to reopen the case for argument." Application was subse- quently made to Mr. Justice Bradley, of the Supreme Court of the United States, for a writ of habeas corpus. This was denied on the 19th of June. The counsel for the doomed man next resorted to the President, in the hope of obtaining a reprieve, and the appointment of a lunacy commission to determine the question of the prisoner's insanity. This effort was backed by a number of philanthropists and scientific experts, but it failed. The question was referred to the Attorney-General, who ad- vised against the reprieve, and expressed doubt of the President's power to appoint such a commission as was asked for. In concluding his opinion, the Attorney-General said : At the last hour, you are asked to reprieve this just- ly condemned man, to investigate, in an unusual, if not irregular, way, a fact that nas been solemnly de- termined by the constituted authorities of the law. I submit it ought not to be doue. It will establish a dangerous precedent. It will shake public confidence in the certainty and justice of the courts, by substitut- ing your will for the judgment of the law, and its fo- rums, at the instigation of a few who assert he was and is insane, and who press their applications, contrary to the preponderance of medical talent of this country, who believe the other way, and think him sane, as is admitted by one of the most conspicuous, earnest, and important of the petitioners. Guiteau was executed on the 30th of June at the jail in Washington. An autopsy was made under the direction of Dr. D. S. Lamb, of the Medical Museum, in the presence of a number of physicians, and the result was reported in an official manner. Of this it was said that some deviations were shown from the typical brain, but "they have absolutely no signifi- cance from the point of view of mental de- rangement." The skeleton was added to the curiosities of the Medical Museum. The question of compensation to President Garfield's medical attendants was made a mat- ter of controversy in Congress, and was finally referred to a Board of Audit which made the following allowances: Dr. Bliss $6,500, Drs. Agnew and Hamilton $5,000 each, Reyburn and Boynton $4,000 each, and Mrs. Edson $3,000. " The board also allowed different par- ties $5,929 for services and supplies, including the receiver of the Central Railroad of New Jersey, $1,500; C. Jones, Elberon, $1,162. The allowance for outside claims was about $11,000 less than the amount available, mak- ing the total balance nearly $19,000 out of the entire appropriation of $57,000. There were allowances amounting to $5,440 for extra ser- vices by Government employes, the highest sum being $300 to William Crump. The other al- lowances vary from $15 to $200. The allow- ances for physicians aggregated $8,000 less 810 UNITED STATES. than the amount specially appropriated for medical attendance. Captain H. "W. Howgate, of the Signal-Service Bureau at Washington, was arrested, near the beginning of the year, on a charge of embez- zling funds of the United States in his keeping as disbursing officer of the Bureau. After be- ing in jail for two months in consequence of his inability to procure bail, he was allowed to visit his family in charge of a bailiff by special leave of Judge Wylie. While at his house he managed to elude the bailiff and made his escape. This occurred on the 13th of April, and all effort to rearrest the accused officer, or to discover his whereabout, was unavailing during the year. The foreign relations of the Government of the United States have been entirely undis- turbed. The special mission of Mr. William TIMOTHY O. HOWE, POSTMASTER-GENERAL. [Born in Livermore, Maine, February 24, 1816 ; admitted to the bar in 1839 ; member of the Legislature of Maine in 1842 ; Judge of the Fourth Judicial Circuit of Wisconsin from 1850 to 1855 ; was elected three times to the United States Senate, and served from 1S61 to 1879; was ap- pointed by President Garfleld a commissioner to the In- ternational Monetary Conference at Paris in 1881. His nomination as a member of his Cabinet by President Ar- thur was confirmed by the Senate January 5, 1882.] H. Trescot to Peru, mentioned in the " An- nual Cyclopaedia" for 1881 (see PERTT, CHILI, AND THE UNITED STATES in that volume), led to no practical result. Early in February Mr. Trescot was instructed by the Secretary of State that the United States only proposed to give counsel and aid to Chili in any negotia- tions which that country might desire to make ; that Chili must herself determine whether or not she would accept such aid, but that in no event would the United States take part in negotiations based upon the surrender of Ta- rapaca and a further indemnity of $20,000,- 000, as such a demand was considered exor- bitant. Shortly after, on the 22d of February, Mr. Frelinghuysen instructed Mr. Trescot that the United States would assent to a liberal war indemnity, but that consent was not to be given to the cession of Tarapaca without first com- municating with the department; that should Chili persist in her demand for such cession, the creditors of Peru might possibly maintain that the revenue of Tarapaca had been already hypothecated, and that the President desired to urge moderation on the part of Chili. Under date of February 24th Mr. Trescot sent a dispatch in which be said : You may assure the President that I have urged upon the Government of Chili the wisdom of modera- tion in the terms which it demanded. But Chili is determined to have Arica and Tacna, as well as the territory south of the Quebrada de Camarones [Tara- paca]. The indemnity of twenty millions, with this region of country as a pledge, was only an indirect mode of securing the country itself. Peru has not, that I can see, any capacity of resistance in herself, and Chili will not yield to any merely friendly persua- sion. The communication to the Government of Chili of the resolution of the Government of the United States, that it will not take part in any negotiation based upon the considerations proposed, and the reply of the Government of Chili, that it is not prepared to modify these conditions, practically close the mission. On the 4th of March Mr. Trescot telegraphed that the publication of his instructions and confidential communications had rendered a modification of the terms offered by Chili impossible, and he thought his presence in "Washington with information would be more useful than remaining at Santiago, where he then was. On the same date he communicated details of his conferences with Balmaceda, the Chilian Minister of State, and the protocol to which they had agreed on the llth of February. The protocol which was agreed to by Messrs. Trescot and Balmaceda in their conferences at Santiago contained the following : Chili declares that, as a work of mutual friendship and confidence, she would accept, if they should be offered, the good offices of the United States, in the contest with Peru, provided that the United States, in the exercise of its good offices, accepts the conditions of peace which Chih would be disposed to concede to the enemy, and with the understanding that, if the United States should not obtain the consent of Peru to the conditions of peace, which serve as the basis of its good offices, in that case the action of the United States between the belligerents should terminate. The terms on which, according to the pro- tocol, Chili would make peace, are as follow : 1. Cession to Chili of all the territory of Peru situ- ated to the south of the Quebrada de Camarones. 2. Occupation of the region of Tacna and Arica for ten years, Peru being obliged to pay 20,000,000 pesos at the expiration of that time. If, at the expiration of that time, Peru should not pay to Chili the 20,000,- 000 pesos, the region of Tacna and Arica should re- main pro facto ceded to and incorporated in the terri- tories of 'the Eepublic of Chili. If Arica returns to the power of Peru, it shall remain forever unfortified. 3. Chili shall occupy the Islands of Lobos so long as there shall be guano upon them, and both the net product of the guano taken from them and that from the mines discovered and being worked in Tarapac& shall be equally divided between Chili and the credit- ors of Peru. On his return to Washington Mr. Trescot UNITED STATES. 811 made a final report of the result of his mission, dated June 5th, in which he said : It only remains for me to state what consideration has so far been given to the proposed conditions. For reasons stated in former dispatches I was obliged to leave Lima before my communication in its formal shape could reach the Chilian Government at Santi- ago. But that Government has in Lima a diplomatic representative in the person of Senor Novoa, who is authorized to consider any propositions tending to a negotiation for peace. The whole subject was fully discussed with him and General Lynch, the military commander of the Chilian army of occupation, and the propositions, together with the substance of the conference, were telegraphed by Senor Novoa to his Government. I do not regard the telegraphic reply which was communicated by Senor Novoa as conclu- sive. My dispatch had not yet reached the Chilian Government, and 1 think it clear that the bare state- ment of the propositions had not put the Chilian Gov- ernment in full possession of the considerations which recommended ttair adoption. I have other reasons for believing that the question is still an open one. The reply of the Government of Chili as communi- cated by Senor Novoa intimated : 1. That as no ac- tive military operations were being conducted by the Chilian army, there was no apparent necessity for a truce. But it is obvious that, as Arequipa is open at any moment to occupation by the Chilian troops from Mollendo, the Peruvian Congress would natu- rally and properly require some guarantee that its deliberations should be free and uninterrupted. A repetition of the dissolution of Congress because its deliberations were not agreeable to the Chilian Gov- ernment is a contingency which the Congress, in view of the past, could scarcely disregard, and which would make any effort at negotiation only another unfortu- nate failure. Besides which, if there are to be no active military operations, there can be no possible danger or inconvenience to Chili in giving such a con- dition of things the sanction of a lormal agreement by a short truce. 2. While the Chilian Government desired peace, it was unwilling to enter upon negotia- tion without distinct agreement in advance of the terms which must be accepted. It was dissatisfied with the experience of its former attempts at negotia- tion with the Calderon Government, and was indis- posed to renew the effort without the certainty of a successful result. It was willing, therefore, to nego- tiate informally with General Montero, and, upon the signature of satisfactory preliminaries, would recog- nize the existence of the Peruvian Government pari passu with the execution of the treaty. But the Con- gress which had authorized General Montero to nego- tiate had expressly forbidden any cession of territory, and it Avas therefore simply impossible for General Montero to sign a treaty containing such provisions. After some discussion Senor Novoa expressed his will- ingness to accept a preliminary agreement by which General Montero would bind himself to submit for approval to the national Congress such a treaty as he and Senor Novoa could agree upon, and to recognize General Montero's Government upon the execution of such an instrument. This would have afforded an op- portunity for the opening of negotiations, but Senor Novoa added the limitation that, if Congress did not approve the treaty so submitted, the recognition would be withdrawn. This was simply an impossible condition. The recognition of the Montero Govern- ment had to be positive. If Congress tailed to ap- prove, Chili could still prosecute the war until Peru was compelled to accept her terms, but such a con- tingent recognition was, in fact, only the old propo- sition of a treaty before recognition in another and much more illogical and embarrassing shape. Senor Novoa was willing to adopt another method. He would sign a treaty with General Montero, to be sub- mitted and approved by the municipalities — that is, by the local authorities of the separate provinces. Such a method was entirely beyond General Montero's constitutional powers, and would, I think, have led to the renewal of the difficulties between the various parties in Peru, who, accepting General Montero as the legitimate representative of the Government, would acquiesce hi the regular action of the Executive and Congress. As Senor Novoa was either indisposed or unauthorized to move out of this vicious circle, our conferences terminated. I regret this the more, as I think the propositions offered a fair prospect of a se- rious negotiation. Chili can not obtain a peace which will give sanction and title to her acquisition of terri- tory without the recognition of a legitimate govern- ment in Peru. Without a treaty with such authority the acquisition will be simply one of force, to be maintained as it has been acquired. The recognition of General Moutero's Government will place upon him and upon the people of Peru the responsibility of making or rejecting peace, while the calling of HENRY M. TELLER, SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. [Born in Alleghany County. New York. May 28, 1880 ; was admitted to the 'bar in 1858; on the admission of Colorado into the Union in 1876, was elected a United States Sena- tor from that State for the short term ending March 3, 1877; was re-elected for the full term ending March 3, 1883. On April 6, 1S82, his appointment to a position in President Arthur's Cahinet was confirmed by the Senate, and he resigned his seat in that body.] Congress will afford the opportunity to those who desire peace to do what they can not do under present circumstances— organize a party which can exert its influence directly, effectually, and legitimately in the Congress itself. But I can not with justice conclude this dispatch without saying that I believe the reason which in- duces the hesitation of Chili is that she believes that, so long as the Peruvians are convinced that the United States will finally intervene, they never will nego- tiate in earnest. It is unquestionably true that the Peruvian Government does believe that the United States will intervene ; at any rate, it considers that the question of intervention — as one of its leading officials expressed it to me — was still a pending ques- tion. It is obvious that neither Chili nor Peru will approach the solution of their difficulties in the proper spirit, or in any hope of a result satisfactory to both, as long as this impression lasts. If the United States intend to intervene effectively to prevent the disin- tegration of Peru, the time has come when that in- tention should be avowed. If it does not, still more urgent is the necessity that Chili and Peru should un- derstand exactly where the action of the United States ends. It would be entirely beyond my duty to dis- cuss the character or the consequences of either line of 812 UNITED STATES. conduct, but I trust that you will not deem that I am going beyond that duty in impressing upon the Gov- ernment that the present position of the United States is an embarrassment to all belligerents, and that it should be terminated as promptly as possible. There is another conviction which it is clearly my duty to express. I believe that, whenever the United States formally withdraws from further intervention, Peru will apply to the European powers., and that a joint intervention of two or more is probable. BENJAMIN H. BREW8TER, ATTORNEY-GENERAL. [Born in New Jersey, October 16,1816 ; graduated at Prince- ton College in 1834; admitted to the bar in 183T ; Attor- ney-General of Pennsylvania from 1867 to 1869. His ap- pointment as a member of President Arthur's Cabinet was confirmed by the Senate December 19, 1881.] Subsequently Mr. James K. Partridge was sent as Minister to Peru, but apparently under instructions which left him little or no discre- tion for dealing with the complications exist- ing between that country and its conqueror. The only official information made public on the subject is contained in the following re- sponse 'of the Secretary of State to an inquiry from the Senate : DEPARTMENT OF STATE, WASHINGTON, February 27, 1S83. The_ Secretary of State, to whom was referred the following resolution of the Senate — Resolved, That the President be respectfully requested, if not in his judgment incompatible with the public interest, to communicate to the Senate any information in his possession touching an alleged joint agreement between the Ministers ot the United States, of Great Britain, of France, and Italy, now serving at Lima or Peru, to make a joint effort to bring about peace between Chili and Peru, and to inform the Senate whether the Minister of the United States has been in- structed to invite or accept the mediation of European powers in the settlement of a purely American question- has the honor to report that he received a dispatch from Mr. Partridge, who stated that, for reasons there- in given, the representatives of Great Britain, France. Italy, and the United States (Germany declining to take any part) were led to consider, at an informal meeting at Mr. Partridge's house, by what mode a solution of the existing difficulties mi'orht be reached. Mr. Partridge and his colleagues accordingly agreed on a memorandum which was to be sent b,y each of the> Ministers to his own Government, as setting forth their views and hopes. The Ministers state in sub- stance that they are unanimously of the opinion that each should doclare to his Government that they be- lieve the only possible means of bringing about a ces- ^ Peru from complete de- struction, and of arresting the ruin of neutrals, would be an agreement between the Governments to address representations to the Chilian Government, and cause it to understand that their wish is to see peace made on the basis of a cession of Tarapaca, reserving all further conditions for further negotiation. The Min- isters further declare that they consider it a duty to invite their respective Governments to agree among themselves to take the step indicated at once as an ur- gent necessity. Upon the receipt of this dispatch Mr. Partridge was telegraphed by the Secretary of State, in substance, that the leave of absence which he had re- quested was granted, and that he was expected to re- turn to the L'nited States by the first steamer. He was further informed that the action set forth in his dispatch, having been taken by him without authori- ty, was disapproved, and he was directed to so inform those of his colleagues who had acted with him. A telegram was at the same time sent to the Ministers of the United States in London, Paris, and Kome, in- forming them that Mr. Partridge had joined with the representatives of Great Britain, France, and Italy in in a recommendation to their respective Governments to intervene in the Chili-Peru difficulties, and in- structing them to inform the Governments to which they are respectively accredited that this action was taken by Mr. Partridge without authority, and has not been approved. Mr. Lowell has answered that this instruction has been complied with. In answer to the inquiry of the Senate, the Secretary of State has the honor to say that the Minister of the United States has not been instructed to invite or accept the mediation of European powers in the settlement of the difficulties there existing. Eespectfully submitted, FREDERICK T. FRELINGHUYSEN. To the President. There was an extended investigation during the summer, made by order of the House of Representatives, and conducted by its Commit- tee on Foreign Affairs, into charges that the negotiations of the United States Government in 1881, in Peru, had been made subservient in some measure to the interests of certain claims upon the Peruvian Government, arising out of guano discoveries. The principal in- quiry was, " Whether one or more Ministers Plenipotentiary of the United States were per- sonally interested in or improperly connected with the business transactions in which the in- tervention of the Government was requested or expected in the affairs of Chili and Peru. The discussion of this branch of the inquiry was divided under three heads: 1. The con- dition of affairs in Chili and Peru which gave rise to the correspondence and business trans- actions referred to in the resolutions. 2. The history and claims of the parties who re- quested the intervention of the United States in the affairs of Chili and Peru. 3. Investi- gation as to the connection between Ministers Plenipotentiary of the United States and these parties, or any business transaction in which they requested or expected the intervention of the^United States." After rehearsing the con- dition of the South American states and the differences which led to the war between Chili and Peru, the report continues: "It is alleged that from the beginning Chili was largely un- der English influence. Be that as it may, there can be little doubt that, as the fortunes of war steadily set against Peru, her people looked to UNITED STATES. 813 the United States for sympathy, if not actual interference in her behalf; while Chili, with her uniform success, became jealous of the power to which her rival looked for aid. As the war progressed adversely to Peru, holders of her bonds and other creditors, real or pre- tended, and speculators seeking to take advan- tage of her distress, were naturally interested in her affairs. It was evident that, overborne by Chili, she must either lose her autonomy, submit to a cession of territory, or provide for the payment of a heavy war indemnity. Right- ly or wrongly, it was believed that the United States would have more influence than any of the powers in deciding which of these results should prevail. To her, therefore, the inter- ested parties turned their attention, and sought by various methods her intervention in their behalf. We divide these into three: 1. The Cochet claimants; 2. The Landreau claimants; 3. The Credit Industrie!." After briefly recit- ing the grounds upon which each of these claims was based, the report says: "These three interests, the Cochet and the Landreau claimants and the Credit Industriel, represent- ing Peruvian bondholders, were exceedingly anxious that the United States should inter- fere in behalf of Peru, in order to preserve her autonomy, and enable her to discharge her pecuniary obligations. Their objects related wholly to business or speculation. Neither patriotism nor international policy had any- thing to do with them. They looked upon the nitrate-beds and guano deposits of Peru as the place whence were to come fortunes rivaling in magnificence and splendor anything Alad- din ever conjured, and the intervention by the United States was the magic lamp by which these creations were to be evoked.1' The Peruvian Company was an organization formed for the purpose of prosecuting the Co- chet claims chiefly, and its president, Jacob Shipherd, had attempted to secure the inter- position of the United States Government in its behalf. Mr. Shipherd and ex-Secretary of State Blaine were among the leading witnesses before the investigating committee. The conclusion of the committee, on a thor- ough review of the testimony taken, was that the United States Ministers were not con- cerned in any improper transactions. A sepa- rate report was made by Mr. Belmont, of New York, who severely criticised the course of the State Department, in embarrassing the position and influence of the Government by giving countenance to the demands of the various claimants. The only other important subject of diplo- matic correspondence was the Isthmus Canal project, and the relation thereto of the Clay- ton-Bulwer treaty. (See "Annual Cyclope- dia," 1881, PANAMA CANAL.) On May 8th Secretary Frelinghuysen addressed to Minis- ter Lowell a reply to Lord Granville's letter of January 7th. In this he said : A canal across the isthmus for vessels of all dimen- sions and every character, under possible conditions herein after referred to, would affect this republic in its trade and commerce ; would expose our Western coast to attack; destroy our isolation; oblL improve our defenses and to increase our navy, and possibly compel us, contrary to our traditions, to take an active interest in the affairs of European nations. The United States, with its large and increasing pop- ulation and wealth, can not be uninterested in a change in the physical conformation of this hemisphere which may injuriously affect either the material or political interests of the republic, and naturally seek that the severance of the Isthmus connecting the continents shall be effected hi harmony with those intcn-N. This Government, while believing that the Isthmus should not be severed so as to do unnecessary injury to the United States, at the same time appreciates the desire of Great Britain that she should be able, by a short and easy passage from ocean to ocean, to reach her Eastern and American possessions on the Pacific, and that other nations of the world have a similar in- terest in such a passage. There is, however, no neces- sary conflict between the political claims of the United States in this matter and the material interests of other nations. A canal across the Isthmus can be created, and, under the protectorate of the United States and the republic whose territory it may cross, can be freely used by all nations. Thus, in some de- gree, would be continued to the United States the benefit of that conformation of the earth which is now an element of security and defense. . . . The President, therefore, considers it unnecessary and unwise through an invitation to the nations of the earth to guarantee the neutrality of the transit of the Isthmus, to give their navies a pretext for assem- bling in waters contiguous to our snores, and to pos- sibly involve this republic in conflicts from which its natural position entitles it to be relieved. It will doubtless occur to Lord Granville, as it does to us, that international agreements of this kind call- ing for interference by force, and conferring joint rights upon several independent powers, are calcu- lated to breed dissension and trouble. In times of peace, when there is no call for their exercise, they are harmless, though useless. But, when wars and trouble come, it too frequently happens that differ- ences arise, and so, at the very moment when the agreement should be enforced, it is impossible to en- force it ; and such agreements would lead to that po- litical intervention in American affairs which the tra- ditional policy of the United States makes it impossi- ble that the President should either consent to or look upon with indifference. Mr. Frelinghuysen proceded to set forth the history and purpose of the "Monroe doctrine," and said : It is true that this doctrine refers to the political and not to the material interest of America ; but no one can deny that to place the Isthmus under the pro- tection and guarantee of the powers of Europe, rather than under the protection of the leading power of this hemisphere, would seriously threaten and affect the political interest of that power. It is not to be anticipated that Great Britain will controvert an international doctrine which she sug- gested to the United States, when looking to her o\vn interest, and which, when adopted by this republic, she highly approved ; and it is but frank to say that the people of this country would be as unwilling that the pathway of commerce between the Pacific coast and our Eastern market should be under the dominion of the allied European powers as would be the people of Great Britain that the transit from one to another part of her possessions should be under such control. He then recounted the history of the Clayton- Bulwer Treaty, and the changed condition of things since it was entered into, and concluded as follows: 814 UNITED STATES. are called upon by any principle of equity to : those provisions of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty I may then state the President's views on the whole subject, which I do with an assurance that they will meet with a candid consideration from Lord Gran- ville, and with the hope that they may be substan- tially concurred in by her Majesty's Government. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty was concluded to se- cure a thingwhich did not exist and which now never can exist. It was to secure the construction of a canal under the grant of 1849 from Nicaragua that the United States consented to waive the exclusive and valuable rights which had been given to them ; that they consented to agree with Great Britain that they would not occupy, fortify, colonize, or assume domin- ion over any part of Central America, and that they consented to admit her Majesty's Government at some future day to a share in the protection which they have exercised over the Isthmus of Panama. The Government and people of the United States, though rich in land and industry, were poor in money and floating capital in 1850. The scheme for a canal, even without the complications of the Mosquito pro- tectorate, was too vast for the means of the Americans of that day, who numbered then considerably less than one half of their numbers to-day. They went to England, which had what they had not, surren- dered their exclusive privileges, offered an equal share of all they had in those regions, in order, as ex- pressed in the seventh article of the treaty, " that no time should be unnecessarily lost in commencing and constructing the said canal." Through no fault of theirs time was unnecessarily lost, the work was never begun, and the concession failed. The President does not think that the United States revive which were specially applicable to the concession of August, 1849, and apply them to any other concession which has been since or may hereafter be made. The con- ditions of 1882 are not those of 1852. The people of the United States have now abundance of surplus capital for such enterprises, and have no need to call upon foreign capitalists. The legislative branch of the Government of the United States may also desire to be free to place the credit of the United States at the service of one or more of these enterprises. The President does not feel himself warranted in making any engagement or any admission respecting the ex- tinct provisions of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty which would prevent or interfere with such a purpose. On the contrary, frankness requires him to say that, as the persons who held the grant which the United States understood to be accepted by the two govern- ments under the provisions of the treaty have not "carried out the proposed enterprise," the United States esteem themselves competent to refuse to afford their protection, jointly with Great Britain, to any other persons or company, and hold themselves free hereafter to protect any interoceanic communication in which they or their citizens may become inter- ested in such way as treaties with the local sovereign powers may warrant and their interests may require. There are some provisions of the treaty which the President thought might be advantageously retained. With this purpose the present correspondence was opened by the note to you of the 19th November last, in which these points were indicated. The President is still ready, on the part of the United States, to agree that the reciprocal engagements respecting the establishment of a free port at each end of whatever canal may be constructed shall continue in force, and to define by agreement the distance from either end of the canal where captures may be made by a bel- ligerent in time of war, and with this definition thus made to keep alive the second article of the treaty. He hopes that Lord Granville, on future considera- tion, may not be averse to revising his opinion that such agreements would not be beneficial. To the suggestion made by Lord Granville, at the close of his note of January 7th, that the United States should take the initiative hi an invitation to other powers to participate in an agreement based upon the convention of 1850, the President is con- strained, by the considerations already presented, to say that the United States can not take part in ex- tending such an invitation, and to state with entire frankness that the United States would look with disfavor upon an attempt at a concert of political action by other powers in that direction. It is not necessary to observe that there is no pro- vision of the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty which authorizes Great Britain to invite or obliges the United States to accept the aid of other nations to protect or to guar- antee the neutrality of the Panama route. Fortunately the want of harmony in the views of the two governments can have at present no injurious influence. No canal yet exists across the Isthmus, and in the natural course of events some time must elapse before one can be constructed ; meanwhile the points of divergence between her Majesty's Govern- ment and that of the United States may disappear. The President hopes that, long before the subject be- comes one of practical importance, her Majesty's Gov- ernment may be brought to sec that the interests of Great Britain and the United States in this matter are identical, and are best promoted by the peaceful policy which he has marked out for this country. The most authentic information regarding the progress of the work of constructing the canal at Panama is to be found in a report by Lieutenant Rodgers, of the United States Navy, who by order of Admiral Cooper passed over the line late in the year, and examined the plans and condition of the work. In a brief recapitulation of the progress made he said : "The engineers and other employes of the company arrived in Aspinwall at the begin- ning of 1881. The line of the canal was not then fixed, nor was any part of it cleared ; no docks and but little property belonged to the company, so that it was extremely difficult to lodge the employes and to receive the material. In brief, it may be said that wharves have been constructed, ground purchased or made, large quantities of machinery received and put up, villages and workshops built along the line, hospitals erected at Panama and Aspinwall, the line of the canal definitely fixed and its route cleared to a width of 100 metres, and that the work of excavation, which has been delayed by the slow arrival of the necessary machinery, will, within a month, be begun at several points." Lieutenant Rodgers found about 1,500 to 1,600 workmen and navvies em- ployed, at wages varying from $1.20 to $2 per day. Several contracts had been made for the excavation of portions of the canal, and a large amount of machinery, including heavy steam dredges, had been procured for the work of ex- cavation under the company's own directio" From conversation with the officers of the pany, as well as with others acquainted with fairs on the Isthmus, and from personal obser tion of the works, drawings, and plans, Liei enant Rodgers drew the following conclusi< "That the preliminary work of fixing clearing the route, of erecting docks, quartei machine-shops, machinery, rolling-stock, et< and the accumulating of material and person- nel have been so far advanced that the work of excavation will be vigorously begun by the be- ginning of the next dry season ; that the work UNITED STATES, CENSUS OF. 815 of excavation has already been begun at two points on the line ; that the increase of means of transportation, which has heretofore been insufficient, and the completion of machinery now on the Isthmus will soon enable the work to advance rapidly ; that there can no longer be doubt as to the intention of the company to carry out the proposed plan of this canal. The date fixed by M. de Lesseps for its comple- tion is 1888, and the present superior agent. Captain Richier, is sanguine that this will be accomplished. He also believes that the canal can be made for the amount estimated — 600,- 000,000 francs. But I infer from conversation withcanal engineers and with others well versed in affairs that the canal will not be finished for some years later, and that the cost will largely exceed the estimate. And it seems probable that this will undergo the experience of many other great projects— that the original sub- scribers must again subscribe or lose their ven- ture, and that new stockholders will be the ones to share the profits. Up to the present date about 130,000,000 francs have been ex- pended. In this amount the cost of all ma- chinery, ordered or received, is included, as well as the purchase of property. The cost of the Panama Railway, believed to be about $17,000,000, however, is not included in this amount, special arrangements having been made for its purchase. A short time since the eminent New York engineer, Mr. Stevens, was invited to inspect the works and the studies for plans. I hear he suggested that two or three locks be introduced in order to simplify the difficulties and to lessen the cost of construc- tion. But a canal d niveau has been deter- mined upon, and is to be built if the money can be raised, and the climate does not prove too deadly to the laborers. It seems probable that, with the work well begun and advanced, neither difficulty will prove insurmountable." (See COLOMBIA and RODGERS.) UNITED STATES, CENSUS OF. In the "Annual Cyclopedia" for 1881 were given the most important returns of the census of 1880 then reported. Additional results are given in the following pages, and statistics re- lating to special topics will be found in this volume under the titles : COTTON PRODUCT AND MANUFACTURES ; CRIMINAL JURISPRUDENCE ; EDUCATION AND ILLITERACY ; FARMS ; INDEBT- EDNESS OF THE UNION, AND OF THE STATES, CITIES, COUNTIES, ETC. ; INSURANCE ; MANU- FACTURES OF THE UNITED STATES ; RAILROADS ; and TELEGRAPHS AND TELEPHONES. Of the total population (50,155,783) in 1880, 25,518,820 were male and 24,636,963 female. The number of males eighteen to forty-four years of age, both inclusive, was 10,231,239 ; the number of males twenty-one years of age and over was 12,830,349; the total population ten years of age and over was 36,761,607. The number of persons to the square mile, excluding the Territory of Alaska and the Indian Territory, was 17'29. The number of dwellings in the United States was 8,955,812 ; persons to a dwelling, 5 '6 ; number of families, 9,945,916; persons to a family, 5-04. The ur- ban population of the United States, from 1790 to 1880, is shown in the following table: o 3 t "3 •»1L DATE. y % || i-s*f t~ -3 s s*3! tS 5 £ fc lilt 1790 8,929,214 6 131,472 8-3 1800 5,308,483 6 210,873 8-9 1810 7,239,881 11 356,920 4-9 1820 9,633,822 13 475,135 4-9 1830 12,866,020 26 864.509 6-T 1840 17,069 458 44 1,453994 8-5 1850 23,191,876 85 2,897,586 12-5 I860 31,443,321 141 5,072,256 1870. 38,558,371 226 8,071,875 20-9 1880 50,155,783 286 11,318,547 22 5 The percentage of increase of population during twenty years in the several States and Territories has been as follows: STATES AND TERRITORIES. 1870 to 1880. 1860 to 18TO. STATES AND TERRITORIES. 1870 to 1880. I860 to 1870. 26-6 8-4 25-9 45-6 Arizona 818-7 90-1 65'6 11 -2 Nebraska 267-8 826-4 California 64-3 47-4 Nevada 46-5 519-6 387-4 16-2 9-0 *2'8 15-8 16-8 24-8 34-8 Dakota 853-2 193-1 New Mexico 30-1 *1'7 17-2 11'4 New York 15-9 12-9 District of Columbia 34-8 75-4 North Carolina . . 30-6 7-9 Florida 43-5 83-7 Ohio 19 9 13'9 30-2 11'9 92-2 73-3 Idaho 117-4 21-6 21-1 Illinois 21-1 48-3 Rhode Island 27-2 24-4 17-7 24-4 41-0 0-2 86-0 76'9 22-5 13-4 173-8 289-9 Texas 94-4 35-4 Kentucky 24'8 14-3 Utah .... 65-8 115-4 Louisiana 29-3 2-6 Vermont 0-5 4-9 Maine 8-5 *0'2 Virginia 23-4 t4-4 Maryland 19-7 13-6 Washington 218-5 106-6 22'3 18-3 West Virginia 39-9 Michigan 38-2 58-0 Wisconsin 24-7 35-9 77-5 155-6 Wyoming 127-9 Mississippi 36-6 4-6 * Decrease. t Of Virginia and West Virginia together. 816 TOTTED STATES, CENSUS OF. OCCUPATIONS. — The total number of persons pursuing gainful vocations in 1880 was as follows : CLASSES. ! 1 AGE AND SEX. All ages. Ten to fifteen. Sixteen to fifty-nine. Sixty and over. 1 h ' 1 fa » 3 i ! | Female. 7,670,493 4,074.238 1,810,256 3,837,112 7,075,983 2,712,943 1,750,892 8,205,124 594,510 1,361,295 59,364 631,988 584,867 127,565 26,078 86,677 135,862 107,830 2,547 46,930 5,888,133 2,446,962 1,672,171 2,978,845 435,920 1,215,189 54,849 577,157 602,983 138,416 52,648 139,602 22,728 88,276 1,908 7,901 Professional and personal services Trade and transportation Manufacturing, mechanical, and mining All occupations 17,892,099 14,744,942 2,647,157 825,187 1 293,169 12,986,111 2,283,115 983,644 70,878 From this exhibit it appears that the aggre- gate number of persons returned as having gainful vocations was 17,392,099, being 34*68 per cent of the entire population of 1880, and 47'31 per cent of the population ten years of age and upward. In 1870 the total number of persons borne on the lists of occupations was 12,505,923, being 32-43 per cent of the popula- tion of that date and 44"3 per cent of the popu- lation ten years of age and upward. It thus appears that the tables of occupation in 1880 embrace a larger part of the total population than those for 1870. The number of persons ten years of age and upward was 28,228,945 in 1870, and 36,761,607 in 1880, an increase of 30-23 per cent. Applying this ratio of in- crease to the reported occupations of 1870, and by turns to the number in each of the four great classes, the results as compared with the actual numbers returned in 1880 show an excess of 1,105,636, and are as fol- low: CLASSES. Occupations, 1870. Increased by 30-23 percent.. Actual num- ber returned in 1880. Excess. Deficiency. 5,922,471 7,712,834 7,670 493 42341 Professional and personal services. . 2,634,793 3,496,406 4,074,.88 577832 1 191 233 1 551 349 1 810 256 253 907 Manufacturing, mechanical, and mining industries 2,707,421 3,525,874 3,837,112 811,238 All occupations 12,505,923 16,286,463 17,392,099 1 105 636 This comparison of the number of occupa- tions returned in 1870, increased by the rate of increase which took place during the decade in the population over ten years of age, with the number of occupations actually returned in 1880, shows a deficiency in the agricultural class to the extent of 42,341 ; an excess of 577,832 in the class rendering professional and personal services ; 258,907 in that engaged in trade and transportation, and 311,238 in that engaged in manufactures or mechanical and mining industries — making a net excess of 1,- 105,636 in all classes of occupations. " There is reason to believe," says the census report, " that the deficiency in the agricultural class and the marked increase in the class rendering professional and personal services is due, in some measure, to the reporting of persons as 'laborers' simply who should have been re- turned as 'agricultural laborers.' In some parts of the country, where agriculture is in a high degree predominant, there is doubtless a certain tendency to drop the qualifying adjec- tive and speak of 'laborers' simply. Wher- ever it has been within the power of the Cen- sus-Office to apply a correction to this error it has been done, yet there probably remains a certain amount of fallacious classification re- sulting from the failure of enumerators duly to characterize this class of persons. It is also probable that the class of ' laborers ' embraces considerable numbers of persons who are em- ployed in connection with manufacturing es- tablishments with sufficient regularity to jus- tify their inclusion in the manufacturing class, were the facts known." Of the total excess (1,105,636) of occupa- tions in 1880 over 1870, nearly one quarter is of females, the number of females reported as pursuing gainful occupations having increased between 1870 and 1880 in a higher ratio than the number of males. Thus: Number of females in gainful occupations in 1870.. 1,836,288 Increased by the ratio of increase in the female population since 1 870, viz., 29-03 per cent 2,f Actual number returned in 1880 2,647,157 Eelative excess 277,7 Of this excess about two thirds appears the class of manufacturing, mechanical, and mining industries, showing the effect upon the employment of women by the extension of the factory system. In examining how the same excess is distributed according to age, it is found that a disproportionate share falls in the class between ten and fifteen years of age, showing a further effect of the extension of tlie UNITED STATES, CENSUS OF. 817 factory system in the increased employment of young children. Thus : Number of persons of both sexes between ten and fifteen years of age reported in 1870 as in gainful occupations 739,164 Increased by 18'65 per cent, the ratio of increase in the population of this age from 18TO to 1880 877,018 Actual number reported 1,1 18,356 Eelative excess. The following is a comparison between the number of persons reported as pursuing gain- ful occupations in 1880 with those who were not so reported. That is, of the 36,761,607 persons ten years of age and upward, the number not reported as pursuing gainful oc- cupations is 19,369,508,. Of this number, 15,- 378,470 are females. Aggregate. Total ten years and up- ward. Ten to fifteen. Sixteen to fifty-nine. Sixty and over. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female, j Male. Female. Population (ten years of age 36,761,607 17,392,099 18,735,980 14,744,942 18,025,627 2,647,157 3,376,114 825,187 3,273,369 293,169 13,907,444 12,986,111 13,377,002 2,283,115 1,452,422 933,644 1,375,250 70,873 Number on occupation ta- bles 19,369,508 8,991,033 15,378,470 2,550,927j 2,980,200 921,333 11,093,887 518,778 1,304,383 The following table shows the comparative increase in occupations and in population by States and Territories, from 1870 to 1880 : STATES ANT) TERRI- TORIES. ALL OOCTTPATION8. ~ § 1880. 1870. In- crease. Number. 492,790 22.271 260,692 376,505 101,251 241,333 57,844 54,580 66,624 91,586 597,662 15.573 999,780 635.030 528,302 322,235 519,854 363,228 231,993 824,432 720,774 569,204 255,125 415,506 692,959 22.255 152.614 32,233 142,463 396,879 40,822 1,884,645 480,187 994,475 67.343 1,466,067 116.979 392,102 447,970 522,133 40,055 118,584 494,240 30,122 176,199 417,455 8,884 Number. 365,253 6,030 135,949 238,643 17,583 193,421 5,887 40,313 49,041 60,703 444.673 10,879 742,015 459.369 844,276 123,852 414,593 256,452 208.225 258,543 579,844 404,164 132,657 318,850 505,556 14,043 43,837 26,911 120,168 296,036 29,361 1,491,018 351,299 840,839 80,651 1,020,544 88,574 263.301 367,987 237,126 21,517 108,763 412,66o 9,760 115,229 292,808 6,645 Per ct. 85 269 92 58 476 25 833 85 36 51 34 43 35 38 53 16D 25 42 11 25 24 41 92 80 87 58 248 20 19 84 39 26 37 18 120 43 32 49 22 120 86 9 20 209 53 43 34 Per ct. 27 319 66 54 387 16 853 17 35 44 30 117 21 18 36 173 25 29 4 20 22 38 78 37 26 90 263 47 9 25 30 16 81 20 92 22 27 41 23 94 66 1 23 214 40 25 128 Arizona. Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut. Dakota District of Columbia . . . Florida Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana . Iowa Kansas Maine Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota . ... Mississippi Missouri Nebraska . Nevada New Hampshire New Mexico New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Ehode Island South Carolina Tennessee. Texas Utah Vermont Virginia Washington.. West Virginia Wyoming. The United States.. 17,392,099,12,505,923 89 80 The noteworthy results shown by the fore- going table are thus pointed out and explained in the census report : 1. That in certain States and Territories the ratio of VOL. xxn. — 52 A increase in population is greater, in some cases much greater, than the ratio of increase in gainful occupa- tions reported. This is due to the fact that these com- munities are losing something of the frontier character and taking on more of the social and domestic char- acter of older communities. Thus we have Arizona gaining 319 per cent in population and only 269 per cent in reported occupations ; Idaho, 117 against 43 Kansas. 173 against 160; Montana, 90 against 58 Nebraska, 268 against 248 ; Nevada, 47 against 20 Washington, 214 against 209 ; Wyoming, 128 against 34. In a word, these figures indicate the growth of homes with women and children, in the place of the lumbering-camp or the ranch, occupied by men only, all of whom were workers. 2. In another group of States and Territories, where we must suppose that the same force which has pro- duced the above-noted effects is in operation, the rapid incoming of immigrants during the decade, pre- dominately males of adult years, has overpowered this force and caused an increase in the proportion of bread-winners greater than the increase in population. Such are Arkansas, Colorado, Dakota. Iowa, Minne- sota, New Mexico, Oregon, Texas, and Utah. 3. Throughout the country generally we have an increase of occupations reported greater than the in- crease of population. In part this is probably due to the closer enumeration conducted under the provisions of the act of March 3, 1879, which, by making the districts smaller, secured in a much higher degree than had previously been attained that house-to-house canvass which is essential to a correct census, espe- cially as regards the details of enumeration. In a still higher degree probably the increase of re- ported occupations is due to the growth of the factory system, to the minuter organization of industry, and to the resulting differentiation of occupations, allow- ing women and children to find places where they can be useful and earn a livelihood, both in trade and in manufactures, more readily than was the case ten years ago. We group as follows the States and Territories in their inverse rank, according to the proportion of the total population found in gainful occupations : Percentage of occupations to total population. Utah, West Virginia 28 Tennessee 29 Ohio 81 Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Kentucky, Mis- souri, Wisconsin 32 Iowa, Minnesota, Texas, Virginia 88 Florida, Nebraska, New Mexico, North Carolina, Pennsylvania 84 Maryland, Michigan, New Jersey 85 Maine, Vermont 86 Delaware. Mississippi, New York 87 District of Columbia 88 Alabama, Connecticut, Georgia, Louisiana, Oregon, South Carolina 89 818 UNITED STATES, CENSUS OF. Percentage of occupations to total population. Massachusetts, Washington Territory 40 New Hampshire 41 Rhode Island 42 Dakota, Wyoming 43 California 44 Idaho 48 Colorado, Nevada 52 Arizona 55 Montana 57 We note here, first, that in the great prosperous grain-raising States there is a tendency to keep down the proportion of bread-winners (see the States having less than 33 per cent) ; second, that the tendency in the cotton-raising States is to a higher percentage of bread-winners, women and children going more large- ly into the fields ; third, that the manufacturing States have also a high percentage, owing to the employ- ment of these classes in shops and factories; and, fourth, that the bread-winners reach their largest proportion in the mining and grazing States and Terri- tories, owing both to the character of the industries there pursued and also to the small number, relatively, of women and children in those regions. The following tahle exhibits the total num- ber of occupations reported in each of the principal fifty cities of the United States, and the proportion existing between that number and the total number of inhabitants of both sexes and all ages : CITY. Population. Total in occupation tables. Per- centage. Albany, N. Y... Number. 90758 Number. 32,153 35 Allegheny, Pa 78682 25958 88 Atlanta, Ga 87409 17078 46 Baltimore, Md 832313 180364 89 Boston, Mass 862839 149 194 41 Brooklvn,N. Y... 566,603 209,065 37 Buffalo", N Y 155 134 54647 35 Cambridge, Mass 52669 20021 8S Camden, N. J 41 659 15085 86 Charleston, S. C. Chicago, 111 49,984 508 185 20,825 191 760 41 38 Cincinnati, O 255 139 100454 89 Cleveland, O. . 160 146 56919 86 Columbus, O Dayton, O 51,647 88678 18,787 14,184 36 37 Denver, Col 85629 15737 44 Detroit, Mich 116340 89245 34 Fall River, Mass . . 48961 226S5 46 Hartford, Conn 42015 17212 41 Indianapolis, Ind Jersey City, N. J 75,056 120,722 27,966 42,356 37 35 Kansas City. Mo 55785 25081 45 Lawrence, Mass . 39151 19153 49 Louisville, Ky Lowell Mass 123,758 59475 45,244 29781 37 50 Lvnn, Mass 88274 16728 44 Milwaukee, Wis 115 587 40900 85 Minneapolis, Minn 46,887 21,802 45 Nashville, Tenn Newark,N.J 43,350 136,508 16,738 49,066 39 86 New Haven, Conn 62882 24155 88 New Orleans, La 216,090 78,336 86 New York, N. Y 1,206,229 513,377 43 Paterson N J 51 031 22570 44 Philadelphia Pa 847170 848 900 41 Pittsburg, Pa 156,389 52,173 33 Providence R I 104 857 4387S 42 Reading Pa 48278 15623 36 Richmond Va 63600 24550 39 Rochester, N. Y 89,866 84,276 38 Pt. Louis, Mo St. Paul, Minn 850,518 41,473 139,985 17,809 40 43 San Francisco Cal 23S 959 104650 45 Scranton, Pa 45850 16.829 87 Syracuse, N. Y Toledo, O. . 51,792 50137 20,409 17691 89 35 Troy,N. Y 56747 28745 42 Washington, D. C.... 147 293 57,262 89 Wilmington, Del. 42478 19281 45 Worcester, Mas* 58291 22535 89 The above shows that the proportion between the number of persons pursuing gainful occu- pations and the total population enumerated varies in the several cities in the foregoing list from 33 per cent as a minimum to 50 per cent as a maximum, i. e., from one third to one half — a much narrower range than we noted in the case of the States. The rank of these cities in this respect is as follows: Percentage. Allegheny, Pittsburg Detroit ' 34 Albany, Buffalo, Jersey City, Milwaukee, Toledo ... '. 85 Oamden, Cleveland, Columbus, Newark, New Orleans, Beading 3(5 Brooklyn, Dayton, Indianapolis, Louisville, Scranton.. 37 Cambridge. Chicago, New Haven, Rochester 88 Baltimore. Cincinnati, Nashville, Richmond, Syracuse Washington, Worcester 39 St. Louis 40 Boston, Charleston, Hartford, Philadelphia ! 41 Providence, Troy 42 New York, St. Paul I!!".' 43 Denver, Lynn, Paterson '.'.'.'.'.'. 44 Kansas City. Minneapolis, San Francisco, Wilmington'. 45 Atlanta, Fall Elver . 46 Lawrence 49 Lowell "."."' 50 These results are thus explained in the cen- sus report : The facts which explain these wide variations in the proportions between the number of persons pur- suing gainful occupations and the total population of a city are many. The most important may be grouped under three heads : First, the deviations of the re- spective populations of these cities to the one side or to the other from the type of a normal population, con- sidered as to age and sex ; secondly, the character of the prevailing occupations of the several cities, as de- termining the question whether women and children shall be largely employed or not; thirdly, social causes, affecting the employment of women in avoca- tions of a certain class, or affecting the employment of children under a certain age. The variation of the population of a city either way from the type may affect the proportion of the inhab- itants who shall be employ ed in gainful occupations, either to diminish or to increase it, according to cir- cumstances. Thus, going to a far Western city like Kansas City, Minneapolis, or Denver, we shall find the population composed more largely of males than of females, and containing a larger proportion of adults of the working' age than is found in a normal population. _ This is due to the fact that great num- bers of the inhabitants of any one of these cities have recently gone thither to seek their fortunes, leaving the women, the children, and the aged behind in the older communities from which they came. Here a high percentage of actual bread-winners is naturally expected. On the other hand, turning to Lowell, Law- rence, and Fall Eiver, where females and children are largely in excess, we find an even higher percentage of bread-winners. This seems like a contradiction. The explanation is found in the factory industries of these cities, which provide employment for enormous numbers of women, who in a Western city would be living at home keeping the house, and of children who, under the same conditions, would be attending school or living at home without gainful occupation. The influence of the prevailing industries of a city upon the proportion of oread-winners is too familiar to require to be illustrated. The two great iron-mak- ing cities of Allegheny and Pittsburg keep only a bare third of their population at work, because the labor of women ana children would be of little ac- count. Cleveland, another great iron-making city, has but 36 per cent of its population engaged in gain- ful occupations • but a great center of the textile in- dustries, like Paterson, Fall River, Lawrence, or UNITED STATES, CENSUS OF. 819 Lowell, keeps nearly or quite one half of its men, women, and children at work. Philadelphia, which is both a great weaving city and a center of heavy manufactures, especially of iron, stands in a mean be- tween the two, having 42 per cent of its population engaged in gainful occupations. Among the social causes adverted to as affecting the proportion of bread-winners may be mentioned the school system. In some cities the public schools are much more highly organized, more attractive, and are supported by a stronger public sentiment than in others. In the former class of cases we should look to see the influence of the schools acting in diminu- tion of the number of young persons of either sex engaged in gainful occupations. FOREIGN-BOEX POPULATION. — The total num- ber of foreign-born persons in the United States in 1880 was 6,679,943 ; in 1870 the number was 5,567,229. The following shows the nativity of the foreign-born population of 1880 : Africa, not specified .............. 2 204 Asia, not specified ........................... 1?054 Atlantic islands .................. 'o '" 4,906 .... Austria proper , Belgium ......................................... 15,535 Bohemia ................ ......................... 85361 British America, total .................. ...'......'. 717^157 Canada .................................... "."".] 610,'o90 New Brunswick ............................ 41 733 Newfoundland .............................. ' 4*789 Nova Scotia .......................... " 5l'l60 Prince Edward Island .......................... 7 537 British America, not specified .............. .".'.'.! 1J93 Central America .......... '707 China .............................. ........VI.." 104,463 Cuba ............................................ 6917 Denmark .................................. 541 96 Europe, not specified ............................. 8,814 France .......................................... 106.971 German Empire, total ... ..................... 1 966 742 ' m . Bavaria ........................................ 171,699 Brunswick ................................ 4 6-'4 Hamburg ......................... '..'. ....... ]\\ R864 Hanover ....................................... 102.594 Messen ....................................... 72490 Lubeck ....................................... 264 Mecklenburg ................................... 45,959 Nassau ........................................ 6.253 Oldenburg ................................... 9924 Prussia, not specified ..... .................... 634*380 Saxony ........................................ 48,703 "Weimar ....................................... 685 Wiirtemberg ................................... 108,223 Germany, not specified ................ . 624 200 Gibraltar .......... ............................. 167 Great Britain, total ..................... ......... 2,772 169 England ....................................... C62,'676 Ireland ........................................ 1,854,571 Scotland ....................................... 170,136 Wales ....................................... 83,302 Great Britain, not specified ..................... 1,484 Greece ......................................... 775 Greenland .................................. 129 H ollan d ............................. ............ 58.09 0 Hungary ........................................ 11,526 India ............ Italy .................... .il.lIir.HIIIIIIIII! Japan ............................... °." ° ____ ° Luxemburg ............. Malta. ...T ....................... Mexico ............................ ... Norway ............................... ....... i." 18L729 Pacific islands ................................... 806 Poland .......................................... 48,557 Portugal ......................................... 8,138 Russia ........................................... 35,722 Sandwich Islands ............................. 1147 South America ................................... 4 566 Spain ............................................ 5,12l Sweden ......................................... • 194,337 Switzerland .................................. 88621 Turkey ......................................... '. ^ West Indies ................................. 9 434 A t sea ............................. ; ; ; ......... ; ; 4068 1,707 44,230 401 12,836 305 FOREIGN PARENTAGE.— In 1870 the number of persons, whether themselves born abroad or in the United States, one or both of whose parents were foreigners, was ascertained and reported by the census for the first time. The statistics of foreign parentage for 1870, how- ever, gave no clew to the contribution made to this total by the several foreign countries appearing in the tables of foreign birth ; i. e., there was nothing to show how many persons had German fathers or German mothers, how many Irish fathers or Irish mothers, etc. In compiling the census of 1880 a very elaborate tabulation was undertaken, in order to secure the patios of contribution to the population foreign in the second degree made by each principal foreign country. For this purpose the populations of 28 States, 7 Territories, and the District of Columbia were tallied accord- ing to a highly complicated form in order to secure the ratios desired. The application of these ratios to the total number of persons residing within the United States who were born in each of the specified foreign countries, according to the table of nativity, would in- dicate that throughout the United States there were, at the date of the census of 1880, per- sons haying one or both parents foreign born, or foreign-born persons having parents both native born, as follow : Number having Irish fathers 4,529,523 Number having German fathers 4,883 842 Number having British fathers 2,039,808 Number having Scandinavian fathers 635,405 Number having British- American fathers 939,247 Number having fathers born in countries other than those specified 1,321,485 Number having native fathers and foreign mothers. 573,434 Number of foreign persons having both parents native.. . Total 14,955,996 Number of persons having Irish mothers Number having German mothers Number having British mothers Number having Scandinavian mothers Number having British-American mothers Number having mothers born in countries other than those specified Number having native mothers and foreign fathers. Number of foreign persons having both parents native . . . Total 14,955,996 DEFECTIVE, DEPENDENT, AND DELINQUENT CLASSES. — The following table shows the num- ber of insane, idiotic, blind, and deaf-mutes in the United States, as returned by the last four censuses : CLASS. 1880. 1870. 1860. 1850. Insane . . . Idiots 91,997 76895 37,432 24527 24,042 18930 15,610 15787 Blind 48,928 33878 20,320 16205 12,658 12 821 9,794 9808 Total 251,698 98,484 68,451 50,994 Total ..................... ................... 6,679,943 The total population for each of the years named was as follows: In 1850 it was 23,191,- 876 ; in 1860, 31,443,321 ; in 1870, 38,558,371 ; and in 1880, 50,155,783. In. other words, al- though the population has a little more than 820 UNITED STATES, CENSUS OF. doubled in thirty years, the number of defect- ive persons returned is nearly five times as great as it was thirty years ago. During the past decade (or since 1870) the increase in population has been 30 per cent; but the ap- parent increase in the defective classes has been a little more than 155 per cent. " It is not possible," says Special Agent Frederick H. Wines, " to believe that there has, in fact, been any such increase of the defective classes as is indicated by the figures given in the tables above. The inference is irresistible that either the enumeration in 1880 is excessive, or else it was incomplete in 1870 and in the years previous." After pointing out the difficulty of getting accurate statistics on these subjects, Mr. Wines expresses the belief that, in the census of 1880, " a much more perfect enumer- ation of the defective classes, especially of the insane and idiotic, has been secured than ever before in the history of this or, perhaps, of any other nation." Admitting that " it would be claiming too much to assert that the census lists are, even after all the labor bestowed upon them, absolutely accurate," he believes that the figures are " as nearly correct as it is possible to make them at the present time with our present facilities for procuring them." Of 91,997 insane in the United States in 1880, there were in hospitals and asylums for the insane (not including those in almshouses) 40,942, or over 44 per cent of the entire num- ber; of 76,895 idiots, there were in training- schools for the feeble-minded 2,429, or a little over 3 per cent; of 48,928 blind, there were in schools and industrial homes for the blind 2,158, or less than 4J- per cent ; and of 33,- 878 mutes, there were in schools for the deaf (not counting those under instruction in day- schools, and so not enumerated) 5,267, or nearly 16 per cent. " This statement," says Mr. Wines, "may serve to give a summary notion of the urgency of the demand for in- stitutions of the several descriptions named, both in the aggregate and in proportion to the number of individuals in each of the four great defective classes." The following exhibit shows the number in 1880 in each of the four classes by sex, nativity, and race : CLASS. Total. Male. Female. Native. Foreign. White. Colored. Insane 91,997 44408 47,589 65,651 26.346 85,840 *6,157 Idiots 76895 45309 31586 72888 4007 67316 t9,579 Blind 48928 26748 22,180 40 599 8329 41,278 ±7,650 Deaf-mutes 83,878 18567 15,311 80,507 3,371 80,661 §3,217 Total 251 698 135 032 116 666 209645 42053 225 095 26,603 The number of persons in every 100,000 in each of the classes named, who are male or female, native or foreign, white or colored, is as follows : CLASS. Total. Male. Female. Native. Foreign. White. Colored. Insane . . 100 000 48271 51 729 71 362 28 638 93307 6,693 Idiots 100 000 58923 41077 94789 5211 87,543 12.457 Blind 100000 54,668 45 332 82 977 17,023 84,865 15.635 Deaf-mutes 100,000 54,805 45,195 90,050 9,950 90,504 9,496 Total 100 000 53648 46352 83292 16,708 89,431 10,569 "From this table," says Mr. Wines, "it ap- pears that insanity attacks women more often than it does men, but that, on the other hand, men are more liable to the other three forms of misfortune than are women. The negro population is much more liable to idiocy than to insanity. Both the negro and the foreign population are singularly more liable to blind- ness than to deafness. The tendency to in- sanity among the foreign population is espe- cially worthy of attention. It may be accounted for in many ways : for instance, by the change of climate and of habits of life, by the increased anxiety and effort to advance in the scale of social respectability, by homesickness, and in general by the removal of the props which sustain and steady a man who does not emi- grate, but remains in the vicinity where he was born. The same increased tendency to in- sanity may be discovered (but in a less marked degree) in Americans who remove from one section of the country to another, especially from the Atlantic to the Pacific coast." The total number of paupers enumerated in almshouses is 67,067, as follows : Male, 35,952 ; female, 31,115; native, 44,106; foreign, 22,- 961 ; white, 61,310 ; colored, 5,757, including 18 Chinese and 33 Indians. The special agent remarks that " to these may be added, if any one is so disposed, 21,508 out-door paupers re- ported to the Census-Office, but no reliance whatever can be placed upon this figure. It is very far below the actual number, as will be apparent when it is stated, by way of illus- tration, that only thirteen out-door poor are re- turned from the city of Boston." The number of prisoners in confinement in the United States, June 1, 1880, was 59,255. This total does not include 11,340 inmates of juvenile reformatories. Of the 59,255, 54,186 were males and 5.069 females, 46,338 native and 12,917 foreign, 42,294 white and 16,961 * Including 105 Chinese, 53 Indians, 1 Japanese, and 2 East Indians. t Including 5 Chinese and 84 Indians. ± Including 22 Chinese and 244 Indians. § Including 8 Chinese and 37 Indians. UNITED STATES, CENSUS OF. 821 colored. Among the colored are included 531 Chinese, one Japanese, and 161 Indians. MORTALITY STATISTICS. — The total number of deaths recorded and tabulated, as occurring in the United States during the census year of 1880 is 756,893, being a death-rate of 15'1 to the 1,000. This death-rate is decidedly higher than that given in the census of 1860, namely 12-5, and of 1870, namely 12-8 per thousand. " But this," says Surgeon John S. Billings, of the United States Army, under whose direc- tion the census mortality statistics of 1880 were compiled, "does not indicate any actual increase in the number of deaths as compared with the living population. It shows, rather, that the efforts made in the census of 1880 to obtain more complete returns of deaths than had been collected in previous enumerations have been to some extent successful." After adding to the number of deaths re- turned by the census enumerators 61,020 deaths reported by physicians throughout the country, and making a computation showing an average mortality for the United States of 18*2 per thousand of living population per an- num, Dr. Billings says : The actual mortality for the whole country during the census year was not less than 17 nor greater than 19 per thousand. This rate compares favorably with that of all other civilized countries. The death-rato in the rural population of England, comprising ten and a half million people, in the year 1880, was 18*5 per thousand. For the whole of England, for the same year, it was 20-5 per thousand. For Scotland, in 1878, it was 21 '3 per thousand; in the mainland rural group of Scotland for the same period it was 17'3 per thousand. The low death-rate in this country is considered to be due to the comparative absence of overcrowding, and to the more general and equable distribution of the means of supporting life, including especially the abundant food-supply of good quality for all classes of people. In a population of 43,402,970 whites, there are recorded 640,191 deaths, giving a death- rate of 14*74 per thousand. In a population of 6,752,813 colored, there are recorded 116,- 702 deaths, showing a death-rate of 17'28 per thousand. Of the total number of deaths re- ported, 391,960 were of males and 364,933 were of females, the total living population being 25,518,820 males and 24,636,963 females. For every thousand deaths of females there were 1,074 of males. These figures give a male death-rate of 15'35 per thousand and a female death-rate of 14'81 per thousand. It should be borne in mind, however, that the proportion of female to male deaths is some- what greater than these figures would indicate. Of the 390,644 deaths of males in which the ages are recorded, 96,894 occurred under one year of age and 163,880 under five years of age. Of the 363,874 deaths of females of which the ages are recorded, 78,372 were under one year of age and 138,926 under five years of age. The proportion of deaths of males under one year of age to all deaths recorded was 248'03 per thousand; of those under five years of age, 419*51 per thousand. The proportion of deaths of females under one year of age to those of all ages recorded was 215'38 per thou- sand ; of those under five years of age, 381'85 per thousand. The proportion to all deaths of which the ages are recorded of deaths of persons from five to fifteen years of age was 87'57 per thousand ; from fifteen to sixty years of age, 299-66 per thousand ; and over sixty years of age, 172'40 per thousand. Of the total number of deaths, the causes of death were either not reported at all, or were so reported as to be necessarily classed as unknown in 23,053 cases, leaving a total of 733,840 cases of death in which the causes are distinguished. It is believed that the causes of death have been obtained much more ac- curately than in any preceding census, owing to the very general aid and co-operation of the physicians of the country in revising and cor- recting the enumerators' returns with refer- ence to this point. The number of cases of deaths reported as due to dipththeria is : Males, 18,849; females, 19,549 ; total, 38,398; giving a proportion of 52'32 per thousand of all deaths in which the causes are reported. The total number of deaths from diphtheria under one year of age was 2,896 ; under five years of age, 20,035 ; between five and fifteen years of age, 16,162. The total number of .deaths from enteric (typhoid) fever reported is: Males, 11,852; females, 11,053; total, 22,905; being in the proportion of 31 '21 per thousand of all deaths having reported causes. The total num- ber of deaths from this disease under one year of age was 654; under five years, 2,707; from five to fifteen years, 3,952; from fifteen to sixty years, 13,945; over sixty years of age, 2,248. Neither diphtheria nor enteric fever are especially diseases of the large cities. They appear to be more prevalent in the small towns and rural districts which have no general water- supply or systems of sewerage, but obtain their water from springs and wells and observe the usual custom of storing excreta in cesspools or vaults. The total number of deaths reported as due to malarial fevers is: Males, 10,276; females, 9,985 ; total, 20,261 ; giving a proportion of 27'61 per thousand of all deaths from reported causes. The total number of deaths from these fevers under one year of age was 2,002 ; under five years, 6,182; from five to fifteen years, 3,482 ; from fifteen to sixty years, 7,909 ; sixty years and over, 2,623. Consumption is the cause of death to which the greatest number of cases are referred in the records, there being reported 40,619 males and 50,932 females as dying of this disease, giving a proportion of 124*75 per thousand of all deaths having reported causes, or a little over 12 per cent. In the north Atlantic and lake regions the mortality from consumption is highest in the small towns and rural districts, while on the Gulf coast the mortality is greatest in the city of New Orleans, in which it is higher than in 822 UNIVERSALISTS. VERMONT. the Northern cities. This is probably due to the fact that New Orleans is not sewered or drained as are the Northern cities, and has the soil-water very near the surface. The total number of deaths reported as due to accidents and injuries is 35,932, divided as follows : Burns and scalds, 4,786 ; drowned, 4,320 ; exposure and neglect, 1,299 ; gunshot- wounds, 2,289; homicide, 1,336; infanticide, 40 ; injuries by machinery, 120 ; railroad acci- dents,, 2,349 ; suffocation, 2,339; suicide .by- shooting, 472; suicide by drowning, 155; sui- cide by poison, 340; other suicides, 1,550; sunstroke, 557; other accidents and injuries, 13,980. The act of Congress of August 7, 1882, au- thorizes the publication of additional copies of the reports of the tenth census as follows: Complete set, 10,000; report on population, 20,000 ; agricultural, 20,000 ; manufactures and mechanics, 10,000; compendium, 100,000. Pro- vision is made for distribution by the Secretary of the Interior to libraries, public institutions, and persons named by Senators and Represent- atives in Congress. The same act orders the publication of 6,000 copies of the report on the history of the national loan for the use of the Treasury Department, and 1,500 copies of the report on fish and fisheries, for the use of the Fish Commission. The entire returns of the census are estimated to make about 20,000 quarto pages. It is expected that about fifteen volumes, containing an aggregate of about 15,000 pages, will be published. The compen- dium, containing 1,800 octavo pages, was is- sued early in 1883. UNIVERSALISTS. The statistics reported by the several State Conventions to the Gen- eral Convention in October, 1882, show that the Universalist churches in the United States and the Province of Ontario are represented by a total of 778 parishes and 33,823 families. The Unwersalist General Convention met in Philadelphia, Pa., in October. Mr. J. D. W. Joy, of Massachusetts, presided. The trustees of the convention reported that the receipts during the year from all sources amounted to $15,810. The total proceeds of the missionary boxes had been $1,888, of which $908 had been applied by the State Conventions, and $980 were included in the receipts returned by the trustees. The annual contributions amounted to $3,424. The Murray centenary fund amount- ed to $124,018. The scholarship fund had increased from $10,840 to $15,101, the incre- ment having arisen chiefly from the repayment of loans. A committee of nine persons, ap- pointed by the previous General Convention to consider whether any change ought to be made in the Winchester profession of faith, reported that it had decided, at a meeting held in New York in February, that it was expedient to make some change in the second article of that document, and each member of the committee was requested to make a draft of the profession as he would like it to be. At a second meet- ing, held in Philadelphia, it appeared that four of the five members of the committee were in substantial agreement on the subject ; but, as the committee had not had time to give as close a scrutiny to the matter as it required, it was decided to ask the convention for more time to complete the work. The committee was continued for another year. On the subject of missions the Board of Trustees reported, sug- gesting that if the means at its disposal were to be increased, one or more financial agents should be appointed. If it had $30,000 a year, it could make a beginning. The gifts of the last year for missionary work, including all that had been raised for church purposes out- side of the parishes, and excluding the income of the funds and $100,000 raised for parish debts and $100,000 for schools and colleges, were estimated to have amounted to $45,000 ; but more than $18,000 of this had been raised for the church in Washington. The time had come, the report continued, for the Church to look toward the establishment of missions in heathen lands. Its present means, of course, would not permit such an enterprise, but some of its people were already desirous of making contributions toward that end ; and such con- tributions, it was believed, judging from the history of other churches, would promote and stimulate the home work. Much benefit had already been received from the encouragement of State missionary work. VENEZUELA. (See " Annual Cyclopaedia " for 1881.) VERMONT. STATE GOVERNMENT.— The State officers at the beginning of the year were as follows : Governor, Roswell Farnham ; Lieutenant-Governor, John L. Barstow ; Sec- retary of State, George Nichols; Treasurer, John A. Page; Auditor, E. Henry Powell; Superintendent of Education, Justus Dartt ; Railroad Commissioner, Wayne Bailey. Ju- diciary, Supreme Court: Chief-Judge, Homer E. Royce ; Assistant-Judges, Timothy P. Red- field, Jonathan Ross, H. Henry Powers, Whee- lock G. Veazey, Russell S. Taft, and John W. Rowell. Changes during the year are notic"-3 below. • LEGISLATURE.— The Legislature met in biei nial session on the 4th of October, and ac journed on the 28th of November. On the 5t of October the inauguration took place, and tl messages of the outgoing and incoming Gov* ernors were received. On the 7th of Novem- ber, in joint session, the following officers were re-elected : George Nichols, Secretary of State ; E. Henry Powell, Auditor of Accounts ; Justus Dartt, Superintendent of Education. On the VERMONT. 823 8th, Homer E. Royce was re-elected Chief- Judge of the Supreme Court, and the following were re-elected Assistant-Judges: T. P. Red- field, Jonathan Ross, H. Henry Powers, Whee- lock a. Veazy, Russell S. Taft, and John W. Rowell. On the 28th, Wayne Bailey was re- elected Railroad Commissioner. One hundred and fourteen acts of a public character were The Hooker revenue bill is No. 1, followed by the act revising, consolidating, and amend- ing the laws relating to the grand list. Act No. 3 reduces to $1,500 the aggregate amount of savings-bank deposits which any resident of the State may have free from taxation on the grand list. The act provides forfeits and penalties for evasions or attempts to evade the provisions of this act. By No. 4 owners of fowls to the value of more than twenty dollars are subject to taxation on the excess. No. 6 provides for the taxation of the Vermont Cen- tral Railway when any person or corporation other than the original company, in any char- acter or right, is operating that road. No. 12 establishes the outer bound of puppyhood at eight weeks, and fixes the license-fee for every male dog at one dollar and for every female at four dollars. No. 13 contains the amend- ments to the Judevine highway law — amend- ments which practically destroy the one fea- ture of that measure which made it possible for it to become a law two years before. The cumbersome and practically prohibitory ma- chinery of the law relating to complaints for insufficiencies is retained; but the section which limited the liability of towns to dam- ages received on bridges exceeding eight feet span is amended to include all bridges, culverts, and sluice-ways. No. 18 gives tax-payers who work out their taxes fifteen cents an hour for their labor. No. 19 makes the text-books of schools recommended by the text-book com- mittee of 1879 the authorized books till No- vember 1, 1889, and the use of any other books except for reference is unlawful. No. 22 allows teachers while their schools are in session to attend teachers' institutes or educa- tional meetings held pursuant to law, for a period not exceeding three days without losing their time. No. 35 has reference to the or- ganization of the Vermont Central Railway Company, and is intended to facilitate the same. Nos. 36 to 40 relate to railway matters of general interest ; 41 to 46, to the liquor-traffic ; and 47 to 49, to the care and custody of the insane. Owners or keepers of public billiard or pool tables or bowling-alleys will need to read and heed No. 53. The penalty for allow- ing any minor to play these games, in opposi- tion to the written request of parent, guardian, or school principal, is not less than ten dollars. No. 54 forbids posting bills or painting pla- cards or notices on bridges, trees, etc., without the consent in writing of the selectmen of the town. Individuals who indulge in smashing street-lamps, or lamps in the grounds about public buildings, are liable under No. 55 to a fine of not more than fifty dollars, or three months' imprisonment. No. 70 provides for suits by and against associations and joint-stock companies, and obliges such organizations doing business in the State to designate some person in every county in which they are doing busi- ness, upon whom legal process may be served. If such designation is not made, legal process may be served upon any "conductor," "mes- senger," "express agent," "operator," "man- ager," or any person or employe of a company holding a position corresponding to the above. No. 79 imposes wise restrictions against the overcrowding of public halls and theatres. All passage-ways must be kept clear of chairs. No. 81 is aimed at "dead-beats" who try to de- fraud hotel-keepers of food and lodgings. No. 82 dooms the murderous toy -pistol. No. 83 makes an attempt to poison food, drink, medi- cine, or springs punishable with not more than twenty years ;n the State-Prison. The twen- ty-two constitutional amendments proposed by the Senate to the House two years before, and by that body reduced to six, were by their Legislature cut down to two : the first provid- ing for an additional oath which will, if finally adopted by the people, keep postmasters and other United States officers out of the Legisla- ture ; the second making the officers of Auditor and Secretary of State elective by the people. The vote of the people on these amendments is to be taken on the 6th of March, 1883. Act No. 1 contains the following important provisions : ance, guarantee, express, telegraph, telephone, steam- boat, car, and transportation, companies, savings- banks, savings institutions, and trust companies, as provided in this act, and shall be payable in money to the State Treasurer for the use of the State. SEC. 2. The Governor, in the year 1882 and bienni- ally thereafter, shall appoint, with the advice and consent of the Senate, a Commissioner of State Taxes, lie shall report biennially to the General Assembly. SEC. 11. Every corporation, person or persons own- ing or operating a railroad in this State— whether as owner, lessee, receiver, trustee, or otherwise — shall pay a tax to tne State on the entire gross earnings of such railroad, if such railroad is situated wholly within the State. If such railroad is situated partly within and partly without the State, the tax shall be upon such proportion of the entire g^ross earnings of such railroad as the mileage of trains run in this State bears to the mileage of all the trains run on the en- tire main line of the road. SEC. 12. The tax upon such earnings shall be rated according to the earnings per mile of road in this State, and is hereby assessed at the rate of two per cent on the first two thousand dollars a mile, or total earnings if less than that sum ; at the rate of three per cent on the first thousand or part thereof above two thousand dollars a mile ; at the rate of four per cent on the first thousand or part thereof above three thousand dollars a mile ; and when the earnings ex- ceed four thousand dollars a mile, at the rate of five per cent on all earnings above that sum. SEC. 14. When a railroad is operated in this State by a corporation, person, or persons, by virtue of a lease or other contract, the aforesaid tax shall be paid 824 VERMONT. by the lessee of such railroad, or holder of such con- tract, as the case may be ; and the said tax shall be charged against and deducted from any payments due or to become due the lessor of such railroad, or per- son, persons, or corporation granting such contract, as the case may be, on account of such lease or con- tract, unless in the provisions of such lease or contract it is stipulated otherwise. SEC. 15. Every home or foreign insurance company, or association doing insurance business in this State, or guarantee company doing business in this State, shall pay a tax to the State, which is hereby assessed, at the rate of two per cent per annum, on the gross amount of premiums and assessments collected hi their business in this State. SEC. 16. Every life-insurance company incorporated by this State shall, in addition to the tax assessed by the preceding section, pay a tax to the State, which is hereby assessed, at the rate of one half of one per cent annually, on all surplus over and above the necessary reserve, computed at four per cent on all existing poli- cies. The value of the real estate owned by such in- surance companies shall be deducted from the sur- plus. SEC. 17. In determining the amount of tax to be assessed under the provisions of section 15, there shall be deducted from the full amount of premiums and assessments, unused balances on notes taken for pre- miums on open policies, all sums paid for return pre- miums on canceled policies, dividends to policy-hold- ers, and sums actually paid to other insurance com- panies incorporated under the laws of the State; or to the agents within this State of foreign companies for reinsurance on risks, for which a tax on the premium would be due had no re-insurance been effected : Pro- vided. That nothing in this section shall be so con- strued as to allow dividends hi scrip, or otherwise in stock, mutual or mixed companies, to be considered return premiums. SEC. 18. Every savings-bank and savings institution incorporated by this State, and doing business herein, shall pay a tax to the State, which is hereby assessed, at the rate of one half of one per cent annually, upon the average amount of its deposits and accumulations, deducting therefrom the average amount of its assets invested in real estate owned by such corporation, and also the amount, if any, of individual deposits in ex- cess of fifteen hundred dollars each, listed to deposit- ors in towns in this State where such depositors re- side. SEC. 19. Every trust company and "savings-bank and trust company" incorporated by this State, and doing business herein, shall pay a tax to the State, •which is hereby assessed, at the rate of one per cent annually upon the average amount of its deposits, in- cluding money or securities received as trustee under order of court or otherwise, deducting therefrom such percentage as such institution pays to the United States Government so long as such tax is paid, and also the average amount of its assets invested in real estate owned by such corporation, and also amount, if any, of individual deposits in excess of fifteen hun- dred dollars each, listed to depositors in towns in this State where such depositors reside. SEC. 20. No other tax shall be assessed on such de- posits or accumulations in case of savings-banks, or on such deposits in case of trust companies and "sav- ings-banks and trust companies," or against the de- positors on account thereof, except individual deposits exceeding in the aggregate fifteen hundred dollars. SEC. 21. Every corporation, joint-stock company, person or persons doing express business in this State shall pay a. tax to the State which is hereby assessed at the rate of three per cent annually on the gross receipts of their business transacted in this Stated SEC. 22. Every corporation, joint-stock company, person or persons doing telegraph business in th'is State shall pay a tax to the State which is hereby as- sessed at the rate of three per cent annually on the gross receipts of their business transacted in this State. SEC. 23. Every corporation, joint-stock company, person or persons doing telephone business in this State, shall pay a tax to the State which is hereby assessed at the rate of three per cent annually on the gross receipts of all their business in this State, in- cluding sums received for rental of instruments. But there snail be deducted from such gross receipts the amount paid by such corporation, company, or per- sons to any telegraph company with whom they are connected. SEC. 25. Every steamboat, car, or transportation company incorporated under the laws of this State shall pay a tax to the State, which is hereby assessed, at the rate of two per cent annually on the gross receipts of all their business. SEC. 26. The Commissioner of State Taxes may ex- amine upon oath any officer, agent, or clerk of a cor- poration or persons operating a railroad or doing ex- press, telegraph, or telephone business in this State, or of an insurance company doing business in this State, or of a savings-bank, savings institution, or trust company incorporated by this State, and doing business herein, or of a steamboat, car, or transpor- tation company incorporated under the laws of this State, and may examine any book of accounts kept bv such corporation, company, or persons, concerning all matters as to which information is required to carry out the purposes of this act. SEC. 29. Keal and personal estate used in operating a railroad, or used in carrying on express, telegraph, or telephone business in this State, and real and per- sonal estate owned by steamboat, car, and transporta- tion companies taxed by this act, also stock in steam- boat, car, and transportation companies, which com- panies are taxed by this act, shall not hereafter be set in the grand list, and shall not be required to be stated in the inventories required to be returned to listers by section 324 of the revised laws. And listers in mak- ing annual grand lists hereafter shall omit from the last quadrennial appraisal all real estate mentioned in this section. But this act shall not be construed to take out of the grand lists of 1882, or of any previous year, any property included in such lists, or to dimin- ish the liability of any person to the payment of taxes assessed or to be assessed on such lists. SEC. 43. So much of the charter of a corporation or company organized under the laws of this State as exempts such corporation or company from taxation, BO far as it conflicts with this act, is hereby repealed. A bill abolishing the district-school system, and establishing a town system, failed to pass. FINANCES. — The following is an abstract of the report of the Auditor for the sixth biennial term, covering the transactions for the two fiscal years ending July 31, 1882 : The orders drawn at the Auditor's office for the year end- ing July 31, 1881, amount to the sum of $277,- 585.24, and to $280,619.38 for the year ending July 31, 1882. The orders drawn at the offices of the county clerks to settle the accounts of county clerks, sheriffs, jailers, justices of the peace and judges of municipal courts, amount for the year ending July 31, 1881, to the sum of $43,714.88, and to $39,968.29 for the year ending July 31, 1882. Auditor Powell says that the change in the method of accounting for fines and costs by requiring from each justice a sworn statement of all business done and the disposition of each case, before the allowance of bills, with other legislative acts of the last session, has wrought a great saving to the State. The comparative table given below shows the fines and costs collected biennially for the VERMONT. 825 past three terms by the various justice and municipal courts : TERMS. Court orders. Net court expenses. Fines and costt collected. Term ending 1878... Term ending 1880... Term ending 1882. . . $165,822 73 185,379 97 83,683 17 $223,886 89 176,565 84 93,728 76 $25,583 76 45,007 13 66,576 47 This table shows the fines and costs collected in each year, for the last two years, to be about $17,000 more than for years preceding. Probate returns for the last two years show a net excess of probate fees of $109, against a net deficit of $1,200 in former terms. The orders drawn by the Auditor for the year ending July 31, 1882, contain the follow- ing items : Court expenses $39.350 07 State printing, stationery, etc 6,640 87 House of Correction expenses 9,425 76 Reform-School expenses 21,508 68 State-Prison expenses 49,568 64 Salaries of seven Supreme Court Judges 17,478 94 Salaries of Probate Judges 11,750 00 Salaries of State Attorneys 5,900 00 Salary of Governor 1,200 00 Salary of Treasurer 1,700 00 Salary of Secretary of State 2,200 00 Salary of Auditor 1,400 00 State militia expenses 13,176 72 Department of Agriculture expenses 2,586 92 Vermont Insane Asylum 87,198 78 The figures of the second appraisal of the real and personal estate, under the act to equalize taxation, passed in 3880, proves the measure to be an unqualified success in its general results. The total valuation for 1882 of the taxable property and polls in the State is as follows : Amount of real estate $106,577,559 Amount of personal estate 46,996,584 Total valuation $153,573,584 One per cent of this valuation is taken as a basis for assessing taxes, and which, reduced, makes a grand list of $1,535,735.84. To this add 73,757 polls at $2, less deductions, and we have a list aggregating $1,680,529.84. For 1881 the figures were as follow : Amount of real estate $102,437,102 00 Amount of personal estate 46,896,967 00 Total. . . $149,334,069 00 One per cent of which is 1,493,340 69 Add polls, 73,648, at $2 each $147,296 Less deductions 3,016— 144,280 00 Grand list $1,637,620 69 A comparison of the grand lists for 1881 and 1882 shows the increase of the real-estate val- uation of the latter year over the previous year to be $4,140,457. On personal property the increased valuation is some $100,000. The following table shows the changes in the State grand list : 1878. 1879. 1880. Heal estate $92.568,432 $71.017,981 $71,114,747 Personal property.. 16,845,123 15,375,533 15,037,262 Total $109,413,555 $86,393,514 $86,152,009 The direct taxes levied and collected for the last two years were $479,097. The report of the Inspector of Finance shows the condition of the savings-banks and trust companies in the State, on the 30th day of June, 1882. The whole number of depositors in these financial institutions at the date of the report was 42,583, an increase during the year of 4,204. The deposits aggregated $12,675,269.71, an increase of $2,015,784.59 since the report of 1881. Of the deposits $10,221,178.52 belongs to depositors living in Vermont, and $2,454,- 091.19 to non-residents. The average amount to the credit of each depositor is $297.66. There are 27,996 depositors having less than $250 on deposit. Three hundred and seventy- three depositors have over $2,000 each to their credit. The Inspector recommends that the Legislature reduce the amount allowed to the credit of any one individual depositor, to draw interest, to $1,500-. The interest credited to depositors' accounts during the year (including dividends to stockholders of trust companies), amounts to $382,821.05, an increase of $30,- 849.71 over the previous year. The present undivided earnings, interest, and surplus held by all these banks amount to $439,624.21, an increase of $105,695.41. There has been an increase in the amount loaned on mortgage security of $118,197.93. The number of savings-banks and trust com- panies in the State is 22 ; the total expenses of these institutions for the year was $112,876.75 ; the amount of United States taxes paid on de- posits was $14,056.28; the amount of State tax was $53,681.12. Omitting all payments on account of loans, savings-bank tax, United States deposit, sol- diers' and trust funds, that are not taken into account as a part of the current expenses of the State, the disbursements for the Two years ending August 1, 18S2, were $719.171 Two years ending August 1, 1880, were 773,911 Two years ending August 1, 1878, were 8/4,572 Two years ending August 1, 1876, were 810.857 Two years ending August 1, 1874, were 697,638 Two years ending August 1, 1862 (omitting all war expenses, also), were 864,772 The Auditor estimates that $70,000 of the ex- penses of 1881 and 1882 were exceptional. Ad- mitting this, and deducting but $16,000 as ex- ceptional from expenses of 1861 and 1862, dur- ing which time one extra and two regular sessions were held, we find the annual current expenses $150,000 greater than twenty years since, and they were much larger at that time than they should have been. The financial condition of the State, as shown by the Treasurer's report, is as follows : LIABILITIES. Due towns, United States surplus fund $13.397 62 Due soldiers' account 8,959 02 Due suspense account (outstanding checks) 1,940 24 Due bonds and coupons due 1876 4,860 00 Due towns on account of savings-bank tax 42.760 36 Due Agricultural College fund due 1890 185,500 00 Due orders not presented 2,666 55 Total... $209,583 79 VERMONT. Cash and deposits $126,118 66 Uncollected taxes 218 94 Due from savings-banks * 28,167 63 Total $154,505 23 The only items in the list of liabilities that are likely to be called for are suspense, savings- bank tax, and orders not presented, amounting to $4Y,367.15, leaving an excess of available assets over current liabilities August 1, 1882, of $107,138 ; on the same basis, August 1, 1878, $153,009 ; on the same basis, August 1, 1880, $199,483. The following table shows the total acreage and average valuation per acre of the farms (exceeding ten acres) in each county, the ap- praised valuation thereof as equalized by the State Board, and the aggregate valuation of all real estate for purposes of taxation (ex- cept road-beds of railways) for the year 1882: COUNTIES. Acreage of farms over ten acres. Average value per acre. Total appraised value. Total real-estate value. Addison 428384 $16 25 $6964011 $8 572 328 Bennington 375 951 9 33 3 509 C42 5 509 961 Caledonia 342 858 13 81 4 735 773 7 174 608 Chittenden Essex 297,882 254 835 20 42 5 00 5,825,458 1 274 621 11,226,471 1 713 805 Franklin 347 477 15 87 5'515'853 7 976 071 Grand Isle. 48163 22 79 l'o97'5S5 1 201 272 Lamoille 243374 11 61 2 826 4(54 8 280 390 Orange 389 072 13 78 5 363 078 6 979,939 Orleans 399,616 11 72 4,(J84 743 5,879,162 Eutland Washington Windham 524,314 387,337 449 192 14 83 14 53 10 37 7,777,986 5,626,733 4 657 577 15,562,026 8,747,752 8566196 Windsor 549,376 13 72 6,920,421 10,818,340 Included in the last column is the appraised valuation of first-class real estate, comprising all buildings and property in estates under ten acres. The footings of the above tabulated state- ment are as follows : Number of acres in farms exceeding ten acres in the State, 5,037,841; average appraisal per acre for the State, $13.- 86 ; total appraised valuation of such farms in Vermont, $46,779,445 ; total appraisal of first and second class real estate in Vermont, $102,- 708,419. To this should be added the following ap- praised valuation of road-beds of the various railways as reported by the State Board of Listers and arranged by counties: Addison County, $130,647; Bennington, $182,309.87; Caledonia, $82,400; Chittenden, $122,976.04; Essex, $81,225; Franklin, $200,707.74; Grand Isle, $32,842; Orange, $165,916 ; Orleans, $173,- 447.50 ; Rutland, $309,296 ; Washington, $78,- 190 ; Windham, $176,736 ; Windsor, $237,828 ; total, $1,974,521.15. A summary of the valuation of the first, sec- ond, and third class of real estate in the State, as determined by the State Equalizing Con- vention (and returned by the State Board of Listers), aggregates $104,682,940. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. — In 1880 there were 142 convicts in the State-Prison ; in 1882 the number was 94. On the 31st of July, 1880, there were 66 prisoners in the House of Correction and four in the Rutland County Jail, which is in the same building and under the same management. Two years later there were 44 prisoners in the House of Correction and one in the Rutland County Jail, making a difference of 25 in the two years. On July 31, 1880, there were 122 pupils in the Reform School ; on the same day in 1882 there were but 86, a decrease of 36 in two years. The report of the trustees of the Insane Asylum at Brattleboro shows that the number of the inmates of the asylum August 1, 1882, was 441, of whom 356 were residents of Ver- mont, an increase of 27 within two years. They say that the institution has become al- most exclusively devoted to the State, only three having been admitted from outside its limits in the past two years. There are in the various institutions at which the beneficiaries of this State are being edu- cated the following numbers, viz. : At the American Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Hartford, Conn., 17 ; at the Clarke Institution for Deaf- Mutes at Northampton, Mass., 4 ; at the Perkins Institute for the Blind at Boston, Mass., 8 ; at the Massachusetts School for Idi- otic and Feeble-Minded Youth at South Bos- ton, Mass., 3. To aid in supporting these pu- pils the State has expended during the past two years the following sums, viz. : For the deaf and dumb at the American Asylum, $5,- 689.66 ; for the deaf and dumb at the Clarke Institute, $1,430.71 ; for the blind at the Per- kins Institute, $4,850; for the feeble-minded at South Boston, $2,316.96. The entire appro- priation per annum is $5,000 for the deaf and dumb, $4,000 for the blind, and $2,000 for the feeble-minded. EDUCATION. — The Superintendent of Educa- tion, in his report embracing the two years ending March 31, 1882, says that as a whole the common schools are not now accomplishing what the best interests of the people and State demand. Among the many causes for this in- efficiency he cites the following: That the num- ber of native-born children has decreased; that the people have gradually gathered arounc business centers, and that many rural district are thinly populated; that schools are small, scholars young, real estate depreciated, taxes high, and the tendency of the times is to em- ploy cheap teachers; that school-houses are neglected, and that the work of the distric schools is unsatisfactory. In 1857 there were but four graded school and seventy academies in the State. Sim then the academies have decreased and grade schools increased. The State Normal School at Castleton ports an aggregate attendance for the year 396 pupils and 13 graduates; and the Norr VERMONT. VIRGINIA. 827 School at Johnson 122 different students, and the aggregate number of graduates since 1867 to be 262. The Randolph Normal School had 187 scholars at the spring term of 1882, and graduated a class of 20 at that term. The following statistics, taken from the su- perintendent's report, are interesting : Number of school districts 2,333 Number of common schools 2.527 Number of children attending common schools. . 74,000 Average daily attendance 47,772 Amount of money divided to districts $119,670 06 Amount of money raised by tax 371,351 34 Amount of teachers' wages, including board 381,607 S3 Amount of all school expenditures 476,478 08 Number of male teachers 653 Number of female teachers 8,723 THE HUXTINGTON WILL. — This bequest has already been accepted by the State, and that fact communicated to the court before whom the case was tried. POLITICAL. — The Republican State Conven- tion met in Montpelier on the 21st of June, and nominated the following ticket: For Gov- ernor, John L. Barstow, of Shelburne; for Lieutenant-Governor, Samuel E. Pingree, of Hartford ; for Treasurer, William H. DuBois, of Randolph. The following are among the resolutions adopted: Resolved, That we deprecate the one-terra practice which generally prevails in the election of members of the Legislature, believing that it seriously impairs the efficiency of the legislative branch of the State govern- ment ; that with a view to the correcting of the evils which result from this practice we earnestly recom- mend the voters of the State to choose for the offices of Eepresentative and Senator "the persons most noted for wisdom and virtue," and by successive elec- tions retain them in the legislative service so long as may be compatible with the public good. Resolved, That we recognize the paramount impor- tance of popular education as an element in the high- est development of the State, and favor such additional legislation as the condition and wants of the common schools of the State may demand. Resolved, That recognizing the vast importance of our agricultural interests, we believe that they should receive such attention at the hands of our legislators as will give to our State such a thorough, practical, and generous system as shall by its steady and wise application most successfully develop the material prosperity of our Commonwealth. The Republican candidates for Congress were : John W. Stewart, in the First District, and Luke P. Poland, in the Second. The Dem- ocrats nominated George E. Eaton for Gov- ernor, G. N. Bullard for Lieutenant-Governor, Willard Gay for Treasurer, and L. W. Red- ington and Gorge L. Fletcher for Congress. William W. Grout ran as Independent Repub- lican in the Second District. The Greenback- ers also made nominations. At the election in September the Republican ticket was chosen, the vote being as follows : FOR GOVERNOR. Whole number of votes cast 51,845 Necessary for choice 25,925 John L. Barstow had 35,839 George E. Eaton had 14.466 Carlos C. Martin had 1,535 Scattering 8 Majority for John L. Barstow 19,830 FOR LIEUTENANT-GOVERNOR. "Whole number of votes cast 51 S34 Necessary for a choice 2s',918 Samuel E. Pingree had 85,856 E. N. Bullard had 14,442 John G. Jenne had 1,634 Scattering . 55 Majority for Samuel E. Pingree 19,578 FOR TREASURER. "Whole number of votes cast 51,816 Necessary for a choice 25 909 William H. DuBois had '. ' ' 85*854 Willard Gay had 14,402 Fletcher Tarble had 1 581 Scattering 9 Majority for William H. DaBois FIRST CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT. Whole number of votes cast 22,575 Necessary for a choice 11,288 John W. Stewart had 15' 688 L. W. Kedington had 6 009 C. W. B. Kidder had 865 Scattering 63 Majority for John W. Stewart 8,701 SECOND CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT. Whole number of votes cast 24,786 Necessary for a choice 12,394 Luke P. Poland had 12,795 George L. Fletcher had 6 363 H. D. Dunbar had 390 William W. Grout had 4 5S3 William P. Dillinghum had 388 Scattering 317 Majority for Luke P. Poland 804 The new districts consist of the following counties: First — Addison, Bennington, Chit- tenden, Franklin, Grand Isle, Lamoille, and Rutland; Second — Caledonia, Essex, Orleans, Orange, Washington, Windsor, and Windham. The Legislature chosen at this election con- sists of twenty-eight Republicans and two Democrats in the Senate, and one hundred and eighty-three Republicans, fifty Democrats, one Independent, and two Greenbackers in the House. On the 7th day of January, John Pierpont, Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court of the State, died at his residence at Vergennes. On the 10th of the same month the Governor ap- pointed Homer E. Royce, who was then First Assistant Judge of the Supreme Court, Chief- Justice, to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of Judge Pierpont. He then reappoint- ed all of the other Assistant-Judges, advancing each one of them one step, and, to fill the vacancy thus occasioned, appointed John W. Rowell, of Randolph, Sixth Assistant-Judge of the Supreme Court. VIRGINIA. STATE GOVERNMENT.— The fol- lowing are the State officers : Governor, Will- iam E. Cameron, Readjuster; Lieutenant-Gov- ernor, John F. Lewis; Secretary of State, William C. Elam ; Treasurer, David R. Reve- ley ; Auditor, S. Brown Allen ; Second Audi- tor, Henry H. Dyson ; Attorney-General, Frank S. Blair ; Superintendent of Public Instruction, Richard R. Farr ; Adjutant-General, James Mc- Donald ; Commissioner of Agriculture, James M. Blunton ; Superintendent of Land-Office, J. W. Brockenborough ; Railroad Commissioner, George A. Martin. Judiciary, Court of Ap- peals: Chief -Justice, Robert A. Richardson; VIRGINIA. Judges, T. T. Fauntleroy, Lunsford L. Lewis, Benjamin W. Lacy, and Drury A. Hinton. LEGISLATURE. — The Legislature, which was in regular session at the beginning of the year, adjourned on the 6th of March. It was con- vened by the Governor in extra session on the following day, and continued in session until the 22d of April. Among the acts passed are the following: Amending the law in relation to the correc- tion of erroneous assessments of lands and lots. For the assessment of taxes on persons, prop- erty, income, and licenses, and imposing taxes thereon for the support of the government and free schools, and to pay the interest on the public debt. To amend the law in relation to carrying concealed weapons (omits the word " habitually "). To secure to tax-payers in cit- ies and towns the right of public-school edu- cation for their children. Prescribing the pen- alty for non-payment of taxes in cities and towns. To prevent the catching of oysters at night or on Sunday. To authorize the stock- holders of the Eichmond and West Point Ter- minal Railway and Warehouse Company to change its name to the Richmond, Danville and Southern Railway Company. To suppress dueling in the Commonwealth of Virginia. To repeal all acts and parts of acts relating to punishment by stripes, and to substitute other forms of punishment therefor. Giving the consent of the State of Virginia for the pur- chase by the United States of a tract of land at Yorktown for the purpose of the erection there- on by the United States of a monument to com- memorate the surrender of Lord Cornwallis and his forces to the allied army commanded by General George Washington in October, 1781. To return to the public free schools a por- tion of the moneys diverted therefrom. To amend certain sections of an act in relation to the deposit of foreign insurance companies. Giving the consent of this State to the pur- chase by the United States of two parcels of land in the county of Westmoreland for the purpose of erecting and maintaining a monu- ment to mark the site of the birthplace of George Washington, ceding jurisdiction over the same, and exempting the same from taxa- tion. Directing the Governor to convey to the United States the title of the Commonwealth to certain real estate in Westmoreland County, and ceding jurisdiction over the same to the United States, and exempting the same from taxation. To authorize the Richmond and Danville Railroad Company to discharge its indebtedness to the State. Among the bills bearing on the public debt passed at this session, was one to which the reporters gave the name of "Coupon-Killer No. 1." It was intended to restrict the receiv- ability of coupons for taxes, and under the plea of protecting the State against spurious and counterfeit coupons required that no coupon should be received by a collecting officer until it had first been tested by court and jury by a process so expensive, as alleged, as to practi- cally annihilate the receivability feature of said coupons. Subsequently there was an act passed forbidding the writ of mandamus in any revenue cases. Another act was passed supplementary to the preceding, and called " Coupon-Killer*No. 2." (For the provisions of the acts, and the de- cision of the Supreme Court of the United States on their constitutionality, see OBLIGA- TION OF CONTEACTS.) Perhaps the most important act of the ses- sion was the so-called " Riddleberger bill " or "debt bill," entitled "An act to ascertain and declare Virginia's equitable share of the debt created before and existing at the time of the partition of her territory and resources, and to provide for the issuance of bonds covering the same, and the regular and prompt payment of interest thereon/' The following is the Readjuster theory of the bill : The preamble presents "the true state of the ac- count between the State and her creditors," derived from the Second Auditor's office, and fixes the debt, principal and interest, June 20, 1863— the date at which West Virginia was admitted into the Union — at 139,095,928.99, of which two thirds (one third be- ing assigned to West Virginia) is $26,063,952.68, sub- ject to a credit of $3,662,434.55 of interest paid from January 1, 1861, to July 1, 1863, exclusively out of the revenues of this State, and leaving a principal debt of $22,094,141.96, with interest due to the sum of $307,- 376.17— total debt of this Virginia, July 1, 1863, $22,- 401,518.03. Following up the accoimt upon this basis, and giv- ing this State due credit for her redemptions and pay- ments, the statement ascertains the true debt, as of July 1, 1882, at $16,843,034.17 of principal and $4.- 192,342.98 of _ interest— total, $21,035,377.15— which includes the Literary Fund. This sum is apportioned to the various outstanding bonds upon the basis of equity— in which each class is treated according to what it has heretofore received. Thus, that class which has received most now gets the least, and that which has received the least now gets the most. Under the scheme the different classes are fundable in the new bonds proposed to be issued, as follows : Consols at 53 per cent of their face, and the past-due and unpaid interest thereon at 100 per cent ; 10-40's at 60 per cent, and the past-due and unpaid interest thereon at 100 per cent ; peelers at 69 per cent, and the accrued interest thereon at 80 per cent ; unfunded bonds at 69 per cent of two thirds of their face, with the unpaid interest thereon at 63; and the equitable share of the State of the bonds of the Literary Fund at 69 per cent, the interest in arrears on such share, $379,270. to he paid in money. For all balances of such indebtedness as may stitute the share of West Virginia certificates are t< issue, without recourse on this State. The bonds a to issue of the date of July 1, 1882, payable on July 1, 1932, or after July 1, 1900, at the option of the State, and are to bear 3 per cent interest— principal and in terest payable in Eichmond at the Treasury. Tl " coupons of the coupon-bonds are not tax-receivabl nor are they, or any of the bonds, exempt from *— tion. In 1890, and annually thereafter until all the bone are paid, 2i per cent of the amount of the bonds standing shall be set apart from the revenue and \ into the Treasury to the credit of the Sinking Func and to he applied to the redemption or purchase < the bonds. Fiduciaries may exchange State bonds held by them for bonds issued under the act, when so VIRGINIA. 829 authorized by any court having jurisdiction. Interest is to be paid as it becomes due out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated. The Legislature also adopted the proposed amendment to the Constitution abolishing the poll-tax as a prerequisite to voting, and pro- vided for a popular vote upon it in November. Much of the session was occupied with the election of judges and other officers, and with measures designed for the benefit of the Read- justers. They early met with opposition with- in their own ranks, which began with their re- fusal to re-elect Auditor John E. Massey, who had been one of their most prominent leaders. Four Readjuster Senators adhered to his for- tunes, and after his displacement opposed and defeated the Readjuster schemes for congres- sional reapportionment, for redistricting the State for Circuit Judges, for the passage of election and registration laws, and other party measures. STATISTICS. — The Board of Public Works fixed the tax on the railroads of the State for the year at $138,454.92. The Virginia Penitentiary has now within its walls and on public works 977 convicts, an in- crease of 29 during 1882. During the fiscal year there were received 330 criminals. Dur- ing the same period 185 were discharged, 33 died, 73 were pardoned, and 19 escaped — 1 from the Penitentiary and 18 from public works. The number of prisoners confined for life is 16. The number of prisoners confined for terms ranging from twenty to fifty-four years is 49. The youngest convict is eleven years of age, and the two oldest are seventy-six. Of the convicts, 276 are under twenty-one years of age. The occupation and distribution of the con- victs in the Penitentiary and on public works at the close of the fiscal year were as follow : Shoemakers 400 Tobacco manufacturers 99 Coopers 44 Cooks, jobbers, specials, Capitol Square hands, labor- ers. In hospital, disabled, infirm old men, servers, and nurses 128 Males on public works : Valley Railroad 237 Bristol Coal and Iron Railroad 26 Danville and New Eiver Kailroad 23 Laundresses 10 Seamstresses 10 Total 97T The average term of the sentences of the convicts is eight years seven months and six days, and their average age is twenty-seven years and twenty-nine days. The manufacturing industries of Richmond comprise 710 establishments in operation, em- ploying 15,813 hands, with invested capital amounting to $11,213,680. The sales of the products of these aggregated in 1882 $28,061,- 332. Large as these sales are, they fall short of 1881 by $4,741,424. The loss is chiefly in tobacco, which drops off $3,029,100, and there is a loss in other branches — of $403,203 in iron, of $434,725 in cigars and cigarettes, of $550,- 000 in pork-packing, and of $49,281 in flour. In other departments there has been steady growth in the number of operatives employed, capital invested, and in productions. The following is a comparative statement of the exports of Richmond for the years 1881- 1882: EXPORTS. 1881. 1888. Tobacco $79 604 $259 Flour 1 651 084 949 027 Petroleum 17 000 89 315 Timber and lumber 54,904 44,688 Staves 15212 53 027 Hoops 22 593 F s'lp)(r> Lard ... . 6 719 9745 Coal (bituminous) 8822 Wheat 65 486 17 ''56 Cotton goods 1 436 3965 Cotton to England on steamers from West Point 1 062 500 Logs 574 Hams 625 Sundries 775 487 Totals $1 914 813 $2 287 445 Total number of barrels of flour shipped to Brazil from Richmond during 1882 142 237 Total value of same $949,027 Decrease In shipment of flour to Brazil as com- pared with 1881— number of barrels 81,259 Total number of vessels engaged in the flour-trade with Brazil 44 Being a decrease of 29 During the year two barks and six steam- ships cleared from West Point (port of Rich- mond), carrying an aggregate of 50,288 barrels of flour to Brazil. CROPS. — The peanut-crop is an important one in many of the counties of Tidewater Vir- ginia, south of James River, and is attended with considerable profit. Virginia raises more than any other State — the crop being worth at least $500,000 (estimate of 1879)— then North Carolina, then Tennessee — these being the only States which raise them for market. Lime or marl is indispensable to the successful culti- vation of this crop. The sweet-potato crop is another important one in Tidewater Virginia. The cultivation of this usually goes hand in hand with that of melons, the same kind of soil suiting each. Irish potatoes are not raised extensively in the State for market. They succeed admirably about the foot of the moun- tains and on the mountains, and do well in all the cooler sections of the State. In Tidewater Virginia they can be raised early for market, and are shipped considerably from the vicinity of Norfolk. There is one root-crop which has been neglected, and which it is thought would succeed well on all the light, good land in the State, viz., artichokes. They are very produc- tive on light, loamy lands near the streams, but are productive on all rich land of almost any kind. Grape-culture and wine-making have assumed encouraging proportions in Virginia, and are on the increase, particularly in Piedmont Virginia, in Albemarle, Nelson, Prince William, Warren (in the Valley), etc. A very considerable quan- tity of wine has been made by different parties of excellent quality, though the business is yet 830 VIRGINIA. in its infancy, only commenced a few years since, and in many instances not followed up with intelligence and energy. Fruits are not generally profitable in the State, except apples in Piedmont and in the Valley. Cotton is taking hold and extending itself farther north in the counties south of James River, in Tidewater. It is probable that the Eeople of this section can make more money •om this crop than from any other crop, if they will take care to avoid the error that many planters have committed, of not raising corn enough to serve them, and of cultivating too much land in cotton not well fertilized and not well cultivated. The cotton raised in Vir- ginia is found to be of excellent quality, and there seems every inducement to continue and to extend this industry. POLITICAL. — In July Mr. Massey announced himself as a candidate for Congressman-at- large, in opposition to Senator Mahone and the Readjusters, in a letter in which his position is thus denned : For several years past, the settlement of the State debt, and other questions incidental to it, have ab- sorbed so much of the attention of the people of Vir- ginia, that they have given comparatively Tittle atten- tion to Federal affairs. These were not political questions. The most stalwart Democrats and the most stalwart Republicans divided and took directly opposite positions upon them. The men of each side were, no doubt, equally honest — each acting in ac- cordance with his honest convictions of right. Nei- ther Democrats nor Republicans were less Democrats or less Eepublicans because of their being either Readjusters or Funders. The leaders of both the Readjuster party and the Funder party were Democrats ; and each appealed to Republicans to co-operate with them in the settlement of the State debt and other questions of State policy, assuring them that by doing so they in nowise sac- rificed their political affiliations or principles. These questions, upon which both political parties were divided, are now settled, so far as legislation can settle them. Thus, the questions which separated men of the same political party from, and arrayed them against, each other having been settled, no partition-wall or dividing line stands between them. I need scarcely inform you, mv fellow-citizens, that 1 first formulated and enunciated the principles of re- adjustment, and that I have stood firmly and un- swervingly by those principles at all times, in all places, and under all circumstances, from an honest conviction of right and duty. These facts are well known to all. I was, however, a Virginian and a Democrat be- fore the question of readjustment ever arose, and my advocacy of readjustment never lessened my devotion to my State or changed my political principles. When Senator Hill and 'others criticised so severe- ly what they supposed would be the course of Gen- eral Mahone in tne Senate of the United States, be- fore he had given a vote, I disapproved their course and censured them for it. And when General Mahone repelled these attacks, declared he was a "better Democrat" than his assail- ants, and asserted his independence of caucus dicta- tion, I applauded him for it. I did not suppose it possible that he who had al- ways boasted of his Democracy, and who had but a short time before sworn that the vote of Virginia should " never be cast for Garfield," had even then formed an alliance with the Republican party, and would soon after be devising a plan for handing the whole State over to Arthur in exchange for the Fed- eral patronage in Virginia. Under the banner of liberalism and opposition to rings and cliques, he has inaugurated the most au- tocratic rule; displaying more intolerance of other me^'s rights of thought, speech, and action, and re- quired more servile submission to his will and author- ity, than was ever before witnessed among any free people. Under the popular cry of equal rights for all the people? and opposition to monopolies, he so shaped legislation that, but for the sagacity, the pa- triotism, the honesty, and the independence of the noble "Big Four," equal rights would now be but an empty name, and the very term a mockery ; and the aggregate power of all monopolies concentrated in his hands— a bit in each man's mouth, while he held the reins and the whip. The four Senators, A. M. Ly brook, B. F. Will- iams, P. Gr. Hale, and S. H. Newberry, in an address to the people of the State, explained their course as follows : We, the undersigned, members of the Virginia Sen- ate, and of what was once the Readjuster party, claim that we discharged our whole duty, so far as we were permitted so to do, in the settlement of the public debt, in compliance with our pledges to our respective constituencies. Having done this, the main object of our trust was accomplished. But we soon learned, from the acts of the caucus and the leaders of the party, that an honest settle- ment of the State debt upon the terms and according to our repeated promises to the people was not the real object ot the self-constituted leaders of the party, but that the result of the November election was to be used to establish a dishonorable spoils system un- known in the political history of this State; that every right of the people was to be prostituted to the success of a dangerous centralized power in the hands of one man and his chosen friends ; that to accomplish this purpose the courts were to be deprived of their co-ordinate authority, and made subservient to a cen- tral Executive and partisan Legislature j the common schools were to be converted into political agencies ; the right of the people to elect their own officers was in a measure to be taken from them, and other here- tofore unknown and dangerous measures were to be inaugurated. To accomplish these purposes, a de- gradino- and tyrannical caucus system was enforced by rules degrading to those who were forced by the party lash to adopt it— insulting to their manhood, and a betrayal of the public trust confided to them by the people. The ultimate object of all this was to get control of the whole political power of the State, and hand it over to the daring leader of the party, to be utilized by him to advance his ambitious personal schemes ; and it was all to be done quickly, and be- fore the people could be warned of the danger. They, through their faithless representatives, were to _be converted into a new political party, with new prin- ciples and doctrines, all for the special benefit ot the leader and his friends. We, foreseeing the tendency of these measures, alarmed at the impending danger —refusing all offers of place or profit as the price of a betrayal of the trust confided in us— conscious ot the rectitude of our motives— determined to use every effort to thwart these measures. An address was issued by the other Read- juster members of the Legislature and the State officers, which denounced the four Sen- ators as unfaithful to the pledges implied in their election, and claimed that the measures sought to be passed were proper and benefi- cial. Massey received the support of the Dem- ocrats, whose State Committee declared in his favor. The straightout Republicans placed in WAITE, MORRISON R. 831 nomination the Rev. John M. Dawson, col- ored. The Readjuster candidate was John 8. "Wise. The Readjusters pronounced in favor of sup- porting the Administration of President Ar- thur. The candidates for district Congressmen were as follow : DISTRICT. Readjuster. Democratic. 1 Kobert M Mayo George T Garrison 3 . ........ Harry Libbey John Ambler Smith. E. C. Marshall. George D. Wise. 4 5 Benjamin S. Hooper. William E Suns W. A. Reese. George C Cabell 6 J. Henry Rives J Randolph Tucker. John Paul Charles T. O'Ferrall. 8 9 Richard R. Farr Henry Bowen John 8. Barbour. 8. H. Newberry. In the Second District J. F. Dezendorf ran as a straightout Republican ; and in the Ninth, Abram Fulkerson as an Independent Read- juster. Mr. Newberry ran as a Democrat, but without a regular nomination. ELECTION RETURNS. — The election resulted in the choice of six Readjuster and four Demo- cratic Congressmen, Readjustersbeing returned at large, and from the First, Second, Fourth, Seventh and Ninth Districts ; and Democrats from the Third, Fifth, Sixth, and Eighth Dis- tricts. The vote was as follows, excluding scattering : Realtor. Democratic. At large.. District 1 99.992 10,505 94,184 10,504 4,342 (Dawson). u 2 18,226 10,282 8,114 (Dezendorf). 14 8 8,060 10,736 4 14,764 4,552 ( lt 5 . 11,489 12,948 u 6 b 10,862 12,765 " 7 12,146 11,941 8 9,034 14,256 " 9 10,078 1,467 5,603 (Fulkerson). In the First District, Gloucester County, and a precinct of Northampton County, which gave Garrison VI majority, were thrown out for irregularities. Chesterfield County, in the Third District, giving 38 Readjuster majority, was also thrown out, but this did not affect the result. The vote on the constitutional amendment, abolishing the poll-tax as a pre- requisite to voting, was 107,303 for, and 66,- 131 against ; majority for the abolition, 41,- 172. WAITE, MORRISON REMIOK, lawyer, and the present Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, was born in Lyme, Conn., November 29, 1816. His ancestors came from England in early colonial times, and settled in Massachusetts, but removed to Lyme about the year 1677. One of the earliest, whose name has been preserved, was Thomas Waite, whose son Marvin was on the first electoral ticket of Connecticut, after the Revolution, and served nineteen terms in the General Assembly, and as Judge of the County Court for several years. Remick "Waite, who married Susannah Mat- son, was a half-brother of Judge Marvin Waite. The eldest son of Remick, Henry Matson, was born in Lyme, February 9, 1787; graduated at Yale College in 1809. A lawyer of learning and ability, he was successively elected to both the lower and higher branches of the State Legislature. In 1834 he was chosen an Asso- ciate Justice of the Supreme Court of Connect- icut, and in 1854 was appointed Chief Justice of that court, which office he held till he reached the age of seventy years, the limit pre- scribed by the State Constitution. In 1816 he married a daughter of Colonel Richard Selden, of Lyme, and grand-daughter of Colonel Sam- uel Selden, an officer of the Revolutionary Army. Morrison R. Waite is the oldest of the eight children of Chief-Justice Henry Matson and Maria Selden Waite. He entered Yale College at the age of seventeen years, and graduated, with honor, in the class of 1837, with William M. Evarts, Edwards Pierrepont, and Professor Benjamin Silliman, Jr. After graduating he began the study of law in his father's office, in Lyme. In October, 1838, he went to Ohio, and continued his studies in the office of Sam- uel M. Young, then a prominent attorney of Maumee City. On his admission to the bar in 1839 he formed a partnership with Mr. Young. In 1849 he was elected to represent the Mau- mee District in the Ohio Legislature. After the expiration of his term, in 1850, his firm opened an office in Toledo, of which Mr. Waite took charge, and was soon acknowledged as a leading counselor and advocate in Northwest- ern Ohio. One, who often met him as oppos- ing counsel, said that " his assertion on any question of law was always accepted as indis- putable." In 1852 Mr. Young removed to Toledo, and the firm of Young & Waite con- tinued until Mr. Waite's youngest brother, Richard, came to the bar, when the brothers entered into a partnership, which lasted till the senior partner's elevation to the chief- justiceship. Politically a Whig, until the disbandment of that party, since that time he has been a Re- publican. An active and influential member of his party, he never became recognized as a party leader, the conservative tendency of his mind leading him in opposition to radical po- litical measures. This was shown during the war, in his support of the policy of President Lincoln, rather than the more summary meas- ures advocated by some of the anti- slavery leaders. But to all the war measures of the Government he gave earnest and effective sup- 832 WAITE, MORRISON R. port, making himself especially useful in aiding the recruiting service of the army. In 1862 he ran as an Independent Repub- lican, in the Tenth Congressional District of Ohio ; the call for the convention which nomi- nated him being signed by Republicans and Democrats, who pledged themselves to " the maintenance of the Government and the deter- mined prosecution of the war ; to the putting down of the rebellion, and the restoration of the Union." The regular Republican Conven- tion nominated James M. Ashley, and adopted a radical anti-slavery platform, demanding the confiscation of the property of leading rebels, and other extreme measures. Edwin Phelps was brought out as the regular Democratic candidate. Ashley was elected by a plurality of 1,127 votes, although in an actual minority of 4,105. A seat upon the bench of the Su- preme Court of Ohio was tendered to Mr. Waite by Governor Brough, but he declined it. His national reputation dates from his selec- tion by President Grant, in November, 1871, as one of the three counsel to represent the United States before the Tribunal of Arbitra- tion, at Geneva, Switzerland, his associates be- ing William M. Evarts and Caleb Cushing. This appointment came to him unsought, he not even being aware that such a position was to be filled. He was in New York, closing up an important case, when the dispatch from the Secretary of State advising him of his appoint- ment by the President reached him, being for- warded to him from Toledo. He immediately accepted this appointment, and left for his post of duty at Geneva early in the following month of December, where he performed the required service to the entire satisfaction of the Govern- ment and the country. His already good reputation as an indefat- igable and learned lawyer was greatly en- hanced by the ability which characterized his labors in behalf of his country in this histori- cal tribunal. His argument on the liability of the English Government for permitting the Confederate steamers to take supplies of coal in its ports, was regarded as an effort display- ing great logical power and comprehensive grasp of international questions. On Septem- ber 17, 1872, the arbitrators rendered their de- cision that Great Britain had failed in her du- ties as a neutral, in the cases of the Alabama, Florida, Shenandoah, and their tenders, and awarded to the United States the sum of $15,- 500,000 in gold, which was promptly paid. He returned from Geneva in November, 1872, and resumed the practice of his profession in Tole- do. In the same year the honorary degree of LL. D. was conferred upon him by his Alma Mater. In January of the year 1873, he was, on the motion of Caleb Cushing, admitted to practice in the United States Supreme Court. In the following April he was nominated by both political parties and unanimously elected a delegate to the Convention called to form a new Constitution for the State of Ohio, and upon its assembling, in May, he was chosen its president. The death of Chief -Justice Chase occurred May 7, 1873, creating a vacancy in the highest judicial oflice in the United States. After At- torney-General George H. Williams and Caleb Cushing had been successively nominated for this position and withdrawn, the President sent to the Senate the name of Morrison R. Waite, January 20, 1874. This appointment was also unsolicited by him ; the Constitutional Convention over which he was presiding being then in session, a member advancing to offer congratulations found him ignorant of the fact of his nomination. His appointment was re- ceived with approval throughout the country, being alike acceptable to the Senate, the bar, and the people generally, irrespective of parties. He was confirmed as Chief -Justice of the United States by a vote which has seldom been equaled in its favorable character. The nomination was discussed about an hour, during which speeches were made by Senators Edmunds, Thnrman, Sherman, and Sumner, whose speech was considered one of the most impressive he ever delivered in the Senate. Mr. Sherman spoke of Mr. Waite's high standing at home, saying, " Not a breath of suspicion or re- proach had ever been cast upon him," and that he believed "not a man existed whose character was more spotless, or whose sense of justice and honor was more acute." Not a word was said in opposition to the nominee, and the vote, taken by yeas and nays, resulted in a unanimous confirmation by the Senate. Chief-Justice Waite took the oath of office March 4, 1874, and immediately entered upon the duties of his high position. An Associate Justice of the Supreme Bench, now retired, says of him: "From the day of his entrance into office as Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, he has been indefatigable in the dis- charge of its great duties, patient, industrious, and able. His administrative ability is remark- able. None of his predecessors more steadily and wisely superintended the court, or more carefully observed all that is necessary to its working. Nothing under his administration has been neglected or overlooked. He has written many of the most important decisions of the court, too many to be particularized. Among the more recent of his opinions may be mentioned those delivered in the cases of Antoni vs. Greenhow, Louisiana vs. Jumel, and Elliott vs. Wiltz, each of them involving ques- tions arising under the Constitution of the United States." The decision of the Chief- Justice in the Louisiana bond case will be found under the title OBLIGATION OF CONTRACTS on pages 653 and 654 of this volume. Judge Waite was married September 21, 1840, to Amelia 0. Warner, of Lyme, Conn. They have been for many years active mem- bers of the Protestant Episcopal Church, he having been frequently elected a delegate to her general conventions. WEED, THURLOW. 833 WEED, TmjRLOW, a widely-known Ameri- can journalist and political leader, died at his residence in New York city, November 22, 1882, in his eighty- fifth year. He was horn at Cairo, Greene County, N. Y., November 15, 1798. His father was a cartman in very poor circumstances, and he had therefore, in his early life, abundant experience of the struggles and hardships of poverty. His first occupation was as a blower and striker in a blacksmith-shop in Catskill, where his parents were then residing, and he was afterward for a short time cabin- boy and cook on river-sloops. His early am- bition was to be connected with the printing business ; and while living at Catskill he man- aged to pick up some little information about his desired calling, doing chores in the office of the "Recorder" of that place. It was not, however, until his fourteenth year, that he was enabled to carry out his desire of becoming a printer. From this time for a number of years he found employment as a compositor in dif- ferent parts of the State. In 1815 he came to New York, where he was for a time employed in the printing-office of Van Winkle & Wiley, who published Cobbett's " Weekly Register," with the eccentric editor of which journal he became acquainted by carrying proof-sheets to him. In 1819 he established at Norwich, Chenango County, a paper called "The Agriculturist," but after two years he removed to Manlius, where he started the " Onondaga County Re- publican." A year later, in 1822, he moved to Rochester, and entered the employ of the late Everard Peck. In 1824 the " Advertiser " — the first daily paper west of Albany — was started at Rochester, and shortly afterward the " Tele- graph," of which Mr. Weed became owner and editor, was established in the same place. It was while occupied in editing this journal, that Lafayette visited the United States, and Mr. Weed accompanied him as a correspondent in his tour throughout the State. In 1826 the Anti- Masonic excitement arose, due to the ab- duction and alleged murder of William Morgan, who had published a book purporting to reveal the secrets of Masonry. Difficulties arising out of an editorial comment on this affair, which displeased many of the subscribers of the " Tele- graph," induced Mr. Weed to withdraw from this journal, and to found shortly afterward the " Anti-Masonic Enquirer," which at once met with public favor, and gave its editor a leading place in party councils. On the Anti- Masonic issue Mr. Weed was twice elected to the Legislature, being in the Assembly at the same time that Mr. Seward was in the Senate. His ability as a party manager recommended him to the leading men in political accord with him as the proper man to contend at Albany with what was known as the " Regency," whose political organ was the " Argus." Accordingly, in 1830 Mr. Weed established in that city the 11 Albany Evening Journal," which took a con- spicuous part in the formation of the Whig, as VOL. xxii. — 53 A it afterward did in that of the Republican, party. During the thirty-five years in which he continued to manage it, it held a prominent and influential position in party journalism, and brought Mr. Weed into close and intimate relations with all of the leading men in politi- cal agreement with him, as well as with many with whom he was at times in political con- tention. Mr. Weed's record as a political worker and party leader runs back to the very beginning of his journalistic career. The first political campaign in which he took a prominent part was the presidential conflict of 1824, which re- sulted in the election of John Quincy Adams. He succeeded in uniting the Adams and Clay factions, and was acknowledged by the promi- nent men of his party to have contributed more than any one else to the party's success in this campaign. He took a prominent part in the nomination of Harrison in 1836 and 1840, and of Clay in 1844, and was active in behalf of General Scott in 1852 and Fremont in 1856. In 1860 Mr. Seward was his choice, and he labored strenuously for his nomination ; but, failing in this, he cordially supported Mr. Lin- coln, whose re-election he heartily advocated in 1864. He supported the nomination of Gen- eral Grant, and also his renomination in 1872. In the nominations for prominent positions in his own State, Mr. Weed's advice and influence were important elements. He advocated and worked for the nomination and election of Governors Seward, Fish, King, Hunt, Morgan, and Dix, whose administrations have been among the most successful of those in the his- tory of the State. Mr. Weed visited Europe several times, cor- responding during his earlier trips with the " Albany Evening Journal." His first visit was made in 1843, the second in the latter part of 1851, and the third in 1861. The visit of the last year was one of national importance, as his mission was to place the struggle in which the North was then engaged in a favorable light before Europe, and ask the European govern- ments to refrain from any intervention on be- half of the South. He was accompanied by Archbishop Hughes and Bishop Mcllvaine. The letters written by Mr. Weed while on these visits, as well as a series written on a visit to the West Indies in 1844-'45, were collected and issued in a volume in 1866. In 1867 Mr. Weed became the editor of the " Commercial Advertiser," in New York city, which position he was, however, compelled to give up in a little over a year on account of failing health. This was somewhat improved by a European trip in the summer of 1868, but not sufficiently to warrant him in undertaking regular and prolonged work. The winter of 1868-'69 was spent in South Carolina, and from then until his death, with the exception of several intervals of travel, he spent his time in New York, contributing occasionally to the periodicals, mainly " The Galaxy," and also 834 WEST VIRGINIA. occupying himselt in the preparation of his autobiography, which he left unfinished. Mr. Weed was married in 1818 to Miss Cath- erine Ostrander, of Cooperstown, who died in 1858. He had four children — three daughters, two of whom are married, and a son, who died in 1851, at the age of thirty-one. He had also an adopted daughter, who died in 1855. WEST VIRGINIA. The Governor of this State during the year was Jacob B. Jackson. ELECTIONS. — The election in November was for the choice of four members of Congress, a Judge of the Supreme Court, and members of the State Legislature. Of the members of Congress, the Democrats elected three and the Republicans one. For Supreme Judge, Adam C. Snyder was elected by a majority of 3,221, in a total vote of 90,101. To the Senate of the Legislature eight Republicans and seven- teen Democrats were elected ; to the House, twenty -seven Republicans and thirty -eight Democrats. FINANCES. — A summary of the fiscal year ending September 30, 1882, shows the follow- ing results : Balance in Treasury, October 1, 1881 $256,300 82 Receipts from all sources during the year 842,563 53 Making a total of $1,098,564 85 The disbursements during the year ending Sep- tember 30, 1882 797,612 06 Leaving a balance at the end of the year 1882of $301,252 29 The balance in the general Treasury is made up of the following funds : State fund in Treasury October 1, 1882 $13,698 32 The general school fund 252,760 84 The school fund 34,798 63 Total $301,252 29 By the census of 1879 the population of the State was 442,014. In 1880 it increased to 618,443, an increase of nearly 40 per cent, yet the assessed value of the personal property in the State in 1871 was greater than in 1881 by more than $3,000,000, and the assessed value of the land in 1881 was greater than in 1871 by about $10,000,000 — showing a net gain in real and personal property of about $7,000,000, on $136,000,000, or a little over 5 per cent in ten years. These figures would seem to indicate that the large immigration to this State in the last ten years had added nothing to the wealth in personal prosperity. This can not be true. The last census tes- tifies to the large number of farms that have been opened and to the large increase of agri- cultural productions. In the mining districts there is also a large increase of production. Railroads have been built affording means of transportation to market — not only of miner- als, but also of timber, which heretofore has been valueless. The subjects of taxation and their values to-day are greater than in any for- mer years. While the population has been increasing, the necessary expenses of government have also increased. In 1871 the appropriation for criminal charges was $24,000; in 1881 it was $55,000. In 1871 the appropriation for the insane was $31,000; in 1881 there was appropriated for like purposes $83,000. Other subjects of charge upon the general Treasury have in- creased in like proportion. STATE INSTITUTIONS. — The number in the In- sane Hospital during the year was 642. There were discharged during the year : Males. Females. Cured(white) 30 25 Cured (colored) 1 On bond (white) 20 15 Died (white) 29 25 Died (colored) 3 3 Escaped 2 Highest number during the year 642 Lowest number during the year 581 Cost per capita per week $2 18J The number in the Deaf and Dumb and Blind Asylum on October 1, 1881, was as follows: Deaf-mutes... . 87 Blind 88 Total 120 In attendance during year, deaf-mutes 89 In attendance during year, bund 86 Total 125 Discharged, deaf-mutes 10 Discharged, blind 4 Total ~~14 Present at end of term, June, 1882, deaf-mutes 82 Present at end of term. June, 1882, blind 30 Total 112 Number of prisoners in the Penitentiary October 1, 1881. 201 Keceived during the year 79 In prison during the year 208 Discharged during the year, expiration of term 78 Pardoned by the President and Governor 15 Sent to Insane Asylum 1 Died 1 In prison October 1, 1882 185 The board estimate the current expenses for the year ending September 30, 1883, as follow : For subsistence, clothing, medical attendance, guards, etc., for year ending September 30, 1S83, 200 prisoners at 46 1-10 per capita per day $33,650 00 Less earnings as follows, viz. : From contractors for convict labor.. . $19,500 00 From rents 150 00 From visitors 200 00 From boarding Federal prisoners.... 73000 $20,68000 Deficiency $13,070 00 The summary of the schools is as follows : Number of children enrolled for year 1882, be- tween six and twelve years of age 216,598 Number of children enrolled between same ages for 1881 213,191 Increase for the year Average daily attendance for the year. 8,407 96,652 5,386 Increase over previous year Total receipts from all sources for the teachers' and building fund, including balance on hand during the year.... $988,620 08 Increase over previous year $73,160 11 Total expenditures for all purposes during the year $865,878 41 Increase over previous year $106,358 16 The law establishing the State Board of Health and regulating the practice of medicine and surgery, as amended and re-enacted, has WEST VIRGINIA. WISCONSIN. 835 proved a wise act of legislation. It is admi- rably adapted to secure the protection of the lives, health, prosperity, and happiness of all classes of the people. The number of registered physicians and surgeons to date of report is 1,041. Of these 958 are residents of the State, and the residue residents of adjoining States. Besides the careful protection of the inter- ests of the life and health of the inhabitants of the State, the board is charged with the duty of investigating the causes of diseases occur- ring among the domestic animals. The value of this provision of the law was witnessed in Brooke County, when what is known as the Southern cattle-fever made its appearance on several farms in that county. The prompt ac- tion of the State and county boards arrested the spread of the disease, and probably saved large sums of money to farmers of that local- ity, in the preservation of their stock from infection. LAND-TITLES. — With regard to the West Virginia land-titles, and the various frauds practiced to induce unsuspecting persons to purchase land, Governor Jackson makes the following statement : " Complaints are fre- quently made to this department, of frauds being practiced upon persons, desiring to pur- chase lands in this State, by unscrupulous per- sons offering for sale in the Eastern cities lands, tbe title to which has been forfeited, sold as delinquent for taxes, or held under junior titles." He states also that " descriptions, ab- stracts, plates, seals, etc., etc.," relating to above a million of acres as located in eleven specified counties, and offered for sale " at ten cents per acre," have actually been manufac- tured in an Eastern city. In order to remedy, at least in part, the evil resulting from these frauds, which can not but most injuriously af- fect tbe reputation and material interests of West Virginia, the Governor suggests that all clerks who have to do with land-titles " should be inhibited from certifying the title to for- feited and delinquent lands, or giving abstracts of such titles, except where the same are to be filed as evidence in some pending suit." Criminal life-insurance companies, famil- iarly known as " Graveyard " and " Death- Rattle " companies, because they take on them- selves unusual risks, and thereby induce the policy-holder to attempts against the insured person's life, having been organized and char- tered to transact business in neighboring States, Governor Jackson warns the Legislature to effectually prevent such companies, or their agents, from being admitted to do business in the State. LEGISLATION. — The special session of the Legislature commenced on January llth, and closed at the end of March. Within that time about two hundred and thirty acts were passed, of which almost all are of a local character. Among them were the following: "An act making an appropriation for the purpose of paying the costs of establishing and maintaining a quarantine by the Board of Health " ; " An act apportioning representa- tion in the Senate and House of Delegates of this State " ; "An act for districting the State for Representatives in the Congress of the United States " ; " An act fixing the maximum retail price of certain school-books in use in the schools of this State." Near to the close of this session, the follow- ing communication was addressed to the Le- gislature, containing a resolution, adopted by the Land League of the city of Wheeling, at their meeting on March 19th: To the Honorable the, Members of the Legislature of West Virginia. GENTLEMEN : The undersigned citizens of the city of Wheeling beg leave to state that, at a meeting of the Land League of said city, held on Sunday, March 19th, they were appointed a committee to lay before you the following resolution passed at that meeting : Resolved, That the Legislature of this State, now in session, is respectfully requested to use its influence to secure for American citizens now confined in pris- ons in Ireland, by authority of the English Govern- ment, contrary to the spirit of public law, all the rights which, as American citizens, they are justly entitled to. We have the honor to be, gentlemen, your obedient servants. It was presented on March 26th to the Sen- ate by one of its members, who at the same time offered for adoption the following joint resolution, which was passed by a unanimous vote: Resolved by the Legislature of West Virginia. That the members of the Senate and House of Representa- tives representing this State in the Congress of the United States be and they are hereby respectfully requested to use such means and influence as may be in their power to secure the intervention of the Gov- ernment of the United States for the release and pro- tection of American citizens, confined in prison by authority of the Government of Great Britain. WISCONSIN. STATE GOVERNMENT.— The State officers during the year were as follows : Governor, Jeremiah M. Rusk, Republican ; Lieutenant- Governor, Samuel S. Fifield; Sec- retary of State, Ernst G. Timme; Treasurer, E. C. McFetridge ; Attorney-General, Leander F. Frisby ; Adjutant-General, C. P. Chapman ; Superintendent of Public Schools, Robert Gra- ham ; Insurance Commissioner, P. L. Spooner, Jr. ; Railroad Commisiioner, Nils P. Hangen. Judiciary, Supreme Court: Chief-Justice, Or- samus Cole; Associate- Justices, William P. Lyon, Harlow S. Orton, David Taylor, and John B. Cassoday. LEGISLATURE. — The Legislature convened on the second Wednesday of January, and ad- journed on the 31st of March, after a session of eighty days. The average for the past thir- teen years has been sixty-seven. There were introduced in the Senate 444 bills, of which 130 became laws ; 32 joint reso- lutions were also introduced in this body ; 28 resolutions ; 6 memorials to Congress, and 51 memorials and petitions. In the Assembly, 484 bills were introduced, 200 of them became WISCONSIN. laws ; 33 joint resolutions ; 61 resolutions ; 438 memorials and petitions, and 5 memorials to Congress. The important measures passed at this ses- sion may be briefly summarized as follow : Six new cities were incorporated, as follow : Baraboo, Port Washington, Monroe, Menomo- nie, Stoughton, and Neillsville. The Insurance Commissioner was given dis- cretionary power in the issuance of licenses exempting co-operative life companies from the provisions of the general insurance laws of the State; heretofore, a special act of the Legis- lature was required. Another act passed, pro- vides for the revocation by the Commissioner of the license of any company which adver- tises to do a different class of business from what it really does. Continuous lines of railway, of which it is desired to make through trunk-lines, are per- mitted to consolidate for that purpose. The St. Croix land grant was transferred from the Chicago, Portage and Superior Railway Com- pany to the St. Paul and Omaha line, the lat- ter agreeing to pay $75,000 toward meeting the claims of laborers on the former line, and also to pay all expenses in the matter of set- tlement. A bill was passed providing that the State militia shall hold annual encampments, camp- equipage to be purchased by the State, and the men to be paid one dollar a day in camp for rations; the State is to furnish transpor- tation to and from encampments; armories owned by companies are exempted from taxa- tion ; battalions are to consist of from three to eight companies, and regiments of eight or more; the maximum number of men to be taken into camp is seventy-five for each com- pany; the uniform fund is made payable on inspection returns, instead of on encampment returns. The number of authorized companies in the State was increased from thirty to thirty-five. Some changes were made in the school code. The time for annual school-meetings in towns was fixed for the first Monday in June, the present time being elective and irregular. The compulsory education law was amended so as to have school-boards sit and receive reports of attendance and truancy from the parents, instead of going around and hunting up the facts, as now. The benefits of the free high- school act were extended for five years more, they having now been in operation for five years past. The seduction of females under sixteen years of age was made a penitentiary offense, with maximum imprisonment fixed at twenty years. The sale or use of toy-pistols and toy fire-arms generally was prohibited. So also was the importation into the State, of diseased swine and sheep. Severe punishment is fixed for the criminal abuse of children, by parents or guardians; also for the abandonment of children by their father. The sale of trout from the State fish-hatch- eries is prohibited. Any person who has had an uninterrupted practice within this State for twenty years, as a physician or surgeon, is au- thorized to serve without a diploma. Strin- gent regulations were adopted regarding the practice of pharmacy. The earnings of mar- ried laborers are exempt from execution for ninety days preceding the filing of suit, or, in lieu thereof, $500 worth of property. Logs, lumber, and telegraph-poles belonging to non- residents, are hereafter to be taxed. Tele- graph companies are to be taxed as follows : One dollar per mile for the first wire, fifty cents for the second, twenty-five for the third, and twenty for the fourth. A proposed constitutional amendment, rela- tive to the registry of voters, intended to meet the objections of the Supreme Court to the old law, was agreed to, and will be put to the pop- ular vote next fall. It was decided that the first biennial session shall be held on the second Wednesday of Janu- ary, 1883. Congress was memorialized to improve the Mississippi and its tributaries ; to build a har- bor of refuge on the east shore of Lake Pe- pin ; to improve the Sturgeon Bay Ship-Canal ; to adopt Pendleton's Civil-Service Reform Bill ; to suppress polygamy, and to settle the claims of this State for certain tracts of swamp and overflowed lands. A State tax of half a million dollars was or- dered to be levied for the year. Acts were also passed reapportioning the State for legislative purposes and for the elec- tion of Congressmen, and organizing Price County for judicial purposes. The following is the Congressional Apportionment Act : First District, the counties of Jefferson, Kenosha, Racine, Kock, and Walworth. Second District, the counties of Dodge, Fond du Lac, "Washington, and Waukesha. Third District, the counties of Dane, Grant, Green, Iowa, and Lafayette. Fourth District, the county of Milwaukee. Fifth District, the counties of Brown. Calumet, Ke- waunee, Manitowoc, Ozaukee, and Sheboygan. Sixth District, the counties of Adams, Columbia, Green Lake, Marquette, Outagamie, Waushara, and W innebago. Seventh District, the counties of Crawford, Juneau, La Crosse, Eichland, Sauk, Vernon, and Monroe. Eighth District, the counties of Bayfield, Barren, Buffalo, Burnett, Clark, Douglas, Dunn, Eau Claire, Jackson, Pepin, Pierce, Polk, St. Croix, and Trem- pealeau. Ninth District, the counties of Ashland, Chippewa, Door, Florence, Langlade, Lincoln, Marathon, Mari- nette, Oconto, Price, Portage, Shawano, Taylor, Wau- paca, and Wood. The aggregate of appropriations made at this session was $675,254.44. The direct appropriations in 1881 were $282,- 081.38; in 1880, they amounted to $418,953.- 05; in 1879, to $299,177.77; and at the regu- lar session of 1878, to about $339,000. The causes for the unusually large appropri- ation this year are several. The principal of WISCONSIN. 837 these is the enlargement of the Capitol, which alone calls for $200,000 ; the deficiency in the State institutions and the appropriation for the Industrial School for Girls are also important items which bring up the aggregate. FINANCES.— The financial condition of the State is very satisfactory. The cash in the Treasury on the 30th day of September, 1881, belonging to the general fund, was $287,953.- 32 ; the receipts of this fund for the fiscal year were $1,263,074.90, and the disburse- ments were $1,186,807.54, and the cash in the Treasury, September 30, 1882, was $364,220.68. The receipts of the trust funds during the fiscal year were $1,060,954.31 ; the cash in the Treasury, September 30, 1881, was $548,346.- 88; the disbursements from the trust funds during the fiscal year were $1,446,888.21, and the cash in the Treasury on the 30th day of September, 1882, was $162,412.98. The receipts during the year for the school fund are given at $326,159.60, of which amount $130,000 was for United States bonds which had been called ia during the year. The dis- bursements from this fund are reported at $470,961.12, all of which, except the sum of $387.62 refunded for overpayments, is invest- ed according to law in interest-bearing securi- ties. The total amount of school fund now at interest is $2,805,278.23, and the cash balance belonging to the fund is $7,767.35. The school- fund income during the year amounted to $197,333.30, of which amount the sum of $185,166.42 was apportioned to the different counties for school purposes. There was paid during the year the sum of $24,483.81 to the University fund, nearly all of which was in payment of interest-bearing se- curities falling due ; and there was invested of this fund during the year, in United States bonds, the sum of $52,862.50. At the end of the fiscal year there was of this fund $228,- 438.83, all of which was at interest save $2,- 966.39 cash on hand. The Agricultural College fund, which now inures to the benefit of the university, amount- ed, on the 30th day of September, 1882, to $279,689.84, of which $274,385.37 was bear- ing interest. The Normal-School fund, on the 30th day of September, 1882, amounted to $1,165,041.20, all of which save $17,969.62 was invested in interest-bearing securities. The income from the fund during the year was $85,594.98, all of which was disbursed for the benefit of the normal schools. The receipts of the drainage fund for the year were $85,012.93, almost entirely derived from the sale of lands, and the disbursements were $48,542.59. The receipts of the year ending September 30th aggregated $2,324,029.21, and the dis- bursements, $2,633,695.75 — a deficiency of $309,666.54. But there was a balance in the Treasury, September 30, 1881, of $836,300.20, covering the present deficit, and leaving a bal- ance in the Treasury, September 30, 1882, of $526,633.26. The Secretary of State estimates that the expenditures during the years begin- ning January 1, 1884, and January 1, 1885, will be $1,041,720.88, and the revenues, $941,- 720.88. The bonded debt of the State, created in 1861-'63, has now all been paid or converted into certificates of indebtedness to the trust funds, except $2,000, $1,000 of which falls due July 1, 1886; the other $1,000, July 1, 1888. The distribution of the debt, on the 30th of September, was as follows : War bonds outstanding $2,000 00 Certificates of indebtedness, school fund 1,562,700 00 Certificates of indebtedness, Normal - School fund 515,700 00 Certificates of indebtedness, University fund. . 111,000 00 Certificates of indebtedness, Agricultural Col- lege fund 60,600 00 Currency certificates 57 00 Total ....$2,252,057 00 The total State-tax levy for 1882 was $710,- 220.88. Following are interesting items from the receipts of the fiscal year: Railroad li- censes, $586,328.58; plank-road licenses, $107.- 16; telegraph licenses, $3,417.60; fire-insur- ance licenses, $40,727.26 ; life-insurance li- censes, $10,994.26 — total from corporations, $641,574.26; hawkers and peddlers paid in $14,086.36. Under the head of assessment of property, there are in the State 355,901 horses, 1,004,- 064 neat-cattle, 7,574 mules and asses, 1,258,- 131 sheep, 782,617 swine, 212,944 wagons and carriages, 26,223 watches, 23,878 musical in- struments, and 32,083 shares of bank-stock, $27,203,123 worth of merchants and manufac- turers' stock, and $28,956,730 worth of all other property, making a total of $100,507,690 worth of personal property in the State sub- ject to taxation. There are 27,142,837 acres of taxable lands in the State. The total val- uation of the State, as returned by town as- sessors, is $446,760,585. Indebtedness of towns, cities, villages, and school districts : Railroad aid, $2,642,609.85; bridges, $117,417; -other purposes, $2,862,- 771.34; interest unpaid, $608,008.10; school districts, $179,227.23 ; total, $6,410,133.52. In- debtedness of counties: Railroad aid, $930,- 212.29 ; interest unpaid, $52,341 ; all other purposes, $466,792.06; total, $1,769,605.35. ^ The account between the State of Wisconsin and the United States for the direct war-tax, as shown by the statement of the First Comp- troller of the United States Treasury, stands as follows: Amount due the United States, September 30, 1881, $207,685.16. During the year there was placed to the credit of the State, $156,539.59, leaving a balance due the United States of $51,145.57. There are now claims before the departments for adjustment, which will be allowed and credited to the State, amounting to $20,000. The sale of public lands during the fiscal year was 218,395.84 acres, at prices varying 838 WISCONSIN. from fifty cents to three dollars per acre. The report of the commissioners shows that there are now on hand nearly 1,000,000 acres of public lands; that there are nearly 240,000 acres not yet put in the market ; and that there were selected during the year 67,000 acres, for which the State will soon receive patents. EDUCATION. — The attendance at schools of pupils between the age's of seven and fifteen years is 87 per cent of the whole number in the State between those ages. The total val- uation of school property, including buildings, sites, libraries, etc., is $5,614,938, The total amount expended for public and private schools during the school year was $2,577,402. There were 948 students in attendance at the various normal schools during the year. There were 31 graduated and 61 licensed, and there are now employed in the public schools of the State 330 graduates of the nor- mal schools, and 1,053 undergraduates. Sixty institutes were held in 51 counties, with a to- tal attendance of 3,882, and at an expense of $6,433. The regents report the schools in a prosperous condition, and earnestly endeavor- ing to perform the work assigned to them. The annual catalogue of the State University for 1882-'83 reports the total number of stu- dents in the institution at 367. The total receipts of the university for the fiscal year were $98,932.37; total disburse- ments, $92,736.90. The balance September 30, 1881, was $7,604.71 ; the balance September 30, 1882, was $13,800.18. PUBLIC INSTITUTIONS. — At the close of the fis- cal year there were confined in the State-Prison, at Waupun, 348 persons. The total cost of maintaining the prison for the year was $47,- 751.33, of which the prisoners' earnings fur- nished $31,129.30; receipts from visitors were $193.50, making the net cost to the State of supporting the institution, $16,428.53. The number of boys in attendance at the State Industrial School, at Waukesha, on Sep- tember 30th, was 299 ; average attendance dur- ing the year, 321. There were admitted dur- ing the year 95 boys, discharged 160. The whole number of patients who have re- ceived treatment at the State Hospital for the Insane, at Mendota, during the fiscal year, was 656. The number discharged recovered was 49 ; improved, 59 ; unimproved, 56. The to- tal cost of this hospital for the year was $95,- 648.37, being a weekly cost per capita of $3.92. At the commencement of the year the North- ern Hospital for the Insane had under treat- ment 512 patients; admitted during the year, 225 ; total, 737. Of these there were discharged recovered, 64 ; improved, 26 ; unimproved, 30. The number present at the close of the year was 564 ; average for the year, 529. The cost of maintaining this hospital was $98,160.02, which is equal to a weekly cost per capita of $3.57. The whole number of pupils enrolled at the Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, at Delavan, during the year, was 244 ; of these there were present September 30, 1882, 182 ; average attendance during the year, 176. The total cost of supporting this insti- tution for the year was $34,375.94, which amount represents a weekly cost per capita of $3.86. At the Institution for the Education of the Blind, at Janesville, there were enrolled during the year a total of 82 pupils, of whom there were present on the last day of the fiscal year, 57 ; average attendance for the year, 63. ' The total cost of supporting this institution was $16,726.17, equal to a weekly cost per capita of $5.11. INSURANCE. — The valuable report of the In- surance Commissioner shows that for the year ending December 31, 1881, the fire-insurance companies had : Kisks written $165,336,642 Premiums received 1,997,243 Losses paid 925,793 The life-insurance companies doing business in the State reported for the year ending March 1, 1882 : Policies in force $32,705,956 Premiums received 873,143 Losses paid 565,743 RAILROADS. — The year was one of more than usual activity in railroad enterprise, both in the volume of business and in the building of new roads. The Wisconsin railroad earnings from June 30, 1881, to June 30, 1882, were $18,765,428.- 32, an increase of $3,287,255.71 for the year ; being an average per mile of $5,639.16, an in- crease of earnings per mile of $824.25. The total cost of operating the railroads of the State was $10,276,746.45, leaving as net earn- ings $8,488,681.87; the operating expenses per mile were $3,088.24, and the net earnings per mile of operated road were $2,550.91. The total number of passengers carried upon the roads of the State was 3,611,973 ; equal to 162,- 231,759 passengers carried one mile, at an aver- age cost per mile of a trifle less than 2 '83 cents. There were 5,499,321 tons of freight carried ; an equal of 813,414,402 tons carried one mile ; and the average rate per mile on each ton car- ried was a little less than 1'61 cents, which is a decrease of '07 of a cent per mile on each ton of freight carried. The Railroad-Commissioner system in Wis- consin has been a success, and, while the com- plaints have not been numerous, they have al- ways received prompt attention. It is stated that, during a long term of years, not a single case of litigation has grown out of a complaint lodged with the Commissioner, but in every in- stance an amicable adjustment has been had, satisfactory to all parties concerned. It has been found much easier and better to adjust than to litigate, and in this way a better spirit has been developed and maintained between the people and the railroad corporations. IMMIGRATION. — By a reference to the tables WISCONSIN. WOLSELEY, GARNET. 839 of the report of the Board of Immigration, it SIXTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT. will be seen that, of the 57,952 immigrants ar- Guenther, Republican riving in Milwaukee during the calendar year, Kanousf^Sftion " " s'275 31,758 found homes in the State; and it is safe Stewart, 'Greenbacker'." ."!.'.".'.'.*!.'!.'.'.'.'.".'.'."!;;!!.'!.'! '496 to say that fully 10,000 more went into Wis- Scattering consin, direct from Chicago, without passing Total vote of district 23,344 through Milwaukee. The great majority of Guenther's plurality '.'. 1^88 these new-comers settled in the northern part SEVENTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT. of the State. They were chiefly small farmers Buttt, Republican io,604 and farm-laborers from Germany, Norway, and X?iSr j&WbK"* lif& Sweden, and will become important factors in May^Greenbacker?. 'seo developing the agricultural and other natural Scattering 4 resources of Northern Wisconsin.. Total vote of digtrlct _ -^ ELECTION RETUKNS. — In November, Con- Woodward's plurality 1,304 gressmen and members of the Legislature were EIGHTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT. chosen, and a vote was taken on two proposed price, Republican... 14059 amendments to the Constitution. Republicans Bailey, Democrat......'.'.........'..'....'........'.'.'!.' njsie were elected in the sixth, eighth, and ninth Scattering 18 congressional districts, and Democrats in the Total vote of district 25,392 other six. The following were the successful Price's plurality 2,744 candidates : First District, John Winans ; Sec- NINTH CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICT. ond District, Daniel H. Sumner; Third Dis- stephenson, Republican 12,774 trict, Burr W. Jones; Fourth District, Peter Park Democrat. _._ ' -r<-j!.i T\- ,. • , T -u -D !• Woodmansea, Prohibitionist 1,460 V. Deuster; Fifth District, Joseph Rankm; Meehan, Greenbacker 199 Sixth District, Richard Guenther; Seventh Scattering 5 District, Guibert M. Woodward; Eighth Dis- Totai vote of district ^ trict, William T. Price; Ninth District, Isaac stephenson's plurality 256 Stephenson. The vote was as follows : RECAPITULATION. T-TPST nnvr