THE NEW NATURAL HISTORY By RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., F.G.S., RZ.S. and R. BOWDLER SHARPE, H. A. MACPHERSON, F. O. PICKARD-CAM- BRIDGE, W. R. OGILVIE GRANT, C. J. GAHAN, F. A. BATHER, EDGAR A. SMITH, R. I. POCOCK, M. BERNARD, H. BERNARD AND R. KIRKPATRICK. With Introductions by ERNEST SETON-THOMPSON NATURALIST AND ARTIST, AUTHOR OF "WILD ANIMALS I HAVE KNOWN," ETC. JOEL A. ALLEN CURATOR OF AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Illustrated with SEVENTY-TWO COLORED PLATES AND TWENTY-ONE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS VOLUME EL NEW YORK MERRILL & BAKER PUBLISHERS 1 CT COPYRIGHT, 1901, BY THE SAALFIELD PUBLISHING COMPANY CONTENTS MAMMALS CHAPTER XXIX.— CETACEANS,— Order Cetacea. General Characteristics — Distribution — Habits — Classification — The Whalebone Whales (Ba/a>ni(t but tliere ls stl11 great uncertainty as to whether these belong to one or to three species, or whether all or any of these are distinct from the Brazilian dolphin (Sotalia brasiliensis) of the bay of Rio de Janeiro. There is also a closely allied form (S. guianensis] from Cayenne. Of the Amazonian dol- phins one is commonly known as the tucuxi (S. tucuxi}, a second as the pale, river dolphin (S. pallida), and a third as (S. flumatilis), which differ chiefly in coloration, the relative length of the fins, and the number of teeth. The pale 1236 THE CETACEANS dolphin, which is figured in the accompanying illustration, has the upper parts and flukes yellowish white, and the under parts and flippers white. A notice of some of the habits of the tucuxi has been given above on p. 39. Another representative of this group is the Chinese white dolphin (S. sinensis], from Quetnoy island, in the harbor of Amoy, and the Foo-Choo and Canton rivers. It is said to be characterized by its gen- eral milk-white color, pinkish fins, and black eyes. The most interesting member of this group is, however, the recently D . ,. described Cameroon dolphin (S. teuzsi] from the estuaries and rivers of the Cameroon district of Western Africa which is reported to be of herbivorous habit. If this alleged habit should be confirmed, this dolphin will THE PAI,E, RIVER DOLPHIN. (From True, bulletin of the U. S. National Museum, 1889.) differ not only from all the other members of the family to which it belongs, but likewise from all other living Cataceans. SQUALODONTS AND ZEUGLODONTS Families S^UALODONTID^ and ZEUGLODONTID^E In addition to numerous extinct representatives of the existing Cetacean families, to some of which reference has been made above, there are two extinct groups which cannot be included in either of the existing families; one of these differing very much indeed from all modern Cetaceans. The name of squalodouts (genus Squalodori) is applied to the mem- bers of the first of these two groups on account of the somewhat shark-like structure of their cheek-teeth. In the general characteristics of their skulls these Cetaceans approximate to the modern dolphins, from which they are, however, at once distinguished by the teeth being of different characteristicts in different parts of the jaws, as in ordinary Mammals. They have a total of fifteen teeth on each side of both the upper and lower jaws. Of these the first four are of simple structure, and correspond to the incisors and canines of other Mammals; the next four, which are also comparatively simple, appear to represent the premolars; while the last seven have two roots, and latterally-compressed triangular crowns, with sharp-cutting edges, upon which there are a number of cusps arranged in a SQUALODONTS AND ZEUGLODONTS 1237 saw-like manner. The squalodonts, which are found in Miocenne and Pliocene for- mations, both in the Old and New World, clearly form one step between modern Cetaceans and ordinary Mammals. And, so far as the structure of their teeth can be relied upon, they appear to suggest a kinship between Cetaceans and Carnivores. Very different from the above are the still earlier forms known as zeuglodonts (genus Zeuglodon], which appear to be mainly or entirely confined to the Eocene Tertiary, and have been obtained from regions as far asunder as North America, Western Europe, the Caucasus, and Australia and New Zealand. So different, indeed, were these animals from all existing Cetaceans, that it has even been doubted whether they can be included within the limits of the same order. Some of them rivaled the larger whales in point of size, while the Cauca- sian species was not larger than an ordinary dolphin. The zeuglodonts had teeth of the same general type as those of the squalo- donts, but those of the cheek series were fewer in number, the premolars and molars together being apparently only five on each side. The skull differs from that of ordinary Cetaceans in having elongated nasal bones, and the cavity of the nose placed more forwardly, as well as in certain other features; all these points of differ- ence being in the direction of ordinary Mammals. Unfortunately, we know but very little of the structure of the limbs. The humerus, or bone of the upper arm, is, however, proportionately much longer than in modern Cetaceans, although it has flattened articular surfaces at its lower end, showing that the bones of the fore- arm had scarcely any free motion, and thus indicating that the fore-limbs were modified into flippers. So far as they can be determined, the general characteristics of these zeuglodouts are such as we should expect to find in an ancestral group of Cetaceans; but it is remarkable that the body appears to have been protected by an armor of bony plates. CHAPTER XXXI THE RODENTS — ORDER RODENTIA SQUIRRELS, MARMOTS, AND BEAVERS UNDER the common title of Gnawing or Rodent Mammals are grouped that ex- tensive assemblage of small or medium-sized species which, like rats, porcupines, beavers, squirrels, and hares, are characterized by their habit of gnawing. At the present day these creatures are more numerously represented than in any other Mam- malian order, both as regards individuals and species; the number of the latter being probably fully one thousand, while the swarms of individuals by which some species are represented are too well known to need more than passing mention. Nearly all the Rodents are inhabitants of the dry land, and a large proportion of them seek pro- tection from enemies by living in subterranean burrows which they construct for themselves, and wherein they generally associate in larger or smaller colonies. Some, however, like the water vole and the beaver, are aquatic; while others, like the squirrels and tree-porcupines, lead an arboreal life. A few, again, have acquired the power of spurious flight through the development of folds of skin along the sides of the body and limbs, by the aid of which they are enabled to take long flying leaps. The Rodents are some of the most easily defined of all Mammals, and are best characterized by the number and nature of their teeth — especially those in the front of the jaws. They are distinguished by the presence in each jaw of a pair of large chisel-like front or incisor teeth, which grow continuously throughout the life of their owners. As a rule, no other incisor teeth save these two pairs are developed, but in the hares and rabbits and their allies a second smaller pair occurs behind those of the upper jaw. There are no tusks or canine teeth in either jaw, and in the cheek series the number of premolars is always reduced below the normal four, very generally only one of these teeth being present, while in some cases even this may be wanting. In consequence of the reduced number of incisor teeth, coupled with the absence of canines and the reduction in the premolars, the skull of a Rodent is always distinguished by the presence of a long gap between the front and the cheek teeth. Indeed, the presence in all Rodents of only a single pair of chisel-shaped and permanently-growing lower incisors, opposed to a corresponding pair in the up- per jaw, the total absence of canines, the long gap between the incisors and the cheek-teeth, and the reduction in the number of the premolars, are of themselves sufficient to distinguish the Rodent order from all other Mammals, with the excep- tion of the aye-aye among the lemurs. Among other distinctive characteristics of the group, the following may be mentioned. The feet are usually furnished with five toes, which generally ter- minate in sharp claws, although they sometimes have broad nails. In walking, (1238) SQUIRRELS, MARMOTS, AND BEAVERS 1239 either the whole or the greater part of the sole of the foot is applied to the ground, so that these animals may be described as entirely or partially plantigrade. Rodents are nearly always furnished with collar bones (clavicles), although these may be more or less imperfectly developed, and are thereby broadly distinguished from all living Ungulates. Their skulls are characterized by the condyle of the lower jaw being elongated from front to back, instead of from side to side, and thus permitting of that backward-and- forward motion of the lower upon the tipper jaw, which is so noticeable when we watch a rabbit feeding; this char- acteristic serving to distinguish Rodents SIDE VIEW OF THE SKULI, OF THE PRAIRIE alike from Ungulates and from Carni- MARMOT vores. Another point in connection with the skull is that the cavity for the eye is not separated behind by a bar of bone from the temporal fossa; this feature serving to distinguish the Rodents from the aye-aye, in which the eye socket is surrounded by a bony ring. _ . The teeth, being so important in the definition of the Rodents, require somewhat fuller consideration. With regard to the incisors, it may be observed that these teeth are of great length, and curved nearly in the arc of a circle; their inserted portion extending far backward in the jaws, so that in the up- per jaw it comes nearly in contact with the base of the first of the cheek-teeth, while in the lower jaw it runs beneath the whole of the cheek series. The lower incisors form a small segment of a very large circle (roughly speaking), while the upper ones constitute a much greater segment of a far smaller circle. In the great majority of Rodents the enamel on the incisor teeth is confined almost exclusively to their front surface, and is generally thicker on one side than on the other; but in the hares and rabbits it also extends somewhat onto the lateral surfaces. In cross-section these teeth are somewhat triangular; the front enamel-covered surface being broad and flattened, and the two lateral surfaces gradually converging to a rounded posterior edge. Whereas, however, the inner surface, which comes in contact with the tooth on the opposite side of the jaw, is nearly flat, the outer surface is convex. As a natural result of the front surface of these teeth being composed of the hard enamel (which is very frequently of an orange or reddish color), whereas the remaining portion consists of much softer ivory, it follows that the effect of wear is to produce a sharp chisel edge at their summits. Indeed, the structure of an incisor tooth of a Rodent is precisely analogous to a chisel ; the hard enamel corresponding to the steel with which the latter is faced, and which forms the cutting edge, while the ivory represents the soft iron forming the support to the thin plate of steel. As these in- cisor teeth are continually growing, they always present the same chisel-like edges, which are worn away by use at a rate commensurate with that of the growth. It fol- lows from this that if one of these teeth be broken away during life, the correspond- ing tooth in the opposite jaw, having nothing to check its growth by wear, will 1240 THE RODENTS continue to grow on uninterruptedly till it forms nearly a circle, when its point will enter the jaw of its unfortunate owner and probably lead to a lingering death. Most museums possess specimens of the skulls of Rodents with such abnormally- developed teeth. The cheek-teeth of Rodents may be either provided with distinct roots, or may grow throughout life and never develop such roots. In the cases of those with dis- tinct roots, the crowns may carry mere simple tubercles; but in other instances they may have their summits or sides penetrated by infoldings of the enamel, thus pro- ducing a more or. less complicated pattern when worn. On the other hand, the permanently-growing rootless molars always have complex crowns, which are some- times interpenetrated by lateral infoldings of the enamel, and at others are divided into series of parallel transverse plates. There is, indeed, a precise parallelism in this respect between the molar teeth of the Rodents and those of the mastodons and elephants; the molar tooth of a mouse, which has distinct roots, and a low crown with simple cusps, being exactly comparable to that of a mastodon, whereas the high-crowned, laminated, and rootless molar of a guinea pig corresponds as closely with that of a modern elephant. Rodents are always furnished with milk-teeth, which, however, in some instances are shed before birth. The Rodents present a peculiarity in the structure of the mouth , which is quite unknown in any other Mammals. In examining the mouth of any one of these animals — say a rabbit — it will be found that behind the upper front teeth the outer hairy skin of the face is continued inward into the sides of the mouth, which by this means is divided into two distinct chambers, communicating with one another through a comparatively narrow orifice, the first chamber contain- ing only the front teeth, while the cheek-teeth are included in the second chamber. It appears that this arrangement is designed to prevent the entrance of extraneous substances into the true cavity of the mouth when the creatures are engaged in their characteristic operation of gnawing. In addition to this peculiarity, the whole of the inside of the cheeks in the hares and rabbits is covered with hair, while the pouched rats and hamsters have large pouches inside the cheeks, which are also lined with hairy skin. On the other hand, the gophers have pouches in the cheeks which open externally instead of internally. The Rodents have a wider distribution than any other group of ter- d H b't rest"al Mammals, being found in all parts of the globe except the ex- treme polar regions. With the exception of the bats, they include the only representatives of the placental Mammals which are undoubtedly indige- nous to Australia. They are, however, but poorly represented in that country, and likewise in the great island of Madagascar. On the other hand, the order attains an extraordinary development in South America, where its largest representatives occur, and which may be looked upon as its headquarters. In time the Rodents certainly date from the upper portion of the Eocene division of the Tertiary period; but the whole of the extinct forms hitherto discovered present all the essential peculiarities of the existing representatives of the group, and we are, therefore, at present almost completely in the dark as to their relationship to other orders, although it has been suggested that they are derived directly from the Marsupials. THE AFRICAN FLYING SQUIRRELS 1241 The number of genera of Rodents is so great that in a work like the present it is only possible to notice some of the leading and more generally interesting types. The whole of the Rodents are almost entirely herbivorous in their habits, and all of them obtain their food by gnawing. We have already noticed that while the majority are terrestrial and burrowing, some are arboreal, others aquatic, and a few endowed with the power of spurious flight; and it may be added that of the terrestrial forms the hares are among the fleetest runners of all Mammals, while the jerboas and chinchillas are distinguished by their leaping powers. They are mostly harmless and inoffensive creatures, fleeing with the greatest terror and precipitancy from the smallest of foes; but a few, like the common rat, when driven to bay, will defend themselves desperately, and will then inflict comparatively severe bites with their powerful front teeth. Many Rodents yield furs which are very largely used in commerce, although of less intrinsic value than those of many other Mammals. The flesh of hares and rabbits is largely consumed in Europe, while that of other members of the order is also eaten in various parts of the world; but the strong odor which characterizes many Rodents renders their flesh more or less unpalatable. As a whole, Rodents are characterized by their dull and frequently uniform coloration, although there are many exceptions to this. Indeed, many of the squirrels from the warmer regions of the globe, as well as one of the species of marmot, are among the most brilliantly colored of all animals. In the brighter-colored forms it does not appear that any rule can be laid down as to the plan of coloration. Thus while in many of the squirrels the brilliant colors take the form of distinct patches, distributed over various parts of the body, in the palm-squirrels and ground-squirrels there are light longitudinal stripes on a dark ground, and in the pacas there are light-colored spots. It appears, however, that no Rodent exhibits transverse bars of different colors on the body, and in none is the tail ornamented with alternate light and dark rings. The tail is very variable, being totally wanting in the guinea pig, while in the jerboas it attains an enormous relative length. THE AFRICAN FLYING SQUIRRELS Family ANOMALURID^ The true flying squirrels are confined to Asia, Europe, and North America, but Africa possesses a group of somewhat similar animals which differ so decidedly in structure that they are assigned to a distinct family. Before considering these animals in detail, a few words are necessary as to the leading characteristics common to all the Rodents treated of in the present chapter, which are collectively spoken of as the squirrel-like Rodents, or, technically, as the Sciuromorpha. Together with the mouse-like Rodents described in the following chapter, all these animals are characterized by the angular process of the lower jaw* taking its origin from the root of the sheath of the incisor tooth. The * This is the projecting process seen at the hinder extremity of the lower jaw in the skull figured on p. 1239. 1242 THE RODENTS SKELETON OF SQUIRREL. squirrel-like Rodents are especially distinguished by having the two bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula), as shown in the accompanying figure of the skeleton of the squirrel, quite distinct from one another. They are further characterized by the zygomatic or cheek-arch of the skull being slender, and mainly formed by the jugale or cheek bone itself.* These distinctive characteristics, which are somewhat difficult for those not versed in anatomy to understand, may appear trivial and unimportant, but the fact is that all Rodents are so alike in general structure that it is only by such slight points of difference that the various groups can be satisfactorily distin- guished from one another. The African flying squirrels (Anomalurus] are distinguished from the true flying squirrels by the parachute-like membrane running along the sides of the body being supported in front by a rod of bony cartilage arising from the elbow joint (instead of from the wrist) ; and also by the presence of a row of overlapping horny scales on the under surface of the root of the long and thickly-haired tail. Their skulls also differ from those of the true squirrels by the absence of a bony projection from the frontal bones defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye. They have, moreover, but a single pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. Most of these flying squirrels are confined to Western Africa, but one species (A. pusillus} occurs in Equatoria, while another is found on the east coast near Zanzibar. The ful- THE FULGENT AFRICAN FLYING SQUIRREL. gent flying squirrel (A.fulgens} from the Gabun is one of the largest species, measuring twenty-one inches in total length, of which a third is occupied by the tail; its color is bright tawny orange, * In the same figure the zygomatic arch is the bar of bone beneath the socket of the eye, of which the front portion is formed by the jugale or cheek bone. SQUIRREL FAMILY— GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL 1243 with a white spot between the ears, and another on each side of the muzzle. On the other hand, in the pygmy African flying squirrel — the mboma of the natives — the length of the head and body is only eleven inches, and that of the tail five and one-fourth inches; the color of the upper parts being dark grizzled gray, while beneath it is yellowish white, with the tail uniform pale brown. The habits of these animals appear to be very similar to those of their Asiatic allies. In climbing tree stems, preparatory to taking their flying leaps, it is said that they use the scales at the root of the tail to aid in obtaining a hold on the bark. THE SQUIRREL FAMILY Family The Squirrel family, which includes the true flying squirrels, ordinary squirrels, marmots, and susliks, is distinguished from the last by the absence of scales on the tail, and the presence of distinct bony (postorbital) processes defining the hinder .border of the upper half of the socket of the eye. Moreover, when a parachute- like membrane is present, it is supported by a rod of cartilage arising from the wrist. The palate is broad; and there are generally two pairs of premolar teeth in the upper, and one in the lower jaw; but the first upper premolar is small, and may be shed or wanting. The molars have roots, and in the young state at least have their crowns surmounted by tubercles, but in the adult they often have deep wavy enamel folds, forming transverse plates extending partially across the crown. Till quite recently the members of the family were divided into two groups, or subfamilies, according as to whether they are arboreal or terrestrial in their habits; the first group including the true squirrels and flying squirrels, and the second comprising the susliks and marmots. From a careful study of their dentition, Dr. Forsyth-Major has, however, come to the conclusion that this arrangement is an artificial one; he accordingly classes them under three groups, of which the first includes the true squirrels, susliks, and marmots, the second the flying squirrels, and the third the Oriental pygmy squirrels. THE GROOVE-TOOTHED SQUIRREL Genus Rhithrosciurus According to the above-mentioned scheme, the first representative of the family is the Bornean groove-toothed squirrel (Rhithrosciurus macrotis}, which is the sole member of a genus easily characterized by the presence of a number of vertical grooves on the front of the incisor teeth. Much larger than the common squirrel, this species has an enormous bushy tail, long, tufted ears, and black and white bands along the flanks. The molar teeth a're of a simpler type than in any other member of this family. 1244 THE RODENTS THE SPINY SQUIRREL Genus Xerus In addition to being the home of a considerable number of true squirrels, Africa is the sole habitat of a group of squirrels constituting a distinct genus of the family. The typical representatives of these Ethiopian spiny squirrels are char- acterized by their coarse and spiny hair, the small size or total absence of the external conchs of the ears, and the comparative straightness of the long claws. According to the new classification, certain other Ethiopian species, formerly included among the true squirrels, may, however, find a place in this genus, which will be best characterized by the skull and molar teeth. As regards the skull, this is distinguished by its elongate form, which is especially shown in the THE ABYSSINIAN SPINY SQUIRREL. (One-fourth natural size.) frontal bones, and the extreme shortness of the (postorbital) processes forming the hinder border of the upper sockets of the eyes. The molar teeth, in place of the low-crowned, basin-shaped form characterizing those of the true squirrels, have somewhat taller crowns, with more or less well-marked transverse plates, thus ap- proximating to the corresponding teeth of the porcupines, and evidently indicating a specialized type. The genus now includes a very large number of species, ranging Distribution r A, . . , . . , . . d H b't "om Abyssinia to the Cape; its typical representatives differing from the true squirrels in being entirely terrestrial, taking refuge either in clefts and holes among rocks, or in the burrows excavated by themselves. The Abyssinian spiny squirrel (Xerus rutilus] , which is the species represented in our illustration, is of a uniform yellowish-red color, with distinct conchs to the ears; its size being comparable to that of the English squirrel, but rather larger. Mr. Blan- THE TRUE SQUIRRELS 1245 ford states that these animals may be commonly seen in the neighborhood of Annesley Bay in rocky places, associating in parties of five or six individuals. The striped Abyssinian spiny squirrel (X. leucoumbrinus] agrees with the last in having external ear conchs, but differs in its longitudinally-striped body; in the latter respect it resembles the Cape spiny squirrel (X. setosus} of South Africa, in which, however, the conchs of the ears are wanting. The small spiny squirrel (X. getulus), which is also striped, is the most diminutive member of the group, and in size and appearance much resembles the Indian palm-squirrel. A fossil species of this genus occurs in the Miocene deposits of France. THE TRUE SQUIRRELS Genus Sciurus The common squirrel is the sole representative in Western Europe of an ex- ceedingly large and widely-distributed genus, of which the following are the lead- ing characteristics. The tail is very long and bushy; the ears are in most cases of considerable size, and may be surmounted with tufts of long hair; and in the fore- limbs there are only four functional toes, owing to the rudimental condition of the one corresponding to the human thumb. The claws are long, curved, and sharp, while the female may have either four or six teats. From that of the spiny squirrels the skull differs by its shortened form and the elongation of the backwardly- directed (postorbital) processes defining the hinder border of the sockets of the eyes. The molar teeth are low crowned and of a simple type, those of the lower jaw having the grinding surface basin-shaped, with a longitudinal wall on the inner and outer sides, and no transverse plates formed by infoldings of the enamel; and the first upper premolar, if present, is small and may be shed at an early age. While the common squirrel is of a uniform brownish-red color on the upper parts, many of the tropical species are most brilliantly tinted with orange and other bright colors, while others, like the little Indian palm-squirrel, have their bodies ornamented with longitudinal light stripes on a dark ground. One of the Malayan species, which is ordinarily gray, assumes a brilliant orange-colored dress during the breeding season; and some of the North- American species also undergo a seasonal change of coloration, one of them having a dark stripe along the sides of the body in summer, which completely disappears in winter. There is great differ- ence in the size of the various species, the large Malayan squirrel (Saurus bicolor) from India and the Malay region measuring about forty inches or more in total length, while the Indian palm-squirrel does not exceed a weasel in size. The true squirrels inhabit the temperate and tropical portions of the whole globe, with the exception of Madagascar and the Australasian region. The number of species probably does not fall far short of fifty or sixty, and these are most numerous in the Malayan region, which may be regarded as the headquarters of the group. There is, however, great difficulty in deciding as to the real number of species, since a large number of squirrels, especially 1246 THE RODENTS European Squirrel those from North America and Africa, exhibit extraordinary local variation in coloration, so that it is almost impossible to say where varieties end and species begin. The common squirrel (S. vulgaris}, as being the best-known repre- sentative of the genus, may be selected for special notice, as the habits of all the species appear to be very similar. Belonging to a group in which the first upper premolar is present, this little animal is so well known by appearance to all, that but few words need be devoted to its description. The general color of the head and body is brownish red above, and white beneath; the whole tail being of the same hue as the back. In summer, the edges of the ears are smooth, but in winter they are tipped with a thick fringe of hair. In winter, the THE EUROPEAN SQUIRREL. (One-half natural size.) squirrel in England is grayer than in summer; and in the more northern and eastern parts of its habitat, the gray tint, especially in winter, becomes much more marked, while in Japan the color is nearly black. Drab-colored squirrels occur in Siberia, and white or pied specimens are met with occasionally. In some parts of England the tail is not unfrequently cream colored in autumn. The total length of the ani- mal, exclusive of the hair at the end of the tail, is about fifteen and one-half inches, of which seven inches are taken up by the tail. The geographical range of the European squirrel is very extensive, comprising almost the whole of4Europe, Northern Africa, Asia Minor, and Asia north of the Himalayas, as far eastward as Japan. Indeed, Ireland and Japan respectively mark the western and eastern boundaries of its range; while its extreme northern and southern limits are indicated by Lapland and the north of Distribution THE TRUE SQUIRRELS 1247 Italy. In the south of the latter country, and likewise in the Caucasus and the Crimea, the squirrel is, however, quite unknown. Like other members of the genus, this species of squirrels is mainly diurnal and arboreal in its habits, but seldom descending to the ground, and when aloft leaping from bough to bough with surprising agility. The extent of these flying leaps shows that the ' ' flight ' ' of the flying squirrels is but an ultradevelopment of this mode of progression. Its chief food consists of nuts, beech mast, bark, buds, and young shoots of trees; but there is evidence that it is also not averse to a diet of birds' eggs, and perhaps insects. In feeding, all squirrels sit up on their hind-quarters, and hold their food to their mouths with the fore-paws. The shells of nuts are pierced by the sharp front teeth, and every fragment removed be- fore the kernel is consumed. Stores of food are laid up by the common squirrel for winter use, but instead of being deposited in a single place they are hidden in several repositories. In England, and the whole of its more northerly habitat, the squirrel partially hibernates during the winter, but it wakes up at intervals to feed when the weather is mild, and again retires to slumber. Probably in more south- ern regions it is active throughout the year, as are the species inhabiting the warmer parts of the globe. Squirrels associate in pairs, apparently for life, and generally frequent the same tree or clump of trees from year to year. The nest, or " drey," in which the young are produced, is built either in the fork of a branch, or in some hole of the stem of a tree, and is composed of leaves, moss, and fibres, carefully in- tertwined. When placed in a fork, it so closely resembles the boughs in color that its detection from below is difficult. In England, the blind and naked young are born in June, and are usually three or four in number. They remain with their par- ents till the following spring, and if captured at a sufficiently early age form docile and affectionate pets. The squirrel can swim well, and its flesh is said to be good eating. Squirrel fur is extensively used for boas, linings, and trimmings. The quan- tity formerly exported to England was very great, the total number of skins in 1839 reaching 2,730,826; but of late years the exports have declined, the chief seat of the industry in this fur being now in Germany. The darker bluish-gray skins are the most valued, most of these being obtained from Okhotsk by the Alaska Company, the number exported by that company to London being, according to Mr. Poland, 43,235 in 1891, but it is sometimes double as many. In North America the place of the European species is taken by the North- re(j Squirrel, or chickari (S. hudsoniamii) , and the gray squirrel (S. mencan caronnensis\. the former frequenting forests of all kinds, while the lat- Squirrels ter is chiefly restricted to those composed of deciduous trees. Dr. Hart Merriam, describing the habits of the red squirrel in the Adirondack moun- tains, near New York, says that this species exhibits but little fear of man, and is the least wary of all its tribe. It is on the alert from dawn to sunset, and some- times, especially when there is a moon, continues its rambles throughout the night; while whenever abroad it enlivens the solitudes of the forests with its continual chatterings. " Though an expert climber, delighting in long leaps from bough to bough, which he executes with grace and precision, he spends far more time on the ground than the other arboreal squirrels, sometimes even making his home in holes i248 THE RODENTS in the earth. Old logs, stumps, wood piles, and brush heaps, are favorite places of resort, and, by excavating burrows beneath, he converts them into the securest of retreats. . . . As might be inferred from the boreal distribution of this animal, he is the hardiest of our squirrels. Not only does he inhabit regions where the rigors of an Arctic winter are keenly felt, but refusing to hibernate, he remains active throughout the continuance of excessive cold; when running upon the snow, he of- ten plunges down out of sight, tunnels a little distance, and, reappearing, shakes the snow from his head and body, whisks his tail, and skips along as lightly and with as much apparent pleasure as if returning from a bath in some rippling brook during the heat of a summer's afternoon." This squirrel is fond of a variety of fruits, and also sucks the eggs and kills the young of the smaller birds. The young are generally born early in April, and usually include from four to six in a litter. This species is of small size, with a relatively-short tail, and short tufts to the ears in winter; its usual color being grayish, more or less mixed with yellowish or reddish above, and generally white below. It shows dusky markings on the back, and sometimes also on the under parts. Its geographical range includes the north- ern half of North America. The gray squirrel is a more southerly species, extending from the south of Canada to Mexico and Guatemala. In size it is superior to the last, and its tail is proportionately longer, while there are no ear tufts. Its usual color is whitish gray above, varied with fulvous, and white below; the flanks being marked with a pale fulvous line. There are, however, numerous varieties, one of which is dark olive brown above, and gray beneath. In habits this species seems to be more like the common squirrel, being extremely wary and alert, and partially hibernating during the winter. It buries its stores of food just beneath the surface of the ground in various parts of the woods. In confinement these squirrels form charming little pets. There are at least seven other well-defined representatives of the genus in North and Central America, and several others in the southern half of the same continent. As already mentioned, squirrels attain their maximum development of size and species, as well as their most brilliant coloration, in the Squirrels Oriental region, and especially in its Malayan portion. In India and Burma, Mr. Blanford recognizes no less than twenty species of squirrels, three of which are of large size, measuring not less than a foot from the nose to the root of the tail, while eleven vary from ten to seven inches in length, and all the remainder are small, striped species, averaging from five to seven inches in length. The medium and smaller species retain the first premolar tooth of the upper jaw, which is usually lost in those of the largest groups. Among the first two groups some of the better known are the large Indian squirrel (S. indicus), with tufted ears, which is not known to the east of the Bay of Bengal, the large Malayan squirrel (S. bicolor), ranging from the Eastern Himalayas to Borneo, the golden-backed squirrel (S. caniceps), already alluded to as the one which assumes a special breeding dress, although this is confined to one variety of the species, and the nearty-allied Irawadi squirrel (S. Pygerythnts] , in which the length of the head and body is about nine inches, and the ears have no tufts. THE GROUND SQUIRRELS, OR CHIPMUNKS 1249 Of the smaller striped species, the best known is the Indian palm squirrel (S. palmarum), so commonly distributed in open districts throughout India and Ceylon, but unknown to the eastward of the Bay of Bengal, and never found in forests. The length of the head and body of this species is from five and one-half to six inches, and that of the tail rather more. The general color of the upper parts is some shade of brown, with three narrow whitish or slightly rufescent longitudinal stripes on the back; the under parts varying from white to gray. This pretty little squirrel is one of the most familiar of Indian Mammals, exhibiting scarcely any fear •of man, and uttering its bird-like chirp in every Indian garden. It is commonly found in groves and on the rows of trees bordering the roads in most Indian stations, but, according to Mr. Blanford, exhibits no especial predilection for palms. It generally feeds on the ground in the neighborhood of trees, and when alarmed seeks refuge in their boughs by darting up the stems with lightning-like rapidity. Dogs newly imported into India invariably take to hunting palm squirrels, but usually give up the pursuit in a short time as being utterly hopeless. These squirrels fre- quently take up their abode in the roofs of houses, and will freely enter the rooms. In addition to the usual food of its kindred, this species will also consume white ants and other insects. The young — two to four in a litter — are produced in a large bulky nest of grass or wool, usually placed either in a tree or among the rafters of a house. The European squirrel dates from the deposition of the Norfolk "forest bed," be- Extinct Squirrels THE IRAWADI SQUIRREL. (After Anderson.) longing to the earliest series of the Pleistocene period; but extinct species of the genus are found in formations of Tertiary age down to the upper division of the Eocene. THE GROUND SQUIRRELS, OR CHIPMUNKS The ground squirrel of Siberia, portions of Eastern Europe, and North America, together with several other close-allied North-American species commonly known 111-79 1250 THE RODENTS as chipmunks, constitute a group serving to connect the two squirrels with the sus- liks. Having molar teeth of the same type, the chipmunks are indeed so closely allied to the true squirrels that Dr. Forsyth-Major proposes to include them in the same genus. They differ, however, from both the spiny squirrels and the true squirrels in the possession of pouches inside the cheeks; on which account they may, for the present at least, be allowed to stand under the generic title by which they are commonly known. They are further characterized by the sides, or the back and sides together, being marked by longitudinal white or grayish- white stripes bordered by black bands. The ears are of medium size or small, and are never tufted with long hair; while the tail is shorter than the head and body, flattened, and rather wide. The skull is generally like that of the true squirrels, but rather narrower and more slender, and the first premolar tooth in the upper jaw is either absent or very minute. The common American chipmunk (Tamias striatus^, together with its numer- ous varieties, is distinguished by having two white strips, each bordered with black, and a simple black stripe running down the middle of the back; and has also two white stripes, separated by a black one, above and below the eye. It is about the size of the European squirrel, with which it also agrees approximately in the gen- eral ground color of the fur. There is, however, great local variation in this respect, specimens from the southern portions of the chipmunk's range being lighter in color than those from the north. The distribution of this species extends from Canada and Manitoba to Georgia and Western Missouri. The long-eared chip- munk (T. macrotus), from California, differs from it in the much greater length of its ears. On the other hand, the Siberian chipmunk ( T. asiaticus] , which, as we have said, is common to the Old and the New World, together with some other North- American species, differs by having four light-colored and five black stripes on the body. The tail is also relatively longer. In the Old World, this species ranges from the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk westward over the whole of Northern Asia, extending in Russia as far as the river Dwina, and along the whole course of the Amur. In- cluding under the specific name a large number of varieties, which some writers are disposed to regard are distinct species, the Siberian chipmunk ranges in North America from Lake Superior and the neighborhood of the Barren Grounds to New Mexico and Arizona, and extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific seaboard. Chipmunks are among the commonest of North-American Rodents, and their habits are consequently thoroughly well known. As those of all of the species are probably nearly similar, the excellent account given by Dr. Hart Merriam of the habits of the common chipmunk will suffice for all. These animals are migratory, and may be very abundant in a certain district in one year, while in the next comparatively few will be seen; their relative abundance being dependent upon the supply of food. Chipmunks feed not only on nuts and beech mast, but likewise on various kinds of corn and roots, and they are also partial to the larvae of insects. When beech mast is abundant in the Adirondack mountains, it may be safely predicted that swarms of chipmunks will make their appearance in the autumn. In such seasons the forerunners arrive in September, while by October THE GROUND SQUIRRELS, OR CHIPMUNKS 1251 the woods are alive with these creatures. " Finding an abundance of food," writes Dr. Merriam, " they immediately establish themselves for the winter, and begin at once to hoard up large stores. They are the least hardy of our squirrels, commonly going into winter quarters before the middle of November, and rarely appearing again in any numbers till the warm sun, in March or April, has caused plots of bare ground to appear between the snow banks. Early thaws sometimes bring them out in February; and after having once emerged they often make little excursions over the snow during pleasant days, though the temperature may be several degrees be- low freezing. In running from tree to tree, even when not pursued, the length of their bound varies from twenty-five to thirty-four inches — a long leap for so small an animal." They commonly leave the Adirondack region in July, since it is but THE COMMON CHIPMUNK. (Three-fifths natural size.) seldom that there is a good crop of beechnuts in two successive years. The young are born in the spring, and leave the nest by June. Chipmunks collect an astonishing quantity of food for the winter, which is car- ried to its place of deposit in their capacious cheek pouches. In addition to regular storehouses, these animals lay up a portion of their winter supply here and there beneath the leaves of the forest. In a hole tenanted by four chipmunks, Audubon and Bachman relate that in the nest itself they found about a gill of corn, and in the communicating galleries upward of about a quart of nuts, a peck of acorns, about two quarts of buckwheat, and a small quantity of Indian corn and grass seeds. Generally the chipmunk keeps to the ground, although it will often run some few feet up the trunk of a tree, and when pursued, if its hole be not accessible, will take refuge among the branches. Instances are, however, on record where these animals have been observed regularly ascending tall trees in search of food, and 1252 THE RODENTS they seemed perfectly at home among the boughs, although they never leap from branch to branch after the manner of the true squirrels. In regard to its general mode of life, Dr. Merriam observes that ' ' the chipmunk establishes his headquarters in some log or stump, or in a hole excavated by him- self in the earth, generally among the roots of a tree. He is partial to brush heaps, wood piles, stone walls, rail fences, accumulations of old rubbish, and other places that afford him a pretty certain escape, and at the same time enable him to see what is transpiring outside. For, though by no means wary, he delights in these loosely- sheltered hiding places, where he can whisk in and out at will, peep unobserved at passers-by, and dart back when prudence demands. If suddenly surprised, he utters a sharp chip-per, r, r, r, and makes a sudden quick dash for his retreat, which is no sooner reached than, simultaneously with the disappearance of his tail, out pops his head, his keen dark eyes gazing intently at the source of alarm. If not pur- sued farther, he is very apt to advance toward the supposed enemy, betraying his excitement by a series of nervous starts and precipitous retreats, till finally, making a bold rush, he dashes by the object of his dread, and in another instant is peering out from a hole beneath the roots of a neighboring tree." The chipmunk does not appear to make an agreeable pet, as it is apt to be sulky and morose, and disposed to bit the fingers of anyone who offers it food. THE SUSLIKS, OR GOPHERS Genus Spermophilus The suslik or sisel of Northeastern Europe and Northern Asia, and the striped gopher of North America are the best-known representatives of the fourth genus of the Squirrel family. Both in this and the two following genera the incisor teeth are not compressed, while the form of the body is generally stout, and the tail either short or of moderate length; the molar teeth being of a simple type. The whole of the species are confined to Europe, Asia Minor, Asia north of the southern flanks of the Himalayas, and North America. The susliks, as the members of the genus Spermophilus may be collectively termed, are characterized by their somewhat slender and squirrel-like form, and the presence of large cheek pouches. The external ears may be very small, or compar- atively large and tufted, and the tail varies from a mere stump to eight or nine inches in length. In the fore-.feet the first toe is rudimentary, but its nail is some- times present. The skull approximates to that of the squirrels, but the first upper premolar is relatively larger, and the two rows of upper cheek-teeth are nearly par- allel to one another. The coloration may be either uniform or striped, but never resembles that of the chipmunks. The susliks are mainly confined to the colder regions of the North- Distribution ern Hemisphere, and have very nearly the same distribution, as the chipmunks, although there is no species common to the Old and the New World. With the exception of Eversmann's suslik (S. eversmenni) of Northeastern Asia, all the Old- World species have short tails, while those of the New World are nearly THE SUSLIKS, OR GOPHERS 1253 all long tailed, and approach more closely in form to the chipmunks. In North America no representatives of the genus occur to the eastward of the plains and prairies forming the centre of the continent, but they range westward to the coast of the Pacific. In latitude the range of the genus extends from the shores of the Arc- tic Sea to the plains of Northern Mexico. The common suslik (S. citillus}; which is the species depicted in our illustra- tion, is common in Central and Eastern Europe and Siberia, and is a uniformly- colored animal, scarcely as large as the European squirrel, with a very short tail, and minute external ears. In America, the commonest representative of the genus is the striped gopher (S. tridecemlineatus) , which is some seven or eight inches in length, with a tail of about two-thirds that length, and small ears. In color it is typically dark reddish brown above, with six to eight longitudinal light stripes alter- THE COMMON SUSWK. (One-third natural size.) nating with from five to seven rows of light spots; the under parts being yellowish brown in the middle line, bordered on the sides with yellow, with a narrow black band running between the two tints. This species ranges from the Red river in Canada to Texas. The long-eared gopher (S. grammurus], ranging from Colorado to California, may be cited as an example of another group of the genus, in which the ears are very large, and often fringed with long hairs, while the tail is very long and bushy. Fossil remains show that susliks were more widely distributed in Eu- rope during the Pleistocene period than they are at the present day; some of their remains having been discovered in the brick earths of the Thames valley. All the susliks are social and burrowing animals, generally selecting open plains, with a sandy or clayey soil, for the construction of their domiciles, and studiously avoiding forests or swampy districts. The burrows of the Habits 1254 THE RODENTS common suslik are as much as from six to eight feet in depth, and have each but a single entrance. When, however, these animals retire to the depths of their bur- rows for their winter sleep, they excavate a second passage from the sleeping chamber to within a short distance from the surface of the ground. On awakening in the spring, an exit is made through this second passage, and the original en- trance blocked up; and hence the length of time that a suslik burrow has been occu- pied is indicated by the number of these deserted entrances around it. Within the burrow a large quantity of food, such as roots, seeds, berries, etc. , is accumulated in the summer and autumn for winter use. Susliks will, however, also eat mice and small birds and their eggs. The young are born in the spring, and usually comprise from four to eight in a litter. If captured sufficiently young, susliks can be easily tamed, and their flesh is much esteemed by the peasants of Northeastern Europe and Siberia. In America all the more northern species pass the colder portion of the year in a state of hibernation, but in the more southern portion of their range the period of sleep is cons'iderably shortened, while the species in the extreme south remain more or less active throughout the winter. The striped gopher seems to be more decidedly carnivorous in its habits than the common suslik, devouring not only field voles and other mice, but also some of the smaller species of squirrels, which cannot even live in a district abounding with gophers. Dr. Hoy states that when a squirrel is put into the same cage with a striped gopher, the latter ' ' will in a moment be all animation and activity, darting at the intruder, inflicting a wound and flying back with such rapidity as to leave but little chance of defense. As soon as it has disabled its antagonist, it seizes it by the back of the neck and instantly kills it." The gopher during the combat utters a low snarling growl, and after the death of its victim feasts on the brain and blood. This gopher also fre- quently robs hens' nests, while other species have been detected in carrying off young chickens and turkeys. More remarkable is the circumstance that Richard- son's gopher (S. richardsoni) was formerly in the habit of feeding on the flesh of the innumerable carcasses of bison left by the hunters on the prairies. Writing of the habits of Parry's suslik (S. empetra], from the neighborhood of Hudson's Bay and Behring Strait, — a species closely allied to Eversmann's suslik of Siberia, — Sir J. Richardson observes that " it is found generally in stony districts, but seems to delight chiefly in sandy hillocks amongst rocks, where burrows in- habited by different individuals may be often observed crowded together. One of the society is generally observed sitting erect on the summit of the hillock, whilst the others are feeding in the neighborhood. Upon the approach of danger, he gives the alarm, and they instantly betake themselves to their holes, remaining chattering, however, at the entrances, until the advance of the enemy obliges them to retire to the bottom." THE PRAIRIE MARMOTS Genus Cynomys In addition to being the home of several species of true marmots akin to those of the Old World, North America also possesses a closely allied, but somewhat THE PRAIRIE MARMOTS 1255 more specialized genus of Rodents, which may be designated prairie marmots, although they are often most inappropriately termed prairie dogs, while they are likewise known as barking squirrels. In size these animals hold a position inter- mediate between the susliks and the true marmots. They have small ears, and gen- erally short tails, while their cheek pouches are much less capacious than those of the susliks. In their fore-feet the first toe is well developed and furnished with a claw nearly as large as that of the fifth. The skull is massive, with the large post- orbital processes directed nearly outward (as shown in the figure on p. 1239); and THE PRAIRIE MARMOT. (One-fourth natural size. ) the molar teeth are very stout, with three grooves on their grinding surfaces, in place of the two characterizing those of the other two genera of the group. A further peculiarity in connection with the upper molar teeth is that the two series, in place of running nearly parallel, are convergent behind. There are three species of prairie marmots, two of which are confined to the prairies of the Rocky mountain plateau, while the third inhabits Mexico. The common prairie marmot ( Cynomys ludovicianus] is confined to the drier districts to the east of the Rocky mountains and is entirely an inhabitant of open plains. The length of the head and body usually varies from eleven and one-half to twelve 1256 THE RODENTS and one-half inches, and that of the tail, inclusive of the hairs at the tip, from four to five inches. In color the upper parts are reddish brown varied with gray, and the under parts yellowish or brownish white, the tail being colored like the back, but with a brownish-black tip. The Columbian prairie marmot ( C. columbiamii) is a smaller species distinguished by its much shorter tail, which is entirely white, and by the more yellow tinge of the fur of the body. It occurs in the regions to the west of the Rocky mountains, ranging at irregular intervals from Columbia through Colorado and Arizona to the Sierra Nevada, and is a more mountain-dwelling animal than the preceding, occurring at elevations of as much as ten thousand feet above the sea. The Mexican prairie marmot (C. mexicanus) is the largest of the three, and is distinguished from the common species of the plains by its much longer tail, in which the black at the tip is darker and extends for a greater distance. In general habits the prairie marmots very closely resemble the true marmots, but it is stated that there is a distinct difference in this re- spect between the common and the Columbian species, the burrows of the latter being unprotected by a raised funnel-shaped entrance which is so characteristic of those of the former. The following account of the habits of the Columbian prairie marmot is taken from the travels of Lewis and Clark, who write that " these ani- mals form large companies, like those on the Missouri, occupying with their burrows sometimes two hundred acres of land. The burrows are separate, and each possesses perhaps ten or twelve of these inhabitants. There is a little mound in front of the hole, formed of the earth thrown out of the burrow; and frequently there are three or four distinct holes, forming one burrow, with their entrances around the base of these little mounds. These mounds, sometimes about two feet in height and four in diameter, are occupied as watch-towers by the inhabitants of these little communities. The marmots, one or more, are irregularly distributed on the tract they thus occupy, at the distance of ten, twenty, or sometimes from thirty to forty yards. When any one approaches they make a shrill whistling sound, somewhat resembling tweet, tweet, tweet, the signal for their party to take the alarm and retire into their intrenchments. They feed on the roots of grass, etc." In Kansas the common prairie marmot appears only to retire for a few days at a time during the most inclement portion of the winter, having been observed in January as active as in summer. Further to the north these animals doubtless, however, retire to their burrows for longer periods. Some of the burrows of the eastern species are commonly tenanted by a small kind of owl, while others are occupied by rattlesnakes; and it is a com- mon popular error that all these three animals live together in mutual associa- tion and harmony. This, however, is far from being the true state of the case. The owls, indeed, take up their abode in some of the deserted burrows, and do no harm to their former owners, their food consisting mainly of insects and craw- fish. On the other hand, the rattlesnakes resort to the colony for the purpose of feeding upon the young marmots; and although they usually dwell in one burrow, from which they have expelled the rightful occupants, they enter others in search of food. THE TRUE MARMOTS 1257 THE TRUE MARMOTS Genus *Arctomys All who have traveled in the higher Alps or Himalayas are familiar with the shrill, piercing, whistle-like screams of the marmots, uttered when they first catch sight of an intruder on their lonely domains, and preparatory to taking refuge in the security of their burrows. The true marmots, which are the largest members of the present group, are distinguished from prairie marmots by their still stouter build, the absence of pouches in the cheeks, and the rudimentary condition of the first toe of the fore-foot, which has only a flattened nail in lieu of a claw. Their skulls are, moreover, still broader, with the two rows of upper molar teeth nearly parallel, and each molar tooth marked only by a pair of transverse grooves. The ears are small, like those of the prairie marmots, and the tail is generally short, although occasionally equal to half the length of the head and body. In size mar- mots vary from about fifteen to twenty-five inches in length, exclusive of the tail, the measurements of the latter ranging from three to about twelve inches. In gen- eral appearance the stoutness of their bodies and the shortness of their limbs are their most obvious features. The head is wide and short, the small ears are more or less rounded, the eyes large and full, and the tail bushy. Their fur is of mod- erate length and rather coarse and stiff; and their color is some shade of golden or reddish brown, shading more or less decidedly into black along the middle line of the back and on the tail, the tip of the latter being invariably dark. Marmots inhabit the northern portions of both the Old and New Worlds, but in the former have a much more extensive distribution than either susliks or chipmunks. In the more southern portions of their range in the Old World, these animals are found only at considerable elevations above the sea level, but in more northern districts, like the Siberian steppes, they are found on the lowland plains. In North America the common marmot, or wood- chuck, inhabits low elevations in districts where the winter climate is severe; but a second species is exclusively a mountain-dweller. None of them are found in forest districts; and whether in the mountains or on the plains, they generally select open spaces with a sandy soil, and within easy distance of water, for the construction of their burrows. In Europe there are two representatives of the genus, of which the Marmots ^rst an^ ^arSer *s ^e Alpine marmot (Ardomys marmotta), now con- fined to the three disconnected mountain ranges of the Pyrenees, Alps, and Carpathians; although, as attested by its fossil remains, during the Pleistocene period, when the climate was different, it was an inhabitant of the low- lands of Germany and other parts of the Continent. The length of this marmot is about twenty inches, exclusive of the comparatively short tail. The bobac (A. bobac) of which a group is represented in our illustration is a smaller species, measuring only about fifteen inches from the nose to the root of the tail, and with a much wider geographical range. This species has its present west- erly limits on the frontier of Germany, and thence ranges eastward through Galicia 1258 THE RODENTS A COLONY OF BOBAC MARMOTS. THE TRUE MARMOTS 1259 aud Poland, across the steppes of Southern Russia, and so on to Amurland, Kam- chatka, and Siberia; the climate of these regions being sufficiently cold to admit of the existence of marmots at low elevations. In Lapland and Scandinavia, marmots are quite unknown; but the southern limits of the bobac do not yet appear to be ascertained. Central Asia and the higher ranges of the inner Himalayas are inhabited by numerous species of marmots, but the genus is quite unknown to the southward of the latter range. Of these Asiatic species, one of the best known is the short-tailed Himalayan marmot {A. himalayanus} , which is nearly allied to the bobac, but of somewhat larger size. Its range extends from the mountains of Yarkand and other parts of Turkestan to Ladak and Eastern Tibet, where it is usually found at eleva- tions of from twelve thousand to thirteen thousand feet. The largest and hand- somest of the whole Old- World group, is, however, the long-tailed red marmot (A. caudatus] , in which the length of the head and body is about twenty-four inches, and that of the tail fully half as much. This marmot is readily recognized, not only by its large size and the great length of the tail, but also by the deep rufous tinge of the fur, and the large amount of black in the region of the back. This fine marmot may be met with on the mountain ranges to the north of the valley of Kashmir, and thence to Gilgit in one direction, and parts of Ladakh in the other, while it is also said to extend far into Central Asia. Other kindred but smaller species are the Cabul marmot (A. dichrous] from Northern Afghanistan, and the golden marmot (A. aureus) from the mountains to the west of Yarkand. The districts inhabited by all the marmots of the Old World are desolate and barren, being in most cases scorched with fierce heat in summer, while in winter they are subject to intense cold. In the Himalayas these animals are not met with until the traveler has crossed the wooded outer ranges, and entered the bleak Tibetan districts. The barren nature of the Siberian steppes is too well known to need more than passing mention. The occurrence of fossil remains of the Alpine marmot in many parts of Europe, such as Germany, the south of France, Italy as far south as Mentone, and Belgium, naturally leads to the conclusion that Western Europe had at one time a more or less steppe-like climate. As milder and more genial climatic conditions supervened, the Alpine marmot gradually retreated to the nearest mountain ranges, and we thus have a complete explanation of its present isolated distributional areas. The habits of all the marmots of the Old World appear to be very similar; all the species of these animals living in large companies, and excavating burrows in which they pass the whole of the winter buried in profound slumber. Indeed, marmots seem to be the most thoroughly hibernating of Mam- mals, since their sleep is apparently unbroken, and they lay up no store of winter food. All the species are diurnal in their habits, and their food is purely of a vege- table nature, consisting mainly of roots, leaves, and seeds of various plants. In the Himalayas, the burrows are very generally constructed beneath the shelter of a plant of wild rhubarb; and the tenants on a fine day take up their station on the mound at the entrance, or journey for a short distance in search of food. At the least alarm they rush at once to the entrance of their burrow, when they sit up on their 1260 THE RODENTS hind-quarters to survey the scene and detect the danger. If the enemy approach too close, the loud whistling scream is uttered, and the animal dives headlong into its burrow, to reappear after a time and see if the coast is clear. Both in the Alps and Himalayas marmot warrens are situated in exposed situations, generally where there is a considerable open space, and which in winter are deeply buried in snow. In the case of the Alpine species, the winter quarters are made in large burrows, each with a single entrance, and terminating in an extensive chamber lined with grass; such chambers, according to Professor Blasius, frequently containing as many as THE ALPINE MARMOT. (One-fifth natural size.) from ten to fifteen occupants during the winter, all lying closely packed together. From two to four young appears to be the usual number in a litter of the Himalayan species. The flesh of marmots is said to be of good flavor, and is largely consumed by the inhabitants of the Siberian steppes, who as soon as the bobac reappears in spring, after its winter sleep; organize a regular system of hunting. In shooting marmots it is essential that they should be killed at the first shot, as the sportsman is only able to come within range when they are sitting at the mouths of their bur- rows, and if only wounded, no matter how severely, they are well-nigh sure to have THE TRUE MARMOTS 1261 sufficient power left to struggle down. Marmots in the Himalayas will generally re- appear after being fired at once, but after a second fright they are seldom seen again on that day. All the species appear to be readily tamed. Three well-defined species of marmots inhabit North America, me"ca namely, the woodchuck (A. monax), the Rocky-mountain marmot (A . flaviventer) , and the hoary marmot (A. pruinosus). Of these the last is the largest, and agrees closely with the Alpine species, though the length of the head and body is said to reach from twenty-three to twenty-five inches. The second does not exceed eighteen and one-half inches in length of head and body, but has a much longer tail, of which the length is from nine to ten inches. This species ranges from California through the Rocky mountains to about the forty-ninth parallel of latitude; it appears to be a strictly Alpine animal, and is to some extent gregarious, like the Old-World species. The woodchuck is the smallest of the three species, averaging only fourteen and one-half inches in length of head and body, with a tail of nearly half this di- mension. It is generally mixed fulvous, brownish black, and gray above, and yel- lowish or brownish red below; but some specimens are almost wholly black. The range of the woodchuck extends from Manitoba to Carolina, and westward from the Atlantic to Missouri and Minnesota. In habits this species appears to differ considerably from the Old-World forms. According to Dr. Hart Merriam, it delights in the open meadows and rocky hill- sides in the cultivated area round the Adirondack mountains, where it feeds chiefly upon grass and clover. Although generally living in burrows of its own excava- tion, the woodchuck will sometimes take up its abode in rocky ledges or in the hol- low roots of trees. During the summer the greater number of these animals live in the open fields; but in the winter it appears that in the Adirondack region at least they retire for the winter to burrows situated close to, or actually within, the bor- ders of woods. In the Adirondacks the woodchucks become very fat in the early autumn, and retire for their winter sleep — no matter what be the temperature or the state of the weather — about the equinox, from which they do not awake till the middle or latter part of March. Still more remarkable is the circumstance that the animal often retires when the weather is genial and food abundant, while at the time of its reappearance the ground is frequently deep in snow. "Woodchucks," writes Dr. Merriam, "are both nocturnal and diurnal, the periods of feeding being determined, in a general way, by the time of the year, the weather, and the proximity of enemies. In summer, throughout the farming districts, they commonly leave their burrows early in the morning, late in the after- noon, and during moonlight nights; but may sometimes be found abroad at all hours. As autumn approaches, and they become more fat and sleepy, they usually appear only in fine weather, and then but for a few hours in the hottest part of the afternoon." Like the Old-World species, the woodchuck when much hunted be- comes exceedingly wary and difficult to approach; but it differs from all the latter in that it will sometimes ascend trees and shrubs — making these ascents sometimes for pleasure and at others to avoid foes. Woodchucks live either singly or in pairs; the young, which are born at the end of April or beginning of May in the Adiron- 1262 THE RODENTS dack district, remaining with their parents only a few months. The number in a litter is usually from four to six. When the young first leave their parents they take refuge in stone walls, hollow logs, or even hollow trees — habits quite different from those of their Old- World cousins, and showing a marked approximation toward the chipmunks. In some parts of New Hampshire, woodchucks are so numerous as to cause seri- ous inconvenience to agriculturists, and rewards have consequently been offered by the State for their destruction. Remains of extinct species of susliks occur in the higher Tertiary rocks of Europe; in addition to which the Upper Eocene beds of France yield evidence of an extinct but apparently allied genus, known dents as Plesispermophilus. More primitive are the forms described as Plesi- arctomys, which, while showing certain resemblances both to the mar- mots and the squirrels, have triangular three-cusped upper molar teeth, and no bony process defining the hinder limit of the upper border of the socket of the eye. These Rodents are found in the Middle Tertiary deposits both of Europe and North America. THE FLYING SQUIRRELS Genera Stiuropterus, Pteromys, and Eupetaurus The flying squirrels of the Northern Hemisphere, which are divided into the three generic groups named above, are sufficiently characterized by possessing a parachute-like membrane extending from the sides of the body to the toes, and sup- ported in front by a cartilage attached to the outer side of the wrist. There is also another membrane connecting the sides of the neck with the fore-limb, and there may be likewise one between the hind-legs and the root of the tail. The molar teeth are of a very complex type, and as their skulls differ considerably from those of all the preceding genera, the flying squirrels are now regarded as indicating a distinct subfamily. Moreover, as the group is known to be of considerable antiquity, it is not improbable that it has no generic affinity with any of the foregoing genera but that it traces its descent to some totally extinct group of the family. With the ex- ception of one North-American species, and a second from Siberia and Eastern Europe, the flying squirrels are confined to the Indian and Malayan regions. They are all exclusively nocturnal in their habits, and mainly inhabit forest regions, al- though one may frequent rocks alone. Their mode, of flight and general habits ap- pear to be very similar to those of the flying lemur, and when leaping from tree to tree they utter sharp piercing cries which are familiar to all who have traveled in regions where flying squirrels are to be found. The lesser flying squirrels, constituting the genus Sciuropterus, are \ those which have the lowest crowned molar teeth in the group, al- Squirrels though there is considerable variation in the structure of these teeth. All the members of the genus are distinguished by the parachute-like membrane along the sides being of moderate width, and by the rudimentary condition of the FLYING SQUIRREL THE FLYING SQUIRRELS 1263 membrane between the hind-legs, which does not include any portion of the tail. The fur, as in all other members of the group, is very thick and soft; but the tail differs from that of the other flying squirrels in being broad, and flattened from above downward, in order, probably, to act as an aid in flight. In size these animals vary from five to twelve inches in length. The large size of their expressive eyes, and the beautiful silky softness of their fur, render them exceedingly attractive crea- tures. The North- American species (S. volucella}, wrhich is the one represented in our illustration, has the fur of an ashy brown above and creamy white below. The lesser flying squirrels include a considerable number of species, one of which is an inhabitant of North America, and a second of Si- and Habits beria and Northeastern Europe, while all the others are confined to the Indian and Malayan regions, extending as far northward as Afghanistan and Kashmir. The following notes refer mainly to the habits of the North- American species, of which an excellent account is given by Dr. Hart Merriam. Like ordi- nary squirrels, these animals subsist mainly on nuts, seeds, and buds, but the Amer- ican species also eats beetles, and probably other insects, and may be taken in traps baited with meat, while in confinement it will but seldom refuse flesh. The American flying squirrels construct nests in the hollow trees they haunt, £nd in the cold win- ters of the Adirondack region near New York they retire to these nests, and proba- bly hibernate. The same habits will doubtless hold good for the species inhabiting Kashmir and Afghanistan, but those inhabiting India proper and the warm Malayan region remain active at all seasons. The Kashmir flying squirrel (S. fimbriatus) , in some cases at least, produces four young at a birth. In the daytime these squirrels remain concealed in hollow trees, and only issue forth at sunset in quest of food. Numbers frequently associate in one tree, and if such a tree be discovered the creatures may be induced to come forth one after an- other by tapping the stem. With regard to the flying leaps of the American flying squirrel, Dr. Merriam observes that "the ease, grace, and rapidity with which it glides from tree to tree inspires the merest passer-by with wonder and admiration. Its ordinary mode of progression is by a series of alternate climbs and leaps. Upon reaching a tree, the first act is to ascend, for, being unable to sail horizontally, it must attain a considerable elevation before venturing to leap to the next. Instead of moving off in this way when disturbed, it sometimes runs up into the topmost branches of the nearest tree, and, curling itself into a surprisingly-small compass, remains motionless until the intruder has taken his departure." The earlier writers, Audubon and Bachman also describe very graphically the movements of a colony of these animals they once encountered. "At times," they write, " one would be seen darting from the topmost branches of a tall oak, and with wide extended membranes and outspread tail gliding diagonally through the air, till it reached the foot of a tree about fifty yards off, when at the moment we expected to see it strike the earth, it suddenly turned upward and alighted on the body of the tree. It would then run to the top and once more precipitate itself from the upper branches and sail back again to the tree it had just left. Crowds of these little creatures joined in these sportive gambols; there could not have been less than two hundred. Scores of them would leave each tree at the same moment, seeming 1264 THE RODENTS to have no other object in view than to indulge a playful propensity." In America the flying squirrels breed early in April. The American flying squirrel, if taken sufficiently young, can be readily and speedily tamed, and forms a most charming pet. Indeed, it is said that they be- come tame and thoroughly confiding much sooner than any other kind of wild crea- ture. When going to sleep, a specimen kept by Professor F. H. King was in the habit of first placing its nose upon the table, or other surface upon which it hap- pened to be standing, and then walking forward and at the same time rolling itself up, until the nose almost protruded from between the hind-legs. The tail was then curved in a horizontal coil around the feet, so that the whole animal appeared to form a complete ball of soft fur. One of the smallest representatives of these animals is the pygmy flying squirrel AMERICAN FLYING SQUIRREL. (One-half natural size.) (S. spadiceus), from Arakan and Cochin-China, in which the length of the head and body is only about five inches, while the tail is half an inch shorter. This species is chestnut red above, with the basal portions of the hair black, and white beneath. The polatouche, or Siberian flying squirrel (S. volans] is about six inches in length, with the upper parts of the body in summer tawny brown, and the under parts pure white; the tail being grayish above and rufous beneath. Extinct representatives of these flying squirrels have recently been recognized from the Middle Tertiary deposits of Europe, and it is probable that the genus is likewise represented in the corresponding rocks of North America. The larger flying squirrels (Pteromys), of which an example is represented in our colored plate, in addition to their superior dimensions, are distinguished from the preceding by the greater relative width of the flank membrane, by the presence THE FLYING SQUIRRELS 1265 of a well-developed membrane connecting the hind legs and embracing the upper part of the tail, as well as by the perfectly-cylindrical form of the lviHJ? g -i latter appendage. They are further characterized by the taller crowns and somewhat more complex structure of the molar teeth, which are nearly similar in all the species. There are at least ten species of this genus, ranging from India, through Burma and the Malayan region to the south of China and Formosa, and also extending northward into Eastern Tibet. One of the best-known species is the Malayan fly- ing squirrel, or taguan (P. petaurista} from the Malay Peninsula and islands. Closely allied, is Hodgson's flying squirrel (P. magnificus}, from the Nipal Him- alayas and the ranges south of the Assam valley, at elevations of from five thousand to six thousand feet. The length of the head and body of this species is sixteen inches, and that of the tail from eighteen to twenty-two inches. Its color appears to undergo a seasonable change; the upper parts, in what is considered to be the summer dress, being of a deep maroon color, usually with a more or less distinct yellow line down the middle of the back; while the sides of the neck and the inner border of the parachute yellowish, and the rest of the latter reddish or chestnut. On the other hand, in the presumed winter coat, the upper parts are chestnut, with- out any light line down the back. The larger forests of peninsular India south of the Ganges, as well as those of Ceylon, Burma, and Mergui, are tenanted by another very fine species known as the large brown flying squirrel (P. oral}, in which the length of the head and body varies from sixteen to eighteen inches, and that of the tail from twenty-four to twenty-five inches. The general color is grizzled brown above, varying from deep chestnut to gray in one direction, and to black in the other; the under parts being white, often more or less tinged with gray or brown. In the Western Himalayas, at elevations of from six thousand to ten thousand feet, and in Kashmir, this species is replaced by the closely-allied, large, red flying squirrel (P. inornatus), distinguished by its more rufous pelage. The spotted flying squirrel (P. pundatus), represented in our colored plate, is a considerably- smaller species from Malacca and Burma, distinguished by the white spots on the back. The habits of all the members of this genus are very similar and closely resemble those of the lesser flying squirrels. The large red species probably hiber- nates, but most of the others are active throughout the year. The common brown Indian form inhabits the forest, but in forest-clad districts they may be found near villages in clumps of mango and other trees. In addition to fruits and nuts, it is said to eat bark, and also insects and their larvae; and it drinks by lapping with the tongue. Its cry is described as a low, soft monotone, quickly repeated. Mr. Blanford writes that this "flying squirrel sleeps during the day, sitting, like so many arboreal Mammals, with its back bent into a circle and its head thrust in- side; or, in hot weather, lying on its back with the parachute extended. It is not so active as other squirrels, either on trees or on the ground, the parachute imped- ing its movements. When passing from one tree to another at a distance, it leaps, with its parachute extended, from the higher branches, and descends, at first more directly, then, apparently, by availing itself of the resistance of the air, more and III— 80 1266 THE RODENTS more obliquely, until its flight gradually growing slower, becomes horizontal and finally terminates in an ascent to the trunk or branch of the tree to which its flight is directed." It is stated that these squirrels have been known to traverse distances of sixty and nearly eighty yards in their flight from tree to tree. Although .readily tamed, they are very difficult to keep alive in captivity. The woolly flying squirrel {E^lpetaurus cinereus} differs from all the other members of the family in having markedly high-crowned teeth, with flat (instead of ridged) grinding surfaces, and is accordingly referred to a distinct genus, which must be regarded as the most specialized mem- ber of the group. This magnificent flying squirrel inhabits the district of Gilgit, to the northwest of Kashmir, and is one of the largest species, the length of the head and body being about eighteen inches, and that of the unusually bushy tail about twenty-four inches. This species differs from the members of the preceding genus by its shorter and blunter claws; its general color being dull grayish brown with a slight greenish tinge above, and ashy brown below. From the nature of the districts in which it occurs, and also from the shortness and bluntness of its claws, it is inferred that this squirrel is in the habit of climbing about on rocks, in- stead of living in trees. A magnificent skin of this species was obtained in Kashmir by the present writer about 1878, but it was not till the arrival in England ten years later of a living, although smaller, example of the animal that it was recognized as a distinct species. It is not improbable that this fine flying squirrel also occurs in Tibet. THE PYGMY SQUIRRELS Genus Nannosciurus A small group of tiny squirrels comprising only five species, of which three are from Borneo, and the fourth is an inhabitant of the Philippines, while the fifth {Nannosciurus minutus) is West African, are now7 regarded as constituting not only a distinct genus, but likewise a separate subfamily, although they were till recently included among the true squirrels. Their skulls are remarkable for the elongated form of the region of the face, while the forehead is much broader than in any other type, and the process defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye is so elon- gated as to cause the eye to be almost surrounded by bone. In the upper jaw there may be either one or two pairs of small premolar teeth, and the molars are much more complex than in any other squirrel, closely approaching those of the dormice in structure; the upper molars having only three transverse plates, instead of the four characterizing those of the other members of the family. One of the prettiest representatives of the group is Whitehead's pygmy squirrel (N. whiteheadi] , from North Borneo, in which the head and body measure only about three and one-fourth inches in length, and the ears are surmounted by extraordinarily-long tufts of black and white hairs, apparently more elongated than in any other squirrel. This little animal, which is grizzled olive gray in general color, may be commonly seen running up and down the trunks of the forest trees on Mount Kina Balu. THE SEWELLELS—THE BEAVERS 1267 THE SEWELLELS Family HAPLODONTID^E These North- American Rodents differ so remarkably from the other living forms that they are regarded as constituting a family by themselves, of which the near- est affinities are supposed to be with the Squirrel family. They differ from all the members of that family by their extremely flattened and broad skulls, in which there is no postorbital process defining the hinder part of the upper border of the socket of the eye. The molar teeth have no roots, and the first pair of premolars in the upper jaw are exceedingly minute. C mm ^ke common sewellel (Haplodon rufus} is an animal measuring Sewellel about a foot in length, exclusive of the stump-like tail, which measures little more than an inch. The general color of the fur is brown, more or less mingled with black, with the under parts grayish; the front teeth being yel- low. The general form of the animal is short and clumsy, with the body relatively large and cylindrical. Dr. Hart Merriam observes that "this singular animal, which has come down to us as a relic of the past, and has no near affinities with any existing group, inhabits a narrow strip of country on the northwest coast of the United States. All the specimens thus far obtained have come either from Oregon or Washington, or from the Chilukweyuk river near its junction with the Fraser, in British Columbia." The animal lives in companies, constructing burrows in moist ground. The Californian sewellel (ff. major] — the mountain beaver of the Californian •«_«•.» • 1 • i • • \ ... inhabitants — is a larger animal measuring sixteen inches in length, with grayish-brown fur above. These Rodents inhabit the Sierra Nevada, and are largely aquatic in their habits. Mr. C. A. Allen, by whom the species was discovered, writes that they "live in small colonies, and inhabit wet ground where there is plent}^ of running water. They are very compact and strong, with a head which resembles that of a pug-dog. They are very shy, timid animals. On first seeing a human being, they try to hide away, but on being aroused are savage enough. . . . They come out of their burrows about sundown to get their food, and again at daylight in the morning." Mr. Allen proceeds to say that the food of this sewellel is mainly composed of aquatic plants, especially the stems of a water lily; and he adds that the burrows of these animals are always on the lower part of a hillside, and frequently have running water passing through them. Their feet are eminently adapted for grasping, and it is stated that these creatures are in the constant habit of ascending broken and small trees furnished with branches. They are generally captured by means of traps set in the water. THE BEAVERS Family CASTORID^E From the large relative size of the animals themselves, coupled with their ex- traordinary constructive and destructive powers, an amount of interest invariably 1268 THE RODENTS attaches to beavers which is not vouchsafed to other members of the order to which they belong. As is so frequently the case in analogous instances, the constructive abilities and engineering capacities of these animals — marvelous as they undoubt- edly are — have, however, been greatly exaggerated in popular estimation, and the creatures have been credited with performing tasks of which they are utterly incapable. Beavers, of which there are two species or varieties, — one confined to Northern and Eastern Europe and parts of Western and Northern Asia, and the other to North America, — are the only existing representatives of the family to which they belong, and constitute the genus Castor. The family is characterized by the massive form of the skull, in which there are no postorbital processes defining the hinder border of the eye sockets, and the angle of the lower jaw is rounded off. There is but one pair of premolars in each jaw, and the cheek-teeth have no roots, a perfectly flat grinding surface, and re-entering folds of enamel. The two series of cheek-teeth converge toward the front of the jaws, and the premolar in each jaw is larger than either of the molars. As a genus, beavers are characterized by their stout and heavy bodily con- formation, this being most marked in the hind-quarters. The head is large and rounded, with short ears, and the tail is of moderate length, much flattened, and covered with a naked, scaly skin. The limbs are short, with five sharp-clawed toes on both the fore and hind-feet; * all the toes of the hind-feet being connected by a web extending to the roots of the claws. The portion of the muzzle surrounding the nostrils is naked, as are the soles of the feet, while the ears are scaly. Both the ears and the nostrils are capable of being closed. The fur is peculiarly thick and soft, its general color being reddish brown above, and grayer beneath. There is, however, some amount of individual variation in this respect, individuals from northern regions inclining to be darker in coloration than those from the southern districts of the habitat of these animals. Pied or white beavers are met with occasionally. Each molar tooth has three folds of enamel on one side, and one on the other; the three folds occurring on the outer side in those of the upper jaw, and on the inner side in the lower teeth. In size, the beaver is the largest of all the Old-World Rodents, its total length being about forty inches, of which ten are taken up by the tail. The weight of the adult animal usually varies from about forty-five to fifty pounds, but may reach as much as sixty. There has been much discussion as to whether the American beaver ( C. canadensis} is entitled to rank as a distinct species, or merely as a American r Beavers well-marked variety of the European Castor fiber; and there is still a difference of opinion among zoologists on this point. That the two are very closely allied is admitted on all sides; and although the matter is not of very much importance one way or the other, it is, on the whole, convenient to adopt the view of their specific duality. The main difference between the two forms is to be found in the characteristics of the skull; that of the European beaver being relatively narrower in front, with the nasal bones extending somewhat farther back than is the case with its transatlantic cousin. A large series of specimens show, * There is an additional claw on the second toe of the hind-foot, probably employed in dressing the fur. THE BEAVERS 1269 however, that these characteristics are liable to a certain amount of variation in the two forms. Owing to incessant persecution for the sake of their valuable fur. Distribution 01 ,.«..—, , . A . , _ both the European and the American beaver are doomed to extmc- turopean . * Beaver ^on as w^d animals at no very distant date; this fate having already practically overtaken the European species, which only lingers here and there in small numbers. Formerly beavers were widely spread over Europe, and their abundance in the British Isles is attested not only by the numerous remains found in the fens and cavern deposits of England, but likewise by the number of places, such as Beaverbourne, Beverage, Beaverege, Bevercater, Bever- ley, Beverstone, and Beversbrook, which derive their names from these animals. According to the researches of Mr. J. E. Harting, it does not appear that there is any historic evidence of the existence of beavers in England; but in Wales it is on record that they still lingered in Cardigan as late as the year 1188. That they occurred in the south of Scotland is proved by the occurrence of their remains, but there is no definite historic evidence of their existence; while in Ireland we have neither the testimony of their remains nor of documents. SKELETON AND JAWS OF BEAVER. On the Continent beavers were exterminated from Holland in 1825. In France evidence of the former abundance of these animals is afforded by their buried re- mains, and by the names of places like Bievres and Beuvray. Within the historic period the Rhine and its tributaries appear to have been their last strongholds, although they had become very rare during the last century. Beavers are, however, still met with in the Rhone and its affluents, where M. Mayet, writing in 1889, esti- mates that from twenty-five to thirty are annually killed. In the Pleistocene period the beaver ranged into Italy as far south as Rome, but there is no evidence of its existence there since that date. The lake villages of Switzerland afford evidence of the abundance of beavers in that country during the prehistoric period; and in the early part of this century they still lingered on the Rhine, one having been captured in the year 1829. In Northwestern Germany the Moselle and the Maas were for- merly noted for the number of their beavers. The Lippe — one of the tributaries of the Rhine — was likewise a well-known haunt; and at Kettlinghausen and Pader- born on that river, there were large colonies of these animals at the beginning of the present century. Again, in the Elbe basin, there was a considerable colony near I2;o THE RODENTS Magdeburg in 1829, while at Wittenberg and Kahnert these animals were abund- ant in 1801, while no less than eight individuals were observed in the latter locality so late as 1878. In Bohemia, the valley of the Moldau, forming the upper part of the Elbe basin, abounded in beavers up to the year 1848, although this was largely owing to strict protection. On the Upper Danube and its tributaries there were numerous colonies in the first half of this century, one of the most noted being on the small river Amper, to the north of Munich, which was in a flourishing condition between the years 1837 and 1846. Beavers also existed on the Lower Danube in Austria, Hungary, and Turkey, and they have been recorded from the Upper Euphrates valley and the Caucasus. On the Lower Danube a colony is preserved by the Emperor of Austria. From the Caucasus, the range of the beaver extended through Russia, Poland, and Livonia, to Lapland and Scandinavia. Beavers were abundant in the Tereck valley to the north of the Caucasus in 1842, and in Livonia they were so common in 1724, that their dams were a serious inconvenience to the district. The last Livonian beaver was, however, killed in 1841, but a few were still living in the Dnieper and the Svislotch (Government of Minsk) in 1889. The Russian rivers Dwina and Petchora, respectively flowing into the White Sea and Arctic Ocean, were inhabited by beavers till 1842. Through Silesia it is believed that these animals extended as far east as Amurland; but in the valley of the Obi they are now extinct in the Irtish, although still lingering in the Pelyin; and they have quite disappeared from the Yenisei in Eastern Silesia. In Poland and Lithuania a few may still sur- vive; but the last Lapland beaver was killed about 1830. In Scandinavia three considerable colonies still exist near Arendal in Norway, the number of individuals living in 1883 being about one hundred; these colonies are strictly preserved. In Denmark we only know of the existence of the beaver by the evidence of its remains buried in the peat mosses. It may be added that in 1 874 the Marquis of Bute intro- duced beavers into the island from which he takes his title, where they have since thriven. At the time of the discovery of America, the beaver had a wider Distribution of ,. , ., ,. ,, - , ... . ,, th A ' distribution than any other Mammal except the puma. Its range can Beaver extended from Alaska and the Hudson's Bay district in the north, along the Atlantic seaboard as far south as Georgia and Northern Florida, and thence along the Gulf of Mexico as far as the Rio Grande in Texas, and also some distance into Mexico; while on the Pacific coast it extended to California and Arizona. The desert and the prairie districts of the interior, as being unsuitable to its habits, were, however, of course, not tenanted by the beaver, which was necessarily confined to the valleys of the great rivers and lakes. Writing in 1877, Mr. C. A. Allen observes that " its present range, however, is much more re- stricted, very few being found east of the Mississippi river south of the Great Lakes, and it is everywhere less numerous than formerly. Some still remain in Northern Maine and in the Adirondack region of New York, and probably some still survive thence southward in the sparsely-settled districts to Alabama and Mississippi. A re- cent article states that they are still abundant in portions of Virginia. Their existence is in great abundance throughout the Atlantic States, and thence westward to the BEAVERS A (1271) 1272 THE RODENTS Pacific." Since the date when this passage was penned, the extermination of the beaver appears to have gone on apace; and Mr. H. T. Martin, writing in 1892, says that ' ' only a few colonies now linger in the United States, especially on the slopes of the Rocky mountains, while in Canada, the numbers of the animal are vastly dimin- ished. Along the watershed, between the Hudson's Bay rivers and the St. L,awrence, in the upper waters of the Fraser and Peace rivers, and along the Rocky-mountain range, may be considered the last homes of the beaver." Mr. Martin adds that "as to the ultimate destruction of the beaver no possible question can arise, and the evi- dence of approaching extermination can be seen only too plainly in the miles of territory exhibiting the decayed stump, the broken darn, and deserted lodge. The passing bear or wolverene tears open the lodge, partly in the vain hope of finding a meal, partly from habit; the rising waters float the logs away, while the drifting ice in fall and spring gradually destroys the dam, till within a decade, where once the busy colony spent their happy domestic lives, no sign remains of all their wondrous toil." Beavers are mainly nocturnal, and almost exclusively aquatic ani- mals; although it is stated that during the summer they will some- times make journeys of considerable length on land, when they subsist upon fruit and corn, instead of their usual diet of bark and twigs. They are likewise essentially social creatures, usually associating in larger or smaller colonies, although the few still remaining in the rivers of the Old World are — owing to the lack of companions - for the most part either solitary or in pairs. Needless to say, these animals are expert divers and swimmers; their movements in the water being graceful in the ex- treme, and effected almost entirely by the aid of their powerful and webbed hind- limbs. In addition to bark and twigs, they consume large quantities of the roots and stems of water lilies and other aquatic plants. The young, usually from three to four in a litter, are produced at the close of the winter or early in the spring, in the shelter of the burrow or lodge, but it is not yet ascertained whether they are born with their eyes open or closed. Beavers do not hibernate, in the strict sense of the term, although during the depth of the winter they sleep longer, and move about much less than at other times. In the winter, in America at all events, they swim about beneath the ice, dragging up water-lily roots for food and feasting upon the store of branches they have accumulated in the deep pools during the winter; and it is for the purpose of securing a sufficient depth of water in which to swim be- neath the ice that they construct their well-known dams. Most of the beavers still remaining in the rivers of the Old World live in burrows in the banks, without con- structing either dams or lodges. The colony near Magdeburg, alluded to above, are known, however, to have undertaken both these engineering works; and it is hence probable that European beavers were originally similar as regards their habits to their American cousins, but that through their reduced numbers and the constant persecution which they have undergone, the building propensity has been lost. In America beavers generally select as their haunts a well-timbered district traversed by a narrow stream; and, by felling the trees on the banks, and forming with the aid of their trunks and boughs a dam and lodges across the stream, the water is headed back so as to form a large lake or pool. In some cases a series of THE BEAVERS 1273 such dams and pools may be seen one above another in the course of the stream. It is believed that the original object of tree-felling is to obtain a supply of food for winter, and that the employment of the peeled trunks and branches for the construc- tion of the dam and lodges is a secondary development. The beaver fells the trees it requires by gnawing through their stems with its sharp front teeth at a short dis- tance above the ground, the stem being generally gnawed nearly equally all round, till the tree falls of its own weight. As trees on a river bank generally incline toward the water, they usually fall in the required direction. Sometimes, however, the animals miscalculate, and trees which they have felled may be seen caught in the forks of neighboring stems. The trees selected for felling are usually from five to eight or nine inches in diameter, but occasionally trunks of as much as eighteen across are successfully attacked. The beaver goes to work in a thoroughly scien- tific manner, gnawing out very large chips, which are sometimes as much as nine inches in length. When the trees are felled, they are stripped of their boughs, and the trunks cut into lengths of five or six feet, which, after being barked, are rolled into the stream or pond, and employed in the construction of the dam and lodges. The term " lodge," it "may be explained, is applied in America to the abodes constructed by these animals in the water of their ponds. It is now generally ac- cepted that the lodge is nothing more than an extreme development of the burrows or " wash " in the banks. On this subject Mr. Martin writes as follows: "Start- ing with the simple burrow, the next step is the accumulation of logs and branches about its entrance, forming what is called a 'bank-lodge.' In places where the water is shallow toward the shore, a great advantage would be derived from extend- ing this artificial covering of brushwood, so that in time a natural evolution of the lodge disconnected entirely from the shore would take place, and form an independ- ent and very convenient refuge from landward enemies." The lodge contains a large internal chamber, lined with grass, and is entered by several approaches beneath the surface of the water. The construction of the lodge is, however, of a much less elaborate nature than has often been stated to be the case. On this point Mr. Martin writes that ' ' the beaver-lodge is generally included in the list of marvels reserved for the investigation of those who visit beaver districts, and yet no greater disappointment awaits the inquirer than the first inspection of one. Somehow the minds of all lovers of natural history become affected by the fabulous accounts con- cerning this structure, and it is a shock to stand for the first time before a pile of twigs, branches, and logs, heaped in disorder upon a small dome of mud, and to learn that this constitutes the famous lodge. Of course the superficial glance does not convey all that can be learned in connection with this work, but it does most completely disillusionize the mind. On breaking through the upper walls, the interior is found to be similar to the general type of an animal's sleeping apartment, and has scarcely any distinguishing characteristic." Both dams and lodges are made more or less impervious to water by the addition of a quantity of mud, which is plastered on by the beavers with the aid of the fore- feet, and not, as is often supposed, with the assistance of the tail; the latter organ acting only as a rudder in swimming. The length of a beaver dam may occasionally be as much as one hundred and fifty or two hundred yards, and their 1274 THE RODENTS ponds may cover many acres. Frequently a formation of peat commences round the edges of the ponds, and this may extend over the whole area, converting it into a swampy tract known as a beaver meadow. A considerable part of the city of Montreal is built upon such beaver meadows. In summer beavers generally forsake the neighborhood of their lodges to travel up or down the stream, occasionally, as already mentioned, taking considerable journeys on land. With the advent of early autumn they return to their winter quarters, and at once set about the necessary repairs to the dam and lodges, and the collection of a supply of food for the winter. The beaver is hunted in North America, not only for its valuable fur, but likewise for the substance known as castoreum, which is contained Uses and Hunting ^n two elongated glands at the hinder part of the body, while its flesh is also used as an article of food. Castoreum is a waxy substance with a peculiar smell, and is used in medicine, although chiefly on the Continent. It sells, according to Mr. Poland, from thirty-eight to forty-five shillings per pound, and no less than 1,486 pounds of this substance were sold in London alone in the year 1891. Formerly the great demand for beaver fur was for the manufacture of hats, but since the supersession of silk for beaver hair in this manufacture, the fur has been used for more ordinary purposes. Mr. Poland states that the number of beaver skins sold by the Hudson's Bay Company in 1891 was 63,419, while in the 3rear 1743 upward of 127,080 were imported into Rochelle alone. The price, accord- ing to the same writer, varies from 55. 3d. to 6s. gd. per skin. The incisor teeth of the beaver were used by the North-American Indians, and also by some of the ancient inhabitants of the Old World, as cutting instruments, the bases being fixed into a wooden handle with the aid of twine or thongs. Before the advance of civilization a large number of beavers were killed in America by the native Indians for the sake of their skins and flesh, but the slaugh- ter was not such as to have any marked effect on their numbers. Some appear to have been taken in wooden traps, but the favorite method was to attack a lodge in the months of January and February. A party of Indians — male and female — would on such occasions proceed to a beaver colony, and, after cutting a series of holes in the ice around each lodge, in which nets were placed, the lodges themselves were dug open. Some of the animals would be killed in their sleeping places, others were caught in the nets, while others were hunted by the dogs accompanying the party to their burrows, where they were dug out. Some individuals were, however, always allowed to escape, in order to repopulate the colony. With the increasing demand for skins as the country was opened up by Europeans, the Indians resorted to more effectual modes of capture, the rivers and ponds being staked across at the commencement of a raid, in a manner which prevented the es- cape of a single member of the colony. Subsequently steel traps were introduced, but, from the nature of the beaver's food, it was long before an attractive bait could be discovered. At length it was found that castoreum itself was a deadly lure, and from that date the traps have always been baited with some preparation of that drug. So attractive is castoreum to the animals by which it is produced, that a beaver which swam away with a trap attached to one leg was known to be THE BEAVERS 1275 caught in another trap on the following day; and there is an instance recorded where one of these animals, after having gnawed off a leg in order to escape, again suffered itself to be ensnared. The great natural enemy of the beaver is the glutton, or wolverene, whose common Canadian name of carcajou is a "corruption " of the Indian word "quick- wahuy," said to mean " beaver eater. " The glutton either digs the beavers out of their lodges, or catches them by lying in wait in the woods. The Hudson's Bay Company have wisely assigned certain islands in their terri- tory as beaver preserves, where a certain number of the animals are killed every third year only. It has been proposed to establish "beaver ranches" in America, but, as Mr. Martin points out, the attempts hitherto made to domesticate these ani- mals do not hold out much encouragement as to the success of the project. It is true that beavers live and become fairly tame in menageries (where, from their nocturnal habits, they are but rarely seen), but the}7 rapidly deteriorate, losing the brilliant gloss of their coats, and acquiring dull, listless habits. The European beaver makes its first appearance in the " forest Beavers ^^ " °f t^16 Norfolk coast, belonging to the lower part of the Pleisto- cene period. Here it was accompanied by the giant extinct beaver { Trogontherium) , distinguished not only by its superior size, but by differences in the structure of the skull and teeth. Its range extended to Siberia. Beavers be- longing to the living genus occur in the Pliocene strata of Europe and the Miocene of North America. The earliest European beaver is the Chalicomys, which is found in the Miocene beds of the Continent, and was of considerably smaller size than the living forms, while it differed from all living Rodents in having a perforation at the lower end of the upper arm bone or humerus. CHAPTER XXXII RODENTS — continued THE MOUSE-LIKE RODENTS Families MTOXID^, MURID^E, SPALACID^, etc. THE Rodents treated of in the present chapter comprise several families more or less closely related to the rats and mice, and hence collectively termed the mouse- like group. They differ from the squirrel-like Rodents described in the preceding chapter in the following points. In the first place, as shown in the accompany- ing figure of the skeleton of the dor- mouse, the two bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are united at their extremities. Secondly, in the slender zygomatic or cheek arch of the skull, the cheek bone (jugal) seldom extends far forward, and is usually supported from below by a long process from the upper jawbone (maxilla). None of SKELETON AND MOLARS OF COMMON them haye aQy postorbital processes ill DORMOUSE. , i „ . . , , . , , the skull marking the hinder boundary of the upper part of the eye sockets, and in no case is there more than a single pair of premolar teeth in each jaw, while frequently even these may be wanting in either one or both jaws. THE DORMICE Family The elegant little creatures known as dormice, or sleepers, so closely resemble diminutive squirrels in form and habits, that they are commonly regarded as closely allied to that group. Apparently, however, these external resemblances are solely due to adaptation to a similar mode of life, the relationship of the dormice to the true mice being much closer than it is to the squirrels. The dormice are confined to Europe, Asia (exclusive of the Indian and Malayan regions), and Africa, and are all of small size and arboreal habits. They are char- acterized by their large ears and eyes, and long, thickly-haired tails, the fore -limbs being short in proportion to the hinder ones. There is a pair of premolar teeth in both jaws, so that the total number of cheek-teeth on each side is four; and these teeth are furnished with distinct roots, and have their crowns marked with trans- (1276) THE COMMON DORMOUSE 1277 verse folds of enamel. The claws on the feet are short, and the first toe in the fore- foot is rudimentary. THE COMMON DORMOUSE Genus Muscardimis The common dormouse {Muscardinus avellanarius} is the sole representative of the group inhabiting the British Isles, and is the type of a distinct genus. This THE COMMON DORMOUSE. (Four-fifths natural size.) tiny little animal, which is about equal in size to the common mouse, is so familiar to most persons from being commonly kept as a pet by children, that any descrip- tion seems almost superfluous. It is, however, particularly characterized by the cylindrical form of the long and somewhat bushy tail; while internally it is dis- tinguished from all its kindred by the complex structure of the anterior portion of its stomach. Its cheek-teeth have flattened grinding surfaces, with the folds of enamel arranged in a complex manner. This dormouse has a rather large head, and a thick, compact body; the muzzle is somewhat pointed, and the ears are about a third the length of the head. The 1278 THE RODENTS most striking feature of the animal is, however, the large size and prominence of the full black eyes, which stand out in marked prominence to the tawny hue of the coat. In the adult the fur of the upper parts is of a light reddish tawny color, while below it is paler and yellower; the throat and upper part of the chest being marked by a white patch. In the young the color is, however, at first of mouse gray, the reddish tinge of the adult appearing first on the head and flanks, and thence spreading over the body. The length of the head and body is three inches, and that of the tail about half an inch less. The common dormouse appears to be confined to Europe, ranging Distribution Sweden and Britain in the north to Northern Italy in the south, and extending eastward as far as the north of Turkey, Galicia, Hungary, and Tran- sylvania. Although generally more common in the southern than in the northern districts of its habitat, it is reported to be less abundant in the south of France than either of the other two species inhabiting Europe. In its arboreal mode of life, and the manner in which it holds its food between its fore-paws when eating, as well as in the nature of its- food, there is much to remind us in the common dormouse (and likewise its allies) of the squirrel. Whereas, however, squirrels are mainly diurnal, dormice are ex- clusively nocturnal, remaining curled up during the day in their nests, or in some hole, asleep, and only issuing forth in search of food with the falling shades of evening. The dormouse is usually to be found in dense thickets and coppices, or in hedgerows, making its nest generally among the underwood, although sometimes beneath a protecting tussock of grass in the open field. The winter nest is a glob- ular structure composed of twigs, leaves, moss, and grass, and is built in the autumn, and stored with a small supply of food for winter use. Occasionally small colonies of either the breeding or the winter nests may be placed in the same thicket, Yarrell having observed as many as ten or twelve together. After feasting on the abundant nuts and mast of autumn, the dormouse accumulates a large amount of fat, and with the approach of winter retires to its nest for the period of hibernation. A warm day in winter serves, however, to arouse the little creature from its slumbers, when it will consume some of its store of food. The chief food of the dormouse consists of hazelnuts, acorns, beech mast, corn, and haws, and other wild berries. It is reported to extract the kernels from hazelnuts without removing them from their stems; and in climbing from branch to branch in search of food it exhibits marvelous agility. Bell observes that ' ' both fore and hind feet are well padded internally with fleshy, broadish tubercles, thus converting them into hands, in the use of which the creature, when creeping about in a bush of whitethorn, as we have seen it, exhibits an adroitness which is quite unequaled by the little agile harvest mouse, and scarcely surpassed by the squirrel." The duration of the winter sleep is generally from five to six months, dormice generally retiring about the middle of October, and not resuming activity before the end of March or April, by which time they have completely lost all traces of the fat accumulated in autumn. The young do not generally commence their hiberna- tion so early in the autumn as the adults. In England the young of this species are generally born in the spring, although there is evidence that in some cases they may THE SQUIRREL-TAILED AND GARDEN DORMICE 1279 be produced as late as September, thus indicating the probability of there being two litters in a year. Brehm, however, states that on the Continent the young are not born till August. The young are born blind and naked, the usual number in a litter being three or four. They are produced in a nest very similar to the one used for the winter sleep, which is always placed at a height of a yard or so above the ground. In Germany this species is known as the hazel mouse (haselmaus). THE SQUIRREL-TAILED AND GARDEN DORMICE Genus Myoxus By many zoologists the two larger species of European dormice are each referred to distinct genera, while certain African, representatives of the group constitute THE SQUIRREL-TAILED DORMOUSE AND GARDEN DORMOUSE. (One-half natural size.) another pair of generic groups. Although clearly entitled to be separated generic- ally from the common dormouse, all these species are, however, so intimately allied, that it seems preferable to include the whole of them in the single genus Myoxus, distinguished from Muscardinus by the simple structure of the stomach. Of the European species the largest is the squirrel -tailed dormouse (M.glis), — the siebenschlafer of the Germans and the loir of the French, — easily recognized by its thick, bushy tail (as shown in the left-hand figure of our illustration), in which the hairs are arranged in two rows. This species is further characterized by the large size of its cheek-teeth, in which the grinding surfaces of the crowns are flat, and the foldings of the enamel complex. The length of the head and body is a little over six, and that of the tail I28o THE RODENTS rather less than five, inches. The thick and soft fur is of an ashy-gray color, more or less shaded with dark brown above, while on the under parts and the inner sides of the limbs it is silvery white; near the junction of the dark upper parts with the white of the under surface the color becomes grayish brown. The eyes are sur- rounded by dark rings, and the tip of the snout, as well as part of the throat, are white. The ears are of moderate size, and rounded. This species is found in Southern and Eastern Europe, extending from Spain, Greece, and Italy, through South and Central Germany to Austria, Syria, and the south of Russia; it is unknown in Denmark and Scandinavia. In general habits this species closely resembles the common dormouse, but it generally lies concealed during the day in the hollow of a tree, the cleft of a rock, or the burrow of another Rodent, and its breeding nest is invariably concealed in some such situation, and is never built among the boughs of bushes like that of the English dormouse. In autumn it becomes still fatter than the latter, and in this state it was much esteemed as a delicacy by the ancient Romans. The period of hibernation, according to Brehm, generally endures for upward of seven months; these animals rarely coming forth before the latter part of April. The young, which are sometimes born in the deserted nest of a starling, are usually from three to six in number, and although blind, naked, and helpless at birth, are remarkable for the rapidity with which they come to maturity. In addition to various nuts and berries, this dormouse consumes fruit, and is also said to devour small birds and other animals. In its turn, it is preyed upon by martens, polecats, stoats, and wild cats. Like the common species the squirrel-tailed dormouse is easily domesti- cated, and during its period of activity forms an attractive little pet. In Southern Russia, Hungary, Lower Austria, and Siberia there is D a second species of dormouse {M. dryas), nearly allied to the last, but of considerable smaller size, although larger than the garden dor- mouse. It is generally reddish brown above and white beneath (including the lower surface of the tail), and is easily recognized by the black line extending from near the nose through the eye to the root of the ear. The painted dormouse (M. pictus), of Eastern Persia, is a brighter colored form closely allied to the above. The garden dormouse (M. nitela}, which is represented on the right The Garden , , * ... . 4, „ D hand of the illustration on p. 1279, is the European representative of a group of several species, distinguished from the preceding by the thinner and tufted tail, the larger and more pointed ears, and the characteristics of the cheek-teeth. These teeth are relatively small, and have their grinding surfaces concave, with the foldings of enamel very faintly marked. The group is repre- sented in Africa as well as in Southern Europe. The garden dormouse was known to the ancient Romans as the nitela, and on the Continent at the present day is termed in France the lerot, and in Germany the gartenschlafer. It is smaller than the squirrel-tailed dormouse, although larger than the common species, the length of the head and body being at the most five and one-half inches, while the tail measures about three and three-fourths inches. The head and upper parts are grayish brown, with a more or less marked rufous tinge, and the under parts pure white. A black ring encircles the eye, and thence JUMPING MICE, JERBOAS, ETC. 1281 extends backward as a streak beneath the ear to the neck, while there are dark and light spots behind and in front of the ears. The tail is grayish brown at the base, but at the end black above and white below. The garden dormouse takes its name from being commonly found in the gar- dens and orchards of the warmer parts of the Continent, where it does much damage to the choicer kinds of fruit. It is found in Central and Western Europe, includ- ing France, Belgium, Switzer- land, Italy, Germany, Hun- gary, Galicia, and the Baltic provinces of Russia, and is stated to be specially common in the Harz mountains. There is nothing calling for particular remark in the habits of this species, except that it is stated to be more carnivorous in its tastes than any of its European SKELETON OF GARDEN DORMOUSE. kindred. The young may be produced in a deserted thrush's nest, or in some hole in a tree, or in a freely sus- pended nest, and it is characteristic of this species that whenever it builds a nest this is always placed between small boughs and never concealed. _ <, . Omitting mention of the other species allied to the garden dormouse it may be observed that there is a third group of the genus confined to Africa, the members of which are characterized by the hair being arranged uni- formly on the tail, instead of in two longitudinal rows; the whole tail being rela- tively shorter than in the other groups, with a well-marked tuft at the tip. These African dormice are further characterized by the very small size of their cheek-teeth, in which the foldings of enamel are nearly obsolete. Remains of dormice are found not uncommonly in the Tertiary strata of Europe, as far down as the upper portion of the Eocene period; most of the species agreeing approximately in size with some of the living forms. The extinct giant dormouse from the rock fissures and cavern deposits of Malta was, however, far larger than any existing species, and more nearly resembled a guinea pig; this association of giant dormice with pygmy ele- phants in Malta being not a little remarkable. JUMPING MICE, JERBOAS, etc. Family The Rodents included in this family are all purely terrestrial, and for the most part characterized by the great length of their hind-limbs as compared with the front pair, and their long and generally hairy tails; their general appearance and mode of progression thus being markedly kangaroo-like. They have very fre- quently four upper cheek-teeth, and in all cases the incisor teeth are narrow, and III— 81 1282 THE RODENTS the molars marked by transverse enamel folds. The skull, as shown in the accom- panying figure of the skeleton of the jerboa, is characterized by the shortness of the brain case, and the very large size of the apertures in front of the eye sockets for the passage of the nerves supplying the face. There are also other distinctive fea- tures in the skull, more especially in the large size of the hinder part of the auditory bulla, into which it would be out of place to enter here. The jerboas and their allies are mainly Asiatic and African forms, although there is one outlying species in North America, and a few range into Southern Europe. Most of the jumping kinds are inhabitants of open and dry districts, such as grassy steppes or sandy deserts; and approximate in coloration very closely to that of the ground on which they dwell. They form burrows in clayey or sandy soil, which are generally situated in the open plains, but sometimes among thicker or thin- ner bush jungle. In habits they are mostly nocturnal, lying concealed in their burrows by day, and issuing forth to feed at night. Their nutriment consists of roots, berries, seeds, fruits, leaves, grass, and other herbage; but a few will also eat insects, small birds, and carrion. In feeding they sit in a half-erect posture upon their hind-quarters and tail, and convey the food to their mouth with the aid of their paws. Their move- ments are peculiar, the body being supported on the hind-limbs alone, perhaps aided, however, at times by the tail. In walking, the legs are moved alternately in the ordinary manner, in which respect these animals differ from kangaroos, which always hop. Progression at a more rapid rate is, however, always effected by a series of leaps from the hind-legs; the length of such leaps being generally very great in proportion to the size of the animal. Like all desert-haunting animals, the jerboas are extremely quick of hearing and long- sighted. Although generally silent, many of these ani- mals have a kind of whining cry, which has been compared to that of a kitten. In the colder districts of their habitat, the species hibernate more or less com- pletely, but they never lay up a store of provisions for winter use. The family may be divided into four main groups or subfamilies. THE JUMPING MOUSE Genus Zapus The so-called jumping mouse of North America {Zapus hudsonianus) is the typical representative of the first group of the family. It is characterized by SKELETON OF JERBOA. THE JUMPING MOUSE 1283 the presence of four pairs of rooted cheek-teeth in each jaw, by the vertebrae of the neck being entirely separate from each other, and by the long hind-limbs being furnished with five complete toes, of which the metatarsal bones are separate. In the fore-limbs the first toe is rudimental, and furnished with a flat nail. Well- developed cheek pouches are present. In general appearance this animal resembles a mouse with elongated hind-limbs and a very long tail; the degree of elongation of the hind-legs not being so great as in some other members of the family. The length of the head and body is a little more than three inches, and that of the tail about five inches, although there is a considerable amount of individual variation in the relative proportions of the latter. In the summer coat the fur is brown above, yellowish on the flanks, and white below, but in the winter it is uniformly brown. The moderate-sized ears are black with light-colored edges, and the long and nearly naked tail is tipped with a pencil of hairs. The geographical range of the jumping mouse is very large, extend- . ing from the cold regions of the Great Slave Lake and Hudson's Bay and Habits to Arizona and Mexico, although in the latter districts it appears to be restricted to the mountains. In British North America and the northern part of the United States it ranges from the Atlantic to the Pacific coasts. This species differs from most of its allies in not being strictly nocturnal, gen- erally venturing forth early in the evening, and not unfrequently being abroad during the day. It likewise frequents more wooded and damper situations. The following excellent accounts of its habits was communicated to Dr. Hart Merriam by Mr. K. Slade, who observes that, " the long-tailed jumping mouse inhabits high land or low land, forest or pasture, cultivated field or swamp, and appears to be equally at home in either, and not numerous in any situation. It possesses a momentary agility second to no other Rodent, and a muscular strength of enormous power for so small a creature. When suddenly disturbed, it often moves away in a direct line, the first three or four leaps being eight or ten feet in length, but these distances rapidly decline to about four feet. This is not always the case, however, for it fre- quently takes an irregular course and jumps at divers angles for several successive leaps, keeping the same general direction, or changing at will. It can double, and quickly too, if pursued, and by its manoeuvres and instantaneous squattings can elude a hawk or an owl, and its spontaneous irregularities enable it to escape being brained by a weasel, or swallowed whole by the common black snake. It feeds upon the buds, leaves, and twigs of many kinds of plants; upon seeds, grains, wild ber- ries, chestnuts, acorns, grass, and to some extent upon the bark of shrubs. As a rule, three litters are produced in a season, each consisting of from two to four young." In leaping, the successive springs are made with such rapidity that the feet of the animal seem scarcely to touch the ground. The nest is placed in a variety of situations, sometimes in the hollow stump of a tree, more frequently under logs of timber, often in clefts of rocks, and occasionally a short distance from below the surface of the ground in an open field. The jumping mouse hibernates during the winter in a hole deep down in the ground; but the length of the sleep appears to depend upon the latitude of the 1284 THE RODENTS • locality and the temperature of the season. In mild winters the hibernation is often interrupted for longer or shorter periods. The underground nest is carefully made of grass, in which the little animal lies tightly curled up, with the nose closely pressed to the belly, and the long tail curled round the body, which assumes an al- most ball-like form. So deep are the slumbers of these animals, that they may be handled for a long time without evincing the slightest signs of life. The young of the various litters are to be met with from May till August. Fossil remains of the jumping mouse occur in the Pleistocene deposits of the United States. THE FIVE-TOED JERBOAS Genus Alactaga, etc. The jerboas, of which there are several genera, may be divided into two groups, according to the presence of five or three toes on the hind-feet, and constitute the second subfamily. The whole subfamily is characterized by the cheek-teeth, of which there may be either three or four pairs, having distinct roots; by the vertebrae of the neck being more or less completely united; and by the long metatarsal bones of the hind-limbs being joined so as to form a canon bone, as shown in the figure on p. 1282. In all cases only the three middle toes of the hind-feet are of any functional importance; the lateral digits, when present, being small and not reaching the ground. The Kirghiz jerboa, or alagdaga (Alactaga decumana], is the best- . . known representative of the genus to which it belongs, and is one of the most characteristic Mammals of the steppes of Central Asia. The genus Alactaga, in addition to the presence of five toes on the hind-feet, is charac- terized by its long and tufted tail and large ears; there are a pair of premolar teeth in the upper, but none in the lower jaw, and the incisor teeth are not grooved. The alagdaga (as the animal is designated by the Mongols) is one of the largest members of the group, the length of the head and body being about seven inches, and that of the tail considerably more. The general color of the fur is reddish yellow, with, a tinge of gray on the upper parts; while below, as well as on the inner sides and lower parts of the hind-legs, it is white; a white patch also occurring on the outer sides of the thighs. The tail is brown, with a black-and-white tip. The range of this jerboa includes the whole of the steppe districts of Central Asia, and also extends into Persia as far as Bushire, and into Southeastern Europe as far as the Crimea and the region of the Don. During the Pleistocene period this jerboa inhabited parts of Germany. The alagdaga is a social animal, dwelling in small companies, and also selecting such portions of the steppes as possess a clayey soil for the construction of its large burrows. It is strictly nocturnal in its habits, issuing from its burrow at the commencement of darkness, but, according to Radde, not re- maining abroad the whole night. Its speed is said to be considerably greater than that of the true jerboa, and the length of its leaps is enormous; indeed, it is stated THE FIVE-TOED JERBOAS 1285 that even when mounted on a swift horse it is impossible to overtake these creatures. The burrows constructed by the Kirghiz jerboa are very complicated, having several branches radiating from a central chamber; one of these branches, it is said, always stops a short distance below the surface of the ground, and is only used as an exit in time of danger, when the animal removes the barrier and escapes in an unsuspected direction. Usually, two or three pairs occupy the same burrow. In addition to the usual vegetable diet, the alagdaga also eats insects, and the eggs and young of the steppe lark, if not the old birds themselves. The young are born in summer, in a nest placed deep down in the burrow, and are usually from five to six in number, although occasionally there may be as many as eight in a litter. How long the young remain with their parents is unknown, but it is quite probable that they do C THE KIRGHIZ JERBOA. (One-half natural size.) not depart till the spring following their birth. In cold weather these animals do not leave their nests, and the winter sleep is a long one, enduring, according to Radde, from the beginning of September till the latter part of April. The flesh of the alagdaga is eaten by the Kirghiz and other dwellers on the steppes; the capture being effected by surrounding the burrows with a fence and pouring water down the open holes, when the animal seeks to escape by breaking through the closed entrance. The Afghan jerboa (A. indica) is a smaller species of the same genus, with proportionately-longer ears and tail; the length of the head and body being about three and one-half inches, and that of the tail, inclusive of the tuft at end, upward of seven and one-half inches. This species inhabits Afghanistan, the southeast of Persia, and Northern Baluchistan, and is found com- monly on the plains of Quetta at an elevation of about six thousand feet. In habits, Afghan Jerboa 1286 THE RODENTS Yarkand Jerboa this jerboa seems to be very similar to the larger species; its period of hibernation lasting from October till April. Central Asia is also the home of other species of the same genus. The recently-discovered Yarkand jerboa (Euchoretes naso) is the sole representative of a distinct genus characterized by certain features in the skull, the great length of the nose, and the enormous size of the ears, which are longer than the head. The fur is sandy colored above and white below; the tufted tail being black near the end, but white at the extreme tip. The length of the head and body is three and one-fourth inches, and that of the tail six and one-half inches. Certain species of jerboas inhabiting the desert regions of Central and Northern Asia and Nubia are distinguished from those of the two preceding genera by their flattened and lancet-shaped tails, in conse- quence of which they have received the name of Platycercomys. They are further Broad-Tailed Jerboas EGYPTIAN JERBOA. distinguished by the absence of premolar teeth in both jaws, worthy of special notice in the habits of these species. There is nothing THE THREE-TOED, OR TRUE JERBOAS Genus Dipus The true jerboas, as typically represented by the common Egyptian species (Dipus faculus), are the most specialized representatives of the subfamily, having completely lost the two small lateral toes on the hind-limbs. They are further distinguished by the presence of vertical grooves on the front of the incisor teeth ; while they have a pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. They resemble the alagdaga in the great length of the hind-limbs and tail, and the comparatively-large size of the ears; the tuft of hair at the tip of the tail is, however, smaller. Usually the premolar teeth are wanting. THE THREE-TOED, OR TRUE JERBOAS 1287 In size, the Egyptian jerboa is rather inferior to the alagdaga, the length of the head and body being about six and three-fourth inches, while the tail, exclusive of the hair at the end, measures a little over eight inches. The general color of the upper parts is a sandy gray; the under surface of the body being white, and a broad white stripe extending down the hind-limbs. The tail is yellowish brown above and whitish beneath, with the usual black-and-white tip. The range of the Egyptian jerboa extends from the north of Arabia westward through Lower Egypt to Oran in Algeria. There are, however, numerous other species of the genus, some of which inhabit Eastern Persia and Central Asia. The name of two-legged mouse was applied to the Egyptian jerboa on account of the fore-legs being applied so closely to the chest when the animal is jumping that it has an almost bird-like appearance. The home of this Habits THE AFRICAN JUMPING HARE. (One-eighth natural size.) species is arid and desert districts, where the ground consists solely of sand and pebbles, and the vegetation is so scant that it is a marvel that even such a tiny crea- ture can find the wherewithal to live. Here it lives in companies, frequently of considerable size, in association with sand grouse, the small desert lark, the cream- colored courser, and various lizards. So exactly, does the color of the jerboa harmonize with its surroundings, that when at a short distance it is scarcely possible to recognize the presence of a living creature. Although very abundant, it is, from its extreme shyness, but seldom seen. Like its kindred, this jerboa is essentially a nocturnal animal; but it generally comes out to feed before sundown, while it not unfrequently sits at the mouth of its hole, or a short distance off, even in the full sunshine. It digs a burrow in the hard gravelly soil with its fore-feet, aided some- times by its incisor teeth; these burrows generally having four entrances. Accord- 1288 THE RODENTS ing to Arab reports, the whole colony takes part in the construction of the burrows, and at the slightest sound the animals immediately take refuge in their retreats In walking gently the jerboa moves one foot after the other, but directly the pace is quickened, it progresses by means of leaps, and so rapid then are its movements, that travelers liken them to the flight of a bird. When leaping, the tail is carried stuck out nearly straight behind. The jerboa is very impatient of rain and damp, and when such conditions are prevalent it relapses into a kind of torpid condition, analogous to the hibernation of species inhabiting more northern regions. According to Brehm, very little is definitely known regarding the breeding of this species. The Arabs state that it forms a nest from its own fur within the laby- rinths of its burrow, where from two to four young are produced at a birth. The Arabs capture these tiny creatures by stopping up all the entrances to a burrow except one, where they place a net, and then digging down into the central chamber, when the jerboas are either caught in the nets or by the hands of their pursuers. Many are thus taken alive, while the flesh of those killed is eaten. The chief foes of the jerboa, next to men, are fennecs, caracals, and owls, by all of which large numbers are destroyed. This jerboa, like its allies of Central Asia, is easily tamed, and from its beauti- ful form and delicate build, as well as its engaging manners, is always highly esteemed as a pet by its owner. In its wild state the jerboa eats not only leaves, fruits, and seeds, but likewise insects and carrion. THE AFRICAN JUMPING HARK Genus Pedetes By far the largest representative of the long-limbed members of the family is the South-African species, designated by the Cape colonists, inappropriately, the jumping hare — the springhaas of the Boers. This animal {Pedetes caffer) constitutes not only a distinct genus, but also a separate subfamily; being distinguished from the jerboas by the following characteristics. In the neck the whole of the seven vertebrae are separate; the hind-feet have four toes, and their comparatively-short metatarsal bones are not united; while the cheek-teeth, of which there are four on each side of the jaws, do not develop roots. In size the jumping hare may be compared with the common hare, to which it also approximates in general coloration; the length of the head and body being about twenty-four inches, and that of the tail rather more. The head is relatively large, with long, pointed ears; the fore- limbs are proportionately longer than in the jerboas, and the long tail is thickly haired throughout its extent. SKELETON OF AFRICAN There are five toes> provided with long, sharp claws on the JUMPING HARE. fore-feet, while in the hind-feet the claws are wider and THE SMINTHUS— THE MOUSE TRIBE 1289 blunter, and approximate somewhat to nails; the middle hind-toe being much larger than either of the others. The long 'and soft hair of the upper parts is red- dish brown, more or less mingled with white, while beneath the color is pure white. The range of the jumping hare extends from the Cape to Angola on d H b't t^ie West, and Mozambique on the East Coast. Its ha'bits approximate very closely to those of the jerboa. Thus it inhabits more or less desert districts, where it constructs complex burrows, in which several families dwell to- gether, and is thoroughly nocturnal. At the Cape it is found in considerable numbers, and frequents both the mountains and the open plains. When feeding, the jumping hare goes on all fours, but when at speed progresses with the leaps characteristic of the family. Ordinarily, the length of each spring is from six to nine feet; but it is said that the leap may occasionally cover a space of as much as twenty or even thirty feet. The young are born during the African summer, and are usually from three to four in number, and during the rainy season young and old alike seldom stir from their burrows. The food appears to be entirely of a vegetable nature. The flesh is largely eaten by the Hottentots, who catch almost as many of the creatures as they please by the simple expedient of pouring water down their holes, upon which the owners immediately bolt. THE SMINTHUS Genus Sminthus Three rat-like Rodents — the one (Sminthus subtilis) from Eastern and North- ern Europe and Central Asia, the other (S. concolor] from Northwestern China, and the third (S. leathami) from Kashmir — are interesting in showing that the long hind-limbs are not an essential attribute of the members of the present family. In- deed the former of these Rodents — for which there is unfortunately no English name — is so rat-like in appearance that it was long referred to the next family. It differs, however, from all the members of the latter by the presence of a pair of pre- molar teeth in the upper jaw (although there are none in the lower), while its skull agrees in essential features with that of the jerboa. The common sminthus has rather long and pointed ears, and a tail of nearly the same length as the body, and clothed with short hairs. The premolar and last upper molar teeth are very small, and the whole of the cheek-teeth have a complex pattern on their crowns. THE MOUSE TRIBE Family MURID^E The Mouse family, which includes mice, rats, hamsters, voles, lemmings, etc., is by far the most extensive group in the whole Rodent order, having a cosmopolitan distribution, and being the only family represented in Australia. The majority of the mice — as we may conveniently term all the members of the group — are of ter- restrial habits, and have naked and scaly tails of varying length- while in most 1290 THE RODENTS cases there is no great disproportion between the length of the fore and hind-limbs. The incisor teeth are narrow, and, owing to the invariable absence of premolars, there are never more than three pairs of cheek-teeth in each jaw. In structure these teeth exhibit great variation in the different groups, being either furnished with roots, or rootless, while in some cases their crowns are sur- mounted with simple cusps, and in others with folds of enamel arranged in a series of angles. In all cases the first toe of the fore-foot is rudimental. The skull is the most characteristic part of their entire organization, although it is difficult in a pop- ular work like the present to point out its distinctive peculiarities without the aid of a series of figures. It may be mentioned, however, that the frontal region between the eye sockets is much narrowed, and that in the zygomatic, or cheek arch, the cheek (jugal) bone is usually reduced to a mere splint occupying the middle of the arch. Again, the lower sur- face of the process arising from the upper jawbone to form the front half of the cheek arch is more or less flattened out into a nearly perpendicular plate; while the vacu- ity in the front of the eye for the passage of the nerves of the face is generally of considerable height and wider above than below. The number of genera and species belonging to this family is so great that it is impossible to notice more than a small moiety in this work. Accordingly, only representatives of the various subfamilies into which these Rodents are divided, and such forms are of general interest, are selected for description. SKELETON AND MOLARS OF BROWN RAT. THE AUSTRALIAN RATS The Australian rats, of which there is one aquatic species, together with an allied terrestrial form from the same region, constitute a subfamily distinguished from all the other mice by having only two pairs of molar teeth in each jaw; these teeth being rooted, and having their crowns divided into distinct lobes. The Australian water rat (Hydromys chrysogaster] is a rat-like aquatic Rodent, with broad and partially-webbed feet, the webs and claws being larger in the hinder than in the front-limbs. The fur of the back is black with an admixture of golden- colored hair; the under parts being of a dark golden hue, save for a narrow stripe of flaxen running from the lower part of the neck to the middle of the belly. Ex- THE MALABAR SPINY MOUSE— THE GERBILS 1291 •cept for its terminal fifth, which is flaxen colored, the tail is black. The tip of the muzzle is thickly covered with hair, by means of which the nostrils can be closed. The length of the head and body is about two feet, and that of the tail half as much. The skull differs in the form of the front portion of the cheek arch from the ordinary murine type. This species is confined to Australia and Tasmania, where it is known to the colonists as the beaver rat. It is thoroughly aquatic in its habits, and is not uncommon on the banks of the rivers; while it is at times seen on the seashore. It is an inhabitant of Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea. The Queensland rat (Xeromys myoides] is a terrestrial species of about double the size of an ordinary mouse, which, while possessing teeth like those of the Aus- tralian water rat, has unwebbed toes and the external form and skull of a mouse. It is, therefore, of interest as serving to connect its aquatic cousin with the more typical members of the family. THE MALABAR SPINY MOUSE Genus Platacanthomys The pretty little murine known as the Malabar spiny mouse {Platacanthomys .lasiurus) , from elevations of about two thousand feet in the hills of Southern India, is interesting as being one of the few members of the family which assume a dormouse-like appearance and have arboreal habits. It represents a subfamily by itself, characterized by the crowns of the molar teeth when worn showing oblique and nearly parallel bands of enamel, and by the long tail being thickly haired. This little mouse has long, pointed ears, and a number of broad flat spines mingled \vith the hair of the upper parts. In color it is reddish brown above, and white beneath; the length of the head and body being four and one-half inches, and that of the tail, with the hair at the end, half an inch more. This mouse lives in large trees, in which it hollows out small cavities that it fills with leaves and moss. It is stated to feed on jack fruit and the pods of the pepper tree. THE GERBILS Genus Gerbillus The elegant little Rodents commonly known as gerbils constitute the typical representatives of a third subfamily, and are easily recognized by their elongated hind-limbs, long and hairy tails, and their general jerboa-like appearance and habits. Indeed, they might be mistaken at first sight for mem- bers of the latter group; but a close examination will show that they differ externally by their longer muzzles, smaller eyes, and the presence of five functional toes to the hind-feet. They are further distinguished by their molar teeth being divided into transverse laminae, of which there are three in the first, two in the second, and one in the third tooth of each side. The upper incisor teeth are narrow and grooved, and the bullse of the I.OWER JAW AND auditory region of the skull are generally very large. The true TEETH OF GERBII,. THE GERBILS 1293 gerbils, of which there are more than half a hundred species, inhabit Asia and Africa, but there are some allied genera confined to the latter continent. One of the best-known species is the Indian gerbil (Gerbillus indicus], which is about the size of a rat, with moderate-sized rounded ears, and the fur light brownish rufous above, and white beneath. With its large, bright eyes, and long, tufted tail, this gerbil (like its cousins) is one of the most graceful of the smaller Rodents. ' In common with the other species, it inhabits open, sandy plains, where it lives in companies, constructing extensive burrows approached by numerous chambers, and containing large central chambers containing dried grass. The Indian gerbil is a thoroughly nocturnal animal, seldom leaving its burrow during EGYPTIAN GERBII,. the daytime. It is frequently found near cultivated grounds, where it does much damage to the corn crops, sometimes appearing in such numbers as to constitute a veritable plague. Away from cultivated districts, its food consists mainly of grass and roots. It has been stated that gerbils lay up stores of food in their burrows, but it does not appear that this is really the case. Gerbils resemble jerboas in pro- gressing by a series of leaps from their long hind-legs; the length of the leaps in the Indian species being from twelve to fifteen feet. So active are these animals, that they are generally able to elude such dogs as may pursue them, sometimes even jumping upon their backs. The Indian gerbil is one of the most prolific of Rodents, frequently producing from twelve to fifteen young at a birth, and occasionally it is said, even more. 1294 THE RODENTS THE PHILIPPINE RAT Genus Phl&omys The Philippine islands are the habitat of a peculiar species of rat (Phl&omys cumingt), which differs so markedly from all others that it must be regarded as con- stituting a subfamily by itself. While having the ordinary murine form, these rats re- semble the gerbils in having their molar teeth divided into transverse laminae, of which there are three in the first tooth of the series, and two in each of the others. The incisor teeth are very broad, with smooth front surfaces. The muzzle is unusu- ally short, the profile convex, and the ears rather small; while the feet are char- acterized by their great breadth, and the large size of their claws. The tail is shorter than the head and body, and sparsely haired. The hair is rather long and coarse, and darker on the muzzle, the sides of the face, the back of the head, the shoulders, and the fore-part of the back than elsewhere. THE HAMSTERS AND WHITE-FOOTED MICE Genus Cricetus The well-known hamsters of the Old World, together with the American white-footed mice, constitute an extensive genus of murine Rodents, which, with others, represents a distinct subfamily. These Cricetines, as all the members of the subfamily may be called, are characterized by the crowns of their molar teeth carry- ing a number of distinct tubercles or cusps, which in the upper jaw are arranged in two longitudinal rows separated by a median groove; these teeth being always im- planted in the jaw by distinct roots. The whole of the Old -World Cricetines are characterized by the shortness of their tails, but in some of the American forms these appendages are considerably longer. The Cricetines are distributed nearly all over the world, with the exception of Australia, and include the only representa- tives of the Rodent order found in Madagascar. In structure they appear to be the most generalized group of the entire Murine family, and it is accordingly believed that they represent the ancestral stock from which came the more specialized rats and mice constituting the Murine subfamily. This hypothesis is supported by the circumstance that the hamsters are some of the oldest types of the family with which we are acquainted, their remains being comparatively common in the Miocene strata both of Europe and North America. The common hamster {Cricetus frumentarius) , of Europe and '"p?10 n t Northern Asia, is the typical representative of the genus under consid- eration; the leading characteristics of the genus being that the incisor teeth are not marked by grooves, while the first upper molar tooth generally has six tubercles on its crown. Cheek pouches, which may be of large size, are frequently present, and the tail is often very short. The hamster itself is a decidedly handsomely-colored Rodent, and is by far the largest member of the group, measuring about a foot in length, of which some two THE HAMSTERS AND WHITE-FOOTED MICE 1295 inches are taken up by the tapering hairy tail. It is stoutly built, with a thick neck, a rather pointed muzzle, medium-sized membranous ears, large and brilliant eyes, short legs, and small claws. The thick, glossy coat is composed of hair and a woolly under-fur. The general color of the upper parts is usually light brownish yellow, but the upper surface of the snout and the region of the eyes, as well as a band round the throat, are reddish brown. There is a yellow patch on the back, the mouth is whitish, and the under parts, the greater portion of the legs, and a stripe on the forehead are deep black, but the feet are white. There is, however, THE HAMSTER. (One-third natural size. ) great individual variation with regard to color, many examples being entirely black, while others are pied, and others, again, wholly white. The hamster inhabits suitable localities from the Rhine in Germany to the Obi in Siberia, but its distribution is somewhat partial. In Germany it is wanting in the south and southwestern districts, and also in East and West Prussia, but it is abundant in Thuringia and Saxony. Its favorite haunts are in soft dry soils, but it avoids those of a sandy nature as being unsuitable for- its burrows, although it will sometimes select gravelly ground. The hamster has always attracted a considerable amount of interest, from the elaborate structure of its burrows, and the provident nature of its habits. The 1296 THE RODENTS burrow always comprises a large dwelling chamber, situated at a depth of from one to two yards below the surface of the ground, with a nearly perpendicular entrance passage and an oblique exit. There is also a store chamber or granary communicat- ing with the dwelling chamber by means of a gallery, and it appears that the young, the females, and the males generally occupy distinct burrows, which may be distin- guished by the size of their entrance passages, those of the males being the largest. When a burrow is tenanted, the passages are kept scrupulously clean, and the pres- ence of any litter in them would at once proclaim that the habitation was deserted; chaff and straw may, however, be generally seen near the entrance of a burrow. Although the entrance passage goes nearly straight down into the earth, it also has a turn before opening into the dwelling chamber, and in old burrows the entrance and exit passages are polished smooth by the constant friction of the coats of their occupants. Of the chambers, the dwelling place is the smaller, and has smooth walls and the floor strewn with fine straw; it has three apertures — two communi- cating with the exterior, and the third with the granary. Young hamsters have but a single granary in their burrows, but the old males, which spend the whole summer collecting, frequently have from three to five such chambers. These are completely filled with corn, the passage communicating with the dwelling chamber being fre- quently stopped up with earth. All kinds of corn are equally acceptable to these industrious little animals, and it will often be found that, while one part of the store chamber is filled with grain of a particular kind, the other portion may contain a different sort. In addition to corn, which forms their main winter nutriment, hamsters in summer eat peas, beans, roots, fruits, grass, and other green herbage, and in captivity these animals will eat almost any kind of food that is put before them. Burrows of the nature described above are constructed solely for winter use, and when the weather becomes cold in October the hamsters retire to their innermost recesses for their hibernation; the entrance and exit of each burrow being then closed with earth. In February or March the animals awake from their slumbers, although they do not for some time open their burrows, where they remain feeding upon the stores of corn. About the middle of March the adult males make their first appearance abroad, and these are followed early in April by the females. At this time they devour ravenously almost anything that comes before them, not refus- ing an occasional young bird, a mouse, or a beetle. Soon afterward they set about constructing their summer burrows, on the completion of which the sexes pair. These summer burrows are of simpler construction than the winter habitations, be- ing seldom more than one or two feet in depth. Usually these burrows contain but a single chamber of about a foot in diameter. In the case of the females the nest chamber has one exit passage, but from two to eight entrances; although until the young go afield but one of the latter is used; the advantage of these numerous entrances when there is a large number of young being sufficiently obvious. The nest chamber is furnished with a bed of soft hay. Toward the end of April the males visit the burrows of the females, and if two individuals of them should hap- pen to meet in the same domicile, a fierce encounter ensues, the hamster, for its size, being an extremely ferocious and quarrelsome animal. In from four to five weeks THE HAMSTERS AND WHITE-FOOTED MICE 1297 after the pairing time the first litter of young is produced, the number in each litter varying from six to eighteen, and as a second equally numerous brood comes into the world in July, the rate of increase of these animals is exceedingly rapid. When born, the young, although furnished with teeth, are naked and blind. The hair, however, quickly grows, and by the eighth or ninth day the eyes are opened; while within a fortnight the young are able to burrow, and are soon after driven away by their parents to shift for themselves. Although hamsters do not attain their full growth for a twelvemonth, it appears certain that a female born in May is capable of producing offspring in the ensuing autumn. With these marvelously-rapid powers of reproduction it is no wonder that ham- sters frequently appear in countless swarms, when they inflict incalculable harm upon the harvest. Fortunately, however, they have a host of enemies, and buz- zards, owls, ravens, and other predacious birds thin their ranks by hundreds; while among four-legged foes, polecats and stoats follow the track of the advancing legions, and kill them where and when they can. The polecat and stoat are, more- over, able to follow the hamsters into the recesses of their burrows, where they probably destroy them by hundreds. Man, too, joins the ranks of the destroyers of these mischievous Rodents, and in some cases organizes regular hunts for their destruction. Government rewards are sometimes offered to aid in ridding the country of these pests, and Brehm relates that in the year 1888 no less than 97,519 hamsters were destroyed in the single district of Aschersleben, for which a reward of $465 was paid. In digging out the hamsters, the stores of corn which they laid up for winter use form not the least important part of the enterprise; the grain being carefully dried and used for human consumption. In many districts the flesh of the hamster is eaten, and is said to be not unlike that of the squirrel. The fur too, although not of high value, is extensively used for linings, some thou- sands of skins being annually exported to England. In Eastern Europe there are smaller species of hamsters in which s the black of the under parts only occupies a small area on the chest; and from these a transition is easy to the small uniform gray hamsters of Central Asia, one of which ranges as far south as Gilgit, while another occurs in Persia. The New World possesses not a single indigenous representative of the true rats and mice of the Old World, all of the American members Mice of the family belonging either to the Cricetine or to the closely-allied Microtine subfamily. The great majority of the species belong to a group which may be conveniently designated white-footed mice, from the general prevalence of white on their feet and under parts. These American mice, which have representa- tives from one end of the continent to the other, are frequently regarded as consti- tuting a number of distinct genera; but as they all possess molar teeth of essentially the same structure, it is simpler to include the whole of them in the genus Cricetus. They exhibit, however, great variation in regard to bodily form and the relative length of the tail. Thus there are some species with long tails and a general dormouse-like appearance, other long-tailed forms are mouse-like, others again have short hamster-like tails and vole-like bodies, while one species has spines mingled with the fur. 111—82 1298 THE RODENTS The best-known representative of the group is the common white- footed mouse (C. leucopus] of North America, which may be regarded as taking the place filled in Europe by the house mouse. It is, however, far more at- tractive in appearance than the latter, although of approximately the same size and general configuration. In addition to its long tail, large ears, and bead-like eyes, this mouse is characterized by having the fur of the upper parts of the body of a rich fawn color, which forms a striking contrast with the snowy white of the under parts and feet. Indeed, when we add to this the natural grace and agility of its movements, we have in this animal, as Dr. Hart Merriatn observes, one of the most beautiful and interesting inhabitants of the forests of North America. The white-footed mouse is an inhabitant either of forests or open fields, and in the wild state feeds chiefly upon beechnuts, of which it accumulates large stores for winter use. These stores are generally accumulated in hollow trees or logs, and sometimes may contain two or three quarts of beechnuts or clover seed. This mouse, unlike the hamster, remains, however, active throughout the winter, and may be seen running about on the snow, where its long tail leaves a characteristic track. It is an agile climber, running up tree stems with the activity of a squirrel, and frequently disappearing in some hole at a great distance above the ground. In addition to nuts and seeds, the white-footed mouse will readily eat the flesh of such animals as come in its way, and it is possible that it may occasionally kill small birds for itself. From three to six young are produced at a birth, and there appear to be several litters during the year. The first coat of the young is of a uniform dull gray color. In the northern portions of the range of this mouse, the nest is gen- erally built either in the hollow of a tree or log, or in a burrow; but more to the south these animals construct an "outside nest" of moss, grass, leaves, or bark, which is generally more or less cocoanut shaped, and may be as much as a foot in diameter. It is usually suspended from a horizontal branch at some distance from the ground, and has its entrance on the under surface. The group to which this particular species of white-footed mice belongs is distinguished by having only five tubercles on the first molar tooth in the upper jaw. The rice-field mouse (C. palus- tris), which attains the size of a small rat, does much damage to the rice crops in the Southern States. THE FISH-EATING RAT Genus Ichthyomys A remarkable species (/. stolzmanni) inhabiting the mountain streams of Cen- tral Peru is allied to the preceding group, but distinguished by its aquatic and prob- ably fish-eating habits, as well as by its webbed and fringed hind-feet. In size it conies near the brown rat, but has the head much flattened, larger whiskers, and very small ears and eyes; while in color it is dark above and whitish beneath, with a black-and-white tail. GROO VED- TOO THED MICE— AFRICA N CRES TED RA T 1 299 THE GROOVED-TOOTHED MICE Genera Rhithrodontomys and Rhithrodon Two groups of American Cricetines are distinguished by their upper incisor teeth being marked by parallel grooves. Of these, the American harvest mouse {Rhithrodontomys humilis) resembles the rice-field mouse in external appearance, and is found in the southern part of the United States as far north as Iowa; the other two species of the genus being also North American. The Rhithrodonts, on the other hand, are exclusively South American, and are characterized by their rabbit-like appearance, the head being very short, with a highly-convex profile, very large eyes, and rather large, rounded ears. The rabbit- like rhithrodon {Rhithrodon cuniculoides] , from Patagonia, is one of the best-known species. The length of the head and body is six and one-half inches, and that of . the tail about half as much again. Its general color is yellowish gray mixed with black, with the under parts pale yellow, and the rump, feet, and lower surface of the tail white. THE WOOD RATS The Florida rat {Neotoma floridana) is the best-known representative of a small genus of North- American Cricetines, distinguished by their large size and the circum- stance that the cusps on their molars show some approximation to the type of struc- ture obtaining in the voles. The Florida rat, which inhabits the southern part of the United States and the north of Mexico, is about the size of an ordinary rat, to which it also approximates in general coloration, although the under parts and feet are en- tirely white. This species has a thin, scaly tail, but in the bushy -tailed wood rat {N. cinerea] from the northwestern and western districts of North America, this ap- pendage resembles that of a dormouse. The wood rats are active, climbing animals, sometimes found in forests, but in other cases inhabiting rocky districts. In woods or near streams they frequently make heaps of twigs, straw, etc., in which to form their nests. The young, of which there are from three to six in a litter, cling to the sides and back of the female parent when she is walking about, somewhat after the manner of certain opossums, and two litters are generally produced in the year. In addition to vegetable food, the Florida rat will also eat crawfish and frogs. There are several other genera belonging to the Cricetine subfamily which cannot be mentioned here. It may be observed, however, that Cricetines Hypogeomys, together with four other genera, are confined to Mada- gascar, where they are the sole representatives of the Rodents. THE AFRICAN CRESTED RAT Genus Lophiomys A rare and remarkable Rodent from Northeast Africa differs from the preceding Cricetines in certain features, which have been regarded as entitling it to rank as the 1300 THE RODENTS representative of a distinct family, but there can be little doubt that it is merely a highly-specialized member of the present group. The African crested rat (Lophio- mys imhausi) derives its name from the great crest of long, erectile hairs running down the back and tail, some of which are as much as three and one-half inches in length, and at their bases have a peculiar spongy structure. The tail is long and bushy, the limbs short, and the ears small. In the hind-foot the small front toe can be opposed to the others. The general color is blackish brown, but there is a large triangular white spot on the front of the head, and a white streak beneath each eye, while the tip of the tail is also of the same hue. Moreover, the long hairs of the body have only the middle portion dark colored, their two extremities being white. Internally, the crested rat differs from all other members of the family by its rudi- mentary collar bones, and also by the circumstance that the sides of the hinder part of the skull are completely roofed over with bone, as in a turtle. This Rodent in- habits the district of Shoa, and is doubtless arboreal, although nothing definite is known of its habits in a wild state. THE VOLES Genus Microtus * The voles, together with their near allies the lemmings and the musquash, con- stitute a group closely allied to the Cricetines, but distinguished by the peculiar characteristics of their molar teeth. Indeed, the voles and their allies are evidently nothing more than a specialized modification of the Crice- tine type, and it is more as a matter of convenience than from any well-founded distinctive characteristics that they are placed by themselves in a distinct subfamily. The whole group is characterized by the molar teeth being usually rootless or with imperfect roots, and composed of two longitudinal rows of alternately-arranged triangular prisms. These prisms, as shown in the accompanying figure, decrease in number from the first to the third tooth in each jaw, but are variable in number in the > <3|^> different species, and thus form a valuable aid in their (^^> discrimination. The tail of the voles is either short or of moderate length, and these Rodents are distinguished from the true rats and mice not only by this characteristic but likewise by their more corpulent form, their smaller eyes and ears, their more obtuse muzzles, and proportionately- shorter limbs. The subfamily has a wide distribution in the Northern Hemisphere, but is quite unknown in Asia south of the Himalayas, in the Malayan region, and in Africa and South America. It is connected with the Cricetine subfamily by a North- American genus known as Phenacomys, in which the molar teeth are furnished with roots. "The name Arvitola has been commonly applied to the voles, but by the rules of zoological nomenclature it has had to give place tc Microtus. CROWN SURFACE OF THE UPPER AND I, O W E R MOI.AR TEETH OF THE CHINESE VOI,E. (From Thomas.) THE VOLES 1301 The water vole, or, as it is commonly termed, the water rat (Microtus amphibius}, may be taken as a typical example of the widely- distributed group of voles, of which there are about half a hundred species, ranging from Britain through Europe to China, and thence eastward to North America. The genus is sufficiently characterized by the molars being rootless and the soles of the feet naked. From its diurnal habits and wide distribution the water vole is one of the best known of the indigenous British Mammals. In size it agrees approximately with the brown rat, the length of the head and body being about eight and one-fourth inches, and that of the tail slightly more than half as much again. The fur is dense and shining, and of a full reddish-brown color mingled with gray above and yellow- THE WATER VOLE. (Two-thirds natural size. ) ish gray below. The feet are not webbed and the tail is hairy. The number of the prisms in the molar teeth are different from those in the smaller British voles, but since the species is sufficiently distinguished by its superior size, it will be un- necessary to enter into the consideration of this point. A black variety of the water vole is sometimes met with. The water vole has a wide distribution, extending from England in the west to China in the east, and occurring throughout continental Europe. Curiously enough, however, it is unknown in Ireland, where the other two species of British voles are likewise wanting. Every English brook and river is tenanted by the water vole, whose long bur- rows in the banks are sometimes a source of considerable inconvenience to the agriculturist. The burrows are, however, by no means confined to the banks of 1302 THE RODENTS livers, being not ttnfrequent in water meadows, and occasionally in plowed fields at a considerable distance from the water. Although the water vole has been accused of carnivorous propensities, it is very doubtful if the charge can be sub- stantiated. Its favorite food in summer appears to be the sweet inner pith of certain kinds of water flags, but it will also eat many other aquatic plants, such as duck- weed and horsetails. In winter, when hard pressed for food, the water vole turns its attention to the bark of trees and shrubs, and at this season frequently inflicts very serious damage on osier plantations. In cultivated districts it will also then readily eat mangold, turnips, potatoes, etc. When feeding upon duckweed, Bell says that " the creature sits, like a squirrel, on its haunches, near the water's edge, and, taking up a lump of the soft and slimy-looking mass in its fore-paws, eats a small part only, and, letting the remainder fall, takes up some more, which is similarly treated and rejected." In May or June, and occasionally as early as April, the female gives birth to five or six young in the depths of its burrow, and it is probable that when the litter is produced early in the spring, a second one follows during the summer. When their holes are rendered inaccessible by frost, water voles are found to take shelter on shore, sometimes frequenting the cover afforded by an osier bed, and on other occasions taking refuge in pollard willows. In spite of its feet not being webbed, the water vole is an expert swimmer and diver, and its coat is of a such a nature as to throw off the water as readily as does the plumage of a duck. Fossil remains of the water vole are found in the cavern deposits of England, and also in the "forest bed" of the Norfolk coast, while those of extinct species of the genus to which it belongs, occur in the Pliocene crag deposits of Suffolk and Essex. In addition to the water vole, the British Islands (exclusive of Ire- Short-Tailed * A\ ,1 r ,, - land) possess two other species of the same genus, the commonest of which is the the short-tailed field vole, or field mouse (M. agrestis). This species is about the size of an ordinary mouse, and is grayish brown in color above, and grayish white beneath, with dusky feet; the tail being about one-third the length of the body, while the under surfaces of the hind-feet have six naked pads. It is specially characterized by the circumstance that the second molar tooth in the upper jaw has five prisms. This character, unimportant as it may seem, serves to distinguish this species from the continental field vole {M. arvalis} — repre- sented in the accompanying illustration — in which, in common with the other con- tinental short-tailed members of the genus, the corresponding tooth has but four such prisms. The common short-tailed field vole is found all over England and Scotland, as well as the greater part of the Continent; its range extending from the north of Italy to Finland, and from Spain and France to Russia; but in the southern portion of its habitat it is less numerous than the continental field vole. The English species is commonly found in meadows — especially those where the ground is moist, and makes extensive runs beneath the grass, in which it roams both by night and day, although it is more active during the dark hours. In addition to these runs the field vole also constructs burrows of considerable size. The food of this species consists of seeds, roots, and herbage of all kinds. In gardens it displays an THE VOLES 1303 especial taste for the bulbs of crocuses and newly-sown peas and beans, among which it frequently does great damage. In winter, when other food is scarce, the field vole will not unfrequently ascend trees to feed upon their bark. It is also by no means averse to a diet of insects and flesh. The field vole is an unusually prolific animal, producing from three to four lit- ters in a year, and each litter containing from four to six young. The nest in \vhich these are born is composed of moss and leaves, and is usually placed beneath a tus- sock of grass in some slight hollow in the ground. The most remarkable peculiarity in connection with this field vole is the swarms in which it occasionally makes its appearance in various parts of the country. According to Mr. J. E. Harting, one such " mice plague " appeared in 1580 in Essex, a second visited Hampshire and Gloucestershire during 1813-14, while a THE CONTINENTAL FIELD VOLE. (Two-thirds natural size.) third was recorded in Wensleydale which lasted from 1874 to 1876. In the second of these visitations, upward of thirty thousand voles were destroyed in the Forest of Dean, and eleven thousand five hundred in the New Forest. Quite recently (1892), another such plague has made its appearance in the south of Scotland, especially in parts of Dumfriesshire and Roxburgh; the area over which the voles extended being estimated at from eighty thousand to ninety thousand acres. The mildness of the winter of 1890—91, coupled with the scarcity of owls, kestrels, and weasels (due to the overzeal of gamekeepers), are supposed to have been the inducing cause of this last visitation. It is reported, however, that, as on similar occasions, numbers of owls arrived in the affected districts for the purpose of preying on the voles, which by the end of 1893 had well-nigh disappeared. The habits of the continental field vole are similar to those of the English spe- cies. It is stated, however, to be even a more prolific animal, the number of young 1304 THE RODENTS varying from four to eight, while as many as six different litters may be produced in a single season. Moreover, it is probable that the young produced in the spring will themselves be parents in the following autumn. On the Continent the plagues of voles are even more serious than in England. Thus, according to Brehm, during a visitation of these animals which took place in Germany in the year 1822, up- ward of 1,570,000 were taken in one district, 590,327 in another, and 271,941 in a third. Again, in the summer of 1861, a total of 409,523 voles were taken in a single district of Rhine- Hessen. The third species of the genus in Britain is the bank vole ( M. glare- olus) , which may be distinguished externally from the field vole by the color of the back inclining more or less markedly to rufous, and also by its THE ALPINE VOLE. (Two-thirds natural size.) larger ears, and proportionately- longer tail, which is equal to half the length of the head and body, The molar teeth differ from those of the field vole not only by the circumstance that in the second one of the upper jaw there are but four prisms, but also in that in the adult state these teeth form imperfect roots. The whole propor- tions of the bank vole are more elegant than those of the field vole, while the fur is more smooth and glossy, the coloration more brilliant, and the eye larger. It is found locally over England and parts of Scotland, as far north as Morayshire, while abroad it ranges from France across Asia to China. Its general habits are the same as those of the field vole, but it' is said to be more generally found in sheltered situ- ations, and is especially fond of visiting gardens. There is, however, a great probability that both the bank vole and the red- backed vole (M. gapperi} of North America, are merely local varieties of the Arctic THE LEMMINGS 1305 vole (M. rutilus}, which inhabits the circumpolar regions of both Hemispheres; their differences in coloration being merely such as might well be due to the varying climatic conditions of the countries they severally inhabit. The Alpine vole (M. nivalis), which is the last species to which we refer at any length, is interesting on account of the elevated regions forming its habitat. It is a small species with a relatively-long tail; the total length being about seven inches, of which slightly more than half is taken up by the tail. The ears are large, and the number of prisms in the first upper molar tooth is the same as in the water vole. The color varies from brownish gray above and grayish white beneath to pure white. This species has an exceedingly-limited distribution, being confined to the Alps and Pyrenees, where it ranges from an elevation of about four thousand feet to the limits of perpetual snow. It is, indeed, most abundant near the snow line, above which it also sometimes wanders in search of the scanty vegetation which exists at such altitudes. Not only is the Alpine vole found in these dreary regions during the short season when the ground is more or less free from snow, but it likewise remains there from year's end to year's end. Accordingly, for upward of nine or ten months of the year, it lives beneath a deep pall of snow. Here it makes regular runs, along which it travels in search of food when the supply hoarded for winter use becomes exhausted. No other known Mammal leads a similar existence. The list of species of voles being almost endless, space only permits Other Species ~ c . . ,. . A _ __ ^, or passing reterences to a few of the more interesting. In North America the commonest species is the meadow vole (M. riparius), which in the northern regions during the winter abandons its frozen burrows and forms nests on the surface of the ground, which soon become buried in the snow. The heat of the little animal inside melts and cakes the surrounding snow, which thus forms a continually-increasing dome-shaped mass around the nest. The root vole ( M. cecono- mus) of Siberia and Kamchatka, is interesting on account of the large stores of food it accumulates in its burrows, and likewise on account of its migratory habits, which resemble those of the lemming. Numerous voles occur in the Himalayas, Tibet, and Central Asia; the earliest described Himalayan species being Royle's vole (M. roylei). THE LEMMINGS Genus Myodes Closely related to the voles are the lemmings, of which one species, commonly known as the Norwegian lemming {Myodes lemmus) , inhabits the mountains of the Scandinavian Peninsula and thence northward to Cape North, while the second is confined to North America. Lemmings are distinguished from voles by their heavier build, more convex and obtusely-snouted head, extremely-short tail and by the soles of the small feet being covered with hair. They have also longer claws, thicker fur, and very small ears; while there are likewise important differences in the structure of the skull and teeth. There is considerable individual variation in 1306 THE RODENTS regard to size and coloration in the Norwegian lemming. Usually, however, its length is about five inches; while the general color of the fur is yellowish brown, darker above than below, more or less spotted and streaked with blackish brown. Lemmings are the most abundant Rodents found in Norway, and they have always attracted great interest from the circumstance, that at certain intervals countless swarms descend from the mountains to the cultivated plains, and thence make their way, apparently under the influence of some blind impetus, to the sea, into the waters of which they boldly plunge to meet a death by drowning. In the course of such migrations, the lemmings take a straight line across country, swimming rivers or lakes, climbing mountains, and eating their way through fields of corn or grass, and thus leaving a track of desolation in their rear. The line of march is marked by flights of predaceous birds hovering above the hosts; the flanks and rear of the army being harassed by four-footed foes, who, however, at first make but little apparent diminution in its numbers. Disease also claims its victims, and from these combined attacks, the numbers which eventually reach the sea, sometimes after an interval of from one to three years from the time of starting, form but a small minority of the original swarm. In general appearance, lemmings look not unlike small marmots or hamsters, and they resemble the latter to a considerable extent in their mode of life. Although in Finmark they occur at the sea level, in the more southern parts of Scandinavia they are found only high up in the mountains above the level of firs, in the belt clothed with birch and juniper. Here they select dry spots in the swampy ground, making their shallow burrows either beneath stones or in the peaty soil. Generally they do not form well-marked tracks from one hole to another, except when the ground is covered with snow. They are on the move by day as well as by night. Except when migrating, lemmings show a great aversion to water, always selecting the driest portions of the swamps, and if forced to enter a river manifesting their dislike by squeaks and grunts. Generally they sit quietly during the day, in or near the entrances of the burrows, but should a human being appear on the scene, they at once become violently excited, raising themselves up on their hind-quarters, and squeaking, as if to warn him off from their territories, while their gestures are such as to give the impression that they are about to attack the intruder. Indeed, they will sometimes bite vigorously at the trousers of any person who approaches too close to their holes. The squeaks and grunts uttered on such occasions by the lemmings are said to closely resemble those of guinea pigs. In the winter, they form large nests in their tunnels through the snow, which are exposed to view when it melts; several tunnels radiating from each nest, which are formed partly in the peat and partly in the snow. The chief food of the lemming in its native haunts consists of grass, reindeer moss, the catkins of the birch, and probably various descriptions of roots. It appears that the young are born in the nests, which are usually made of dry grass with a lining of hair, and that there are usually from five to six young in a litter. It is considered by Brehm that there is probably more than one litter in a season; but precise information as to the breeding habits of these creatures is still a desideratum. THE LEMMINGS 1307 It is probable that the periodical migrations of the lemmings are induced by a scarcity of food. Brehm remarks that if an early spring following a wild winter is succeeded by a hot and dry summer, everything will be favorable for an un- wonted increase in the number of these animals. The dry summer will, however, equally tend to diminish the quantity of vegetation available for their support, and, accordingly, a migration to more fertile regions will be rendered necessary. Why, however, the migration should be continued in this extraordinary manner is a question which has not yet received a satisfactory answer. The number of lem- mings taking part in a migration has been estimated at many millions, and on such r NORWEGIAN LEMMINGS MIGRATING. (One-half natural size.) occasions every bush and every rock or large stone has a lemming hiding under it, while sometimes even the towns swarm with these creatures. Not only do the lemmings attempt to swim rivers and lakes which are too wide for them to cross, but, writes Mr. T. T. Somerville, "they tumble into holes, wells, and brooks, the sides of which are too steep for them to scramble out of again, so that frequently people are at a loss to obtain water that is not polluted by their bodies. Doubt- less this accounts for an epidemic popularly termed ' lemming fever,' that is said to prevail after the migration, and which is described as resembling ordinary typhoid. ' ' 1308 THE RODENTS THE BANDED LEMMING Genus Cuniculus The banded lemming {Cuniculus torquatus}, from the circumpolar regions of both Hemispheres, differs in several important points from the true lemmings, and is accordingly referred to a distinct genus. Externally it is distinguished by the ab- sence of conchs to the ear, the shorter and more thickly-formed feet, the practical loss of the first toe of the fore-foot, which has only a rudimental nail, and also by the great length of the claws of the third and fourth toes in the same limb. The molar teeth are more like those of the voles than in the case of the true lemmings, but the first of these teeth in the upper jaw is peculiar in having seven distinct prisms. The banded lemming is so variable in coloration as almost to defy descrip- tion. It may be said, however, in general that the fur of the upper parts presents a kind of ' ' watered ' ' appearance, owing to the intimate mingling of chestnut, rufous, black, gray, and tawny; the under parts being leaden gray. Usually a more or less distinct black line runs along the back from the muzzle to the tail, while there may be a grayish color on the nape of the neck. The habits of the banded lemming are probably very similar to those of the other species, although it does not undertake similar periodical migrations to the same extent. Baron Nordenskjold states that there are no lemmings in Spitzbergen, but that they must be exceedingly numerous at certain seasons in Nova Zembla, where, in early summer, the grass is seen to be traversed in all directions by the tracks made by these animals beneath the snow. It is interesting to note that remains of both the Norwegian and the banded lemming have been found in the Pleistocene deposits of Lemmings Britain, apparently indicating the prevalence of different climatic con- ditions to those of the present age. THE MUSQUASH Genus Fiber The musquash, or muskrat (Fiber zibethicus), is a North- American species, considerably exceeding in size all other members of the Vole subfamily. Although resembling a vole in its general external appearance, as well as in the structure of its molar teeth and skull, the musquash differs by its compressed and proportionately-longer tail, of which the length is nearly equal to that of the body, exclusive of the head. In addition to its compressed form, the tail is also charac- terized by being nearly naked, and covered with scales. The feet, which are partially webbed, differ from those of the voles in having their soles entirely naked. The musquash is a massively-built animal, with the head and body attaining a length of about a foot, and the tail about ten inches. The head is unusually wide and not separated from the body by any distinctly-constricted neck; while the eyes are relatively small, and the ears scarcely project above the fur. With the exception of THE MUSQUASH 1309 the small area immediately surrounding the nostrils, the muzzle is completely covered with hair. The limbs are short, with the first toe rudimentary in the front pair, although well developed in the hinder. The compressed form of the tail is in- creased by the presence of a line of hairs on both its upper and lower surfaces. The fur, of which the general color is blackish brown, passing into gray on the muzzle and under parts, has the soft and velvety texture of that of the beaver. It is, how- ever, mostly shorter than in the latter, although on the back and flanks there are in- terspersed a number of longer bristle-like hairs. The geographical range of the musquash is large, extending from Distribution ^ so.called barren grounds of Arctic America to the genial climate of and Habits ^e Rio Qrande> while it aiso reaches from the Atlantic to the Pacific. THE MUSQUASH. (One-third natural size.) Muskrats are thoroughly adapted for an aquatic life, and generally frequent ponds, swamps, and sluggish streams. Although their food consists mainly of the roots of grasses and water plants, they consume considerable quantities of river mus- sels; they will likewise catch and eat fish,* while they are said at times to devour the flesh of such individuals of their own species as they may find dead, or wounded and helpless. Occasionally they wander considerable distances from the water, and Dr. Merriam relates an instance where two of these creatures were discovered comforta- bly ensconced beneath the hearthstone of a room. The musquash is an excellent diver, being able to remain below the surface of the water for a considerable time. It is much less strictly nocturnal in habits than the beaver, and may be frequently observed swimming about in broad daylight, more especially if the sky be overcast. In leaping into the water to dive, it makes a loud noise by striking the flat tail against the surface. The long burrow always has its entrance beneath the surface of the water, from which it inclines upward in 1 3 io THE RODENTS the bank for a distance of from ten to fifteen feet, when it expands into a large chamber, in which may be a nest. Usually one or more galleries lead from this chamber further into the bank. In certain districts where the water is deep these animals in the autumn sometimes collect large heaps of vegetable matter in the form of haycocks. Such heaps are known as "muskrat huts" or "houses." After mentioning that some of those built in the water attain enormous dimensions, Dr. Merriam observes that ' ' the summit of the structure is commonly high enough out of water to admit of an air chamber within, which communicates with the out- side world by means of a hole through the centre of the mass, the entrance or entrances being under water. Many of the houses contain no mud or sticks, but consist wholly of balls and knots of roots and swamp grasses. It seems clear that the animals make no attempt to construct a dwelling of any particular shape, but merely heap the materials together without plan or order, the resulting mound nat- urally assuming, in a general way, the form of a flattened cone. . . . The materials of which the hut are composed, it will be observed, are such as serve as food for the animals during the long winters; hence the muskrat' s house is in re- ality a storehouse, which he devours piecemeal as the winter advances." The nest is usually placed in a burrow in the bank, although occasionally in the aforesaid hut. Here from five to nine blind and naked young are produced at a birth, and it is reported that there may be as many as three litters in the course of a season. Although not of much value, the fur of the musquash is much used, both in America and Europe. According to Mr. Poland, from three to four million skins come into the market annually; the Hudson's Bay Company alone having sold over half a million in 1891. Dr. Merriam states that although the flesh of the musquash is red and rather flabby, yet that, failing other meat, it is eatable. THE MOLE-LIKE VOLES Genera Ellobius and Siphneus Certain representatives of the vole group are specially adapted for a subterranean mole-like life, and, therefore, differ considerably from the other forms, although they retain the ordinary type of molar teeth. In form they are characterized by the blunt and rounded head passing imperceptibly into the cylindrical mole-like body, the absence of external ears, the short tail and limbs, and the broad feet, each pro- vided with five claws. The incisor teeth project considerably, and their enamel is usually white, instead of having the yellow or orange tinge so prevalent among the ordinary voles. These mole-like voles, of which there are but few species, are mainly confined to Central and Northern Asia, although one species ranges as far south as Afghanistan and Quetta, and another extends into Eastern Europe. They are divided into two genera, according as to whether the claws of the fore-feet are short or long; Ellobius including the short-clawed and Siphneus the long-clawed species. The so-called THE RATS AND MICE 1311 Quetta vole (E. fusricapillus] is about five inches in total length, of which half an inch is occupied by the tail. It is brownish white above, with the exception of the grayish- brown head, while the under parts, feet, and tail are white; the fur being long and soft. -It is reported to construct horizontal galleries in the ground, with heaps of earth thrown up at intervals, after the fashion of the mole. THE RATS AND MICE Genus Mus The true rats and mice, together with certain allied forms referred to distinct genera, are the representatives of the last subfamily of the Muridce, which is ex- clusively confined to the Old World. They are primarily characteri/.ed by the crowns of the unworn upper molar teeth carrying a number of tubercles arranged in three longitudinal rows; these teeth always having distinct roots. When worn by use, the crowns of the molars exhibit transverse bands of enamel. The tail is always long and scaly, and in most cases almost destitute of hair. Moreover, the ears are large, and the eyes bright and prominent, while the muzzle is sharply pointed, and the build light and elegant. Their movements are quick, active, and graceful, and their coloration is in most cases uniform and sombre, as would naturally be expected from the nocturnal and burrowing habits of the majority of the species. The Murine subfamily includes a considerable number of species, by far the greater majority of which are comprised in the genus Mus. That genus is character- ized by the incisor teeth being smooth, and the molars distinctly tuberculated. The ears and eyes are proportionately large, and the tip of the muzzle is naked, while the tail is long and scaly. The first toe of the fore-foot has a short nail in lieu of a- claw, and the fur is soft, although in some cases intermingled with spines. The genus is the largest in the whole Mammalian class, comprising not far short of a hundred and fifty species, which are distributed over the whole of the Old World with the exception of Madagascar; some of these, by human aid, having now acquired a cosmopolitan range. With such a multitude of species, it is of course only possible to allude to a few of the more interesting. The brown or, as it is often inappropriately called, the Norway rat (M. decumanus}, offers one of the most remarkable instances of a suc- cessful usurpation to be found in the animal kingdom; this creature having ousted the black rat from most parts of England and a large area on the Continent. So far as can be ascertained, its original home appears to have been Western China, from whence it gradually traveled westward to continental Europe, finally reaching the shores of the British Islands by the involuntary aid of ships. Its westerly migration was, however, by no means limited to Europe, as it has been carried by vessels across the Atlantic, and is now as abundant in many parts of North America as it is in the Old World. The migration of the rat into Russia is known to have taken place about 1727, in which year large troops of these animals crossed the Volga 1312 THE RODENTS from Central Asia, and made their way westward. In Paris it appeared about the middle of the eighteen century, and it is generally supposed to have first reached England in 1730. In appearance the brown rat is unfortunately too well known to need much description, although it is advisable to point out the features by which it is dis- tinguished from its cousin the black rat. In form this species is characterized by its heavy build, massive blunt muzzle, comparatively-small ears, and relatively-short tail; the length of the tail being always less than that of the head and body (eight to nine inches), and usually not exceeding that of the body alone. The color of the upper parts is usually grayish brown, while the under surface is white, but black Jfl'l Habits THE BROWN RAT. (One-half natural size. ) varieties are often met with, which in Ireland have been regarded as indicating a dis- tinct species. The brown rat is a far more powerful animal than the black species, which has not a chance against its stronger rival, although curiously enough it is stated that on some ships the two kinds may be found living together. The following anecdote, related by the late Mr. Frank Buckland, illustrates in a striking manner the superior power and at the same time the extreme ferocity of the brown rat. "A London rat catcher," writes the narrator, " shut up together in a cage the result of his day's work, consisting of several dozen rats, of both species, and put them away carefully for the night, their intended fate being to afford sport for his employer's dogs the next morning. What was his astonishment when he THE RATS AND MICE 1313 came to fetch them, to find none but brown rats remaining, these cannibals having cruelly devoured all their sable brethren. ' ' Rats are practically omnivorous in their diet, devouring every kind of human food with avidity, and inflicting untold damage on the henroost, the dovecot, and the rabbit warren. Their devastations to corn ricks, or to grain stored in in- sufficiently-protected granaries, are too well known to need more than passing mention. Not only will they, as in the instance recorded above, prey on their cousin the black rat, but they will likewise slay and devour members of their own kind which have been caught in traps or otherwise disabled. In robbing poultry houses, it is a well-ascertained fact that rats will convey the eggs in an unbroken condition for considerable distances, although it is not yet known how this diffi- THE BI,ACE: RAT. (Two-thirds natural size.) cult feat is accomplished. The partiality of these animals for fish is well known, but that they will occasionally catch young eels for themselves has been only recently discovered. Mr. Harting adds that snails — both land and fresh-water — also form a part of their diet; while on the seacoast they will eat prawns and other crustaceans. The prolific nature of the brown rat is little short of marvelous, and thoroughly accounts for its enormous numbers when in favorable situations. Several litters are produced annually, each of which generally contains from eight to ten, and some- times as many as twelve or fourteen young; and a female rat will breed when only half grown, although the number of its progeny is then but three or four at a birth. When these animals obtain access to small islands inhabited by sea-birds or rabbits, 111—83 1 3 14 THE RODENTS the abundant food soon leads to a prodigious increase in their numbers; but sooner or later they practically exterminate the indigenous inhabitants, and then have to seek a more precarious livelihood by preying upon the crustaceans and mollusks on the shores. Some years ago the number of rats in the slaughter houses around Paris was so great, that as many as 2,650 were killed in a single night, and over 16,000 within a month. Rats, impelled by scarcity of provisions, at times make migrations in large bodies — generally, or always during the night; and on such journeys they will not hesitate to plunge boldly into and swim over such rivers as may come in their way; and it is related that instances have occurred of their being suddenly hemmed in during such voyages by a rapid formation of ice. Some years ago the rats that fre- quented the London Zoological Gardens were in the habit of regularly swimming to and fro across the Regent's canal. When brought to bay, the ferocity with which a rat will defend itself against a human or canine foe, is known to most persons. When pressed by hunger, rats will, however, occasionally attack human beings without provocation; and it is on record that an unfortunate man on entering a coal- pit which had been closed for some time, was actually killed and devoured by a starving host of rats. The black rat (Af. rattus) is smaller and more elegantly built than the brown, with a longer and thinner tail; the length of the head and body being about .seven inches, while that of the tail varies from eight to nine inches. Its snout, moreover, is longer and more slender, projecting to a greater distance beyond the lower jaw, while its ears are considerably larger. In Europe the black rat, as its name implies, generally has fur of a deep bluish-black color; but in India and other parts of the east there are varieties, in one of which the tint is usually brown above and white below, while in a second the hue is rufous or yel- lowish brown, and spines are mingled with the fur. When domesticated, white and pied varieties are readily produced, and most of the rats thus colored which are exhibited by showmen, belong to this species. In one of the Indian varieties the length of the head and body is not more than five inches, while in another it reaches eight inches. The black rat is very commonly spoken of as the indigenous British Distribution d H b't sPeclesI this, however, is incorrect, as this rat was also introduced from the East, although at a much earlier date than its brown cousin. The exact date of its arrival in Europe cannot, however, now be determined, although it is known to have existed on the Continent in the thirteenth century. At the present day the European variety of this species is almost cosmopolitan; but the brown and rufous varieties extend from Northern Africa through India to Burma, and are doubtless indigenous to both these regions. The black rat, in addition to its inferior size, is a far less ferocious animal than the brown species, which accounts for the ease with which it has been conquered by the latter. In England it is now comparatively rare, the Isle of Dogs being one of its last strongholds; but it is more common in certain parts of the Continent. In Europe its habits are generally very similar to those of the brown rat; but in India it frequently ascends trees, where it makes its nests among the branches, while in THE RATS AND MICE 1315 House Mouse some of the islands of the tropics it lives exclusively in the crowns of the cocoanut palm, upon the fruit of which it feeds. In Britain, from the absence of any species of intermediate size, it is easy to distinguish between the rats, or larger species of the genus, and the smaller mice; but in other countries it is impossible to draw any line of distinction, and the two terms must consequently be employed in a somewhat arbi- trary manner. The typical representative of the mice is the common house mouse (M. musculus), which is now of almost world-wide distribution, altnough probably originally a native of Asia. The characteristic features of this species are its rela- THE HOUSE M.OUSE. (Four-fifths natural size.) tively large ears, long tail, and nearly uniform brownish coloration, which is only slightly paler below than above. The distinctive peculiarity of this species is its partiality for human habitations and their neighborhood; its tastes being practically omnivorous, although its chief food consists of grain and other vegetable articles of human consumption. It is noteworthy that in corn-stacks rats and mice live in perfect harmony together without any trace of that mutual antipathy existing between the brown and the black rat. This mouse is nearly as prolific as the brown rat, producing from three to five litters in a year, each of which includes from four to eight blind young. In habits, the house mouse is more active than most of its kindred, being able to ascend vertical walls with ease, and also having the power of springing to 1316 THE RODENTS considerable distances. In domestication, white and pied breeds of this species are common. This mouse exhibits a peculiar susceptibility to musical sounds, to which it listens with marked attention. Occasionally, in common with other members of the family, individuals of this species are endowed with considerable vocal powers. A lady writes that although the song of one of these ' ' singing mice ' ' was not very effective, yet it was a distinct vocal effort. Sometimes the mouse in her possession ' ' would run up an octave, and end with a decided attempt at a trill. Sometimes it would try to trill up all the notes. An octave seemed to be about its. range. I could distinctly see the expansion and vibration of its throat and chest as one can in a song bird. Its favorite position when singing was an erect one, standing on its hind- feet." Since the term "field mice" is popularly applied to the voles as Long-Tailed wejj as to tjie true mjce) ft is necessary to prefix the epithet " long- _.ie tailed ' ' to the common British species (M. sylvaticus) of the present genus. This field mouse is rather larger than the field vole, from which it can be distinguished at a glance by its lighter build, longer and more pointed muzzle, much larger ears, and greatly elongated tail, which is nearly equal in length to the head and body. The general color of the fur is reddish gray above, and whitish beneath, with a spot of light brown on the chest. This species is com- mon in many parts of England, and is also widely distributed over the temperate regions of Europe, while . eastward it is replaced by the closely allied Persian field mouse, ranging from Persia over a large portion of Central Asia. This field mouse is generally found in England in gardens, hedgerows, and cornfields, but in winter it sometimes takes shelter in houses, while it also frequents corn-stacks, although in less numbers than the house mouse. It commonly burrows in the ground, and lays up large stores of food for winter use, whole handfuls of corn, nuts, or seeds being sometimes discovered in these subterranean retreats. Since these mice are exceedingly prolific, the amount of damage they sometimes do to cornfields and gardens is almost incalculable; and additional harm is fre- quently effected by pigs in their search after the concealed hordes of these little Rodents. The elegant little creature of which a group is represented in the colored Plate is the most beautiful, and also almost the smallest of the British mammals; the one inferior to it in point of size being the pygmy shrew. The harvest mouse (M. minutus), as the creature is called, was first dis- covered in England by Gilbert White, of Selborne, and is so small that its weight is only about one-sixth of an ounce; the total length being about four and one-half inches, of which nearly one-half is taken up by the tail. The ears and tail are pro- portionately rather small, and the color of the fur is yellowish red above and white beneath. The harvest mouse, although local, is widely distributed in the British Islands, and extends over the greater part of Europe, ranging eastward through Russia into Siberia, and occurring as far south as the north of Italy. This species usually keeps far away from human habitations, frequenting cornfields and pastures; but is 1 HARVEST MOUSE THE RATS AND MICE 1317 often carried home with corn sheaves, and then spends the winter in the rick where they are deposited. In the latter situations, the harvest mouse remains active throughout the year, but when living in the open fields it constructs a burrow in which to pass the winter months in a state of torpor. The summer nest is a glob- ular structure of grass and leaves suspended among the cornstalks at some distance from the ground; and when ascending or descending the stems to reach this nest, or in search of food, the little creatures are much aided by their prehensile tails. No better description of this nest exists than the one given by White, which, although often quoted, will bear one more repetition. He writes that the structure was " most artificially platted, and composed of the blades of wheat; perfectly round and about the size of a cricket ball, with the aperture so ingeniously closed that there was no THE BARBARY MOUSE. (Natural size.) discovering to what part it belonged. It was so compact and well filled that it would roll across the table without being discomposed, though it contained eight little mice that \vere naked and blind. ' ' The number in a litter varies from five to eight or nine, and it is probable that there are several broods in the course of a summer. The numbers of the species are, however, kept down by the hosts of pre- daceous birds and small carnivorous Mammals that make it their prey. I/ike the long-tailed field mouse, the present species is partly insectivorous in its diet. Mr. Harting states that he has several times kept harvest mice in captivity, and suc- ceeded in rearing their young to maturity. He describes them as charming little pets, allowing themselves to be handled without making any attempts to bite, and readily taking food from the hand. 1318 THE RODENTS The only other species of the genus Mus that can be noticed here Other Species **_•!.• 1 i_ 1 t are two, one of which is remarkable for its coloration, and the other on account of its habits. The Barbary striped mouse (M. barbarus] is the most strikingly colored member of the group, the ground color of the fur of the upper parts being a yellowish brown, upon which are a number of longitudinal blackish- brown stripes, the under parts being pure white. This mouse inhabits Northern and Central Africa, being especially common in the Atlas mountains, and also occurs in the desert regions of the interior as far as Kordofan. There appears to be nothing worthy of special note in its habits. The Australian brown-footed rat (M. fuscipes) is remarkable as being nearly or quite as aquatic in its habits as the water vole. THE BANDICOOT RATS Genus Nesocia The bandicoot rats of Southern Asia differ from ordinary rats in the much greater width of their incisor and molar teeth, and also by the tubercles on the crowns of the latter being so completely connected as to form transverse ridges. Members of the genus extend from Palestine to Formosa, and from Ceylon to Cen- tral Asia; but they are most abundant in India and the adjacent regions. The great Indian bandicoot rat (Nesocia bandicota) is the largest member of the sub- family, measuring from twelve to fifteen inches from the tip of the snout to the root of the tail, and weighing between two and one-half and three pounds. It is com- mon in cultivated districts and near human dwellings in most parts of India, although unknown in Lower Bengal. It is a burrower, like other species of the same genus, some of which turn up mounds of earth like mole hills. When dis- turbed, this rat utters grunts like a pig; but it has far less pluck than the brown rat, and makes but a poor fight against a dog. OTHER GENERA There are about eleven other genera belonging to this family, of which a few of the more interesting may be briefly noticed. The bush rats (Golunda] are represented by one Indian and one African species, and are distinguished by the presence of a groove on the front of the upper incisor teeth. The length of the head and body in the Indian species (G. ellioti) is about four and one-half inches, and that of the tail half an inch less. The spiny mice (Acomys) , of which there are several species of the approximate size of the house mouse, are peculiar in having the hinder portion of the back covered with thick, rigid, grooved spines in lieu of hair, and thus look almost like minute hedgehogs. They are desert-loving creatures, ranging THE MOLE RATS 1319 from Syria to Eastern Africa as far south as Mozambique, while a single example of one of the species has been found in Sind. The sandy deserts of Australia are inhabited by certain elegant Jerboa Rats repreSentatives of the present group distinguished by their elongated hind-limbs, long ears and tail, and general jerboa-like appearance. Indeed, these jerboa rats (Hapalotis) seem to take the place of the true jerboas in the regions they inhabit. _. . A peculiar species from Tasmania, known as Ljchtenstein's rat Lichtenstem s Rat (Mastacomys) , differs from ordinary rats in the great width of the molar teeth, and also by the circumstance that the female has but four teats. It somewhat resembles the water vole in size and form, although the body is clothed with longer and softer hair. THE MOLE RATS Family SPALACID^& The strange-looking creature shown in the illustration on p. 1320 is the typical representative of a small family of Old- World Rodents, all of which are adapted for a purely subterranean mole-like life. Except for their large and projecting incisor teeth, which at once proclaim them members of the Rodent order, the mole rats have a general mole-like appearance, their eyes and external ears being small or rudimentary, the limbs short and provided with large and powerful claws, and the tail usually short or practically wanting, while the body is cylindrical and not marked off from the head by any distinct neck. Their molar teeth are furnished with roots, and have re-entering folds of enamel on their crowns, and premolars may or may not be present. It may be remarked here that the assumption of mole- like habits and a more or less mole-like bodily form is common to several groups of smaller Mammals. Thus, among the Insectivores, we have the true moles and the Cape golden mole; while in the Rodents we find mole-like forms in the mole voles in the present family, and also in the South- American tucutuco, belonging to the family Octodontida , described in the next chapter. The marsupial mole of Australia presents us with an example of the pouched Mammals, having a similar form and mode of life. t M 1 ^e £reat mo^e rat (Spalax typhlus), which is the only representa- Rat tive of its genus, is characterized by the absence of premolar teeth, by the minute eyes being completely covered with skin, and the rudi- mental wart-like ears. The fur is soft, and so arranged as to be reversible, by which means the movements of the animal in its burrow are much facilitated. The general color is yellowish brown tinged with ashy gray above, and ashy gray, mingled with spots and flecks of white, beneath. This species inhabits Southeastern Europe, whence it extends eastward to Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia, and also occurs in Lower Egypt. The great mole-rat constructs tunnels very much resembling those ilclDl tS of the mole, their course being marked by heaps of earth thrown out at intervals. But while the mole constructs its lengthy burrows for the sake of 1320 THE RODENTS feeding upon earthworms, the present species and its allies make their subterranean journeys in search of bulbs and roots. In Egypt, according to Dr. J. Anderson, the burrows of the mole rat are made in sandy soil containing quantities of bulbs of asphodels and hyacinths, upon which the creature feeds. The tunnels are of great extent and complexity, some of the passages being as much as thirty or forty yards in length, and are generally about eighteen inches below the surface. In certain spots the borings descend, however, to a depth of some four feet, and here some of them terminate in chambers packed full of bulbs, while others open out into sleep- ing apartments, from which secondary passages again radiate. Dr. Anderson states that " the tunnels are perfectly smooth and cylindrical, and in digging through the soil above them numerous bulbs of the same kind as those found in the storehouse were observed." When taken from its burrow, the first instinct of the animal is to- Bamboo Rats THE GREAT MOI,E RAT. (One-half natural size.) dig headlong into the soil; and when underground it is able to move with equal facility either backward or forward. In Northern India, Tibet, China, Burma, and the Malayan region, as well as in Abyssinia, the family is represented by a group of species, commonly known as bamboo rats (Rhizomys}, which differ from the preceding by the minute eyes not being covered with skin, as well as by the presence of small external naked ears, and of a short tail partially covered with hair. The bay bamboo rat (R. badius}, ranging from the Eastern Himalayas to Siam, is one of the best-known representatives of this genus, and attains a length of from seven to nine inches, exclusive of the tail, which is about two and one-half more. This species generally makes its burrows among tall rank grass, but sometimes at the roots of trees, and in their construction uses its teeth as well as its claws. There is some THE MOLE RATS 1321 doubt whether these animals drive tunnels in search of roots, as they are known to issue forth at night in order to feed on the young shoots of grass, and probably bamboo, but it is generally believed that they also eat roots. When above ground, they move slowly, and they are said to be so fearless or stupid as to allow themselves to be caught without resistance, although when taken they bite savagely and severely. From three to four young are produced at a birth. The hill tribes of Burma are in the habit of eating the flesh of these animals. The Sumatran bamboo rat (R. suma- trensis), ranging from Tenasserim to Siam, is a much larger species, measuring from fifteen to nineteen inches in length, exclusive of the tail. Remains of an extinct bamboo rat occur in the Pliocene rocks of the Siwalik hills at the foot of the Himalayas. Africa, south of the Sahara, is the habitat of several types of mole ap!_ rats differing from these above mentioned in the formation of the lower jaw, and also by the general presence of premolar teeth. At the Cape there are two species, one of which (Bathyergus maritimus) is nearly a foot in length, with the upper incisor teeth grooved, no external ears, and extremely powerful claws; the silky hair being of a light grayish-brown color. This second species (Georychus capensis) is about half the size of the former, with smooth upper incisors and weaker claws. The late Professor Moseley states that the strand mole (Bathyergus) , which is always found on the flats near the shore, constructs num- bers of tunnels and hillocks, the former of which are large enough to easily admit the hand and arm. On the other hand, the runs of the smaller species are gen- erally constructed on higher ground, although sometimes with those of the so-called strand mole. The hillocks constructed by the latter are generally about a foot in height; those freshly made being of a dark color. Professor Moseley writes that "one has not long to watch, standing a few yards off, before the .fresh heap is seen to heave up, three or four times in succession, as the strand mole -forces freshly scooped-out earth up into it from below. I tried at first shooting into the heap as it was thus heaving, in the hope of getting the mole, but never with any success. In order to shoot the worker, the earth should be quickly thrown back from the fresh heap, and the hole laid open to the air. One then has only to retire about ten paces and wait patiently. The strand mole does not like the fresh air, and in the course of five minutes or so comes back to fill up the hole, but usually puts its head out for a moment first to find what's up, though it certainly cannot see far with its minute eyes, which are not bigger than the heads of carpet pins, the whole eyeball when extracted being not bigger than a tenth of an inch in diameter. ' ' When trapped, the animal bites the air fiercely with its enormous front teeth, at the same time uttering a half-snarling, half-growling noise. Although there is but a single species of Bathyergus, there are several of Georychus in different parts of Africa. In addition to these there is an allied form, known as Myoscalops, characterized by having usually three pairs of premolar teeth in each jaw, in addition to the three molars. The sandy deserts of Somaliland and Shoa are inhabited by two Naked . _ , members of the present family, which are some of the most extraor- Sand Rats dinary-looking little creatures in existence. In size the naked sand rats (Heterocephalus) may be compared to a common mouse, but in appearance they 1322 THE RODENTS are likened by Mr. O. Thomas, on account of their nearly naked skin, small eyes, and peculiar physiognomy, to tiny hairless puppies. They have small heads, with projecting incisor teeth, and no external ears, while the limbs and tail are of moder- ate length. The eyes are almost functionless; and although the feet are fringed with hairs, the yellowish skin is almost naked, save for a few sparsely scattered hairs. One of the two species has three pairs of molar teeth in each jaw, while in the other there are but two. These sand rats are entirely subterranean in their habits. Mr. Lort Phillips states they throw up ' ' groups ' ' of miniature craters, which exactly represent volcanoes in active eruption. When the little beasts were at work I used frequently to watch them, and found that the loose earth from their excavations was brought to the bottom of the crater, and sent with great force into the air in a succession of rapid jerks, but they themselves never venture forth from the shelter of their burrows. ' ' THE AMERICAN POUCHED RATS Family GEOMTID^ The possession of large cheek pouches lined with hair, which open externally to the mouth at the lower edges of the cheeks, forms the distinctive peculiarity of a family of rat-like Rodents confined to the New World. The forms included in the family vary considerably in external appearance and habits; its larger and bur- rowing representatives being known as pocket gophers, while the smaller terres- trial types are respectively termed kangaroo rats and pocket mice. In addition to three pairs of molar teeth with transverse plates of enamel on their crowns, and which may or may not be rooted, all these Rodents have a single pair of premolar teeth in each jaw. Their skulls are characterized by the great twisting of each branch of the lower jaw, and likewise by the forward extension of the cheek bone. POCKET GOPHERS Genera Geomys and Thomomys The pocket gophers include large rat-like species, with burrowing habits, and are characterized by their small eyes, rudimental external ears, and the equality in length of their comparatively-short limbs. The whole of them are confined to North and Central America. The common pocket gopher (Geomys bursarius] is selected for illus- p , . tration as the best-known representative of the group, and as being Gopher tne *yPe °f t^16 genus Geomys, characterized by the presence of a deep groove on each of the broad incisor teeth. This species attains a length of from seven to eight inches from the muzzle to the root of the tail, while the hairy tail itself varies from two to three inches. The fur is of a soft and mole-like texture, and of a beautiful reddish-brown color above, becoming grayish beneath, while on the feet, and generally also on the tail, it is white. POCKET GOPHERS 1323 The pocket gopher is an inhabitant of the extensive plains of the valley of the Mississippi and its tributaries, extending somewhat beyond these limits to the north- ward. Here it lives a mole-like life, constructing subterranean tunnels and throw- ing up at intervals conical heaps of earth, after the fashion of the " little gentleman in black velvet. ' ' The tunnels generally run at a distance of about a foot below the surface; but sometimes, as when passing beneath a garden path, they descend deeper. They are driven for the purpose of obtaining access to the roots of plants on which these animals chiefly subsist. The tunnels generally communicate with one another by cross passages; and in a certain spot — generally beneath the roots THE COMMON POCKET GOPHER. (One-half natural size. ) of some large tree — the animal sinks a deep shaft, at the termination of which is constructed a dwelling chamber. This chamber is generally as much as from four to five feet below the surface, and is entered by a tortuous passage. It is of large size, and generally lined with soft grass, upon which the owner reposes. The nest of the female is constructed in a similar chamber, which is, however, encircled by a horizontal gallery, after the manner of the residential chamber of the mole. Here in the latter part of March or beginning of April are produced from five to seven young; their nest consisting partly of soft fur from the body of the mother. Gen- erally a passage proceeds from one side of the nest chamber to a store chamber, which is filled with roots, nuts, and seeds — in cultivated districts potatoes 1324 THE RODENTS often forming a large proportion of its contents. The food is said to be carried tc* this storehouse in the capacious cheek pouches of the animal. Usually the pocket gopher works at its tunnels or domicile from about four to ten o'clock in the morn- ing, during which time it excavates from twelve to twenty feet of tunneling, and will throw up from two to five hillocks. Other species of pocket gophers belonging to this genus are found in the Southern United States, Mexico, and Central America. The northern pocket gopher ( Thomomys talpoides) is the best- known representative of the second genus, containing at least two spe- cies, and distinguished by the absence of grooves in the upper incisor teeth. This species measures from six to eight inches in length, and the tail some three inches more; while its general color is very similar to that of the Northern Pocket Gopher THE COMMON KANGAROO RAT. (One-half natural size.) brown rat. The animals of this genus are distributed over the whole of Canada and" North America west of the Rocky mountains. In habits they precisely resemble the preceding genus. THE KANGAROO RATS Genus Dipodomys The kangaroo rats and their smaller allies the pocket mice are utterly unlike the pocket gophers in external appearance, having elongated hind-limbs and tails, large eyes, and well-developed ears, while their habits resemble those of the jerboas. They agree, however, with the former in the possession of large external cheek THE POCKET MICE 1325 pouches, and their general internal structure, although their upper incisor teeth are proportionately much narrower, and there are certain peculiarities in the conforma- tion of the skull. The kangaroo rats are characterized by the molar teeth being root- Common iesS) an(j their best-known representative is the common species (Di- 0 podomys phillipsi} depicted in our illustration, which inhabits the desert regions to the eastward of the Rocky mountains, and is charac- terized by the possession of four toes on the hind-feet. The head and body of this animal measure a little over four inches in length; while the tail is very long and tufted at the end, and the general build of the creature light and elegant. The color of the upper parts is mouse brown, becoming tawny on the flanks, while the under parts, the tip of the tail, and a spot above each eye are white or yellowish. In the Rocky mountains the place of this species is taken by Ord's kangaroo rat {/?. ordi) , which is a rather larger and more stoutly -built animal, with a relatively- shorter tail, and having five toes on each hind-foot. The habits of the kangaroo rats are very similar to these of the jerboas, these Rodents frequenting the most arid districts they can find, and living in burrows made beneath rocks or stones. In such districts there is no water, and but little vegetation save gigantic cactuses; and it appears that the food of the kangaroo rats is formed by the roots, blades, and seeds of the scanty grass that manages to struggle into existence. Probably the only water that these creatures drink is that derived from dew collected on the cactuses. Little or noth- ing seems to be known of their breeding habits. THE POCKET MICE Genera Perognathus and Heteromys The tiny little Rodents known in the United States as pocket mice are dis- tinguished from the kangaroo rats by the presence of roots to their molar teeth, and also by their inferior size — the whole length of the head and body seldom exceed- ing two inches. The genus Perognathus, as represented by the banded pocket mouse (P. fasciatus), of North America, is characterized by the hair being coarse and bristty; whereas, in the genus Heteromys, of which representatives extend as far southward as Trinidad, the fur is mingled with a number of flattened spines. Most of these animals are brownish above and white beneath, with a tawny stripe on the flanks dividing the dark from the light area. CHAPTER XXXIII R ODEN TS — continued THE PORCUPINE-LIKE RODENTS Families OCTODONTID^E, HTSTRICID^, etc. THE Rodents described in the present chapter, which include the whole of the remaining members of the order, with the exception of the hares, rabbits, and picas, are distinguished from all those described above by the conformation of the lower jaw. In both the squirrel-like and mouse-like groups, the angular, or lower poste- rior process of the lower jaw, it will be remembered, takes its origin from the inferior edge of the socket of the lower incisor teeth. In the present group, on the SKELETON OF THE CANE RAT. other hand, this process originates from a prominent ridge on the outer side of the jaw; the position of this ridge being shown in the figure of the skeleton of the cane rat. All the members of the group are further characterized by the stoutness of the zygomatic or cheek arch of the skull, and also by the bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) being perfectly distinct from one another. The porcupine-like Rodents are very characteristic of America, and more especially of the southern half of the continent. Thus the whole six families into which the group is divided occur in America, while only two of them have any Old- World representatives. Of the latter, the Porcupine family is almost cosmopolitan; while the Octodontida: are represented in the Old World only in Africa, south of the Sahara. With the exception of one species, these Rodents have one pair of pre- molar teeth in each jaw. (1326) THE OCTODONT TRIBE— THE GUNDI—THE DEGU 1327 THE OCTODONT TRIBE Family OCTODONTID^E As there is no collective English name for the various members of this exten- sive family, we are compelled to adopt a modification of its L,atin title. These Rodents are more or less rat-like animals, characterized by having complete collar bones, and their molars marked by enamel folds on both sides. In the skull the jugal portion of the cheek arch nearly always has an angle on its lower edge. The feet, which are armed with long curved claws, generally have five toes. The teats are placed high up on the sides of the body; the ears are short and but thinly haired; while the tail, which varies greatly in length, may be either clothed with short hair or scaly. With the exception of a few African forms, and others from the West Indies, this family is characteristic of South America. THE GUNDI Genus Ctenodactylus One of the most remarkable of the African representatives of the family is the gundi {Ctenodactylus gundi) from the regions bordering the Sahara, characterized by the two inner toes of the hind-feet being furnished with a horny comb and bristles, which are employed in cleaning the fur. In size this animal may be compared to a water vole, with relatively-long hind-legs. It has no premolar teeth, the feet have only four toes each, the ears are small and the tail is reduced to a mere stump. The gundi inhabits rocky districts, and is diurnal; its mode of life being very similar to that of the jerboas. In Somaliland the gundi is replaced by a closely-allied species known as Pectinator spekei, distinguished by its moderately-long and bushy tail, and the presence of a small premolar tooth in each jaw. THE DEGU Genus Octodon The degu (O. degus), which is the typical representative of the family, is a species inhabiting Chili and Peru, and distinguished from the last group by the feet having five toes, without any comb-like appendages, in the hind-limb. The molar teeth are alike in both jaws, and are simply indented on both sides by the folds of enamel. In general form the degu is like a rat, and it is slightly inferior in size to the water vole; the length of the head and body varying from seven and one-half to eight inches, while the tail, exclusive of the tuft at the end, measures about four inches. The fur is remarkable for its softness, the ears are of moderate size, and the nearly naked tail terminates in a distinct tuft. The general color of the fur on the 1328 THE RODENTS Habits upper parts is brownish yellow, mottled with black, while the under parts are yellow- ish, and the feet white; the tail is dusky above and whitish below, with the hair at the tip blackish. The degus are some of the commonest Rodents in Chili, and associ- ate in large companies. They are generally found in hedges or bushes, and in the neighborhood of towns may frequently be observed running across the highroads, while they often resort to gardens and orchards, where they commit considerable damage. Their burrows are constructed in hedge banks or under bushes, and those of the whole colony communicate more or less freely with one another. When disturbed, they scamper off at once to seek refuge in their burrows, with their tails raised over their backs. In many respects they resemble squirrels in THE DEGU. (Two-thirds natural size.) their habits, climbing trees with facility, and laying up stores of food for winter use, although, owing to the mildness of the climate of the regions they inhabit, they do not hibernate. Their food usually consists of the various plants growing round their burrows, supplemented in winter by bark. It is believed that two litters are produced annually, each containing five or six young. There are other species of Octodon inhabiting Chili and Bolivia; and in addition to these the latter country possesses two representatives of the allied genus Habrocoma, so na.med from the extreme softness of the fur, which approaches that of the chinchilla. The habrocomas are about the size of an ordinary rat, and distinguished by their larger ears, the absence of a tuft to the tail, and by the lower molar teeth being more complex than the upper ones. Another allied Habrocoma THE TUCOTUCOS 1329 Hodent from the Southern Andes, known as Acontemys, is distinguished by the enamel folds of the molars meeting in the middle line. The regions where these animals are found are buried in snow for several months of the year. THE TUCOTUCOS Genus Ctenomys The tucotucos, of which there are several South-American species, are charac- terized by their adaptation for a subterranean life. They have small and almost THE MAGEI,I,ANIC TUCOTUCO. (One-half natural size.) rudimental ears, small eyes, and short tails. Their incisor teeth are extremely broad, and their molars are rootless, with kidney-shaped crowns. On the fore-feet the curved claws are longer than the toes; while the hind-toes are furnished with a number of bristles. The species of tucotuco vary in length from eight to twelve inches, exclusive of the tail, which is about one-fourth as long again, and the gen- eral color of the soft fur in grayish, while the incisor teeth are red. There are four species of these animals, ranging from Brazil and ^n/Habits Bolivia to the straits of Magellan; our figured example being the Ma- gellanic species (Ctenomys magellanica). The name tucotuco is de- rived from the peculiar cry of these animals, which, from their subterranean habits, are also termed oculto. In many districts, especially where the soil is sandy, these 111—84 1330 THE RODENTS Rodents are found in large numbers; whole tracts being frequently undermined by their long and shallow burrows, of which the course is indicated by lines of hillocks. They are nocturnal in their habits, feeding mainly upon the roots of plants of which they are said to lay up a store. Mr. W. H. Hudson writes that on the Argentine pampas wherever there is a stretch of sandy soil, or a range of sand hills, the tuco- tuco is to be found; " not seen, but heard; for all day long and all night sounds its voice, resonant and loud, like a succession of blows from a hammer; as if a com- pany of gnomes were toiling far down underfoot, beating on their anvils, first with strong measured strokes, then with lighter and faster, and with a swing and rhythm as if the little men were beating in time to some rude chant unheard above the surface. ' ' The tucotucos seem to be somewhat gregarious in their habits as several may be often taken from a single burrow. Chili is the home of two species of Rodents known as cururo lacopus), nearly allied to the last, but distinguished by their rudi- mental ears. Somewhat curiously, another nearly related form (Petromys typicus) is found in South Africa, which differs from its American cousins by the harshness of the fur, the shortness of the thumb, the rather bushy tail, and the partially rooted molar teeth. THE COYPU Genus Myopotamus Widely different in its habits from the tucotuco is the coypu (Myopotamus coypu) of South America, which is one of the largest members of the order, attaining a length of from twenty inches to two feet, exclusive of the tail. It belongs to a group of several genera distinguished from the preceding American examples by the very harsh nature of the fur, and depth of the folds of enamel in the half-rooted or rootless molars. The coypu itself is characterized by the very large size of its incisor teeth, and by the upper molars having two folds of enamel on each side, while in those of the lower jaw there are one external and three internal folds. The molars are partially rooted, and the last one is larger than either of the others. The ears are of moderate size, and the tail, which is scaly, with a thin coating of short hairs, is about two-thirds the length of the head and body. Each of the feet has five toes, which in the hind-limb are connected by webs. The fur of the coypu is long, but beneath there is a dense and soft under-fur. The color of the upper parts is a mixture of dusky and brownish yellow, the sides and under parts being pure brownish yellow, the tip of the muzzle and chin white, the feet dusky brown, and a patch below each ear yellow. The coypu is found in the rivers and lakes of South America, on Distribution •* * both sides of the Andes, from Chili and Peru to about the forty-eighth parallel of south latitude. In the Chonos Archipelago, according to Darwin, coypu are found exclusively in the channels and bays separating the various small islands. In general appearance and habits the coypu is not unlike a beaver, being thor- oughly aquatic, and making its burrows in the banks of the rivers and lakes it fre- THE COYPU quents. When, however, the banks are not sufficiently high to allow of this, a plat- form-like nest is constructed among the reeds. The burrow is generally three or four feet in depth, and expands at the end into a chamber of some two feet in diameter. They are generally found in pairs, but in Argentine the writer has seen them coming out in large parties in the evening to swim and sport in the water. Here they utter peculiarly mournful cries; the females, at the proper season, being each accompanied by some eight or nine offspring, which endeavor to obtain a seat on their parent's back, those that are unable to attain this position of security swimming behind. Although a first-rate swimmer, the coypu is said not to be an adept at diving, and its movements on land are always awkward and ungainly. These animals usually select for their haunts the stillest parts of the rivers, lakes, or ponds, and their food consists of the foliage, seeds, and roots of • THE COYPU. (One-fifth natural size.) the water plants growing hard by. In the Chonos Archipelago, where they make their burrows in the forest at some distance from the shore, they are said, however, to subsist partly on mollusks. In Argentine Mr. Hudson states that at one time the coypu became very scarce owing to the numbers killed for their fur. An enactment was then passed forbid- ding the killing of these animals; the result being that they " increased and multi- plied exceedingly, and, abandoning their aquatic habits, they became terrestrial and migratory, and swarmed everywhere in search of food. Suddenly a mysterious malady fell on them , from which they quickly perished and became almost extinct. ' ' The under-fur of the coypu is an important article of commerce, the average number of skins annually collected varying from three hundred thousand to five hundred thousand. In Argentine the coypu is universally known as the nutria, 1332 THE RODENTS which is properly the Spanish name for the otter; the same term being applied in commerce to the fur. THE HUTIAS Genus Capromys The large Rodent known as the hutia-couga (C. pilorides), is one of a group of four or five species confined to the West Indies, where they appear to be the only indigenous members of the order. They are all allied to the coypu, from which they are distinguished by their arboreal habits and more rat-like appearance, THE HTJTIA-COUGA. (One-third natural size.) as well as by certain structural peculiarities. Thus the incisor teeth are narrower than in the latter, while the upper molars are characterized by one fold of enamel on the inner side, and two on the outer side. The ear is relatively small, and the tail generally of considerable length, thick, and sparsely haired. The hutia-couga, which is the species represented in our figure, is confined to Cuba, and is somewhat smaller than the coypu, the length of the head and body being about twenty-two inches. The fur is very long and coarse, its general color being a mixture of yel- lowish gray and brown, becoming reddish brown on the back and loins, while beneath it is dusky brownish gray, with a more or less marked yellow tinge. The paws are black, the ears dark, and the chest and a streak down the middle of the THE HUTIAS 1333 belly gray. Internally this species is remarkable in that the liver is split up into a number of small lobules. Another Cuban species is the hutia-carabali (C pre hen- silts], distinguished among other characteristics, by the tip of the tail being prehensile. In Jamaica there is the short-tailed hutia (C. brachyurus], while in the Bahamas the genus is represented by Ingraham's hutia (C. ingrahami). The hutia-couga inhabits dense forests, and is an expert climber, as- cending trees both to avoid pursuit and in search of food. It subsists mainly on fruits, leaves, and bark; but it also eats the flesh of small animals, partic- ularly that of a kind of lizard. This species can be easily tamed, and its flesh is considered a delicacy by the natives of Cuba, who either hunt the creature with dogs, or capture it by means of snares. The smaller hutia-carabali is said to confine Habits THE CANE RAT. (One-fourth natural size.) itself to the most remote districts of the forests, and to frequent the topmost branches of the trees. It is more shy and less easily tamed than the first species, and, like the latter, fights fiercely in self-defense when attacked. In one of the species, at least, there are but four teats in the female, from which it may be inferred that the num- ber of young in a litter is small. The nipples, as in the coypu, are situated high up on the sides of the body, and this seems to disprove the suggestion that in the latter animal they are thus situated in order that the young may be able to suckle while the parent is in the water. In Hayti and Jamaica the hutias are also repre- sented by a nearly-allied Rodent known as Plagiodon tedium, distinguished by the extreme complexity of the enamel folds of the molar teeth, which in the upper jaw form a kind of zigzag pattern. 1334 THE RODENTS Africa possesses a single representative of this group of the family, known as the cane rat {Aulacodus swinderianus*) , which is a large spe- cies of burrowing habits, easily recognized by three deep grooves on each of its broad red upper incisor teeth; these grooves giving the name to the genus of which this animal is the only representative. The molar teeth resemble those of the hutias. The cane rat attains a length of about twenty-one inches to the root of the tail; the tail measuring from five and one-half to eight and one-half inches. Its gen- eral appearance is rat-like, with the fur very coarse, and the tail but sparsely haired. In the fore-feet the thumb is rudimentary and the fifth toe small; while in the hind- foot the first toe is entirely wanting. The general color of the fur is brown, richer in tint on the back than on the flanks; the chin and upper lip being whitish, while the throat is a dirty yellow, and the under parts pale brownish yellow. The feet are penciled with black and yellow. A full-grown male will weigh as much as nine or ten pounds. The cane rat has an extensive distribution in Africa, ranging from the Upper Nile (where it is represented by a variety with partially- webbed hind- feet) through Eastern and Central Africa to the Cape; while on the western side it ranges as far north as Guinea. In Guinea it is known to the natives as the yumba, while in Southeastern Africa it is termed the ivondue. In Sierra Leone it is said to feed chiefly upon groundnuts and roots, in search of which it digs in the soil, while it also forms burrows for its residence. In Southeastern Africa the habits of these Rodents appear to be somewhat different. For instance, Mr. W. H. Drummond states that cane rats " do not form burrows of their own; but when forced out of the thick tangle of overgrown grass or reeds in which they lie, a task by no means easy of accomplishment, they take refuge in any hole or crevice among rocks or stones, or in the deserted burrows of the ant-eater or porcupine. They are not only destructive to a degree among sugar cane, gnawing down stem after stem, but most difficult to extirpate. In spots such as these, they live in what fields happen to be lying fallow, which, being covered with an impenetrable thicket of grass and weeds, offer them a secure retreat from which they can nightly issue forth into the canes. ' ' The cane rat is largely hunted by the natives, and in some cases by Europeans, for the sake of its flesh. Schweinfurth remarks that its flesh "is excellent when roasted; it is rich, and without being sweet and insipid like that of the hyrax, it is free from any unpleasant flavor. In quality it is about equal to poultry, while in taste it may be described as being intermediate between pork and veal. ' ' There are numerous other South-American representatives of the Octodonts. These are mostly smaller rat-like forms than the preced- ing, with long cylindrical tails; many of them being remarkable for the intermixture of flattened lance-like spines with the fur. Some of the best-known genera are Loncheres and Echinomys, and these are mostly characterized by the possession of the above-mentioned spines. The majority of the species of these two genera in- habit Guiana and Brazil, but one species of Echinomys ranges into Central America. Most of them are brown above and white beneath, but in some cases the white ex- tends on to the flanks, shoulders, and head, thus giving them somewhat the appear- ance of long-tailed guinea pigs. A third genus, Carterodon, of which there is but one Brazilian species, is distinguished by a longitudinal groove on each upper incisor. THE PORCUPINES 1335 THE PORCUPINES Family The well-known porcupines, which have the widest geographical distribution of any family of this section of the order, are distinguished from their allies by the presence of a number of large quill-like spines in the skin. Their build is stout and massive, and the fore and hind-limbs are of subequal length. In the skull, the region of the face is comparatively short and broad; while the cheek or jugal bone in the zygomatic arch is devoid of the angle on its lower edge, distinctive of most of the members of the preceding family. The molar teeth are partly or completely rooted with folds of enamel on each side. Porcupines derive their name from the French pore-Spin (spiny-pig), probably in allusion to their grunting pig-like cries. They are common to both the Old and New Worlds; although the representatives of the group found in the two Hemispheres constitute two distinct subfamilies. The common Canadian porcupine (Erethizon dorsatus) belongs to a group confined to America, all the members of which are arboreal in Porcupine their habits, while most of them have prehensile tails. They are all characterized by the absence of a cleft in the upper lip, by the naked soles of the feet being covered by a number of tubercles, by the want of the first toe in the fore- foot, and the presence of only three teats in the female. Their molar teeth have complete roots, and the collar bones are fully developed E. dorsatus differs from its allies in having a short and nonprehensile tail, and also in the presence of five toes in the hind-feet. It is a heavy and clumsily- built animal, with long brown hair, almost or com- pletely concealing the short spines, which are white with brownish tips. The length of the creature is about two feet, and its weight from fifteen to twenty pounds. The limbs, neck, ears, and muzzle SKELETON OF PORCUPINE. are short; the ears be- ing almost concealed by the long bristly hair at the sides of the head. The claws are very long and powerful, and the tail massive and almost four sided in shape. The stout spines vary in length from less than one inch to more than four inches in different parts of the body; they cling loosely to the skin, and are thus easily de- tached, and as they are slightly barbed at the points they make their way completely through the flesh of any animal in which they may become fixed. As in other members of the family, the quills, when the animal is in repose, lie smoothly and are directed backward; but under the influence of excitement they can be erected by the aid of a sheet of muscle underlying the skin. The Canadian porcupine ex- tends in the country from which it takes its name as far northward as the limit of 1336 THE RODENTS trees, while in the United States it extends on the eastern side as far south as Vir- ginia, and on the western coast from Alaska to Arizona and New Mexico. Despite its heavy form and nonprehensile tail, it is an adept at climbing, and spends the greater part of its time among the branches of trees. Dr. Hart Merriam states that although largely nocturnal, these animals may at times be seen abroad during daylight. Their lair is usually made among the clefts of rocks, but sometimes in a hollow tree or heap of bushes. Even in the cold climate of the Adirondacks, this porcupine, although less active in winter, never hibernates. Dr. Merriam writes that when one of these animals ' ' has selected and settled himself in a tree to his liking, he may not leave it, day or night, until he has denuded it of the whole of its foliage. I have seen many hemlocks thus completely stripped, not a green twig THE CANADIAN PORCUPINE. (One-sixth natural size.) remaining, even on the smallest bough. It seems incredible that so large and clumsy an animal should be able to climb out far enough on the branches of trees to reach the terminal leaves; but he distributes his weight by bringing several branches together, and then, with his powerful paws, bends back their ends and passes them through his mouth. When high in the tree tops he is often passed unnoticed, mistaken, if seen at all, for the nest of a crow or a hawk." The food of this animal consists not only of the leaves of various trees — especially the hemlock spruce — but likewise of their twigs and bark; while beech mast is also a favorite article of its diet. The pods of water lilies are also eaten, while a partiality for salt is very marked. The nest is constructed in the same situations as the sleeping lair. The young in the Adirondack region are born early in May, and are usually one or two in number. At birth, according to Dr. THE PORCUPINES 1337 Merriam, they are very large for the size of the animal, being actually larger, and proportionately more than thirty times the size of the cubs of the black bear. This porcupine uses its tail as a weapon of offense, inflicting severe blows by its lateral action. Few animals care to attack the porcupine, although, as previously men- tioned, both the puma and fisher marten make these animals their prey, and are frequently found with their flesh bristling with quills. The tree porcupines are distinguished from the Canadian porcupine by their long prehensile tails, and the presence of only four toes on the hind-feet. They are also of lighter build; and their spines are short, closely set, and parti-colored, sometimes almost concealed by long hair. In the absence of the first toe, the inner side of each hind-foot is furnished with a large fleshy lobe which can be bent inward to a certain degree, and forms an efficient aid Tree Porcu- pines BRAZILIAN TREE PORCUPINE. (One-fifth natural size. ) in climbing; more especially as the whole foot is set so obliquely on the leg that the rough sole is directed somewhat outwardly. The tail is thick at the base, but slender at the end, where its upper surface is devoid of hair. It is this upper sur- face which is applied to the branch, and the tail is, therefore, coiled in the reverse direction to that of the spider-monkeys, as shown in our illustration. The muzzle is thick, and obliquely truncated, so that the upper lip somewhat overhangs the lower portion, with large nostrils, the whole being clothed with fine velvety hair. Both the ears and eyes are small. The quills have numerous exceedingly-minute spines at their extremities, with their points directed backward, so as to act as barbs. The Brazilian tree porcupine (S. prehensilis), which is the species commonly seen in menageries, is found in Brazil, Guiana, and part of Bolivia, and has the spines 1338 THE RODENTS projecting freely above the fur. In length the head and body measure rrom six- teen to eighteen inches; the tail being about an inch shorter. These animals, like the other species of the genus, are usually solitary, passing the greater _ ' part of the day in slumber, and feeding in the morning and evening. Their food consists of the leaves, young shoots, and bark of the trees on which they dwell. In climbing it is said that they ascend the trunks of trees by the feet alone, the tail being employed only when among the smaller branches, which these animals but seldom leave. When sleeping, they generally rest in the fork of a branch. Comparatively little is known of their habits in a wild state; but in captivity they are harmless, stupid creatures. Their flesh is eaten by the natives of Brazil, by whom they are known by the name of cuandu. MEXICAN TREE PORCUPINE. (One-sixth natural size.) -_ . _ The Mexican tree porcupine (Synetheres novcehispaniez} , belongs to Porcupine a grouP which has the hair so long as almost to conceal the spines. It is distinguished by the nearly uniform black color of the fur, and also by the presence of numerous spiny bristles mingled with the hair of the lower parts of the body. These bristles arise in small clusters from tubercles, and being white for the greater part of their length form star-like spots among the dark fur. These bristles and the spines on the back are black at the tips. This species inhabits the forests on the eastern coasts of Mexico. Nothing special is recorded of its habits; but it may be mentioned that from observations made on captive individuals of other species, it is probable that none of the tree porcupines ever drink. It is stated that in those long-haired species in which the THE PORCUPINES 1339 True Por- cupines fur is a grayish tint, the general appearance of the animal when reposing on the arm of a tree closely simulates a gnarled and lichen-clad knot. _,. s • H A peculiar porcupine {Chtztomys subspinosus), from Central and Porcupine Northern Brazil, differs from all the members of the preceding genus by the shape of its skull and the more complicated structure of its molar teeth, as well as by the slenderness of its spines, which may be described as halfway between those of the other groups and mere bristles. It is a large species, of a dull brown color, with the under parts inclining to rufous, and the feet and tail brownish black. The tail, although long, is not prehensile; and the habits of the animal are less completely arboreal than those of the preceding group. Remains of a species of Erethizon occur in the superficial deposits of Pennsylvania, and those of Synetheres in the caverns of Brazil. With the true porcupines, as typically represented by the common South-European species (Hystrix cristata), we come to the second subfamily, all the members of which are confined to the Old World, and differ from their Transatlantic cousins by the following characteristics: ex- ternally the soles of the feet are perfectly smooth, the fore-feet have a small thumb, and the female is provided with six teats. In the skeleton, the collar bones are incomplete, and the molar teeth have imperfect roots. In habits all these porcu- pines are purely nocturnal and terrestrial; consequently, the tail is never prehensile. Common ^^e common porcupine, of which a group is represented in our col- Porcupine ored plate, and a single individual in the accompanying cut, is the best-known member of the first of these genera. As is the case with the other species of the genus, it is characterized by its massive form, its large 'size, the great length of the quills on the body, and by the short spiny tail terminating in a cluster of short slender-stalked quills, which are hollow and open at their ex- tremities; these tail-quills mak- ing the peculiar rattling noise noticeable when a porcupine is in motion. The genus is further characterized by the great eleva- tion and convexity of the skull, in which the chamber of the nose is frequently more capacious than the brain case. Next to the beaver, the por- cupines are the largest of the Old-Word Rodents, the common species measuring from twenty- six to twenty-eight inches in length, exclusive of the tail The prevailing color of this spe- cies is brownish black, with a white band crossing the front of the neck, and about halfway up the sides, when it becomes gradually narrow. The neck is furnished with a crest of long bristles, which are mostly brown at the base and white above. COMMON PORCUPINE. 1340 THE RODENTS The quills on the body are of two kinds — the one distinguished by their great length, slenderness, and flexibility, while the others are shorter and stouter, and are mostly concealed by the longer ones. These quills are mostly marked with broad rings of black and white; both extremities being of the latter hue. Those on the rump are, however, chiefly black; while the open quills at the end of the tail, as well as most of those clothing the rest of that appendage, are entirely white. This porcupine inhabits Southern Europe and Northern and Western Africa. Other Species In Inc^a t^ie common species is replaced by the closely-allied hairy- nosed porcupine (H. leucurd), distinguished by the muzzle being densely clad with hairs, as well as by the quills at the base of the tail, and some- times a row in the middle of the hinder part of the back, being mostly white. The skull, moreover, is less convex, with smaller nasal bones. This species is found from Ceylon to Kashmir, and appears to extend westward as far as the Black Sea. AFRICAN BRUSH-TAILED PORCUPINE. (One- sixth natural size.) Two other species inhabit India; of which the Bengal porcupine (H. bengalensis) , has a much shorter crest on the neck, while in Hodgson's porcupine this crest is totally wanting. The latter occurs in the Eastern Himalayas, and is represented by allied forms in Borneo and the Malayan region. The South- African porcupine (H. afrce-australis) is a third representative of the crested group. Fossil porcupines occur in the Pliocene rocks of Northern India, and also in the upper and middle Tertiaries of Europe. As the habits of all the true porcupines appear to be very similar, they may be treated collectively. In the first place, it should be men- tioned that the old idea of porcupines being able to eject their quills at an enemy is a pure fable. Although a belated individual may occasionally be seen making its Habits CHINCHILLAS AND VISCACHAS 1341 way homeward in the early morning, porcupines remain concealed during the day- light hours, either in caves or clefts of rocks, or in burrows excavated by them- selves. They generally prefer rocky hills, and although in Europe they are usually found either solitary or in pairs, in India they are frequently gregarious. Their food is entirely vegetable, and consists mainly of roots, although in cultivated dis- tricts they do much damage to crops, garden vegetables, and such fruit as they can reach. In Europe the pairing season takes place early in the year, and in the spring or commencement of the summer the female produces from two to four young, in a nest formed of leaves, grass, and root fibres. The young are born in an advanced state, having their eyes open, and their bodies covered with soft flexi- ble spines which soon harden by exposure to the air. When frightened or irri- tated, porcupines erect their quills, with a peculiar rattling of the hollow ones at the tip of the tail, at the same time stamping with their hind-feet. If attacked by or> from their native title, ai's, and constitute the genus Bradypus, readily characterized by the presence of three toes on both the fore and the hind-feet. The teeth are all of nearly the same height, with their grinding surfaces deeply cupped; the first tooth in the upper jaw being considerably smaller than either of the others, while the corresponding lower tooth is broad and compressed. The most remarkable peculiarity connected with the genus is, THE SLOTHS 1377 however, the presence of nine, instead of the usual seven, vertebrae in the neck; that is to say, it is the tenth vertebra from the head which first carries ribs articulating with the breastbone, although the ninth, and occasionally the eighth vertebra, is furnished with a pair of free floating ribs, which stop short of the breastbone. There are several species of the genus characterized by differences in coloration, or by the relative length of the hair on the face; but the precise number of species is THE COMMON THREE-TOED SLOTH. (One-fourth natural size.) not yet definitely ascertained. In some kinds the coloration is uniform, while in others there is a dark stripe across the shoulders; the presence of the above- mentioned bright-colored patch on the back cannot, however, as was once thought, be regarded as a specific characteristic. The typical B. tridactylus inhabits the drier regions of the forests, while others, as noticed. below, frequent the permanently flooded districts. As a rule, these animals appear to be silent; but it is recorded 87 1378 THE EDENTATES that a captive specimen, when dragged from the branch to which it was clinging, uttered a shrill scream. The two-toed sloths, or unaus, of which there are two well-defined W(qi th species, constitute the genus Cholcepus, characterized by having only two functional toes on the fore-foot; these two digits representing the index and middle finger of the human hand. The hind-foot has, however, three toes, as in Bradypus. The unaus are further distinguished by the characteristics of their teeth; the first pair in each jaw being longer and stouter than the others, from which they are separated by a considerable interval. These anterior teeth assume, indeed, the characters of tusks, and have their summits obliquely worn away by mutual attrition. That they do not correspond to the true tusks, or canines of other Mammals is shown, however, by the circumstance that the lower ones bite behind, instead of in front of those of the upper jaw. In the common unau (C. didactylus) the number of vertebrae in the neck is the usual seven, but in Hoffmann's sloth (C. hoffmanni) it is reduced to six. Of these two species the former is restricted to Brazil, while the latter extends from Ecuador to Costa Rica. Hoffmann's sloth utters at rare intervals a cry like the bleating of a sheep, while when suddenly seized it gives vent to a loud snort. The haunts of the sloths are the primeval forests of South and Cen- tral America, where vegetation attains its highest development, and the warm air is heavily laden with moisture. The darker and denser the forest, the more thickly is it tenanted by these creatures, which are as thoroughly arboreal as the squirrels and spider-monkeys, and seldom or never descend of their own accord to the ground. Indeed, on the ground the sloth is but a helpless creature, walking uneasily on the edges of its in-turned feet, and seeking as soon as possible to regain its native trees. Writing of the habits of the common three-toed sloth (B. tridacty- lus), Bates observes that the Indians call it ai' ybyrete, or sloth of the mainland, to distinguish it from the B. infuscatus, which has a long, black and tawny stripe be- tween the shoulders, and is called ai' ygapo, or sloth of the flooded lands. Some travelers in South America have described the sloth as very nimble in its native woods, and have disputed the justness of the name which has been bestowed upon it. " The inhabitants of the Amazon regions, however, both Indians and descendants of the Portuguese, hold to the common opinion, and consider the sloth as the type of laziness. . . . It is a strange sight to watch the uncouth creature, fit pro- duction of these silent shades, lazily moving from branch to branch. Every move- ment betrays, not indolence exactly, but extreme caution. He never loosens his hold from one branch without first securing himself to the next, and when he does not find a bough to immediately grasp with the rigid hooks into which his paws are so curiously transformed, he raises his body, supported on his hind-legs, and claws around in search of a fresh foothold." Bates goes on to say that after watching its movements for some time, he shot the specimen under observation; its body re- mained, however, firmly suspended to the bough to which it was clinging, and it was not till the muscles became relaxed that it fell. He adds that on another oc- casion he saw a three-toed sloth swimming a river, about five hundred yards wide. mMi THE TWO TOED SLOTH. THE EXTINCT GROUND-SLOTHS 1379 Sloths are mainly nocturnal, and in their usual attitude they hang suspended back downward. When sleeping, they roll themselves into a ball, with the head tucked between the arms; in this position they somewhat resemble the pottos among the lemurs, and it is then that they present the most striking resemblance to a lichen-clad knot. They are found usually either in pairs or in small family parties; and are harmless and inoffensive in disposition. They are most active in the dusk and at night, and will then wander slowly for considerable distances through the forest. Their food consists exclusively of leaves, young shoots, and fruits, the moisture of which renders drinking unnecessary. Their favorite food is afforded by the large-leaved and milky cecropia trees, which are so abundant in the South- American forests, and it is said that they seldom desert a cecropia so long as it af- fords them nutriment. The sense of hearing in these animals seems but imperfectly developed, and their small, dull and reddish eyes do not appear capable of very acute vision. In- deed, on first observing a sloth its eyes look so devoid of brightness as to give the impression that the creature must be blind. But a single young is produced at a birth. When it first comes into the world the young sloth is fully developed, hav- ing the body thickly clothed with hair, and the claws on the toes of the same pro- portionate length as in the adult. With these claws it clings fast to the long hair of its mother, clasping its arms around her neck. Sloths are capable of enduring deprivation from food for protracted periods, and they are also remarkable for the severe bodily injuries they are capable of sus- taining, while they appear to be unaffected by doses of poison which would immedi- ately prove fatal to other animals of larger size. It is related that on one occasion a three-toed sloth kept in captivity at Turin took no food for upward of a month, and appeared none the worse at the end of its long fast. All these circumstances clearly point to the low organization of these animals; it being a well-known fact that reptiles exhibit a far greater tenacity of life than the higher Mammals. In- deed, as a rule, the lower we descend in the animal kingdom, the greater becomes the power of sustaining injury. THE EXTINCT GROUND-SLOTHS Family MEGATHERIIDsE No account of the Edentates would be complete without some reference to the gigantic ground-sloths which were formerly so abundant in South America, as it is by their aid alone that we are able to comprehend the relationship of the true sloths to the ant-eaters. The best known of these creatures is the megathere, which rivaled the elephant in bulk; while the mylodon and scelidothere were somewhat smaller forms. They may be described as possessing the skulls and teeth of sloths, and the backbones, limbs, and tails of ant-eaters. The megathere differs from most of the others in having the crowns of the teeth square and divided into wedge- shaped transverse ridges, owing to the variation in the hardness of their constitu- ents; but in most cases the teeth were subcylindrical, with depressed centres. They 1380 THE EDENTATES agreed with the sloths in having large and complete collar bones; but, as we infer from the conformation of the lower jaw, they approximated to the ant-eaters in the elongation of their tongues. The majority of the ground-sloths were South Ameri- can; but one species of megathere ranged into North America, while an allied genus, Megalonyx, was apparently exclusively North American. That the ground-sloths were herbivorous is evident from the structure of their teeth; while it is obvious that creatures which must have weighed several tons when in the flesh could not have been climbers. Their bodies were probably clothed with coarse hair somewhat like that of the ant-eater; but there is evidence that the mylodon had also a number of small bony plates embedded in its skin. From the enormous width and massiveness of the pelvis of the ground-sloths, coupled with the extraordinary size of the bones of the tail, it is probable that these creatures were in the habit of procuring their food by supporting themselves on the tripod formed by their hind- limbs and tail, and rearing their bodies against the trunks of trees, from which the boughs were then dragged down by the powerful arms. Possibly, however, the megathere, as suggested by the late Professor Parker, may in some cases have bodily uprooted trees, by first digging a hole at their roots with its powerful front claws, and then grasping the trunk with its arms, and swaying it to and fro till it fell with a crash. It may be added that the ground-sloths resembled the ant-eaters and sloths in walking on the outer sides of their enormous fore-feet; but they differed from the latter in also applying only the outer side of the hind-feet to the ground. All these gigantic forms lived during the Pleistocene period; but in the lower Tertiaries of Patagonia they are represented by the much smaller Eucholceops, in which the skull was only some five inches in length; the teeth resembling those of the megathere. PALATAL VIEW OF SKULL OF EXTINCT GROUND- SLOTH (MYLODON). (After Owen.) THE ANT-EATERS Family MTRME C OP HA GIDsE The ant-eaters, or, as they are often called, ant-bears, differ so widely in ap- pearance and structure from the sloths that it is difficult to believe at first sight in their close relationship; indeed, had it not been for the fortunate preservation of the remains of the ground-sloths, it may be questioned whether even zoologists would have fully understood the alliance of the two. As it is, we have an excellent THE ANT-EATERS 1381 example of the effects of adaptation to widely-different modes of life in modifying the organization of nearly-allied animals. In the present instance the extinct ground-sloths are probably the least removed from the original common type. In the sloths the needs of a purely-arboreal life have led to a great elongation of the fore-limbs, coupled with the reduction of the digits to a few hook-like claws, and the functional loss of the tail. In the other group, the ant-eating habit has led to an extraordinary elongation of the skull, with the loss of all traces of teeth. All the ant-eaters are characterized by the body being clothed with hair, and by the more or less marked elongation of the head, in which the mouth is tubular, and provided with a long worm-like tongue, while teeth are wanting. The mouth has only a small aperture at its extremity, through which, when feeding, the long extensile tongue, coated with viscid saliva, is rapidly protruded and as instantane- ously withdrawn. The tail is always long, and in two species is prehensile. In the fore- feet the middle toe is enlarged and furnished with an enormous curved claw, SKELETON OF GREAT ANT-EATER. while the other digits are reduced in size, and some of them may be rudimentary. The hind-limbs are as long as the front pair, and their feet terminate in four or five equal-sized and clawed toes. In the skeleton the collar bones are generally rudi- mentary, although in one genus well developed, and the ribs are remarkable for their breadth. In the soft parts the stomach is comparatively simple, the brain much more convoluted than in the sloths. The heart is very small. As their name implies, ant-eaters are purely insectivorous. The great, or maned ant-eater ( Myrmecophaga jubata] — known in Paraguay as the yurumi, and in Surinam as tamanoa — is the largest member of the family. Externally it is characterized by the extreme elongation of its narrow head, and the enormous mass of long hair clothing the tail. The anterior portion of the head forms a kind of cylindrical beak, which is of far greater length than the hinder half, and carries the small nostrils at its tip. The eyes are minute, and the oval ears small and erect. The body is somewhat com- pressed laterally, and is about equal in length to the tail, which is not prehensile. 1382 THE EDENTATES In the fore-feet claws are present upon all the toes except the fifth, that of the third being far larger than either of the others; when walking the toes are bent back, and the weight of the body supported on the upper surfaces of the third and fourth, aided by a hard pad at the extremity of the fifth. The hind-feet, in which the toes are of nearly equal length, are comparatively short* and have the soles applied to the ground in walking. The hair is stiff and bristly; although short on the head it is of considerable, though varying, length on the body. On the neck and back it forms an upright mane; while on the fore-limbs and flanks it becomes still more THE GREAT ANT-EATER, WITH THE TAII, ELEVATED. (One-twelfth natural size.) elongated and pendent, but attains its maximum development on the tail, where it may measure as much as sixteen inches in length. The general color of the hair over a large part of the body is ashy gray mingled with black, this tint prevailing on the head, neck, back, flanks and hind-quarters, fore-legs, and tail. The throat, chest, under parts, hind-feet, and under surface of the tail are blackish brown; while a broad black band, margined with white, extends obliquely upward and backward to terminate in a point on the loins. The length of the head and body is about four feet, the height at the shoulder being about two. * They are somewhat too long in the figure. THE ANT-EATERS 1383 In addition to these external features, there are certain points in the internal anatomy of this ant-eater which demand some attention. In the first place, the exceedingly-elongated skull is characterized by the zygomatic or cheek arch being incomplete, and also by the circumstance that the passage above the bony palate, through which the creature breathes, instead of stopping short near the middle of the skull, is prolonged nearly to its hinder extremity. This is brought about by the union in the middle line of descending plates from the bones known as pterygoids; this feature occurring elsewhere among Mammals only in certain dolphins and one genus of armadillo. In consequence of this arrangement the posterior or inner nos- trils of the great ant-eater open at the back of the skull, instead of near its middle. Another peculiarity of the skull is the absence of any postorbital process defining the hinder border of the socket of the eye, which is consequently continuous with the temporal fossa, or large open space at the side of the hinder portion of the skull. Then, again, the lower jaw is very long and slender, with an extremely-short union in front between its two lateral branches, and without the process which usually ascends behind the socket of the eye for the attachment of the muscles of mastica- tion. Like the sloths, the females of the great ant-eater have but a single pair of teats on the breast. Although distributed over the whole of the tropical portions of . South and Central America, the great ant-eater is nowhere common, and Habits and from its nocturnal habits but seldom seen. It frequents either the low, wet lands bordering the rivers, or swampy forests, and is strictly terrestrial in its habits. Its strong claws might lead to the supposition that the creature was a burrower, but this 'is not the case. It has, however, usually a regular lair, or at least an habitual place of resort, generally situated among tall grass, where it spends the day in slumber, lying on one side, with its head buried in the long fur of the chest, the legs folded together, and the huge tail curled round the exposed side of the body. Except in the case of females with young, the ant-eater is, as a rule, a solitary creature. Its usual pace is a kind of trot, but when pursued it breaks into an awkward, shuffling, slow gallop. The food of the great ant-eater consists exclu- sively of termites and ants, together with their larvae. In order to obtain these in- sects, the ant-eater tears open their nests or hillocks with the powerful claws of its fore-feet. As soon as the light of day is let into their domicile, the ants or termites rush to the surface in order to investigate the cause of the disturbance, and are forthwith swept up by hundreds adhering to the viscid tongue of the ant-eater, which is protruded and withdrawn with lightning-like rapidity. The breeding habits of the animal are still very imperfectly known. A single young is, however, produced by the female in spring, which is carried about on the back of its parent for a considerable time. The period of suckling lasts for several months, and even when the young ant-eater has taken to feeding on insects, it does not leave its parent until she is again pregnant. Usually the ant-eater is a harmless, inoffensive creature, which may be driven in almost any direction so long as it is not pressed too hard. If, however, driven to close quarters, it turns furiously on its assailants, whom it attacks by hugging with its immensely-muscular arms. It has been asserted, on the authority of the natives, 1384 THE EDENTATES that the ant-eater will even face and attack the jaguar, and although the truth of this statement was denied by the traveler Azara, a later explorer believes that it may be founded on fact. Like the sloths, ant-eaters are exceedingly difficult to kill, their skin being so tough that an ordinary small hunting knife will make no impres- sion on it, while their skulls may be battered with a heavy stone without producing any other effect than temporarily stunning the creatures. These ant-eaters thrive fairly well in captivity in Europe, but spend most of their time in sleep, with the head, limbs, and tail folded up in the manner already mentioned. On awakening, the animal generally unfolds itself with considerable de- liberation, usually sitting up at first on its hind-quarters, with its legs stretched out rigidly in front, and its bird-like head swaying slowly from side to side. "In its THE TAMANDUA. (One-sixth natural size.) slow and measured walk," writes Sclater, "the tail is stretched out in a straight line with the back (as in the illustration on p. 1382), and the animal then presents a length of between six and seven feet, of which the head occupies one foot, and the tail three." The small mouth and face are cleaned from any of the viscid saliva which may have adhered to them by being rubbed from time to time against the slightly-bent knee. The flesh of the great ant-eater, although black in color, and musky in odor, is largely eaten by the natives and negroes of South America. The lesser ant-eater, or tamandua ( Tamandua tetradactyla] is an animal of scarcely half the size of the preceding, from which it is dis- tinguished by its much shorter head, longer ears, uniformly-short bristly hair, and the prehensile tail, of which the extremity, together with the whole length of the Tamandua THE ANT-EATERS 138$ inferior -surface, is naked and scaly. The three middle toes of the fore-foot have well-developed claws, of which that on the third is much larger than either of the others; while the first toe has only a minute claw, and the fifth is clawless, and con- cealed within the skin. The hind-foot is very similar to that of the great ant-eater, and has five subequal clawed toes. The structure of the skull is essentially the same, and the collar bones are likewise rudimentary. The whole length of the head and body is about two feet, and that of the tail six inches less. As regards colora- tion, there is a great amount of individual variation. The general hue of the fur is, however, yellowish white, with a more or less marked rusty tinge; but a broad black band extends from the sides of the neck along the flanks, and becomes so deep on the hind-quarters as to appear the predominating color. The tip of the snout, TWO-TOED ANT-EATER. (One-fourth natural size.) together with the lips, eyelids,' and the soles of the feet, are naked and black, and the ears are but sparsely haired. The tamandua (which, by the way, is the Portuguese term for the creature, the native name being caguari) ranges through the tropical forests of South and Central America. It is mainly an arboreal ani- mal, its climbing powers being largely aided by the prehensile tail. Generally noc- turnal, it may be sometimes seen abroad during the day. Its movements are more rapid than those of the great ant-eater, and when asleep it lies on its belly, with the head bent under the chest and covered with the fore-feet, while the tailed is curled along the side. Its food apparently consists mainly of ants, and termites — probably belonging to arboreal species; but it has been suggested that honey may likewise form a portion of its diet. L,ike the great ant-eater, it produces only a single young 1386 THE EDENTATES one at birth. It is a much commoner animal than the tamanoa, and is said to be generally found on the borders of the forests. Frequently it ascends to the top of the tallest trees. When pursued, it endeavors to escape by flight; but if hard pressed it turns on men or dogs in the same manner as its larger cousin, sitting up on its hind-quarters, and trying to hug its foes in its arms. The third and last representative of the family (Cydoturus didacty- lus) is no larger than a rat. Its skull is only slightly elongated. The length of the head and body is only six inches, and that of the pre- hensile tail a little over seven inches. The fore-feet have four toes, of which those corresponding to the index and third fingers of man alone have claws; the claw of the third toe being very much larger than that of the second. In the hind- feet there are four nearly equal-sized toes, which are placed close together so as to form a hook-like organ somewhat after the fashion of the foot of a sloth. The fur is soft, thick, and silky; its color being generally foxy red above and gray beneath, with the individual hairs grayish brown or black at the base, and yellowish brown at the tips. The skull differs from that of the other ant-eaters by its shorter muz- zle, and by the absence of the backward prolongation of the nasal passage on the palate, to which allusion has been already made. The lower jaw is less widely re- moved from the ordinary type. Another peculiarity in the skeleton is the presence of well-developed collar bones; and it may also be noted that the ribs are so ex- traordinarily wide as to come nearly in contact with one another, and thus render the bony casing of the body well-nigh continuous. The two-toed ant-eater is an exclusively-arboreal animal, with a 1 t^H b't somewnat restricted geographical range. It inhabits Northern Bra- zil, Guiana, and Peru, between the tenth parallel of south and the sixth parallel of north latitude, and it also extends into Central America; its range thus including the very hottest portions of the continent. In the mountains it as- cends to an elevation of some two thousand feet above the sea. It is either a rare creature, or one but seldom seen, even by the natives; frequenting the thickest por- tions of the forests, and escaping observation through its arboreal habits and dimin- utive size. Like its larger relatives, it leads, except during the pairing season, a solitary existence, and it is likewise nocturnal, sleeping during the day among the boughs. Its movements are generally slow and deliberate; but when so disposed, it can climb quickly, always with the aid of the tail. Ants, termites, bees, wasps, and their larvae, are its food. When it has captured a large insect, it sits up on its haunches like a squirrel, and conveys the prey to its mouth with its paws. Bates had one of these ant-eaters brought to him which had been captured while slumber- ing in a hollow tree. He kept it in the house for twenty-four hours, where ' ' it remained nearly all the time without motion, except when irritated, in which case it reared itself on its hind-legs from the back of a chair to which it clung, and clawed out with its fore-paws like a cat. Its manner of clinging with its claws, and the sluggishness of its motions, gave it a great resemblance to a sloth. It uttered no sound, and remained all night on the spot where I had placed it in the morning. The next day I put it on a tree in the open air, and at night it escaped." THE ARMADILLOS 1387 THE ARMADILLOS Family The armadillos, together with their near ally the pichiciago, constitute a well- defined South-American family distinguished from other living Mammals by the development of a number of bony plates in the skin, so as to form a more or less complete shield enveloping the body, and it is from the presence of this bony curiass that the members of the family derive their distinctive Spanish title of armadillos. In general the bony shield of the back is formed by the union of quadrangular or many-sided plates, and is divided into an anterior and posterior solid portion, sepa- rated by a series of movable transverse bands, varying in number from three to thir- teen. The anterior shield, into which the head and fore-limbs may be more or less completely withdrawn, is termed the scapular shield; while the posterior portion, which is notched for the tail, is known as the lumbar, or pelvic shield. The mov- able bands are composed of parallel rows of similar plates connected by flexible skin, and in some cases the degree of flexibility in this region is so great as to allow of the animal rolling itself into a complete ball. One peculiar genus of extinct armadillo differs from all living forms in that the whole body shield was com- posed of these movable plates. Usually a certain number of hairs protrude between the bony plates of the armor, and in some cases these are so numerous as almost to conceal the armor, and give the appearance of a furry animal. Each bony plate is sculptured, varying in pattern in the different genera, and it is overlain by a horny shield, developed in the cuticle or epidermis; the bones themselves belonging to the true skin. The upper surface of the head is also protected by an armor of similar structure, and the tail is usually encircled by a series of bony rings. The limbs are likewise protected externally by a number of bony plates embedded in the skin, which do not, however, articulate together by their edges. The fore-feet are pro- vided with very powerful curved claws adapted for digging, and varying in number from five to three; while in the hind- feet the claws are of smaller size, and invari- ably five in number. The SKELETON OF ARMADILLO. numerous teeth are small and simple, looking like small pegs fixed in the jaws, and in one genus the anterior teeth are preceded by a deciduous milk series. The tongue is considerably elon- gated, although to a less extent than in the ant-eaters. The elongated skull is characterized by the full development of the zygomatic or cheek arch, and the collar bones are complete. In the hind-limbs the bones of the second segment (tibia and fibula) differ from those of the other existing mem- bers of the order by being united at their lower extremities. Another peculiarity is that a variable number of the vertebrae in the middle of the neck are likewise 1388 THE EDENTATES immovably welded together. In the development of additional facets for mutual ar- ticulation, the vertebrae of the loins of the armadillos resemble those of the ant-eaters. The ribs are of considerable width, and the upper lateral processes of the back are specially developed for the support of the carapace. Most of the species are of comparatively-small size; the largest living one not exceeding three feet in length, exclusive of the tail; but in the Pleistocene 'of Argentine there occurs the gigantic Dasypotherium, with a skull about a foot in length. In the Argentine pampas the armadillos are as a rule diurnal, in other districts many appear to be crepuscular or nocturnal. The majority are mainly or exclusively insectivorous, but one species consumes not only flesh, but vegetable substances. In disposition these Edentates are mostly harmless and inoffensive little creatures; a Gaucho remarking to Mr. Darwin, as he sharpened his knife on the back of one, "they are so quiet {son tan mansos"). All of them burrow in the ground, and so rapid is the act of burrowing, that, as the writer has witnessed, if a horseman see one of these animals, it is almost necessary for him to tumble off his horse in order to capture it before it dis- appears in the soft soil of the pampas. They run with considerable speed, some of the species merely touching the ground with the tips of their claws, and carrying the body elevated high on the limbs. They are found both on the open pampas and and in the forests, and, with the exception of a single species wrhich ranges as far north as Texas, they are restricted to the warmer parts of South and Central Amer- ica. Their burrows are frequently found in the neighborhood of the mounds erected by ants and termites and although most of the species wander abroad in search of food, a few lead an almost exclusively subterranean and mole-like life. Except in the pairing season, armadillos are solitary creatures, and they nearly always prefer flat, open country for their habitations. Although generally found in dry districts, they are said to be able to swim well and swiftly. In spite of the nature of their food (which in addition to ants and other insects includes snails and worms), the flesh of most armadillos is free from unpleasant flavor. The smallest, and at the same time the most curious representative of the whole group, is the tiny creature known as the pichiciago, or pink fairy armadillo (Chlamydophorus tnmcatus), which differs so remarkably from the true armadillos as to constitute a subfamily by itself. This Edentate was dis- covered by the American naturalist Harlan, at Mendoza in 1824, much to the aston- ishment of the natives, who had no knowledge of its existence. For many years it was known only by two examples — the one preserved in London and the other at Philadelphia, but of recent years a considerable number of specimens have been obtained; and it has been kept alive in the Zoological Gardens at Buenos Ayres. The pichiciago is only about five inches in length, and, while the shield or mantle covering the head and body is pink, the fur is of a snowy white. The head is short, widest behind, and gradually tapering to the muzzle, where it terminates in a short and abruptly-truncated snout, with small and rounded nostrils. The small and almost rudimentary eyes are nearly concealed among the long hair,* and the ears are quite invisible, having scarcely any external conchs. The mouth is very small, with the lips hard and stiff, and the rather long and fleshy tongue is * They are made too conspicuous in our figure. THE ARMADILLOS 1389 conical, and covered above with warty protuberances. The teeth, of which there are eight in the upper and eight or nine in the lower jaw, are small and nearly cylin- drical; those in the middle of the series being larger than at the two extremities. The neck is short and thick, and the body long and depressed, becoming gradually wider from the shoulders to the abruptly-truncated hinder extremity. The limbs are short, and the front pair much more powerfully made than the hinder ones. Both are provided with five toes; but whereas in the fore-limbs these are connected nearly to the bases of the claws, in the hind-pair they are entirely free. The second claw in the fore-foot is the largest, and the fifth the smallest; while the claws of all the hind-toes are comparatively small. The tail, which protrudes through a notch in the lower border of the bony shield on the hind-quarters, is short and inflexible, terminating in a flattened and pointed paddle-like expansion, and covered with a THE PICHICIAGO. (One-half natural size.) leather skin, dotted over with small horny plates. The whole of the upper surface of the body is covered with a continuous shield, or mantle, of quadrangular horny scales, underlain by very thin, bony plates. This mantle commences in a point a short distance above the muzzle, and gradually increases in width to the hinder extremity of the body, where it is abruptly truncated. Instead of being firmly at- tached to the body throughout its extent, the mantle is only affixed along the line of the backbone, and consequently lies quite loosely on the hairy sides of the body; on the head it is, however, firmly joined to the bones. There are usually about twenty transverse rows of plates in the mantle, and while the number of plates in each row at the hinder extremity of the head varies from seven to eight, on the loins there may be as many as twenty-four in a row. The abruptly-truncated hinder ex- tremity of the body is protected by a solid shield, composed of welded plates of bone, overlain by thin scales of horn. This shield is slightly convex, and forms 1390 THE EDENTATES a segment of a circle, the centre of which would be the notch in its inferior border through which protrudes the tail. It is firmly welded to certain bony processes arising from the pelvis, and comprises five or six concentric rows of plates; the number in the uppermost row being about twenty, and that in the lowest only six. The entire shield is placed in a nearly vertical plane. Both externally and inter- nally the mantle is smooth and devoid of hair. With the exception of the tail, the soles of the feet, the snout, and the chin, which are nearly naked, the whole of the skin is covered with a coat of long, silky hair, forming a fringe along the edges of the mantle. This hair is longest on the flanks and limbs, and shortest on the upper surface of the feet, where it is intermingled with wart-like masses of horn. The female pichiciago has a single pair of teats on the breast, as in the armadillos. The pichiciago is a rare animal, confined to the western part of . __ Argentine, and is least uncommon in the neighborhood of Mendoza; of Life where, as elsewhere, it frequents open, sandy dunes, or their proxim- ity, the vegetation in such spots consisting of thorny brushwood and cacti. The best account of the habits of this creature is given by Mr. E. W. White, who writes that, when walking, the pichiciago ' ' plants both the fore and hind-feet on the soles, and not on the contracted claws, carrying its inflexible tail, which it has no power to raise, trailing along the ground, and much inclined downward from the body. As it commences to excavate, the fore-feet are first employed, and, im- mediately afterwards, supporting its body on the tripod formed of these and the ex- tremity of the tail, both hind-feet are set to work simultaneously, discharging the sand with incredible swiftness. The burrows, which are never left open, usually have but slight, if any, inclination to the horizon. Sluggish in all its movements, except as a fodient, in which capacity it perhaps excels all other burrowing animals, the Chlamydophorus performs the operation of excavation with such celerity that a man has scarcely time to dismount from his horse before the creature has buried itself to the depth of its own body. ' ' Mr. White believes that the use of the bony shield at the hinder extremity of the body is to act as a rammer in closing up the entrance to its burrow, and he is further of opinion that when the creature desires to come above ground, it emerges by digging a new exit. When in search of a spot in which to burrow, the pichiciago utters a sniffing sound, but is otherwise silent. " So extremely sensitive is this delicate little burrower to cold," writes Mr. White, ' ' that my living example, after passing a night in a box of earth covered with* flan- nels, was found the following morning in a very exhausted condition. Wrapped in warm clothing, and placed near a fire, it soon revived. On taking it in my hand under a Mendozan midday sun it shivered violently, but whether through fear or chill it is impossible to say. Its normal paradise seems to be when the temperature of its residence is such as is produced by sand so hot as almost to scorch the hand ; and yet, if cold be unfriendly, no less so is wet, for although its winter is spent be- neath the earth, a fall of rain quickly drives it from its retreat. During summer it leaves its burrow at dusk to search for food, and being truly nocturnal, moonlight nights are very favorable for discovering it." A second, and rather larger species of pichiciago (C. retusus) inhabits Bolivia, and is distinguished from the typical form by the mantle being attached to the skin of the back throughout its whole extent. THE ARMADILLOS True Arma- dillos The remaining members of the family, with the exception of the peba armadillo and its allies, are included in a single subfamily, char- acterized by the division of the bony carapace on the back into scapu- lar and lumbar shields, separated from one another by a variable number of movable bands. They all have moderate-sized ears, set at a considerable distance apart, and the first and second claws of the fore-feet are, when present, slender; while the females have but a single pair of teats on the breast. The weasel-headed, or six-banded armadillo (Dasypus sexrindus} is Six-Banded ,, . . , , . Armadillos y^e a &enus characterized by having usually six or seven, but occasionally eight, movable bands in the carapace; each bony plate of which is marked by an elliptical row of punctures. The head is broad and flat- THE WEASEL-HEADED ARMADILLO. (One-fifth natural size.) tened, with an obtusely-pointed muzzle, and rather small or moderate-sized ears; and the body is broad and much depressed. In length the tail is less than the head and body, and the plates on its basal portion form well-defined rings. Of the five toes in the fore-feet, the first is the most slender, the second is the longest, while the three outer ones are the stoutest, and gradually diminish in size from the third to the fifth. They have a rounded inner border, and a sharp outer and lower edge. The teeth may be either nine in the upper and ten in the lower jaw, or one less in each; they are of large size, and the first upper pair are generally implanted in the premaxillary bones. The figured species, which attains a length of about sixteen inches, exclusive of the tail, inhabits Brazil and Paraguay; but is replaced in Argen- tine by the closely-allied peludo, or hairy armadillo (D. villosus). The fleecy arma- dillo (D. vellerosus), from Argentine and the north of Patagonia, and the pichi, or 1392 THE EDENTATES pygmy armadillo (D. minutus} of Argentine, are much smaller forms, of which the second is distinguished by the absence of any teeth in the premaxillary bones. The different species of the genus vary somewhat in habits; the pichi being mainly diurnal, while in the cultivated districts of Argen- tine the peludo has become nocturnal. The pichi, according to Mr. Darwin, prefers a very dry soil, and the sand dunes near the coast, where for many months it can never taste water, are its favorite resort; it often tries to escape notice by squatting close to the ground. All of these species live in burrows, where in winter or spring the young are born; the number in a litter varying from two to four, although the female has but a single pair of teats with which to afford them nourishment. The young are born blind, but with their armor fully formed, although soft and flexible. They grow with great rapidity, and remain for several weeks in the burrows; it is believed, however, that they are not suckled for any very lengthened period, and that they soon learn to shift for themselves. The armadillos of this genus are usually found alone, and most of them feed chiefly on ants and other insects, although they will also attack and devour small snakes. On the other hand, the peludo is omniv- orous. Dr. E. Peard writes that this species ' ' comes forth for a short time only by day; on a moonlight night he may be met with at any hour. I have very often made a peludo post-mortem examination, and several times found his last meal con- sisted of putrid flesh, as well as insects and vegetable fibre. I do not mean to assert that he cannot live on vegetables alone; but he evidently does not prefer them, and looks on a dead lamb or other animal as a bonne bouche by no means to be despised. A fresh peludo burrow may almost invariably be found by or underneath a stinking carcass. This is not merely that the occupant may avail himself of the maggots bred in the carrion, for pieces of the flesh may frequently be seen drawn partly into the burrow, and the softer parts chewed and eaten." These flesh-eating propensi- ties of the peludo frequently lead to its destruction, since these animals often devour the poisoned meat spread for wandering dogs and foxes. It is also stated that in some districts, where peludoes are so numerous as to render riding dangerous, on account of their burrows, flesh poisoned with strychnine is exposed for their de- struction. The foregoing observations are confirmed by Mr. W. H. Hudson, who writes that the peludo, like its fast-disappearing congeners, "is an insect-eater still, but does not like them seek its food on the surface and on the ant-hill only; all kinds of insects are preyed on, and by means of its keen scent it discovers worms and larvae several inches below the surface. Its method of taking worms and larvae re- sembles that of probing birds, for it throws up no earth, but forces its sharp snout and wedge-shaped head down to the required depth, and probably while working it moves round in a circle, for the hole is conical, though the head of the animal is flat. Where it has found a rich hunting ground, the earth is seen pitted with hundreds of these neat symmetrical bores. It is also an enemy to ground-nesting birds, being fond of eggs and fledgelings; and when unable to capture prey it will feed on carrion as readily as a wild dog or vulture, returning night after night to the carcass of a horse or cow as long as the flesh lasts. ' ' Mr. Hudson adds that this armadillo re- sorts to a vegetable diet only when animal food fails, and states that on such occa- sions it will eat not only clover, but likewise grains of maize, which are swallowed THE ARMADILLOS 1393 whole. The peludo also displays marked intelligence in capturing some of the ani- mals on which it preys. Mr. Hudson had a tame one which was an adept at catch- ing mice in a most ingenious manner. After stating that the creature had a most keen sense of smell, and was in the habit of trotting along with its nose to the ground like a beagle, Mr. Hudson writes that ' ' when near his prey he became agi- tated, and quickened his motions, pausing frequently to sniff the earth, till discov- ering the exact spot where the mouse lurked, he would stop and creep cautiously to it; then, after slowly raising himself to a sitting posture, spring suddenly forward, throwing his body like a trap over the mouse or nest of mice concealed in the grass." Still more remarkable is the manner in which a peludo has been observed to kill a snake, by rushing upon it and proceeding to saw the unfortunate reptile in pieces by pressing upon it closely with the jagged edges of its armor, and at the same time moving its body backward and forward. The struggles of the snake were all in vain, as its fangs could make no impression upon the panoply of its assailant; and eventually the reptile slowly dropped and died, to be soon after de- voured by the armadillo, which commenced the meal by seizing the snake's tail in its mouth,»and gradually eating forward. Both the peludo and the weasel-headed armadillo are hunted for the sake of their flesh, with dogs especially trained for the purpose. A moonlight night is generally selected for the pursuit, and the hunter arms himself with a stout cudgel, pointed at one end. As soon as the armadillo perceives the dog, it either makes straight for its burrow, or endeavors to bury itself by digging a hole where it stands. If the dog come up with the creature before it gain its re- treat, its fate is sealed. As the carapace affords no hold, the dog generally seizes the armadillo by the head, or a paw, and holds it till the arrival of his master, by whom it is dispatched with a blow on the head from his stick. A specially clever dog will, however, endeavor to overthrow the armadillo as it runs by thrusting his nose under the edge of the carapace. The creature is then promptly seized by the soft under parts, and soon killed; the teeth of the dog crunching up the edges of the carapace as readily as an eggshell is crushed in the hand. The tatouay, or broad-banded armadillo (Lysiurus unicinctus], of . ' ... Surinam, Brazil, and Paraguay, is the best-known representative of a small genus distinguished from the last by the presence of twelve or thirteen movable bands in the carapace, and likewise by the teeth. The latter are either eight or nine in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, and are of moderate size; while in the upper jaw the last of the series is placed consider- ably in advance of the hinder extremity of the bony palate, instead of close to it, as in the preceding group. The head has the same general form as in the six-banded armadillos, with rather widely-separated, large, and rounded ears, and by the pres- ence of from twenty to twenty-five teeth on each side of the jaws. The slender tail, which is considerably shorter than the body, is nearly naked, except for a few bony plates on its under surface and near the tip. In the fore-foot the third toe has a huge curved claw, much larger than that on either of the others; the claws of the first and second toes being slender. The hind-feet have short triangular nails, of which the first is the shortest and the third the longest. The bones of the armor 88 1394 THE EDENTATES are ornamented with an indistinct granular sculpture. Next to the under-mentioned giant armadillo, the present species is the largest of the group. Its habits are prob- ably very similar to those of the six-banded armadillo, although our information is somewhat scant on this point. By far the largest living member of the family is the giant armadillo (Priodon gigas}, from the forests of Surinam and Brazil, which at- tains a length of nearly a yard from the tip of the snout to the root oi the tail, and is the sole representative of its genus. While agreeing with the broad- banded armadillo in the number of five bands in the carapace, and the general struc- Giant Arma- dillo THE GIANT ARMADII.I/X (One-sixth natural size.) ture of its feet, this species is distinguished by the still greater relative development of the third toe, and the small size of the claw of the fifth. It is further character- ized by the small size and elongated form of the head, on which the ears are oval and rather small, and by the tail, which is nearly equal in length to the body, being covered with large scales arranged in spiral rows. There are ten rows of plates in the scapular, and sixteen or seventeen in the pelvic shield. With the exception of the head, tail, and a band on the sides, which are whitish, the color is blackish brown. The powerful front claws of this armadillo clearly proclaim its fossorial THE ARMADILLOS 1395 habits, and it is said to feed chiefly on ants and termites, although not averse to carrion. The common three-banded armadillo, or apar, (Tolypeutes tri- Three-Banded Armadillo tindus}, is the typical representative of a genus comprising three rather small species, distinguished by the great development and soli- darity of the scapular and lumbar shields of the carapace, and the reduction of the movable bands to three. The teeth, of which there are nine on each side of the lower jaw, and either nine or eight in the upper jaw, are relatively small, and ex- tend back nearly to the end of the palate. The head is long and narrow, with the elongated and oval ears placed rather low down on its sides. The third claw in the fore-feet is even more developed than in the giant armadillo; the first and fifth claws being very minute or wanting. In the hind-foot the three middle toes have short hoof-like nails, while those of the first and fifth digits are smaller and compressed. The plates of the carapace are small and polygonal, with a strongly-marked granu- lar sculpture. Both the scapular and lumbar shields of the carapace are very large, and much produced on the sides of the neck and tail, thus forming large chambers into which the limbs, tail, and head, can be withdrawn. The conical tail is less than a third the length of the body, and is covered with bony tubercles. The total length of the head and body is about fifteen inches, and the general color is dark gray, with a more or less marked brown tinge; the skin between the movable bands being whitish, while that on the under surface of the body is dusky. The apar is found throughout the Argentine pampas, and, in common with the other two members of the genus, differs from the rest of the armadillos in being able to roll itself up into a complete ball, with the shield of the head and the bony upper surface of the tail packed away side by side, and thus completely filling up the notches in the scapu- lar and lumbar shields. In this state the creature is perfectly safe from nearly all foes save man. For instance, when a dog attempts to seize one of these armadillos, it is compelled, from the size of its mouth, to make a bite upon one side, upon which, as Mr. Darwin tells us, the ball imme- diately rolls away from its grasp. The apar is mainly diurnal in its habits, and trusts for defense to its power of rolling itself into a ball, not dwelling in burrows like the members of the other genera. When run- ning, these armadillos tread only on the tips of the claws of the fore-feet, and conse- quently have the edges of the carapace raised high above the ground. Our figure represents a specimen with the fore-legs stretched out in front preparatory to digging THE THREE-BANDED ARMADILLO. 1396 THE EDENTATES up an ant's nest. In captivity these armadillos will eat fruit and green vegetables; although, on account of the small size of their mouths, it is necessary that all the food with which they are supplied should be chopped up into small pieces. Fossil remains of armadillos of this species, together with others belonging to all the genera except Priodon, are met with in the cavern deposits of Lagoa Santa, in Brazil, and are mostly referable to species still existing in the country. The peba armadillo (Tatusia novemcincta) , ranging from Texas to dill Paraguay, together with the mulita — "little mule" — ( T. hybrida), of Argentine and other parts of South America, and certain allied spe- cies, differ from all the members of the family yet noticed by the elongated ears being closely approximated at their roots, by the female having a pair of teats on the abdomen, in addition to the two on the breast, and by the circumstance that the permanent teeth, with the exception of the last pair in each jaw, are preceded by deciduous milk-teeth, each furnished with two roots. The permanent teeth, CARAPACE AND SKELETON OF GLYPTODON, WITH THE TAIL SHEATH IMPERFECT. (One-twenty-sixth natural size.) (After Zittel.) which are either seven or eight in number in each side of both the upper and lower jaws, are very small in proportion to the size of the skull, and do not come into use until the animal has well-nigh attained its full dimensions. The head is narrow, and produced into a nearly cylindrical snout, obliquely truncated at the extremity; and the bony palate of the skull has a backward prolongation formed in the same manner as that of the great ant-eater. The body is long and narrow, with from seven to nine movable bands between the scapular and lumbar shields; the former being produced on either side of the shoulders, and having a deep notch at the neck. Bach bony plate is ornamented with a series of pits arranged in the shape of a V. The tail is nearly or quite as long as the body, and surrounded for the greater part of its length with complete bony rings. The fore-feet have four long claws, of which the inner pair are considerably larger than the others; while the hind-feet carry five claws, of which the third is the longest, and the fourth and fifth the short- est. The length of the body of the peba armadillo is about sixteen inches, and that of its tail some two inches less. In producing from six to twelve young at a birth the peba armadillo differs from all the species hitherto noticed. It inhabits burrows THE EXTINCT GLYPTODONTS 1397 in the open plains, and feeds largely on carrion, which is said to be stored up in the burrows for future consumption. In spite of this unsavory diet, the peba is much hunted for its flesh, which is stated to be of delicate flavor. The above-mentioned mulita is a smaller species, with a relatively- shorter tail. A very remarkable form is the rare shaggy armadillo ( T. pilosa) from Peru, in which the cheeks and the whole of the carapace, except the front margin, as well as the upper parts of the limbs and t*he under surface of the body, are covered with a thick coat of light brown hair, of about an inch and a half in length. So dense is this hairy covering that the carapace is completely concealed, giving to the creature, save for its mail-clad head, the appearance of an ordinary hairy Mammal. THE EXTINCT GLYPTODONTS Family GLTPTODONTID^ As we have seen, the carapace of the largest existing armadillo scarcely exceeds a yard in length; but during the Pleistocene, or latest, geological period, there ex- isted in South America a number of gigantic armadillo-like animals, in some of which the carapace attained a length of between six and seven feet. All these Edentates differed from the living armadillos in having complex teeth (eight in number on each side of the jaws), which were divided into three prisms by a pair of deep vertical grooves on each side. In all of them the carapace consists of a single solid shield, formed of a number of polygonal bony plates, which are firmly united by suture. A peculiar form from Brazil known as the chlamydothere serves in some respects to connect the glyptodonts wTith the armadillos, having the carapace of the latter, and the teeth approximating to those of the former. The typical spe- cies was about the size of a rhinoceros, but others were smaller. In all the glyptodonts the skull was short, the feet were short and massive, generally with five toes in front and four behind, and the limbs were likewise short and massive. In the larger forms the bony plates of the carapace were fully an inch in thickness, and in all the species the head was pro- tected by a bony shield, somewhat similar in structure to the carapace. In the larger types, constituting the genus Glyptodon, the carapace was much vaulted, and its margins ornamented with a number of large projecting tubercles; while the tail was protected by a series of bony rings, also ornamented with bosses, gradually di- minishing in size from root to tip. In one species the total length, along the curve of the back, from the nose to the end of the tail was eleven and one-half feet, while the carapace measured seven feet in length and nine in END OF SHEATH OF A GI,YPTODONT. width, inclusive of the curves. On the other hand, in (Much reduced ) the mostly smaller forms known as Lomaphorus, the carapace was less vaulted, and devoid of bosses on the margin; while the tail had several movable smooth rings at the root, and terminated in a long bony tube of 1398 THE EDENTATES more than a yard in length. The extremity of such a tube, showing the large bony plates with which its surface is covered, is shown in the accompanying cut. Another gigantic kind from the pampas, distinguished by the tail terminating in a huge flattened club, armed during life with horns, is known as Doedicurus. In the Miocene beds of Patagonia all the glyptodonts were of smaller size. THE PANGOLINS Family MANID^Z Stranger even than the armadillos are the Edentates commonly known as pan- golins, or scaly ant-eaters, which may be compared in appearance to an animated spruce-fir cone furnished with a head and legs. These creatures constitute a family by themselves, in which there is but a single genus — Manis, and, like the remain- SKEI.ETON OF PANGOUN. ing representatives of the order, they are confined to the Old World. As already mentioned, the relationship of the pangolins to the typical New- World Edentates is remote, and it may be even questioned whether the group is rightly included in the same order. Their internal anatomy is of a different type, and the joints of the backbone lack the additional articular processes characterizing most of the American Edentates. The pangolins may be briefly characterized as a family by the total want of teeth, and by the upper surface and sides of the body and the whole tail being cov- ered with a number of large, overlapping horny scales. Their limbs are short, with five toes on each foot, and the long, worm-like tongue is capable of being protruded a great distance from the small mouth. The head is small, long, and pointed, with the eyes small, and the external conchs of the ears minute or rudimentary. The scales of the body extend on to the outer sides of the limbs; but they are absent from the inner surfaces of the latter, as well as from the sides of the head and the inferior aspect of the body, all of which are sparsely covered with hair. There are often a few coarse, bristly hairs arising from between the scales. All the toes have slightly-curved claws, which are much longer in the front than in the hind-feet, and THE PANGOLINS 1399 of which the third is larger than either of the others. In walking, the front toes are bent under the feet, and the weight of the body supported mainly on the upper and outer sides of the fourth and fifth toes. On the other hand, the hind-feet are of the ordinary plantigrade type, and have the whole sole applied to the ground in walking. The female has a pair of teats situated on the breast. In the skeleton the skull is remarkable for its smooth and solid structure, and almost conical form. The zygomatic, or cheek arch, is incomplete, and there is no distinction between the sockets of the eyes and the fossae at the hinder extremity of the skull; while the palate is much produced backward. The lower jaw is extremely slight and slender, without any ascending or descending processes. In many of these respects the skulls of the pangolins approach those of the true ant-eaters; but it must be remem- THE INDIAN PANGOLIN. (One-eighth natural size.) bered that such resemblances are purely adaptive, and are brought about by the identical modes of life of the two groups. Two other points may be noticed in the skeleton; — firstly, that collar bones are wanting, and secondly, that the terminal joints of the claws are deeply cleft. ~. . .. ^. The pangolins, of which the largest species attains a length of about Distribution . - . , _ and Mode Slx eet) are exclusively confined to Africa south of the Sahara, and of Life Southeastern Asia. Africa possesses the largest species, and the greater number of forms. The pangolins are essentially burrowing and nocturnal animals, feeding exclusively on ants and termites, which are captured on the long extensile tongue. They have the power of, rolling themselves into a ball as a protection against foes, and when thus coiled up their muscular strength is such as to set at defiance any attempt to unroll them. 1400 THE EDENTATES Asiatic Pangolins Asia is inhabited by three species of the family, namely, the Indian pangolin (Manis pentadactyla} , confined to India and Ceylon, and represented in the accompanying figure; the Chinese pangolin (M. aurita), ranging from Nipal and Assam to China; and the Malayan pangolin (M. javanica], inhabiting the regions to the westward of the Bay of Bengal as far as Celebes, and also occurring in Northeastern India. All these species agree with one another in having the whole of the outer surfaces of the limbs covered with scales, and in their tapering tails, on which the middle upper rows of scales is continued uninterruptedly to the extremity. In the first two species the front claws are about twice the length of the hinder ones; the Indian pangolin being distinguished by having from eleven to thirteen rows of scales round the body, against from fifteen THE SHORT-TAILED PANGOLIN. (One-sixth natural size.) to eighteen in the Chinese species. On the other hand, the more slenderly-built and long-tailed Malayan pangolin differs from both the others in having the claws on the fore-feet only slightly exceeding in length those of the hind-feet. In the Indian pangolin the length of the head and body is just over two feet, and that of the tail a foot and a half. The habits of all the three kinds are believed to be similar, although the Malayan species is probably less of a burrower than the others. The Indian pangolin dwells either among the crevices and clefts of rocks, or in bur- rows of its own construction; such burrows extending to a depth of from eight to twelve feet below the surface, and terminating in a large chamber, which may be as much as six feet in diameter. Here a pair of these animals take up their abode. Habits THE PANGOLINS 1401 and in the winter or early spring give birth to their young. The young, which are one or two in number, are covered with soft scales at birth, but it does not appear to be ascertained whether they are born blind. When inhabited, the entrance to the burrow is stopped with earth, and it is rarely that its occupants are seen abroad after sunrise. The food consists chiefly of termites; the pangolin tearing open the nests of these insects with its powerful front claws, and thrusting its long glutinous tongue into their runs. The tongue is rapidly withdrawn with a swarm of the white ants clinging to it. In captivity pangolins will readily eat finely-chopped raw meat, hard-boiled eggs, and rice. Their stomachs have a somewhat gizzard-like structure, and frequently contain a few small pebbles, probably introduced to aid in triturating the food. In captivity pangolins drink freely by rapidly extending and withdrawing the tongue; but Mr. Blanford doubts whether this habit is natural to African Pangolins WHITE-SEGUED PANGOLIN. (From Guide to British Museum.) them, as they are often found in places w7here there is no water. When irritated, pangolins will give vent to a hissing sound, but at other times they are believed to be silent. There are four African species of pangolin, all of which are charac- ^ie middle row of scales on the upper surface of the tail bifur- cating at a short distance from the tip. They are also distinguished by the absence of any external conch to the ear, and the lack of any hairs growing between the scales; while in some of them the scales do not extend all the way down the outer surfaces of the limbs. Of the four species, the long-tailed pangolin (Af. macrura) is easily recognized by the great length of its tail, which is nearly twice as long as the body, and also by the absence of scales at the lower part of the outer surface of the fore-limbs. A nearly-allied form is the white-bellied pangolin (M. tricuspis} , distinguished by its larger and tricuspidate scales, and the white under 1402 THE EDENTATES parts. The short-tailed pangolin (M. temmincki) is readily distinguished by its short and blunt tail, in which the under surface of the tip lacks the bare patch found in all the other species except the next. The outer surfaces of the limbs are also fully scaled. The giant pangolin ( M. gigantea] is sufficiently distinguished from the last by its superior size. It is remarkable that the remains of a closely-allied species have been found in a cavern in Madras. The whole of the four African species in- habit the West Coast; but the short-tailed species also extends to South Africa and ranges across the continent to Zanzibar and Southern Somaliland. The general habits of the African pangolins appear to be very simi- lar to those of their Asiatic cousins. While, however, the 'long-tailed and the white-bellied pangolins are partially arboreal, the other two are purely ter- restrial. Most of the observations as to their habits have, however, been made from captive specimens. In 1878, Mr. F. Holwood, in sending a young example of the short-tailed pangolin to the L,ondon Zoological Gardens, wrote as follows to the secretary. These pangolins " always appeared to burrow in hard or stony ground, and I saw them always in the daytime. The mother of the specimen I sent you lived three months in Zanzibar. She only fed at night, and remained curled up in a ball all day. She regularly retired to the dark corner of my harness room at day- light, and left for the garden at sunset. There were very few ants, but she seemed to get plenty of insects. She burrowed at intervals all round the garden walls, but this was evidently only trying to escape, as she never made a hole large enough to give cover. ' ' Although the scales of this young pangolin were quite soft at birth, they had completely hardened by the second day. Mr. I,. Fraser relates how his pangolins would climb the somewhat roughly-hewn square posts, which supported a building, and sometimes roll up into a ball and throw themselves down, apparently without suffering any inconvenience from the fall. THE AARD-VARKS Family ORTCTEROPODID^, The name aard-vark, or earth-pig, has been applied by the Dutch Boers of the Cape to the southern representative of the second group of Old- World Edentates, of which there are two living species exclusively confined to Africa. To the English colonists of South Africa the Cape species is known as the ant-bear; while by the zoologist the aard-varks are termed Orycteropus, and collectively constitute a very distinct family group. In addition to the two living forms, the remains of an ex- tinct species have been discovered in the Pliocene deposits of the island of Samos; while those of another have been recorded from the Oligocene beds of France. In appearance both species of aard-vark are singularly ungraceful, not to say ugly. Thus the body, which may be either almost naked or sparsely clad with bristly hairs, is heavy and ungainly; the head greatly elongated, with a small tubu- lar mouth, and somewhat pig-like snout; the ears of enormous length, and the tail thick, cylindrical, and tapering, and nearly equal in length to the body. The neck 1404 THE EDENTA TES is very short, the fore-quarters are short compared with the hinder part of the body, and the back is much arched. The tongue is long and extensile, although not so completely worm-like as that of the pangolins, and the round nostrils are situated at the extremity of the truncated muzzle. The fore-limbs are rather short, but very powerful; they have four toes, with moderate-sized, strong nails; and, in walking, the entire sole of the foot is applied to the ground. The hind-feet have five toes of nearly equal size, each carrying a nail. The skin is of remarkable thickness; its general color being yellowish brown, with a tinge of red on the back and sides, while the head and under parts are light reddish yellow; and the hind-quarters, the root of the tail, and the limbs brown. A full-grown aard-vark measures a little over six feet in total length. THE ETHIOPIAN AARD-VARK. (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1876.) The jaws are furnished with a considerable number of well-developed teeth, ^of which all but the last three in each jaw have milk predecessors, which do not, how- ever, cut the gum. In full-grown specimens there are usually five teeth on each side of both upper and lower jaws; but the total number of teeth developed is from eight to ten in the upper, and eight in the lower jaw; the anterior ones falling out as the animal attains maturity. When unworn, these teeth, which are of consider- able size, have rounded summits. They are composed of a number of closely-packed denticles, which by mutual pressure assume a polygonal form , and are traversed by a series of radiating tubes; such a structure being unknown elsewhere in the whole Mammalian class. The skull has a complete cheek arch, and the lower jaw is far less slender than in the pangolins. It has been considered that the aard-varks are nearly allied to the pangolins, but the result of more recent observations has been THE AARD-VARKS 1405 to disprove this view; and it is even doubtful whether they should be included in the Edentate order, with the typical forms of which these animals have but little in common, except so far as regards the want of front teeth, and the absence of cement in the teeth of the cheek series. The typical Cape aard-vark (Oryderopus afro) inhabits South and Distribution Southeastern Africa; it is replaced in Northeastern Africa by the Ethi- opian aard-vark ( O. cethiopicus) ; the former being distinguished by the thicker coat- ing of hair, more especially on the back and flanks, as well as by the thicker and less-elongated tail, and the longer head and ears. The aard-varks are essentially nocturnal and burrowing in their habits, and feed exclusively on termites and ants. In South Africa their deep borrows are generally constructed in the neighborhood of the tall conical mounds formed by the termites; and, in the old days, before these animals were hunted for their skins, it used to be said that wherever termite hills were numerous, there an aard-vark might confidently be expected. Wherever these animals are abundant, a number of half-formed holes are seen in the ground and on the sides of the ant-hills, which have been commenced and abandoned. Aard-varks usually spend the whole of the day asleep in their burrows, but may occasionally be seen abroad in the early morning. Their powers of digging are so great, that in a few minutes they can bury their large bodies, even when the ground is hard and sun baked. In digging, they wrork with their fore-feet, and throw out huge clods of earth between their hind-legs. Aard-varks are quick of hearing, and very shy, making off at the slightest sound to their burrows with considerable speed. But little definitely is known as to their breeding habits, although it has been ascer- tained that the Ethiopian species gives birth during May or June to a single off- spring. At birth the young is naked and flesh colored, and is suckled by its parent for a long period. . • '" . .N . BENNETT'S WALLABY. CHAPTER XXXVI THE POUCHED MAMMALS OR MARSUPIALS — ORDER MARSUPIALIA THE whole of the Mammals treated of in the preceding chapters are _. collectively characterized by certain peculiarities connected with the istics development of their young. In all of them the young are brought into the world in a more or less high state of development; this high grade of development being due to the circumstance that during the greater portion of intrauterine life the circulatory system of the foetus is connected with that of the maternal parent by a special vascular organ termed the placenta; this placental con- nection between the blood vessels of the parent and offspring allowing the blood of the latter to be oxygenated almost as completely as by breathing. On account of the development of this placenta, the whole of the foregoing orders of Mammals are brigaded together into a single large group, or subclass, and are collectively termed either Placental, or Eutherian Mammals; the latter term referring to their general high degree of development, as compared with those remaining for consideration. On the other hand, in the Mammals of which we have to treat in the present chapter, the young are born at a very early stage of development, and in an exceed- ingly imperfect and helpless condition — being, in fact, little more than animated lumps. Previous to birth there is no placental communication between the blood (1406) THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS 1407 vessels of the foetus and the parent, and at birth the rudimental young are trans- ferred to the teats of the female, to which they adhere tightly for a long period, their lips being specially modified into a cylindrical sucking organ. In most cases the young thus suspended are protected by a fold of skin on the abdomen of the fe- male, which forms a pouch in which the teats are contained. From the universal absence of a placenta, these Mammals are regarded as forming a subclass of equal rank with the Placentals or Eutherians, and are spoken of as Implacentals or Meta- therians; the latter term indicating their lower position, as compared with the Eutherian, or highest Mammals. The Placental, or Eutherian Mammals are, as we have seen, divided into nu- merous orders, and it may be thought that similar divisions could be instituted among the Implacentals or Metatherians. It happens, however, — so far at least as exist- ing forms are concerned, — that this is not the case; but so as to render our classifi- cation symmetrical, it is necessary to have a name for the one order of Implacentals, the term Pouched Mammals, or Marsupials, has been selected, and we shall speak of these Mammals under either of these terms; it must, however, be constantly borne in mind that they also have the higher designation of Implacentals, or Meta- therians, ranking with the term Placentals, or Eutherians. In addition to the primary distinction of the absence of a placenta, the Pouched Mammals present certain other more or less distinctive peculiarities. Mention has already been made of the general presence of a pouch, or marsupium, in which the abdominally-placed teats of the female are concealed; and to this it may be added that, with the single exception of the thylacine, the front brim of the pelvis always has a pair of divergent splint-like bones projecting forward in the form of the letter V. These so-called marsupial bones — shown in all our figures of the skeleton of this group — were originally considered to be for the purpose of affording support to the pouch; but this view is discredited by their presence in both sexes. A pecul- iarity of the skull of all Pouched Mammals save one, is that the so-called angle, or lower posterior projection of the lower jaw, is more or less bent inward, or in- flected. This peculiarity is not, however, distinctive of the order, since it also occurs in some of the Insectivores. The skull of every Marsupial is further charac- terized by the presence of larger or smaller vacuities, or unossified spaces, in the bony palate. As regards their brains, it may be observed that all the Pouched Mammals display a low grade of organization; the whole brain being small in pro- portion to the size of the body, while the foldings on the surface of its hemispheres are never of a very complex nature, and only developed at all in the largest mem- bers of the order. The reproductive organs of the female are likewise constructed after a lowly fashion; the oviducts always remaining perfectly separate from one another, and never uniting, as they do in so many of the Eutherian Mammals, to form a common chamber, or womb. Certain peculiarities connected with the number and mode of re- placement of the teeth also aid in distinguishing Marsupials from other Mammals. In the first place, as shown in the figure of the skull of the Tas- manian devil given later on, there may be more than three pairs of front or incisor teeth in the upper jaw, and in such cases the number of pairs of these teeth in the 1408 it upper jaw always exceeds those in the lower by one. More important is the cir- cumstance that but a single tooth on each side of both the upper and lower jaws ever t has a milk predecessor. This tooth marked pm in the accompanying figure, corresponds to the fourth or last premolar of the dog (Vol. I. p. 10); and consequently all the four teeth behind it are molars. Now, as we have al- ready seen, it is but very rarely that there are more than three of these molars in Placental Mammals, whereas in the present order there are nearly always at least four. On the other halld> there are never m°re than thfee pre- molar teeth, which in the adult of some forms, It c, the upper tusk, or canine; pm. the premolars; i j j j it. j • and m, the molars. may be added that' accordmg to recent Tc- searches, all the teeth in advance of the last premolar appear to represent the milk series of the higher Mammals, which are here permanently retained. The fact that the newborn young of the Pouched Mammals, when JAWS AND TEETH OF THE RUFOUS RAT KANGAROO. The letter Vindicates the front or incisor teeth; as in the figure, may be reduced to One. Mode of Suck- ling Young first transferred to the teats of the mother, are little more than mere animated lumps of flesh, renders it imperative that some special arrangement should be made for their nutrition, as they are quite incapable of suck- ing by themselves. For this purpose the mammary gland of the female is overlain by certain specially-developed muscles, the perodical contraction of which injects a supply of milk into the stomachs of the helpless young. In order to prevent the young Marsupials from being choked during this injecting process, their throats are provided with an arrangement similar to that obtaining permanently in the Ceta- ceans. That is to say, the larynx, or upper terminal expansion of the windpipe, is prolonged upward so as to extend into the hinder aperture of the nostrils at the back of the palate; and consequently there is a closed tube from the nostrils to the lungs, on either side of which the milk can flow without danger of choking the young animal. When there is no longer any necessity for this special arrangement, the larynx is shortened, and respiration and swallowing are carried on after the usual manner. It may be added, that in the Pouched Mammals the teats are confined to the region of the abdomen, and that the number of teats is frequently greater than that of the young. Such teats as have been in use may always be recognized by their great elongation, owing to the weight of the young suspended from them. With the exception of the opossums, which are confined to America, and are most numerously represented in the southern half of the conti- tion nent, the living representatives of the order are restricted to Australia, New Guinea, and the adjacent islands as far west as Celebes and lyom- bok. Exclusive of the Egg-laying Mammals, the Marsupials form almost the whole Mammalian fauna of Australia, where the chief other types are certain Rodents and Bats. In the more western islands they are, however, mingled with Placental Mam- mals, thus showing that these islands have had some connection with those of the THE KANGAROOS AND THEIR ALLIES 1409 Malayan region. The channel separating L/ombok and Celebes from Java and Bor- neo is, however, of much greater depth than those dividing the other islands, and it may accordingly be inferred that any land connection which formerly existed be- tween the two groups must have been remote. In the Tertiary period opossums were distributed over a large portion of Europe, and recent discoveries indicate the existence during the same epoch of Mar- supials allied to the Australian thylacine in South America. In the preceding Sec- ondary period, as we shall show later on, Pouched Marsupials appear to have ranged over the whole world, and were then, together with Egg-laying Mammals, the chief, if not the sole representatives of the class. THE KANGAROOS AND THEIR ALLIES Family MACROPODID^ We commence our survey of the Pouched Mammals with their most aberrant and specialized representatives, or those commonly known as kangaroos, wallabies, rat kangaroos, etc. And it may be mentioned here, that whereas kangaroos are very frequently spoken of as typical Marsupials, this is really very far from being the case. It is true that they con- form in all essential characteristics to the Marsupial type of struc- ture; but they have been specially modified for a particular kind of progression — namely, leaping. This has profoundly modified their whole organization, and rendered them some of the most specialized of all Mammals; and they retain accordingly but little resemblance to what may be termed a typical, or generalized Marsupial, such as a bandicoot, or thylacine. The kangaroos belong to a group or suborder of Marsupials characterized by the adaptation of their teeth to a vegetable diet. Thus the front, or incisor teeth, as shown in the figure on p. 1410, SKELETON OF KANGAROO. are never more than three in num- ber on each side of the jaws, and are usually three in the upper and one in the lower jaw; while in all cases the innermost pair in each jaw are of larger size, and 1410 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS SKUI.IV OF I,ESUEUR'S RAT KANGAROO. c. tusk, or canine tooth. adapted for cutting. As a rule their upper canine teeth, or tusks, are small, or wanting, and this invariably holds good for those of the lower jaw. As regards their molar teeth, these are invariably characterized by having broad, flattened crowns, surmounted either by tubercles or transverse ridges, and adapted for the trituration of vegetable substances. The members of the Kangaroo family vary greatly in size, and in the relative length of the hind-limbs, but they are collectively characterized as follows. In the upper jaw there are three pairs of incisor teeth, with sharp and cutting edges; while the lower jaw is furnished with a large single pair inclining forward, and sometimes biting against one another with a scis- sor-like action. The upper canine, or tusk, if present at all, is of small size, as in the accompanying figure; while there is no corresponding lower tooth. In the adult the cheek-teeth are five in number on each side, of which the first is a premolar; this condition ob- taining in the figured skull. In young animals there are, however, two milk- molars in place of this premolar; the number of cheek-teeth then being six on each side. The molar teeth them- selves may carry either a pair of transverse ridges, or four blunt tubercles. A char- acteristic feature of the family is to be found in the lower jaw, which has a deep pocket in the outer side of the hinder portion, communicating at its base by a large perforation with the canal on the inner side. The pocket is shown in the accom- panying figure, but the communicating aperture is concealed by its outer wall. In all the members of the family the fore-limbs are short and feebly developed, with five complete digits. The hind-limbs, on the contrary, are very powerful, and more or less elongated. Usually they have but four toes, of which the one corresponding- to the fourth in the typical series of five is much larger than either of the others, and terminates in a huge claw. The outermost toe is considerably smaller, but still stout. The two toes on the inner side of the large one, corresponding to the second and third of the typical series, are, however, reduced to small slender rods, lying parallel to one another, and inclosed in a common skin. These rudimental digits are of course useless in progression, and their aborted condition is technically known as syndactylism. The head, especially in the larger forms, is small in proportion to the body, and tapers toward the muzzle. Generally the tail is long, cylindrical, and tapering; while it frequently aids in supporting the body, and may be prehensile. The female is provided with a large pouch, of which the aperture looks forward. All the members of the Kangaroo family are purely vegetable feeders, and are mainly confined to Australia and Tasmania, where, before the introduction of sheep and cattle, they took the place of the Ruminants of other regions. They are di- vided into numerous genera, of which the first includes the true kangaroos and wal- labies. THE TRUE KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES 1411 THE TRUE KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES Genus Macropus In the summer of the year 1770, when Captain Cook was refitting his vessel at the mouth of the Endeavor river in New South Wales, a party of his crew who had landed to procure food brought back reports of a strange animal of large size, which sat upright on its hind-limbs and tail, and progressed by a series of enormous leaps. Excitement among those on board was naturally raised to the highest pitch by this account — especially as a naturalist, Sir Joseph Banks, was a member of the expedition; — and soon after a speci- men of the animal in question was killed. This creature was the one we now know by the name of the great gray kanga- roo (Macropus gigan- teus}; and was the first member of the family which came fully under Euro- pean notice, although one of the smaller forms from the Aru islands had been par- tially* made known as early as the year 1711. The name kangaroo, it may be observed, is said to be of Australian origin, although it appears to be now unknown to the natives. The kangaroos and wallabies, which include the largest tftembers of the family, are characterized by the great length and powerful development of the hind-limbs as compared with the front pair; and the enormous size of the tail, which is regularly tapering, and evenly covered with fur from end to end. In the hind-foot the claw of the fourth toe is enormously developed, and the first toe is wanting. The head is small, with an elongated and usually completely-naked muzzle, and large up- right ears. The females have four teats. The skull is characterized by its smooth and rounded contours, and the absence of any inflation in the bulla of the internal ear. The tusk in the upper jaw is minute, and shed at an early period, and the upper incisor teeth are of nearly equal length, and form a regular open curve. The lower incisor teeth have sharp inner edges capable of cutting against one another in a scissor-like manner, and the crowns of the molar teeth carry a pair of transverse THE GREAT GRAY KANGAROO, WITH YOUNG IN POUCH. 1412 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS ridges, which are nearly always connected by a longitudinal bridge. The true kan- garoos and wallabies comprise twenty-three living species, as well as several which are extinct, and they are found not only in Australia and New Guinea, but also in some of the islands to the eastward. While the larger species are as tall as a man, the smallest do not exceed the dimensions of a rabbit. They may be divided into three groups, distinguished by size, and partly also by coloration. Under the common title of true kangaroos may be included all the larger forms, characterized by their generally uniform and sombre coloration, and their large and massive skulls, in which the hinder portion of the skull is well ossified. The best known of all the species is the great gray kangaroo ( M. giganteus] — the "boomer," "old man," or "forester" of the colonists, to which allusion has been already made, and which is represented in the figure on p. 1411. A full-grown male will measure sixty-three inches from the tip of the nose to the root of the tail, the length of the tail being fifty-two inches; while the entire animal will weigh some two hundred pounds. This species is of rather slender and graceful build, with soft woolly hair, which is grayish brown above, and nearly white beneath on the under parts and limbs, without any white markings on the face. It is further characterized by the middle of the muzzle being hairy between the nostrils, and also by the shortness from back to front of the permanent premolar tooth. It is an inhabitant of open plains, and is found over the greater part of Australia and Tasmania. On the other hand, the red kangaroo (M. rufus), represented in our colored plate, and the antelopine kangaroo (M. antilopinus) , together with certain allied species, are inhabitants of rocky districts, and have their muzzles completely naked, and the permanent premolar tooth of greater length from back to front. Their colors also may be more brilliant. The great red kangaroo is of slender build, with reddish-colored and very soft woolly fur, which corresponds to the under-fur of other species; the face having light markings and a black streak. This species in- habits South and Eastern Australia. The antelopine kangaroo, from North Aus- tralia, is distinguished by its massive build, and heavy, clumsy head, as well as by its short, coarse, straight, reddish hair, without any under-fur, and the absence of face markings. It is stated to attain a weight of from one hundred and twenty to upward of one hundred and seventy pounds. Another well-known species is the wallaroo (M. robustus), frftm Queensland, New South Wales, and South Australia, in which the fur is long and thick, and of a smoky-gray color; the build being also stout and heavy. Under the designation of large wallabies, or brush kangaroos, may Lctrtrc * .. .. be included a group of smaller and brighter-colored species, distin- guished by the more incomplete ossification of the hinder part of the bony palate, and by the third incisor tooth of the upper jaw having a single distinct notch near the middle of the crown. All these species frequent dense scrub jungle, known in Australia as "brush," and their leaping powers are nearly as great as those of the true kangaroos. One of the largest species is the red-necked wallaby {M. ruficollis), in which the length of the head and body may be as much as forty- one inches, and that of the tail thirty-one inches. It occurs in New South Wales THE TRUE KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES and Victoria, and is represented in Tasmania by a smaller variety known as Bennett's wallaby. Other well-known species are the black-tailed wallaby (M. ualabatus} , from New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland; Parry's wallaby (M.parryi), from mountain districts in Queensland and the north of New South Wales; and the agile wallaby (M. agilis] of New Guinea, Queensland, and part of South Aus- tralia, distinguished from all the others by the uniform sandy color of the short fur of the back, and the presence of a distinct white stripe on the hips. The " pademelon " wallaby of the colonists {M. theditis}, which is very common in New South Wales and Victoria, and measures twenty- six inches from the muzzle to the root of the tail, is one of the best- known representatives of the group of small wallabies, several of which are not Small Walla- bies THE PADEMEI.ON WALLABY. ( One-eighth natural size. ) larger than a rabbit. All the species are lightly built, with perfectly-naked muz- zles, and the outer incisor tooth smaller than in the last group. Their hind-feet are relatively shorter, and their jumping powers, therefore, probably proportionately less. This group has a wider distribution than either of the others, the Aru island wallaby (M. brunii) — the earliest known member of the family — occurring in the islands from which it takes its name. Other well-known species are the rufous- bellied wallaby (M. billardieri), from South Australia, Victoria, and Tasmania; and the small short-tailed wallaby {M. brachyurus} , from Western Australia; the latter being remarkable for the shortness of its tail, and the small size of its ears. As already mentioned, all the kangaroos are exclusively vegetable feeders, the larger kinds browsing solely on grass and other herbage, while many of the smaller 1414 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS wallabies also eat roots. Although, when feeding, kangaroos occasionally move about in an awkward manner on four feet, their habitual position is the upright one, when they are supported by the hind-limbs aided by the tail; and the whole structure of their skeleton is modified to suit this position. Thus, as shown in the figure of the skeleton on p. 1409, the bones of the lower leg (tibia and fibula) are immensely elongated, while the thigh bone (femur) is comparatively short, and the narrow pelvis set very obliquely to the axis of the backbone. Conse- quently, when the animal is resting in the usual position, with the whole of the foot applied to the ground, the knee joint forms the summit of. a solid support from which the whole body is suspended, as it were on pivots. The kangaroo can, how- ever, raise itself so as to be supported only by the tips of the toes and the tail, and when in this position is enabled to take a wide survey of the country, and thus to obtain early warning of approaching danger. "When running," says the Old Bush- man, "it springs from the ground in an erect position, propelled by its powerful hind-legs and balanced by its tail, holding its short fore-arms well into the chest, after the nianner of a professional runner. Thus it bounds lightly and easily along, clearing any obstacles, such as fallen trees, and even low fences, in its stride. I never fairly measured one of these strides or springs, but I am certain, when hard pressed, an ' old man,' or ' flying doe,' will clear nearly ten yards at a spring. The long tail materially assists them in running, and its measured thumps may be heard on the ground long before the kangaroo itself appears in sight in the thick forest. It is a curious fact, that a wounded kangaroo very often breaks the hind-leg in struggling; and I once knew an 'old man' snap the bone just above the hock, as short as a carrot, in taking a spring." "In general habits," the writer continues, " kangaroos much resemble sheep and deer. Timid and shy, their senses of sight, hearing, and smell are most acute. L,ike the hare, they appear to be unable to see an object directly in front of them when running; — at least I have often stood still and shot one down as it came running up to me in the open forest. They are very gregarious, and are always to be met with in smaller or larger droves. I have often seen as many as one hundred and fifty in a drove, and our general ' mobs ' used to average fifty or sixty. After the rutting season, the ' old men ' will often draw away from the 'mobs,' and retire by themselves to the thickest scrub. Each drove frequents a certain district, and has its own particular camping and feeding grounds. The ' mobs ' do not appear to mix, and when the shooter once obtains a knowledge of the country, he has no difficulty in planting himself for a shot. Their camping grounds are generally on some open timbered rise, and they have well-trodden runs from one ground to another. They feed early in the morning and at twilight, and I think also much at night. The kangaroo lies up by day, during the hot summer weather, in damp, thickly-scrubbed gullies; in the winter, on dry, sandy rises. Here, unless disturbed, they will remain quiet for hours; and it is a pretty sight to watch a ' mob ' camped up, some of them playing with each other, some quietly nib- bling the young shrubs and grass, or basking in the sun half asleep on their sides. About Christmas the young ones appear to leave their mothers' sides, and congre- gate in ' mobs ' by themselves; I have seen as many as fifty running together, and very pretty they looked." When on the move, kangaroos invariably follow a THE TRUE KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES 1415 leader, and when once started, it is impossible to divert a drove from the direction they have taken. Except during the pairing season, when the males engage in fierce contests, these animals are as peaceful and harmless as sheep. When hard pressed, a, kangaroo will take readily to the water, and there is an instance on record of one swimming across an arm of the sea two miles in width, — half of the distance being against a strong wind and current. The writer just quoted states that the principal food of kangaroos " appears to be the tender sprouts of small shrubs and heather, quite as much as grass; but there is a small kind of spike grass, brown on the underside, called the kangaroo grass, to which they are very partial. They will also come at night into the small bush inclosures, and nibble off the young blades of wheat, oats, etc." When feeding off the ground, they do not always use the fore-paws as a support, but often merely crouch down. Occasionally they may be seen iu the upright position, browsing from trees. As regards breeding habits, it appears that in the great gray kangaroo the pairing season is either in January or February, although there is some irregu- larity in this respect. Only a single young is produced at a birth, after an exceedingly-short period of gestation, and when first transferred to the pouch of its mother, the length of the offspring is scarcely more than an inch. When the young kangaroo is sufficiently developed to move freely by itself, it becomes detached from the teat to which it at first adhered; but it remains chiefly in the pouch till able to run by the side of its parent. " Even then, when danger is near, it tumbles head-, over-heels into the pouch for protection, and it is wonderful how quickly the old doe can pick up the 'joey' when running at full speed, and shove it into the pouch, its pretty little face always outside. There she carries it till hard pressed, when the love of life overcomes the love of the mother, and she then casts it away to save herself." The " joeys " become strong runners, and by Christmas, leave their par- ents and learn to shift for themselves. The half-dozen medium-sized species collectivelv known as rock Rock Walla- „ , . . , . , . . . wallabies, one or which is represented in the accompanying illustration have the extremity of the muzzle completely naked, and differ from the true wallabies by the shortness of the claw of the fourth hind-toe, and also by the long cylindrical tail being thinner and more or less distinctly tufted at its ex- tremity. None of them have any trace of a tusk in the upper jaw. The yellow- footed rock wallaby (Petrogale xanthopus} — that given in our figure — is the largest species, and is distinguished from the rest by its brilliant coloration, more especially the alternate brown and pale yellow rings on the tail. The general color of the long and silky fur is gray on the back, with a well-defined black streak running from between the long ears to the middle of the trunk. The cheeks are marked by an oblique white stripe below the eye, and by a yellow spot above the same. The ears are yellow externally, with their inner sides edged with white, except at the tips, and the sides of the body are marked by a pure white stripe from the elbow to the hip. The chin and under parts are also pure white, and there is likewise a patch of the same color on the outer side of the knee; while the lower portions of the limbs, including the feet, are yellow. On the tail the rings occupy only the upper surface, the inferior aspect being uniformly yellowish. This species is restricted to South 1416 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS Australia. The common brush-tailed rock wallaby (P. penicillata) , from the coast districts of the eastern side of the continent, is more soberly colored; the general tint of the coarse hair being dull brown, tending to rufous on the hind-quarters. In the male, the length of the head and body reaches twenty-eight and one-talf inches, and that of the tail, exclusive of the hair at the tip twenty-four inches. The re- maining four species are all smaller; the northwestern short-eared rock wallaby (P. brachyotis] being distinguished by the characteristic from which it takes its name. The whole of the rock wallabies are confined to continental Australia, and, as their name implies, frequent rocky districts, whereas the true wallabies are plain-dwelling 'YELLOW-FOOTED ROCK WALLABY. (One-tenth natural size.) animals. Their tails lack the stiffness of those of the latter, and appear to be used rather in balancing the body when leaping, than as a third support. The brush- tailed rock wallaby, according to Gould, collects in large flocks, and forms regular well-beaten tracks on the mountain sides. Three species of wallaby differ from all other Mammals, with the ?U w &\ single exception of the lion, in having the extreme tip of the tail fur- nished with a horny spur or nail, the use of which is at present un- known. They are further distinguished by the hairy muzzle, by the length and narrowness of the fourth toe of the hind-foot, and by the length of the tapering tail, THE TRUE KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES 1417 on which the hair is short. The upper incisor teeth are relatively small, and de- crease in size from the first to the third. They are all of moderate or small size, with short hair, and are some of the most graceful members of the family. The nail-tailed wallaby {Onychogale unguifera) is of a general fawn color, and distin- guished by the great length of the tail, and the large size of its terminal nail; the length of the head and body being twenty-six inches, and that of the tail an inch more. It is a rare species from Northwestern and North Central Australia. The bridled wallaby (O. frenafa) and the crescent wallaby (O. lunata] are smaller spe- cies, with relatively-shorter tails; the former inhabiting Eastern, and the latter, Hare Walla- bies THE COMMON HARE WALI.ABY. (One-fifth natural size.) which is not larger than a rabbit, West and South Australia. All the species appear to frequent rocky and arid districts. The hare wallabies, so called from their resemblance in size, and in some respects appearance, to the common hare, likewise form a group of three species exclusively confined to Australia. They are charac- terized by the muzzle being partially or completely covered with hair, by the claw of the fourth toe of the hind-foot being long and not concealed by hair, while the tail is rather short and evenly furred, without either a brush of hair or a spur at the tip. Their skulls are characterized by the shortness of the interval between the in- cisor and cheek-teeth, and by the inflation of the auditory bulla on the inferior sur- face— the latter feature at once distinguishing these animals from the true wallabies. The upper tusk is always present, and the incisor teeth in the same jaw are small. 14 1 8 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS Our illustration represents the common hare wallaby (Lagorchestes leporoides} , from South Australia and New South Wales, which measures nineteen and one-half inches to the root of the tail, and is clad in fur closely resembling that of the com- mon hare in general color. This species is fairly abundant in the open country of the interior, more especially near the Murray river. Its habits are in many respects very similar to those of the hare. The West- Australian rufous hare wallaby (L. hirsutus}, distinguished by the ruddy tinge of the hair on the rump, and the absence of a black patch on the elbow, appears to be very similar in its habits. In the north of the continent, and on some of the small adjacent islands, the genus is represented by the spectacled hare wallaby (L. conspicillatus} , distinguished by its broader and heavier muzzle, shorter ears, the rufous tinge round the eyes, and the presence of two light bands on the flanks. Miiller's kangaroo (Dorcopsis muelleri) is one of a group of three K Papuan species connecting the true kangaroos with the under- mentioned tree kangaroos. They are medium-sized animals, the length of the head and body in Miiller's kangaroo being about four inches greater than in the brush- tailed rock wallaby; while in D. luctuosa it is about as much less. These kangaroos differ from the forms hitherto noticed in that the hair on the nape of the neck is either completely or partially directed forward; while the dispropor- tion between the fore and hind-limbs is very much less marked. The large and broad muzzle is devoid of hairs, the ears are small, the tail has an almost naked tip, and the claws of the hind-feet are not concealed by hair. The teeth are distin- guished by the great length, from front to back, of the permanent premolar in each jaw, which has a development similar to that which obtains in the potoroos. There is a well-developed upper tusk, and the molar teeth have low, rounded crowns, in which there is scarcely any trace of a longitudinal bridge connecting the two trans- verse ridges. Moreover, instead of converging at their extremities, the two series of cheek-teeth run nearly, or quite parallel. Miiller's kangaroo has short, close, and glossy fur, of a general uniform chocolate brown; but with a white stripe on the front of the hips, and the fore-arms and feet whitish. Externally this animal presents a remarkable resemblance to the Aru island wallaby (Macropus brunii}, In the dense tropical forests of New Guinea, and the north of Queensland are found tree kangaroos; and it is evident that these are specially-modified types which have taken to this mode of life, and are in no way connected with the ancestral forms of the family. The tree kangaroos are easily recognized by the general proportions of the two pairs of limbs to the body being normal; the length of the front pair being only slightly less than that of the hinder. The broad muzzle is only partially naked, and the hair of the nape, and in one species that of the back also, is directed forward. In the hind-feet the claws of the united second and third toes are nearly as large as those of the others, the latter being curved. The tail is very long, and thickly furred. In the teeth, the perma- nent premolar is less elongated from front to back than in the last genus. Of the four well-defined representatives of the genus, the figured black tree kangaroo of New Guinea (Dendrolagus ursinus} is characterized by its general black color and THE TRUE KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES 1419 whitish face; the length of the head and body of the female being twenty and one- half inches, and that of the tail twenty-three inches. On the other hand, the brown tree kan- garoo (D. inustus] of New Guinea, and the Queensland tree kangaroo (D. lumholtzi), have the back grayish, and the face (and in the Queensland species the paws) black. Finally, Doria's tree kangaroo (D. dorianus), of the southeastern part of New Guinea, differs from all the others in having the fur of the back directed forward. Comparatively little is known of any of the species in their native haunts; al- though it appears that they spend most of their time in the trees. Dr. Guillemard, THE BLACK TREE KANGAROO. (One-seventh natural size.) who had two of these animals alive on board ship, which he had captured in New Guinea, writes that the tree kangaroo " is as yet a tyro in the art of climbing, per- forming this operation in the slowest and most awkward manner. Our pets, for instance, would take a full minute or more in ascending the back of a chair, but their hold is most secure, and if we wished to pull them off, we had considerable difficulty in doing so, so tightly do they cling." It is added that the tail, although not actually prehensile, is pressed against the branches in climbing, and appears to be of considerable assistance. Of the Queensland species, locally known as the 1420 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS bungari, Dr. Lumholtz, its discoverer, writes that it frequents the densest and most inaccessible portions of the highest mountainous scrubs, where even the aborigines are scarcely able to penetrate. From the marks of its claws on the trees of the more open districts, the animal appeared to have been once common there, but is now nearly exterminated by the blacks. When disturbed, these kangaroos are stated to travel considerable distances, and they are also reported by the blacks to be most commonly seen abroad on moonlight nights. Two or three are often found sleeping in the same tree, and it is stated that they affect only one particular kind of tree, which grows to a considerable height. In rainy weather, lower trees are selected. The little banded wallaby {Lagostrophus fasciatus} , of Western Aus- tralia, which is about the size of a hare, and is easily recognized by w ciiiciDy the dark transverse bands crossing the hind-quarters, forms the single representative of a genus. It is specially characterized by the presence of long bristly hairs on the hind-feet, which completely conceal the claws. The muzzle is naked, and the ears are small and rounded. The skull is characterized by its nar- row muzzle, and inflated auditory bulla; while there is no tusk, the two series of upper incisor teeth meet in an angle, and the two halves of the lower jaw are welded together at their union. These pretty little wallabies inhabit the scrub jungle and the margins of swamps on the west coast of Australia and the small adjacent islands. On the islands they form tunnels beneath the dense bushes by gnawing off the lower branches on certain lines, and they can only be beaten out from their cover by the aid of dogs. On the mainland they are said to skulk in the open like hares. The whole of the members of the family hitherto considered form a single subfamily primarily characterized by the circumstance that the three incisor teeth of the upper jaw are of nearly equal height, while the tusk, or canine tooth, if present at all, is very minute. We now come to a second group or subfamily, including a number of small forms known as rat kanga- roos or potoroos, which differ in many important respects from the preceding. These creatures, none of which are larger than an ordinary rabbit, are characterized by having the first incisor tooth on each side of the upper jaw (as shown in the fig- ures on pp. 1408 and 1410) considerably taller than either of the others, and narrow and curved in form; while there is always a rather large and blunted upper tusk. Then, again, whereas in the preceding subfamily, with the exception of Muller's kangaroo and its allies, the permanent premolar tooth is comparatively short from front to back, in the group under consideration the same tooth, as shown in the aforesaid figures, is much elongated in this direction, and has a straight cutting edge, and its two surfaces generally marked by vertical grooves and ridges. Some- times, moreover, the same tooth may be bent slightly outward, instead of forming a continuation of the line of the molars. The latter have blunt tubercles at their four angles, instead of complete transverse ridges, and the last of the series is, instead of being larger, always smaller than the one in front of it. The rat kangaroos are fur- ther distinguished by their narrow fore-feet, in which the three middle toes are much longer than the other two, with long, narrow, and slightly-curved claws; whereas in the broader front paws of the preceding group, the whole five toes are nearly equal in length, and have highly-curved claws. All the rat kangaroos have THE TRUE KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES 1421 small rounded ears, and long furry tails, of which the extremities are partially pre- hensile in some of the species. Externally, the rat kangaroos cannot well be distin- guished in general appearance from some of the smaller short-eared representatives of the preceding group; and it is accordingly of prime importance that the foregoing distinctive characteristics should be thoroughly understood. The group comprises nine species, which are confined to Australia and Tasmania, and are divided into four genera. The common rat kangaroo (Potorous tridactylus] , that figures in the illustration on this page, may be taken as our representative of the first of the four genera. The distinctive characteristics of the genus being the long and slender form of the head, the few (three or four) perpen- dicular ridges on the permanent premolar tooth in both jaws, the shortness of the foot, the naked muzzle, and the rather large ears. In the skull the auditory bulla Common Rat Kangaroo COMMON RAT KANGAROO. (One-sixth natural size. ) is somewhat swollen, and the unossified spaces in the palate are large. The figured species, which is the largest of its genus, is confined to Eastern Australia and Tas- mania, and is variable both in size and color; the length is, however, frequently about fifteen inches, exclusive of the tail. It is specially characterized by the great elongation of the muzzle; the general color of the coarse, long, and straight hair being dark grizzled grayish brown, with a more or less marked tinge of rufous. The West- Australian P. gilberti is a smaller allied form; while P. platyops, from the same side of the continent, is still smaller, and has a broader and shorter muzzle. The brush-tailed rat kangaroo (Bettongia penicillata} , represented in Brush-Tailed , -. . , Rat K - figure on p. 1422, appears to be the commonest and most widely spread of the group, and is one of four species having the following characteristics in common. The head is comparatively short and wide, with very small and rounded ears, and a naked muzzle; the foot is elongated; and the permanent premolar tooth (figure on p. 1408) is characterized by its numerous garoo 1422 (fourteen or fifteen) and slightly oblique ridges. The tail is thickly furred, with the hair longer on the upper than on the lower surface, and somewhat prehensile. In the skull the auditory bulla is generally much swollen, and the unossified spaces in the palate are large. The figured species is a somewhat smaller animal than the common rat kangaroo, and is characterized by the great development of the tuft of hair on the upper surface of the end of the tail, of which the under surface is brown. It inhabits nearly all Australia, but is replaced in Tasmania by the much larger jer- boa kangaroo (B. cuniadus}, in which the tail tuft is scarcely developed. Lesueur's rat kangaroo {B. lesueuri}, of which the skull is figured on p. 1410, is a South and West- Australian species distinguished from the one here figured by the small size of the tail tuft, which is almost always white at the tip. The plain rat kangaroo BRUSH-TAILED RAT KANGAROO. (One-fourth natural size.) {Caloprymnus campestris} of South Australia, differs from the foregoing by the naked portion of the muzzle extending somewhat less backwardly on the nose, and the absence of any crest or tuft of hair on the tail; and on these and other grounds it is made the type of a distinct genus. The largest member of the group is the rufous rat kangaroo (sEpy- prymnus rufescens}, of New South Wales, distinguished from all the others by the partially-hairy muzzle, and the unusually broad and short head; the tail being evenly furred. The permanent premolar tooth in each jaw has a medium number (seven to eight) of vertical ridges, and the skull is char- acterized by the absence of any unossified spaces on the palate, and the unswollen auditory bulla. The head and body of this species may measure as much as twenty THE TRUE KANGAROOS AND WALLABIES 1423 inches, and the tail about four inches less. The general color of the long and soft fur is bright rusty red on the upper parts, more or less penciled with white; while the under parts are dirty white, and the ears black. Although the different groups of rat kangaroos vary to a certain extent in habits, the whole of them agree in being nocturnal, and in feeding not only on leaves, grass, etc. , but likewise on roots and bulbs, which are grubbed up with the fore-paws. They generally frequent scrub jungle, and get up before the sportsman after the manner of rabbits. Usually but a single young is produced at a birth; and, as appears to be the case with all Marsupials, there is not more than one birth during the year. In accordance with the reduced size of their hind-feet, the leaping powers of the common rat kangaroo are less developed than those of the other genera. It is stated, indeed, that although these species habitu- ally stand on their hind-limbs alone, when running they employ both pairs of limbs in a kind of gallop. Moreover, they never kick out with their hind-legs after the manner of kangaroos and wallabies. The brush-tailed rat kangaroo and its kindred employ their prehensile tails in carrying grass and other substances for the construc- tion of their nests; the extremity of the tail being curled downward below the bundle. The nest, according to Mr. Gould, is made in a hollow specially dug in the ground for its reception; and as its upper surface thus becomes level with the herb- age, only the practiced eyes of the blacks are able to detect its presence. During the day either one or two of these animals occupy a nest, in which they completely conceal themselves by dragging herbage over the entrance. Here they remain till evening, when they sally forth in quest of food. The rufous rat kangaroo may either form a somewhat similar nest beneath a fallen tree trunk, or under the shelter of some low bush, or may repose during the day in a seat among the herbage like the "form " of a hare. On being pursued, this species runs for a short distance with great speed, but as it always takes shelter in hollow trunks it falls a prey to the blacks, by whom it is relished as food. The rat-like little animal, scientifically known as Hypsiprymnodon Kan o moschatus, and which may be termed in popular language the five-toed kangaroo, is one of those connecting links so interesting to the evolu- tionist, but so extremely inconvenient to the systematic zoologist. This creature stands, indeed, almost exactly midway between the common rat kangaroo and the phalangers, to be immediately mentioned; although the kangaroo-like structure of its lower jaw has led to its being placed in the present family. The five-toed kangaroo is confined to Queensland, and is very nearly the size of a large rat, to which it also presents a general external resemblance. The body is clothed with close, crisp, velvety fur, of a grizzled, rusty, orange-gray color; the orange tinge being strongest on the back, and almost disappearing on the lighter under parts. The head is sharply pointed, with rather large and nearly naked ears, and the tapering, cylindrical, black tail is likewise naked, and also scaly. The rela- tive proportions of the fore and hind-limbs are not far removed from the ordinary Mammalian type. The fore-paws are small, with five toes, each provided with a delicate claw; and the hind-feet differ from those of all the other members of the family in having a first or "great" toe, in addition to the usual four. This first toe 1424 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS is clawless and opposable to the others, and is placed high up on the foot, near the heel; the second and third toes, as in all the other members of the family, are slender and united in a common skin. The teeth generally resemble those of the rat kangaroos, but the permanent premolar in each jaw is short from front to back, and is bent outward from the line of the other teeth in the manner characteristic of the phalangers. The best description of the habits of the animal is the one given by Mr. P. Ramsay, who writes that the five-toed kangaroo "inhabits the dense and damp por- tions of the scrubs which fringe the rivers and clothe the sides of the coast range in certain districts. The animal is by no means rare, yet, from its retiring habits, and the dense nature of the parts frequented by it, it is at all times difficult to obtain. Its habits are chiefly diurnal, and its actions when not disturbed by no means un- graceful; it progresses in much the same way as the rat kangaroos, but procures its food by turning over the debris in the scrubs in search of insects, worms, and tube- rose roots, frequently eating the palm berries, which it holds in its fore-paws after the manner of the phalangers, sitting up on its haunches, or sometimes digging the bandicoots. Seldom more than one or two are found together, unless accompanied by the young." It is added that, at least in some instances, there are two young at a birth; and that the breeding season is during the rains, which last from Febru- ary to May. EXTINCT KANGAROO-LIKE MARSUPIALS In addition to those of several of the existing species of kangaroos, wallabies, and rat kangaroos, the caverns and superficial deposits of Australia contain numer- ous remains of kangaroos, or kangaroo-like types, some of which attained gigantic dimensions. One of these (Macropus titan] was allied to the great gray kan- garoo, but of larger size; while others, as M. brehus, appear to have been gigantic wallabies, with skulls of as much as a foot in length. Other species, distinguished by the characteristics of their permanent SKUI.Iv OF AN EXTINCT KANGAROO-LIKE ANIMAL (THE DIPROTODON). premolar teeth Or by (After Sir R. Owen.) the bony union of the lower jaw, constitute extinct genera, which have been named Sthenurus, Pro- coptodon, and the Palorchestes; the skull of the single representative of the latter measuring upward of sixteen inches in length. THE PHALANGER TRIBE 1425 All the above-mentioned types may be included in the Kangaroo family, but there were other forms which cannot be included in any existing group. Largest of these is the gigantic diprotodon, with a skull of about a yard in length, huge chisel-like first upper incisor teeth, and no perforation in the side of the lower jaw. This creature, which must have been fully as large as the largest rhinoceros, evi- dently walked on all four limbs in the ordinary manner. Another allied but some- what smaller animal was the notothere, characterized by its extremely-short skull; it appears to have been to some extent intermediate between the kangaroos and the wombats. THE PHALANGER TRIBE Family PHALANGERID^E Under the generax term of phalangers — a name referring to the union of the second and third toes of the hind-foot — may be included a large number of small or medium-sized Australasian Marsupials of arboreal habits, which are so closely con- nected with the kangaroo tribe through the five-toed kangaroo as to render the dis- tinction between the two families a matter of some difficulty. The whole of these animals are characterized by their thick, woolly coats; and, with the single exception of the koala, they have long tails, which are frequently endowed with the power of prehension. The fore and hind-limbs instead of present- ing the disproportionate relative lengths characterizing most of the kangaroos, are of the normal proportions, and the front paws are provided with five nearly equal- sized and clawed toes. The structure of the hind-feet is essentially the same as in the five-toed kangaroo; that is to say, there is a nailless first toe which can be opposed to the others, while the second and third are slender and inclosed in a com- mon skin. Whereas, however, in the five-toed kangaroos the fourth toe is much longer and more powerful than all the others, in the phalangers it is not much larger than the fifth. The whole group differs from the kangaroos in the absence of any pit on the outer sides of the hinder portion of the lower jaw, as shown in the accompanying figure of the skele- ton; while if there be any per- foration in this portion of the jaw, it is extremely minute. As regards the dentition, there are always three pairs of upper in- cisor teeth, of which the first is elongated, and likewise a well- developed tusk or canine; while SKELETON AND JAWS OF PHALANGER. in the .lower jaw the single func- tional pair of incisors are large and pointed, although they lack the scissor-like action characterizing those of the kangaroos. In the adults there are usually five func- tional cheek-teeth, of which the last four are molars, and the other the permanent premolar. The premolar in each jaw has a tall cutting crown, set obliquely to the line of the molars; while the latter, of which the fourth may be absent, have usually blunt tubercles on their crowns, although they may be of a cutting type. 90 1426 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS In young animals there are two milk-molars in advance of the first molar in each jaw; and between the first of these and the functional front teeth there occur sev- eral minute teeth in each jaw, very variable in number and quite useless, which it is impossible to name correctly, several of these rudimentary teeth usually persisting throughout life. While some of the phalangers are mainly or exclusively herbivo- THE LONG-SNOUTED PHALANGER. (Two-thirds natural size.) (After Gould.) rous, others are more or less omnivorous; and it is in this family alone among Mar- supials that we meet with species endowed with the power of spurious flight. The elegant little creature known as the long-snouted phalanger "p'h *\ r ( Tarsipes rostratus] , may be compared in form and size to the common shrew; and it is the sole representative of a special subfamily of the phalangers. In spite, however, of this superficial resemblance to a shrew, the crea- THE PHALANGER TRIBE 1427 ture is a true Marsupial, the female having a well-developed pouch for the young. Externally, the most characteristic feature of this animal is the extremely-long and pointed muzzle, in which the opening of the mouth is very small. From this tiny mouth can be protruded at will a long, slender, and highly-extensile tongue, sharply pointed at its extremity. The rather small ears are rounded and clothed with very short hairs, and the beady black eyes are small and prominent. The feet are of the same general type as in the typical phalangers; but from the small size of their nails, which are mostly embedded in fleshy parts, they appear more adapted for grasping small twigs than for ascending tree trunks. The tail slightly exceeds the length of the head and body, and is cylindrical and tapering, with but a scanty clothing of extremely-short hair, and endowed with prehensile power. The fur is short, close, and somewhat coarse. The color is subject to considerable individual variation, but its general tint is gray, more or less suffused with rusty red above and yellow beneath. A black line runs from the head along the middle of the back to the root of the tail; and on either side of this line are two grayish bands, each bor- dered by a rusty-brown stripe passing imperceptibly into the rufous of the flanks. The upper part of the head is brown, passing into rufous on the sides of the face. Although the central pair of lower incisors are relatively large and well developed, all the other teeth, of which the number is very variable, are simply conical, and placed at considerable intervals apart. This rudimentary condition of the teeth, together with the peculiar characteristics of the tongue and mouth, clearly indicate that the creature is a very specialized member of the family. The long-snouted phalanger is an inhabitant of Western Australia, where it is known to the natives as the tait. Although in some dis- tricts stated to be very rare, in others it appears to be far from uncommon; its favor- ite resorts being low scrubby bushes. It is strictly nocturnal; and constructs its nests in the taller plants and shrubs, among the branches of which it climbs in search of its favorite food, honey. This food is procured by thrusting the long ex- tensile tongue into the cups of the flowers; and, as nearly all the Australian flower- ing plants are honey yielders, it is obtainable at all seasons. With the beautiful animals commonly known by the name of cuscus, one of which {Phalanger maculatus) is represented on the follow- ing page, we come to the first generic group of the typical phalangers, which pre- sent the general characteristics noticed under the heading of the family. The members of the present genus are relatively-large or medium-sized animals, with thick woolly coats and long prehensile tails, of which the terminal portion is com- pletely naked. Their ears are short or of medium length, invariably covered with hair externally, and sometimes also on their inner surface. In the fore-feet the toes are of nearly equal length, and furnished with long, stout, and curved claws; while the soles of both fore and hind-feet are naked and striated, with several large and ill-defined fleshy pads. The crowns of the molar teeth have four cusps; of which the outer pair in those of the upper jaw are somewhat compressed from side to side. Altogether there are five different species of cuscus, mostly of about the size of a large cat; and among these the spotted cuscus herewith figured is by far the hand- somest. In the male of this species the ground color of the fur of the back is 1428 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS usually a dirty yellowish white, marked with numerous irregular blotchings of reddish brown and black; the chin and under parts being white, often tinged with yellow or red, and the head or limbs gray or reddish. There is, however, great individual variation, some specimens being almost uniformly gray or red. The smaller female (as shown on the right side of our figure) is generally of a uniform gray and black above, and white beneath, although sometimes red. A much more sober-hued ani- THE SPOTTED cuscus. (One -fourth natural size.) mal is the black cuscus (P. ursinus) , of Celebes, in which the fur is of a uniform black or dark brown color, with the exception of that on the inside of the ears, which is white. With the exception of the spotted species, which ranges to North Australia, the cuscuses are mainly confined to the islands of the Indo-Malayan region, as far westward as Celebes. Only the spotted cuscus and one other species are even THE PHALANGER TRIBE 1429 found in New Guinea, and they are the sole Old- World Marsupials occurring to the westward of that island. The gray cuscus (P. orientalis], of Amboyna, Timor, and some of the smaller islands, was the first Australasian Mammal known in Europe, having been discovered and described as far back as the year 1611. All the species of cuscus are dull and sleepy creatures by day, but become more active at night, which is their chief feeding time; the comparatively-large size of their eyes being in accordance with nocturnal habits. Mr. Wallace writes that these animals ' ' live in trees, feeding upon the leaves, of which they devour large quanti- ties. They move about slowly, and are difficult to kill, owing to the thickness of their fur, and their tenacity of life. A heavy charge of shot will often lodge in the skin and do them no harm, and even breaking the spine or piercing the brain will not kill them for some hours. The natives everywhere eat their flesh, and as their motions are so slow, easily catch them by climbing, so that it is wonderful they have not been exterminated. It may be, however, that their dense, woolly fur protects them from birds of prey, and the islands they live in are too thinly inhabited for man to be able to exterminate them." These animals appear to be nowhere common, and in most parts of their habitat are very rare. In addition to leaves and fruit, they will catch and eat birds and other small animals, and are, indeed, reported to be more carnivorously inclined than any of the other members of the family. They frequent only forests containing large trees, and pass from the boughs of one tree to another after the manner of squirrels, sometimes swinging themselves by the tail in order to reach a branch which would otherwise be inaccessible. There are four teats in the pouch of the female, which usually contains from two to four 3Toung; and it is said that a female is never killed without at least one being in the pouch. So tightly do the young adhere to the nipples, that they cannot be torn away without causing blood to flow. The true phalangers (Trichosurtts} , of which there are two species, Phalan s from Australia, and Tasmania, where, in common with the members of the next genus, they are called opossums, are readily distinguished from the cuscuses by the characteristic of their tails. Thus, instead of being taper- ing and naked for about half its length, this appendage is thickly covered with bushy hair up to its very tip, which, together with a narrow line on the lower sur- face extending about a third of the length, is alone naked. The ears are more or less hairy behind, and there is also hair on the hind-feet behind the heel. The rela- tive lengths of the toes of the fore-feet are somewhat different from those obtaining in the cuscuses, and there is also a gland on the chest not found in the latter. The common phalanger ( Trichosurus vutyecula) is one of the most abundant animals in Australia, where it is found everywhere in forest regions, with the exception of Cape York; it is represented by a variety in Tasmania. Deriving its specific name from its general resemblance in size and form to a small fox, it is especially characterized by its comparatively-long and narrow ears, in which the length considerably exceeds the width. In the ordinary form the general color of the soft and close fur is gray above and yellowish white beneath; the ears being white, and the tail black. .In the larger and stouter-built Tasmanian variety the fur is longer, and of a more de- cided brown or rufous color, with little or no white on the ears. The short-eared 1430 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS phalanger (T. caninus], of Queensland and New South Wales, comes very close to the latter variety, from which it differs by its short and rounded ears. While the common phalanger inhabits forests, the short-eared species frequents scrub jungle; but in other respects the habits of the two are probably very similar, both being purely nocturnal creatures. During the daytime the common species lies securely curled up in some hole in a giant gum tree, but soon after sundown issues forth to prowl in search of food, and remains abroad until the laughing jack- ass commences its morning notes. Leaves — especially those of the peppermint gum — constitute their chief food; but their diet is occasionally varied with the flesh of a bird. In their movements among the forest trees they are very nimble, and they are much aided in their evolutions by their highly-prehensile tails. They utter, especially during the pairing season, a loud, chattering cry, which echoes far COMMON PHALANGER. through the forest stillness. The female phalanger gives birth to one or two young, which are retained for a long period in the pouch, but afterwards cling to the back of their parent till able to shift for themselves. Very similar in external appearance to the true phalangers is a Tooth d &rouP °f ten species, which, from the peculiar structure of their mo- Phalangers ^ars maY be termed crescent-toothed phalangers. Externally, they differ from the preceding group by the tail being tapering, and having shorter hair on its terminal third and under surface than elsewhere, with the lower surface of the tip naked for a short distance. There is, moreover, no gland on the chest, and the two inner toes of the front paw are very markedly opposable to the other three. In addition to certain features in the skull, these phalangers are readily distinguished from the last by having the whole four cusps on their upper molar THE PHALANGER TRIBE 1431 teeth distinctly crescent shaped; thus simulating those of the ancestors of the Rumi- nant Ungulates. These phalangers inhabit Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, and are di- vided into two groups each containing five species. In the first group, as represented by the Herbert river phalanger (Pseudochirus herbertensis} , and the widely-spread ring-tailed phalanger (P. peregrmus), first discovered by Captain Cook, the ears are of medium length, and longer than broad, while the tail is tipped with white. This group is confined to Australia and Tasmania. In the second group, on the other hand, the ears are very short, and wider than long; while, with one exception, the tail is not white at the tip. The exceptional species is Archer's phalanger (P. arckeri), of Queensland, which is the only representative of the group found of New Guinea. Consequently, all the Australian crescent-toothed phalangers are distin- guished from those of Papua by their white tail tips. The flying representatives of this family belong to three groups, sev- e£phal n^er era^y allied to as many nonvolant types. The largest of these forms is the great or taguan flying phalanger (Petauroides volans}, of Queens- land and Victoria, which is the sole representative of its genus, and appears, indeed, to be nothing more than a cresent- toothed phalanger which has acquired a flying membrane; being like it in skull and teeth, while the tail, which is prehensile, is similarly naked on the under surface of the tip. The flying membrane extends from the wrist to the ankle, but is reduced to a narrow strip on the fore-arm and lower leg. In size this species may measure as much as twenty inches to the root of the tail. It is characterized by its large and thickly-haired ears and long silky coat; its general color being blackish brown with white beneath. The striped phalanger (Dadylopsila trivirgata ) , ranging from New "phalan er ^u^nea to Queensland, together with a second Papuan species (D.pal- pator], represent a nonflying genus, agreeing with the last two in having the under surface of the tip of the tail naked, but distinguished by having the fourth toe of the fore-foot much longer than either of the others. These pha- langers, which are of medium size, are, moreover, easily distinguished from their kindred by the back being ornamented with broad, longitudinal stripes of black and white. Although nothing definite is known as to their habits, it is probable that the elongated fourth digit of the fore-paw is for the purpose of extracting insects and grubs from beneath the bark, or out of holes in trees. The true flying phalangers (Petaurus}, of which there are two ex- True Flying , . , . Phalaneers cluslvely Australian species, and one common to Australia and New Guinea, are small or medium-sized forms, closely allied to Leadbeater's phalanger, noticed below. They are readily distinguished from the preceding groups by the tail being evenly bushy to its extreme tip, without any naked portion, and not prehensile. The flying membrane is broad, and extends from the outermost toe of the fore-foot to the ankle. The best-known species is the squirrel flying pha- langer {Petaurus sdureus) — the sugar squirrel of the colonists — which is the one represented in our illustration. It is confined to Eastern Australia. The length of the head and body in this pretty little animal is about nine inches, and that of the tail rather more. The ears are of medium length, the tail extremely bushy, especially H32 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS near its root, and the fur very soft. The general color is a delicate ashy gray- but a longitudinal black band commencing near the nose runs down the back to stop short of the root of the tail. The eyes are ringed with black; the ears are black at the base externally but white at the hinder angle; the cheeks are white, save for a black patch immediately below the ear; while the chin, under parts, and edges of the flying membrane are also white. The tip of the tail is black, and there is a black line on each side of the flying membrane internally to the white margin. The following excellent account of the habits of the yellow flying phalanger (/*. australis}, from mountain districts in New South Wales and Victoria, is given by SQUIRREL FLYING PHALANGER (One-third natural size.) Gould, who says that "this animal is common in all the bushes of New South Wales, particularly in those which stretch along the coast from Port Phillip to More- ton bay. In these vast forests, trees of one kind or another are perpetually flower- ing, and thus offer a never-failing supply of the blossoms upon which it feeds; the flowers of the various kinds of gums (eucalyptus), some of which are of great mag- nitude, being the principal favorites. Like the rest of its genus, it is nocturnal in its habits, dwelling in holes and in the sprouts of the larger branches during the day, and displaying the greatest activity at night while running over the small leafy branches, frequently even to their very extremities, in search of insects and the THE PHALANGER TRIBE H33 honey of the newly -opened blossoms. Its structure being ill adapted for terrestrial habits, it seldom descends to the ground except for the purpose of passing to a tree too distant to be reached by flight. When chased or forced to flight, it ascends to the highest branch and performs the most enormous leaps, sweeping from tree to tree with wonderful address; a slight ascent gives its body an impetus which, with the expansion of its membrane, enables it to pass to a considerable distance, always ascending a little at the extremity of the leap; by this ascent the animal is prevented from receiving the shock it would otherwise sustain." Leadbeater's PYGMY FI.YING PHALANGER. (Natural size.) The little Leadbeater's phalanger (Gymnobelideus leadbeateri) , uucaLcr s .... , Phalanger wnicn 1S rather smaller than the lesser flying squirrel, is of interest as being apparently a representative of the parent form from which the true flying squirrels were derived. This animal may, indeed, be concisely described as a flying squirrel, minus the flying membrane. It is an inhabitant of Victoria. The dormouse phalangers, of which there are four species from Western Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, are small creatures somewhat resembling dormice in general appearance, and readily dis- tinguished by their cylindrical mouse-like tails, which are covered with fur at the base, then scaly for the greater part of their length, but naked and prehensile at the tip. In the smallest species (Dromicia condnna) the length of the head and body may be less than two and one-half inches, while the tail is slightly longer. They are all nocturnal and arboreal in their habits, one of the species being stated to con- ceal itself during the day beneath the loose bark of large gum trees. They feed upon honey and young shoots of grass, and probably also insects. Dormouse Phalangers 1434 One of the smallest and at the same time the most elegant of Mam- s mals is the exquisite little creature commonly known as the pygmy flying phalanger (Acrobates Pygm&a}, in which the length of the head and body only slightly exceeds two and one-half inches; that of the tail being some- what more. This phalanger is readily distinguished from those yet noticed by the long hair on the tail being arranged in two opposite fringes like the vanes of a feather. The general build of the animal is extremely light and delicate; the flying membrane is very narrow, extending from the elbow to the flank, where it almost disappears, and thence to the knee; while the toes are furnished with expanded pads at their tips. The fur is long, soft, and silky; its general color on the upper parts being brownish gray; while on the margins of the flying membrane and beneath, to- gether with the inner sides of the limbs, it is white. The teeth are sharp, and ap- KOALA. (One-sixth natural size.) parently adapted for an insectivorous diet. In spite of its diminutive proportions, the female has a well-developed pouch containing four nipples; but it is difficult to imagine the minuteness which must necessarily characterize the newly-born young. The pygmy flying phalanger is confined to Queensland, New South Wales, and Victoria, and is reported to be very abundant in the neighborhood of Port Jackson. Its food consists of honey and insects; and its agility in leaping from branch to branch is described as little short of marvelous. The little pen-tailed phalanger (Distcechurtts pennatus}. of New Pen-Tailed - . . , ph . Guinea, has precisely the same relation to the preceding animal as is presented by Leadbeater's phalanger to the members of the genus PetauruSy being in fact a pygmy flying phalanger without the parachute. The foot-pads are, however, wanting. The general appearance of the animal is very THE PHALANGER TRIBE 1435 dormouse-like; the head being ornamented with stripes of white and dark brown, while the fur of the body is uniformly buff. This curious and somewhat bear-like creature is an aberrant mem- Koala ber of the family, constituting not only a distinct genus but likewise a separate subfamily by itself. To the natives it is known by the name of koala, while by the colonists it is generally termed the native bear; its scientific title being Phascolarctus cinereus. The koala has been compared in size to a large poodle dog, the length of the head and body being about twenty-four inches. It is a heavily- built animal, differing from all the other members of the family in the absence of any external tail, and also readily recognized by its large, squared, and thickly- fringed ears. The fur is extremely thick, woolly, and moderately soft; its general color on the upper parts being ashy gray, with a tinge of brown, but becoming yel- lowish white on the hind-quarters, while the under parts are whitish. All the feet are provided with long claws, and the two innermost toes of the fore-feet are com- pletely opposable to the remaining three. A peculiarity of the koala is the posses- sion of pouches in the cheeks for storing food; while the dentition differs from that of the typical phalangers in the absence of the minute rudimentary teeth referred to above. The upper molar teeth have very short and broad crowns, somewhat resem- bling, in the structure of their tubercles, those of the crescent-toothed phalangers. In its internal organization the koala approximates to the wombats. The koala is confined to Eastern Australia, where it ranges from Queensland to Victoria. Like the other members of the family it is chiefly arboreal, moving awkwardly when on the ground, and when pursued always endeavoring to gain a tree with all possible speed. Its movements are usually com- paratively slow and sluggish, and, although mainly nocturnal, it may not unfre- quently be seen abroad in the daytime. Koalas are generally found in pairs, and spend the day either high up on the tree tops or in hollow logs. They are purely herbivorous, and subsist chiefly on the leaves of the blue gum tree, although at night they descend to the ground in order to dig for roots. In the evening these animals slowly creep along the bough of the giant gums, the females often having a solitary cub perched on their backs. When irritated or disturbed, the koala utters a loud cry, variously described as a hoarse groan, and a shrill yell. The superficial deposits of Giant Extinct A ,. , . ,, , „, . Australia have vielded evi- Phalanger dence of the former existence in that country of a phalanger ( Thylacoleo carnifex) far exceeding any of the living forms in point of size, and remarkable for the exceedingly-specialized character of its dentition. The functional teeth, as shown in the accompanying figure of the skull, were, indeed, reduced to a pair of large incisors, and a single elongated cut- SKUI%^^Ai}; •< &Mti*&^ - ^. ' . THE TASMANIAN DEVIL. (One-tenth natural size.) number of cheek-teeth to seven on each side. The crowns of these teeth are more minutely cusped, and the canines relatively smaller than in the dasyures. The muz- zle is rather long and pointed, the ears moderately rounded and nearly naked, and the feet short and broad; the hind-foot always having a distinct, although nailless, first toe. The long tail is subject to considerable variation in the different species, being in some cases bushy, in others furnished with a crest of hair, and in others nearly naked. The pouch is rudimentary, being represented merely by a few loose folds of skin. Probably these animals produce a larger number of young at a birth than any other Australasian Marsupial, seeing that in some species the number of teats may be as many as ten. There are altogether thirteen distinct species of the genus, distributed over Australia and New Guinea, and also ranging into the Am islands. Of these thirteen, nine are distinguished by the absence of any stripe down 1444 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS the back, and are mainly confined to Australia. This stripe is present in the re- maining four, which are exclusively Papuan. Of the two species figured here, the yellow-footed pouched mouse (P. flavipes} is a small form, liable to considerable variation in point of size and color, and inhabiting a large portion of Australia al- though unknown in Tasmania. It belongs to a section of the first group, charac- terized by the tail being evenly covered with short hair. In general appearance it is a mouse-like creature, with close and rather crisp fur, of which the prevailing color is clear gray more or less suffused with yellow or rufous. The under parts, together with the feet, in the typical East- Australian variety, are yellow; this color sometimes deepening to rufous and spreading over the whole body. The variety inhabiting Western and Northern Australia differs in that the whole of the under parts and limbs are more or less nearly pure white instead of yellow. COMMON DASYURE. (One-fourth natural size.) The brush-tailed phascologale (P. penitillata] , is a larger species, inhabiting the whole of Australia except the extreme north, although likewise unknown in Tasmania. It belongs to a section of the unstriped group, characterized by the ex- tremity of the tail being evenly tufted on all sides. It is a more stoutly-built animal than the last, with short and coarse fur. The general color of the upper parts is pale grizzled gray, while the chin is white, and the lower surface of the body pale gray or white. The head is characterized by the large size of the ears, and the pres- ence of a more or less indistinct black streak down the nose. These pretty little animals are arboreal and insectivorous in their habits, and appear to fill the place in Australia occupied in the Oriental region by the Placental tree-shrews, which they much resemble in general habits. All seek their insect prey by climbing the boughs of trees, and at least some make nests in the hollows of the trunks and branches. The tiny creature, known as the common pouched mouse (Sminthopsis murina), constitutes, with three other nearly-allied species, a distinct genus, differing from the last by the extreme narrowness of the hind-foot, and also by the circumstance THE DASYURE TRIBE H45 that the soles of the feet are covered with hair or granulated. This species measures three and one-fourth inches in length to the root of the *m tail; the length of the tail being a little less than three inches. The Pouched Mouse pouched mice of this genus are confined to Australia and Tasmania, and since they are terrestrial and insectivorous, they may be compared to the shrews among Placental Mammals. In all the pouch is well developed, and the number of teats varies from eight to ten. The last and apparently the rarest of the typical section of the •* ' family is the jerboa pouched mouse (Antechinomys laniger), from South Queensland and New South Wales, which constitutes a genus by itself. This little creature, which has much the appearance of a sharp-nosed jer- boa, with very large oval ears, and a long tail, becoming bushy at the end, is distin- guished from the members of the preceding genus by the great elongation of the v\> YELLOW-FOOTED POUCHED MOUSE. (Natural size.) hind-limbs, and the total absence of the first toe from the hind-foot. Its form is very slender and graceful, and the soft and fine fur composed almost entirely of under-fur. The general color is pale grizzled gray, with the chin and feet pure white, and the hairs of the under parts gray at the base and white at the tips. The tail, of which the length considerably exceeds that of the head and body, is fawn colored. This pouched mouse inhabits open sandy districts, and is mainly, if not exclusively, terrestrial. It progresses by leaps like a jerboa, and is accompanied in its haunts by the Placental jumping mice of the genus Hapalotis. One of the most curious and interesting of all the Australian Mar- supials, is the little banded ant-eater (Myrmecobius fasdatus} \ which derives its special interest from the circumstance that it comes closer to some of the extinct Marsupials of the Secondary rocks of Europe than does any other living type. This animal, which may be compared in size to a squirrel, differs Banded Ant- eater 1446 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS from the other members of the family in that there are more than seven cheek-teeth on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, and also in the tongue being elongated and cylindrical, and thus capable of being protruded a long distance from the mouth. The banded ant-eater takes its name from the broad transverse bars of white on the dark ground color of the hinder half of the back and loins; the general hue of the fur of the upper parts being dark chestnut red, with the under surface of the body white, and a dark line running from the ear through the eye toward the nose. The fur itself is of a somewhat coarse and bristly nature. In form the animal is charac- terized by its long but broad head, and narrow, elongated muzzle, moderate-sized and somewhat pointed ears, elongated body, short limbs, and long bushy tail. In BRUSH-TAILED PHASCOLOGA^E. (One-half natural size. ) the fore- feet the first and fifth claws are considerably shorter than the others; while in the hind-foot there is no external trace of the first toe. The banded ant-eater is one of the few Marsupials in which the female has no pouch; the young, when first born, being merely concealed by the long hair of the belly as they cling to the teats (four in number). The teeth are all small, and are mostly separated from one another by distinct intervals; those of the cheek series are either eight or nine in number on each side of both the upper and lower jaws, thus making a total of either fifty-two or fifty-six teeth — a greater number than in any other existing members of the order. In many of the above-mentioned points this creature differs widely from all the other Dasyuridce, and there is considerable justification for the view THE DASYURE TRIBE 1447 that it ought to constitute a family by itself. The banded ant-eater inhabits West- •ern and Southern Australia, and lives mainly on the ground, although it will some- •f .»-s±__ — . • —i- > ~~~~~ —^~-~" v "^h J ' v ""*•"•'"-'" JERBOA POUCHED MOUSE. (Two-thirds natural size. ) times ascend trees. Its nutriment consists entirely of insects, and chiefly of ants THE BANDED ANT-EATER. (One-third natural size.) and 'termites, which are collected by the long extensile tongue. Its favorite haunts are sandy regions, where there are numerous hollow tree stems and ant-hills. 1448 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS THE POUCHED MOLE Family NOTORTCTID^ In general bodily conformation is a mole- like creature, measuring UNDER SURFACE OF THE POUCHED MOI.E. (Two-thirds natural size.) (After Stirling.) the pouched mole (Notoryctes typhlops) about five inches in total length, and covered with long, soft, and silky hair of a light fawn color, deepen- ing in parts to golden. There are no external ears, and the eyes are rep- resented merely by small black dots buried in the skin. The nose and upper lip are protected by a peculiar quadrangular leathery shield, the use of which to a burrowing animal is sufficiently obvious. The short limbs, which are covered with hair down to the claws, are very remarkable in structure. Eoth pairs are of nearly equal length, powerfully made, and furnished with five toes. In the fore-paws the third and fourth toes are enormously enlarged and furnished with huge triangular claws of great power; while in the hinder pair the first toe is small and furnished with a small claw, and the others decrease in size from the second to the fifth. The short, cylindrical, and stumpy tail is hard and leathery, and marked by a series of dis- tinct rings. The pouch opens backward, and contains two very small teats. The teeth are small and weak, and appear to be forty in number. Of these, three pairs in each jaw are incisors, and seven are cheek-teeth; the molars having triangular three-cusped crowns, and much resembling those of the golden mole. This mole ap- pears to be a very rare and locally distrib- stirlin uted animal, restricted to the deserts of Northern South Australia, lying to the northeast of Lake Eyre. Here it inhabits flats and hills of red sand, upon which grow porcupine grass (Triodia) and acacias. Dr. Stirling, by whom the Marsupial mole was first made known to science, states that most of the specimens he obtained were ' ' captured by the aboriginals, who, with, FEET OF THE POUCHED MOLE. (About two-thirds natural size.) i. Outer aspect of left fore-foot. 2. Profile view of same. 3. Inner aspect of same. 4. Upper surface of left hind-foot. 5. Palmar surface of same. — After THE OPOSSUMS 1449 MOLE. (About two-thirds natural size.) (After Stirling.) their phenomenal powers of tracking, follow up their traces until they are caught. For this reason they can only be found with certainty after rain, which sets the sur- face of the sand and enables it to retain tracks that would be immediately obliterated where it is dry and loose. Nor are they found except during warm weather, so that the short period of semitropical summer rains appears to be the favorable time for their capture. ' ' Perpetual burrowing seems to be the characteristic trait of this animal. On " emerging from the sand, it travels on the surface for a few feet, at a slowish pace, with a peculiar sinuous motion, the belly much flattened against the ground, while it rests on the outsides of its fore-paws, which are thus doubled in under it. It leaves behind it a pe- culiar sinuous triple track, the outer SKULL (i and 2) AND SKELETON OF THE HIND (3) AND FORE (4) FEET OF THE POUCHED impressions, more or less interrupted, being caused by the feet, and the cen- tral continuous line by the tail, which seems to be pressed down in the rear. It enters the sand obliquely, and travels underground either for a few feet or for many yards, not apparently reaching a depth of more than two or three inches, for while underground its progress can often be detected by a slight cracking or moving of the surface over its position." THE OPOSSUMS Family DlDELPHTIDsE The last family of the existing Marsupials is constituted by the well-known opossums, which are now confined to America, although during the early portion of the Tertiary period they also ranged over Europe. Closely allied to the Australian Dasyuridce, the opossums are mainly distinguished by the hind-foot having a well- developed inner toe, which, although nailless, is capable of being opposed to the other digits. They are further distinguished by the number of their incisor teeth, of which there are five pairs in the upper and three in the lower jaw. The tail is generally of considerable length, partially naked and prehensile at the extremity, and the feet are likewise devoid of any hairy covering. Although complete in a few of the species, the pouch is generally either wanting altogether, or represented merely by a couple of longitudinal folds in the skin of the abdomen, which par- tially conceal the numerous teats. As a rule, opossums may be compared in gen- eral outward appearance to rats, although they have longer snouts terminating in a perfectly-naked muzzle; while in the larger species the body becomes proportion- ately stouter. 1450 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS As regards habits, all the opossums, with the exception of the water opossum, are arboreal, and omnivorous or insectivorous in their diet. They are nocturnal, and spend the day concealed either among the foliage of trees or in hollows in their trunks or boughs. The opossums take the place in America of the Insectivores of the Old World. They are naturally forest-loving animals; but a few are found on the pampas of Argentine, where they have adapted themselves to a terrestrial life. In those species in which the pouch is rudimental or wanting, the young after leav- ing the teats are carried upon the back of their female parent, where they maintain their position by curling their tails round that of their mother, which is bent for- ward for the purpose. Opossums are essentially characteristic of Central and South True Opossums COMMON OPOSSUM. (One-fifth natural size.) America, only one out of some twenty-four species ranging into North America, where it extends as far north as the United States. The true opossums, of which there are about twenty-four living species, are characterized by the absence of webbing between the toes, and by their arboreal habits. The common or Virginian opossum ( Didelphys marsupialis} is the sole representative of the first group, and likewise the only species found in the northern half of America. It is from three to five times the size of any other species, and characterized by its long, scaly, prehensile tail, and by the fur consisting of a mixture of long bristle-like hairs and a fine under-fur. It may be compared in size to a cat, the length of the head and body reaching twenty-two inches in large specimens, and that of the tail fifteen inches. It is, however, subject to great variation both in size and color, and on this account has received a number of distinct names, the common South- American form being gen- THE OPOSSUMS 1451 erally known as the crab-eating opossum. The general color of the fur may, in- deed, vary through all the intermediate shades from black to white, while the hair on the face shows an almost equal amount of variation, the northern forms being almost wholly white in this region, while those from the south are darker, and often nearly black. In all cases the pouch is complete, but the number of teats may vary from five to thirteen. The range of this widely-spread species includes the whole of temperate North America, and extends southward through the tropical regions of the other half of PHILANDER OPOSSUM. (One-half natural size.) the continent. In many parts it is one of the commonest animals, and may be met with even in towns, where it lies concealed during the day in drains and other lurking places. Its diet is a mixed one, comprising fruits, roots, birds, and other small animals, eggs, and carrion; and it is reported to be very destructive to poultry. With the aid of its prehensile tail, this opossum is one of the most expert of climbing Mammals; and when caught, it has, in common with some of the other members of its genus, the habit of feigning death. Like so many Marsupials, it is extremely tenacious of life. The young are born in the spring, and comprise from 1452 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS six to sixteen in a litter. They remain in the pouch till they are about the size of a mouse, after which they venture abroad, although returning to its shelter for the purpose of being suckled or sheltered for a considerable time. The female ex- hibits the most marked attachment to her offspring, and endeavors by every means in her power to prevent her pouch from being opened. P _ .. The rat-tailed opossum ( D. nudicaudata) is a well-known repre- Opossum sentative of the second group of the genus, which includes three medium-sized species, characterized by their short, close fur being of one kind only, and their long tails, which in two of the species are naked, although in the thick-tailed opossum ( D. crassicaudata) the tail is hairy nearly to its tip. Although in the two species above named the pouch is rudimental or absent, it is well developed in the Quica opossum ( D. opossum). The philander ( D. philander} and the woolly opossum ( D. lani- gera) are easily distinguished from the members of the preceding group by the presence of a distinct brown streak running down the middle of the face. The pouch is represented merely by two longitudinal folds of skin. The philander attains a length of from nine and one-half to eleven and one-half inches to the root of the tail; the tail itself varying from twelve and one-half to fif- teen inches. The fur is thick, soft, and woolly, and of a dull yellowish or rufous- gray color, with the face pale gray, save for the dark brown streak down the forehead, and similar dark areas round the eyes; the under parts being some shade of yellow. This species is restricted to Guiana and Brazil, but is replaced in most of the other parts of tropical South America by the somewhat larger woolly opossum. In both species, the young, which may be a dozen in number, are carried on the back of the mother, and it is marvelous with what rapidity the females when thus loaded manage to climb trees. The murine opossum {D. murina}, ranging from 'Central Mexico to Brazil, may be taken as an example of the fourth group of the genus, in which all the species are small, with short, close hair, very long tails, and no dark streak down the middle of the face. The pouch is absent in all the group. In size the murine opossum may be compared to a common mouse; the general color (of its fur being bright red. From their small size it may be in- ferred that all the opossums of this group live exclusively upon insects. The last group of the genus includes its smallest representatives, among which the three- striped opossum ( D. americana) of Brazil is Opossum conspicuous for its coloration. The whole ten species which constitute this group are shrew-like little creatures, easily recognized by their short and gen- erally nonprehensile tails, which are less than half the length of the head and body. The three-striped species, which is by no means the smallest, measures from four and one-half to five and one-fourth inches to the root of the tail; while the length of the tail is rather less than two and one-half inches. Its general color is reddish gray, with three black bands running down the back. Another species ( D. unistriata ) has a single dark line down the back; but in nearly all the others the color is uniform. The smallest of all is the shrew opossum ( D. sorex ), from Rio Grande do Sul, in "which the length of the head and body is less than three inches. THE OPOSSUMS H53 Water Opos- sum The water opossum or yapock {Chironectes minima) differs from all the other members of the family in having the hind-toes webbed, and the presence of a large tubercle on the outer side of each fore- foot, giving the appearance of a sixth digit. This animal ranges from Guatemala to Brazil, and is distinguished by its peculiar coloration and aquatic habits. The fur is short and close, and the long tail naked and scaly for the greater part of its length. The head and body measure about fourteen inches in length, and the tail about fifteen and one-half inches. The ground color of the fur is light gray, upon WATER OPOSSUM. t (One-third natural size.) which there is a blackish-brown stripe running down the middle of the back, and expanding into large blotches on the shoulders, the middle of the back, the loins, and rump. The face has also blackish markings, with an imperfect whitish cres- cent above the eyes; while there is a certain amount of the dark tint on the outer surfaces of the limbs, the under parts being pure white. The female possesses a complete pouch. In habits the yapock closely resembles an otter, to which group of animals it was indeed referred by the earlier naturalists. Its food consists of crustaceans, small fish, and other aquatic animals. H54 THE POUCHED MAMMALS, OR MARSUPIALS EXTINCT MARSUPIALS LOWER JAW OF TRICONODON. (Three times natural size.) (After Marsh.) From their low degree of organization it would be expected that Marsupials are some of the oldest of Mammals, and this expectation is borne out by the facts. So far as can be determined, no Placental Mammals are known to have existed be- fore the Tertiary period, that is to say, in the rocks lying below the London clay. The cretaceous rocks of North America, and the under-lying Jurassic or Oolitic rocks both of this continent and of Europe have, however, yielded a number of re- mains of small Mammals which may be pretty confidently assigned to the Polypro- todont section of the present order. In one form, known as Triconodon, the molar teeth, of which there were four in the fully adult state, although only three are shown in the ~3 lower jaw here figured, are characterized by carrying three compressed cones arranged in a line one before the, other; while the premolars, three in number, were simpler. The groove ( g ) seen on the inner side of the lower jaw, corresponds to one found in the banded ant-eater and a few other living Marsupials, but un- known in any other Mammals. In a second type, as represented by Amphilestes from the Stonesfield beds near Oxford, the cheek- teeth were much more numerous, and the molars less unlike the premolars. In the molar teeth the front and hind-cones were rel- atively smaller in proportion to the middle one than is the case in Triconodon; and in the number and form of these teeth this early Mammal comes exceedingly close to the living Australian banded ant-eater. A third type is represented by jaws from the Purbeck rocks of Dorsetshire, known as Amblothe- rium, closely allied to which is the jaw from America represented in our third figure. Here the front and hind-cones have be- come twisted round to the inner side of the main cone, so that the crown of each molar forms a triangle, as in the living bandi- LOWER JAW OF A MARSUPIAL ( Amphi- lestes] FROM THE STONESFIELD SLATE. (Twice natural size.) LOWER JAW OF AN AMERICAN JURASSIC MAMMAL. ( Twice natural size.) (After Marsh.) coots and opossums. The number of the cheek-teeth is, however, much greater than in the latter, and thus indicates relationship with the banded ant-eater. ECHIDNA WALKING. CHAPTER XXXVII EGG-LAYING MAMMALS OR MONOTREMES— ORDER MONOTREMATA THE Australasian Mammals, known as the duckbill and the echidnas, differ from the other members of the class not only in certain important structural points, but also by their young being hatched from eggs laid by the female parent. In their structural differences, and in their mode of reproduction, they resemble Reptiles, although they agree with other Mammals in that the young, when hatched, are suckled by milk secreted by the mother. Owing to these great differences, the Egg-laying Mammals, or Monotremes, as they are technically termed, constitute not only a distinct order {Monotrematd} in the class, but form a separate subclass known as Prototherians {Prototheria) . Consequently we find that Mammals are divided into three primary groups or subclasses, viz. : 1. EUTHERIANS, or PLACENTALS, containing the first nine orders. 2. METATHERIANS or IMPLACENTALS, including the Pouched Mammals. 3. PROTOTHERIANS, represented only by the Egg-laying Mammals. These Egg-laying Mammals have no immediate relationship to Birds, but are closely allied to certain extent orders of Reptiles and Amphibians; and the present representatives of the group are highly-specialized creatures, and thus widely differ- ent from the original ancestral types of the Mammalian class, which we may fairly presume to have once existed as members of the Prototheria. Such ancestral types were doubtless furnished with a full series of teeth of a simple type of structure, and (H55) 1456 EGG-LA YING MAMMALS, OR MONOTREMES it is possible that certain imperfectly-known Mammals from the earliest Secondary rocks may turn out to be such missing links. In regard to the distinctive features of the Egg-laying Mammals as a subclass, it may be mentioned that they differ from all other members of the class in having but a single excretory aperture to the body; whence their name of Monotremes is derived. Then, again, in their 'skeleton the shoulder blade (scapula), instead of forming the sole support for the arm, is connected with the breastbone (sternum) by another plate-like bone termed the metacoracoid, in advance of which is a third element known as the coracoid; the metacoracoid being always present in the lower Vertebrates. Another resemblance to Reptiles is found in the presence of a T-shaped bone overlying the breastbone, and collar bones (clavicles), and known as the interclavicle ; such interclavicle being similar to that of lizards and certain other reptiles, and unknown among higher Mammals. Another feature of these animals is connected with the milk glands, which, instead of opening by nipples or teats, communicate with the exterior by a number of small pores situated in a cup-like depression in the skin of the abdomen. Although there are many other peculiarities SKELETON OF DUCKBILL. in the structure of these animals, if we add to the above that their brains are of an exceedingly-low and simple type, and that their young are produced from eggs, we shall not have much difficulty in understanding why they are referred by naturalists to a distinct subclass. It may be added that their skeletons possess ' ' marsupial ' ' bones similar to those of the Pouched Mammals. THE DUCKBILL Family ORNITHORHTNCHID^ The duckbill, or duck-billed platypus {Ornithorhynchus anatinus}, derives its name from the duck-like bill forming the extremity of the head. In length the adult male duckbill measures from eighteen to twenty inches from the tip of the beak to the extremity of the rather short tail. The muzzle is expanded and flattened, and has both the upper and lower jaws invested with a blackish, naked beak not unlike that of a duck. This beak is bordered by a naked, sensitive skin, forming a lappet-like fold at the base of the snout; the nostrils being situated near its anterior extremity. The depressed and oval-shaped body is covered with short, close, and somewhat mole-like fur, comprising both longer hair and a woolly under- fur; its usual color being deep brown, becoming paler underneath. There are no THE DUCKBILL 1457 external conchs to the ears, and the eyes are small, and in the living state incon- spicuous. The tail is broad and somewhat flattened, with a coat of coarse hairs, which on the under surface become more or less worn off in old individuals. The short limbs have their feet — more especially the front pair — expanded and webbed for the purpose of swimming. Each foot has five complete toes furnished with strong nails; but while in the fore-feet the web extends considerably beyond the extremities of the nails, in the hind-pair it reaches only to their bases. The exten- sion of the web of the fore-feet might appear to be a hindrance in burrowing; but this difficulty is avoided by the web being then folded back on the palm of the paw. The nails of the fore-foot are somewhat flattened and expanded, while those of the hind-foot are longer, narrower, and much curved. To the heel of the male is THE DUCKBII.I,. (One-fourth natural size.) affixed a long, horny spur, curving upward and backward, and nearly an inch in length. A canal traversing this spur, and opening near its summit, is connected with a gland on the leg, which appears to secrete a poisonous fluid. The tongue is small and nonextensile; while the cheeks are provided with pouches of considerable size, doubtless used for storing food. If it be a fully adult specimen that we examine, it will be found that in lieu of teeth each jaw carries two pairs of horny plates, of which the more anterior are sharp and narrow, while those behind are broad and flattened. Between these plates the palate is thrown into a number of transverse wrinkles, like those in a duck. In young specimens, however, two or three pairs of cheek-teeth may be observed in the upper, and two pairs in the lower jaw; most of these teeth being broadly quadrangular in form, 92 1458 EGG-LAVING MAMMALS, OR MONOTREMES with two cusps on one side, separated by a hollow from a longitudinal crenulated ridge on the other. As these teeth are gradually worn away by the sand taken into the mouth with the food, the horny plates grow up beneath and around them, till they are eventually shed. That the ancestors of the duckbill were provided with a full series of persistent teeth is thus evident. The duckbill is restricted to Southern and Eastern Australia and Tasmania, where it is fairly common in places suited to its habits. and Habits Thoroughly aquatic in their habits, and exclusively frequenting fresh water, duckbills are remarkably shy creatures, and rarely seen, except at evening, when they come up to the top of the water, and look like so many black bottles floating on the surface, — sinking down immediately if alarmed. By quietly watch- ing the stream in the evening they may be easily shot, and they will readily take a bait on a hook. Although gregarious when in the water, these animals live in pairs in the burrows constructed in the banks; their favorite haunts being where the streams expand into wide, still pools. In the banks of such sequestered spots are constructed their burrows, each of which usually has one entrance opening beneath the water, and another above the water level, hidden among the herbage growing on the bank. The burrow runs obliquely upward from the water to a great distance — sometimes as much as fifty feet — into the bank, and ends in a chamber, lined with grass and other substances, where the young are produced. Two eggs are laid at a time, inclosed in a strong, flexible, white shell, measuring about three- quarters of an inch in length, and two-thirds of that in diameter. They resemble the eggs of birds in the large size of their yolk, of which only a small portion goes to the formation of the embryo, while the remainder serves for its food. When first hatched, the young are blind and naked, with the beak very short, and its margins smooth and fleshy, thus forming a nearly circular mouth, well fitted to receive the milk ejected from the glands of the mother. The duckbill feeds on various small aquatic animals, such as insects, crustaceans, and worms, which it obtains by prob- ing with its beak in the mud and sand near the banks; the food being first stored in the capacious cheek pouches, and afterwards devoured at leisure. The large front paws are the chief agents in swimming and diving. On land these creatures move somewhat awkwardly, in a shuffling manner, and when reposing in their nests curl themselves up in a ball-like fashion. The aborigines capture the duckbill by digging holes with sticks into the burrow from the ground above at distances from one another, until they light upon the terminal chamber. THE ECHIDNAS Family ECHIDNID^E The echidnas, or spiny ant-eaters, of which there are two species, representing as many genera, are widely different in appearance and structure from the duckbill, and have a more extensive distribution. Instead of mole-like fur, the echidnas have the upper surface of the head and body covered with a mixture of stiff hair and short thick spines. The head is rather small and rounded, and has a long, slender, THE ECHIDNAS 1459 beak-like snout, covered with skin, at the extremity of which are situated the small nostrils. There are no external conchs to the ears, but the eyes are of fair size. The opening of the mouth is very small, and the extensile tongue has the elongated cylindrical form characterizing ant-eaters of all kinds. The skull is devoid of all traces of teeth, and remarkable for the slenderness of its lower jaw, and its generally bird -like form. Although there is nothing corresponding to the horny plates of the mouth of the duckbill, both the palate and the tongue are thickly beset with small spines. The body of the echidnas is remarkably broad and depressed, with a sharp line of division between the spine-covered area of the back and the hairy under parts. The tail is a mere stump, and the short and sturdy limbs are armed with enormously-powerful claws, varying in number from three to five on each foot. Although the front-feet are applied to the ground in the usual way, the hind-feet, in walking, have the claws turned outward and backward. The males resemble those of the duckbill in having a hollow spur at the back of the hind-foot, which is probably employed as a weapon in the contests between rival males during the breed- ing season. The brain of the echidnas differs from that of the duckbill in that the surface is extensively convoluted. SKELETON OF ECHIDNA. The common echidna {Echidna aculeata), is a variable species, found in Australia, Tasmania, and New Guinea, and characterized by having five toes on each foot, all provided with claws; those on the fore- feet being broad, while the others are narrow and more curved. In length the beak is about equal to that of the remainder of the head, and it is either straight or slightly turned upward. The smallest variety inhabits Port Moresby, in New Guinea, and attains a length of about fourteen inches; its distinctive feature being the shortness of the spines on the back. The variety from the Australian mainland is larger, and the spines are of great length. Larger than either is the Tasmanian variety, in which the length may be nineteen inches; the very short spines on the back being partially or com- pletely hidden by the fur, the dark brown hue of which is frequently relieved by a white spot on the chest; while the beak is unusually short. The three- toed echidna, (Proechidna brmjnii), of the northwestern part of New Guinea, is larger than any of these. Usually it has but three claws to each foot, but there is considerable variation in this respect, one specimen having five claws on the front, and four on the hind-feet. The beak is bent downward and attains a length equal to about double that of the. rest of the head. The short spines are 1460 EGG-LAYING MAMMALS, OR MONOTREMES generally white, and the color of the fur is dark brown or black, although the head may be almost white. Echidnas are fossorial and mainly nocturnal animals frequenting rocky districts, and subsisting almost exclusively on ants. They are generally found in the mountains, and the three-toed species has been taken at an elevation of between three and four thousand feet. Although it is definitely ascertained that they lay eggs, much less is known of their breeding habits than is the case with the duckbill; according, however, to native reports, the young, which are probably two in number, are born during the Aus- tralian winter, generally in the month of May. Remains of a large extinct echidna have been obtained from the superficial deposits of New South Wales. ALLIED EXTINCT MAMMALS Certain forms from the Secondary and early Tertiary rocks of Europe, Africa, and North America are believed to belong to the Prototherian subclass, of which they probably indicate a distinct order. Their UNDER PART OK THE SKULL OF A molar teeth have a distant resemblance to the teeth SOUTH-AFRICAN SECONDARY r , •• j 1 1-11 \ -1 *t- u r it. t. 1 J of the duckbill, while the bones of the shoulder seem MAMMAL. (Two-thirds natural size ) *° have comprised the two elements characterizing the Egg-laying Mammals. The peculiarity in the teeth of these Mammals is that the molars are traversed by one or two longitudinal grooves, on either side of which are ridges carrying a number of small tubercles; and from this feature the name of Multittiberculata has been proposed for the group. The number of ridges in the upper molars is always one more than in those of the lower jaw. In some species, as in Tritylodon, represented in our first figure, the premolar teeth are similar to the molars; but in others, as in our second figure, the molars are small, while the premolars are large and have sharp cutting edges. When unworn, such cutting premolar teeth gener- ally have a series of oblique grooves on the sides, and as the incisor teeth (a) are large and often reduced to one pair, the jaw resembles that of the rat kangaroos. The molar teeth, however, are different, and if these Secondary Mammals are really Prototherians, the character of their teeth indicates that they cannot be the ancestral types of the higher groups of the class. LOWER JAW OF PLAGIAULAX. (Natural size and enlarged.) (After Marsh.) BIRDS CHAPTER I GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS— CLASS Aves A TRAVELER may in many parts of the world journey from one week's end to another without coming across a single Mammal or Reptile, but few indeed are the regions where bird life, in some form, will not present itself more or less abundantly to his gaze; and in no country is this exuberance of bird life, as contrasted with the apparent scarcity of Mammals and Reptiles, more remarkable than in the British Islands. This abundance is largely due to the great majority of Birds being diur- nal in their habits, whereas most Mammals are nocturnal, but it is chiefly owing to the Birds being more numerous in most parts of the world, both as regards indi- viduals and species. On this account alone Birds have always aroused a widespread interest even among those who pay no particular attention to Natural History, and in addition to it we have the beauty of their form, the gorgeous hues with which their plumage is so frequently adorned, and the power of melodious song with which so many members of the class are endowed. Then, again, the many interesting points connected with their habits, and more especially their conjugal affection and the care they bestow on their helpless young, have combined to aid in producing (1461) 1462 BIRDS the universal enthusiasm for what have been most appropriately designated ' ' our feathered friends." As the result of this widespread popularity, the literature de- voted to Birds is far more extensive than that relating to any other group of ani- mals of equal size. And it may perhaps, be questioned whether, in spite of their many undoubted claims to special interest, Birds have not attracted rather more than their fair share of attention; for, after all, the whole of the members of the class are wonderfully alike in general structure, even its most divergent representa- tives presenting no approach to the differences distinguishing nearly-allied Mam- malian orders. It is to a great extent owing to this remarkable structural uniformity that such different views still exist as to the classification of Birds. D- . . Birds form a class in the Vertebrates ranking on the same level as Character- the Mammalia, and technically known as Aves; and from the afore- istics of said structural uniformity of all its members, there is no difficulty in Birds defining a Bird, nor is there any possibility of mistaking any other animal for a Bird. All living Birds, and so far as we know all fossil ones likewise, are sharply distinguished from every other creature by the possession of feathers; these corresponding in essential structure to hair, and being similarly developed from pits sunk in the super- ficial layer of the skin or epidermis. This is the grand and essential characteristic of Birds, most of their other peculiarities being shared by some of the other groups of Vertebrates, either living or extinct. Birds agree with Mam- mals in having a four- chambered heart and hot blood, and also in that the blood is carried to the body by only a single great artery or aorta; but while in Mam- mals this aorta passes over the left branch of the windpipe or bronchus, in Birds it crosses the right. In producing their young from eggs laid by the female parent, Birds resemble not only the Egg-laying Mammals, but likewise most of the lower Vertebrates. All living members of the class possess two pairs of limbs; of which the hinder pair are always adapted either for walking or swimming, while the first pair are generally specially modified for flight, although in the flightless species they are small and more or less rudimentary. Except to a small degree in the penguins, they never subserve the purpose of walking, at least in the adult condi- tion. The power of true flight, which is such an essential characteristic of the ma- jority of Birds, is found elsewhere among Vertebrates only in the bats among Mammals, and the extinct pterodactyles among Reptiles. An especial peculiarity of Birds is the manner in which their whole structure is permeated by atmospheric LEFT SIDE OF THE PELVIS OF THE KIWI. il. haunch bone or ilium; p, p'. pubis; is. ischium; a. cup for head of thigh bone. (After Marsh.) GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS 1463 air taken in through the windpipe. Thus, whereas, in Mammals the lungs are inclosed in complete sacs (the pleuron), and are freely suspended in the cavity of the chest, in the present class they are molded to the form of the back of that cavity, while some of the great air tubes pass completely through them, and thus carry the air to all parts of the body. In most Birds even the bones, which are hollow, are thus permeated by air, and in the dried state they show a small aper- ture (pneumatic foramen) by which the air tube enters. It is in consequence of this arrangement that it is impossible to kill a ' ' winged ' ' bird by compressing its windpipe, the process of respiration being carried on by means of the air entering the broken end of the bone. In addition to the hollow bones, Birds also have a number of air sacs disposed beneath the skin. Curiously enough, there appears to be no sort of relation between the power of flight of a bird and the degree of de- velopment of pneumaticity, as the aeration of the body and bones is called. The hornbills, for instance, which are poor and heavy fliers, have the whole of the bones, including the vertebrae, so hollowed that they are reduced to little more than shells, while in their not very distant cousin, the rapid flying swift, the aeration is reduced to a minimum. Among swimming birds a similar difference may be observed, the gannet having a remarkably pneumatic skeleton and large air sacs, while in the allied cormorants there are no air sacs, and the bones are but slightly or not at all pneumatic. According to the old theory, the heated air in the sacs and hollow bones made the bird lighter than the medium in which it flew, and thus rendered flight easy; but, as Mr. Headley well observes, the sight of an eagle flying off with a lamb ought to convince any- one that the saving of a fraction of an ounce cannot make the slightest difference to its flight. Moreover, the swallow has all the bones solid. That the air sacs aid to some extent in general respiration, and thus help in maintaining the high temperature of the blood in Birds (reaching in some cases 112° F. ) is probable, but this cannot be their sole function, and it is most likely that during n' •t. 1 u • j > -L ii • i v. -j i- head; 2. neck; 3. back; 4. tail: 5. ribs; flight, when a bird s breathing must be rapid. 6. breastbone. 7. fu3rcula. 84 metacoracoid ; they are the chief agents in maintaining an 9- thumb; 10. humerus; n. ulna; 12. metacar- ,, r ,, ATAV. Pus' J3- phalanges; 14. pelvis; 15. temur ; 16. equable temperature of the system. The tibia . I?. metatarus or canon ^ . I8. toes. function of the pneumaticity of the bones is not at present decided, and it would therefore be only entering on controversial matters to discuss it here. That one of the objects of the coat of feathers, which forms a most efficient insulator, is to assist in the maintenance of a uniform high temperature, cannot be doubted. SKELETON OF VULTURE. 1464 BIRDS An important structural difference between Mammals and Birds is to be found in the absence in the latter of the' partition or diaphragm, which in the former separates the cavity of the chest containing the heart and lungs from that of the abdomen. As the skeleton of Birds affords many important characteristics, whereby the class is distinguished from Mammals, it is advisable to enter at once upon its consideration. In the first place, the skull of a bird, as shown in the figures given later on in the chapter, differs from that of a Mammal SKELETON OF PARROT AND SKULL OF COCKATOO. in that it is attached to the first joint of the backbone by a single knob or condyle, instead of by two such condyles. Secondly, each half of the lower jaw is com- posed of several pieces, instead of but one; and instead of the lower jaw articulating directly with what is known as the squamosal region of the brain case, it does so by the inter- vention of a separate bone, r.uf'lj^r'insOEEi „ , termed, from its form, the quadrate, the position of which SIDE VIEW OF SKULL OF TEAL, WITH THE LOWER JAW is indicated in the accompany- DISPLACED. c , mg figure. It may be men- The bone immediately to the left of the one marked /? is the . . . quadrate. ( From Huxley, Proc. Zool. Soc., i867.) tlOned here that in all existing GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS Birds both jaws are incased in horn, and are devoid of teeth; while the two halves of the lower jaw are completely soldered together by bone at their junction, or symphysis. Certain extinct Birds had, however, a full series of teeth, and the two halves of the lower jaw separate. As regards the backbone, existing Birds differ from Mammals in that the bodies of the vertebrae, at least in the region of the neck, are articulated to one another by saddle-shaped surfaces, instead of by a cup-and-ball joint or two nearly ANTERIOR ASPECT OF THE DORSAI, VERTEBRA OF A MOA (Pachyornis) . ns. upper or neural spine ; n. neural canal ; pz. prezygapophysis ; d. transverse process ; v. pedicle of arch ; p. facet for rib ; ac. anterior surface of body or centrum ; hy. lower or haemal spine. — After Owen. flat surfaces; and there is no constancy in the number of joints in the neck. A further peculiarity is that a number of the vertebrae of the back, together with some of those of the tail, are solidly united with the proper sacrum, while the whole long series of welded vertebrae are themselves as firmly attached to the haunch bones of the pelvis. In all living Birds the bones of the tail are very few in number, and terminate in a triangular bone (as seen in our figure of the skeleton of a parrot), termed the plowshare bone. It is to this region of the body that the tail feathers of a bird, commonly called the tail, are attached, and it will thus be 1466 BIRDS apparent that the so-called tail of a bird does not correspond with the tail of a Mam- mal. In the earliest-known bird the tail was, however, long, and composed of a number of vertebras, each carrying a pair of feathers. The pelvis of a bird is remarkable for the great elongation of the haunch bones, and also for the circumstance that the portion known as the pubis (/>, /') is directed backward parallel with the element termed the ischium; the three elements being united as in Mammals but differing from them, with two exceptions, in that neither the ischium nor the pubis unites with its fellow of the op- posite side in the middle line. LEFT SIDE OF SHOULDER BONES AND BREASTBONE Moreover, the cup in the pelvis for OF A FLIGHTLESS BIRD. . . the head of the thigh bone is always s. blade bone or scapula; c. metacoracoid; h. arm bone or ___„ _i ii-o V>oe<=> T'Vio firm iitii/vn ,, f .*. » OTJcH il L LUC L)doCr. -L He illlll UIllOll humerus ; f. furcula ; st. breastbone or sternum. — After Marsh. of the haunch bones with such a large portion of the backbone is necessary to afford a solid basis of support for the rest of the skeleton in flight. Equally essential is a solid union between the bones of the shoulder and the breastbone. Accordingly, we find that, as in the Egg-laying Mammals the blade bone or scapula (s) is connected with the breastbone (.?/), by a metacoracoid (f); the scapula and metacoracoid thus jointly forming the cup for the articulation of the head of the arm bone or humerus (h}. Although in flightless birds the metacoracoid is short and broad, in other species it is more or less elongated, and in either case its lower expanded end is received in a groove on the summit of the breastbone. Usually the collar bones, or clavicles, are well developed, and united to form a V or U-shaped bone, now known as the "merrythought," or furcula (/); this furcula generally articulating with a process on the metacora- coid (a), and also with the anterior end of the breastbone. The breastbone in flying birds is provided with a strong keel up the middle of its inferior surface, as shown in the figure of the skeleton of a parrot on p. 1464, in order to afford support for the powerful muscles moving the wing; but in flightless birds, as in the figure on this page, it is smooth FRONT SURFACE OF and rounded. To the sides of the upper part of the breast- THE LEFT MEJACOR; ACOID OF A FLYING bone are attached the lower segments of the ribs; the ribs BIRD. themselves being few in number, and distinguished from a. process for articulation those of Mammals by the presence of oblique (uncinate) °f furcula; *, c, d. surface ... ,. .,1 • i • i i i for junction with breast- processes projecting from their hinder borders. bone. GENERA L CHA RA C TERIS TICS 1467 FRONT VIEW OF THE RIGHT HUMERUS OF A GULL. With regard to the limbs, the bones of a bird's wing correspond generally to those of the arm or fore-leg of a Mammal; the arm bone or humerus having distinct condyles (a, b) for the articulation of the bones of the fore-arm (radius and ulna), and being sometimes furnished with a projecting process above the outermost of these two condyles. The two bones of the fore-arm always remain separate from one another. In the wrist the numerous bones found in Mammals are, however, reduced to two, and the metacarpus and hand are flattened and specially modified. Thus there are never more than three digits, which are usually without claws although among recent birds two may be thus armed. The thumb, or first digit, is represented merely by one or two joints (as shown in the skeleton on p. 1464), and carries the so-called bastard wing; while the other two digits repre- sent the index and middle fingers of the human hand. Their respective metacarpals, as seen in the figure cited, are united at their two ends, so as to form a single bone; while the index finger has two flattened joints, and the third finger (not present in the figure) but one. In the hind-limb there is a still wider departure from the Mammalian type. The uppermost bone in a bird's leg (A of the accompanying figure) is the thigh bone, or femur; below this comes the tibia, or larger bone of the lower leg, on the outer side of which is a small splint (not shown in the figure) representing the fibula. Below the tibia comes another long bone, terminating (except in the ostrich, where they are reduced to two) in three pulley-like surfaces, known as trochleae, to which are articulated the toe bones. Obviously, then, this third long bone corresponds to the metatarsus of a Mammal, con- sisting in fact of the three middle metatarsals of the typical five-toed limb welded together, in the same manner as two such metatarsals are united in the hind-limb of a ruminant Mammal. It may, therefore, be called either the metatarsus or the canon bone. The reader will, however, now ask what has become of the ankle or tarsus in the bird's leg. To this it may be replied that its upper bones have united to the lower end of the tibia; while the lower row has joined the upper end of the canon bone. The figure on p. 1468 exhibits the lower end of the tibia of an adult crane and of a young ostrich; and it will be seen that in the latter the upper ankle bone is still distinct, while in the former it has become com- pletely united with the tibia. A precisely similar state of things takes place in the formation of the canon bone. It will, therefore, be apparent that the tibia of a bird corresponds to the tibia, plus the upper half of A. BONES OF THE RIGHT LEG OF A MOA; B. CANON BONE OF SAME ON A LARGER SCALE. 1468 BIRDS Skull the ankle, of a Mammal; while the canon bone represents the metatarsus, plus the lower half of the ankle. Hence, while the ankle joint in a Mammal occurs between the tibia and the upper row of ankle bones, in a bird it is placed between the upper and lower rows of the ankle. The bony ridge seen at a in the tibia of the crane is very commonly present in Birds; it acts as a pulley for the tendons of the muscles of the front of the leg which pass beneath. Such pulleys enable the fleshy portions of trie muscles to be placed high up in the limb, and thus cause the centre of gravity of the body to be near the wings, an arrangement essential for flight. In addition to the three toes articulating with the lower end of the canon bone, most birds have another toe, corresponding to the first or great toe of the human foot, of which the inetacarpal is loosely attached to a facet on the inner edge of the hinder surface of the canon bone — as shown in the figure of the canon bone of a buzzard in our fourth volume. No bird has any trace of the fifth toe. The number of joints in each toe, in place of not exceeding three as in ordinary Mammals, increases regu- larly from the first to the fourth toe. As the structure of the base of the skull is of some importance in classification, a few words are necessary on this point. In the first place, the skull of a bird is characterized by the great size of the sockets for the eyes, which are separated from one another merely by a thin bony partition. The aperture for the nostrils (immediately below Na in the figure on p. 1464) may be either short and rounded, when the skull is said to be holorhinal (as in that figure); or they may form elongated slits, as in a pigeon, when the condition is termed schizorhinal. In all Birds most of the component bones of the skull are completely united, without any trace of the original lines of division, in the adult state, and in ornithology it is usual to apply the terms upper and lower mandible to the two parts of the beak. With regard to the bones of the palate, the introduction of a number of tech- nical terms is unavoidable. In the middle of the hinder part of the lower surface of a bird's skull can be seen a pointed rod of bone, known as the sphenoidal rostrum, which may carry, as in (A) of the figure, a pair of basipterygoid facets (f). In ad- vance of this is a single or double bone, termed the vomer ( Vo). On the two sides of this central axis are two pairs of slender bones, of which the hinder are termed pterygoids (Pt), and articulate with the basipterygoid processes when present; while the front pair are named palatines (/*/). From the sides of the upper jaw or maxil- l.V i.l lllcv.tll.il \\ash.s, blotches, lilies, ..! innlr ol Irs.S lleailv CMVCUhll Spots, II poll rillirr ;i \\lnte ol iiniloimh eoloicd -loiind. Yetv litlli- r, houevcr, :it pi< ,eiil understood \\iih n :.;.iid to iii< signification oi ,•••;• coloration. l'ie<|iicutl\ tii-- different species of a group lay vet \ sinnl.nl \-colored eggs, as is exemplified by the \\.nl.liis 'mil bnntini'.s; luit this is by no nu-;nis invanabh lli<- case, :is is well slloun bv the dill el i ill i lieu I IK -|s ol tile Tlllllsll family. Ill 111:111 v CUSes I 1 1- i 'oloi :i I ioi I ol li : , e\ l.l. Illh .hi. i]. led to the lllle of theil li;itlli:il sll 1 I on Ildi ni;s, as is well <•'.. lii|.||||ed l.\ s.mdplpels, d 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1.',, ployels, Mild lllell :illies, Mild likewise bv pll' Mills Mild part 1 idv;es. Since no bird hibernates, while a large number breed in regions where they could not possibly exist during the cold winter months, it is essential licit they should mil', I ate to waimei i< r.ioiis in \\hieli to p:lss Hint season o| the year. Such migrations may be very partial, as is the case with many r.ritish sp. , les, \\li< n the individuals passim; the Sllllllllel 111 the Illole northern purls of the country come further south during the winter; while those from the area into whnh the iiiir.iMiits Miiivi- likewise inovr sotitliwanl. l-'ioin sneh |..nli.d mii;i.it ions then- is M i-i.idiiMl tiMiisilion to complete niij'iMtioiis, when the birds of our country ti.i\(l to .1 I'M i dislMiit kind Ioi the wiutei. As the j-reMl niMsses of kind i-njoviiiK a cold cliniMtr MIC niMinly conliiH-d to the Northern I Icinisphcrc, it is obvious th;it l.nd miiMMlions must t.ike pkiee from south to noith, ;ind the following i'1'"1''"^' l-'^vs of iniiM-Mtion MIC now Mci-epted. \\'ith the excej.tion of purely tropic:il s]Krics, every bird breeds in the coldest or most northern part of its range; such nesting iMonnds l.eiur i-.ciiei.dlv ic:iclied l»v M hoii/oiitMl miiM at ion, although in a few instances l.iids m:i\ aseeiid mount. HIP- until thev meet with the iei|tiiicd decree of tempeiMluie. This iioitheilv miiMatioii is alwavs for the purpose of breeding, while the southward return is for food and warmth. Those species which go furthest north often also lauv.e I m I hest to Hie sotiih; while i-vc-ry speeies has its particular period of migration. Finally, no species ever breeds during its sojourn in the southern portion of its migratory area. It would be quite out of place to enter into any discussion as to the orii-.m of this mis-.iatoiy instinct: luit it may l.e mentioned that as the yoimi-, frequently make the autumn migration unattended by the old, it is quite evident that the journey is made independently of any knowledge of the route. Moreover, as most initiations take place in the iiii-ht. it is clear that this alone- will preclude any guidance of the host by landmarks. Then, again, from the circumstance that dm in;- .'.slionomic.il ohsei yations Ilii-hts of Li ids have been seen crossini-, the moon's disc .it .in immense elevation al.ove the earth, theie is i-ood reason to l.elii've that at least main mi;- 1 at ions take place at heii-Jits whence the configuration of the conti- nents and oceans \\oiild lie iii\-jsilile e\-en dlililii', the day. Ne\ el t lieK-ss, it appears that thcic are cei tain definite lines alonv; which vast nnnilu-is of l.irds, suhject to conditions of weather, habitually migrate; one of these tmuk routts |.i m/, thiour.h the island of 1 Iclii'.okmd and alonjv the wi-stcrn coast of Knropc Altlioni-h, fiom their power of Ilii-ht and migratory habits, it mil-lit seem that Hiidswonld have no definite distrihutional areas, \et this is by no means the case; and the different zoological regions into \\hich the <;/• AY' A'. / /. < I I.I K.I ( I A A7.ST/C5 1475 world is now mapped out were originally defined liomlhe vaiious iMoiips of I'.iids by which they are inhabited. For instance, while tin- I'ala-aictii region, iliai i to :'• h ili-i pint nl" I'.niope and Asia noilh ol ill' lin«- of lh< Illinalavas is charactcri/.cd by the sole possession of the cape rcail lie, and its a Inn id a in < »\ •• n.ir • , buntin;;-., etc., North A nieiica, is the sole home of the turkey, while hnm are mainly characteristic: ol' South and (Vntial AIIH-I i- a, a-, an- In id' birds, and cockatoos of tin- Australasian H-JMOII. Many birds, es of (In- hummiii}'. birds, have indeed a very local distribution; I-' - n expected, the various groups of flightless birds are no to particular continents and islands. It would be impossible further in the space available, but the reader will be enable the leadm;-, facts of avian distribution in the course of our des groups. As regards their geological distribution, it may be mentioned that most of the birds from the Tertiary formations are more or less closely allied to existing types. When, however, we reach the antecedent Cretaceous C chalk) epoch, we find that at least several of the birds were furnished with teeth; while in tin- still oldei Juiassie or Oolitic epoch the one definitely known bird {Archaopteryx} was not only fur- nished with teeth, but had a long tapering tail, and exhibited sevei.-d other jeatni<-, indicative of reptilian affinity. While liirds present no sort of relationship to Mam mals, they show manifest indications of being nearly allied to certain extinct groups of Reptiles; but the nature of that relationship can be best indicated in our consid- eration of those groups. On no subject is there greater diversity of views among zoologists Classification .. than with regard to the classification of Birds; scarcely any two ornithologists being in accord on this point. To a great extent this is owing to that structural uniformity among the members of the class to which reference has been already made, which renders it almost impossible to determine what features should be regarded as of primary importance. With such conflicting views it is in- .Stable that schemes of classification are to be counted almost by the dozen, and scarcely a year passes without one or more new ones being proposed. As it is un- likely that anyone of these latter classifications will be permanently accepted, it been thought advisable, in a popular work of the present nature, to revert to a modification of a scheme proposed some years ago by Dr. Sclater. Including certain extinct groups, the class, according to this scheme, may be divided into the following twenty-five groups, of which the first twenty-two may be reckoned orders Mich orders, be it understood, being for the most part far less distinct from one another than are those of Mammals. ORDERS OF BIRDS 1 . PASSBRBS — Perching Birds. 2. PICARLB — Woodpeckers, Cuckoos, Hornbills, etc. 3. I'SJTT AC i — Parrots. 4. STKIGBS — Owls. 1476 BIRDS 5. PANDIONES — Ospreys. 6. ACCIPITRES — Eagles, Falcons, Vultures, etc. 7. STEGANOPODES — Pelicans, Cormorants, and Gannets. 8. HERODIONES — Herons and Storks. 9. ODONTOGLOSSI — Flamingos. 10. ANSERES — Ducks, Geese, and Swarxs. 1 1 . PALAMEDE^ — Screamers. 12. COLUMB^ — Pigeons, Dodo, and Sand Grouse. 13. GALLING — Fowls and Game Birds. 14. FULICARI^ — Rails and Coots. 15. ALECTORIDES — Cranes and Bustards. 16. lyiMicoi,^ — Plovers, Curlews, Snipe, etc. 17. GAVI^ — Gulls and Terns. 1 8. TUBINARES — Petrels and Albatrosses. 19. PYGOPODES — Divers, Auks, and Grebes. 20. IMPENNES — Peguins. 21. ODONTORNITHES — Toothed Birds (extinct). 22. CRYPTURI — Tinamus. 23. STEREORNITHES — Patagonian Flightless Birds ( extinct). 24. RATIT^ — Ostriches, Emus, Cassowaris, etc. 25. SAURUR^; — Long-Tailed Birds (extinct). Of these groups the first twenty-two, which are reckoned as orders, are bri- gaded together to form the subclass of Carinate Birds (Carinatae), the great majority of which possess the power of flight, and have a strong keel (carina) to the breastbone. The twenty-fourth group, or Ratitse, constitutes on the other hand, a second subclass, characterized by the absence of a keel to the breast- bone, and the loss of the power of flight; while the extinct long-tailed birds ( group 25) form a third main division differing from all the others by the retention of the long reptilian tail. The number of existing species of Birds being in all probability considerably over ten thousand, it will be obvious that in the space at our command the various groups must be treated much more briefly than were the Mammals; and in many instances we shall be able to allude only to the families, without referring to the genera, and in some cases not even the whole of the former are mentioned. It will be noticed that in the course of this Introduction practically nothing has been said as to the anatomy of the soft parts of Birds; for this we must refer the reader to other works. CHAPTER II THE PERCHING BIRDS — ORDER PASSERES CROWS TO HONEY CREEPERS Families CORVID^E to THE order of Passeres, which includes by far the great majority of existing birds; and especially those popularly termed song birds, may be regarded as occupy- ing a position analogous to that held by lizards among the Reptiles, and by the bony fishes in the Fishes, all its members being more or less specialized and highly organized. On this account the group is now, by general consent, regarded as the highest in the class. All these birds are characterized by having the palate con- structed on what is termed the segithognathous modification, the structure of which is illustrated on p. 1469. They are further distinguished by producing their young in a helpless and nearly naked condition, having merely a few patches of down scattered here and there over the body. In the skeleton the slender metatarsus has its three nearly equalized condyles placed almost in the same transverse line; while the arm bone, or humerus, has a well-marked bifurcate process at the outer sides of its lower end; and, as a minor characteristic, it may be mentioned that the breastbone has but a single notch. The first toe is always present, and is mobile and directed backward, in addition to being worked by a muscle independently of the other digits. A covering of feathers invests the legs as far down as the ankle joint. There are usually twelve feathers in the tail ; while the primary quills of the wings vary in number from nine to ten, the latter being the usual complement among the typical members of the order. With three exceptions, the perching birds of the Old World belong to a section characterized by having the intrinsic muscles of the syrinx, or organ of voice, attached to the cords of the open rings of the bronchial tube, and technically termed the Acromyodi. The Indian members of the order, provided with ten primary quills in the wings, may be divided, according to an arrangement suggested by Mr. Oates, into five groups. In the first of these the nestling resembles that of the adult female; this is likewise true of the second group, in which the coloration of the young bird is more brilliant than that of its parent, being in the Indian forms gen- erally suffused with yellow. On the other hand, in the third group, the nestling is transversely barred; while in the fourth it is striated; and in the fifth group the nestling plumage is either mottled or squamated. Although certain species of the perching birds, such as the snow bunting and the sand martin, have a circumpolar distribution, numerous genera of this order are (H77) 14/8 THE PERCHING BIRDS restricted to the New World; while in spite of the fact that many species, as well as families, range across the whole of the north temperate parts of the Old World, from the British Isles to Japan, comparatively-few families can be termed strictly cosmopolitan. Among those families, which are variously represented in almost every region of the globe, may be ranked the finch tribe, the swallows, and the true crows. For lustre of plumage and striking combinations of color, the perching birds of the Indo- Malay an region excel all others; but South America possesses a larger and more varied assortment of these birds. Among the number, tanagers and chatterers form specially interesting groups. While the mocking birds, repre- sented by closely-allied species in both the northern and southern divisions of the New World, have the best claim to be considered the ^finest songsters in the entire order, in Europe it is probable that the blue thrush possesses the most beautiful notes of all the Passerines. In such a large and difficult group as the perching birds it is but natural to expect diverse views among ornithologists in regard to classification. To a great extent the scheme of Dr. Sharpe is here followed, which differs very considerably from that recently proposed by Mr. Gates in the Birds of British India. Without attempting to weigh the value of the two, the former has been adopted, as being that more generally known. It will be obvious that in such a vast assemblage all that can be attempted in the limits of our space is to notice some of the more gen- erally interesting types. THE CROW TRIBE Family Frequently conspicuous b)' a black or pied plumage, often variegated with gray and occasionally with brown, although some species, like the blue jays of South America, are much more gaudily colored, the members of the Crow family form a group which, while having few characteristics in common, are yet easy of recognition. Possessing a stout and generally large beak, without a distinct notch in the upper mandible, and generally straight, the crows have the chin angle or union of the two branches of the lower jaw, almost always produced in front of the line of the nostrils; while the tongue is nonextensile. The toes are of the normal passerine type, but although the first toe is strong, it is inferior in length to the third. The nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead, and are protected by a number of stiff bristles reaching to the middle of the beak, which are, however, shed in the adult of the European rook. The wing always has ten primary quills, and the tail twelve feathers. Mr. Gates, who includes the tits in the present family, points out that the crows may be distinguished by having the first primary quill longer than half the length of the second; while the plumage is more or less firm and glossy, and the length of the bill considerably greater than its depth. Both groups agree in that the plumage of the two sexes is alike, and undergoes but one molt (in the autumn) ; while the plumage of the young is paler. Some representatives of this specialized family are found in all the great conti- nents, and even islands have in some cases their peculiar species. The piping 1 o 1480 THE PERCHING BIRDS crows are always found in Australia; while magpies, nutcrackers, and choughs, are characteristic of the northern and central parts of the Old World. South America possesses some jays of brilliant plumage; those of the genus XantJnira having beautiful blue feathers, associated with black or deeper blue markings. The genus Corvus includes all the true ravens and crows, distinguished by a stout compressed bill, straight at the base, arched toward the point, and sharp at the edges. The wings are long and graduated, and the tail is more or less graduated. The feet are powerful, the metatarsus exceeding in length the middle toe. The plumage is identical in both Ravens and Crows "U*. -T-*«fc *^ -V^^** "*" >""*_". w>s *"^ -— . :-7s ---*~*jy-f^~»-*'^- JT-* L. "~- THICK-BII«I,ED RAVEN. sexes; and black, more or less glossed with green or purple, decidedly predominates. Birds of this genus are found throughout the whole of Europe and Asia north of the line of the Himalayas, ranging into Northwestern India, Australia, North America, and Mexico. The type of this well-known genus is the large raven (Corvus corax}, familiar to the natives of the northern parts of both Hemispheres. In Japan its place is occupied by the Oriental raven, which is also found in India, Ceylon, South China, and the islands of the Malay Archipelago. The common raven of temperate Europe may be regarded as the parent form, and THE CROW TRIBE 1481 thrives in a wide diversity of regions, ranging from Greenland to Spain and from Portugal to Palestine, contriving constantly to adapt its habits to its immediate environment. The raven is an early breeder, and the birds of the English fells annually repair their nests while snowdrifts are lying in deep folds on the mountain sides. It sometimes happens that a raven's nest becomes swamped by rain and driving sleet to such a degree that the eggs are chilled and rendered useless. In the event of such a contingency arising, the breeding ravens retire to some other favorite haunt, in which the female lays a fresh complement of eggs. The latter are four or five in number, rarely six; and are usually of a bluish-green color, blotched and WHITE-BEI.WED CROW. (One-third natural size.) spotted with dark olive brown, although a reddish variety is occasionally obtained. The raven performs valuable services as a scavenger, and the damage it does the game preserver is infinitesimally small; but it must be confessed that shepherds have only too good reason to complain of the injuries inflicted upon ewes when dropping their lambs, for the raven readily attacks any defenseless animal such as a weak lamb or a feeble fawn. In Africa the genus is represented by the black African rook (C. capensis); the white-necked raven (C. albicollis}, which is brown and black with a conspicuous black collar; the thick-billed raven African Crows 1482 THE PERCHING BIRDS Hooded Crow (C. crassirostris}; and the white-bellied crow (C. scapulatus]. This last is a hand- some bird, easily recognized by its black and white or parti-colored plumage. It obtains much of its food about the high roads, examining the droppings of the animals that pass by and picking the carcasses of such as perish on their journeys. It makes its nest in trees or in the recesses of rocks, and lays about six eggs, light blue in color, profusely spotted with brown. It sometimes nests in gardens, approaching the haunts of men; at other times it is shy and retiring, especially when breeding. Although hybridization is comparatively rare among the true crows, naturalists have long been aware that the hooded crow (C. comix} occasionally interbreeds with the carrion crow (C. corone) notably in such parts of Scotland as both species frequent during the summer. It was, however, reserved for Mr. Seebohm to discover that these two species interbreed to an extraordinary extent, the hybrid offspring of the original stocks apparently proving fertile for sev- eral generations, in the valley of the Yenisei in East Siberia. This is the most remarkable because both forms possess a well-defined distribution, and only occa- sionally overlap one another in the breeding season. Many naturalists (among them Professor Newton) consider that the carrion crow is only a black form or variety of the hooded crow, which has lost the dun-colored portions of the plumage peculiar to the hooded crow of both sexes and all ages; and it must be confessed that the flight and cries of these two forms are to all intents and purposes identical. While, however, the carrion crow lives chiefly in wooded valleys, nesting in isolated pairs, and harrying the nests of other birds, the hooded crow frequents the wildest coasts of Western Europe, ranging from the northern islands that fringe that continent to the forest regions of Central Russia, rearing its young with equal success upon the ground, in the top of a tree, or on the face of a frowning precipice. The nest of the hooded crow is often a cumbrous collection of heather roots, sticks, and seaweed, lined with softer substances well felted together. The eggs vary from four to six in a clutch, and are greenish in ground color, blotched with dark olive brown. The ordinary ' ' crow ' ' of the British public has long been known to naturalists as the rook (C. frugilegus), and as such is almost the best known and most fa- miliar of European birds. The sooty plumage differs from that of its Eastern representative, the Siberian rook (C pastinator) , chiefly in having a bluish- purple gloss in lieu of the reddish pur- The latter to a large extent retains the feathers around Rook ROOK. pie of the Asiatic species. THE CROW TRIBE 1483 the bill, which are generally molted by the western bird when arriving at maturity. Like many other crows, the rook is an early breeder, nesting sometimes in shrubs or even on the roofs of houses, but chiefly in tall trees, often in the midst of crowded streets. The young are mainly reared upon noxious insects in their various stages, on field voles, and waste substances. In the autumn the rooks band together to plunder cornfields. They also do much mischief to young turnips, often tearing up thousands of newly-planted seedlings; and in severe weather they attack the roots of the turnips, or devour such small birds as have become too enfeebled by want of food to elude their enemies. During the greater part of the year they are gregarious, and many of their established ' ' rookeries ' ' contain myriads of birds every night. Their sagacity enables them to evade the various forms of destruction which reduce the numbers of other birds, and, as they are extremely long lived, the rapid increase in their numbers has become somewhat alarming. Though less easily reconciled to captivity than other members of the family, they are nevertheless lively and amusing pets. The daw or jackdaw (C. monedula) is readily distinguished from other crows by its small size, less powerful bill, and slaty-gray collar, the remainder of the plumage being entire black in the western form. The typical European daw is replaced in Northern Asia and Japan by Pallas' s daw (C. dauricus), which wears a broad collar of ashy white and has a white belly. The daw is dis- tributed locally throughout temperate Europe, and is very abundant in parts of Algeria. A highly gregarious species even in the breeding season, it forms colonies in low cliffs, nesting numerously in the holes and recesses formed by weathering. Elsewhere single pairs appropriate disused rooks' nests, adapting them to their own purposes. Not the least remarkable of the many idiosyncrasies of this familiar bird, is the readiness with which it contents itself with every variety of nesting site, rearing its young as happily in a disused rabbit hole as in th« belfry of a church. The nest is often a cumbrous pile of sticks, carefully lined with hair, wool, or other soft material. The eggs vary in number from four to six, and are bluish green spotted with gray and brown. Mr. Tait says that the jackdaws frequenting the islands on the coast of Galicia breed in holes under the stones, and follow the droves of pigs, in order to secure the insects which these animals turn up when grubbing in the soil with their snouts. While the pig plows up the ground, they may often be seen perching on its back, waiting their opportunity. During seasons of drought jackdaws are sometimes compelled by hunger to commit serious depredations upon the pheasant coops, in consequence of the earthworms upon which these birds largely subsist having retired from the surface to secure moisture at a greater depth. This species does not appear to make the migratory journeys frequently accom- plished by rooks and hooded crows, the daw being in fact of a somewhat sedentary character, as evinced by the attachment which it displays for favorite nesting sites. A black variety of the European jackdaw, in which the usual gray collar has become entirely suppressed, has been regarded by some naturalists as a valid species. Al- though these are rare, white jackdaws are sufficiently plentiful. Examples of a uniform silver gray occur from time to time, but are less frequently met with than white or pied birds. 1484 THE PERCHING BIRDS The Nut- crackers The genus Nucifraga contains only four species, three of which are designated nutcrackers from their partiality for nuts and other fruits. The American representative of the genus is Clarke's crow (N. colum- biana), a plain gray colored bird with glossy black wings, most of the secondaries broadly tipped with white, and the tail white, with the exception of the black cen- tral feathers. This unspotted bird ranges through the coniferous woods of Western America, nesting in high pines in mountainous and northerly localities. NUTCRACKER AND SIBERIAN JAY. ( One-third natural size.) The nutcrackers of the Old World are birds of well-marked form and color, not only sharing the possession of a long, straight, pointed bill with their American relative, and a black-and-white tail which is always conspicuous in flight, long wings, nostrils covered with bristly feathers, but exhibiting, in a special degree, a general uniformity of coloration among themselves, all three species being constantly THE CROW TRIBE 1485 of a general chocolate brown, more or less spotted with white. Two of these spe- cies belong to the higher parts of the Himalayas, where they are residents through- out the year in forests of pine and cedar. The best-known species is the European nutcracker (N. caryocatactes} , which inhabits the northern and central portions of Europe and Northern Asia, ranging into Northern China and Japan. A conspicu- ous species during many months of the year, sometimes approaching the neighbor- hood of human dwellings in search of food, in the breeding season the nutcracker becomes shy and cautious, so that its whereabouts is no longer easy to ascertain. The difficulty of discovering the vicinity of its nest is enhanced by the nutcracker being one of the very earliest birds to nest, and consequently the forests in which it breeds, usually vast extents of pine trees, often at an elevation of several thou- sand feet above sea level, are covered with deep snow at the time when the eggs have to be sought. These are usually laid in the month of March, and are pale bluish white, in ground color, thickly spotted with olive brown. The young are easily reared by hand if supplied with a sufficient variety of food, and exhibit a marked predilection for insects. Mr. Howard Saunders gives the following descrip- tion of the habits of the nutcracker, as observed in the Prattigau: " Between Sep- tember i4th and i8th this species was quite common among the hazel bushes ; and the top of a low wall, within five minutes' walk above the village where I was stajdng, was a favorite anvil on which to hammer the nuts, their shells lying thick on it. Every few minutes a bird might be seen flitting along the hillsides — its widely-spread tail feathers displaying the white spots on their tips — with a some- what dipping flight, less labored than that of the jay. Often alighting on a sloping patch of sward, the nutcracker would draw itself up till its neck seemed unnatu- rally elongated, then give a few skips, and, taking a short flight, make a furious attack on a bush, tearing off a whole cluster of nuts. This was sometimes rejected, after a comically critical examination, and another cluster would be torn off, after which the bird would fly up to some tolerably wide branch of a fir, and hammer the nuts energetically to free them from their shucks, pausing to look up as if for admi- ration. Then the bird would hop rapidly up the branches — as if on the rungs of a ladder — to the top of the tree, dash away across a ravine, settle on a bush, and be lost to view for a time, returning with its crop quite distended with nuts." One of the notes is a peculiar gurre, gurre; but there is another, like a sprung rattle. Hancock records the fact that a nutcracker which lived in' his possession for six years had a sweet, low, delicate, warbling song; this was uttered only when every- thing was perfectly quiet. Characterized by their stout and compressed beaks, which are sharp at the edges and arched toward the tip, short and rounded wings, strong feet, and long, graduated tails, the magpies have typically a black-and-white plumage, although many of their Oriental representatives are gorgeously colored. The common magpie (Pica rustica) is found throughout the more northern portions of the Old World, from Britain to Northern China, and likewise occurs in the west- ern districts of the United States. On the other hand, the Moorish magpie (/*. mauritanica] is peculiar to Northwestern Africa, although certain Spanish speci- mens tend to bridge over the distinctions of color distinguishing the typical repre- i486 THE PERCHING BIRDS sentatives of the two forms. Familiar enough in many parts of the British Islands, magpies in the north of Europe may be seen hunting for insects on the roofs of cottages; but elsewhere they lead a wandering life, feeding on carrion, small birds, and such other animal food as they can obtain. Breeding in a variety of situations — frequently in a tall poplar, but at other times in a low bush or hedge — they construct a domed nest of dry branches, securely protected by projecting thorns. Even in China, where they nest in February, their choice of a situation of a site for building is quite as varied as in Europe, Swinhoe stating that he has seen nests on the poles in front of a mandarin's house, and in the crown of a cocoa palm. The eggs, from five to seven in number, are bluish white, with greenish brown or brownish spots. A nonmi grant, as a rule, and fre- quenting open rather than forest districts, the magpie affords excellent sport before the hawk, Sebright stating that "it is far superior to every other kind of hawking. The object of the chase is fully a match for its pursuers — a requisite absolutely necessary to give an interest to any sport of this kind, and it has the advantage of giving full employment to the company, which is not the case in partridge hawking. A down or common where low trees or thorn bushes are dispersed at distances of from thirty to fifty yards apart, is the place best calculated for this diversion. When a magpie is seen at a distance, a hawk is immediately to be cast off. The magpie will take refuge in a bush the moment he sees a falcon, and will remain there until the falconer arrives, with the hawk waiting on in the air. The magpie is to be driven from his retreat, and the hawk if at a good pitch will stoop at him as he passes to another bush, from whence he has to be driven in the same way, another hawk having been previously cast off, so that one or the other may always be so situated as to attack him with advantage. Four or five assistants besides the falconer are required for this sport. The magpie will always endeavor to make his way to some strong cover; care therefore must be taken to counteract him and to drive him to that part of the ground where the bushes are farthest from each other." THE CROW TRIBE 1487 The azure-winged magpie {Cyanopica cooki], on account of certain IUM~ " Differences, is regarded as representing a genus apart from the typical pies; and is one of the handsomest of European birds. In color, the head and upper part of the neck are coal black, the back and mantle brownish gray, the throat grayish white, the under parts light fawn gray, and the wings and tail light greenish blue. This bird is selected for notice on account of the remarkable geographical distribution of the genus to which it belongs. Thus the typical azure-winged magpie is confined to certain districts of Spain and Portugal, where AZURE-WINGED MAGPIE. ( One-half natural size. ) it is far from common, and very local, breeding in small colonies, and generally re- sorting to districts where evergreen oaks are abundant. Unknown elsewhere in Europe, this bird is replaced in China by an almost identical form distinguished by its superior size, and generally grayer tone of coloration, the same form also occurring in Japan. Such an instance of discontinuous distribution is scarcely paralleled among the Passerines. In disposition the azure-winged pie is de- scribed as being an active and intelligent bird, building a nest very like that of the common jay. 1488 THE PERCHING BIRDS „ The magpies included in the genus Urodssa are distin- ivi aCTpiGs *iii 1 • i •« guished by having the nostrils covered with soft plumes instead of stiff bristles, and situated near the base of the bill. They further differ from RED-BILLED BLUE MAGPIE. (Two-fifths natural size.) the pies in having the bill either red or yellow, but never black; and they are all characterized by the predominance of azure blue in their plumage. Unlike the true magpies, they build open nests. One species is found in Formosa, China, and Burma, and two others inhabit the Hima- layas and Nipal. The Chinese blue magpie (£/. sinensis) inhabits the hills of Eastern China, sometimes extending its range into the more wooded portions of the plains. Styan states that it is a noisy bird, and possesses a great variety of notes. It wanders about the wooded hillsides in large parties, composed exclusively of members of its own kind. The upper parts are lavender brown, slightly shaded with bluish THE CROW TRIBE 1489 purple, the wings dull azure, brighter on the quills, the primaries being spotted with white; the tail is azure blue, broadly tipped with white; the head and entire throat are black, all the feathers of the fore-part of the crown being t i p'p e d with lavender gray, and the under sur- face of the body being light gray. The red- billed species ( U. occi- pitalis) , which is the one represented in our fig- ure, extends throughout the Himalayas, from the northwest to Nipal, where it is chiefly con- fined to the outer ranges. It lives in small parties containing from two or three to half a dozen birds, and breeds from March to July. The open nest is built at a variable elevation above the ground, and is formed of twigs and branches, lined with fine roots. The number of INDIAN TREE PIE. eggs ranges from three (One-half natural size.) to five; their color be- ing similar to that characterizing those of the common magpie. When feeding these birds are generally on the ground. The head, neck, and breast of the red-billed magpie are black; a large patch on the nape is white; back, scapulars, and rump are purplish blue; the wings are brown; the first primaries are edged with blue; the tail is blue broadly tipped with white, and the lower plumage white tinged with purple. The genus Dendrocitta contains a group of Indian species, generally resembling the pies of the Old World, but distinguished by short curved bills and the constant possession of a chestnut coloration varied with black. One species inhabits the island of Formosa; another is peculiar to the Andaman islands, and a third is found in the Himalayas and Assam. The most generally distributed is the common Indian 94 Indian Tree Pies THE PERCHING BIRDS magpie (Dcndrodtta rufa), which is very common in well-wooded districts, especially in the plains and in traveling further north is to be seen in pairs and small parties in every grove and garden, and about every village. It builds a large nest of sticks usually in some lofty tree, and lays three or four eggs of a light greenish- fawn color, usually indistinctly blotched with brown. It preys upon insects, small birds, and even bats, but at times feeds principally upon fruits. The adult has the upper parts orange brown, shading off into a brighter orange buff on the lower back and COMMON JAY. (One-third natural size.) rump; the wings are black, the tail feathers gray, with black tips, the lores and throat blackish, and the rest of the under parts orange buff. Under the general title of jays may be included a group of several genera of closely-allied members of the present family, in all of which the wings are relatively short, the tail being always more than three- fourths the length of the wing. In the typical genus the short and compressed beak is shorter THE CROW TRIBE 1491 than the head; the nostrils are placed at the base of the beak, and are hidden by stiff, forwardly-directed feathers; while the feathers of the crown of the head are long and erectile. The majority of the species have white upper tail coverts, and the wings barred with light blue; the general color of the body plumage being fawn red. Chiefly frequenting woods, where their presence is revealed by their harsh, discordant cries, jays are omnivorous, living on almost every description of animal and vegetable substance, but changing their diet according to the season. The true jays of the genus Garrulus are principally inhabitants of the northern and temperate regions of the Old World, although one species is found in Burma, a second is peculiar to Algeria, and a third is confined to Japan. The common European jay (G. glandarius} ranges throughout Europe from Northern Russia and Scandinavia to Spain and Italy; but is replaced in Asia Minor by the black-headed jay (G. kynicki); while in Eastern Russia its place is taken by Brandt's jay {G. brandti}, and in Syria by G. syriacus. Shunning open country, the jay frequents large woods, where it often nests at only a moderate elevation above the ground, laying usually six eggs, of a grayish-white color speckled with brown. Although a shy bird, never dwelling in the open country and seldom seen on the ground, the jay is thoroughly arboreal in its habits; and as its name implies, is especially fond of acorns and other forest fruits. Nevertheless, when dwelling in woods bordering gardens, it is frequently tempted forth during the fruit season to plunder the latter. Not content, however, with the vegetable diet, the jay rifles and destroys the nests of the smaller birds, consuming both eggs and callow young alike; while it also destroys a considerable number of pheasants' eggs and chickens. In consequence of these thieving propensities, the jay is most cordially detested by the gamekeeper, who seizes every opportunity for shooting it; and in many districts of England, owing to such persecution, these handsome birds have become scarce. The jay flies with an undulating and somewhat heavy motion, accompanied by much flapping of the wings, and generally takes only short flights from tree to tree, although when on migration it can fly for long distances. Unlike the preceding members of the family, when on the ground, the jay progresses by hopping instead of by walking. In its movements, when perching, it is lively and apparently self- conscious, the head being continually turned from side to side, the crest alternately raised and depressed, and the wings and tail in motion. A characteristic bird of the most northern parts of the Old World is the Siberian jay (Perisoreus infaustus), distinguished by the posses- sion of a soft fluffy plumage, well adapted to protect its owner from the rigor of an Arctic winter. The adult bird has the crown and nape sooty brown, gradually fading in tinge as it joins the color of the back; the upper parts being dull lead gray, washed with reddish brown, and the rump and tail bright foxy red, excepting the two central tail feathers. The chin, throat, and breast are gray, while the under parts and flanks are bright rufous. The Siberian jay breeds early in the year, building its nest close to the stem of a pine or fir tree, and forming it principally of gray lichens closely interwoven with dry fir twigs, a few of its own feathers and those of the ptarmigan being inserted here and there, as also stalks of dry grass. 1492 THE PERCHING BIRDS The eggs vary in number from three to five, and in color are dirty white, blotched with purplish gray and brown. Professor Newton writes: "More sprightly and cunning birds than these jays cannot well be, whether caged or not. In their own woods one hears their deep ringing kook, kook, kook, followed by a series of noises which sound like a conversation carried on by two or three people in an unknown tongue. One puts up a family party off the ground where they have been feasting \ MEXICAN LONG-CRESTED JAY. (Three-fifths natural size.) on the berries, and away they go through the- trees with their wavering unsteady flight, every here and there a gleam of sunshine catching their tails, and turning them into gigantic redstarts. Or when one halts for any purpose, there comes a Siberian jay, at first stealthily; but soon, if he sees no sign of danger to him, he displays himself openly, perching almost within arm's length, ruffling his long, loose plumage, and calling to his neighbors." THE CROW TRIBE 1493 A common bird in Western America, represented in Mexico by Long este the bluer Mexican jay is the long-crested jay (Cyanodtta macrolopha) , T &v which inhabits large pine forests. The upper parts of this bird are sooty brown, passing on the rump and upper tail coverts into beautiful, light, cobalt blue, which also occupies the lower parts. In habits it is cautious and cunning, displaying in a marked degree the acuteness common to most members of the Crow URRACA JAY. (Two-fifths natural size.) family. It nests in trees and bushes, and lays from five to six eggs, which are pale bluish green, profusely spotted with light and dark brown. The Mexican species is represented in our figure. The urraca jay (Cyanocorax chry sops') is a well-known Brazilian species, found also in Paraguay and Uruguay. In color it is black above, glossed with purple, the feathers of the crown forming a crest; the nape is Urraca Jay 1494 THE PERCHING BIRDS grayish blue, deepening into purple on the hind neck; above the eye there is a blue spot; while the under surface is creamy yellow. According to Azara's account, this jay, of which we give a figure, is an abundant bird in Paraguay, where it is as familiar as is the magpie in England, not even hesitating to enter the houses of the inhabitants. Not ranging into the colder regions of Argentine, this bird seems to suffer from the cold during winter in Uruguay, and at that season it is by no means \ GRAY STRUTHIDKA. (One-third natural size.) uncommon to see a party of from ten to twenty of these jays crowding together in the most sheltered part of a tree, to obtain protection from the wind. If the tree or bush be small, and the best space limited, it may happen that some of the birds will perch on the back of their fellows, and thus form a regular pyramid. Like most gregarious pies and jays, when the flock is on the move, one bird flies off first, followed soon by another, and then by a third, till the whole party is on the wing. THE CROW TRIBE 1495 As a rule, the nest is built in a tall and thorny tree, and though it is strongly con- structed, so coarsely made is it, that the eggs can always be seen from below, and sometimes actually fall through the chinks. With a blue ground color, and a chalky incrustation, the eggs are generally six or seven in number, although up- ward of fourteen have been taken from a single nest. Distinguished by the arched form of the short bill, which Gould re- C~ ray. . garded as specially adapted to enable the bird to feed upon the seeds Struthidea extracted from the cones of a tree found only in the district which it inhabits, the gray struthidea (Struthidea cinerea) is confined to the rocky hill ridges of Southern and Eastern Australia. The eggs are four in number, and are white in color, blotched with reddish brown and gray; the nest is of mud, thickly lined with fine grass. The struthidea feeds principally upon insects, chiefly beetles. The two sexes are so nearly identical in size and color that they can only be dis- tinguished by dissection. This species differs from many other Australian birds by reason of the sober color of its dress, which is inconspicuous and little likely to attract attention. The general color both above and below is gray, each feather being tipped with lighter gray; while the wings are brown, and the tail is glossy black, with a greenish lustre on the outer webs of its feathers. p. . c This small genus, Gymnorhina , includes only three species, popu- larly known as Australian magpies by reason of their black and white plumage, which is common to both sexes, and never varies. The best-known member of this genus is the black-backed piping crow (G. tibicen), which is universally distributed over New South Wales; the white-backed piping crow (G. leuconota] being restricted to the southern and western parts of the Australian continent, and very abundant in Southern Australia. A third species (G. organica], known to the colonists as the organ bird is peculiar to Tasmania, and wi.'l pour forth from the branch of some dead tree a succession of the strangest notes that can be imagined, much resembling the sound of a hand organ out of tune; it is very easily tamed, and can be taught to whistle various tunes as well as to articulate words. The black-backed species, which is the one given in our illustration, is bold and showy, enlivening and ornamenting the lawns and gardens of the colonists by its presence, and with the slightest protection from molestation hecoming so tame and familiar that it approaches close to their dwellings and perches around them and the stock-yards in small families of from six to ten in number. Gould states that it prefers cleared lands, or open plains skirted by belts of timber; hence the interior of the country is more favorable to it than the neighborhood of the coast. Its lively and intelligent habits and fine vocal powers .render it a favorite cage bird both at home and abroad. The crown, back, and tinder parts are black; and the nape, wing coverts, and upper and under tail coverts white. Insectivorous in their habits, the piping crows live chiefly on grasshoppers, of which they consume an enormous quantity. The breeding season commences in August and lasts till January, during which period each pair of birds nests twice. The round and open nest is formed of twigs and leaves, with a softer lining; the three or four eggs are of a bluish-white ground color, which may often have a H96 THE PERCHING BIRDS reddish tinge, upon which are large blotches of brownish red or light chestnut brown. It is noteworthy that although these birds seem always to thrive in captivity, yet their vocal powers in that state vary considerably, some specimens pouring forth the full song, while others sing only in a subdued undertone. The two species of the genus Graculus, while resembling the true crows in form and coloration, differ in possessing long and pointed wings, as well as in the comparatively-slender beak. Unlike other crows, they have a smooth metatarsus, and the feet and beak brightly colored. Of the two species, The Choughs BLACK- BACKED PIPING CROW. (Three-tenths natural size.) the common or red-billed chough (G. graculus} ranges from Eastern Europe to China and Eastern Siberia, being no less at home in the deserts of L,adakh than on the cliffs of the English coast. Formerly this species was a comparatively-common bird on the western coasts of Great Britain and Ireland, nor was it entirely a coast- loving one, since individual pairs nested in the recesses of limestone precipices inland, such as Whitbarrow Scaur in Westmoreland. The chough has, however, latterly decreased in numbers in most of its strongholds, partly owing to human interference; although there is some reason to suppose that its extermination may be partially accounted for by the special predilection of the peregrine falcon for its flesh. The chough nests in the spring of the year, breeding principally among the THE CROW TRIBE H97 precipices of dizzy cliffs and headlands, deemed impregnable by all but professional cragsmen; but occasionally it rears its young among the broken pinnacles of some ruined cathedral. The eggs are white in ground color, streaked with brown and gray. The Isle of Man was formerly a great stronghold of the species, and when Jardine visited that island in 1827, he found the "red-legged crows" most abundant. Even in Britain the chough occasionally wanders from its maritime AND AI.PINE CHOUGH. (One-third natural size.) haunts; and in Ladakh it dwells in the very heart of Asia. Not the least interest- ing feature in the life history of this bird is the constancy with which individual pairs endeavor to rear their young for many successive years in the same nesting places. Choughs obtain much of their food on the grassy borders of the cliffs which they frequent, as also in the adjacent fields, feeding either gregariously or in single pairs. 1498 THE PERCHING BIRDS Among the Alps and other mountain ranges of Central Europe the >ug red-billed chough is in many cases replaced by the Alpine chough (G. alpinus) which has a yellow instead of a red beak, and is somewhat smaller in dimensions. Mr. Fowler says that the Alpine chough is the characteristic corvine of the Alps, as it also is of the Apennines; and its lively chatter, breaking suddenly on vast and silent solitudes, recalls to memory the familiar jackdaw. The Alpine chough nests among the crags of its native precipices; the eggs being four or five in number, and in color white, varied with dirty yellow mottlings. This chough is a recognized article of commerce, and as such is frequently exported to Europe as a cage bird. Chough PANDER'S CHOUGH THRUSH. (Two-fifths natural size.) We now come to a small but interesting group of birds, of somewhat "rh h doubtful affinity, though probably not distantly related to the choughs, from which they are at once distinguished by the relative shortness of their wings, which fall short of the tip of the tail by more than the length of the metatarsus. They are further distinguished by the' possession of a peculiar style of coloration, and also by -their inferior size. Comparatively little is known of the habits of the chough thrushes, these birds being found only in certain parts of Central Asia, and having rarely come under the notice of field naturalists. The whole of the four species known to science inhabit desert regions and sterile plains. Of these the first discovered was Pander's chough thrush (Podoces pandert), and although many years have elapsed since its existence became known, it is still very rare in collections. Nor is this surprising since its home is the I^ower Oxus, and the inaccessible deserts of Turkestan. It is not a gregarious THE CROW TRIBE 1499 species, nor does it associate with other kinds of birds, living for the most part in couples, which presumably pair for life, and constantly associate together, sub- sisting upon the insects and other food to be found in the vicinity of their favorite sand hills. Unlike its congener, the plain-colored chough thrush, the present species is a handsome bird, and attractive in appearance; the upper parts of the adult being clear gray; the wings white, with black at the base and at the tip; while the tail is glossy purplish black; the throat whitish; a large black patch adorns the fore-neck, and the lower parts are viiiaceous, fading into white. The genus Heteralocha includes a single species, variously referred to the hoopoes and crows; while Garrod considered its relations to be most intimate with the starlings, a view also adopted by Sir Walter Buller and Dr. Sharpe. The bill of the male is rather short and straight, and acutely pointed, with the sides compressed, and the nostrils at its base; while, in the female it is long, curved, and slender; the difference being so great that the two sexes were at first regarded as distinct species. The wings are long and rounded. The huia bird (H. gouldi}, which is peculiar to New Zealand, has an extremely restricted habitat, being confined to certain mountain ranges, with their divergent spurs, and the inter- vening wooded valleys. The natives, who prize the bird very highly for its tail feathers, which are used as a badge of mourning, state that, unlike other species which have of late years diminished and become more confined in their range, the huia has from time immemorial been limited in its distribution to its present haunts. Sir W. Buller, who comments on the readiness with which the huia becomes recon- ciled to the loss of its liberty, so long ago as 1864 received a pair of these birds from a native in exchange for a valuable stone. They were fully adult, and had been •caught in the following simple manner. Attracting the birds by an imitation of their cry to the place where he lay concealed, the native, with the aid of a long rod, slipped a running knot over the head of the female and secured her. The male, emboldened by the loss of his mate, suffered himself to be easily caught in the same manner. When liberated in a large room, writes their owner, "it was amusing to notice their treatment of the hu-hu. This grub, the larva of a large nocturnal beetle, which constitutes their principal food, infests all decayed timber, attaining at maturity the size of a man's little finger. Like all grubs of its kind, it is fur- nished with a horned head and horny mandibles. On offering one of these to the huia, he would seize it in the middle, and, at once transferring it to his perch, and placing one foot firmly upon it, he would tear off the hard parts, and then, throwing the grub upward to secure it lengthwise in his bill, would swallow it whole. For the first few days these birds were comparatively quiet, remaining stationary on their perch as soon as their hunger was appeased, but they afterwards become more lively and active, indulging in play with each other, and seldom remaining more than a few moments in one position. I sent to the woods for a small branched tree, and placed it in the centre of the room, the floor of which was spread with sand and gravel. It was most interesting to watch these graceful birds hopping from branch to branch, occasionally spreading their tail into a broad fan, displaying themselves in a variety of natural attitudes, and then meeting to caress each other with their ivory bills, uttering at the same time a low affectionate twitter. . . . But what THE PERCHING BIRDS interested me most of all was the manner in which the birds assisted each other in their search for food, because it appeared to explain the use, in the economy of na- ture, of the differently-formed bills in the two sexes. To divert the birds, I intro- duced a log of decayed wood infested with the hu-hu grub. They at once attacked it, carefully probing the softer parts with their bills, and then vigorously assailing them, scooping out the decayed wood till the larva or pupa was visible, when it was MALE AND FEMALE HUIAS. (One-third natural size.) carefully drawn from its cell, treated in the way above described, and then swal- lowed. The very different development of the mandibles in the two sexes enabled them to perform separate offices. The male always attacked the more decayed por- tions of the wood, chiseling out his prey after the manner of some woodpeckers, while the female probed with her long pliant bill the other cells, where the hardness of the surrounding parts resisted the chisel of her mate. Sometimes I observed the BIRDS OF PARADISE 1501 male removed the decayed portion without being able to reach the grub, when the female would at once come to his aid and accomplished with her long slender bill what he had failed to do. I noticed, however, that the female always appropriated to her own use the morsels thus obtained." Buller subsequently studied the habits of the huia in the bush. The huia never leaves the shade of the forest; and moves along the ground, or from tree to tree, with remarkable celerity, by a series of bounds or jumps. In its flight it never rises like other birds above the tree tops, except in the depths of the woods, when it happens to fly from one high tree to another. The old birds as a rule respond to the call note in a low tremulous whistle or whimper, and almost immediately afterwards answer the summons in person, coming down noiselessly, and almost with the rapidity of an arrow. The huia builds its nest in hollow trees, lining it with coarse grasses and bits of coarse herbaceous plants, twined into a basin-like form. A specimen of the egg brought to Buller was of a very delicate stone gray, inclining to grayish white, with- out any markings except at the larger end where there are some scattered rounded spots of dark purple gray and brown; but another specimen is described as pure white, without any trace of markings. The whole of the plumage is black, with a green metallic gloss, the tail being banded with white. Both sexes 'are adorned with large rounded wattles, which are of a rich orange color in the living bird. The bill is ivory white, darkening into blackish gray at the base. The young differ from the adults in having the entire plumage of a duller black, and the terminal bar washed with rufous. It may be added that in the superficial deposits of the North island temains of the huia have been found in association with those of the extinct tnoas. BIRDS OF PARADISE V Family PARADISEID^, In spite of their gorgeous plumage, which seems to run riot in the way of •exuberance and eccentricity, the birds of paradise, according to the system we are following, are regarded as near allies of the crows, from which they may be distin- guished by the abnormal structure of the toes. Thus, the outermost or fourth toe is inferior in length to the third, which is longer than the second; while the first is very large, and equal to or longer than the third. According to Dr. Sharpe's arrangement, the birds of paradise may be divided into two groups, in the first of which the beak is short and more or less stout, with its culruen shorter than the metatarsus; while in the second it is long and slender, the culmen being longer than the metatarsus. These birds, which are represented by nearly fifty species, are almost wholly confined to New Guinea and the adjacent Papuan islands (especially the Aru group), although one genus is found in the Malaccas, while three genera extend to North Australia. Although the females are at best generally plain and ordinary-looking birds, often of a uniform chocolate color, the adult males of all the species are char- acterized by an extraordinary development of plumage, quite unparalleled in any other group. "In several species," writes Mr. Wallace, "large tufts of delicate 1502 THE PERCHING BIRDS bright-colored feathers spring from each side of the body beneath the wings, forming trains, or fans, or shields; and the middle feathers of the tail are often elongated into wires, twisted into fantastic shapes, or adorned with the most brilliant metallic tints. In another set of species these accessory plumes spring from the head, the back, or the shoulders; while the intensity of color and of metallic lustre displayed by their plumage is not to be equaled by any other birds, except, perhaps the hum- ming birds, and is not surpassed even by these." Although but very little is known in regard to the habits of these lovely birds, it appears that as regards food they are generally omnivorous, feeding on fruits and insects, and showing a marked preference for figs, grasshoppers, locusts, leaf insects, and caterpillars. Even, however, when supplied with food of this nature in cap- tivity they almost immediately pine and die. While the long-tailed species are purely arboreal, some of the short-tailed kinds, like the six-plumed bird of paradise, are frequently seen on the ground; and in all cases the cock birds are fond of assem- bling for mutual display. Till recently their eggs have been almost unknown, but such as have been obtained recall those of some of the rails in appearance. They are two in number, and laid in a nest built high up in the tree tops. The eggs of the Empress Augusta paradise bird have a pale pinkish-buff ground color, upon which are streaks and spots of reddish brown and gray. Several of the species have a very small distributional area, but in no case is the range more restricted than in the red bird of paradise, which is entirely confined to the small island of Waigiou, at tt.e northwestern extremity of New Guinea, in which spot it replaces the mem- bers of the genus to which it belongs found in the other islands. Commencing with the second of the two groups referred to above, Twelve- Wired _. . f or the one in which the beak is relatively long and slender, we may Paradise ta^e as a ^rst example the beautiful twelve-wired bird of paradise {Seleucides nigricans}, which is the sole representative of this genus. Having a short, squared tail, much inferior in length to the body, this genus is dis- tinguished by the absence of a jugular shield of metallic plumes on the throat and fore-neck; and still more so by the feathers of the flanks, which are yellowish like those of the breast, being produced and their shafts elongated into six pairs of bare wire-like bristles, which are bent forward in a bold curve. As regards the plu- mage, the head is covered with short velvety feathers of a purplish-bronze color; the breast appears at first nearly. black, but in different lights shows various metallic tints, especially green and purple, the outer edges of the feathers being margined with emerald green. The whole of the back and shoulders is rich bronzy green, while the closed wings and tail are of the most brilliant violet purple, and the whole plumage has a delicate silky gloss. Posteriorly to the fore-breast, the whole of the under parts are of a rich buffy yellow, the same tint characterizing the plumes of flank feathers, which extend about an inch and a half beyond the tail. The total length of the bird is about a foot, of which two inches are taken up by the com- pressed beak. The female, although less sombre than in some of the group, has none of the bright plumes of her partner, being bright chestnut red above, with the crown of the head and back of the neck brown; while the under parts are buffy brown, irregularly barred with blackish brown. BIRDS OF PARADISE 1503 Inhabiting the island of Salwatti and the northwestern parts of Xew Guinea, the twelve-wired bird of paradise, according to Mr. Wallace, "frequents flowering trees, especially sago palms and pandani, sucking the flowers, round and beneath which its unusually large and powerful feet enable it to cling. Its motions are TWELVE WIRED BIRD OF PARADISE. (One-third natural size.) very rapid. It seldom rests more than a few moments on one tree, after which it flies off, and with great swiftness, to another. It has a loud, shrill cry, to be heard a long way off, consisting of cak, cah, repeated five or six times in a descending scale, and at the last note it generally flies away. The males are quite solitary in their habits, although, perhaps, they assemble at certain times like the true para- 1504 THE PERCHING BIRDS dise birds. " Both Mr. Wallace and Dr. Guillemard have been fortunate enough to see this splendid bird in the living state. To capture them, the natives search the forest until they discover a roosting place, where the hunter conceals himself be- neath the tree, and having marked the particular bough on which the bird is accus- tomed to perch, ascends the stem at night, and secures his prize by the simple expedient of stealthily putting a cloth over it. There are three other genera included in the long-beaked group, or Epimachincz, namely, Ptilorhis, Epimachus, and Drepanornis. The first of these three are inhabitants of Northern Australia and New Guinea, and are commonly known as rifle birds. While agreeing with the twelve-wired paradise bird in the relative proportions of the tail, they differ in having a jugular shield of metallic plumes occupying the throat and fore-neck, as well as by the absence of the " wires." The scale-breasted bird of paradise (P. magnified} is the Papuan representative of this genus, and is characterized by the shield of stiff me- tallic green feathers on the breast, and a small tuft of somewhat hairy plumes on the sides of the same; the back and wings being velvety black, faintly glossed with purple. The long-tailed bird of paradise {Epimachus spetiosus}, together with an allied Papuan species, represent the second of the three genera, sufficiently distin- guished by the great elongation of the graduated tail, which is much longer than the body. Resembling the twelve-wired species in its dark velvety plumage, glossed with purple and bronze, this bird has the tail, which exceeds two feet in length, tinted above with a splendid opalescent blue; but its chief ornament is the group of broad feathers arising in a fan-like manner from the sides of the breast, which are dilated at their extremities, and banded with vivid blue and green; the beak being long and curved, and the feet black. In total length this bird measures between three and four feet. It is an inhabitant of the mountains of New Guinea, some- times found near the coast. The fourth genus is represented by the Albertis bird of paradise (Drepanornis albertisi] , which differs from all the others in having a long, slender, sickle-shaped beak, downy plumage, a moderately-long graduated tail, and the flank feathers developed into a brown fan-like shield. " Above the beak," writes its discoverer, Signer Albertis, "are two tufts or horns, formed of small feathers deeply marked with green and copper-colored reflections. The long feathers which grow from the .sides of the breast are, when closed, gray, shot with a violet tint; but when spread they form almost a semicircle round the body, and in certain lights shine like gold, in others like fire. Long feathers of a grayish- violet color grow from the sides, their edges being of a metallic violet lustre. The upper parts of the wing and tail feathers are of a darkish yellow, as are those of the back, but some- times of a still darker hue. The feathers of the throat are black, shading off into olive color; those of the breast of a grayish purple, with an olive band; the abdomen is white. The beak is black, the eyes chestnut, and the feet dark lead color. When the bird raises the long feathers on his sides and breast, they form two semicircles, and he presents as extraordinary and beautiful a sight as one could behold." The female of this Papuan species is chestnut above, and yellower beneath. BIRDS OF PARADISE GORGET BIRD OF PARADISE. ( Two-fifths natural size.) The Gorget Bird of Paradise This species (Astrapia nigra), from the mountains of Central New Guinea, is the sole repre- sentative of its genus, and brings us to the short-beaked or typical group of the family. Having a long and graduated tail, of which the central plumes are not elongated into, wire-like shafts, it is especially distinguished by the thick feathering of the- lores and angle of the mouth, by the presence of an erect frill surrounding the head, and another frill of a golden coppery tint round the throat. In the adult male the general color of the upper parts is velvety black, with a purplish gloss; the two long central tail feathers are glossed with purple; the frill round the head is golden green; while the of the throat are steely black, with the above-mentioned gorget of brilliant 1506 THE PERCHING BIRDS Wattled Bird of Paradise Typical Birds of Paradise copper; a ruff of black plumes springs from the shield on the neck; the flanks are dusky black, and the under parts velvety grass green. An allied genus is represented by the wattled paradise bird {Para- dig alia carunculata} of New Guinea, distinguished by the lores hav- ing an erect orange-yellow wattle, while another of azure blue hangs from each angle of the mouth; the tail being shorter than the body, and the head and throat devoid of frills. The great bird of paradise (Paradisea apoda}, which was the first known representative of the entire family, derives its specific name from having been described by Linnaeus from a skin prepared in the Papuan fashion, with the wings and feet cut off. The genus, which is represented by several species from Papua and the Aru and other islands, is characterized by the production of the central pair of tail feath- ers into extremely long, horny wire-like shafts, the absence of a shield, on the back, and the elongation of the flank plumes into two huge bunches of feathers reaching far beyond the tail. The great bird of paradise, of the Aru islands, is the largest representative of the genus measuring from fifteen to eighteen inches in total length, and is described by Mr. Wallace as follows: "The body, wings, and tail are of a rich coffee brown, which deepens on the breast to a blackish violet or purple brown. The whole of the top of the head and neck is of an exceedingly-delicate straw yellow, the feathers being short and close set, so as to resemble plush or velvet; the lower part of the throat up to the eye is clothed with scaly feathers of an emerald-green color, and with a rich metallic gloss, and velvety plumes of a still deeper green extend in a broad band across the forehead and chin as far as the eye, which is bright yellow. The beak is pale lead blue; and the feet, which are rather large, and Very strongly and well formed, are of a pale ashy pink. The two middle feathers of the tail have no webs, except a very small one at the base and at the extreme tip, forming wire-like cirri, which spread out in an elegant double curve, and vary from twenty-four to thirty inches in length. From each side of the body, beneath the wings, springs a dense tuft of long and delicate plumes, sometimes two feet in length, of the most intense golden-orange color, and very JREAT BIRD OF PARADISE. BIRDS OF PARADISE 1507 glossy, but changing toward the tips into a pale brown. This tuft of plumes can be elevated and spread out at pleasure, so as almost to conceal the body of the bird." In the female the whole of the ornamental plumes are wanting, and the color is a uniform coffee brown. The lesser bird of paradise (P. minor), from New Guinea, and several of the adjacent islands, although considerably smaller, is very similar in general characteristics. .,,-• —vHa ^* ...-.4'V ' " '-: ' '•'''-_.- --.,-fc. --~v^ .--L- >» ^ Red Bird of Paradise RED BIRD OF PARADISE. (One-third natural size.) On the other hand, the red bird of paradise (P. sanguinea), from the islands of Waigiou, Ghemien, and Batanta, is a very distinct form. Measur- ing from thirteen to fourteen inches in length, it has the flank plumes shorter, and of a rich crimson hue, while in structure they are rigid, their tips being horny, and nearly white. The forehead, sides of the head, and the whole throat are a brilliant metallic green, with the plumes of a velvety texture; the sides of the neck and entire mantle are bright golden yellow, deepening into orange on the sides of the mantle and the middle of the back; the rump is straw 1508 THE PERCHING BIRDS yellow, the two central feathers consisting of two long shafts, twenty-one inches in length, of a metallic horny structure; the wing coverts are golden yellow; the primaries ruddy chestnut; and breast deep purplish chestnut. The female and young have the sides of the head and forehead purplish brown; the hind part of the head, neck, and mantle straw yellow, deepening into orange; the remainder of the upper surface, including the wings and tail, being chestnut brown, as are the lower parts.- Thoroughly arboreal in their habits, the birds of this genus live both upon insects and fruits; and occasionally they may be seen running along the lower boughs of trees almost like woodpeckers, with the long, black filaments of the tail hanging gracefully down on each side. In motion throughout the day, they are active and vigorous; and while small flocks of females and immature males are constantly met with, the adult cocks are less commonly seen, although their presence near by is revealed by their loud and harsh cries. At certain seasons of the year the adult males flock together in a selected tree for the purpose of display, forming what the natives term dancing parties. "On one of these trees," says Mr. Wallace, "a dozen or twenty full-plumaged male birds assemble together, raise up their wings, stretch out their necks, and elevate their exquisite plumes, keeping them in a continual vibration. Between whiles they fly across from branch to branch in a state of great excitement, so that the whole tree is filled with waving plumes in every variety of attitude and motion." When thus assembled, the birds are shot with blunt-headed arrows by the natives, who climb silently into the "play tree," and seat themselves in some convenient fork. From continual persecution to supply the European market with skins, the great bird of paradise, according to Dr. Guillemard, has of late years greatly diminished in numbers. The beautiful little king bird of paradise (Cicinpiirus regius}, from n?,. *r >e New Guinea and the adjacent islands, forms the type of a distinct genus, distinguished by the flank plumes not extending beyond the tail, by the presence of a large tuft of fan-like plumes on each side of the breast, and by the two central tail feathers being long and racket-like. Measuring only about six and one-half inches in length, this lovely species has the head, throat, upper parts, wings, and tail red, the fan-like plumes on the sides purplish, tipped with green, a green gorget below the red of the throat, and the rest of the under parts white. The remarkable species (Diphyllodes wilsoni) we illustrate may be Wilson's Bird . , , . of Paradise mc^u"e" m a Papuan genus, typically represented by the magnificent paradise bird (Z>. magnified) t and distinguished from the preceding by the presence of a shield of feathers on the back, and the absence of elongated flank plumes; while from an allied genus (Rhipidornis) it differs in having no fan-shaped shield of feathers springing from each side of the breast. Whereas, however, in the magnificent paradise bird the head is thickly feathered, in the species under con- sideration, with the exception of a few narrow tracks of feathers, it is bare; on which account some writers refer Wilson's bird of paradise to a distinct genus. Describing this remarkable species, Dr. Guillemard writes that ' ' behind the head a BIRDS OF PARADISE 1509 ruff of canar}- -colored feathers stands erect above the scarlet back and wings. The breast is covered by a shield of glossy green plumes, which toward the throat are marked with metallic green and violet spots of extraordinary beauty. The two cen- tral feathers of the tail, prolonged for five or six inches beyond the others, cross one another, and are curved into a complete circle of bright steely purple. But the chief peculiarity of the bird is the head, which is bald from the vertex backward, BIRD OF PARADISE. (From Guillemard's Cruise of the "MarcAesa.") the bare skin being of the brightest imaginable blue. The bizarre effect thus pro- duced is still further heightened by two fine lines of feathers, which running lengthways and from side to side form a dark cross upon the brilliant azure back- ground." This bird is of small size, and is confined to Waigiou and Batanta islands, where it appears to be very locally distributed, frequenting forests of no great height, at an elevation of some eight hundred feet above the sea. 1510 THE PERCHING BIRDS Another strange and beautiful representative of a group in which all „. - are lovely beyond description is the six-plumed bird of paradise (Pa- Paradise r°tia sexpennis) of New Guinea, which is the only known member of its genus. In common with the remaining members of the family, this bird has a short tail, without any elongation of the central pair of feathers, while it is specially characterized by three pairs of very long racket feathers springing from the sides of the head. With the exception of a vivid steely-green bar across the crown of the head, and a tuft of silvery feathers at the base of the beak, together with a green and bronze gorget on the breast, the plumage is almost entirely black; the tuft of silvery feathers on the beak being capable of erection or depression at will. For many years this splendid species was known only by skins badly prepared by the natives; but eventually it was observed in the living state by Signor Albertis, who writes as follows of his first sia:ht of it in its native haunts: " After standing HEAD OF SIX-PLUMED BIRD OF PARADISE. (I-i-oin Guillemard's Cruise of the "Afarchesa.") still for some moments in the middle of the little glade, the beautiful bird peered about to see if all were safe, and then he began to move the long feathers of his head, six in number, from which his name is derived, and to raise and lower a small tuft of white feathers above his beak, which shone in the rays of the sun like burnished silver; he also raised and lowered the crest of stiff feathers, almost like scales and glittering like bits of bright metal, with which his neck was adorned. He spread and contracted the long feathers on his sides in a way that made him appear now larger and again smaller than his real size, and, jumping first on one side and then on the other, he placed himself proudly in an attitude of combat, as though he imagined himself fighting with some invisible foe. All this time he was uttering a curious note, as though calling on some one to admire his beauty, or per- haps challenging an enemy." From this account it would appear that the species is much less arboreal in its habits than the other members of the family. BIRDS OF PARADISE 1511 Even more remarkable than the last is the standard wing (Senii- w_ optera wallacei}, from the islands of Batchian and Gilolo, which like- wise forms a genus by itself, and is characterized by the absence of long thread-like plumes on the head, and the presence of two long projecting feathers from each wing, which are capable of being erected at the pleasure of their owner. Its discoverer, Mr. Wallace, describes this bird as being generally of a delicate olive-brown color, deepening to a kind of bronzy olive in the middle of the back, and changing to a delicate ashy violet with metallic reflections on the crown of the head; the feathers covering the nostrils and extending half way down the beak being loose and upwardly curved. On the breast the scale-like feathers are margined with a rich metallic bluish green; while the same color embraces the throat and sides of the neck, together with the long pointed plumes arising from the sides of the breast. The two long projecting white feathers springing from near the bend of the wings are fully six inches in length, and are spread out, whenever the bird is excited, at right angles to the wings. The beak is horny olive, the iris deep olive, and the foot bright orange. In total length the bird measures eleven inches. The standard wing, which resembles the rest of its tribe in being in constant motion, frequents the lower boughs of the forest trees, ' ' flying from branch to branch, clinging to the twigs, and even to the smooth and vertical trunks almost as easily as a woodpecker. It continually utters a harsh, croaking note, somewhat intermediate between that of a Paradisea apoda and Cicinnurus regius. The males at short intervals open and flutter their wings, erect the long shoulder feathers, and spread out the elegant green breast shields." It is noteworthy that the examples of this species from Gilolo differ somewhat in coloration and the con- formation of the plumes from those inhabiting Batchian, so that an expert is at once able to say from which of the two islands any given specimen was obtained. The acme of strange plumal adornment (which in all these cases is ° in all probability developed to attract the admiration and attention of the female, since it can have no other conceivable object) seems to be attained by the superb bird of paradise {Lophorhina superba), which is chiefly characterized by the presence of an enormous erectile forked shield of velvety black feathers, arising from the nape of the neck, and when in repose lying flatly on the back. So strange and apparently incongruous is this shield that it might suggest to the beholder that the tail of some other bird had been stuck on to the skin, were it not that its feathers are of a different type. The ground color of the plumage is of the deepest black, but with bronze reflections on the neck, while the feathers of the head are metallic green and blue. Spreading over the breast is a shield com- posed of narrow and rather stiff feathers, which extends in a pointed form along each side, and is emarginate in the middle. In color this is bluish green, with a satiny sheen; the back shield, on the other hand, is velvety black, with reflections of bronze and purple, its outermost feathers exceeding the primaries of the wing in length. So far as Dr. Guillemard could gather from native reports, it would seem that the enormous crest, as it appears displayed during the courtship of the female, is not only raised, but spread widely out in a fan-like manner, while the chest shield is similarly expanded. Hence, the head of the bird forms the centre of an irregular 15 12 THE PERCHING BIRDS circle of feathers of velvety black and emerald, completely concealing the rest of the body when viewed from the front. The remaining genera of the family, such as Phonygama of New Guinea and North Australia, Manucodia of North Australia and the adjacent Papuan islands, and Lycocorax of the Moluccan and Papuan islands, must here be passed without further mention. THE BOWER BIRDS Family PTILONORHTNCHID^ By no means easy of definition, the bower birds, most of which are, however, characterized by building the structures from which they take their name, have given rise to some difference of opinion among ornithologists as to their affinities, and they have been included in the preceding family, although they are now placed by Dr. Sharpe in his catalogue of the birds in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons between the birds of paradise and the starlings. While the so-called regent bird approximates to the former group in the nature of the feathers on the head, and the gorgeous coloration of its plumage, the true bower birds are more thrush-like in appearance. The group is mainly peculiar to Australia, although one Australian genus extends to the Papuan islands, and another genus (Ambly- ornis] , with a single species, inhabits New Guinea only. They all have the base of the beak fully feathered, and the foot of the normal Passerine type. In the position of the flexure of the lower mandible, immediately below the aperture of the nostrils, the skull resembles that of the birds of paradise; but, in a slight backward protection of the hinder extremity of the mandible, they approximate to the starlings, in which it is more developed, while the flexure is further back. The satin bower bird (Ptilonorhynchus holosericeus) is the type of a genus characterized by the short, convex, and laterally-compressed beak, in which the nostrils are basal and concealed by the silky feathers of the forehead; the wings being pointed, the tail somewhat rounded, and the feet stout and furnished with moderately-long claws. These bower birds belong to the eastern and northern districts of Australia. The localities frequented by the satin bower birds are the luxuriant and thickly- foliaged brushes stretching along the coast of New South Wales. Their popular name owes its origin to their extraordinary habit of constructing what the colonists commonly call "runs," which are used by the birds as a playing house, and are con- structed in avenue form, built of pieces of stick or grass and adorned with stones, bright-colored shells, and even bleached bones, as well as the blue tail feathers of certain parrakeets. The natives are so well acquainted with the propensity of these birds for carrying off any attractive object, that they always search the runs for any small article that may have been dropped in the brush; and in one Gould found a small neatly- worked stone tomahawk, together with some slips of blue cotton rags, which the birds had doubtless picked up at a deserted encampment of the THE BOWER BIRDS 1513 natives. This is a stationary species, but roams from one part of the district to another in search of food. It appears to have particular times in the day for feed- ing, and when thus engaged may be approached within a few feet, although at other times the old males are shy and watchful. In autumn these bower birds associate in small flocks, and may often be seen on the ground near the sides of the rivers. The adult male is entirely of a deep, shining blue black, closely resembling satin, with the exception of the wings and tail, which are of a deep velvety black. The female has all the upper parts grayish green; the under surface being similar, SATIN BOWER BIRDS AND NEST. (One-third natural size. ) but lighter and washed with yellow; and each feather 01 the under surface having a crescentic mark of dark brown near the extremity. ' Young males closely resemble the females. There are other species of the genus. The five species of this genus differ from the preceding group Birds ky having the nostrils exposed, instead of completely hidden by silky plumes; while from an allied form they are distinguished by the nostrils being oval in shape and overhung by a membrane behind, as well as by the longer and more slender beak. In color the upper parts of the common spotted 1514 THE PERCHING BIRDS bower bird {Chlamydodera metadata) are deep brown, as are also the wings and tail; each feather of the back and rump, as well as the scapularies, being tipped with a large buff patch; the under parts are grayish white. The male is ornamented with a broad crest of rose pink, which is wanting in his partner. Much similarity exists between the habits of the satin bower bird and those of the spotted bower bird. The latter species is, however, extremely shy, and would SPOTTED BOWER BIRDS AT HOME. (One-half natural size.) often escape notice were it not for the harsh grating note with which it receives the intrusion of a stranger into its haunts. When disturbed it takes to the topmost branches of the loftiest trees and frequently flies off to another neighborhood. Gould states that he found several of the bowers or runs of this bird during THE BOWER BIRDS 1515 "his journey into the interior of New South Wales, both on the plains studded with small trees and in the brushes clothing the lower hills; these were con- siderably longer and more avenue-like than those of the satin bower bird, being in many instances three feet in length. ' ' They are outwardly built of twigs, and beautifully lined with tall grasses, so disposed that their heads nearly meet; the decorations are very profuse, and consist of bivalve shells, crania of small Mammalia and other bones, bleached by exposure to the rays of the sun or from the camp fires of the natives. Evident indications of high instinct are manifest throughout the whole of the bower and decorations formed by this species, particularly in the manner in which the stones are placed within the bower, apparently to keep the grasses with which it is lined fixed firmly in their places. These stones diverge from the mouth of the run on each side so as to form little paths, while the immense collection of decorative materials is placed in a heap before the entrance of the avenue, the arrangement being the same at both ends. In some of the larger bowers, which had evidently been resorted to for many years, I have seen half a bushel of bones, shells, etc. , at each of the entrances. I frequently found these structures at a considerable distance from the rivers, from the borders of. which they could alone have procured the shells and small round pebbly stones; their collection and transportation must therefore be a task of great labor. I fully ascertained that these runs, like those of the satin bower bird, formed the rendez- vous of many individuals. ' ' The Papuan representative of the next genus {Amblyornis inornatus} has the beak less elevated than in the other genera, and the nostrils Bower Bjr t*16 feet l°ng and strong, and the tail of variable length; while o iciriixig^s the plumage is remarkable for its brilliant gloss, being generally adorned with shades of bluish green, violet, purple or copper color. Such species as have long graduated tails may be included in Lamprotornis , while those in which the tail is short, and squared are classed as Lamprocolius. The glossy starlings are gregarious birds, ranging all over Africa, and feeding on vegetable as well as ani- mal substances. Uttering harsh clamorous notes, they are rapid in their flight and lively in their movements; and while generally dwelling high up in the branches of the forest trees, they descend at times to pick up insects and other food on the ground. From the retiring habits of most of the species, they are but seldom seen. They either build in holes of trees, or make large cup-shaped nests, in which are deposited five or six spotted eggs. This species (L. census), which is the one represented in the upper £j ss figure of our colored plate, is a denizen of West Africa, although alsa Starling ranging into the southern, eastern, and central districts of that conti- nent. Measuring about twenty inches in total length, of which two- thirds are occupied by the long graduated tail, this bird has the head, chin, and upper part of the throat black, with a golden lustre; the upper parts and wings be- ing dark metallic .green, and the upper wing coverts ornamented with small black spots; the middle of the throat, as well as the upper tail coverts, tail, and under parts being dark purple violet, marked with darker cross bands; while the middle of the breast is copper red. The upper wing coverts have black spots. The iris of the eye is yellow; and the beak and feet are black. Feeding largely upon insects, these birds are more terrestrial in their habits than many others of the group. The superb glossy starling {Lamprocolius superbus), figured on page ssy 1523, is a native of East Africa, and is easily recognized by the white OvftfUUK band across the chest; the mantle being steely green, and the upper part of the head and neck black. Such is the wonderful shimmer of the plumage, which is similar in both sexes, that it shows totally-different tints according to the light, and indeed can scarcely be described in words. In the young only the upper parts are metallic green, the under parts being dark brownish gray, devoid of lustre. Although typically an inhabitant of Abyssinia, this beautiful bird ranges into Senegambia. It frequents alike the thickly-wooded river valleys and the high mountains, ascending in Abyssinia to an elevation of some ten thousand feet; and while generally going about in pairs, in the breeding season congregates in small flocks. Both in flight and general habits it resembles the European starling. The pretty little bird (L. leucog aster] , depicted in the middle figure White-Bellied ,. ,, , , . *:'***. j j-rt . or the plate, is our last representative of the group, and differs con- Starling siderably in coloration from the foregoing species. The whole of the upper parts and the throat, as far as the breast, are purplish blue, with a wonderful violet shimmer in certain lights; while the remainder of the under parts are white, and the wings blackish brown, with a violet tinge; the whole of the GLOSSY STARLINGS AND CRACKLES 1523 darker portion of the plumage being shot with a coppery lustre. This bird is dis- tributed over the whole of Central Africa, and extends northward into Abyssinia and Western Arabia. A truly arboreal species, it is found both on the plains and in the mountains, generally associating in parties of from six to twenty individuals; its general habits being very similar to those of the other members of the group. The Crackles or Hill Mynas THE SUPERB GLOSSY STARLING. Not to be confounded with the true mynas, mentioned later on, the grackles, or hill mynas of India and the adjacent regions are birds of glossy black plumage, easily distinguished by the presence of fleshy yellow or orange wattles on the head. The beak is thick, high, curved, and shorter than the head; while the feathers of the crown are short and inwardly curved, with a kind of parting down the middle of the head; the wing being rather blunt, the tail short and nearly squared, and the foot strong. The southern grackle (Eulabes religiosd), of Southern India and Ceylon may be taken as a well-known example of the genus; and is distinguished from the others by having bare skin on the sides of the neck, and two long patches on the neck. Its whole plumage is glossy black, with the exception of a patch of white at the base of most of the primaries; the wattles are naked, being rich yellow, the beak 1524 THE PERCHING BIRDS orange yellow, and the legs and feet citron yellow. The total length of the adult is about ten inches. Young birds have a dull black plumage, and are devoid of wattles. lyike its kindred, this bird is either resident in one spot throughout the year, or only locally migratory; it is chiefly confined to the large forests of Western India or Ceylon, but other species inhabit the outer Himalayas. The southern grackle breeds from March to October; generally laying only a pair of eggs, which are deposited in holes in trees. Its food consists entirely of various fruits, which it obtains among the higher branches of its native forests. All the grackles learn to SOUTHERN GRACKI.E. (Three-fifths natural size.) whistle and talk when in captivity, and as they are excellent mimics they are much prized by the natives of India as cage birds. . . .. _ These birds differ from the grackles in having no wattles; their Asiatic Glossy . . , . , Starlings Pluma£e 1S highly glossy; the beak is short, with the culmen curved; the nostrils are small and round; the wing is long and sharp; and the tail of moderate length, and graduated. Mr. Gates remarks that he is not aware how nearly related these birds are to the African glossy starlings, although there appear to be important differences between some of them. The range of the THE DRONGOS 1525 genus extends from Southeastern Asia to Australia; the Indian glossy starling ( Calornis calybeius] being the only representative in the country from which it takes its name. The whole plumage is black, with a brilliant green gloss on most of it. THE DRONGOS Family DlCRURID^E The drongos, or king crows, of Southeastern Asia and Africa, form an easily recognized family, which is placed here by Dr. Sharpe, although Mr. Gates considers that its affinites are rather with the creepers, while other writers place it THE BLACK INDIAN DRONGO. with the shrikes. Their generally black plumage, and deeply-forked tail of ten feathers serve at once to distinguish drongos from all other members of the order. The edges of both madibles are smooth, with a single notch in the upper one; the wing has ten primary quills, and the nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead. Both sexes are alike, and the young differ from their parents only by their plumage being paler. Several of the species have the head crested, and there are always bristles at the base of the beak. Entirely insectivorous, the drongos are habitually upon the wing, darting from a tree to catch an insect, and returning speedily to the same or another perch; and they are likewise fairly endowed with vocal powers. 1526 THE PERCHING BIRDS Much alike in general characteristics, these birds present considerable difficulty in distinguishing the genera and species. In addition to the typical genus Dicrurus, as represented by the Indian black drongo, or king crow (/?. atef), ranging from Afghanistan to China, and several other species, Mr. Gates recognizes no less than six genera of the family in India. Two species, which may be included in the type genus, are found in South Africa; while Australia has but a single representative (Chibia bracteata) . The black drongo, which has the entire plumage deep black with a steely-blue gloss, but the under tail coverts generally tipped with white, is one of the most familiar of Indian birds, both in the hills and the plains, generally selecting the most exposed and barren tree or post for its perching place. The nest, which is generally placed in a thickly-leafed bough, is composed of fine twigs and grass, covered externally with cobwebs. Usually four, although occasionally five in number, the eggs may be either uniformly pure white, or salmon color, with brown- ish spots. Not unfrequently this bird may be observed perched on the back of cattle searching for insects. THE ORIOLES Family The orioles comprise a number of b'irds from the temperate and tropical portions of the Old World, in which the bill is as long as the head, and gently curved to the tip, where it is notched; the head is never crested; the wings are long, with the first three quills equally graduated, and the third and fourth longest; while the tail is moderate and rounded; and the toes are free at the base, and have long curved claws. The nostrils are bare, and placed well in front of the base of the beak, and this characteristic, together with the presence of twelve tail feathers, at once distin- guishes them from the drongos. Brilliant yellow generally adorns the plumage of the male orioles; in others the lower parts are variegated with rich crimson. They are birds of frugivorous habits, and frequent forest trees in preference to smaller cover. They are divided only into two genera, of which Oriolus has the lores feath- ered, while in Sphecotheres they are naked. Orioles inhabit the temperate parts of Europe, the whole of Africa, India, China, the Malayan provinces* the Indian islands, and Australia. Of the numerous birds visiting Northern Europe in the spring no species is better known than the golden oriole (O. galbula], at which time this bird may be observed migrating in small numbers; both sexes journeying in company. At this season the birds are silent, and seem anxious to escape notice, although, as they arrive before the beech trees (which clothe the mountain sides in the north of Spain) have unfolded their leaves, they have some difficulty in conceal- ing their brilliant plumage among the bare twigs. The oriole on the Continent reaches its nesting haunts about the end of April, and at once claims its own peculiar area of forest. Each pair confines itself to a certain portion of a great wood, the in- trusion of a strange male into the haunts of a pair of breeding birds being certain to result in a fight. Although the golden oriole is shy and retiring in Europe, its THE ORIOLES 1527 •cousin is by no means so in India, where it often perches on a tree immediately over the tent of the traveler, and there pours out its flute-like notes. In addition to these flute-like tones, both sexes have also a cat-like call. The nest is usually placed on a bough, and the young are attended with remarkable care by the parents. Although feeding mainly upon insects, which are often taken on the ground, the golden oriole during the fruit season lays toll on the orchard. The range of the golden oriole includes the whole of Europe, except the extreme north, as well as Persia and other parts of Southwestern Asia. In winter this species visits South THE GOI.DEN ORIOLE. (One-half natural size.) Africa. The bright color of the male golden oriole renders it peculiarly liable to be attacked by the sparrow hawk; and, in such a contingency, the oriole does not trust to his thrush-like flight enabling him to elude his tormentor in the open, but on the earliest opportunity seeks refuge in the densest thickets available as cover. The oriole forms a good cage bird; although old birds are not easily reconciled to the. loss of their freedom, and are apt to pine away. Young birds, on the other hand, are easily tamed. 1528 THE PERCHING BIRDS The adult male of this species is rich golden yellow above; the wings being black, the primary coverts broadly edged with yellow, which forms a conspicuous spot; the tail is black, tipped with yellow, the outer feathers having more yellow than black; while the entire under surface is golden yellow. The female differs from the male in having the back and scapulars tinged with green. Among thirty odd species of the genus, we may select for mention the green oriole (O. viridis] of New South Wales, which frequents orchards and gardens, where it fills the summer air with its melodious notes. This oriole says Professor Ramsay, may often be seen perched on some shady tree, with its head thrown back, showing to perfection its mottled breast, singing in a low tone, and imitating the notes of many birds, such as the black magpie. While feeding, it frequently utters a harsh guttural sort of squeak; and, during the breeding season, which commences at the end of September, and ends in January, it confines itself to a monotonous although melodious cry, the first part of which is quickly repeated, and ends in a lower note. This oriole builds a cup-shaped nest, principally com- posed of shreds of the bark of a species of gum tree, strongly woven together, and lined with leaves, or grass and hair, which is generally suspended between a fork at the extreme end of some horizontal bough, often in an exposed situation. The eggs vary in ground color from cream to dull white or very light brown, minutely dotted and blotched with umber and blackish brown. Green orioles feed principally on berries and wild fruits, particularly figs; although they sometimes capture insects on the wing. The adult male is dull yellowish olive above; the wings and tail being brown, washed with gray; while the throat is dull olivaceous; the fore-neck grayish, and the breast and sides of the body white, washed with olive yellow, each feather having a dark central streak. The sexes when adult are almost identical in color, but the male has the olive of the upper parts of a deeper tint than the female. THE CASSIQUES AND HANGNESTS Family ICTERID^ To a certain extent intermediate in structure between the crows and the finches, and agreeing with the starlings in the general structure of the skull, and especially the backward prolongation of the hinder extremity of the lower mandible, the large assemblage of American birds known as cassiques and hangnests may be regarded as the New- World representatives of the starlings of the Old World, although, so far as habits are concerned, it does not appear that there is any very marked struc- tural affinity between the two families. Distinguished by the length and slenderness of the beak, which in most cases equals the head in length, these birds generally possess pointed wings, which have never more than nine primaries; they have strong feet, and chiefly black plumage. Among the numerous genera only a few can be selected for notice. Congregating in flocks, after the manner of starlings, many of these birds build the long, pendent, bottle-like nests, from which the name of the family is derived. The family may be divided into three groups, the first compris- THE CASSIQUES AND HANGNESTS 1529 ing the ricebirds and cowbirds, the second the true hangnests, and the third the troupials; the characteristics of which are pointed out below. The first subfamily (Cassidnce) is represented by several closely- allied genera, among which the crested cassique (Ostinops decumanus) of South America, and the yellow cassique (Cassicus persicus], which is likewise South American, are well-known species. It will be unnecessary here to mention THE CRESTED CASSIQUE. ( Two-fifths natural size. ) the characteristics by which these genera are severally distinguished from one an- other, and it will suffice to say that the subfamily to which these belong is char- acterized by the naked exposed nostrils, and the presence of a shield on the forehead at the base of the beak. The crested cassique is characterized by the small crest from which it takes its name; and while the general color of the upper 1530 THE PERCHING BIRDS parts is deep black, with the feathers of the mantle and shoulders shaded with brown, and the upper and lower tail coverts chestnut, the five outermost pairs of tail feathers are a brilliant citron yellow. The elongated form of the nest character- izing the crested cassique is sufficiently indicated in our illustration. The true hangnests, as represented by a large number of species L ranging from North and Central America to Southern Brazil and Hangnests Bolivia, constitute (together with an allied genus containing one spe- cies) a second subfamily (Icterintz} in which the nostrils are more or less covered by a membrane, while the culmen of the beak is more or less incurved, and there is no shield on the forehead; the metatarsus being short, the feet adapted for perching, and the tail rounded. As a rule, the plumage is bright orange and yellow, relieved with black and white; the sexes being in some cases similar, and in others very dis- similar. Unlike the members of the preceding subfamily, these hangnests are thoroughly arboreal in their habits, and while the majority construct pendent nests like those of the cassiques, others appear to build open cup-shaped nests. The eggs are bluish or pinkish white, profusely spotted with purple and red. The best- known species is the Baltimore hangnest (Icterus galbula} , frequently termed the Baltimore oriole of the United States. These birds build in large companies, the males generally arriving first at the breeding places, where they are soon joined by their partners. The nest is wider and less elongated than that of the crested cas- sique. On a single tree sometimes as many as forty nests may be observed; and during November they will be found to contain both eggs and young birds. All the numerous species of the genus Icterus are good songsters, the notes of the Balti- more hangnest being especially melodious. Belonging to another subfamily (Agel&ince} differing from the last by the straight culmen of the beak and the elongated metatarsus, this genus, as typified by the common ricebird or bobolink (Dolichonyx oryzivorus), is characterized by the short and conical beak, the long and pointed wings, the rigid acuminate feathers of the tail, and the stout and long-clawed feet. An inhabitant of North America, where it is especially common in the United States, this well-known bird winters in Central America and the West Indies, returning northward in vast flocks along the Atlantic coast in spring, when the males are in nearly full breeding plumage, and are thus very conspicuous as they flock to the meadows and orchards. " Their number, " says Dr. Coues, "seems out of all proportion to that of the fe- males, but this is probably due to the silent and more retiring ways of the latter sex. They really pass through, in the vernal migration, quite rapidly, though they do not appear to be at all in a hurry, as we see them by day. They throw them- selves in a field, scatter on the ground feeding, and at the slightest alarm, or in mere wantonness, suddenly fly en masse to the nearest tree, fence, or bush, and begin to sing, producing an indescribable medley, hushed in an instant only to be resumed. Sometimes they sing as merrily, though with less concerted action, while they are rambling in the grass. Their daytime leisure for song and food is easily explained; for they migrate at this season almost entirely by night. Every night in early May, as we walk the streets, we can hear the mellow metallic clinking com- ing down through the darkness, from birds passing high overhead, and sounding THE CASSIQUES AND HANGNESTS 1531 clearer in the stillness. By the middle of May they have all passed: a few, it is stated, linger to breed south of New England, but the main body passes on, spread- ing over that portion of the Union and the neighboring British provinces, occupying in pairs almost every meadow. The change of plumage is completed before the return movement is made." Millions return on their southern journey, late in the summer and during September. They are now songless, but have a comfortable, self-satisfied chink, befitting such fat and abandoned gourmands as they are, throng- ing in countless hordes the wild rice tracts and the grain fields. So they go until the first cold snap that sends them into winter quarters at once. The bobolink nests upon the ground making a rude and flimsy structure of dried grass, which is artfully concealed. It lays four or five eggs, bluish white in ground color, blotched and spotted with dark chocolate. The male in the breeding season has the head and lower parts black; the hind-neck buff; the scapulars, rump, and upper tail coverts ashy white; the interscapulars streaked with black, buff, and ashy; and the outer quills edged with yellow. The nuptial garb just described is, however, unlike the plain plumage worn by both sexes after the breeding season, when the general color of the plumage is yellowish brown above, and brownish yellow below; the crown and back being conspicuously streaked with black, and the wings and tail blackish. Nearly allied to the last genus, the cowbirds possess a short, conical bill, long and pointed wings, slightly-rounded tail, and strong feet. In the majority of the species black is the prevailing color, being sometimes lustrous, with bronzed reflections. The cowbirds are mainly a South- American genus, although one species is only too well known in the United States. Some of the species seize upon the nests of other birds, and having driven away the rightful possessors, proceed to rear their own young in their new home. The majority, however, are more truly parasitical, depositing their eggs in other birds' nests, and leaving the strangers to hatch and rear their own offspring. The common cowbird (Molothrus pecoris) of the United States is a polygamous species; the sexes never mating, and their association being merely a herding together in quest of food. ' ' In the West," says Dr. Coues, "every wagon train passing over the prairies in sum- mer is attended by flocks of these birds; every camp and stock coral, permanent or temporary, is besieged by the busy birds, eager to glean subsistence upon the wasted forage. Their familiarity under these circumstances is surprising. Perpetually wandering about the feet of the draught animals, or perching upon their backs, they become so accustomed to man's presence that they will hardly get out of the way. I have even known a young bird to suffer itself to be taken in the hand, and it is no uncommon thing to have the birds fluttering within a few feet of one's head. The animals appear to rather like the birds, and suffer them to perch in a row upon their backbones, doubtless finding the scratching of their feet a comfort- able sensation, to say nothing of the riddance from insect parasites." The cowbird's foster parents are numerous, notably the summer yellowbird, the Maryland yellowthroat, and the red-eyed vireo. It is rare to find more than two eggs of this cowbird in a single nest, although as many as five have been found together. In color the eggs are white, speckled with brown. The adult 1532 THE PERCHING BIRDS of the common cowbird is of a lustrous greenish black, with blue and purple reflec- tions; the head and neck being deep wood brown, with some purplish lustre. The female is dull colored, of a nearly uniform grayish brown above, and paler beneath. Writing of a South-American member of the genus, Mr. W. H. Hudson observes that the male of the "screaming cowbird of L,a Plata, when perched, emits a hollow-sounding internal note that swells at the end into a sharp metallic THE COMMON COWBIRD. (One-half natural size.) ring, almost bell -like; this is uttered with wings and tail depressed, the whole plumage being puffed out as in a strutting turkey cock, while the bird hops briskly up and down on its perch as if dancing. The bell-like note of the male is followed by an impetuous scream from the female, and the dance ends. Another species, the common Argentine cowbird (M. bonariensis) of La Plata, when courting, puffs out his rich violet plumage, and, with wings vibrating, emits a succession of deep internal notes, followed by a set song in clear, ringing tones; and then suddenly THE CASSIQUES AND HANGNESTS 1533 taking wing he flies straight away, close to the surface, fluttering like a moth, and at a distance of twenty to thirty yards turns and flies in a wide circle round the female, singing loudly all the time, hedging her in with melody as it were." The bill in this genus is about as long as the head, stout at the " _ base, and tapering rapidly to an acute point; while the wings are ling etc pointed, and the tail broad. Black associated with red or yellow is the predominating color of the male birds, but the females are more soberly attired. Several species are found in Central and Southern America, while others are peculiar to the United States. The type of the genus is the red-shouldered starling (Agel&us phceniceus}> a bird commonly distributed through- RED SHOULDERED STARRING. (Five-eighths natural size.) out temperate North America, and especially abundant among the marshy tracts of the Eastern States. It nests in reeds and bushes near the ground or in a tussock of grass, building a bulky nest of coarse fibrous materials, such as strips of rushes or marsh grass. The eggs are pale blue, dotted and blotched with dark markings. In autumn this bird becomes highly gregarious, thronging in the grainfields, where it does much mischief. The male is lustrous black, with the lesser wing coverts scarlet, broadly bordered with brownish yellow; while the female is blackish brown above with pale streaks, and below whitish with many dusky streaks. The young male bird at first resembles the female, but is larger, and generally suffused with buff. Troupials THE PERCHING BIRDS Omitting mention of several genera of the family, we come to a genus, Quiscalus, of the third subfamily or group, rejoicing in a. variety of names, such as crow blackbirds, grackles, and boat-tails, but as the first two of these are liable to lead to confusion, it is better to adopt for them the French name of troupials, which, however, is often applied to the family. In these the beak is equal in length to the head, and somewhat crow-like in shape; the wings are relatively short, the tail of varying length, and the feet long. The best-known THE PURPI.E TROUPIAI,. (Three-fifths natural size.) member of the genus is the purple troupial (Q. purpureus) of the Atlantic States,, the other species being more southern in their distribution. It is a migratory gregarious bird of very general distribution, building in a tree or bush, and making- a large nest, usually of mud. The eggs are generally green or blue in ground color, variegated with dark brown and purple markings. These birds at times inflict great injury upon the crops, much to the annoyance of the agriculturist; but they also destroy large quantities of injurious insects. They have a propensity for destroying the eggs of other birds, especially those of the American robin or WEAVER BIRDS THE WEAVER BIRDS 1535 migratory thrush, lurking about the robin's vicinity until the parents are away, and then pouncing on the nest, seizing an egg or young one, and hastily retreating! The adult male is black above and below, variously glossed with green, purple, blue violet, and bronze; the female is similar but her tints are more subdued. THE WEAVER BIRDS Family PLOCElDsE NEST OF SOCIABLE WEAVERS. The weaver birds, which derive their name from the extraordinary textile nests they construct, comprise a large group of birds very abundant in Africa, and represented by many genera in Southeastern Asia and Australia. While very similar to the finches in external appearance, they differ in having ten primary quills in the wings, and likewise in some of them undergoing a partial molt in the spring. Resembling the hangnests to a certain extent in the structure of their nests, they differ both from those birds and the starlings in having no backward prolongation of the hinder extremity of the lower mandible, Having a strong conical beak, with the culmcn projecting onto the forehead and arched at the tip, they have the nostrils pierced withia the line of the forehead or 1536 THE PERCHING BIRDS close to it, while the space between the nostril and the edge of the mandible is greater than that between the former and the culmen; there is never any distinct notch in the upper mandible. The wings are somewhat rounded, with the first primary quill very short, while the legs and toes are stout and strongly scaled. The family may be divided into two groups or subfamilies, namely, the typical weaver birds, or Ploceince, in which the first primary of the wing is nearly as long as the metatarsus, and there is a spring molt; and the whydah birds and their allies, or Viduincz, in which the first primary is much shorter than the metatarsus, and the only molt is autumnal. Commencing with the first or typical subfamily, we have first to notice the small African genus of true oxbirds, which have a rather and Their Allies l°ng> conical, and laterally-compressed beak, the wings somewhat rounded and reaching a little below the base of the tail, with the second primary quill only a little shorter than the third and fourth, which are the longest; the tail being of moderate length and somewhat rounded, while the claws are strong and curved. This genus is typically represented by the common oxbird ( Textor alector) of Western Africa, shown in the background of the figure on p. 1537. This bird has a nearly uniform shining black plumage, with the bases of the contour feathers white, the beak being horny yellow, with its tips and edges bluish, and the feet blackish gray. The red-billed black weaver ( T. niger) is found in the Transvaal, Damaraland, and the lake regions; the possession of a red bill easily distinguishing this large finch-like and very noisy bird. It is gregarious in its habits, breeding in colonies, the members of which construct many nests in a single tree. The nests consist exter- nally of an immense mass of dried grass, twigs, and sticks, in which are to be found from four to six separate nests or holes of an oval form, composed of grass only, but united to each other by intricate masses of sticks defying the ingress of any intruder except a small snake. In each of these separate holes are laid three or four eggs exactly resembling sparrows' eggs, but much larger. Curiously enough, the birds roost in these nests which are used year after year, any injury to the structure being at once repaired by all the members of the community. Sir Andrew Smith found this bird frequenting herds of buffaloes, and perching on their backs in search of the parasitical insects which infest their hides. Like other birds of the family, it feeds upon berries, seeds, and insects. The general color of the adult male is black, with the first half of each wing feather white; but the young bird has some whitish patches on the neck and breast. This weaver (Dinemellia leucocephala} , which represents another White-Headed . . , ., r , . ., . . . . A . . ... genus, is a comparatively-small species round in the interior of Africa and Abyssinia. Like other members of the family, the present species is absent from dense forests, preferring to dwell upon grass lands in the more open portions of the country. It is by choice somewhat gregarious, taking up its abode on rough meadow lands, and seeking out the neighborhood of cattle. Although a true weaver, it does not construct so neat a nest as most of its allies. The adult male has the head and under parts white, the back, wings, and tail chocolate brown, and the rump and tail coverts scarlet; it is depicted in the upper figure of the illus- tration on the next page. THE WEAVER BIRDS 1537 The typical representative of a true weaver bird forms the e rue comparatively-small group, common to East and West Africa and the Birds Oriental region, exclusive of the Philippine islands. While in all the preceding genera the culmen of the beak is flattened at the base and sometimes crested, in the present and allied genera it is rounded at the base; the true weaver birds being specially distinguished by having the nostrils rounded and COMMON AND WHITE-HEADED OXBIRDS. (One-half natural size.) exposed, and the claw of the first toe very strong and highly curved. The genus Ploceus is confined to the Indian and Malayan regions, and is typically represented by the common weaver bird, or bay a (/". baya) of India and Ceylon. All these birds construct long flask-shaped nests, with a tubular entrance, and lay pure white eggs. 97 1538 THE PERCHING BIRDS Masked Weaver Bird The masked weaver bird {Hyphantornis larvata], of Abyssinia, may be taken as a well-known representative of an exclusively African genus with over thirty species, which may be distinguished from the last by the exposed oval nostrils being partly reached by the plumes at the base, and also shut in by a horny membrane. The figured species may be recognized by the scarlet iris of the eye, the black beak, and grayish-black legs. It is reported to lay pale bluish-green eggs, with a few violet-brown spots at the larger end. An allied species from the same district is the Abyssinian weaver bird ABYSSINIAN AND MASKED WEAVER BIRDS. (Three-fourths natural size.) (//". galbula), in which the iris is orange brown, the beak black (except in the breeding plumage of the male, when it becomes horn colored), and the leg flesh colored. A third form is the olive weaver bird (H, capensis) of South Africa. Generally living in flocks, the members of the last-named species are more numer- ous in the Transvaal than in Natal. According to Mr. Ayres, they are fond of sucking the honey from the scarlet flowers of the Cape broom. The nest is con- structed of coarse grasses, and formed somewhat in the shape of a chemist's retort, THE WEAVER BIRDS 1539 with the neck cut short and the aperture downward; while across the entrance runs a kind of bar to prevent the eggs from falling out. This nest is lined with the soft flowering heads of grass, which furnish a warm bed for the young. The eggs are of a beautiful, spotless green color. Mr. Layard says that these weavers become very tame in confinement, and will readily answer to the call. If they are supplied with cotton or thread, they will weave it most industriously into the bars of the cage, forming a dense mass which it is impossible to unravel. This work they perform entirely with their bills, clinging the while to the sides of the cage with their powerful claws. They have a loud churring cry. The adult has the crown of the head and the sides of the neck gamboge yellow; the nape, back, and rump are lemon yellow; the back of the neck and shoulders greenish yellow; the wing feathers a dark purplish brown edged with yellow; the tail olive brown tinted with yellow; while the throat and lower parts are saffron yellow. With this exclusively African genus ( Vidua) of long-tailed and r^J^e strikingly-colored birds we come to the second subfamily, the distinc- Birds tiye characteristics of which have been already indicated. The paradise whydah birds, of which there are several species, may be taken to in- clude all those in which the two central pairs of tail feathers of the males are greatly elongated, although they are frequently subdivided into distinct genera, according as to whether some or all of these feathers are attenuated and wire-like. The long- tailed whydah bird ( Vidua paradisea ) , represented in the upper part of our colored plate, is an inhabitant of South Africa, where it frequents swampy ground and the long reeds about ponds. Its flight is feeble. In the breeding season especially, when the male has assumed his nuptial livery and long tail feathers, the flight is so labored that the children constantly run them down. They are quite unable to fly against the wind, and in rainy weather can hardly be got to move out of the thick bushes in which they conceal themselves. The Kaffir children stretch bird-limed lines across the fields of millet and Kaffir corn, and take great numbers of the males by their tails becoming entangled in the lines. This bird builds its nest in long grass close to the ground, generally placing it in a tussock of herbage, to the blades and stalks of which it is roughly joined. The nest itself is rather a rough structure, composed of fine grass lined with the seed ends; the opening is at the side. Mr. Bowker states that the average number of females is as fifteen to one male. He adds that the long tail worn by the male in the breeding season is not an inconven- ience, and the bird never seems to enjoy himself so much as during a high wind in which he shows off to advantage, spreading his tail out like a fan. The male in nuptial plumage is of a general glossy back; the feathers of the shoulders are fulvous and brilliant crimson, and the tail is enormously developed. The female plumage is of a pale yellowish brown, but the wing feathers are black with pale yellowishbrown edges. Nearly the whole of the remaining genera of the subfamily have the tail shorter than the wing; and among these some of the most remarkable are the gorgeously-colored bishop birds of Africa, a group of which is depicted in the right lower half of our colored illustration. These birds have the tail squared, with the two central feathers not markedly produced beyond the rest; 1540 THE PERCHING BIRDS while the feathering of the body is soft and velvety; and there is a distinct winter and summer plumage, in the latter of which a frill is developed round the neck. Among the handsomest of the group is the red bishop bird, or red Kaffir finch (Pyro- melana oryx), of the Cape Colony, Natal, and the Transvaal. A bird of social habits, gathering together in immense flocks both in winter and summer, which during the latter season appear to consist almost entirely of males in their gaudy red and black plumage, the red bishop bird breeds in the month of September, constructing its nest of fine grass and suspending it among the reeds of the rivers. The eggs are I1H SOCIABLE WEAVER BIRD. (Three-fourths natural size.) pure light blue. In winter the flocks of bishop birds do much damage to the grain- fields. It is often exported into Europe as a cage bird. The adult male in nuptial plumage has the upper parts, throat, and vent, brilliant scarlet; the wings and tail are brown, and the forehead, cheeks, and chin black. After the breeding season is over, the male assumes the brown plumage of the female. Another common bird throughout the Cape Colony is the black-and-yellow bishop bird (P. capensis) affect- ing alike the loneliest swamps and the homesteads of farmers. It breeds in the neighborhood of water, constructing its nest of strong grasses and suspending it THE WEAVER BIRDS 1541 between the stalks of two or three reeds. The eggs are very pale green, thickly marked with dark greenish-brown blotches and spots. This bishop bird generally lives in small companies in the open fields, and feeds chiefly upon grass seeds. The adult male has the head and upper parts rich velvety black, the rump and shoulders brilliant yellow, and the wings brown. The birds of this genus, Philcsterus, which are likewise exclusively 3C1* e African, differ from the bishop birds in having the plumage similar Birds throughout the year, and no frill round the neck, while they are dis- tinguished from several allied forms by having the nostrils clearly ex- posed and placed well in front of the plumes at the base of the beak, and by the small size of the bastard primary. Among the four representatives of the genus the best known is the common sociable weaver bird (P. socius), of the interior of South Africa. This species congregates in large flocks, many pairs incubating their eggs under the same roof, which is composed of whole cartloads of grass piled on a branch of some camel' s-thorn tree in one enormous mass of an irregular umbrella shape, look- ing like a miniature haystack and almost solid, but with the under surface (which is nearly flat) honeycombed all over with little cavities, which serve not only as places for incubation, but also as a refuge against rain and wind. Dr. Guillemard remarks that the nests of the sociable weaver birds probably last for a great number of years. They are constantly being repaired by their active little inhabitants. It is curious that even the initiated eye is constantly being deceived by these peculiar dome-topped structures, since at a distance they closely resemble native huts. The nesting chambers themselves are warmly lined with feathers. The sociable weaver bird subsists chiefly upon seeds, and often feeds in company with many individuals of its own kind. The eggs are drab in ground color, closely speckled with purple gray. The male birds are somewhat pugnacious, frequently indulging in fights with their rivals. The plumage of the adult males is drab brown above, edged with gray. The chin is black and the under parts are pale isabelline brown, the flanks being varied with black, edged with whitish. With these birds we reach a group of genera in which the nostrils Cut-Throat / Weaver are more or ^ess completely hidden by the nasal plumes, and which are Finches specially distinguished by the tail being somewhat elongated and its feathers narrow, as well as by the pointed wing and the swollen and rounded beak, in which the cutting edge of the upper mandible is festooned near the base. The genus Amadina includes three African species, one (A. fasriata) having the throat marked by a crimson band extending to the ear coverts. This species ranges across Central and Northern Africa, and is represented in South Africa by another (A. erythrocephala) , in which the whole of the head and throat are red. It would be impossible in the limits of our space to point out how The Munias ,. . , . ,. . . . r „ ,, . ,,. , the munias are distinguished from all their allies, but it may be men- tioned that the central tail feathers are produced and pointed, while the whole tail is wedge-shaped. They possess a powerful, swollen, and rounded beak, which is most strongly developed in the common Java sparrow. The wings are moderately long, and the tail is graduated and rounded at the extremity. Some thirty species of munias are known, ranging through the Oriental region to New Guinea and Timor, while several species also inhabit the African continent; Sharpe's munia being a 1542 THE PERCHING BIRDS native of West Africa, while Mimia nana is found in the island of Madagascar. The Java sparrow is also known in Africa, but as an introduced bird, and in Zanzibar, Mauritius, and Reunion, just as it has become wild in parts of India, as at Madras and in Tenasserim. One of the commonest of cage birds in Europe is the well-known ricebird, paddy bird, or Java sparrow (M. oryzivora) which has long been domesticated. L,atterly, indeed, pure white specimens have been extensively bred in confinement, and have become an article of trade, being valued for their snowy plumage, which harmonizes with their pink bills. In Java and other parts of Asia this munia is re- garded as a pest on account of the ravages which it inflicts upon growing fields of JAVA SPARROW. rice. The nest is constructed of dry grass or other available materials, and the eggs are white. The adult male has the crown of the head black; the cheeks are pure white; the upper and lower parts, including the wings, are uniform slaty gray; and the rump and tail are black. Some individuals possess a song of considerable sweet- ness, but the usual note of this species is commonplace and unattractive. The last group of the family to which we shall refer is that of the w blood weaver finches. These birds have the tail longer than the wing, Finches tne inner secondaries so elongated as to equal the primaries in length, the beak curved, and the nostrils entirely hidden by plumelets. As typically represented by the waxbill weaver finch (Estrilda astrilda), they take their THE TANAGERS 1543 name from the prevalence of scarlet in their coloration, and are naturally confined to Africa and Arabia, although some have been introduced into Madagascar and St. Helena. There are about a dozen species. THE TANAGERS Family TANAGRID^E Numerous both as regards species and genera, and brilliant in coloration, the tanagers have been not inaptly described as dentirostral finches, since they possess a conical, finch-like beak, triangular at the base and notched near the tip. The notch in the beak is, however, scarcely apparent, or obsolete in some of the genera, while VIOI.ET TANAGER. (Natural size. in others it is greatly developed. Chiefly remarkable for their gay colors, the tana- gers feed much more upon fruits and insects than is the case with the finches, while some members of the group possess vocal powers of a high order. All have but nine primary quills in the wing. Exclusively American, the family is represented by upward of four hundred species, the majority of which are restricted to the inter- tropical regions of Central and South America, although a few migrate as far north as the United States in summer. 1544 THE PERCHING BIRDS Of the six subfamilies into which the tanagers are divided by d fj^^Sclater, the violet tanager (Euphonia violacea) and its allies consti- Allies tute t^ie typical representatives of the second. In this group the beak is short, swollen at the base, but not very much broadened; while the hooked upper mandible usually has two or three slight serrations behind the termi- nal notch. The wings are moderate, with the first three primaries longer than the rest, and nearly equal in length, while both the tail and metatarsus are short. The violet tanager is a lovely little bird, with a rapid flight, frequenting the very tops of the trees in which it dwells, its soft, tuneful note often denoting its presence before the musician itself is seen. The nest of the violet tanager is comparatively large for so small a bird, spherical in shape, built of dry grass, the finer stems of creepers, and tufts of cotton. The interior is lined with tufts of grass. From three to four eggs are laid in a clutch, reddish j^ellow in color, spotted with small brown spots. The strain of this tanager consists of a succession of pleasing notes, softly poured forth and long sustained. The violet tanager is a little gourmand, and feeds eagerly on ripe fruit; preferring soft fruits, such as bananas, and plundering the gardens so eagerly as sometimes to fairly strip a whole tree. It flourishes as a cage bird if sup- plied with plenty of room, fed upon an adequate variety of fruits, and kept in a warm room. The latter precaution is necessary, since this bird is susceptible of cold and cannot bear frost. The adult male has the upper parts violet; the forehead and lower parts are pure yellow; the tail feathers are steel blue above, dark beneath. The female lacks the ornamental colors of her partner, being of a dull olive green above, beneath yellowish gray. The splendid scarlet tanagers belong to the typical subfamily, in Scarlet _ which the beak is more lengthened and awl-like than in the last, with Tanagers a single terminal notch, which may be obsolete; while both the tail and metatarsus are long. Of some two hundred species included in the subfamily, the typical tanagers {Tanagra) have the plumage blue and yellow, while in the present genus scarlet generally predominates in the coloration of the males. Writing of the species (Pyranga rubra) in the United States, Mr. Nuttall observes that "this splendid and transient resident, accompanying fine weather in all his wanderings, arrives in his winter station in tropical America from the beginning to the middle of May, and extends his migrations probably to Nova Scotia as well as Canada. With the shy, unsocial, and suspicious habits of his gaudy fraternity, he takes up his abode in the deepest recesses of the forest, where, timidly flitting from observation, he darts from tree to tree like a flashing meteor. A gaudy sylph, conscious of his brilliance, and the exposure to which it subjects him, he seems to avoid remark, and is only solicitous to be known to his humble mate, and hid from all beside. He therefore rarely approaches the habitations of men, unless, perhaps, the skirts of the orchard, where he sometimes, however, builds his nest, and takes a taste of the early and inviting though forbidden cherries. ' ' The nest is built on the horizontal branch of some shady forest tree, constructed of stems of dry weeds, or slender fir twigs loosely framed together, lined with slender roots and wiry stems, the whole nest being so loosely welded together as to admit the light between the interstices. The eggs are dull blue, spotted with two or three shades of brown or purple. The female THE TANAGERS 1545 scarlet tanager is a devoted parent, and shows great maternal solicitude for the safety of her young. Even the male of this species has been known to follow one of his brood for half a mile, feeding it with insects through the wires of the cage in which it was confined. The scarlet tanager is the "redbird" of Americans. Un- fortunately, its crimson body, contrasting with wings and tail black as night, makes it only too conspicuous an object, the never-failing bait to the greed of the dealer in bird skins. The adult bird is uniform scarlet above, with the wings and tail pure black. The female is far less exposed to danger than her mate, being clear olive green above, and below greenish yellow, with the wings and tail dusky, glossed with green. Adult males often show abnormal coloring, the body being yellow, orange, or flame color, or red patches appearing on the wings. . Another gorgeously-colored representative of the tanagers is the r, . . crimson-headed tanager (/*. ludovidana) of the Western United States Tanager an<^ Mexico. In Southern Colorado Mr. Henshaw found this tanager in small numbers among cotton-woods along the streams, at an eleva- tion of about seven thousand five hundred feet, and much more abundantly among the pines, up to nine thousand feet and even ten thousand feet above sea level. He afterwards observed that it was common in Southern Arizona, and found it lingering along the Gila river, even so late as the middle of October, at which time nearly all these birds had migrated southward. As others had done, he noted the close simi- larity that obtains between this and the scarlet tanager. "It is busy the whole time gleaning from among the pines and spruces the larger beetles and insects which infest them, and generally keeps well up among the higher branches, whence it makes its presence known by occasional bursts of melody." Dr. George Suckley gave the following account of this species: "The beautiful Louisana tanager is quite abundant in certain seasons in the vicinity of Fort Steilacoom. In 1854 but a limited number made their appearance, while, on the contrary, in the summer of 1856 I could readily have obtained a hundred specimens. I have had frequent opportunities of studying their habits, and have never yet seen them descend to ground as stated by Nuttall, the reverse being the rule (at least at Puget Sound) ; the difficulty being generally to find the bird sufficiently low down on fir-tree branches to allow fine shot to reach it with any degree of certainty. . The favorite habitat of the species, in those localities where I have observed it, is among the tall, red fir trees belonging to that magnificent species, the Abies douglasi. They seemingly prefer the edges of the forest, rarely retiring to its depths unless for concealment when alarmed. In early summer, at Fort Steilacoom, they are gen- erally seen during the middle of the day, sunning themselves in the firs, occasionally darting from one of these trees to another, or to some of the neighboring white oaks on the prairies. Later in the season they may be seen very actively flying about in quest of insect food for their young. Both sexes during the breeding season are much less shy; the males during the daytime frequently sitting on some low limb, rendering the scene joyous with their delightful melody. ' ' The eggs of this tanager are green, sparingly dotted with very dark purplish brown. One of the loveliest of the family is the white-capped tanager (Stephanophorus kucocephalus) , a summer visitor to Argentine, where, says Mr. W. H. Hudson, "it 1546 THE PERCHING BIRDS makes its appearance in spring in the woods bordering on the Plata river, and is usually seen singly or in pairs. The nest is built in a tree ten or twelve feet from the ground, and is somewhat shallow and lined with soft dry grass. !J e" appe The female lays four eggs, white and spotted with red. During incu- Tanager bation the male sits concealed in the thick foliage close by, amusing itself by the hour with singing, its performance consisting of chattering disconnected notes, uttered in so low a tone as to make one fancy that the bird is merely trying to recall some melody it has forgotten, or endeavoring to construct a new one by jerking out a variety of sounds at random. The bird never gets beyond this un- satisfactory stage, however, and must be admired for its exquisite beauty alone." Azara named this species the "Blue White- Headed Beautiful," and the term was justified, for the entire plumage of both sexes is a lovely deep corn-flower blue, sur- mounted by a cap of silvery-white feathers; a crimson spot ornamenting the fore- head, looking like a drop of blood. THE HONEY CREEPERS Family These birds constitute a small group of some forty species. They are allied to the true warblers, so closely indeed, that some of the latter possess the deeply bifid, pencillate tongue, which was once supposed to be peculiar to the honey creepers. Unlike the creepers of the Old World, the honey creepers have soft- feathered, squared tails. They are almost wholly confined to the tropical parts of South America, only a single species ranging as far north as Florida; but they are most numerously represented in the islands of the West- Indian group. Among the various genera of the family, we select for notice the West-Indian honey creepers, of which a species {Certhiola flaveola} is Creepers represented in our illustration. The members of this genus have the beak rather shorter than the head, stout at the base, but tapering rapidly to the extremely-acute tip, and the whole bill much curved; the wings are long, but the tail is short and rounded. The habits of this, the figured species, have been best described by 1 Gosse, in his work on the Birds of Jamaica. Scarcely larger than the average size of the humming birds, this little creeper is often seen in company with them, probing the same flowers and for the same purpose, but in a very different manner. " Instead of hovering in front of each blossom, a task for which its short wings would be utterly incompetent, the banana quit alights on the tree, and pro- ceeds in the most business-like manner to peep into the flowers, hopping actively from twig to twig, and throwing the body into all positions, often clinging by the feet with the back downward, the better to reach the interior of a blossom, with its curved beak and penciled tongue. The minute insects which are always found in the interior of flowers are the objects of its search and the reward of its perseverance. Unsuspectingly familiar, these birds often resort to the blossoming shrubs of gardens THE HONEY CREEPERS 1547 and yards. A large moringa tree, that is profusely set all the year through with fragrant spikes of bloom, is a favorite resort of both these and the humming birds. One within a few feet of my window is, while I write this note, being actively scru- tinized by two active little creatures, that pursue their examination with a zeal per- fectly undisturbed by my looking on, while the same blossoms are rifled on one side by a minute humming bird, and on the other by that gorgeous butterfly, Urania sloan- eus — an interesting association. The quit often utters a soft, sibilant note as it peeps about. The nest of this bird is very frequently, perhaps usually, built in those WEST-INDIAN HONEY CREEPER OR BANANA QUIT. (Four-fifths natural size.) low trees and bushes from whose twigs depend the paper nests of the brown wasps, and in close contiguity with them. The grass quits are said to manifest the same predilection; it is a singular exercise of instinct, almost of reason, for the object is doubtless the defense afforded by the presence of the formidable insects, but upon what terms the league of amity is contracted between the neighbors I am ignorant. It is in the months of May, June, and July that the creeper performs the business of incubation. On the fourth of May I observed a banana quit with a bit of silk 1548 THE PERCHING BIRDS cotton in her beak, and on searching found a nest just commenced in a sage bush. The structure, though but a skeleton, was evidently about to be a dome, and so far was constructed of silk cotton. Since then I have seen several completed nests. One before me is in the form of a globe, with a small opening below the side. The walls are very thick, composed of dry grass, intermixed irregularly with down." The eggs are greenish white, speckled with reddish at the larger end. In color the upper parts of this species are dark brown, with a conspicuous white eyebrow; the breast and the rest of the under parts being bright yellow. d549) GROUP OF FINCHES. liKUUF OF FINCHES. I. Hawfinch; 2. Greenfinch; 3. Linnet; 4. Brambling; 5. Chafiinch. CHAPTER III THE PERCHING BIRDS— continued THE FINCHES Family FRINGILLID^ THE finches comprise a large number of genera of small hard-billed and seed- eating birds, distributed over the northern and temperate regions of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres, although unknown in Australia. They are character- ized by the smooth edges of the mandibles; the doubly laminated hinder surface of the metatarsus; the presence of nine primary quills of which the first and second are approximately equal in length; while the secondary quills reach about three-quarters the length of the wing. The tail has twelve feathers; the beak is more or less con- ical in shape, with the nostrils pierced close to the line of the forehead, and near the culmen; and the bristles at the rictus of the gape are few and short. The lower mandible has no backward prolongation behind the quadrate bone. In the nestling the plumage is variable, and the sexes are generally unlike. By Mr. Gates the finches are divided, from the characteristics of the skull and beak, into three sub- families, of which the first is THE GROSBEAK GROUP Subfamily COCCO THRA A general stoutness of beak is accompanied in this group by marked develop- ment in the depth of the lower mandible; many of the species, such as the evening grosbeak of North America, being noticeable for the beauty of their coloration. The members of the grosbeak group are inhabitants of the northern regions of both the Old and New Worlds, and extend as far south as India. These birds have the bill moderately stout and rather acute; the Greenfinches ,. , , ., ,., , distance between the nostrils being equal to the depth of the mandible. Green and yellow predominate in the plumage. The greenfinches inhabit the whole of Europe, as well as Northwest Africa, Palestine, and Turkestan; while they are also represented in Eastern Siberia, Japan, and China. The common greenfinch (Ligurinus Moris} is fond of gardens and small plantations, especially during the summer, when its monotonous song is heard at intervals throughout the day. It (155°) THE FINCHES 1551 has, however, some soft and plaintive notes which, once heard, will always be re- membered with pleasure. Nor is this bird devoid of imitative talent, becoming ex- cessively tame and confiding, and having been known to reproduce the song of the canary. Yarrell states that the greenfinch is a late breeder, but while fresh eggs may sometimes be found in a nest as late as the month of September, we once saw a newly-fledged greenfinch taking short flights from bough to bough as early as the nineteenth of May. The greenfinch builds a coarse, untidy nest of fibrous roots, moss, and wool, lined with finer roots, horsehair, and a few feathers. A remarkable combination of two nests of the greenfinch built on a single platform, and placed in a large ornamental heath, is recorded by Gurney. The greenfinch is fond of build- ing in the neighborhood of water, hence the young birds occasionally tumble out of the nest and are drowned. The eggs are white, spotted with reddish brown and gray. The greenfinch not unfrequently pairs with the canary in confinement, and in a wild state occasionally mates with the goldfinch. The hybrids resulting from the latter cross most resemble the greenfinch in shape and color, but the head and wings never fail to show the goldfinch blood. The greenfinch also interbreeds with the linnet, and in confinement has produced offspring by pairing with the bullfinch and twite. During the autumn greenfinches range the fields in large flocks, feeding on the seeds of wild mustard and many other pests of the husbandman. The male greenfinch is olive yellow above, overshaded with ashy gray; the under surface of the body being yellow. The South-European form is smaller and brighter than the birds which breed in the British Isles and Northern Europe. Yellow, black, white, and cinnamon varieties of the greenfinch have come under our notice. The hawfinches are readily distinguished by their large and clumsy bills, which are adapted to enable them to feed upon hard kernels. Hawfinches are found in suitable localities throughout Europe and Siberia. The Japanese form is paler and lighter in color than the European (Coccothraustes vulgaris); while Hume's hawfinch (C. kumei) is an Indian species, differing from the European birds in having a lighter and less richly-colored head, and by the sides of the body being pale tawny or orange brown instead of vinaceous. The hawfinch is a well-known bird in many parts of Europe, and is locally distributed over England, although rarely visiting Scotland, and uncommon in Ireland. It frequents the skirts of forests, especially where hornbeam flourishes, since it feeds on the seeds of that tree. Seldom seen in open country, it resides in gar- dens and orchards, especially during the summer months; its flight being rapid and undulating. The male should be seen in bright sunshine, if his beauty of plumage is to be appreciated; the light being admirably adapted to burnish up his deep brown back and blue-black wings. The hawfinch is a shy bird, and seldom courts attention; when alarmed, its first action is to crouch close to the branch upon which it happens to be perching, so as, if possible, to escape un- noticed. Mr. Seebohm remarks that "the hawfinch is not much of a songster. It has few notes, which can scarcely be called more than a low chatter. There is nothing very striking in its performance; but when several are twittering away together the general effect is very pleasant. Its call note is said to resemble the well-known zh of the greenfinch. The hawfinch pairs about the middle of April, 1552 THE PERCHING BIRDS and its nest is rarely built before the trees are in full foliage. The site of the nest differs considerably. A favorite place is in the apple or pear trees in an orchard, or in an old whitethorn often in quite an exposed situation; and when it breeds in woods it sometimes selects a hornbeam, and less frequently a holly. The haw- finch does not often breed in shrubberies, and its nest is somewhat rarely placed in evergreen trees; but it has been found among ivy. It will also breed in tall oak trees, and occasionally nests in fir trees and plantations. Sometimes the nest is only a few feet from the ground, while at others it is as much as forty feet. Building is usually commenced by the latter end of April or early in May, and sometimes several nests will be found in the same plantation. The nest is a very beau- tiful piece of handiwork, similar to that of the bullfinch, on an enlarged scale. The outside is invariably made of twigs, frequently intermixed with lichens, and some- times with dry plants; and the cup is formed of dry grasses lined with fine roots, and often a little hair. As a rule it is very flat, and somewhat bulky, and the cup is generally shallow and neatly finished. The eggs vary from four to six in number, and are usually laid about the second week in May, sometimes earlier. There are two very distinct types, the usual one is pale olive or bluish green in ground color, streaked with dark olive brown, and having a few spots of the same color on the surface, and with underlying markings of grayish brown. The second differs in having the ground color buff, and the underlying spots more inclined to violet gray." During the autumn the broods of young hawfinches lead a family life, mak- ing frequent inroads into the kitchen gardens to feed upon peas; the pods of which are easily opened by their powerful mandibles. In winter the hawfinch sometimes conquers its shyness sufficiently to approach houses, and even to partake of crumbs thrown upon the lawn; but this is in hard weather, when the birds are driven to ex- tremities. It should be noted that the injuries inflicted on the garden are compen- sated by the destruction which the hawfinch carries out among noxious insects; its food during the early months of the summer consisting principally of caterpillars. The general color of the adult male is chocolate brown above, with a broad collar of ashy gray separating the crown of the head from the mantle; the lower back, rump, and upper tail coverts are cinnamon brown; the wings black, glossed with steel blue at the end of the square-shaped inner primaries and outer secondaries; the primaries have a large spot of white about the middle of the inner web; the tail feathers are blackish, edged with brown, the outer feathers being tipped with white on the inner web; while the throat is black, and the lower parts vinaceous brown. In these birds the bill is very heavy, the lower mandible being as 18 * deep as the upper; the wing is longer than the tail, and pointed, the etc ' secondaries falling short of the primaries by more than the length of the metatarsus, while the feet are short and stout. These birds are found in North America generally, ranging throughout Central America to Colom- bia, Ecuador, and the Antilles. The common rose-breasted grosbeak (Hedymeles virginianus) is well known in the United States, where it is valued for its handsome plumage and charming song. Dr. Coues gives the following account of its habits: "I have nowhere found this beautiful bird more abundant than THE FINCHES 1553 along the Red river of the north, and there may be no locality where its nidification and breeding habits can be studied to greater advantage. On entering the belt of noble timber that borders the river in June, we are sure to be saluted with the rich, rolling song of the rose-breasted male; and, as we penetrate into the deeper recesses, pressing through the stubborn luxuriance of vegetation into the little shady glades that the bird loves so well, we may RED CARDINAL AND ROSE-BREASTED GROSBEAK. (Five-eighths natural size.) catch a glimpse of the shy and retiring female darting into concealment, dis- turbed by our approach. She is almost sure to be followed the next moment by her ardent spouse, solicitous for her safety, and bent on reassuring her by his presence and caresses. Sometimes during this month, as we enter a grove of saplings, and glance carefully overhead, we may see the nest placed but a few feet from the ground in the fork of a limb. The female, alarmed, will flutter away stealthily, 98 1554 THE PERCHING BIRDS and we may not catch another glimpse of her nor of her mate, even though we hear them both anxiously consulting together at a little distance. The nest is not such an elegant affair as might be desired; it is in fact bulky and rude, if not actually slovenly. It is formed entirely of the long, slender, tortuous stems of woody climbers and similar stout rootlets; the base and outer walls being very loosely interlaced, the inner more compactly woven, with a tolerably firm brim of circularly disposed fibres. Sometimes there is a little horsehair lining, oftener not. The eggs are of a light and rather pale green color, profusely speckled with dull reddish brown." The summer range of this grosbeak extends to Labrador. The general color of the adult male is black above; the lower back and rump being pure white, slightly mottled with black tips; the wings black, with the secondaries tipped with white; the tail feathers black, the three outer ones marked with white, on the inner web; the crown of the head, lores, the sides of the neck, and throat are black; the fore-neck and chest are beautiful with a large patch of rose color, extending in a line down the centre of the breast; the breast and flanks are white, the thighs spotted with black; and the under wing coverts rose color. This beautiful dress is only gradually assumed, three years being needed for the assumption of the perfect adult male plumage. The red cardinals have the bill very large and stout, pointed, and conical; the wings very short and rounded, and the tail longer than the wings, and rounded; while a long crest is present. They offer an instance, not very common among birds, of a group in which the males are nearly all alike, so- that the specific characteristics depend upon the females. There can, however, be no doubt about the differences in the latter; although the males differ from one another mainly in intensity of color, and to a slight extent in sizes. The most brilliant forms appear to be those from tropical localities. These birds are found in the United States, ranging south into Mexico and British Honduras. One of the best known of North-American birds is the common red cardinal, or Virginian nightingale (Cardinalis mrginianus}. Dr. Coues says that this cardinal inhabits by choice, thickets, tangle, and undergrowth of all kinds, whence issue its rich, rolling, whistling notes, while the performer, brightly clad as he is, often eludes observation by his shyness, vigilance, and activity. The nest, built loosely of bark strips, twigs, leaves, and grasses, is placed in a bush-vine or low, thick tree; and in this the cardinal lays rather a peculiar egg, some specimens recalling those of a night hawk, in coloration at least, while others are more like those of the rose-breasted grosbeak in the pattern of markings. While the ground color was white in all of about fifty cases noticed, the spotting is of every shade of brown, from pale reddish to heavy chocolate; but it is usually rather dark, and there is a great show of the various purplish-brown or stone-gray markings. The tj^pical form of the Virginian nightingale ranges westward from Eastern United States to Kansas, Nebraska, the Indian Territory, and Texas; where it may be either stationary or slightly migra- tory. A smaller form is found in Eastern Mexico, which is a deeper red, being of a rich rosy scarlet. The Californian form has a larger bill than the type, and is rather smaller in size; the black mask on the face not being continued across the forehead. From Western Mexico there comes a form similar to the last, but THE FINCHES 1555 smaller, and of a much more rosy red, the crest feathers being elongated and stiffened. The adult male of the typical form is deep scarlet vermilion, or rosy red above, with the forehead, chin, and upper throat black; the wings dusky, externally rosy, and the under surface rich vermilion. The female is dull ochreous brown above; the long, crested feathers, wings, and tail being dull vermilion, and the under parts buff, washed with vermilion. THE TRUE FINCHES Subfamily FRINGILLIN^, The true finches are distinguished from the grosbeak group by their less power- ful bills, and different cranial characteristics; and although their bills are variously modified to meet their manner of life, on the whole they possess many common characteristics. They are found principally in temperate climates. Chaffinches possess a rather long and slender bill, conical in shape, and the wings are furnished with a first primary so small as to seem wanting, the rest of these feathers varying in their comparative length. The tail is moderately long and decidedly forked. These finches inhabit Europe generally, as well as Western Siberia, Persia, Turkestan, Madeira, and the Canaries and Azores. The common chaffinch (Fringilla ccelebs) , is abundant in most parts of Europe, being in some districts even more plentiful than the house sparrow. In the British Isles, as on the Continent, it is a general favorite, nesting in close proximity to dwelling houses, and rearing its young- almost under the windows. During the winter, chaffinches consort in large flocks, which break up at the close of the cold weather, when their familiar notes enliven groves and orchards with their melody. In early spring the chaffinch begins to- pair, when the male birds are no longer tolerant of the society of their fellows, but exhibit a high degree of jealousy toward their rivals. Even in the middle of June we have seen cock birds engaged in combat, although such contests usually precede the nesting season. The chaffinch builds its nest in a fruit tree or tall hedgerow; and we recollect one nest built on the trunk of a large tree, which looked! as if it had been placed there by accident rather than by design, so exactly did its gray trimming harmonize with the color of the bark. Mr. Gray remarks that the chaffinch ' ' varies the structure of its nest according to the locality which it happens to frequent. In rural places, away from the dust and smoke prevailing near cities and large towns, the nest is a perfect model in its way for neatness and compactness of form; but in less favorable situations, where the building materials are not so fresh, it is slovenly and untidy. Any large series of nests gives ample proof of this, some being composed entirely of moss closely interwoven, others of lichens laced all over with spiders' webs, while those obtained in the outskirts of Glasgow are built of dirty straws, pieces of paper, and bits of blackened moss intermixed." Mr. Dresser describes a nest which he took in Finland as being of 1556 THE PERCHING BIRDS the most artistic structure. It was placed upon a birch tree, and neatly ornamented with pieces of yellow and gray lichens and small bits of birch bark, so as to resemble a portion of the tree itself, and was finally most carefully lined with soft moss and bits of down and wool, through which some fine roots showed every here and there. A remarkable nest found in Denmark was decorated all over the outside with small pieces of newspaper. The eggs of the chaffinch are generally purplish gray in ground color, washed with green, and blotched and spotted with dark red; but we have seen perfectly blue, unspotted eggs, although this variety is rare. The chaffinch feeds during the spring and summer months principally upon insects, and we have watched a male chaffinch gathering aphides from off the under surface of the leaves of some beeches, clinging head downward like a tomtit. A trait noticed in a village on the Rhine was that the chaffinches to a large extent deserted the shelter of the trees when singing, preferring at such times to occupy a more conspicuous position upon some cottage roof, or the gable of a barn. The chaffinch is to a large extent a bird of passage, moving from one part of the country to another, according to the supply of food and the condition of the weather. In the breeding season isolated pairs of chaffinches may be found nesting in locali- ties little adapted by natural circumstances to afford them a home, as, for example, when a pair of these birds elect to take up their summer quarters beside some north- ern farm where they have to perch upon the stone walls in default of timber; but the chaffinch is a bird of resource, and if hard pressed will even nest upon the ground. The young birds frequently associate together as early as the middle of July, the sexes then being hardly distinguishable. The chaffinch is a fairly early nester; and we have known the young to fly as early as the nineteenth of May even in the West Highlands, although they do not usually hatch before the last days of that month. On the Continent we have found the chaffinch plentiful on moun- tain ranges of moderate elevation, as in Central France and the Black Forest. In Switzerland it is a common bird about the summer chalets, descending into the plains before severe weather sets in. The chaffinch is subject to considerable vari- ation of plumage, and some few years ago we saw an entirely yellow specimen, which was identified by the discovery of a tiny patch of pink feathers on the breast. We have also seen others of a uniform bright yellow, and others again of a very light cinnamon. The male in summer has the mantle, back, and scapulars, chest- nut brown; the wing coverts white, or black tipped with white; the quills black margined with pale olive yellow; the inner primaries white at the base, forming a speculum; the secondaries white at the base, forming a band with white tips to the gray coverts; forehead black, the crown slaty blue, the chin and breast pale vinous red, and the lower parts vinous white. The female is ashy brown above washed with olive yellow, the wings being conspicuously pied with white, and the lower parts are ashy brown. This chaffinch (F. teydea) is peculiar to Teneriffe, inhabiting the Chaffinch ^reary heights of the Peak and surrounding plateaus. It frequents the pine forests, feeding on the seeds of the pines, and breaking the cone with its powerful beak in order to get at its contents. The note of this bird is plaintive and often repeated, and bears some resemblance to that of the serin finch. THE FINCHES 1557 A somewhat rare species, and only occurring on the lower grounds when driven by a heavy fall of snow from its usual haunts, this chaffinch is known to the goat- herds, tending their flocks in the highest parts of the mountain. The adult male has the entire upper parts rich dark blue; the wings and tail black, edged with slate blue; and the under parts blue, fading into dull white on the abdomen. In the fe- male bird, the blue garb of the male is replaced by dull grayish brown. The brambling {F. montifringilla) is one of the characteristic birds of the northern parts of the Old World, nesting in the forest regions of the Arctic circles, whence it journeys to winter in Southern Europe, Persia, and even India. In Siberia, Dr. Radde states that ' ' the brambling remains occasion- ally during the summer and breeds there. On the sixteenth of May 1859 I found it not far from Tuukinsk; and on the fourteenth of July 1855 I met with a family of them a few versts above the village of Kotchirikowa, the young birds of which were fledged. The male then killed was in molt, the crown being almost featherless. Only a few visit the high steppes of Dauria in spring; thus, for instance, a male was shot in the hedge of the kitchen garden at Kulssutayef sk ; on the other hand they were numerous during the autumn migration at the Tarei-Nor. On the fifteenth of August I saw only a few males, on the sixteenth only a female; and on the twenty- sixth large flocks, consisting of young birds of both sexes, arrived. On the thirtieth they increased in numbers and frequented the neighborhood of the kitchen garden. Later, when the night frosts set in, they took refuge at night in the high reeds which grow round the ponds. Here they remained till the eleventh of September; but then the large flocks were wanting, and I only saw strag- glers up to the fifteenth of September. ' ' Usually the brambling lays a larger number of eggs than any other of the finches, seldom less than six and more generally seven; and when compelled to leave its nest to seek food, or for any other purpose, the bird is in the habit of covering its eggs, which are laid late in May or early in June. Accord- ing to Mr. Collett the brambling gener- ally builds in a birch or spruce close to ,the main stem, and about six or seven yards from the ground. The nest is con- BRAMBUNG. structed like that of the chaffinch, but generally more of moss. The eggs closely resemble those of the chaffinch; but in the latter the general color is grayish brown not grayish blue, and the spots are smaller. Gould states that all the nests which he observed were composed of green mosses and fine, dried grass, interwoven with cobwebs and externally decorated with flat pieces of white lichen and thin threads of birch bark. They were lined with fine wool and some feathers of the white grouse; but we have seen quite a variety of feath- 1558 THE PERCHING BIRDS ers in the nests of these birds, including those of the nutcracker. During the autumn considerable numbers of brarnblings cross the North Sea to winter in the British Isles; their arrival being usually heralded by the reiteration of their harsh call note. They frequent stubble fields and farmyards in common with chaffinches, greenfinches, and sparrows, but prefer to subsist upon beech mast. The adult male in breed- ing plumage has the general color above blue black, with generally a few sandy margins to the feathers; the lower back and rump being white; the wing coverts orange rufous, tipped with white; the wing quills black, the primaries being edged with pale yellow, and the inner ones white at the base forming a speculum; the tail feathers are black, with the outer pair broadly white for more than half the outer web; the crown and sides of the face are black; the throat and breast pale orange rufous, and the flanks spotted with black. This group comprehends a number of small finches, characterized by the possession of a long and acute bill, long wings, and a short, deeply-forked tail; green and yellow predominating in their plumage. All are highly gregarious in habits. They belong to both the Old and New Worlds, having representatives in Abyssinia, the Himalayas, Siberia, the United States, and espe- cially South America, where several species are found in Chili, Bolivia, Ecuador, and other parts of that continent. One of the most charming birds of the United States is the yellow bird or American siskin (Chrysomitris tristis), which is also common in many parts of Canada. It is a lively, graceful species, full of vi- vacity, and leads a social life, roving about in small communities. Even in the breeding season these birds are partial to the company of their fellows, and fly in flocks between their nests and their favorite feeding grounds, where they consume the seeds of various wild plants. The nest is small and compact, built of soft downy substances. The eggs are white, with a rosy blush when fresh. After the breeding season, the family parties unite permanently, and rove over the prairies in search of weedy places where they can find subsistence. The adult male in summer is bright golden yellow above and below; the crown and wings being black, the great coverts tipped with white; and the tail black spotted with white. In September the general plumage changes to pale flaxen brown above, and whitish brown below. From Japan to the British Isles the common siskin (C. spinus} is _. ... found in suitable localities, breeding chiefly in the northern part of its range. During the breeding season the cock birds are restless and lively, singing nearly all day, generally while on the wing, and sending their joyous call notes ringing through the air. The nest is very like that of the goldfinch, although not so neat; the one example that has come under our notice having been placed in a fir tree about twelve feet from the ground. Although only occasionally nesting in England, the siskin breeds regularly in Scotland; and it has been recorded as breeding in Ireland. In winter it frequents alder groves, living in flocks, and searching the catkins for their seeds; and it has also been seen feeding on thistle heads and the seeds of wild grasses. It occasionally interpairs with the lesser red- poll and goldfinch in confinement. The general color of the male siskin is yellowish green above, the rump being bright yellow; the quills are blackish, the primaries THE FINCHES 1559 being edged with bright yellow; the tail feathers are blackish, edged with yellow, and all but the central feathers yellow at the base; the chin is black, and the throat and breast are bright yellow. A less well-known member of the siskin group is the citril finch ( C. citrinella) , which is an inhabitant of the Tyrol, many parts of Switzer- land, Greece, and other districts in the south of Europe. Avoiding the plains, this bird generally nests among pine forests, as far as possible from human habitations. Citril Finch CITRII, FINCH, SNOW FINCH, AND I.ESSER REDPOI.I,. (One-half natural size.) » In the Jura, Mr. Scott Wilson states that after some search his party at length dis- covered a nest of this finch ' ' placed high up in a spruce fir, at the extreme end of a branch. The chasseur climbed up, and brought down the nest with three eggs. This nest, which contained several feathers of the nutcracker, was cup shaped, and constructed chiefly of dry grass stems, moss, and thistle down, woven together with fine roots and hair, lined with thistle down, and feathers. Another nest contained 1560 THE PERCHING BIRDS no feathers, being lined entirely with thistle down. A third was lined entirely with hair, and very little thistle down had been used in its construction. ' ' The eggs are greenish blue in ground color, speckled with reddish gray and blood red. The citril finch is a favorite among continental bird fanciers, being easily tamed, and occasion- ally hybridizing with other finches in captivity. Although it passes the summer among the mountain forests, it descends from the higher grounds during severe weather. It is valued as a cage bird, principally because it possesses a loud, pleas- ant song, sometimes compared to that of the canary. The adult male in breeding plumage has the general color above dull olive green, with dusky shaft streaks to the feathers; the rump and upper tail coverts being brighter yellow; the nape and sides of 'the throat are ashy gray; the wings and tail dusky brown, edged with ashy yellow; and the crown of the head, as well as the feathers round the eye, the fore part of the cheeks, and the throat and chest olive yellow. The linnets have a hard and conical bill, a somewhat pointed wing, the tail rather long and forked, the metatarsus short, and the toes stout. They are also characterized by the possession of a nearly uniform brown or whitish-brown plumage, generally associated to some small extent with pale crimson. Chiefly found in the northern parts of the Old World, they are also represented in the Arctic portions of North America. The common linnet (Linaria cannabina] inhabits most parts of ammc n Europe, being generally common from Spain eastward to Central Asia, although assuming brighter plumage in Turkestan and other distant parts of its range. The linnet in England frequents commons covered with gorse, in which its nest is often placed ; but sometimes it nests in a hedge or small tree. Generally an early breeder, we have seen the young in the nest as late as the month of August. It builds a loose, untidy nest of fine twigs and fibres lined with hair, wool, and sometimes a few feathers, in which it lays from four to six eggs of a greenish-white ground color, blotched with red. After the breeding season linnets range through the fields in vast flocks, often composed of one sex almost exclusively. As autumn advances, many of the linnets that have been bred in the English wood- lands cross the sea to other countries; while others again join company with bands of greenfinches in search of food. The linnet is frequently white or pied, but the most beautiful variety is of a cinnamon brown which harmonizes with the rose- colored breast. The male linnet is warm reddish brown above; the forehead, fore- neck, and chest, being crimson; and the breast and under parts dull buffy white. By some ornithologists the lesser redpoll (/,. rufescens) is regarded as a variety of the mealy redpoll of Northern Europe, the former bird being chiefly confined as a breeding species to the British Isles and certain parts of the Alps, though it has also nested on the island of Heligoland. The lesser redpoll is an early breeder, selecting a variety of trees to contain its nest, including alder, hazel, crab, birch, willow, and walnut; as many as five nests having been seen at once in a single hawthorn hedge. The height from the ground at which the nest is placed varies from four to twenty feet; and the composition of the nest also varies, the exterior generally consisting of moss and dried grass, with a lining of beautiful down from the catkin of the willow; but we have seen nests composed of dead fir THE FINCHES 1561 twigs, and others built of hawthorn stems. The nest is often lined with fine grass and hair, together with a few feathers; but one was composed exclusively of cotton waste. Much less liable to exhibit white or pied phases of plumage than the linnet, the lesser redpoll is occasionally of a nearly uniform cinnamon brown. In captivity it interbreeds with the canary, but the offspring of this cross are small and insignificant brown birds, devoid of the fine musical powers which most canary males possess. The typical redpoll is light brown above, with dark centres to the feathers; the fore- head being dark crimson, while the throat and breast are suffused with rosy pink, especially in the breeding season. The small insular form of redpoll, which for many years was supposed to breed only in Great Britain, differs from the former bird in being smaller and of a more reddish color. The sexes are generally alike, but the female does not assume the rosy tint upon the breast. The snow finches form a small group possessing the characteristic 18 form of the true finches, but with the long wings falling short of the tail by less than the length of the metatarsus. Chocolate or reddish brown appears to predominate in the plumage of this group, often associated with rose color, but the type of the genus is conspicuously pied with white. Snow finches are chiefly found in the mountains of Central Asia, but some species range over the northern parts of Siberia, Japan, and Northern China. The best known is the common snow finch of the mountains of Southern Europe, and ranging eastward to Palestine, but replaced in Persia, Turkestan, and Afghanistan by the eastern snow finch. The common snow finch (Montifringilla nivalis) breeds in the high- est regions of the mountain ranges of Central Europe, adapting its habits to the desolate regions in which it passes the summer; and we owe to Mr. Scott Wilson the following account of its habits: " It was observed at a greater height than any other Alpine bird. At the foot of the Lam- mem glacier, seven thousand six hundred feet, we found it breeding at the summit of the Furka Pass, as well as at the Gemmi. It lays about the end of May or the beginning of June, at a time when the ground in these Alpine regions is entirely cov- ered with snow; from which cause I suppose it is obliged to place its nest under the roofs of buildings; or, where there are no buildings, in rocks which do not hold the snow, the former not only affording them a dry nesting place, but one which also protects the nest from the storms of snow and sleet, which have by no means ceased to fall by the end of May. A nest obtained on the Furka is principally made of dry grass stalks, intermingled with which are tufts of hair, wool, leaves, shavings of wood, and a few feathers. The inside walls are lined with ptarmigan's feathers, both white and brown, these being woven together very compactly with horsehair, and in a nest before me also with strands of green worsted. The bottom of the nest is not lined with feathers. The outside diameter, which is nearly round, is eight and one-fourth inches; the inside diameter three and one-half inches; thus the inside cup is small in proportion. The eggs are pure white, and from three to five in num- ber." Mr. Wilson adds that the snow finches in winter descend from the Alpine regions to the lower valleys. The snow finch is a beautiful bird, rather larger than the greenfinch or sparrow, with long wings, in which the primary quill feathers are 1562 THE PERCHING BIRDS much longer than the rest, as in some other birds of airy and graceful flight. The strong contrast of jet black and purest white in the plumage, notably in the tail, which has two black feathers in the middle, while the rest are as white as snow, makes the bird conspicuous at a long distance, and a more striking object than the browner snow bunting, which occasionally strays from the north to the Alps. There are few more beautiful sights than the wheelings and whirlings of a flock of snow finches, with their white feathers glistening in the sun one moment, while the next their black ones will show clear against the snow. The adult snow finch has the upper parts brown, with light edgings to the feathers; the hind -neck and sides of the neck are ashy gray; the wings and tail are black and white, some of the feathers being edged with brown; while the lower parts are white throughout. Desert Finches DESERT FINCH. (Five-sixths natural size. ) This group has been found to contain the palest forms of the rose finches, the only two species known being inhabitants of desert countries. The bill is short and much arched, with both mandibles much curved. The wings are very long, reaching within a third of an inch of the end of the tail when closed, and the metatarsus is comparatively long. The plumage of both sexes in this genus is gray or brown, suffused with pink. The desert finch (Erythrospiza THE PERCHING BIRDS the forehead, cheeks, rump, and all the lower plumage of a beautiful rose pink; and the wings and tail brown, edged with rose pink. The female is similar, but with all her tints duller. The members of this group resemble the typical sparrows in structure and habits, but differ in having a much stronger bill and longer wings. Unlike the true sparrows, the female rock sparrows have, however, no distinctive plumage of their own, but resemble more or less Rock Spar- ROCK SPARROW, SPANISH SPARROW, TREE SPARROW, AND HOCSE SPARROW. (One-half natural size.) closely the male birds of their own species. The rock sparrows are found in South- ern Europe, extending into Central Europe, and ranging eastward into Central Asia and Siberia, as well as Northern China. One species is found in India as a winter visitor, while two are resident in Africa. THE FINCHES 1565 The European rock sparrow (Petronia stulta} is found in some districts of Spain and Portugal, and the south of France, as well as in Greece and Palestine. Its habits resemble those of the common sparrow; but it is generally a very shy bird, flying away on the approach of danger, and constantly keeping a good look- out. It nests in the ruins of old castles and crevices of the rocks, building a large, untidy nest, composed of stems of grass and plant fibres, lined with hair, feathers, and other materials. It lays two or three eggs in a clutch, white in ground color, streaked and spotted with ashy gray and brown. The parents wait assiduously upon the young, and manifest the greatest distress if the safety of their progeny be endangered. In autumn they gather into flocks, and some migrate from their higher breeding grounds. The flight of this bird is rapid and well sus- tained, and the usual note a harsh chirrup. Although partial to fruit, the rock sparrow feeds principally upon insects during the summer months, visiting the stubble fields in autumn. Upon the approach of winter, rock sparrows often con- sort with other small birds, in the company of which they frequent the roads and even villages. The general color of the male is brown above; the mantle and back being broadly streaked with black, and having a whitish-brown spot at the tip of the outer webs of the feathers; while the crown is light brown in the centre, bor- dered with dark brown, and followed by a broad whitish-brown eyebrow; the wings and tail are blackish brown; the cheeks, throat, and under surfaces pale ashy brown; and the lower throat varied with a patch of pale yellow. The genus Passer contains the true sparrows, which are represented 78 over the greater part of the Old World; and, as restricted by Mr. Gates, are characterized by both sexes exhibiting a peculiar pattern upon the outer webs of the first primaries. The bill is stout and short, and the abbreviated wings fall short of the tail by more than the length of the metatarsus. Originally absent from the New World, the true sparrows have been introduced into the United States, where they have become a serious pest, their injurious character becoming more and more realized as the species spreads; they are indigenous to the greater part of the Old World, excepting Australia and the Moluccan islands. The house sparrow (P. domesticus), which nests only too numer- House Sparrow , . ,. , . , ,. ,, ously in many country districts, is essentially a dweller among men. With the members of its earlier brood ready to leave the nest in May, it produces many broods in the season, sometimes evicting the house martin from its mud-plastered home, though occasionally the troublesome intruder is walled up by the irate martins. The eggs of the house sparrow are greenish white in ground color, blotched or spotted with ashy gray and dusky brown. When the young are hatched, the old birds redouble their diligence in procuring food. It is generally supposed that sparrows feed largely upon insects, and there is no doubt that in many districts this is the case for a considerable part of the year. In autumn these birds band together in flocks, and, leaving their haunts in street and alley, join their country brethren in anticipating the farmer's harvest. Few persons but practical men are at all aware of the vast injury annually inflicted upon the farming community by the hordes of sparrows which ravage the corn- fields. Nor is their mischief limited to assailing standing crops of grain. On the 1566 THE PERCHING BIRDS contrary, they inflict considerable injury upon gardeners by picking up freshly- sown seeds of every kind. They destroy green peas quite as effectually as the hawfinch, and are in many other respects most undesirable neighbors. In America the influence of the house sparrow has already proved disastrous to many of the indigenous birds, which have been driven from their proper haunts by the intruder. Even in remote districts of the Highlands of Scotland, the sparrow is- gaining ground every year, and taking the place of more welcome guests. The sparrow builds a cumbrous nest of straw, hay, dry grass, rags, or any other material that comes handy; the nest being often placed in a waterspout, a chink of a wall, the thatch of a barn, or the frieze of a building. Occasionally it is placed in an open tree or hedgerow, but the nest is then domed as a protection against the weather; and it is almost always profusely lined with feathers. Taking great pains to maintain its plumage in good condition, the sparrow not only indulges in frequent baths, like most of the finch tribe, but in summer shows a partiality for dusting its feathers in lark fashion. Sparrows exhibit some pretty variations of plumage; all the birds in a brood being occasionally spotted with white, or at any rate cream colored; male birds in particular being frequently variegated with white, which most affects the quill feathers. The adult cock in summer has the plumage of the upper parts chestnut, streaked with black on the mantle and back; the primaries being blackish, edged with pale rufous; the median coverts black, tipped with white, forming a wing bar; the tail feathers dusky brown; the crown of the head and nape ashy gray; a broad streak of chestnut extending down- ward from the upper part of the eye; the cheeks ashy white; the throat and fore- neck black; the sides of the breast brownish ash; and the under parts white. The female is a dull brown bird, lacking the black gorget of the other sex. Tre s The haunts of the tree sparrow (P. montanus} are more remote from human dwellings than are those of its congener the house sparrow. Sometimes, it is true, a pair or two of tree sparrows may take up their abode in some old wall beside a cottage or farmhouse; but trees are their favorite resorts. Not unfrequently the tree sparrows build under old nests of rooks; the nest being not so bulky or untidy as that of the house sparrow. The eggs are bluish white in ground color, blotched and spotted or suffused with hair brown. Sometimes tree sparrows nest in the crevices of a chalk cliff, and a colony has been found established under the iron girder of a railway bridge. The movements of the tree sparrow are more graceful than those of the common bird, from which it can also be distinguished by its more musical and shriller chirp; while, unlike the house sparrow, the tree sparrow possesses a short but pleasing song. Far more shy than the house sparrow, the tree sparrow, instead of courting observation, shuns publicity, and its flight is more rapid than that of its cousin. On one or two occasions we have seen the two species consorting together, and we have observed the tree sparrows flying with flocks of greenfinches during the autumn migration. The majority of those we have seen in confinement seemed too wild to give their confidence readily to any human being; but a male of this species, caught in the month of February, lost its dread of man in a very few weeks, and sang freely in a cage. Although, as already said, the house sparrow is so subject to variations of THE FINCHES 1567 plumage, we never yet met with a white or pied specimen of the tree sparrow. The adult is fawn colored above, the feathers of the mantle having ashy edgings and broad black streaks; while the lesser wing coverts are uniform chestnut; the median wing coverts black, with broad white tips forming a wing bar; the chin black; the cheeks white, spotted with black; and the under parts ashy. The Spanish sparrow (P. hispaniolensis} replaces the English bird in many parts of the Mediterranean region, including Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, and Malta, nesting in the walls of houses and the crevices of rocks. It is abundant in Algeria, especially among the reeds in the salt marshes; and Mr. O. Salvin gives the following notes upon its habits in the Atlas, observing that it "is found in great numbers during the breeding season among the tamarisk thickets on the Chemoria and in the high sedge at Zana. The Arabs destroy the eggs, nest, and young wherever they find them, as their great numbers do much damage to the crops of corn. The nests are placed as thickly as they can stand, the whole colony, consisting of perhaps one hundred pairs occupying only five or six trees. The noise and ceaseless chattering proceeding from one of these sparrow towns can easily be imagined; and guided by the sound alone, one may walk directly to the spot from a considerable distance. One Sunday morning four Arabs came to our tent, and, gravely sitting down in a row, opened the hoods of their burnooses and displayed eight hundred or a thousand sparrow eggs, which they arranged in four heaps before them, and remained in their sitting posture con- templating them with evident satisfaction. We were rather taken by surprise, but reserved the best for our collections, leaving the rest for omelets." The egg of the Spanish sparrow is somewhat smaller than that of the house sparrow, white in ground color, blotched and streaked with dark gray. The male has the crown and nape dark chestnut; the back black, streaked with cream color; the cheeks and eye stripe pure white; the lesser wing coverts chestnut, tipped with white; and the throat and upper breast deep black. The female is dull brown. A well-known bird in many parts of South Africa is the Cape sparrow (P. diffusus}, which takes up its abode near dwelling houses, and reproduces exactly the habits of the European house sparrow. In some districts the Cape sparrows build their nests in low, thorny bushes; but they are equally partial to holes in walls and the eaves of thatched roofs. The nest is a large struc- ture loosely put together, consisting of sticks, straws, and feathers and lined with wool; the eggs being light green in ground color, blotched with brown. Having all the pert ways of its European relative, the Cape sparrow is partial to com, but also con- sumes many insects. The adult male has the crown, throat, and breast black; the back of the head and neck brown; the back and rump rufous; a white eye stripe running backward from above the eye; the wings and tail brown; and the lower parts dirty white. _ . _. . The type of this small group of little finches possesses a short, hard, Serin Finches . . .... . , . conical bill, with the upper mandible slightly exceeding the lower; the wings being moderate in length and the tail rather deeply forked. The metatarsus is slender, and scutellate in front, while the toes are small. Yellow usually pre- dominates in the plumage of the serins; the females generally having the flanks 1568 THE PERCHING BIRDS much striated with dark brown. Of the nineteen species of serins, sixteen are peculiar to Africa, and of these the greater number are found in the southern por- tions of that continent. The serin finch, which forms the type, ranges through Central and Southern Europe to Asia Minor, Palestine, and Egypt; Tristram's serin inhabits Palestine; while the red-fronted serin is found in the Caucasus and Turkestan. The true serin finch (Serinus hortulanus) is partial to orchards and gardens, and is a bright vivacious bird, often to be seen upon the wing, indulging in irregular flights, trilling all the time. Wintering in the southern quarters of that SERIN AND RED-FRONTED FINCHES. (One-half natural size.) continent and in North Africa, it is a summer visitor to Central Europe. Its nest is a neat structure, generally placed at the extremity of a bough, composed of vegetable fibres, moss, and fine stems, lined with feathers and some- times a little horsehair. Generally preferring fruit trees to the beech, oak, or alder, we have seen it nesting in fir trees in walled gardens. Mr. Dresser gives the following account of its breeding habits, observing that "the serin finch inhabits the foot of the mountains skirting the plains, but does not appear to affect the plains themselves, nor is it found in the mountains, being there replaced by the citril finch. It is usually to be met with in the orchards and gardens and in the vineyards, frequently in gardens which are surrounded by houses, in which last THE FINCHES 1569 locality it is tolerably tame, — though, so far as my own experience goes, it is very shy and difficult of approach. During the fortnight I spent at Staufen, I never got within range of one outside the town, though on several occasions I saw and heard it. In the town itself I several times saw specimens; but as they doubtless had nests in the neighborhood, and as, besides, it would not well do to shoot in the town, I did not obtain a specimen. It may easily be recognized by its call note and flight. The former somewhat resembles that of the canary, but may easily be dis- tinguished by anyone who has heard it. Its song is poor, and lacks both depth and melody, being merely a continuous twittering warble, generally uttered, it would seem, as the bird is seated on the topmost spray of some tree, usually a fruit tree. Its flight is exceedingly swift, and may not inaptly be compared to that of a sand martin, which it far more nearly resembles than that of any other finch. It sometimes sings while on the wing; that is, it will fly up from the spray on which it has been seated like a tree pipit, and will continue its song during the short time it is in the air. It feeds chiefly on seeds of various kinds, — at least, all those I have at different times shot, and the contents of whose stomachs I examined, had been feeding on these alone, — grass seeds and those of the various wild plants and weeds, chiefly such as are oily, and it appears always to shell the seeds and discard the husks before swallowing them. It seeks after food in fields, gardens, and especially in the vineyards, in which last it is usually to be found. The nest is a very neat, compact, little structure, very carefully made, and neatly shaped. It is built of fine roots and grass bents, and neatly lined with feathers and horsehair. The outer portion of the nest appears to be interwoven with spiders' webs, and a few bits of lichen and gray moss are affixed here and there. A nest in the possession of Mr. Carl Sachse, taken near Frankfort, is built in the fork between three upright small branches of a lilac tree, and is constructed entirely of fine grass stems and rootlets, intermixed with cotton and woolen threads. These latter are utilized more espe- cially to bind the structure to the branches, which is most effectually and strongly done, one of the branches being encircled at least a dozen times with a long piece of tolerably stout, woolen thread. The lining consists merely of somewhat finer grass stems than those used in the construction of the exterior portion." The eggs vary from four to five in number, and are blotched with dark reddish brown. When migrating in the north of Spain, these birds do not seem to travel in large flocks, but rather in small parties, sometimes even singly, though the latter were presumably only stragglers from the main detachment of the migrating host. The serin finch bulks considerably among the small birds netted in the environs of Paris, and occasionally it even straggles to the south coast of Great Britain, where it has been taken on the southern shores on a good many occasions, especially in the neighborhood of Brighton; its visits to Britain gen- erally taking place in the spring of the year. The plumage of the male serin finch is pale brown above, with dark centres to the feathers; the forehead and nape being yellow; the lower back and rump bright yellow; the cheeks ashy gray; the quills blackish or dusky brown, edged with yellow; the throat and breast yellow; and the sides of the body and flanks ashy brown, washed with yellow and streaked with black. 99 1570 THE PERCHING BIRDS ( Found in most of the islands from which it takes its name, in L,as Palmas the canary (S. canarius] is wonderfully abundant, and may be seen in great flocks throughout the breeding season, as if there were not room for all to pair and breed. In Teneriffe, it commences breeding near the coast in January, while in the high mountains it nests in June and July, ascending to its elevated haunts in the end of May; the nest being generally placed in an evergreen tree or shrub. The eggs are bluish green in ground color, and spotted with reddish brown. The song of the wild male is sweet and powerful, but does not possess the variety of notes heard from cage birds. The wild canary has occasionally reached the southern shores of Great Britain as a storm-driven wanderer. The male has the upper parts Rosefinches THE CANARY. (Two-thirds natural size.) ashy brown washed with yellow, and streaked with blackish brown; the forehead, rump, and lower parts being yellow, and the sides ashy streaked with black. The brightly -dressed finches of this group -have the bill of propor- tionately smaller dimensions than the pine grosbeak, to which they are nearly related. The sides of the bills are convex, and the culmen moderately curved; the wings are long and pointed; the tail is much shorter than the wings, and considerably forked; while the feet are small and weak. The males are remarkable for their crimson plumage; the females and young males being plain colored. Rose- finches are found in Northeastern and Eastern Asia, Asia Minor, Palestine, the Indian region, and China, one species breeding as far west as Pomerania; and al- though the vast majority belong to the Old World, four species are peculiar to North America, one of which closely resembles an Old-World form. THE FINCHES 1571 Scarlet Grosbeak A common bird in the north of Europe is the scarlet grosbeak or rosefinch ( Carpodacus erythrinus] , regarding which Dr. Taczanowski, after mentioning that they only come to Poland to breed, observes that " they first appear generally about the fifteenth of May, and after a few days they are found at their regular nesting places. They arrive singly, and take up their habitation in the bushes near water in the middle of fields and marshes; nowhere numerous, they are generally rather rare. The males announce their arrival by a characteristic song which is easily recognized even at a great distance. They are very restless, whereas the female on the other hand is quiet. When singing, the SCARLET AND SIBERIAN GROSBEAKS. (One-half natural size.) male generally perches on top of a tree or bush, always in full view, and during the short intervals of the song utters a deep, clear whistle which may be rendered as follows — tin tiufi tin, tin, tiufi tin tin; after having repeated this about ten times, it descends among the branches and searches after food. While thus engaged it sometimes warbles in a very low tone. After about a quarter of an hour of repose it reappears in full view and recommences its song. In singing, it raises the feathers of its crown and throat, and in the sun looks much more beautiful than it really is. The food consists chiefly of the various seeds of trees and bushes, tender buds, etc. They seldom feed on seeds of plants, but sometimes they resort to the fields to pick 1572 THE PERCHING BIRDS up hemp seed. They are not often seen on the ground, and only go there in search of materials for their nest. The latter is placed on small bushes generally on thorns, wild rose trees, hawthorns, and among hops. In form it resembles that of Sylvia cinerea, and is constructed of fine, elastic, dry bents, particularly of ranunculus and hop, clover, and umbelliferous plants. The interior is formed of delicate, dry roots and shoots of plants, often interlaced with a few horsehairs or other coarse hairs. The nest is loosely constructed and the exterior almost carelessly, but it is regular and neat in the inside and in form is almost semicircular. It is placed in a fork of the bush without being fastened to the branches, and is always well hidden in the foliage. . . . The general complement of eggs is five, rarely four or six. They are slightly elongated, slender, oval, or sometimes almost pyriform. In color they are of a beautiful blue green, almost like the eggs of the song thrush, and are marked with spots of reddish black, more numerous at the larger end and but few on the rest of the surface. ... In general character they resemble those of the common bullfinch, but are less in size, and the ground color is more in- tense and pure, while at the same time the spots are deeper. During the period of incubation, and when the young are still small, the male sings continually, but in different places and often far off, but it frequently returns to the vicinity of the nest. When any person approaches, it calls exactly like a canary, and the female uses the same alarm note. As soon as the young commence to be feathered, the male ceases his song and becomes as shy as the female. When they leave the nest, the whole family conceal themselves in the foliage, and it is very difficult to get sight of them, and they remain thus until they leave. Owing to their shy habits then, I cannot say when they do leave, but suppose it is as soon as the young birds can travel. In Siberia they are common, and remain longer there than they do here. They nest there upon young conifers." Mr. Seebohm, who appears to be one of the few British ornithologists who have studied the habits of the rosefinch in Northern Europe, states that "its song is a very striking one, and not to be confused with that of any other bird. It is a loud clear whistle, ' tu-whif tu-tu-z. ' Although never varied, the song is sometimes repeated twice in rapid succession, and when it is heard, the bird may usually be seen perched con- spicuously on the top of a bush or low tree. The marshy forest banks of the great Siberian rivers are a favorite resort of this bird, and in the Baltic provinces, where it is common, and in the valley of the Upper Volga it is described as frequenting willows and other low trees in marsh districts. ' ' In winter the scarlet rosefinch ranges over the plains of India, sometimes in large flocks, but more generally in small parties, frequenting alike groves, gardens, and jungles; at this season of the year its habits much resembling those of the true finches. In Gilgit it breeds at an elevation of ten thousand feet above the sea, fresh eggs having been obtained there in the second half of July. Early in September it leaves the hills and comes down into the valley, soon after migrating to winter quarters. In Central and Western Europe the scarlet grosbeak is only known as a rare straggler, generally on an autumnal migration, and as such, it has occurred in the British Isles. The general color of the adult male is dark brown above, washed with rosy or pale crimson; the wings and tail are dark brown; the lower back and rump dull rosy; the crown of THE FINCHES 1573 the head dull crimson, extending to the hind-neck; the cheeks, throat, and breast bright crimson; the centre of the breast and under parts dull white, slightly washed with crimson; Indian specimens as a rule being much more brilliant than those ob- tained in Northern Europe. The female lacks the bright colors of the other sex, being of an olive brown above, with the lower back and rump olive brown; the wing coverts dark brown, edged with olive and tipped with yellowish white, form- ing a double wing bar; the wing quills and tail dark brown, edged with olive; the throat dull white streaked with brown; the fore-neck and breast ochreous buff with distinct dusky centres to the feathers; the under parts white; and the sides of the body and flanks brown with dusky stripes. Mr. Seebohm states that males in the first winter plumage are scarcely distinguishable from adult females, and even in summer plumage are sometimes indistinguishable from them. The bullfinches can generally be recognized by their large head, short swollen beak, and abbreviated wings, the tail being either square or slightly forked. Their pattern of plumage assists identification, since both sexes unite the characteristics of a white rump, together with deep black wings and tail. The common bullfinch (Pyrrhula rubicilla} inhabits the woods and thickets of Northern Europe and Siberia, giving place in Central and Southern Europe, as well as in the British Isles, to a similar form, identical in the arrangement of colors, but of duller tints and inferior size. The Azores possess a peculiar species of bull- finch, which has almost entirely lost the bright colors adorning the males of the other members of the genus, and another plain-colored species is the brown bullfinch of the Himalayas, whose range apparently overlaps that of yet another Himalayan species, the red-headed bullfinch. The orange bullfinch is found in Kashmir and the adjoining territories. During the summer the habits of the common bullfinch are shy and retiring, but in the spring this bird appears commonly in gardens, where it commits serious ravages upon the buds of fruit trees. Mr. Seebohm ob- serves that there can be little doubt that bullfinches pair for life; and it may be con- sidered certain that these birds are of an affectionate disposition, the cock being rarely absent from its mate at any time of the year. Generally commencing to build about the middle of May in ordinary seasons, the bullfinch may lay a full clutch of eggs as early as the middle of April, and the nest is generally placed in a low tree or bush, seldom at a greater height than five feet from the ground. Com- posed of slender twigs, it is flat and shallow, but firmly woven together, and lined with root fibres; the eggs varying from four to six in number, and being greenish blue in ground color, speckled and spotted with purplish-gray and dark purplish markings. Two or even three broods of young are sometimes reared in a season, in all of which the male sex largely predominates; indeed, there are cases where all the young in a brood have been of this sex. When the young leave the nest, they live \vith their parents in family parties, searching the hedgerows for the berries of privet and other wild shrubs. In the breeding season the cock bullfinch is a pug- nacious bird, always ready to do battle with any intruder who may venture into his territory. The bullfinch does not appear to be migratory to any large extent, al- though it wanders considerable distances when pressed by hunger. In England it is seldom that more than nine or ten are seen in a flock, but in Southern Sweden the 1574 THE PERCHING BIRDS large form wanders about in big droves, sometimes composed exclusively of the male sex. Generally feeding almost entirely on wild seeds, fruit buds, and berries, in severe weather the bullfinch devours the seeds of the common plantain. The flight of the bullfinch is generally low and undulating; but at times these birds may be seen flying at a considerable elevation, and alight- ing on the tops of the tallest forest trees. The natural song is feeble and without pretension, not that this species is devoid of musical taste, for the young males, if untrained, essay to sing their natural notes as soon as they are about four weeks old, but rather that the bird stands in need of a tutor, by whose patience its capacity THE BUU.FINCH. f°r reproducing a lively air may be turned to practical account. The Germans be- stow great pains upon the teaching of their tiny pupils, and are content to turn out only a limited number of really accomplished birds. The call note is low and plain- tive, and one of the most familiar of the varied sounds that from time to time break the silence of English woodlands. The plumage is subject to considerable variation, even in a wild state; one of the most remarkable varieties being creamy- dun color, contrasting strongly with the jetty-black crown, wings, and tail. The cock bird sometimes combines a rosy breast with upper parts of snowy whiteness. Typically the adult male is bluish gray above; the crown, wings, and tail being glossy black; the rump white, and conspicuous when the bird is seen upon the wing; and the lower parts pale vermilion, varying much in intensity. The female's breast is chocolate brown. Included by some writers among the bullfinches, but by others re- Pine f erred to a distinct genus, the pine grosbeak (Pinicola enudeator), is an inhabitant of the pine woods of the northern regions of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres. A gorgeously-colored bird in its adult plumage, the pine grosbeak seems to be remarkable for the variation in the time of the as- sumption of this dress; there being little doubt that cock birds have bred while in their immature plumage. The wings are of moderate length; the tail being of me- dium length, and distinctly forked; while the feet are small, and the metatarsus does not exceed the third toe in length. The sexes are easily distinguished by the crimson red plumage of the adult male, although immature cocks cannot thus be distinguished. Mr. Seebohm remarks that the summer home of the pine grosbeak is in a very picturesque country. "Almost all the forest districts of Siberia are hilly, and in the north, as the trees become smaller, they are also more thinly scattered over the ground, and the interminable extent of wood is broken by occasional flat, open marshes, which become gay with flowers as soon as the snow melts. The scenery is more park-like than farther south, and birds are much more plentiful and more easily seen. The pine grosbeaks arrive at their breeding grounds in small flocks THE FINCHES 1575 in April, and continue to be gregarious until summer comes, when they disperse for the purpose of building their nests. They appear to be somewhat shy and retiring birds, because they do not frequent the roads like the bullfinches, the snow buntings, and the mealy redpolls. But this is by no means the case; they confine themselves principally to the woods where they are not difficult to approach, even when the sportsman is obliged to hunt them in snowshoes, six feet long, to support his weight upon the untrodden surface. In the large pine forests they prefer the banks of the rivers or the outskirts of some open place, and may often escape detection from the habit of frequenting the tops of the trees. Within the Arctic Circle many of the trees are small, and on the hilly ground they are scattered in small clumps, or sometimes in isolated trees, the drooping boughs of the spruce firs looking very graceful on the white snow. In places like these the pine grosbeak may often be seen perched conspicuously on the top of a spruce fir, twenty or thirty feet from the ground, but looking so much like the last spike of the tree as frequently to escape notice. . . . The call note is a plaintive single note, somewhat like that of our bullfinch, but incapable of being expressed on paper. The song is very melodious, not very loud or long, but flute-like. When I first heard it, I took it for the song of some rare Siberian thrush, and was quite disappointed when I shot the bird to find it only a pine grosbeak. The flight is undulating and powerful. We found several nests which could only have belonged to birds of this species, but our search for eggs was unsuccessful. The breeding season is said to be the end of May or beginning of June. The nests are generally placed in a spruce-fir tree ten or twelve feet from the ground, on a thick branch close to the main stem. The nest is made on the same model as that of the hawfinch and bullfinch, but of coarser materials. The outside is a framework of slender fir twigs, and the inside, which projects above the outside, is composed of roots of fine grass, and a lichen which grows upon the branches of the trees, and might easily be mistaken for hair. . . . The number of eggs varies from three to four. . . . The ground color is pale green- ish blue, boldly spotted, principally at the larger end, with surface spots varying from rich brown to almost black, and with underlying spots of grayer brown." The general color of the adult male is rosy crimson, with ashy bases to the feathers; the wings and tail being dusky brown, with the feathers edged with rose color. The female has the general color of the upper parts ashy gray; the crown of the head and sides of the face golden olive yellow, spreading onto the mantle; and the throat and under surface ashy gray, washed with golden olive. These are sufficiently distinguished from all other members of the avian class by the crossing of the tips of the two mandibles of the beak. In general conformation the beak is hard, strong, and thick at the base, with the lower mandible curving upward, and its point crossing that of the upper one; a structural conformation enabling these birds to extract with facility the seeds deeply buried beneath the overlapping scales of the fir cones on which they feed. This peculiar structure is, however, developed only in the adult, young birds in the nest having the beak of normal conformation. As regards other characteristics, the crossbills have the wings long and pointed, and the tail forked and relatively short in proportion to the wings. 1576 THE PERCHING BIRDS While the males of the crossbills are gayly attired in scarlet-crimson and orange plumage, green and yellow are the predominating hues of the females. Crossbills inhabit the pine forests of both the Old and New Worlds, extending from Siberia to the Himalayas in the Eastern Hemisphere, and in the Western ranging from Arctic North America into Mexico. When wandering through the pine forests of Northern Scotland or Western Norway, the cry of the crossbill (Loxia curvirostra} often greets the traveler from among the fir cones, directing his attention to the bright-plumaged birds skillfully extracting the seeds of the conifers, while hanging gracefully in every variety of attitude. One such scene is firmly imprinted on our memory, where, while the edge of a pine wood, richly carpeted with blaeberries, lay in the back- ground, in the foreground a little flock of crossbills were swinging gayly round the branches of an isolated forest tree; and visitors to Bournemouth will recall memories of these birds among the pines which form their favorite nesting resort. One of the most recent descriptions of the habits of the crossbill in the nesting season is by Mr. Ussher, who writes that he has had unusually good opportunities of observing these birds, since no less than four pairs built within a short distance of his house. Among them, one was a male in the immature yellow plumage, while the other three cock birds were red, or red mingled with brown. Early in March one of these crossbills was observed carrying twigs to the top of a Scotch fir, in which the nest was subsequently discovered, although it could only be seen from the ground by a person standing immediately below it and looking straight up through the tree against the sky. "This tree," writes Mr. Ussher, from whose description the remainder of this account is abbreviated, " is the outer of a group, and is bare of living branches to within a short distance of its top, which consists of a mass of green, bending over from the west winds, in the midst of which the nest was built among the thick tufts. The finder saw the crossbills visit it frequently with building materials, and I saw several times the birds fly to and from it, and recognized the male by his redness. This pair probably reared their young in safety, for, on the tenth of May, a pair of crossbills were seen feeding their young on larch trees in the vicinity of this nest. A second nest was subse- quently discovered, which was in the top of a Scotch fir about two hundred and fifty yards from the first. It was built in the fork formed by several small lateral branches with the leader, which at that point takes a bend, and the nest, which is small for so large a bird, might easily be mistaken from the ground for a knot or enlargement of the crooked leader. It was placed in a perfect little cluster or bower of small branches, and was composed externally of fine dead twigs of larch and Scotch fir, and within them of green moss, interwoven with wool, a few horsehairs, and flakes of finer bark. The birds used not to cease their call notes while flying to a neighboring tree and thence into the nesting tree, and the call of the female was heard apparently coming from the nest itself. It was like the syllables yep yep, or yup yup, while that of the male is much sharper, like gip gip. In a young bird taken from this nest the points of the mandibles were straight, not crossed, but the edges of the upper one overlapped the lower on both sides. The down was all gone, and the plumage exhibited dark spots on a lighter ground both on the upper and THE FINCHES 1577 under surfaces. It was replaced in the tree, from which it must have subsequently fallen, for a nestling was found in the adjoining field and placed in a cage near the nesting tree, where the old crossbills, which had other young in the trees, continued to feed it often in the presence of observers. In the meantime it became accustomed to feed on bruised hemp seed when it was removed to the house, where it soon be- came full grown and tame. The notes of the last pair of crossbills, when excited, used often to attract another pair — the male a red one — that frequented the neigh- boring trees, and which on such occasions would join their neighbors in the excite- ment; their nest was discovered by the birds being seen carrying building materials to it. They picked up bits of hay off the ground, not heeding the observer standing near them." Although the crossbill appears to reside permanently in many parts of its range, there can be no doubt of its roving habits; in certain years great flights appearing in the British Isles, and taking up their abode in parts of the country well planted with belts of fir trees, as was the case in 1888, when numbers of these birds were reported as having made their appearance in different parts. Sometimes, too, large flocks appear on their journey across the North Sea, and in June 1888, crossbills visited the island of Heligoland in numerous flights, varying from ten to fifty birds. Hawthorns in the gardens were then crowded with them, and on some days there must have been hundreds dispersed among the foliage. A single straggler was caught about the same time on board the Bull, a light vessel, off the mouth of the H umber. The change and coloration of the plumage of the crossbill has given rise to some amount of discussion, but we are inclined to adopt the views set forth in the British Museum Catalogue of Birds. In the full plumage the adult male is pale vermilion above, the feathers having dusky bases; the crown of the head is pale ver- milion, like the back and under surface; the primaries and tail feathers are dark brown; and the lower abdomen, the sides of the body, and the flanks ashy brown washed with vermilion. After the first molt the tints of the male become more orange and uniform, but the flanks are striped, and there are also more or less striped feathers about the other portions of the body. It is now conclusively proved that the bright colors of the male are gradually assumed, and that it takes two or even three molts before the full red plumage is gained. The plumage of the female differs from the male in being olive yellow, where the latter is red; the head, lower back, and rump being much brighter than the mantle, which is dusky brown, while the under surface of the body is yellow, with ashy bases to the feathers. There has been some doubt whether there is more than one species of cross- bill, and on this subject Mr. Gates, in his Birds of British India, writes as follows: ;'The crossbills of the Himalayas (L. himalayana) form a very small race, which I think it advisable to keep distinct. There is a very marked difference in size be- tween the Himalayan birds and L. c^lrvirostra, from Northern Europe, on the one hand, and L. japonica, from Japan, on the other, and the only crossbills which approach the Indian birds in size are from America. Sharpe's view that all these crossbills form but one species is no doubt correct; at the same time the Himalayan crossbills are in my opinion quite distinguishable from all others in size, and it is consequently more convenient to retain them as distinct. ' ' The range of the small 1578 THE PERCHING BIRDS Himalayan form extends from China and L,adakh to Sikkim, and thence into Tibet and Western China, and recently a crossbill (L. luzoniensis} has been found in the Philippines. Nearly allied to the crossbills is the scarlet finch (Hamatospiza sipahi), from the mountains of Nipal and Sikkim, distinguished by the very strong and stout beak being of normal form. The cock bird of this species is red, while the hen is green; a remarkable feature of both sexes being the white color of the bases of the feathers of the head and neck, which are seen conspicuously when the feathers are at all ruffled. The wing is of considerable length, reaching beyond the middle of the tail. The scarlet finch is an inhabitant of both forest and bushy districts, and utters a loud whistling note. The genus Telespyza includes a handsome finch recently discovered in the Pacific, and is characterized by the bill being short and much arched, with the upper mandible showing a tendency to cross the lower, as in the crossbill; the wings are of moderate length, reaching to about the end of the basal third of the tail feathers; the tail is slightly forked; and the feet are remarkably large and strong. This bird is peculiar to the island of Laysan, in the Pacific, and we owe its discovery to Mr. Scott Wilson, who obtained a specimen at Honolulu. This was one of about forty, brought there by Captain Bohm, who had found the birds common among the scrubby bushes covering the surface of their island home, where they were so excessively tame and unsophisticated that their capture with the hand was an easy matter. Mr. Wilson says that a specimen which he took to England alive has a very clear metallic note, which may be rendered, chwit, chwee. It also twitters and chirps as it hops from side to side of the cage, and is altogether lively in its movements; while it is able to force the wires of its cage by means of its powerful bill. The adult has the head and sides of the face olive green, shading behind into dark chestnut brown on the back, where each feather has the centre black; the rump and upper tail coverts are chestnut brown; the primaries black, edged with yellow; the tail is black, having each feather edged with greenish yellow; and the throat and breast are bright greenish yellow passing into white on the under parts. The Oriental genera Propyrrhula and Pyrrhospiza, intermediate be- tween the crossbills and rosefinches, are among the most interesting of the remaining members of the subfamily. The red -headed rosefinch (Propyr- rhula subhimalayensis) is found in the more open parts of the woods in Northwestern India. The male has a brownish-crimson body with bright crimson forehead, cheeks, and throat, the brown wings and tail having reddish margins; the female is not unlike the female of H&matospiza sipahi, but much yellower in colora- tion. The female or the red-breasted rosefinch (Pyrrhospiza punicea) is almost exactly like the females of all the species of Carpodacus, including not only the com- mon species C. erythtinus already noticed, but the Caucasian species C. rubicilla and the Central Asian Severtzow's finch, C. severtzowi. The male, however, is •easily distinguishable, being a brownish bird with crimson forehead and throat and breast, the crown being black, like the back, the feathers being each margined with light brown. The horn-brown bill is stouter and shorter than that of the red- THE BUNTINGS 1579 headed rosefinch, but it is of much the same shape as that of the scarlet finch. The red-breasted rosefinch is a Himalayan bird, ranging from Kashmir to Tibet and Western China at elevations of from ten thousand to seventeen thousand feet. A nest of this species was found in L,adakh, built of coarse grass in a furze bush, and containing greenish-brown spotted eggs. Mr. Gates includes in this species P. humii, which is also found in the Himalayas, and has the head and breast rosy in- stead of crimson, while the brown of the back is quite pale. THE BUNTINGS Subfamily EMBERIZIN^, The birds of this large group possess a conical and sharply-pointed bill; but the edges of the two mandibles, unlike those of the other finches, are not in contact throughout their length, forming a gap or angle about midway between the gape and the tip of the bill. The upper mandible, moreover, has the palate furnished with a hard, horny knob. In a few of the species the claw of the first toe is elon- gated like that of a lark. The great majority of the buntings belong to the north- ern parts of the Old World, although some species inhabit Central Asia or reside permanently in India; many of them possessing an extensive range. The snow bunting supports life farther north than any other of the smaller birds. In this genus (Plectrophenax} the bill is small and conical; the wings are very long and pointed; and the tail is moderate and slightly forked; while the claw of the first toe is straight and elongated. The genus is represented solely by the snow bunting (P. nivalis), which is an Arctic form, com- mon to all the northern portions of the world, and occasionally straying on migra- tion into Central and even Southern Europe. Many species of birds migrate over England during the hours of darkness; and on a frosty night at the commencement of winter we have been able to recognize the joyous sound of the twittering of the ' ' snowflake ' ' ringing through the still air as the birds sped on their way through the darkness. Although some snow buntings pass the entire year upon certain Scottish mountains, it was not until the summer of 1885 that several parties of these birds were observed on the higher mountain tops of the west of Sutherland by Mr. Peach, who in the following year captured the young of this species in a corrie. In 1888 Mr. J. Young announced that during the previous summer he had taken a nest of the snow bunting in the north of Scotland, containing the only eggs of the species discovered up to that time on the mainland of Great Britain. Upon that occasion the observer in question was searching for ptarmigan upon the mountains between Sutherland and Caithness, and while descending some difficult ground he recognized the call note of the snow bunting, and with some difficulty reached the nest, which contained five richly-colored eggs, and was composed of bents and moss, lined with a few ptarmigan's feathers, and one or two small pieces of wool. Since then, additional nests of the snow bunting have been found in Scotland, one of the number having been secured for the national collection. Professor Newton says 1580 THE PERCHING BIRDS that a considerable number of snow buntings pass the summer in the Faroes, where, on the south islands, they are restricted to the mountain tops; although, on the northern ones, they frequent the lower grounds in smaller colonies. Throughout Iceland the species is perhaps the commonest of small birds, a pair or more being established in nearly every convenient locality, even among the most desolate lava streams; and it breeds there almost on the sea level as well as up to the snow line. As is shown by the accumulation of old materials often found therein, the birds commonly use the same nest hole more than once. The eggs vary from four to six in number, and are white in ground color, more or less tinged with pale greenish blue, splashed with dull lilac, and spotted with brownish red. They are laid in a nest built of dry grass and roots lined with hair or soft feathers, especially those of the ptarmigan. The snow bunting has occasionally nested, and even hatched its young in confinement; but we are not aware of the young having been brought to maturity under artificial conditions. The adult male has the crown ruddy brown- ish black; the scapulars are black, edged with reddish brown; the primaries black; the secondaries white, the outer ones being marked on both edges with black; the central tail feathers are black tipped with white; the under tail feathers white streaked with black on the outer edges; a rusty band crosses the breast, and the lower parts are white. In summer the light tips to the feathers of the upper parts are shed, and the bird then appears to be black and white, black predominating. One of the most widely distributed of small birds is the Lapland bunting (Calcarius lapponicus) ,a circumpolar bird, inhabiting the high northern regions only during the summer months, and migrating south- ward to more congenial winter quarters before the arrival of frost and snow in its northern home. It is also found throughout the northern parts of North America. During the summer season this bird frequents the fell mosses of Norway and Sweden, especially such as are covered with grass and willow scrub and are situated below the snow region. Not inhabiting the high mountains on which the snow bunting breeds, it prefers the upland swamps, and Mr. Seebohm states that in Northern Europe the Lapland bunting seeks the swampiest ground it can find, so long as there are tussocks of dry grass full of flowers where it can breed. If there be also a few stunted willows or birches upon which it can perch, so much the better. The nest is nearly always placed in some hole in a side of the little mounds or tussocks abounding on the marshy parts of the tundra, and is com- posed of dry grass and roots, and profusely lined with feathers. The eggs vary from pale gray to pale brown in ground color, and are streaked with dark brown with underlying blotches of brown. Nests of this species found in Norway were built of dry grass and lined with feathers; one in particular being lined with the feathers of a snipe, and thus having an unusually pretty appearance. The newly- hatched young are said to be clothed with dark brown. The song of this bunting, which is sweet and musical, is usually poured forth when the bird is in the air, soar- ing like a lark, and is continued until it alights on some grassy knoll or stunted bush. Oddly enough, the female has almost as rich a song as the male. Formerly the Lapland bunting rarely straggled so far westward as the British Isles during its autumnal migration, but nowadays it not only breeds nearer than it used to do, but THE BUNTINGS 1581 small numbers of this bird visit the southern shores of Great Britain yearly. Before 1892 the Lapland bunting had been captured most frequently in Kent, more par- ticularly near Dover; but in the autumn of that year great numbers visited Eastern and Southern England; the first arrivals being observed in Norfolk during Sep- tember, and these being soon after followed by large flocks. Numbers were also obtained during the winter of 1892-93 on the downs near Brighton, and the species has occurred in equal abundance in Northumberland. Lapland buntings, according to Mr. Gurney, become tame sooner than snow buntings, while their notes are some- what more silvery in tone. ' ' In captivity their habits seem no more terrestrial BUNTING. (Two-thirds natural size.) than snow buntings. As spring drew on, the tints of the birds in my aviary were observed to deepen, and they even showed a disposition to nest by carrying about bents of hay." The male Lapland bunting in breeding plumage has the entire head, throat, and upper breast black; a rich chestnut collar reaches from behind the head onto the back; and the upper parts are brownish black margined with buff and white. The adult female differs from the male in having light margins to the feathers of the head, throat, and flanks, while the feathers of the chin and upper throat are bufnsh white, with half-concealed black bases. After the autumnal 1582 THE PERCHING BIRDS molt, all the feathers have light edges. Males of the year closely resemble adult females, but differ from them in having no black centres to the feathers on the nape. The genus Emberiza includes the typical buntings, all of which are crestless, and have forked tails; the bill being hard, short, and conical: Buntings the first primary small, and the fourth or fifth commonly the longest in the wing, and considerably longer than the next; while the metatarsus is covered with scales in front and on the sides, with an entire plate forming a sharp ridge behind. These buntings are represented by numerous species from the temperate and northern parts of the Old World, as well as from North Africa and India. The feed bunting or reed sparrow {Emberiza schceniclus) is found on ing swampy ground over almost the whole of continental Europe from the South of Spain to Cape North. Among the aits and osier beds of the Thames and its tributaries, it forms a conspicuous object in the summer time, as it chants its sweet snatches of song from some prominent position by the waterside. The female builds her nest among rushes or long grass on the side of a bank, or in a dense tussock of the morass which forms her home, not unfrequently amidst a tiny forest of cotton grass, whose white tufts of delicate down transform a few acres of black bog into a miniature paradise of beauty. The eggs are drab in ground color, and streaked with black and dark purple. The young of this bunting, like those of certain other species which nest upon the ground, frequently leave their nest before they can fly, trusting to their protective colors to secure their safety. Resi- dent in some districts, this bunting in others is a partial migrant, a considerable number passing the winter in the British Isles, where they occasionally seek shelter in the centre of large woods at a distance from their usual aquatic haunts. Their food consists of seeds of water plants, small mollusks, and insects; but occasionally they feed in the stubble fields. The bird is gregarious, and fond of associating in small and even large flocks during the winter and spring months. We have but rarely come across white individuals of this species, nor have we yet examined a pied specimen. The general color of the adult male in the breeding season is ru- fous, with broad black centres to the feathers of the back; the wing coverts are chestnut; the primaries blackish, edged with rufous; the tail feathers dark brown, the two outer ones being edged with white; the crown of the head as well as the sides of the face and ear coverts are entirely black, and separated from the back by a broad band of white, which forms a collar joining the white sides of the head; the throat is black, and the remainder of the under surface white, streaked with black on the sides of the body. Among the Arctic birds from time to time straying into Western ng Europe during their seasonal migrations, must be mentioned the little bunting (E. piisilla). Near Archangel Messrs. Alston and Harvie Brown found it very common in the summer, although local in its choice of nesting grounds. They often heard its low, sweet song, which is compared rather to that of a warbler than of a bunting, and they observed that it frequented the pine woods and mixed timber. Mr. Seebohm supplies the following account of his finding the eggs of this bunting in the valley of the Yenisei. There " it was extremely abundant, and its unobtrusive and quiet song was constantly heard before the snow, which was lying BUNTINGS. 3. Common, 4 d 5. Snow THE BUNTINGS 1583 to a depth of five or six feet up to the first of June, had sufficiently melted to make the forest penetrable. I found the first nest of this bird on the twenty-third of June. I was on the south bank of the Koorayika, a tributary of the Yenisei, and was scrambling through the forest down the hill toward my boat, among tangled underwood and fallen tree trunks, rotten and moss grown, when a little bunting started out of the grass at my feet. It did not fly away, but flitted from branch to branch within six feet of me. I knew at once that it must have a nest, and in a quarter of a minute I found it, half hidden in the grass and moss. It contained five eggs. I have seldom seen a bird so tame. The nest was nothing but a hole made in the dead leaves, grass, and moss, copiously and carefully lined with fine dead grass. I took a second nest in the forest on the opposite bank of the river, on the twenty-ninth of June, containing three eggs; this nest was in a similar posi- tion to the foregoing, and the behavior of the parent bird precisely the same. On the thirtieth of June we cast anchor about one hundred and ten versts below the Koorayika, and I went on shore to shoot, and found a third nest of this interest- ing little bird, containing five eggs which were slightly incubated; this nest was lined with reindeer hair. On the sixth of July, a few miles further down the river, I went on shore again and found another nest of the little bunting, this time containing six eggs; it was similar to the last, rather more sparingly lined with reindeer hair, but the tameness of the bird was just the same. The eggs in the first nest are very handsome, almost exact miniatures of those of the corn bunting. The ground color is pale gray, with bold twisted blotches and irregular round spots of very dark gray, and equally large underlying shell markings of paler gray. The eggs in the second nest are much redder, being brown rather than gray, but the markings are similar." The adult male little bunting in breeding dress has the upper parts rufous brown, with broad black centres to the feathers; the centre of the crown is vinous chestnut, with a broad black streak on each side, forming a band; a superciliary line, lores, sides of face, ear coverts, and throat, are all vinous chestnut. The remainder of the lower parts are dull white, the lower throat, fore-neck, and breast, as well as the sides of the body, streaked with black. The adult female scarcely differs from the male, but is not quite so bright colored. This dull-colored heavy bird (E. miliaria} is common in many parts Common ,. — .. Bunting Europe, from Southern Spain to the Hebrides; but being to a large extent dependent upon grain crops for its existence, its distribution naturally varies with that cereal. Sometimes it frequents the pastures, uttering its droning song from the top of some tall hedgerow tree, but more often it frequents arable fields, where it utters its short mechanical song from a clod of earth, a clump of dockweed, or the coping of some stone wall or turf dike. Although Mr. Dresser asserts that the corn bunting, as this species is often termed, is seen only in pairs during the breeding season, we have seen as many as a hundred of these birds flying together at the end of May, and can vouch for their associating together in numbers even in the nesting time. Sometimes they roost upon the ground like skylarks, but we have known them to roost habitually in a fir plantation. They feed partially on insects, but in autumn and midwinter they appear to subsist almost entirely on 1584 THE PERCHING BIRDS grain. The nest of the common bunting is a loose structure, built upon the ground in a tuft of rough herbage, and constructed of dry grass bents and pieces of moss, lined with finer stems of grass and sometimes a little hair. The eggs vary greatly in coloration, being either white or buff in ground color, blotched and streaked with purplish brown, gray, and pale brown. Not unfrequently the common bunt- ing assumes a white or cream-colored plumage; one shot a few years ago being as yellow as a canary. The usual color is dull brown above, streaked with darker brown; the under parts being buffy white, and the breast and flanks streaked with black. ORTOLAN BUNTING AND BLACK-HEADED BUNTING. (Five-eighths natural size.) Black-Headed Bunting Southeastern Europe is the home of the handsome black-headed bunting (E. melanocephala) , which but rarely strays into Western Europe, though it has been obtained repeatedly upon the island of Heligoland, and on two occasions in Great Britain. In Greece and Turkey, on the other hand, it is a common summer bird. Lindermayer gives the following account of its habits: "This bunting arrives always in the last five days of April in Greece, and, like other migrants, appears everywhere at once, so that the flats near the sea, which are covered with vines and other creepers, and also places where the THE BUNTINGS 1585 olive trees are scattered about, are alive with this lovely and melodious bird. It is peculiarly partial to vineyards, where it builds on the vines, pomegranates, thorns, or almond trees. Its nest is always formed of dried straws, and is carefully made and lined with horsehair. Five eggs are the usual complement, and these are pale sea green, covered with scattered dark brown spots, though sometimes quite unspotted. I have received hundreds of nests, and often found them myself, as they are not difficult to discover, the bird not being at all shy, and only leaving the nest when approached within a distance of about a yard. I have often known the female to lay afresh after her eggs have been removed. During the breeding season the male sits near the nest, on a branch or a tree top, and continually serenades his mate with his sweet song. If scared away, even by a shot, it retreats to the nearest tree and continues its song." This bunting much resembles the common species in general habits, often sitting on the top of a bush or low tree, and pouring forth its simple notes, or flying from one elevated part to another with its legs dangling down. The adult male in the breeding time has the crown and sides of the head black, the entire back and scapulars chestnut, the primaries and tail feathers brown, the whole under surface, as well as the sides of the neck, rich canary yellow, and the sides of the breast and flanks chestnut. The female is a dull-plumaged bird by comparison with her brilliant mate, having the upper parts nearly uniform brown, but the under surface yellow, with ashy margins to the breast feathers, and the flanks tinged with ash color. This beautiful bunting (E. aureola} is distributed over the northern Yellow- . . parts of the Old World from Russia to the Pacific, and has even Breasted Bunting strayed as far west as Heligoland, and been captured also in Italy. Dr. Dybowski found this bunting to be one of the commonest birds in Eastern Siberia, where it frequents the valleys, particularly on the plain, and where bushes abound. It generally perches on the top of a plant or bush, and there sings continually, its song being short and often interrupted, but sweet. The peasants look on it as the best songster in Dauria, but that is according to their taste, for there are many other birds there which sing better. These birds arrive on their breeding ground about the middle of May, and commence building their nests early in June, although most of them only begin breeding late in this month. Their nests are placed on the ground and constructed of dry bents, lined with horsehair. The female sits hard, and will permit anyone to approach quite close to her; while, when driven off her eggs, she keeps flying about with the male closely in attendance, perching every now and then on the neighboring bushes, and uttering a note of lamentation like that of the wrhinchat. The eggs of this bunting generally resemble those of the reed bunting, but the ground color is tinged with greenish. In the neighborhood of Archangel the yellow-breasted bunting constantly frequents swampy meadows, or marshes overgrown with birches and willows. The general color of the male is deep chestnut; the forehead, sides of the face, and upper throat being jet black, and the under surface of the body bright yellow, except that the chest is banded by a zone of chestnut. The female is grayish brown, like a hen sparrow, above; the lower parts being pale yellow, striped on the flanks with dark brown. 1586 THE PERCHING BIRDS The yellow bunting (E. citrinella) is a common bird in Northern Europe, extending eastward into Siberia, and frequenting alike the more cultivated valleys of Norway and the south of Europe. Mr. Dresser observes that it is to be seen on almost every hedgerow in many parts of England. ' ' Perched on the top of the highest available twig, the male may be heard incessantly pouring out his monotonous but not disagreeable song, and during the breeding season his notes fall upon the ear from the early morn till late into the evening. As twilight sets in, the yellow bunting may still be heard, and is perhaps the last bird to give a parting note to the retiring day, with the exception of his congener, the corn bunting, who sing till it is quite dusk." The yellow bunting generally nests upon some bank, occasionally in a furze bush. The eggs are white, scribbled over with fine, hair-like markings. In autumn the yellow buntings collect in flocks, feeding on blackberries and other wild fruits, as well as upon all the grain that they can glean in the open fields. As the season advances, they seek the neighborhood of homesteads, and search for worms and other insects upon heaps of manure. Although the yellow bunting is generally supposed to be a resident species in Great Britain, there can be no doubt that it is only a summer visitant to its more northern breeding grounds. Large numbers of this species sometimes occur on migration at Heligoland. The male has the head and throat bright yellow, and the back brown, inclined to rufous, all the feathers having dark centres; the wings and tail are blackish brown, the outer tail feathers having the inner webs partly white. In winter the plumage is rendered more dingy by fulvous edgings to the feathers. The female is grayish brown above, having the lower parts of the back, the rump, and upper tail coverts pale cinnamon; the lower parts being citron yellow and the upper breast mottled with brown and tinged with olive green. Closely allied to the last, but more pleasing m both character and coloration, is the cirl bunting (E. cirlus), which is thinly distributed through Central Europe, being in some districts even more common than the yellow bunting, but generally taking rank as a scarce bird. English ornithologists know it best as a resident in the southern countries, particularly in the west, but it has nested as far north as Yorkshire. It is numerous in North Devon, around Barnstaple especially, where it is a shier bird than the yellow bunting, and is fond of concealing itself in the spring and summer in thick hedges. Both in the spring and again in the autumn the male bird is often to be seen perched on the branch of some hedgerow elm, from whence he delivers his very unpretending song. In Germany the cirl bunting is migratory, leaving its northern habitat in November, perhaps even much earlier, and wintering far to the southward, and returning in April. It frequents the same kind of places as the yellow bunting, such as the bushy banks of streams, meadows, and hedges, small groves and mountainous districts in the neighborhood of fields and gardens. In many other respects the cirl bunting resembles the yellow bunting. In spring it prefers to take up its position in a high and open place on the tops of trees, but later in the season is found lower down, and always likes to hide in dense thickets. It hops a good deal upon the ground, is by no means shy, and when frightened up, soon settles on the nearest low bush, and shows little fear. In its flight it also resembles its near THE BUNTINGS 1587 relative, quarreling and snapping at it when none of its own species are near with whom it can fall out, and it is equally quarrelsome, and at times as restless as that bird. These buntings eat both insects and seeds. Although Mr. Seebohm considers that the song of the cirl bunting bears some resemblance to that of the lesser redpoll and lesser whitethroat, it still more closely resembles that of the yellow bunting, but is never ended with the long-drawn note which marks the song of the latter. The cirl bunting breeds early, nesting in positions similar to those adopted by the yellow bunting, and constructing its nest on a bank or among briers and brambles, usually at no great distance from the ground. The nest is built of dry roots and grasses, CIUL BUNTING AND MEADOW BUNTING. (Five-eighths natural size.) lined with fine roots and a little hair. The eggs are bluish white, in ground color streaked and blotched with very dark brown; two clutches being usually laid in a season. The song of the male commences early in the year, and is usually delivered from the lower branches of an elm or the top of some hedgerow tree, but occasionally from a bare telegraph wire. It is continued throughout August and September. In hard weather cirl buntings associate with other birds, such as larks, in the open fields. In confinement the cirl bunting is a shy species, very difficult to tame; al- though Montagu reared a young one from the nest, which was sufficiently tame to take insects from the hand, showing a great partiality to such a repast, and, when 1 5 88 THE PERCHING BIRDS let out of the cage, catching flies in the windows. The cirl bunting bears some re- semblance to the yellow bunting in plumage, but the male is readily distinguished by the fact that the head and nape are olive green, and the rump and upper tail coverts olive green streaked with dusky, while a bright stripe extends over the eye, and another below it. The wings and tail are similar to those of the yellow bunt- ing, but the lesser wing coverts are olive green instead of chestnut. The throat is dull black, below which is a broad patch of yellow, and a zone of olive green extends across the breast, shading into chestnut. The female cirl bunting can always be distinguished from the female yellow bunting by the head never showing any trace of yellow, the under parts being not so bright a yellow, while the rump and upper tail coverts are olive instead of chestnut. The far-famed ortolan (.£". hortulana) , shown in the upper figure on p. 1584, for which fabulous prices were sometimes paid by the epicures of the last century, is a near relative of the cirl bunting, and, like that species, is more common in Southern Europe than farther north. The tameness of the ortolan buntings outside the city of Pampeluna, in Spain, is almost ludicrous. So little do they apprehend injury, that they will allow visitors to lie on the grass while they forage round for earthworms; these birds feeding partly on grass seeds and partly on worms. The ortolan bunting often resorts to the edges of thickets and the skirts of fir woods, and its song somewhat resembles that of the yellow bunting. In Sweden the ortolan sings both during the day and throughout the light nights of the Arctic summer. The nests, which are invariably placed upon the ground, and generally in the open fields, are built of dry grass or roots, and lined with fine fibres or hair. The eggs vary in ground color from bluish white to pale salmon color, spotted and blotched with rich purple brown. Mr. Seebohm observes that "it is somewhat remarkable that a bird so common on the Continent, and all the countries adjacent to the British Islands, should be so rare in Britain. I found the ortolan bunting breeding on the mountains in the pine regions both of Greece and Asia Minor. When I was at Valconswaards we con- stantly heard its plaintive, monotonous song as it sat perched for a long time on the branch of a tree, in the lanes or in the hedges that surrounded the fields close to the village, and in the wilder districts of Norway it was by no means un- common in the trees by the roadside. It is not a shy bird, and frequently remains for a very long time on the same twig, generally near the top of the tree, especially in the evening, when its simple song harmonizes with the melancholy stillness of the outskirts of the country village. Throughout Europe it is a strictly migratory bird; in Greece and Asia Minor, where the season of the spring migration may be said to be \he months of March and April it ranks among the later migrants. In South Holland the season of 1876 was a somewhat late one, and the arrival of mi- gratory birds began during the last week of March and ended during the last week of May, and it was not until the middle of the latter month that we heard the song of the ortolan bunting. These birds leave Europe in September, arriving in North Africa in large flocks. On their way south great numbers are caught in nets and fattened for the table, and many are sent to this country alive from Holland and Belgium. The adult male has the head gray, tinged with greenish yellow; a ring THE BUNTINGS 1589 of feathers round the eyes and throat being pale citron yellow; the general color of the upper parts is reddish brown with black streaks to the feathers of the mantle and back; the eyelid is white; the fore-neck and chest are dusky greenish olive; and the remainder of the under parts is reddish cinnamon. The meadow bunting (E. da) is a lively member of the family met with, locally, in many parts of Central Europe, living chiefly in moun- tain valleys such as those to be found in Central France. Each pair generally occupies its own particular district, and, while the females incubate their eggs, the males rehearse their songs, generally perching in a prominent position on the top of some bush. The nest of the meadow bunting is made of dry stalks and moss, lined with horsehair and wool. Mr. Dresser found this bird numerous in the Meadow Bunting THE SPARROW BUNTING. neighborhood of Barcelona, where it frequented the cactus hedges, flying when dis- turbed from plant to plant, and often perching on the very top of the cacti, uttering its call note, zi zi zi. This species chiefly affects the hillsides and barren dry places where but few stunted bushes are scattered about, but in some parts of Europe it has been found frequenting the vineyards. It feeds on various seeds of wild plants, and to some extent on insects. The eggs are easily distinguished by their continu- ous markings, which appear as if they were made by a pen without taking it from the surface of the egg. In color they are pale gray, marked with blackish-brown lines. The adult male has the head and neck bluish gray, with two black bauds along the sides of the crown, and two other black bands passing through the eye, forming a mustache, while the upper parts are bright russet, streaked with black; 1590 THE PERCHING BIRDS Allied Genera the rump chestnut red; the throat white; the neck and chest delicate bluish gray; and the rest of the under parts russet red. The female has the head, nape, and body varied with black and russet; the rump and under tail coverts bright russet; the front of the neck and chest shaded with dull gray and spotted with brown; and the flanks of a deeper russet, and more or less spotted with brown. There are several genera more or less closely allied to the true bunt- ings, which can only be incidentally alluded to here. Among these, the crested bunting (Melophus melanideris} , of the Himalayas, Upper India, Burma, and China, is the only representative of a genus characterized by the presence of a crest on the head, which is larger in the male than in the female. The tail is less forked than in the true buntings, and the sexes differ in coloration, although both display a considerable amount of red on the wings and tail. This bunting is soli- tary in its habits, and generally found on rocky hills and the banks of streams. The American bunting (Euspiza americana} represents a second genus, and the Cape bunting (Fringillaria capensis) a third, in which there are several species. The sparrow bunting {Zonotrichia albicollis} , belonging to a group of genera in which the tail is longer than the wing, differs from the true buntings by the ex- posed nostrils, which are protected by an operculum; and is especially characterized by the spotted back and sparrow-like form. The genus, which includes numerous species, is exclusively American. CHAPTER IV THE PERCHING BIRDS— continued LARKS TO WAXWINGS Families ALAUDID^ to AMPELID^E REPRESENTED by upward of a hundred species, arranged under several generic heads, the larks form a family which is almost entirely confined to the Old World in its distribution; some of the more highly-specialized forms being peculiar to desert regions, where they have become specially adapted to their environment both in structure and in their protective coloration. The shape of the bill varies too much in different genera to be of value as a diagnostic characteristic, but the feet are well denned. Thus the metatarsus is scutellated, and blunt behind as in front, that is to say, it is covered with two series of plates behind and before, which meet on the inner surface of the limb. Other characteristics are the very long straight claw of the first toe, the long, pointed wing, and the lengthened inner secondary wing feath- ers. Save for a notch in the upper one, the edges of both mandibles are perfectly smooth. The birds of the genus Alauda are distinguished by having the first of the ten primaries very small, while the second, third, and fourth are nearly equal, although the third is somewhat the longest; the secondaries are comparatively long, and the tail is moderate and slightly forked. The bill is rather slender, long, arched, and slightly compressed, with plumelets covering the nos- trils. The skylarks, of which there are but three species, are principally found in the temperate portions of Europe and Siberia, although extending their range south- ward into China and the plains of India. The common skylark (A. arvensis) is one of the most abundant of European birds nesting in the British Isles, which are also visited by myriads of this species from the Continent during the autumn and winter months. So great is their abundance that they have become an extensive article of commerce, and on the Sussex Downs extraordinary numbers are netted to supply the poulterers. Popular sentiment has never failed to recognize the exceeding beauty of the liquid notes of the lark, its cheery carol far surpassing that of all other British birds save the nightingale. Frequenting heaths and pasture lands, and generally most abundant in open country, during the winter the skylark is a gregarious spe- cies, and on a sharp frosty morning many hundreds may be observed congregating in a single field, flying restlessly hither and thither, with low, warbling call notes to their companions. The salt marshes bordering upon many parts of the British coasts are well adapted to the habits of the skylark; the birds generally placing their (1591) 1592 THE PERCHING BIRDS nest in the side of a tussock of rough grass. It is a simple structure, lined with fine grass. The young are exposed to the attacks of ground vermin, owing to their being reared upon the ground, but they are screened from their enemies by the highly-protective characteristic of their first plumage, which is spotted with buff, and assimilates to the color of dried grasses even more closely than the darker tints of the adult birds. The skylark sometimes nests in very SKYLARK, WOODI.ARK, AND CRESTED I.ARK. (Two-thirds natural size.) exposed situations; one pair having built their nest on the bank of a cricket field, immediately abutting upon a highroad. In the breeding season it is a singularly fearless bird, and the parents of a young brood will often allow a stranger to approach within a very few yards before they take wing. Waited upon by their parents most sedulously, the young birds leave the nest long before they are strong upon the wing; these "pushers" being often caught THE LARKS 1593 alive by boys, who take advantage of their feeble flight to capture them when exhausted, after a short but persistent chase. In confinement the skylark retains its kindly character, a fact well known to bird dealers, who often place an old skylark in a cage with a brood of young birds, knowing by experience that the former is sure to take compassion upon the helpless nestlings. The young birds reared from the nest become exceedingly attached to their owners, and readily acquire the notes of any bird under whose tuition they may be placed. Such birds as are captured adult, and in open weather, are, however, apt to pine over the loss of their liberty; but those that are caught when deep snow is lying on the ground are more susceptible of domestication, and soon begin to sing. The eggs of the sky- lark are white in ground color, thickly blotched and freckled with brown and gray Young birds may be found in the nest at any time from April to September. Sky- larks do not wash, but delight in cleansing their plumage by dusting their feathers in dry earth; this being done in order to remove ticks or other parasites that may be adhering to them. On their migrations, skylarks often appear at the lighthouses in dense hordes, and vast numbers are killed upon the island of Heligoland. Although the song is principally uttered during the spring and summer months, we have often heard wild larks singing in snatches in November, and in the Highlands the sky- lark begins to sing in summer about an hour before daybreak. The food of the skylark consists of the seeds of oats, wheat, barley, and wild plants, together with such insects as it meets with in the plowed fields. In plum- age these birds are subject to considerable variation, so much so as to constitute local races. Black, white, and cream-colored varieties occur occasionally, but only in very small numbers in comparison with the abundance of birds in ordinary plum- age. The adult has the upper parts brown, tinged more or less with rufous, many of the feathers having dark centres; the wings are dark brown, the primaries being narrowly edged with white on the outer webs; the tail is brown, with the exception of the outer feathers, which are nearly all white; the throat and breast are buff, streaked with brown; and the rest of the under surface creamy white. Both sexes are alike. Although formerly included in the same genus with the skylark, the woodlark (Lullula arbored] is now very generally referred to a genus apart, of which it is the sole representative. It may be readily distinguished from the former by its shorter tail, more distinctly marked breast, and by a distinct light streak over the eye and ear coverts, while its size is considerably smaller. It is figured in the illustration on p. 1592. Unlike the skylark, which frequents open country, the woodlark prefers fields that border upon woods, — "in localities," writes Mr. Dresser, ' ' where the soil is sandy and partially covered with second growth, large trees being sparsely scattered here and there; this species is generally numerous but it does not frequent the dense forest. In its habits it is lively and sprightly, fond of the society of its congeners, and not quarrelsome, but rather more shy than the skylark. It frequents the ground far more than is commonly supposed, and, indeed, only perches occasionally upon the outer branches, chiefly during the breeding season, when singing. It seeks its food almost always, if not solely, on the ground, and runs with celerity and ease. It roosts on the ground in open places 1594 THE PERCHING BIRDS close to the woods, under weeds or grass, or in the old weed-covered furrows, and retires early to rest. It is more affected by the cold weather than the skylark, and migrates earlier to the southward than that species. Its song is sweet and flute-like, more melancholy than that of the skylark, and is generally uttered from the top of some tree, or else when the bird is on the wing. It rises to some height before com- mencing, then ascends, singing, higher and higher, throwing itself from side to side, hovers and floats in the air, and when the song is ended drops with closed wings to the ground again. It sings not only in the morning and evening but also at other times of the day, and in the night, especially at night." The woodlark constantly builds upon the ground, usually in a tuft of grass, or in a depression of the earth, sheltered by a low bush. Built of stems of grass and moss, and lined with hair and wool or fine bents, the nest is more compact than that of the skylark. The eggs are generally white in ground color, finely freckled, and blotched with brown and purplish markings, which are often bold, and sometimes arranged in a zone. The woodlark occasionally nests in confinement. A very local bird in the British Isles, especially in the breeding season, when it is chiefly found in the southern and western counties, particularly Devonshire, the woodlark is common in Southern Norway and Sweden, and extends eastward through Central Russia, ranging south to Spain, Morocco, and Egypt. The plumage of the adult is brown above, each feather being striped with dark brown and edged with rufous; a broad, yellowish white stripe extends from each eye to the nape, forming an irregu- lar collar; the rump and upper tail coverts are grayish brown; and the tail is dark brown, with the central pair of feathers much lighter than the others, while the outer pair are dirty white toward the tip, and their outer webs bordered with white. The crested larks, as typically represented by the European species The Crested {Qaierita cristata) , are sufficiently distinguished from both the fore- going genera by the presence on the head of a crest composed of a few very long feathers springing from the centre of the crown. The common species is a partial resident in continental Europe, and a rare accidental visitor to the shores of Great Britain. In the spring of the year it may be seen in the north of Spain, traveling in flocks apparently composed exclusively of its own kind, which generally frequent the plowed fields in preference to grass lands. These large flocks are relatively wild; but on other occasions crested larks may be observed running tamely on the turf bordering the highroad, elevating their crests as they run along together. Mr. Dresser states that ' ' in its habits the crested lark is confiding and fearless, and in the neighborhood of villages and inhabited places is one of the most unsuspicious and tame birds. When in Southern Germany and Hungary, where it is very common, I observed it on almost all the highroads, and in the streets of the small towns and villages pecking about among the horse droppings almost as tamely as a London sparrow. They appear very fond of inhabited places, and frequent highroads, seldom being found very far from these, and when disturbed by a passing vehicle will either run on one side and let it pass, or fly on, again and again, as the traveler approaches them. In different parts of Europe they are resident or migratory according as the locality is suitable or not for winter quarters: but in most parts THE LARKS 1595 they are partial migrants, merely shifting their quarters according to season." In Germany, Naumann writes, " they leave their northern haunts in the winter, which they spend in smaller Or larger companies in milder climates. Many winter on the Main and Rhine, and in Franconia and Thuringia, arriving there in October and November, and disappearing at the first commencement of spring. Here in Northern Germany these larks are resident or partially migratory, these latter rambling in pairs or small companies from place to place, and arriving in winter where they are not observed in summer, but seldom remain there long. The time of migration is in November and December. Old pairs remain year after year at the same breeding place. Thejr migrate from the one inhabited place to the other in the daytime, generally in the forenoon, and fly at a considerable altitude." The song of the crested lark is sweeter and in some respects more pleasing than that of the skylark. This lark nests upon the ground in any small depression of the soil or behind a clod of earth; the nest being loosely and simply constructed of stems of dry grass and fine roots, sometimes lined with a little horsehair. The eggs are grayish white in ground color, marked with dark or light brown and gray. Fresh eggs may be found from the middle of April until the middle of July. The crested lark is a favorite cage bird in Germany; and it may be seen from time to time exposed in the Paris bird market. In India the crested lark is frequentty caged, and kept in darkness by its cage being wrapped in a cloth. In this state it learns to sing very sweetly, and even to imitate the songs of other birds. The crested lark has the upper parts brown; the feathers of the neck and back have dark centres fringed with buff; the crest is conspicuous, and consists of nine or ten narrow feathers, blackish brown in color, edged with buff; the lower parts are creamy white; the sides of the throat are spotted with blackish brown; and the feathers of the breast and flanks are streaked with dark brown. In this genus (Altzmon] the bill is very long and slender, gently L , curved on its terminal half, while the nostrils are fully exposed to view; the first of the ten primaries of the wing being small, but exceeding the primary coverts. The toes and claws are very short, and the latter are stout. The plumage is the same in both sexes. The desert lark (A. desertorum) inhabits the deserts of Arabia and Northern Africa, extending eastward into Afghanistan and Western India. It is thinly dis- tributed throughout the desolate wastes in which it finds its home, living in pairs, each of which enjoys the run of its own territory. This lark traverses the sandy plains with great celerity. The song of the male is often uttered in the breeding season, but it is short and unpretentious. Breeding in May and June, when it makes a small nest of dried grass on the sand, the desert lark lays eggs, which are grayish white, marked with yellowish brown. The plumage of many birds has become modified in order to serve the purposes of concealment from their enemies; and the desert lark, like other species that haunt sterile wildernesses, has gradually assumed a plumage of an isabelline gray, tinged with ash on the forehead and upper tail coverts. The first primaries are black, with white bases; the tail feathers black margined with fulvous, the two central feathers being sandy brown, broadly edged with very bright fulvous; a black streak passes through the lores with a white band 1596 THE PERCHING BIRDS above and beneath; a black band passes backward from the eye; the chin and throat are white, as is the abdomen, but the fore-neck and breast are pale fulvous, spotted with black. Another genus (Ammomanes) belonging to the group, with ten primaries to the wings, is formed by the finch larks, of which the African finch lark (A. deserti*) is represented in the left-hand figure below, while other species inhabit India. Having the first primary long, as in the preceding genus, these larks are specially distinguished by the thick beak being much shorter than the head, and the nostrils concealed by plumelets. They inhabit The Finch Larks r -% i ^ THE AFRICAN FINCH LARK AND DESERT T.ARK. (One-half natural size.) open arid plains, from which they rise singing in the air for a short distance, and then suddenly drop. There are several other genera of the group, such as the Asiatic bush larks (Mirafra}, which may be distinguished from the finch larks by the open nostrils. The short-toed larks, genus Calandrella, are inferior in size to most . , of the family, and have the bill short and stout, with the upper 1 oed Larks _ mandible arched, while there are only nine primaries in the wing, of which the first is long and reaches to the tip; the inner secondaries are lengthened and reach to the end of the primaries, or nearly so; the tail is rather long and THE LARKS 1597 slightly forked; and the claws slightly curved and very short. Five species of short-toed larks inhabit Europe and Northern Asia, and three others are found in India. The European short-toed lark (C. brachydactyla} is a common species in Southern Spain and is one of the most characteristic of birds of Malta during the summer months, frequenting the wildest parts of the island, where its song is frequently uttered, as the male thus encourages his mate in the duties of incuba- tion. Its range extends eastward to Turkestan, and in winter it visits Upper India. BLACK I.ARK, WHITE-WINGED LARK, AND SHORT-TOED LARK. (One-half natural size.) Its mode of ascending in the air differs from that of the skylark, consisting of a succession of jerks. The short-toed lark is caught in considerable numbers by the French bird catchers, to judge from the frequency with which we have found the species for sale in the Paris bird shops. Its food seems to consist almost exclusively of small seeds, the husk of which it has the faculty of breaking in its bill, but we may presume that insects of some sort are supplied to the young. On the ground this lark runs quickly, and it is especially fond of groveling in sand. When at large, it never perches on shrubs or bushes, though in confinement, like the sky- 1598 THE PERCHING BIRDS lark, it will readily take to a perch. The cock has a lively song, given on the wing both in the morning and evening, but seldom in the middle of the day. The nest is formed of a few bits of grass collected in a depression of the ground, often a horse's footprint, and the eggs, four or five in number, are of a French white, gen- erally minutely freckled with pale hair brown. The adult has the upper parts sandy gray, the feathers having dark centres; the wings and tail are blackish brown, some of the feathers being margined with buff; the sides of the head are marked with blackish brown, a creamy-white stripe extending over and behind the eye; oa CAI.ANDRA LARK. (One-half natural size.) each side of the upper part of the breast is a blackish-brown patch; and the under parts generally are white washed with buff. Individual specimens vary considerably in tint, some being more rufous or gray than others. This group comprehends a small assemblage of large, stout-billed larks, characterized by black patches of feathers on each side of the breast. The wing has ten primaries, the first being very minute, and is very long, reaching nearly to the tip of the tail; the claw of the first toe being long and straight. This Old-World group is chiefly found in Southern Europe, The Calandra Larks THE LARKS 1599 Algeria, Egypt, Nubia, and India; the eastern representative of the western bird inhabiting Northern China. The calandra (Melanocorypha calandra) is one of the finest of European songsters, which it would be difficult to overpraise, as it would also be difficult to exaggerate the beauty of its glorious song which is full of changes; although individuals vary in the proficiency of their vocal powers. In appearance, it somewhat recalls that of the corn bunting. It is a heavily-built bird, and somewhat similar to the latter in shape, but it does not dangle its legs in the air when flying. A permanent resident in the south of France and Spain, in parts of Italy and in Greece, the calandra is common also in Turkey; while many are shot in winter, as they are large, plump birds, and much in request for eating. Mr. G. F. Mathew states that ' ' the male on commencing his song springs from the ground, and with a graceful undulating motion describes a series of large circles until he rises to an immense height; his song is then clear and beautiful, but at close quarters it is piercing and unpleasant. The call note is loud and harsh, and some- what similar to that of the corn bunting. With the Portuguese it is a favorite cage bird, and in many of the streets of Lisbon may be seen hanging outside every door in cages. At Gibraltar it is frequent, and many are caught on the neutral ground by bird catchers who use clap nets with decoy call birds. ' ' The calandra lark makes its nest in a depression of the ground, often at a depth of three or four inches. The nest is a careless structure built of grass stems. The eggs are dull gray in ground color, blotched with brown and pale amber, with underlying markings of gray and light brown. The adult is grayish brown above, the feathers having dark centres; the under surface of the body is white tinged with fulvous, and streaked finely with dark brown. The distinguishing characteristic of this species is a large patch of black adorning the sides of the neck. This species (M. yeltoniensis) , which is figured on p. 1597, inhabits Blcick c the steppes of Central Asia, migrating westward into Southern Russia in the autumn and winter. After rearing their progeny, these larks congregate, especially in August, and wander over the brackish places of the desert through- out the whole autumn, especially in the region of the salt lake Yelton. In the middle of winter, when the snow covers the land, they approach the towns and suburbs. In summer, when on the ground, the^ black lark emits a feeble piping, generally singing from a hillock, but its song is not powerful. Its nest is merely a slight hol- low in the ground, lined with a few vegetable fibres, moss, and dried grass. The female lays four eggs, bluish in color, and spotted with yellow; these being deposited from the end of April till the end of July. In plumage the black lark varies at different seasons; in spring the entire plumage of the male being black, with the feathers of the back, rump, and breast, edged with light sandy, but these markings become almost completely obsolete in the height of summer. The general color of the female is sandy brown, the lores and superciliary stripe being whitish; the wings and tail dark brown, edged with sandy; the under surface of the body white tinged with buff; the upper part of the breast mottled with brown; and the flanks striated. i6oo THE PERCHING BIRDS This Siberian lark (M. sibirica} has only once or twice wandered ,nge -nto Western Europe; its home being in the steppes of Eastern Russia, whence it extends eastward as far as the Yenisei. It has once occurred in Great Britain, a female having been captured near Brighton in 1869, while con- sorting with a flock of snow buntings, and it has likewise been obtained in Belgium and Western Germany. Arriving on its breeding grounds in Russia in the spring much later than the skylark, it affects grassy and open districts, and when singing, often soars aloft, but does not ascend so high as the skylark. It pairs about the middle of May, and builds its nest of grass upon the ground. The eggs, four or more in number, are grayish white, closely marked with dull brown. The adult male in summer plumage has the upper parts rich brown, bordered with russet, be- coming lighter on the nape; the crown, lesser wing coverts and upper tail coverts being a brilliant red russet, which gives the bird a marked and distinct character- istic; the primaries are dark brown, the first white on the inner web, and becoming almost entirely so in the middle; the tail feathers are brown edged with white on the inner webs; the throat and sides of the neck are spotted with brown and russet; and the under parts are white. The female is similar, but duller and less pure in tint. The horned larks are distinguished in the adult male plumage by a tuft of feathers springing from each side of the crown; the bill is Larks rather short, and slightly arched; the nostrils are densely covered by plumes; the wings are long; and the claw of the first toe is straight and about as long as the toe. These birds are remarkable for the constancy of the pattern of their plumage; yellow and black being usually associated with vinaceous brown. This genus {Otocorys} is strongly represented in the New World, the northern parts of which possess several species, one of the number at least being virtually identical with the common horned lark of Europe. The latter bird ( O. alpestris) appears to inhabit the whole of the northern parts of Europe and Siberia, and other species are found in the Himalayas and adjoining plateaus, two of the number being peculiar to very high altitudes; Mr. Blanford having met with Elwes' horned lark in Sikkim at nearly eighteen thousand feet elevation. The horned lark breeds on the f jelds and tundras of Northern Europe, extending southward into Central Norway. Formerly it was regarded as a rare straggler to the coast of Great Britain, but it is now known that considerable numbers of these birds annually cross the North Sea to winter upon the eastern shores of England. Certain spots are frequented by these birds year after year, where they feed chiefly on the seeds of marine plants. For many years the horned shore larks that visited Britain proved to be males almost exclusively, but females have latterly been taken in considerable numbers, although not in the same proportion as the males. The shore larks, which winter on the British coast, rarely wander inland, although they sometimes migrate across England from the Yorkshire coast to that of Lancashire. They arrive during the last months of the year, and remain until the end of February, or even the middle of March. Mr. Seebohm writes that " the shore lark is as much a bird of the tundra as the snow bunting and the I/apland bunting, but it breeds at a lower latitude than the former species, and is almost as abundant as the latter is more local. It avoids the marshy districts, and confines itself to dry THE LARKS 1601 sandy plains or rocky hills, though it comes down to the mud shores of the rivers to drink. It is one of the earliest of the small birds to arrive at its breeding grounds. The snow bunting and the mealy redpoll arrive first, and may be seen running about on the snow some weeks before the ice breaks up; but as soon as the thaw begins in earnest a batch of small birds arrives, among which is sure to be the shore lark. During migration the shore lark is a gregarious bird, and though the first flocks consisted of shore larks only, as soon as the Lapland buntings began to arrive, they seemed to be on the best of terms together, and the later flocks usually HORNED OR SHORE LARK. (One-half natural size.) consisted of both species. Flocks of pipits were migrating about the same time, and it was very striking to contrast the wildness of these birds with the tameness of the shore larks. The shore lark often sings on the ground, and when apparently too busy feeding to mount in the air for the purpose, will occasionally utter snatches of song. At their breeding places they sing continually, mounting up into the air like a skylark, and singing their charming song as they sail about with wings and tail expanded. The song is very melodious though short, and among its few varia- tions a long drawn-out note often occurs, which resembles much the song of the corn 1602 THE PERCHING BIRDS bunting. It often remains some time in the air and sings its little song several times over before it descends. It will also sing from the roof of the wooden houses. Its call note is loud and clear, but scarcely capable of being expressed by a word. In Lapland the shore lark lays its eggs from the middle of May to the middle of June, but in Siberia not before the latter date. The nest is always built on the ground, generally in some slight hollow. I found one in Finmark in the middle of a mountain pass, in the hollow formed by the foot of a horse in the soft mud which the sun had afterwards hardened. Others were among stones on the bare ground, and one under the shelter of some rushes in the grass. The nest is loosely made of dry grass and stalks, and the inside, which is rather deep, is lined with willow down or reindeer hair. Four is the usual number of eggs, but very often only three are laid, and sometimes as many as five. They may be said to be characteristic larks' eggs, and only differ from those of the skylark by their more olive shade of color. The ground color is a pale greenish or paie brownish white, often so colored by the profusion of markings as to be scarcely visible. The overlying spots are small and irregular in shape, of an almost neutral brown color, and nearly conceal the paler and grayer underlying spots." The adult male shore lark in breeding plumage has the forehead, and a stripe over each eye, the chin, and upper throat pale yellow; the crown, and tufts of the head, the lores, and a band across the lower neck are black; the upper parts are vinaceous brown, and the tinder parts dirty white. The female is similar, but all her colors are duller, a remark which applies to the bird of the year. In winter plumage the shore lark lacks the ruddy vinaceous tinting charac- terizing the breeding plumage. The intensity of the latter is obtained by a change in the actual color of the feather itself, and is not produced by a molt. The young have the whole of the upper plumage dark brown spotted with dull yellow; the throat being pale yellow streaked with black; the lower parts are dull white. WAGTAILS AND PIPITS Family MOTACILLID/E The members of this family are a group of slender- bodied birds, possessing among their common features a slender bill adapted to an insectivorous diet, a wing composed of nine primaries, long slender feet, and a long tail generally about equal in length to the wing. The wagtails are distinguished from the pipits by their pro- portionately longer tails, and also by their gay colors, in which yellow usually pre- dominates; they are migratory, and perform long and arduous journeys to and from their breeding grounds. The wagtails and pipits are chiefly inhabitants of the Old World, especially the northern portions of Europe and Asia, being represented in North America by two species found in Alaska, but not in the eastern portions of that continent. The white wagtail and its congeners are small, elegantly-shaped birds; all in the habit of running over grass in pursuit of insects. The bill is slender, nearly straight, and very slightly notched at the tip; while the wings WAGTAILS AND PIPITS 1603 are moderate, the first three primaries being about equal and longest, and the inner secondaries very long; the tail consists of twelve long narrow feathers; and the meta- tarsus is long and slender. The white wagtail is found throughout Northern Kurope, extending as far east as the Yenisei, and wintering in North Africa; while an allied species is found in Persia; a third breeding in Northern China, and winter- ing in Burma. Seven species of the genus Motacilla are found in South Africa; while no fewer than thirteen visit India during the winter season, at least one of these being a permanent resident in that country. h • ^ THE WHITE WAGTAII,. (Three-fifths natural size.) The white wagtail (M. alba} is a common summer visitor to the .... " .. northern and central portions of Europe, delighting in public parks and gardens, where it may be seen running at the roadside in pursuit of its insect prey. In Portugal its provincial name signifies "washerwoman," the analogy having been suggested by the habits of the rural laundresses, who, wading into the streams, cleanse the clothes on a stone. It is partial to the neighborhood of old buildings and outhouses, and often nests in such situations; and in Switzer- land it seeks the mountain chalets and cow sheds, in search of the insects to be found in the neighborhood of domestic animals. The nest of this wagtail may be either among the roots of a tree, or in a bank by the riverside, or occasionally on a shelf in some outbuilding. Mr. Seebohm says that, in Siberia, the white wagtail is one of the first of the soft-billed birds to arrive on the Arctic Circle in any numbers. This wagtail nests two or three times in the season, rearing four or five young ones in a brood; the nest being built of dry stems of grass, moss, and fibres, closely 1604 THE PERCHING BIRDS worked together and neatly lined with wool, hair, and often feathers. The eggs are white in ground color, spotted and speckled with grayish browu. When the young leave the nest, they live for some weeks with their parents, haunting garden lawns and meadow lands in search of food. The flight of the white wagtail is rapid and undulating. The call note is loud and sibilant, and the song somewhat pleas- ing, although far from powerful. The white wagtail sometimes migrates in large parties, and is fond of roosting in the cover supplied by aquatic reeds. All the movements of this bird are elegant and rapid, perhaps even more so than those of the closely -allied pied wagtail (M. lugubris}, so well known in the British Islands as a summer visitor. White varieties of this wagtail are occasionally seen, in which the characteristic pattern of plumage had become almost obsolete. The adult male in the breeding season has the forehead and sides of the head pure white; the crown, back of the head, and nape jetty black; the back, rump, and upper tail coverts pure pearl gray; the primaries and wing coverts dusky black, edged with grayish white; the tail black and white; the chin and throat black; and the lower parts pure white. The yellow-headed wagtail (M. citreola) is a native of Siberia and Y w~ ^^ C ^astern Russia, wintering in most parts of the Indian Empire, and apparently finding its westward summer limits in the valleys of the Petchora and Volga. It breeds in Kashmir, where the nests are placed under clods in the plowed fields. The proper home of this beautiful bird, is, however, among the dreary tundras of the far north; Mr. Seebohm having observed it perching on alder bushes in the neighborhood of flooded land on the banks of the Petchora. There it breeds in June, and its habits resemble those of other yellow wagtails, its light dainty form assimilating closely to that of the blue-headed and yellow wag- tails. The adult male in summer has the entire head and neck deep yellow, as are the under parts; the upper plumage being ashy gray tinged with bluish. The species which haunts the streams and mountain torrents of ay a^ ai Central Europe is the gray wagtail (M. melanope}. A common sum- mer visitant and partial resident In the British Isles, shunning the neighborhood of sluggish, turbid rivers, and delighting in tiny cascades and rippling waterfalls, the gray wagtail is fond of wading daintily in the shallows of a stream, and running over the rocks rising out of the bed. Never found at any distance from water, the nest is placed in a variety of situations, often in the recesses of some loose stone wall, or mossy shelf of rock overhanging running water; while a hole in a wooden bridge is occasionally selected. Nesting year after year in the same place, the gray wag- tail is a very early breeder, full complements of eggs being laid early in April; and it breeds twice in a season, the second brood being generally fully fledged about the middle of July. The nest is built of dry stems of grass and a few roots, usually lined with horsehair; six eggs being laid in a clutch, which are white in ground color, suffused with pale brown or olive. The gray wagtail has a pretty little song, often uttered from the top of some willow or other riverside tree; the males are very jeal- ous each choosing his own territory from which every intruder is ousted. Even when the first broods of young are already fledged, and actively searching for food in company with their parents, the old cocks are always on their guard against the possible intrusion of a stranger, whose approach is invariably heralded with a chal- WAGTAILS AND PIPITS 1605 lenge to combat. During its migrations the gray wagtail visits many low-lying districts far remote from its haunts by rocky rivers, occurring near London every winter. This wagtail bears confinement well, and has been known to pair with the pied wagtail in captivity and produce hybrid young. The adult male in summer has the crown and upper parts slaty gray, the upper tail coverts greenish yellow, a white stripe passing above the eye and another beneath the lore; the chin and throat are black, and the lower parts bright yellow. In winter the chin and throat are dirty white, the breast dull buff, and the under parts grayish white tinged with yellow. One of the prettiest of all the wagtails is the blue-headed species e (Af. flava), well known in most parts of Europe, though but a chance 'Summer visitor to the British Islands. In Holland, on the other hana, the present species is of general distribution, though most numerous on the banks of streams and in the neighborhood of morasses. Its flight is swift, graceful, and undulating, often accompanied by a cheery call note which can be heard at a considerable dis- tance. Sometimes it frequents gravelly islets like the gray wagtail, but this is rather the exception than the rule, since the bird prefers the environs of sluggish rivers and the banks of canals to more rapid streams. The blue-headed wagtail nests in meadow lands, generally in a tuft of grass or a tussock of rushes, but some- times a number of pairs nest together in a single field. The nest is built of dry stems of grass and scraps of moss, lined with fine bents and hair; the eggs being yellowish white in ground color, mottled and clouded with pale brown. When the eggs are hatched, the old birds wait eagerly upon their offspring, continuing to watch over their safety long after they are fledged. These birds are exceedingly fond of the neighborhood of horses, running in and out between the feet of the ani- mals with singular unconcern. The adult male has the upper parts yellowish green; the forehead, crown, and lores a beautiful slaty blue, set off to great advantage by the white eye stripe; the under parts being pure yellow. The female has the crown of the head greenish brown instead of blue, and the eye stripe is less pure; the under parts being of a duller yellow. A figure of this bird is given on the left side of the cut on p. 1606. The European wagtails are replaced as familiar birds in South Cape Wagtail Africa by several allied species, of which the best known is the Cape wagtail (M. capensis). Frequenting the crowded cities no less than the outlying farmhouses, this wagtail is everywhere protected, in recognition of its charming ways. Like their European cousins, these birds consort much with cattle, for the sake of the small flies found about those animals; and they also frequent the sea- beach to procure the flies bred in the putrefying seaweed. The nest is generally constructed in the side of a bank, or a crevice of a stone wall; it is cup shaped and constructed of dry grass lined with cows' hair and fur. Sometimes it is built under some projecting stone or overhanging root on the bank of a stream. The eggs are brownish cream color, freckled with brown. The Cape wagtail has the dipping flight peculiar to the genus, and like other wagtails is fond of seeking its food on the margins of muddy streams, and it has a pretty song, which however is seldom uttered. Sometimes it is seen in flocks, especially when the birds are gathering to roost in some favorite tree; at other times it lives chiefly in pairs, preying upon i6o6 THE PERCHING BIRDS insects, which it takes both upon the ground and on the wing. The adult male has the head and hind-neck ashy gray; the eye stripe, cheeks, and throat white; the upper parts brown, washed with olive; the tail feathers blackish brown, with the exception of the outer feathers which are chiefly white; a black crescentic band crosses the neck; the breast and under parts are yellowish white; and the sides of the body brown. YELLOW-HEADED WAGTAIL, BLUE-HEADED WAGTAIL, AND MEADOW PIPIT. (One-half natural size.) The pipits of the genus Anthus form a large group of plain-colored birds, characterized by the possession of a slender bill very slightly- notched at the tip. The legs are proportionately slender and generally adapted for terrestrial progression; the wings are moderate in length, but the tail is compara- tively short, and often slightly forked. Unlike the larks, the pipits have the nos- WAGTAILS AND PIPITS 1607 trils unprotected by feathers; but in certain species the first toe is much elongated. Practically cosmopolitan in their distribution, pipits are represented in all parts of the world except the islands of the South Pacific; they are, however, really an Old- World race, since only two, out of a total of some forty known species, are inhabi- tants of North America. Even in Northern Europe, the tree pipit {A. arboreus) is a fairly wrell-known bird, but its favorite haunts are the mild climate of the British Isles and Central Europe; and it shuns high and barren regions, preferring the shelter of well-timbered valleys and the undulating hollows of English parks. All the pipits are quarrelsome and fond of fighting individuals of their own kind; and on one occasion we observed a tree pipit chase another of the same species against the side of an hotel in Switzerland, the pursuer following up the chase with such energy that he was unable to check his course, and dashing against the Avindow, dropped stunned on the ground. Another time a tree pipit chose to take up his abode in a small garden which was also a favorite hunting ground of a robin, and although the fight was sharp the robin was eventually vanquished. The tree pipits migrate in flocks, and in the spring the birds soon pair, when each couple selects its own area of breeding ground. The song is melodious, its notes bearing a strong resemblance to those of the canary. Sometimes this pipit sings upon the ground, threading its way furtively through the stems of the hay crop, pouring forth in snatches a volume of melody. Oftener the song is uttered while the bird is perching on one of the larger branches of a tall tree by the roadside, or when on the wing. Mr. Seebohm writes, that it is a pretty sight in early spring to watch the tree pipit essaying his short flights, as he " springs up from the topmost twig of some branch, and mounts nearly perpendicularly in the air warbling his pretty song. He soon begins to hover in the air, and, as if fatigued by his recent journey, almost immediately descends with tail and wings extended like a parachute, and at last finishes his song on the ground, in a tree, or on a wall. His downward course is in a semispiral curve, and he alights where the curve of his flight would make a tangent to the surface of the ground. All this time he has been singing melodi- ously, the clear, rich, joyous notes following each other in rapid succession, until, as he reaches his perch, he concludes his song with several long-drawn notes ex- pressive of almost impatient anxiety." The tree pipit nests upon the ground, often upon a bank skirting the edge of a wood; the nest being always well concealed, and built of dry stems of grass and moss, lined with fine bents and hair. At times sev- eral pairs nest on a single strip of moorland, although this is unusual. The eggs vary greatly in color, but the most usual type has the ground color white, so closely suffused with deep brown as to be almost entirely of the latter color. The young Thirds leave the nest early and soon become independent of their parents. In autumn these birds flock together, and many are captured by the bird catchers. The upper parts of the tree pipit are brown, the feathers having dark centres, and the lower parts buffish white, profusely spotted with dark brown. Upon the waste moorlands of Western Europe the meadow pipit (A. pratensis}, figured in the illustration on p. 1606, generally replaces the tree pipit, and finds a congenial abode among peat bogs and dreary wastes only i6o8 THE PERCHING BIRDS redeemed from ugliness by large strips of cotton grass. A partial resident in most of its haunts, many individuals, merely shifting from the higher grounds to the plains before the arrival of winter, the meadow pipit loves rough marshy ground and tree- less wastes of heather, rearing its young in the most remote and forbidding solitudes. Although its song is inferior in compass to that of the tree pipit, it is chanted on the wing. The meadow pipit nests on rough ground and undrained meadows, build- ing a slight nest of dried stems of grass, often in a tussock of herbage, sometimes a very little above the tide mark on the seabeach. The eggs are white in ground color, closely mottled with brown or brownish gray. The cuckoo is exceedingly fond of depositing her eggs in the meadow pipit's nest, and it is diverting to watch a pair of these birds endeavoring to oust one of these undesirable neighbors from their vicinity. It is often assumed that the cuckoo finds a willing dupe in the meadow pipit, but such is not the case in actual fact. When the cuckoos first arrive in England, and commence to pair and lay, the meadow pipits assail the strangers with persistency, not only mobbing them with angry cries, but also using physical means to enforce their opinions; the small birds not hesitating to alight upon the back of the cuckoo. As soon, however, as the young cuckoo has become the sole object of the charge of the pipits, the latter accept the situation with admirable for- titude, working early and late to satisfy the hungry maw of their foster child. The meadow pipit is very subject to a variation of plumage, especially when young; one of the prettiest varieties being of a buff canary yellow throughout, and we have seen others pied with white. A small pale race is found in Madeira. The meadow pipit is olive brown above, with dark centres to the feathers, often tinged with olive green; the under parts being buffish white, thickly streaked with dark brown. A large species of pipit, known as Richard's pipit (A. richardi), " breeds in North Siberia, whence stragglers often wander to Britain during the autumn and winter. Mr. Seebohm states that he found this pipit "exceedingly abundant in the meadows on the banks of the Yenisei near Yeniseik. The country is almost a dead flat for miles, and is intersected with half dried-up river beds, and chains of swampy lakes full of tall sedges and reeds and water plants of various kinds, and half concealed by willow bushes and alders, while far away in the distance the horizon is bounded on every side by the forest. These oases of grass in the boundless forest are the paradise of Richard's pipit. As I wandered away from the town this bird became more common. I found it difficult to shoot them on the ground, as they ran about on the grass, but I soon obtained as many examples as I wanted, as they hovered in the air almost like the kestrel. . . . Dybowski found them equally common on the plateaus near Lake Baikal, at an elevation of five thousand feet above the level of the sea. They arrive about the middle of May, and build their nests upon the ground in the grass. They usu- ally choose a hollow in the meadows, such as the footprint, in the soft earth, of a cow or a horse. The first nest is made in the first half of June, and frequently a second brood is reared, the eggs being laid in the second half .of July. The nests are said to be very difficult to find. The male keeps watch, and, on the approach of danger, he gives the alarm to the female, who leaves the nest and runs along the ground for some distance, when she rises and joins the male in endeavoring to WAGTAILS AND PIPITS 1609 entice the intruder from the nest with anxious cries. If their little manoeuvres are successful, the female drops to the ground and runs back to the nest through the grass. In this district the nest of Richard's pipit is the one usually selected by the cuckoo in which to deposit her eggs. They leave for their winter quarters late in September." The eggs vary in number, from four to six; some are pro- fusely spotted all over with minute specks and blotches of greenish brown upon a RICHARD'S PIPIT, WATER PIPIT, AND TAWNY PIPIT. (Two-thirds natural size.) pale greenish-white ground color, while in others the spots are reddish brown upon a pinkish-white ground color. The adult male has the upper parts nearly uniform brown, beneath buffish white darkest on the breast which is streaked with dark brown. The sexes are identical. Richard's pipit may always be known by the long metatarsus and greatly-developed claw of the first toe. A figure of this bird, as well as of the tawny pipit, is given in the cut on this page. i6io THE PERCHING BIRDS The haunts of the tawny pipit (A. campestris} are chiefly in desert regions, at least through a large portion of its range. In Europe it is chiefly known as a summer visitor to certain favored districts, such as the sierras of Spain and Portugal, the sand dunes of the Baltic coast line, and sparingly on high ground in Central France. It is a shy and wary species, even on the breeding ground. Mr. Seebohm found it very common in Greece, where it is the only pipit that nests. It there prefers the open plains, being especially common on the undulating prairie country, half rock and half grass and heath, between Athens and Marathon. It runs on the ground with great agility, and has a restless, zigzag flight, which appears less undulating than that of the meadow pipit. The nest, according to Mr. Seebohm, "is sometimes under a bush, some- times beneath a tuft of dense herbage, or under the shelter of a clod of earth; at others in the open plain among the growing crops, and often near a dried-up stream- let on a bank beside a convenient stone. It is made of dry grass, often inter- mixed with a few stems of coarse herbage or straws, together with roots, and lined with horsehair." The eggs are white in ground color, profusely spotted with red- dish brown and underlying spots of gray. The tawny pipit migrates from its breeding ground in August, at which season it has occasionally been captured in the British Isles and on Heligoland. The adult male is nearly uniform brown above; the wings and tail being conspicuously edged with buff, while the chin is buffy white, and the lower parts buffish, slightly streaked with brown upon the breast. THE CREEPERS Family CER THIID^E The creepers bring us to a small group of birds modified to pursue their prey (comprising spiders and insects) upon the surface of cliffs or the trunks of trees; the best-known forms being small and plain-colored birds typified by the common European tree creeper (Certhia familiaris}. All have the beak relatively long, slender, sharp, and curving downward; the wings including ten primaries, and the tail consisting of twelve stout and pointed feathers, which are often stiffened to aid climbing. The claws are long and curved, and the metatarsus is scutellated. Some divergence of view obtains among ornithologists as to the limits and serial position of the family. Dr. Sharpe, for instance, who places it near the wag- tails and pipits, would include in this family the nuthatches; while, on the other hand, Mr. Gates excludes the latter and includes the wrens within its limits, plac- ing the family between the drongos and the warblers. Employing the term in the original more restricted sense, the Certhiidtz are widely spread over the northern regions of both the Eastern and Western Hemispheres; several species also inhabit- ing the Indian region, while others are peculiar to Australia. Passing by the tree creepers (Certhia), in which the tail is composed of stiff feathers, and also the Indian spotted-gray creeper (Salpornis), remarkable for build- THE CREEPERS 1611 ing an open cup-shaped nest upon a branch, and in which the tail feathers are soft, we select for special notice the wall creeper. The beautiful creeper ( Tichodroma murarza), which alone represents Wall Creeper ,, .... the genus, passes its entire existence in traversing the surfaces of preci- pices in pursuit of the spiders and flies constituting its food. Hence the bill is long, slender, and almost straight, adapted for probing interstices and cracks, such as usually constitute the haunts of its prey. The wing is large and rounded, like that of a butterfly, thus affording an easy support as the bird half flies, half flits about the mural precipices in which it makes its home; the tail is slightly rounded, and composed of twelve feathers; the metatarsus is smooth, and the claws are sharp and - -- •;--- '•• -" '^ ""••v~ ' THE TREE CREEPER. curved. Residing in the mountain ranges of Europe, and ranging eastward into Central Asia, the wall creeper is found throughout the Himalayas, although only as a winter visitor. During the summer months it makes its home among precipitous rocks, either in rugged ravines or upon the faces of cliffs. The flight of this bird almost recalls that of a large butterfly, as it makes its way from one crevice to another, hanging momentarily with expanded wings in one spot, thence shuffling upward for a foot or two, and then suddenly darting off to explore another corner of the rocks, ever in restless motion, save when it creeps to roost in some secure fissure. The wall creeper nests from April till June, depositing four or five pure white eggs, sparsely speckled with red, in a nest built of straw, grass, and moss, intermingled with wool and feathers. l6l2 THE PERCHING BIRDS Certain somewhat remarkable Australian birds, placed by Gould e u in among the present family, may be conveniently noticed here, although Claws their serial position is open to considerable doubt, and they are placed by Dr. Sharpe with the Crateropodida . The genus, of which there are several species, such as the spiny-tailed (Orthonyx spinicauda), and yellow- headed straight-claw ( O. ochrocephalus) , is characterized by the short and straight :?^5^-^'''«c^x^~--^=^-r====:5'^^^^^^^^^^i^i^^2;^^^^-^^^^;^^ ._ —- *-^' "" '-~~~ y^B£&^-^fS£f^-*<'-^--^~-'-=^-±^^ <^-'*-~*::-—-— '.ZS — -"r^--— -Zj^Ju^^rrrr^=-:::-'^g^-r----r-- _ • THE WAI,!, CREEPER. (One-half natural size.) beak, in which the culmen is arched; the moderate and rounded wings, with the first four quills graduated and shorter than the fifth; and the long tail, in which the feathers are broad, and furnished with soft webs, but with stiff, rigid shafts, termi- nating in naked points. The feet are very large and strong. Inhabiting South and Eastern Australia, the common species frequents remote situations in the bush, rapidly traversing the surface of moss-covered stones and the fallen trunks of trees THE NUTHATCHES 1613 in search of food. It never climbs, and is solitary in its habits, seldom more than two being seen together. Its oft-repeated cry of cri, cri, cri, crite, betrays its pres- ence, when its native haunts, the most retired forests, are visited. Its food consists of insects and wood bugs. The eggs are white and large in proportion to the size of the bird. The situation of the nest is the side of a slanting rock, the entrance being level with the surface. The adult male has the head and upper parts reddish brown; the wings are brown, the coverts largely tipped with gray; the primaries are crossed with gray at the base; the tips of the secondaries are tipped with dark brown- ish gray; the tail is dark brown; the sides of the head and neck are dark gray; the throat and chest white, separated from the gray of the sides of the neck by a lunar- shaped mark of deep black; and the flanks and under tail coverts gray, stained with reddish brown. The female differs from her mate, in having the throat rich rusty red instead of white. THE NUTHATCHES Family SlTTlD^ft Regarded by Dr. Sharpe as inseparable from the creepers, the nuthatches are retained as a distinct family by Mr. Gates, who considers them to be most nearly related to the Crateropodidce . These birds have the edges of both mandibles smooth, or the upper one slightly notched; the hinder surface of the metatarsus is smooth, and covered with two entire longitudinal plates; the wing has ten primaries; the nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead, and overhung by some hair; bristles are present at the rictus of the gape; there are twelve tail feathers; and the first and second toes are of very unequal lengths. In all the group there is but one annual molt, and the plumage of the nestling resembles that of the female; while in most cases the coloration of the plumage is different in the two sexes. With the excep- tion of South America and Africa south of the Sahara, nuthatches are pretty gener- ally distributed, extending to Australasia. They are small climbing birds, with the first toe greatly developed, and the second proportionately shortened; and feed both on insects and nuts. Resident in their habits they nest in the holes of trees or the crevices of rocks, very generally reducing the size of the aperture of the hole by building it up with mud. In addition to the type genus, the family is represented by the Australian genus Sitella, and likewise by a third known as Hypositta. Abundant in many parts of Central and Southern Europe, as it is in Nuthatch England, *n tne spring of the year the common nuthatch (Sitta c inhabits Equatorial Africa, living in pairs wherever the mimosa is abundant. During the heat of the day its actions become most ani- mated, and at noon, when all the other birds seek rest and shelter from the parching heat, this sunbird flies from blossom to blossom, accompanied by its faithful little mate. Standing beneath a mimosa tree in full flower, an observer may hear its quick whirring flight as it alights upon the branches of the thorn bushes, and begins to probe the blossoms in search of honey and the insects which enter the interior of the flowers in search of sweets. It feeds also upon flies and other winged insects which THE HONEY PECKERS 1621 it takes in flight; and as soon as a male has exhausted the contents of the blossoms of one tree, he darts off to another, always followed by his mate. The male bird is much devoted to his companion, whom he frequently entertains with a lively song; and he is jealous of any intruder, darting angrily against any stray male that may happen to invade his territory, and promptly expelling him from the neighborhood. The nest is suspended in the centre of some mimosa tree, and is built of the down of plants and cobwebs; the eggs being reddish white in ground color, variegated with dark gray and violet. The adult male is brilliant green above, with the addition of a violet gorget; the wings and tail being bluish black, and the under parts bright yellow. The female is olive brown above, and sulphur yellow beneath. The Indian genera of the famil}' are five in number, four of which are included in one subfamily and the fifth in another. THE HONEY PECKERS Family DlC^ID^ . If we exclude from this family the white-eyes, the birds to which the above name is applied comprise a group of small and mostly gayly-colored species, distributed over the whole of the Oriental and a part of the Australian region, and nearly allied to the sunbirds, from which they may be distinguished by the beak being short and triangular, instead of long, slender, and cylindrical. Moreover, while all the sunbirds have ten primary quills to the wing, in the honey peckers the number of these feathers may be either ten or nine; in all cases the tail is short, and the metatarsus is never elongated. In the majority of the species the two sexes differ markedly in plumage, although in a few they are alike, and in all instances the young resemble the females. None of them migrate, not even locally; while all are remarkable for the beauty of their nests, which are frequently suspended from branches, and pear-like in form. In India the family is repre- sented by four genera, of which three, and among them the typical Dicceum, have nine primaries, while in the other three a small tenth primary is retained. A well-known representative of the typical genus is the scarlet-backed flower pecker (DicN/^S9s--= -^f^^^fe^V''^^*^ sdfeihM Hter '<1^$M^^4 m _JR*^. ^fe|t^M JLS&ilUiJ i^ •ife /: :/.y Mfizp^-Haf. :^W *""i:r • -ill^^^SS^ v. y/l\' /// i j ^r^fT^^f^^^^K^^S^^^W^^^tf^^^i X*" V sX^S^1 • •4®^-fr^i^<^^^^fi^ (1622) I. GREAT TIT; 2. BLUE TIT; 3. CRESTED TIT; 4. MARSH TIT; 5. COAL TIT. THE TITS 1623 THE TITS Family Included, as we have already had occasion to remark, by Mr. Gates among the Crows (from which they may be distinguished by the first primary quill never ex- ceeding half the length of the second, and being generally still shorter), the tits are by most ornithologists regarded as constituting a distinct family, which is placed by Dr. Sharpe near the honey eaters. They constitute a considerable group of small, agile birds, obtaining their food on trees, and living principally upon insects, al- though they will also eat seeds and blossoms. They are all very much alike, and have a short, conical, and entire beak, about one-third the length of the head, the bristles at the rictus of the gape short, while those covering the nostrils, although likewise short, are straight and very thick. The wing, which contains ten pri- maries, is weak and rounded, and the metatarsus is scutellated. Thoroughly arbo- real in their mode of life, seldom descending to the ground, and often going about in parties of three or four, the tits are chiefly denizens of the Old World, some inhabiting the forest regions of Northern Europe and Asia, while others are indig- enous to the Himalayas, and others peculiar to North America, there being one genus in New Zealand. The true tits are specially characterized by the absence of a crest on the head, and by the rounded tail, in which the outer pair of feathers falls short of the tip by the length of the claw of the first toe. Distributed over a large portion of the world, these birds are numerously represented in Europe, while four are denizens of the Indian region; and they are also common in North America. The beak is generally strong and conical, and thus well adapted to extract insects from their hiding places in the bark of trees; while the wings are somewhat rounded, and the tail comparatively short. The great tit (Parus major) is a common bird in the northern parts of 'the Old World, living in companies which haunt woods and gardens during the greater part of the year. In England, writes Mr. Dresser, it " is a resi- dent, frequenting during the summer season woods and large gardens, where its food, which at that season of the year consists almost exclusively of insects, is best to be found. They are excellent destroyers of the latter, and for that reason are welcomed in any garden where the owners are sufficiently enlightened to know and esteem their value. During the winter season they flock together in families, and either roam about wherever there are trees, in company with creepers and other small birds, diligently seeking after insects and their eggs in the bark of trees, or else remaining in the neighborhood of inhabited places, picking up what refuse they can find. They are remarkably fond of picking a bone, and may often be seen near the kitchen door, watching for any stray scraps which may be thrown out. Some friends of ours, who are fond of enticing them to remain about their gardens, feed them during the winter by hanging lumps of suet in a small net on a piece of wire fixed across a high stick, in order that they may be out of reach of the cats; and I 1 624 THE PERCHING BIRDS have often been astonished to see how soon a large piece of suet is demolished by these little birds. Often two or three may be seen clinging to the same piece, peck- ing at it vigorously, evidently enjoying the good fare prepared for them. When hunting after insects, etc. , in trees, they appear to examine every part most carefully, moving along and round the branches, now clinging head downward, now moving along the limbs of the tree almost like a creeper, or clinging to the end of a small branch, examining carefully a bud to see if any insect is harbored therein. This is done in a most business-like, quiet manner, and only now and then a low call, ze, is uttered; but when taking a short flight from tree to tree or bush to bush, they utter their cheerful loud note." The great tit has a variety of notes, some of which are harsh and unmelodious; its song being inconsiderable but characteristic. Building early in spring, it places its nest in a variety of situations, one having been found in the roots of an elm tree, quite a foot below the ground. Most nests are, however, placed in holes in trees, sometimes in the deserted nest of a hornet, and some have been found in garden pumps, flowerpots, and other unlikely situations. Probably one of the most extraordinary nests ever discovered was found in a rough corner cupboard, fixed at one end of an old shepherd's house, erected in a plantation for the use of the gamekeeper. In the centre of the cupboard was a single shelf, and the door being kept shut, the pair of tits could only obtain access through a small hole in the woodwork above; but through this opening the large amount of material employed in the construction of the nest must have been introduced. The eggs of the great tit are pure white, blotched with bright red; the bird frequently rearing two broods in the same nesting hole in the course of the summer. The adult male has the crown of the head and the sides of the neck and throat glossy black, and the sides of the face white; the back is yellowish green; the lower part of the back and upper tail coverts is slaty gray, as are the wings and tail; while the under parts are bright yellow, with a black median stripe. An inhabitant of the fir woods of Central and Northern Europe, the coal tit (P. ater) breeds early in the year, generally in a hole in the wall or chink in some rotten tree stump; the nest being lined with fine roots, moss, hair, and feathers. The eggs are white, spotted and blotched with red; and a nest of this species was once found in the burrow of a sand martin. The British form of the coal tit is regarded by some ornithologists as distinct from the Continental race, inasmuch as it has the back of an olive brown, whereas the back of the Continental bird is slaty blue. Nevertheless some specimens of coal tit obtained in the north of Scotland are intermediate between the British and Continental forms; while the habits of both appear to be precisely identical. The coal tit is an inquisitive bird, and we have known one voluntarily enter an empty mouse trap, apparently tempted only by curiosity. The adult male has the crown black; a distinct white patch adorns the nape; the sides of the head are pure white, the upper parts slaty blue, the throat black, the centre of the body whitish, and the flanks buff. Generally frequenting gardens, orchards, and woods near swampy ground, the marsh tit {P. palustris} displays a marked partiality for rabbits' fur as a nesting material, some nests being almost entirely composed of it. THE TITS 1625 One taken from a hole in a birch tree was compact, cup shaped, smooth both exter- nally and internally, and mainly composed of rabbits' fur, interwoven on the inner side with minute chips of dried grasses, and on the outer side with fine moss; while another from Berkshire was a thick matted structure of moss and dogs' hair, the moss predominating on the outside and the hair inside. The eggs are pure white, dotted all over with red. The adult male has the crown glossy black, the sides of the neck white, the back grayish brown, the throat black, the wings and tail gray- ish brown, and the breast white, tinged with buff. Common in most parts of Europe, where it frequents gardens, or- chards, and the neighborhood of houses, the blue tit (P. cceruleus) is a familiar bird, and often exhibits its antics in full view of any passer.-by. Its laughing call note is well known to every schoolboy, and scarcely less so are its nest and eggs. Rearing its young in a great variety of situations, the same site being resorted to for many generations, the blue tit often nests in a hole upon the ground, while a pair have been known to rear their brood in the steeple of a church. The blue tit sits very close upon its eggs, which, like those of other tits, are white spotted with pale red. Both the present species and the great tit are migratory in their habits, not only crossing the North Sea upon their journeys, but sometimes venturing into the heart of L,ondon. The forehead is white; the crown, back of the neck, and collar are bright blue; the back is yellowish green; the wings and tail are blue; the throat is dusky black; and the under parts are pure yellow. Another member of the family that calls for notice, on account of the beauty of its plumage, is the azure tit (/*. cyaneus) of Siberia, which occasionally wanders into Europe, having been captured more than once in the neighborhood of the Russian capital. According to an account of its habits, published by Dr. Dybowski, it appears that this tit breeds in holes in old trees, especially willows, sometimes making use of a deserted woodpecker's nest. The nest is composed of the fur of the white hare and squirrel, with a few pieces of slender grass. The azure tit lays ten or eleven eggs; and one nest is on record com- posed of dried green moss intermixed with fine cow-hair. The eggs are white, spotted with dull red at the larger end. The adult male has the head snowy white, appearing in life as if powdered over with blue; the back is pale bluish gray; the upper tail coverts are Prussian blue tipped with white; the wings are grayish brown, white at the base of the inner web, and the outer web Prussian blue; while the tail is very long and bright Prussian blue, with the exception of the outer feathers, which are white, as are the lower parts. Originally included in the typical genus, the crested tit (Lopho- phanes cristatus) of Northern Europe, is now generally considered by ornithologists to represent the type of a genus including several other species. Distinguished from the true tits by the presence of a crest on the head, the members of the genus differ from an allied group of crested tits (Macrolophus) by the tail being square or slightly forked, whereas in the latter it is rounded. Moreover, the black abdominal band, found in the last-named genus, is wanting in the present one. The home of the crested tit must be sought in large pine forests, or extensive stretches of beech-wood and mixed timber. It is a sh}^ and retiring 1 626 THE PERCHING BIRDS species, not courting observation like many of its cousins, but shunning the haunts of men even in winter. In the spring we have met with it in small droves, in pairs, and even singly. Though shy and timid, if conscious of being pursued, the crested tit when left alone often allows a quiet observer to enjoy a close inspection of its plumage, and the pale gray crest, jet-black throat, and buffish under parts form a pleasing harmony of color. It has rather a knack of perching overhead, especially if the observer be riding, probably impelled to the survey by curiosity. Anyone who has trained his ear to recognize the cries of birds, will soon become familiar with the liquid call note, prrit or chrrit, which may often be heard before the tiny musician has revealed its whereabouts. The crested tit has a pretty little song gen- erally uttered when a male bird is playfully pursuing one of his companions in mock anger. Mr. C. Thusnall says: "I have generally seen them in the top boughs of the firs, but they frequently come onto the ground, apparently to pick up a seed that may drop from the fir cones; at any rate, you see them fly down, look in the grass, and fly up again immediately. They appear to remain in families, as you seldom see a single one. As a rule, they prefer the rotten stem of a fir, about twelve or fourteen feet high, and bore a hole in the tree from two feet to eight feet above the ground. I have also found the nest in old stumps of very large trees within six inches of the ground. Their nidification is therefore more like that of the coal tit in that respect. ' ' In Rhenish Prussia the crested tit lays in the de- serted nests of the crow, magpie, or squirrel, as well as in hollow trees; the nest be- ing made of moss, wool, and feathers. The eggs are white, spotted all over with bright red. When the pairing season is over, the crested tits band together with tree creepers, goldcrests, and other tits, and scour the woods in search of food; the crested tits leading the van. They do not work the branches as minutely as other tits, preferring to range more widely. The crested tit possesses an elongated crest, often raised; the forehead and sides of the head are white, mottled slightly with gray; the feathers of the crown black, edged with white; the cheeks and sides of the head white; and the throat black. The upper parts are grayish brown, so that the bird appears sombre upon the wing; the lower parts are fulvous. Agreeing with the true tits in the absence of a head crest, the long- Long-Tailed . . Tits tailed tits, as represented by the European species, are sufficiently dis- tinguished by the elongation of the appendage from which they take their name. We select for illustration the white-headed long-tailed tit (Acredula caudata) as being the type of the genus. Inhabiting the northern districts of Europe, and occurring also in many parts of Germany, its range somewhat overlaps that of the form termed the British long-tailed tit. The species under consideration is a tolerably common and well-known bird throughout the whole of Switzerland, ranging up into the mountains to an elevation of five thousand feet. It would be difficult to name a more sociable or confiding species, for this tit lives in flocks during the greater part of the year, and roves about with its fellows in quest of the small insects, especially certain grubs found in the catkins of willows, which form its subsistence. Flying in an undulating fashion, and exhibiting a rather peculiar appearance on the wing, as it flits gayly from one tree to another, uttering its loud THE TITS 1627 and shrill call note almost without cessation, this tit builds a beautiful nest composed of moss, interwoven with wool and feathers, and exquisitely trimmed on the ex- terior with gray and white lichens; the interior of the structure being copiously lined with a variety of soft feathers. A peculiarly-shaped nest of this tit taken in . ""•• "/-•'' '*' \ ' '^--"^••L~~-s ..-•-..'. •', • . -./ :^>.^£:^.->^ / WHITE-HEADED LONG-TAILED TlT. (Three-fourths natural size.) Denmark, resembled in shape a plain honey jar, placed horizontally on the upper part of a long cleft between two large branches, to the base of which a pouch twice or three times as long as the jar itself was attached perpendicularly, filling up the face of the fork between the branches; the entrance hole being the mouth of the jar. This nest was built of moss closely covered with pieces of lichen. An early breeder, 1 628 THE PERCHING BIRDS this tit lays from ten to fourteen white eggs, spotted with red; the young being sometimes hatched as early as the month of April. Both the old birds participate in the labors of incubation, and we have known the young of this species reared from the nest by hand. Indeed, long-tailed tits have been kept in confinement for no less a period than two years. The method of treatment was to confine these birds between large double windows where ivy was growing, on the leaves of which numbers of plant lice were found, and upon these the freshly-caught tits fed, and by degrees got accustomed to confinement, and would take ants' eggs and other food. About a dozen species of the genus are now known, the most recently discovered being the Macedonian long- tailed tit. Possessing a black chin, this tit otherwise resembles the British long-tailed tit with black instead of white lores. Irby's long- tailed tit inhabits Spain and Italy, while the Turkish long-tailed tit resembles the last named in having the centre of the back gray and not black, but differs in the presence of a large blackish patch on the centre of the throat. A sixth species inhabits the northern slopes of the Caucasus, and has the forehead pale brownish, and the sides of the crown brown instead of black. The adult has the whole of the head snowy white, the hind part of the neck deep black, the sides of the back and scapulars vinous red, the wings and tail black and white, and the under parts whitish tinged with pink. The single representative of this genus, Panurus, possesses a short, e *' subconical bill; the wing has the first primary very minute, the tail is long and graduated, the metatarsus is also long, and the feet are com- paratively stout; but the distinctive characteristic is the elongation of the feathers of the sides of the throat into a mustache. The bearded tit (P. biarmicus} is peculiar to Central and North Europe in its typical form, being replaced in Central Asia by a paler variety. • Throughout its range it haunts large reed beds and marshes. Nor- folk was formerly its home, and a few pairs still breed in some of the more favored parts of the broads; Mr. Stevenson writing that " when shooting at Surlingham, in the winter months, I have more than once observed the arrival of a flock from some neighboring broad, their presence overhead being indicated by the clear ringing of their silvery notes uttered preparatory to their pitching into the nearest reed bed; and in autumn, after roosting in small parties on the reeds, they will fly up simulta- neously soon after sunrise, swarming for a while like a flock of bees, and uttering in full chorus their pretty song, disperse themselves over the reed beds for their morn- ing meal. Delicate as these little creatures appear, I have found them during the sharpest frosts, when the snipe had left the half-frozen waters for upland springs and drains, still busy among the reed stems as lively and musical as ever." The writer also says that he has often found the nests completed by the end of the first week of April. These are generally placed among the reed stems close to the edge of the water, supported on the loose herbage forming the foundation of the reed beds, but never in any way suspended; they are constructed of the dead stems of sedges and reeds intermixed with a few pieces of grass, and inva- riably lined with the tops of reeds. The eggs are pure white, sprinkled all over with small purplish-red spots. The food of these tits during the winter is princi- pally the seed of the reed, and so intent are they in searching for it that they have been taken with a bird-limed twig attached to the end of a fishing rod. When. THE TITS 1629 alarmed by a sudden noise or the passing of a hawk, they utter their shrill notes and hide among the thick bottom of the reeds, but soon resume their station, climb- ing the upright stems with the greatest facility. In feeding they approach near to the long-tailed tit, often hanging with the head downward and turning themselves into curious attitudes. Their food is not entirely the reed seed, but insects and their larvae, and the very young shell-nails of different kinds which are numerous at the bottom of the reeds. Mr. Keulemans, describing the finding of a nest near Rotter- dam, states that "both old birds made a great noise when I captured their little home; both incessantly uttered their anxious note, churr churr, flying about me and performing a series of rapid movements. . . . Bearded tits have no real song, their vocal powers being rather limited; nevertheless, they produce peculiar notes for expressing their different feelings. When rejoicing in each other's presence, or when one perceives the arrival of its mate, they utter repeatedly their \\oteptjink, tjinck. When disturbed, frightened, or caught, both sexes utter a very peculiar sound, like tsjirrr-irr irr rrrr. Distress or anxiety is expressed by er-arrh ee arr-chieur. When uttering the latter, they erect the body, bow the head downward, and puff the feathers of the head and neck." In Holland many bearded tits are captured, chiefly during the early part of October, when the old birds go on foraging expedi- tions, accompanied by the young ones, to the number of six or seven in a flock. The}7 are then caught by means of nets, which are laid down among the reeds, while decoy birds are placed at a short distance. The adult male has the head clear bluish gray; the lores and mustache stripe are black; the back is rich fawn color; the pri- maries are brown, edged with white; the tail feathers deep rusty red; the throat and upper breast grayish white; and the sides of the body rich fawn color. The female is grayish fawn above, and grayish white beneath. The tits of this genus (Certhiparus} have a bill of moderate size, New-Zealand , , , , Cree ers curve" anc* compressed, the wings are moderate and rounded, the tail is also long and rounded, and the metatarsus comparatively long and broadly scutellated in front. Its representatives are peculiar to New Zealand, the common form, C. novcz-zealandicz, being confined to the wooded portions of the South island, where it frequents low undergrowth and the outskirts of the bush where insect life is abundant. During severe seasons it has been known to leave the shelter of the bush to frequent the sheep stations, flitting about the meat stores, and picking off morsels of fat from the bones and skins of the butchered animals. Its ordinary food consists of minute beetles and other insects. The New-Zealand creeper breeds late in the summer, the young being sometimes found in the nest in December. The eggs are white, spotted with brown and purple. Sir W. Buller says that the nest is of a rounded form and not unlike a large pear in shape. In structure it is composed of dry vegetable fibres, fragments of wool, moss, spiders' webs, and other soft materials closely felted together. The entrance is placed on the side about one-third the distance from the top, and is perfectly round with smoothed edges; the interior being lined with soft white feathers. The adult male of this tit has the upper parts bright cinereous brown, inclining to rufous; the quills of the wing are light brown; the tail is pale rufous; the sides of the head and nape are gray; and the throat, breast, and under parts rufous white. 1630 THE PERCHING BIRDS There are several other genera of tits, such as the Oriental Types ^githaliscus, which comprises some small species differing from the true tits in the more graduated form of the tail, the longer and more copious feath- ers on the crown of the head, and the absence of a dark band on the under parts. The yellow-browed tit {Sylviparus modestus} of the Himalayas represents a second genus, distinguished from the preceding by the squared or slightly-forked tail. In the neighborhood of the tits Mr. Gates would place the so-called crow tits (Conostoma, Paradoxornis, Suthora, etc.), which are restricted to the mountains of Northeastern India and parts of China, and are referred by some ornithologists to the Crateropodidce . Mr. Gates writes that ' ' the position of these birds has been much disputed, but looking to the facts that they have ten primaries, that the young are identical in plumage with the adult, and that the nostrils are com- pletely hidden by stiff bristles, their location with the crows and tits seems the proper course to adopt." Those species of which the nesting is known, build cup- shaped nests in trees, and lay eggs marked with yellowish brown and purple. THE SHRIKES Family LANIIDJE A somewhat variable group, including such different forms as the gay-colored mini vets, the cuckoo shrikes, the crested jay shrikes, the plainer wood shrikes, and the Indian pied shrikes, the members of this family have the edges of both mandi- bles either smooth, or the upper one simply notched or toothed, or both together; the hinder surface of the metatarsus is smooth and covered with two longitudinal plates; the wing has ten primaries; the tongue is of ordinary form; the nostrils are clear of the line of the forehead, and more or less overhung with bristles; and there are twelve tail feathers. The plumage of the nestling is crossbarred, and there appears to be only an autumnal molt. The family comprises a large number of genera, and, with the exception of South America, has a cosmopolitan distribution, although most numerous in Africa. The species composing the genus Falcunculus have been described _. as uniting the form of a shrike with the habits of a woodpecker; they possess a strong toothed bill, with which they are able to tear off pieces of rotten wood, and even the bark of gum trees in search of food, and they have a crest of feathers. Inhabiting the larger branches of trees, and resembling the tits in many of their habits, when attacked by an enemy they defend themselves with ferocity. All being exclusively Australian, the white-bellied shrike tit (F. leucogaster} is a native of Western Australia, while the frontal shrike tit (F. frontatus) inhabits South Australia and New South Wales. This shrike tit is a bird of great animation and sprierhtliness; its Frontal Shrike , . , . , . .. . . Tit chief food consisting of insects, which are obtained either among the foliage of trees or under the bark of the larger branches and trunks. In procuring them the bird exhibits great dexterity, stripping off the bark in the THE SHRIKES 1631 most determined manner, for which purpose its powerful bill is admirably adapted. While searching the branches for food, it frequently erects its crest and assumes many pert and lively positions; and no bird of its size possesses greater strength in its mandibles, or is capable of inflicting more severe wounds. Its song consists only of a few piping notes. The male has the crest pure black; the sides of the head white, divided by a black line; the back, shoulders, and wing coverts olive; the pri- maries, secondaries, and tail blackish brown, margined with gray; the two outer tail FRONTAI, SHRIKE TIT. (Five-sixths natural size.) feathers and the tips of the remainder being white; while the throat is black, and the under parts are bright yellow. The true shrikes {Lanius) have the large compressed bill, hooked and toothed, and thus adapted to enable them to tear the flesh of the small mammals and birds upon which they often prey. The wings are moderate in length but comparatively powerful; the tail is generally much longer than the wings, and graduated, the central feathers being the longest. The relatively-strong meta- tarsus and toes are of assistance in enabling the shrikes to retain hold of beetles and True Shrikes 1632 THE PERCHING BIRDS other insects. The great gray shrike inhabits Western and Central Europe, being replaced to the eastward chiefly by a single-barred species, which extends through Asia, merging into the great northern shrike of North America. The brightly- colored shrikes belong chiefly to Africa. Great Gray Shrike GREAT GRAY SHRIKE AND RED-BACKED SHRIKE. (One-half natural size.) The great gray shrike (Lanius excubitor) is a common bird in the northern and central parts of Europe, frequenting the skirts of forests in the summer. It is a shy and retiring species when unmolested, but when it has lost its nest or young becomes most vociferous. Willoughby was per- haps the first English naturalist to describe the employment of this shrike in the capture of passage falcons. On the Rhine they are persecuted by the gamekeepers, and the shrike that has lost his mate will often fly to the top of a very tall poplar tree and thence pour forth his woes. The plan adopted for destroying these birds THE SHRIKES 1633 is to mark down their nests and kill the young birds and one or both parents, before the former can fly. The great gray shrike builds in a variety of situations; Mr. Seebohm found a nest of this species in the top of a Scotch fir, and Mr. Collett ob- served another in Finmark, containing six young ones, in a birch tree on a sterile terrace. The nest was easily seen, and constructed of dry twigs together with straw, thickly lined with white feathers of the willow grouse, and a little wool. In Central Europe large forest oaks are most frequently chosen by this species to con- tain its nest, the tree selected being always on the edge of a belt of timber, never in the centre of a big w^ood; such nests being generally placed at the apex of a forked bough a long way out from the main trunk, built on a knot in the fork, at an eleva- tion of some thirty-five or forty feet. The nest itself is a bulky structure composed of fine twigs interlaced with a few stout straws, bents, and fibres. Within, it is quilted with a profusion of soft substances, feathers of the pheasant and buzzard, a little of the white fur from the belly of a hare, and some of the shed coat of the roe deer, sheep's wool, or any convenient substitute. The eggs of this shrike are greenish white in ground color, blotched with olive green, wood brown, and dull lilac. The great gray shrike is most assiduous in the care which it bestows upon its young, and it is touching to see the distress and consternation which it exhibits if it imagine that the safety of its charge is endangered. To a large extent migratory in its habits, this bird does not breed in the British Isles, although a considerable number visit England and Scotland in the fall of the year. They have occurred on Heligoland as early as the middle of August; and while a few individuals yearly pass along favorite "fly-lines" in certain years their numbers have increased tenfold. Those which winter in England for the most part lead lives of solitude, frequenting a particular beat of country for a week or two at a time, during which the familiar outline of the butcher bird may at any moment be detected perching upon the top of some leafless tree, watching incessantly for field voles, shrews, and small hedgerow birds. The flight of the shrike is sometimes high and sometimes low, but constantly undulating. With the arrival of spring the great gray shrike in England moves eastward to the coast, from which it takes its depar- ture in March and April, though an occasional straggler is sometimes reported as having been seen during the summer. In common with other butcher birds, the great gray shrike is in the habit of impaling the carcass of its prey upon some con- venient thorn, in order both to facilitate the flaying of the bird or small mammal, and also to provide a larder. The great gray shrike has the upper parts nearly uniform slaty gray; the lores, cheeks, and ear coverts are black; the wings are black with white bases to the quills; the graduated tail is black and white; and the under parts are pure white, often finely barred with crescentic gray markings. The lesser gray shrike (L. minor] is a migratory species, wintering eS*Sh 'k E *n Africa, and passing the summer months in Central and Southern Europe, Asia Minor, and Persia. Mr. Seebohm says that in Eastern Europe this shrike frequents the outskirts of cultivation, where trees and bushes of various kinds struggle for existence among the broken rocks. This species breeds early in June, and the nests found in Slavonia are built in acacia trees; in size they are as large as those of the blackbird, and chiefly composed of chickweed, freshly- 103 1 634 plucked feathers, and wool. Some contained as many as six eggs, these being bluish green in ground color, spotted and blotched with greenish brown. This shrike feeds principally upon beetles, butterflies, grasshoppers, and other insects. Its flight, like that of its congeners, is undulating, but easy and comparatively noiseless; the bird skimming through the air like a partridge for a moment or two before it alights on some perch, onto which it drops with a scuffle of the wings. The song is a not unmusical chatter, something like the twitter of the swallow or starling, but louder and mixed with some harsher notes. The bird has a variety of notes, some very harsh, which are probably alarm notes, and others somewhat plaintive. In the LESSER GRAY SHRIKE. (One-half natural size.) adult the forehead, lores, and ear coverts are deep black; the crown of the head and all the upper parts pearl gray; the wings black, the primaries having white bases which form a single white wing bar; the tail is black and white; and the under parts are white, tinged with reddish buff. The red-backed shrike (L. collurid}, which is represented in the lower figure of the illustration on p. 1632, is another migratory bird, spend- ing many months of the year beneath the burning rays of an African sun, and returning northward in the spring of the year in order to rear a fresh Red-Backed Shrike THE SHRIKES 1635 family in its haunts in Central Europe and the British Isles. Those individuals that visit England (for in Scotland the bird is very rare) apparently journey to their summer quarters by way of the valley of the Rhine. The red-backed shrike arrives somewhat later than the majority of summer migrants. Each pair be- comes established in a certain area which it rarely if ever leaves; the male bird being conspicuous as he perches on some tall spray of hawthorn. We have never seen this shrike build in a tree of any kind, and it seems invariably to build in a hedge or low bush; the nest, although this circumstance is exceptional, being at times placed in a tiny bush barely eighteen inches from the ground. The nest is built of dry stalks and moss, lined with fibrous roots and a little hair; the eggs vary, being sometimes yellowish white with markings of olive and lilac, and sometimes salmon colored marked with light red. No sooner has this shrike reared its young than it prepares to leave Britain, hurrying south in advance of many other summer birds, in order that it may perform the operation of molt in the heat of a tropical winter. So long as it remains in England, it always exhibits the same alert character — vigi- lant, resourceful, always ready to anticipate danger. It is a bird of rapid flight and considerable agility, and when in the act of seizing some winged prey, shoots for- ward like an arrow released from the bow, and rarely misses the quarry. It will swoop upon a humblebee, impaling the unfortunate insect with perfect deftness upon the sharpest thorn available. Although the red-backed shrike is generally content to feed upon insects, it has been known to attack a lizard, and is partial to small birds, field mice, and frogs, and sometimes attacks the decoys of bird catchers like the great gray shrike. The adult male has the head, back, and sides of the neck bluish gray; the middle of the back and scapulars dull brick red; the wings dull black, edged with rufous; the tail black and white; the forehead, lores, and ear coverts black; the chin white; and the under parts rose color. The female is brown- ish gray above with a reddish-brown tail; the under parts being dull white closely barred with transverse brown markings. The woodchat shrike (L. pomeranus) is rather a rare bird in many Sh ik parts of its summer quarters in Central Europe, although it is the commonest of all the shrikes in Portugal. Preferring to nest amidst extensive orchards, it is absent from forest-land, and frequents sunny valleys and the gentle slopes of low hills commanding a southern aspect rather than more ele- vated and exposed situations. A trained eye soon learns to recognize the woodchat at a considerable distance, and we have often pointed out to our companions a wood- chat when the bird appeared to the naked eye, or even to the binoculars, to be merely a small white patch on the side of a bush. This is easily explained by the fact that the woodchat, true to the watchful character of its congeners, invariably perches (at least during migration, to which alone these remarks apply) upon the outside of a bush, its white breast facing outward toward the quarter from which it apprehends the approach of danger. The flight is strong and undulating. Dur- ing migration these birds travel constantly in the wake of their fellows, and al- though two days may often interrupt the migration, when it is resumed, it will be found that shrikes adhered to the line taken by the advance guard. In Eastern Algeria this shrike breeds in numbers on the hillsides, constructing its nest almost i636 THE PERCHING BIRDS entirely of the stalks of a small gray flower. As a rule, the eggs are bluish gray in ground color, spotted and blotched with dark gray and brown. Captive speci- mens will eat not only insects, but likewise small frogs; and, in default of thorns, will hang their prey on the crossbars of their cage. The adult male has the crown of the head and lower neck bright chestnut; the forehead and ear coverts jet black; the WOODCHAT, MASKED, AND HOODED SHRIKES. (One-half natural size.) scapulars and rump pure white; the wings and tail black and white; and the lower parts white, slightly tinged with buffish red. The masked shrike (L. nubicus}, represented in the left-hand figure of the illustration above, is a Nubian species, which passes the summer in Greece as well as the northern parts of Africa. It arrives in the Morea at the commencement of May, and proceeds to take up its quarters in cultivated Masked Shrike THE SHRIKES 1637 valleys, generally nesting in the vicinity of pasture-land. This shrike builds its nest in olive trees and bushes, the nesting materials consisting of leaves of plants, grass stems, and fibres. It lays a pale greenish-gray egg, clouded with yellow and irregularly spotted with black. It feeds principally upon beetles and other insects, like the woodchat, and possesses a pleasant song. The adult male has the forehead white, this color extending behind the eye, the scapulars being also of the same hue; the crown and entire upper parts are bluish black, the wing coverts being edged with whitish ; the tail feathers are black and white, and the lower parts white tinged with reddish yellow. The hooded shrike (/,. erythropterus} is an Algerian bird, breeding :e in well-bushed situations, where it runs about with great rapidity in search of its food. It is a skulking species, and keeps out of sight as much as possi- INDIAN SCARLET MINIVET. (Two-thirds natural size.) ble. The call note is a harsh cry, tschagra tschagra chagra chrug. Canon Tristram says that this shrike never exposes itself in any conspicuous situation, but always remains concealed in the thickest recesses. The only nest he took was placed in the centre of an arbutus bush, and was large and coarsely constructed of twigs, with a thick lining of wool and hair. It contained four eggs, which were white in ground color, spotted with brown and blotched with red. The adult has the crown of the head and nape black; the eyebrow white; the scapulars black, margined with chestnut; the wing coverts bright chestnut; the wings black, bordered with red; the tail black, broadly tipped with white; the chin white; and the under parts ashy gray. 1638 THE PERCHING BIRDS The shrikes of the genus Pericrocotus possess a bill shorter than the nive s head, moderately broad at the base, hooked and notched; the nostrils are concealed by the frontal plumes; the wing is long and pointed; the tail long and greatly graduated; and the feet are short and comparatively feeble. Mr. Gates points out that the members of this genus are remarkable for the stiffened shafts of the feathers of the rump. The mini vets are peculiar to India and Eastern Asia; the Siberian minivet, inhabiting Manchuria in the summer time, and migrating through China to winter in the Philippine islands and the Malay Peninsula, being the hardi- est of the family. It is gray above and white below, but the majority of minivets are gaudy in their attire, scarlet and yellow predominating in their plumage, or at least in that of the male bird, for the females are less gorgeous. The brilliantly- colored Indian scarlet minivet (Pericrocotus speriosus), like other members of its genus, is arboreal in its habits, and lives in family parties, which fly briskly about the branches of their favorite trees in active pursuit of their insect prey. The call note of the species is lively and frequently repeated. Nesting in April, this minivet constructs a beautiful cup-shaped nest of moss trimmed with lichens, which is placed in a slender branch. In color the eggs are grayish white, marked with brown and inky purple. The adult male has the whole head, back, and scapulars glossy black; the lower surface from behind the throat, together with the rump and upper tail coverts are vivid scarlet; while the wings are black, barred with scarlet; and the tail is scarlet except the middle pair of feathers which are black. The number of genera included in the Shrike family renders it im- possible to allude to all, and we can consequently refer only to a few. Among these the pied shrikes (Hemipus) of India and Malaysia differ from the true shrikes by the broad and flattened beak, in which the edge of the upper mandible is merely notched near the tip, in place of being strongly notched and toothed. The wood shrikes ( Tepkrodomis) , of which there are three Indian representatives, are distinguished both from the preceding genus and the true shrikes by the squared tail; the general color of the plumage being gray. The Australian piping crows (Gymnorhina} , which are here placed among the Crows (p. 1495), are by some writers included in the present family; and the same is the case with Struthidea (p. 1495). On the other hand, the crow shrikes (Strepera) of Australia are more gen- erally referred to the Corvida; but Dr. Sharpe places the whole three genera in the Laniube. There is also some difference of opinion as to whether the cuckoo shrikes (Campophaga and Graucalus], which range from India to Australia, are likewise members of this family, Dr. Sharpe referring them to a distinct family (Campopha- gidtz), while Mr. Gates places them here. Agreeing with the minivets in their spiny rump feathers, the cuckoo shrikes differ in having the tail but moderately instead of greatly graduated, while the outer feathers are more than three-quarters (instead of less than half) the entire length of the tail. THE WAXWINGS 1639 THE WAXWINGS Family AMPELID^E The waxwings, together with the allied South- American family of the green- lets ( Vireonidai} , are generally placed between the shrikes on the one hand, and the thrushes and warblers on the other. Containing only five genera, with not more than some nine species, they are characterized by a short and slightly -hooked BOHEMIAN WAXWING. (One-half natural size. ) bill, broad at the gape, long wings, and short legs; their plumage is very soft and silky. The waxwings are inhabitants of the northern half of both Hemispheres, and form a single genus, Ampelis. The metatarsus is short; the feet are weak; and the inner quills of the wings are tipped with curious red horny appendages compared to pieces of sealing wax. The Bohemian wax wing inhabits the northern parts of the Old and New Worlds; the Japanese waxwing breeds in Southeastern Siberia, and winters in Japan, China, and Formosa; while a third species, the cedar 1640 THE PERCHING BIRDS bird, is peculiar to North America. Great interest for many years attached to the nesting habits of the Bohemian waxwing (A. garrulus), which were surrounded by mystery until solved by Messrs. Dresser and Wolley. The former of these orni- thologists found the waxwing breeding in Finland in the year 1858, only two. years after the latter had obtained the nest of a waxwing in Lapland. Writing of his nest-hunting experiences, Mr. Dresser says that, after finding a tree in which a waxwring built, " I climbed up to the nest, which was in the fork between the main stem and the first branch, and not above nine or ten feet from the ground. The moment I touched it, the young ones (five in number) flew out. I jumped down, and made a cut at the largest with my cap, and secured him. Directly the young one which I had caught began to cry out, several waxwings flew from the neighboring thicket, all, however, keeping out of gunshot, except two A FI.OCK OF WAXWINGS. which came close round me, and both of which I shot. I then sat down and imi- tated as well as I could the call of the old birds. I was soon rewarded for my trouble by a young one coming out of a blueberry bush, close by, and calling lustily. I then climbed up again and took the nest away carefully, so as to preserve the shape, and to my great delight found one egg in it. We hunted for several hours in the higher part of the island for another nest, but, although we saw about nine old birds, we didn't succeed in finding another nest." The eggs of the waxwing are pale blue, marked with purplish underlying shell markings and black overlying surface spots. In certain winters large numbers of waxwings cross the North Sea to winter in the British Isles, where, unfortunately, their pretty plumage and strange appearance mark them as a certain prey of the loafing gunner. In its. THE WAX WINGS 1641 habits the waxwing is confiding and tame, though much less so in the spring and summer than in the winter. "At the latter season of the year," writes Mr. Dresser ' ' I used to see large flocks in Southern Finland, usually frequenting the mountain- ash trees, and very often seen in the gardens quite in the centre of the towns. So tame are they that, when fired at, and one or two killed, the remainder will only fly to a short distance, and soon return to the same tree again. The flocks are often very large, and I have known of more than twenty specimens having been killed at one shot; I once killed as many as fourteen at a shot off a large mountain-ash tree, on which a flock was perched picking off the berries. It is a peculiarly silent bird, and I watched a flock for some time without hearing any of them utter a sound. The only note I have heard is a low plaintive whistle, from which, I imagine, it is called by the Finns by the name of tilhi, as this gives some idea of the sound of its call note. When frightened, or suddenly disturbed, the same note is uttered, but is then shriller and louder in tone. The bird sits very erect, and carries its crest so that it is distinctly seen; when frightened, it at once raises its crest, slightly spreading it. A flock busy feeding on a rowan tree, especially if the ground and tree are covered with snow, is a most pleasing sight; and I have often sat and watched them from a window close to which was a small mountain ash, to which they often came to feed on the berries, which latter having large clusters, like bunches of coral beads, forming a rich contrast to the pure white snow." Waxwings in confinement are somewhat inactive birds. Sometimes, it is true, they will hop restlessly from perch to perch, or even take a brisk fly around the aviary; but for the most part they prefer to squat upon some favorite perch, occasionally uttering a short succession of running notes. They feed somewhat greedily, and show a preference for dried currants. During the winter months small flocks of wax wings may often be seen in Southern Sweden, flying hither and thither at a considerable height, and presenting somewhat the appearance of starlings, from their long wings and comparatively-short tails. The adult male waxwing has the upper parts generally light grayish brown; the forehead and the crest are reddish chestnut; a broad black streak passes through and above the eye from the base of the bill; the primaries are blackish, with the outer web toward the tip white on the outer feather, and yellow on the inner ones, and the inner web broadly tipped with white; the secondaries are blackish gray, tipped with red wax-like appendages; the tail is gray at the base, black toward the tip, and terminated by a broad bar of yellow; the throat is black, and the under parts are vinous red. A well-known bird in the orchards and gardens of the United States, is the cedar or cherry bird (A. cedrorum), a smaller species than the Bohemian waxwing, and less beautifully colored, but still possessing considerable interest. The cedar bird nests somewhat late, generally building in an orchard or garden; the nest is placed in a bough, or upon a limb of the tree, and is built of coarse, dry stalks of grass, lined with very fine stems of the same. The eggs are bluish white, thickly marked with blackish spots. The young are at first fed upon insects, but, as they advance, berries become their chief diet. A young bird reared from the nest proved to be very impatient of confinement, but when suffered to fly at large descended from the trees in which he passed the day, in order to perch upon 1642 THE PERCHING BIRDS his owner's arm. The cry of the young bird for food is loud and incessant. The cedar bird flocks in July and August, and betakes itself to regions in which whortle- berries are plentiful, in order to gorge upon the fruit. In October these birds de- scend to the lower parts of the country, to feed upon the berries of the red cedar; thirty or forty birds may sometimes be seen fluttering among the branches of one small cedar tree, plucking off the berries. In the fall and beginning of summer the cedar bird becomes extremely fat; hence it was formerly esteemed for the table. The adult bird has the head, neck, breast, upper part of the back, and wing coverts purplish cinnamon, shading into ash on the rump; the forehead, lores, and eye stripe are black; the wings slaty gray, with the inner feathers tipped with red horny ap- pendages, and the tail is gray, tipped with yellow. CHAPTER V THE PERCHING BIRDS — continued THRUSHES AND WARBLERS TO SWALLOWS Families TURDID^E to IF WE follow Dr. Sharpe, in including the warblers in this family, it will be an extensive one, embracing not only the thrushes proper, but likewise the chats, ousels, warblers, grasshopper warblers, and leaf warblers. Mr. Gates, on the other hand, regards the warblers as a distinct family, which he does not even place in juxtapo- sition with the thrushes. Used in the wider sense, the family is characterized by the beak being slender but rather depressed, and variably modified in the different groups; the wings are comparatively long and slender, with ten primary quills; while the tail feathers may be either ten, twelve, or fourteen in number. Although variable, the feet are generally slender, and the metatarsus is elongated; while the nostrils are free from hairs. In the typical members of the family the plumage of the nestling 'is mottled or squamated, but in the warblers it is like that of the adult female, but more brightly colored. With the exception of New Zealand, members of the family are found throughout the world. The true thrushes ( Turdus} and their allies constitute a subfamily {Turdince), the members of which, together with the chats and red- starts, agree in the mottled or squamated plumage of the nestlings; there is but one complete molt in the year, the number of tail feathers is never less than twelve, and the metatarsus is smooth behind. In the present subfamily bristles are present at the rictus of the gape. More frugivorous in their tastes than the chats, the thrushes spend a larger proportion of their time on the ground, more especially in open meadow-lands, searching for worms and slugs. All possess fine vocal powers, and they all build cup-shaped nests, generally composed in part of mud. The true or spotted thrushes ( Turdus) have the beak of moderate size, decurved and notched near the extremity; the wings and tail are long, and the tail is slightly graduated; there is no pattern on the underside of the wing; and the metatarsus is longer than the fourth toe. The feathers of the throat and breast are more or less spotted at all ages. The true thrushes are most abundant in South America, which is the home of no fewer than twenty-four species. Ten breed in North America, while only five breed in Europe and Northern Asia, namely Pere David's thrush, and the four species next described. Nine species are peculiar to Africa, such as the olivaceous thrush of the Transvaal, another species from Natal, and (1643) GROUP OF THRUSHES. (l644) i. Missel Thrush; 2. Redwing; 3. Song Thrush; 4. Fieldfare; 5. Blackbird. THE THRUSHES 1645 the South- African thrush; this last uttering a peculiar half song, half call, as if it were troubled with a cold. The missel thrush ( Turdus viscivorus} is found in nearly every part of Europe at the one or other season of the year, breeding in the north- ern regions, and wintering partially in the southern parts. It has enormously in- creased its breeding range in the British Isles during the present century; and in the Missel Thrush A PAIR OF ROCK THRUSHES. autumn and winter months is shy and retiring, hunting the open fields in flocks, which exercise extreme vigilance over their common safety. Although this bird feeds principally upon worms and berries in the winter, its common name is derived from its passionate fondness for the berries of the mistletoe, which are rejected by the majority of small birds, even when pressed by hunger. The missel thrush pairs early in the season, and the nest is generally placed in some conspicuous position. 1646 THE PERCHING BIRDS In districts where magpies are numerous it often builds its nest in a bush or low tree close to a cottage, as though recognizing a certain protection in the neighborhood of man. The nest is built of stems of dry grass, moss, and vegetable fibres, often trimmed externally with gray lichens; the eggs being grayish green in ground color, spotted with chocolate. During the breeding season the missel thrush exercises a watchful surveillance over the orchard or garden in which its nest is built, boldly SONG THRUSH AND RING OUSEL. (One-half natural size. ) mobbing jackdaws and even larger intruders, if they attempt to rob its belongings. The old birds exhibit much devotion to their young, and will permit of a very close approach while feeding them. When the young are fledged, they gather into family parties, which scour the country in search of new feeding grounds. The song of the storm cock, as it is frequently called, can be heard to the best advantage on a stormy day in springtime, when the bird sends forth his loud sonorous notes, as THE THRUSHES 1647 though in defiance of the elements. A migratory species, and often snared on its autumn journey through Central Europe, the missel thrush is not so subject to ab- normal variations of plumage as is the song thrush. The adult male is grayish brown above, washed with golden on the rump; the sides of the neck are grayish brown, streaked with darker; in the tail the greater part of the outermost feathers are grayish white; the throat is white, finely spotted with brown; and the under sur- face buffy white, closely spotted with black. A favorite in many parts of Europe, the song thrush ( T. musicus) is in no degree dependent upon man for its existence, being, at least, as much at home among the surf -beaten rocks of the Hebridean shores, as in the parks and orchards of the south of England. Breeding early in the year, or rather commencing to do so, it rears several broods during the season. Most nests are built of stems of grass and fibrous roots, interwoven with moss, and lined with clay; but the prettiest we ever saw was entirely constructed of bright green moss. The nest is often placed in a hedge or low shrub, sometimes in a niche in an ivied wall, sometimes in a fruit tree. Such song thrushes as rear their young amidst the treeless straths of the north of Scotland are content to build their nests upon the ledge of some convenient bowlder of rock, sheltered from the weather. The eggs are bright blue, well spotted with dark brown. The song of the thrush is generally poured forth from the bough of a tree; but in Scotland thrushes often sing from the roofs of houses, and even from a grassy knoll on the hillside. The food of the song thrush consists principally of earthworms and insects, and this bird confers a great benefit upon the gardener by the warfare which it wages against snails. Near the sea, also, it feeds in the winter upon whelks and other small mollusks, which it ob- tains upon the rocks of the shore when the tide has begun to ebb. On the other hand, it must be admitted that the song thrush consumes a great deal of ripe fruit. In Norway it is a special favorite, and holds the same place in Scandinavian poetry that the nightingale does in the songs of other countries. The adult male is dark brown above, tinted with golden brown; the throat is buff; the under parts being golden or buffy white, closely spotted with brown. The song thrushes, which breed in the Hebrides, are of a grayer coloration than more southern specimens. The most delightful song to be heard in the solitudes of the forest in Northern Europe is that of the redwing ( 7! iliacus) , which gener- ally chants its flute-like melody from the top of a fir tree. Never nesting in colonies the redwing appears to seek the society of the fieldfare, since one is sure to find a pair of redwings wherever a colony of the latter species exists. Professor Collett says that in the eastern part of Norway the redwing builds its nest in bushes and low trees, but in the barren, treeless portions of the west coast of Norway, like the song thrush of the Hebrides, it modifies its habits to suit its surroundings; the nest being often placed upon the ground, between stones, on fences, or in stunted birch trees. Redwings, like other thrushes, show great anxiety if their nest be approached, snapping their bills, and uttering a mournful cry. The eggs of this species are pale bluish green, profusely covered with greenish-brown markings. In the fall of the year redwings unite in large flocks, and many of them cross the North Sea to the British Isles and Germany, migrating chiefly at night, when they 1648 THE PERCHING BIRDS can often be heard, passing over the house tops of the towns, calling at frequent intervals to their companions. The redwing is not a very hardy bird, suffering severely in protracted frost, even while other birds are able to retain sound condition. The explanation of this must be sought for in the fact that it subsists upon worms and other insects rather than upon berries. The adult is olive brown above; a broad line of buffy white passes over the eye; the under parts are white, streaked with brown, and the flanks and under wing coverts are bright rufous. The fieldfare ( 7! pilaris) is the most abundant of all the northern thrushes, alike in the pine-clad valleys and in the regions of birch. It breeds in colonies, and the nests are placed in fir trees and birches at various eleva- tions, some being as much as fifteen feet from the ground. They are generally built of long, dry fine grass, with a coating of mud or clay between the outer and inner layers of that material. Professor Collett relates that a fieldfare once nested in a jnilk pail inside a dairy, and successfully reared its young; and Mr. Dresser found a nest in a hollow top of a rotten stump, not a foot above the ground. When- ever an intruder approaches their nest, the old birds fly round, tittering loud and harsh cries, and thus attract attention to the whereabouts of their treasure. The eggs THE FIELDFARE. of the fieldfare resemble those of the blackbird, being bluish green in ground color, speckled and blotched with reddish brown. The young are fairly tame when they first leave the nest, but soon become shy and wary even on their nesting grounds. It is possible that their shyness or boldness may depend upon the extent to which the birds are molested. Myriads of fieldfares annually cross the German Ocean to winter in the British Isles and Central Europe, and on one occasion a solitary straggler landed as far west as Iceland. The adult male has the head and hind-neck ashy gray, the feathers of the crown having dark centres; the back and wing coverts are rich chestnut brown; the wings and tail blackish brown; the eyebrows whitish, and the under parts rich ochre, thickly spotted with black. The birds of the genus Menila are true thrushes in all structural The Blackbirds . characteristics, and differ from the foregoing chiefly in the important particular that the plumage of the adult male is more or less widely distinct from that of the female. In a number of species the male bird is black or slaty gray. THE THRUSHES 1649 No fewer America; than while sixteen of the species referred to this genus are peculiar to South twelve inhabit Australia, and fourteen are found in the Oriental region. Nine species inhabit North- ern Asia, and two others are well- known European birds. The common blackbird (M. vulgaris) does not usu- ally inhabit the most northern parts of Europe, but breeds in most districts of this region, migrating from the colder regions before the approach of winter. It is resident throughout the year in the south of Spain, Algeria, and the Canaries. During the summer months the blackbird frequents gardens and orchards, nesting in shrubs and hedges, sometimes upon the ground. The nest is composed of grass- stalks and moss, together with dead leaves, and, under pressure of circumstances, can be completed in a couple of days, the female alone working at the structure. The eggs are bluish green in ground color, closely freckled with light brown. The song lacks the compass and variety of the song thrush, but is nevertheless powerful and well sustained. The blackbird is specially liable to sport white feathers, especially in the case of the male; the tendency to such variations having been proved to be hereditary. Albinos are some- times taken in the nest, uniting the possession of red irides with bleached white plumage. The adult male has the plumage uniform black throughout; but the female is quite unlike her mate, being dusky olive brown above, and reddish brown on the under parts. BLACKBIRD AND SPARROW HAWK. 104 1650 THE PERCHING BIRDS The ring ousel (M. torquata}, represented in the illustration on p. 1646, is a mountain-loving species, spending the summer months among the heaths and pine forests of the hills of Central and Northern Europe. In Northern Europe the cock ring ousel arrives upon its ground in April and May, and the females soon after join their partners. Generally nesting in some wild solitude, building in the rocks that overhang a mountain burn, especially where the ground is rough and well covered with heather, the ring ousel is shy and wary, and rarely permits a very close approach to the nest. In Switzerland, however, a fir tree is the more common site for the nest which is always built of dry grass and heather, and lined with fine stems. The eggs are blue, finely spotted with reddish brown. The young occasionally fly as early as the beginning of June. All through the early summer months the ring ousels live among the sheep on the hillside, but when the fruits ripen in autumn, the fell throstles or mountain blackbirds, as these birds are often called, approach the neighborhood of orchards and gardens, and pro- ceed to levy blackmail upon the crops. They are especially partial to cherries, though, when the berries of the mountain ash ripen, the ring ousels gorge them- selves to repletion upon their favorite fruit, so that they become fat and in high condition before they leave the shores of Europe to seek a more genial climate in Northern Africa. Flying strongly and direct, the ring ousel utters a song which is both sweet and powerful, and audible at a great distance, although inferior to that of the blackbird. The harsh, chuckling notes which this bird utters when its haunts are invaded cannot well be confused with those of any other bird. Mr. Howard Saunders says that the ring ousels, which breed in the Swiss forests, fre- quent the vineyards by the lakes in the autumn time, levying toll upon the grapes, which the owners guard so jealously. During migration, the ring ousel is some- times found with blackbirds and thrushes at lighthouses. The adult male, in breed- ing plumage, has the upper surface blackish brown; the wings being brown with whitish edgings; most of the feathers of the under surface have pale gray margins, and a broad white gorget extends across the breast, and is always conspicuous. The representatives of this small group (Monticola] have a stout, straight bill, arched toward its extremity, and while the wings are moderate in length, the tail is short and even. The legs are stout, strong, and well adapted to progression over irregular surfaces. The rock thrushes are peculiar to the Old World, three species inhabiting South Africa, and a fourth Abyssinia, while two breed in the Himalayas, one of which extends eastward into Western China. The two best-known species, the blue thrush and the rock thrush of Western Europe, range from Northern China to Spain and Italy. The rock thrush (Monticola saxatilis] is a summer visitant to the Common Rock , ... ... . r /^ 1 Thrush more barren portions of the principal mountain ranges of Central Europe and Siberia, but does not reach the far north in its annual wan- derings. L,ike its cousin the blue rock thrush, it is partial to rocky gorges among the hills and regions far removed from any human habitation, save for the chance presence of a shepherd's hut or farmstead in some hollow among the mountains. It is a shy and wary species, constantly vibrating its tail like a redstart, and migrating to its breeding ground in flocks, where it commences to nest in May. The nest is THE THRUSHES 1651 generally built in a precipitous position among crags of rock, often close to some mountain waterfall; although the rock thrush sometimes nests in holes in the stone walls that are built to protect the Rhenish vineyards. The nest is composed of fine roots, moss, and dried herbs, and the eggs are pure light blue, without spots. The young are often reared from the nest by hand, especially in the north of Italy, and are much prized as cage birds; the song of the rock thrush being extremely beauti- ful, though not so fine as that of the blue rock thrush, which we incline to place first in the rank of European songsters. Timid and fearful as is the rock thrush in a state of freedom, if reared from the nest it becomes a charming pet, and we have ROCK THRUSH. (One-half natural size.) kept both old and young birds, and found them tame and confiding. Although the rock thrush is a very local and even rare bird in most parts of its range, and does not ordinarily migrate farther north than Central France, stragglers have been iden- tified in Great Britain, as well as in Heligoland. The food of the rock thrush con- sists principally of beetles and other insects, but the bird shares the fondness of its congeners for wild berries and garden fruits. The adult male has the head and neck ashy blue; the scapulars are blackish, slightly washed with blue; the centre of the back is pure white; the tail and upper tail coverts are light red; the entire throat ashy blue; while the rest of the under parts are rufous orange. 1652 THE PERCHING BIRDS The blue rock thrush (M. cyanus} is chiefly found in the countries U Th h bordering the Mediterranean, and is a wild, shy bird of solitary dispo- sition, resident in single pairs in rocky districts. Canon Tristram has shown that this bird is the ' ' sparrow that sitteth alone upon the house top ' ' of the Psalmist. Colonel Irby writes that " a pair nested in a hole outside the wall of my stables at Gibraltar, in June 1869. Five eggs were laid, which were hatched about the twentieth. The nest was of small dried roots, and was very scanty. When the young were hatched, I broke through the wall from the inside of the stable to the nest, making the hole largQ enough to admit a small cage, in which I placed the nest and young; over the inside hole I then hung an old coat so as to shut out the light from the inside, cutting a small slit in the coat, through which I used to watch the old birds feeding their young within six inches. Both birds fed them at intervals of not more than five minutes. The food consisted almost entirely of centipedes, with now and then a large spider or bluebottle fly by way of change. Two of the five young died in the cage, from the old birds not being able to get at them. Of the other three, only one attained maturity, living till October. He was very tame, and of most engaging habits and disposition, in fact what the Spaniards call ' simpa- tico. ' In his younger days he was fed on soaked bread and bruised snails. ' ' The blue thrush is a well-known bird at Rome, at Malta, and in many other European resorts of tourists. Everywhere it frequents rocks, ruins, and old walls, pouring forth its delicious music in solitary wastes. It is a favorite cage bird, and as such commands high prices, but it is excessively delicate and difficult to keep. The adult male is of a general dull blue above, the head and breast having a silvery gloss, while the under parts of the body are dull blue.- The female differs from the mate, in being grayish brown above, tinted with blue, and reddish buff on the lower parts. Possessing a characteristic plumage of sky blue (associated with chestnut in two instances), the bluebirds (Sialia) are easily distin- guished from all other North- American birds. The bill is straight and compressed, notched near the extremity; while the wings are pointed and much longer than the tail, which is slightly forked; the feet being stout and short, and adapted for perch- ing, and not for running, as in the chats. Bluebirds are peculiar to the American continent, and have no nearly allied representatives in the Old World. No more charming bird is to be found in the United States than the bluebird or blue robin (Sialia sialis}, which breeds as far north as Southern Canada, and passes the winter months in great numbers in the Southern United States. It is one of the first birds to arrive in the States in spring, preceding the swallows and many other species; in- deed, it is occasionally observed as early as January and February in its summer home. The male is a cheery songster, and all his movements are characterized by grace and energy. The nest is placed in the hollow of some tree; the eggs are pale blue, and unspotted, and several broods are reared in a season. The bluebird is often exported to Europe as a cage bird, and has often bred in confinement. Mr. A. G. Butler gives the following account of some pet birds of this species: "My blue robins made friends early in June, the cock bird giving every insect he got hold of to the hen, to induce her to receive his attentions; the hen was very coy, and refused his advances until about the end of the first fortnight; the pairing was a noisy affair, THE CHATS 1653 as the cock bird kept up an incessant shrieking noise, with his body elongated, and his beak turned up to the ceiling, for fully half an hour beforehand, and for quite ten minutes afterward. On Sunday the sixteenth of June the hen spent the whole day in carrying up hay to a large, deep box, nailed against the wall near to the ceil- ing, and on the surface of this she formed a saucer-shaped depression, in which shortly afterward she laid three eggs; while sitting she was fed by the cock bird, but whenever he gave her an insect she invariably left the nest to eat it. In thirteen days the eggs hatched, and t\vo days later two of the young birds were carried out dead; the third bird was safely reared, and molted into his adult plumage toward the end of August. The young bird left the nest when twenty-three days old. I had been led to suppose that he would resemble the hen; but, in addition to his greatly inferior size and spotted breast, he was altogether of a far more cinereous tint. In about eight or ten days he was perfectly able to feed himself." These bluebirds preferred to feed their young upon insects, which they invariably swal- lowed and disgorged several times before carrying them to the young. The adult male has the head and upper parts deep azure blue; the throat, breast, and sides of the body chestnut, and the lower parts white; while the female is blue, mixed and obscured with reddish brown. Occupying an intermediate position between the robins and the true thrushes, the chats (Saxicola] form a second subfamily characterized by possessing a strong bill and well-developed rictal bristles; the wing is pointed and equal to the tail, and the metatarsus and foot are adapted to their desert-loving habits. Resembling the fly-catchers in the mode of taking their insect prey, the chats differ from other small birds by their frequent vibration of the tail when perch- ing and running. They are most strongly represented on the African continent, five species inhabiting North Africa, while six are peculiar to the south of the Ethiopian region, and five others inhabit Abyssinia and Nubia. Eight belong to the European avifauna, while four species breed only in Persia, and another four in Turkestan. The wheatear, which may be considered the best-known form of the genus, has a straight bill, broadest at the base and slightly curved toward the extremity; the legs and bill being black, and the metatarsus not scutellated. The bastard-primary feather is small, and the wings are comparatively flat and pointed. In all the more typical species, the rump, upper tail coverts, and the base of the tail are pure white in both sexes; the tail consisting of twelve feathers of nearly equal length. The rus- set chat (Saxicola melanoleuca] breeds in Italy, Greece, South Russia, and Palestine; the western form summering in Morocco, Algiers, Spain, and the south of France. The isabelline chat (S. isabellina] breeds in Asia Minor, South Russia, and Siberia, and has been obtained in Madagascar; while the Indian desert chat (S. deserti} passes the summer in the cultivated districts of Turkestan, wintering in Northwest and Central India. One of the earliest of the many migrants that traverse the length and breadth of Europe during their annual migrations is the common wheatear (S. cenanthe), so well known in most parts of the British Isles. Arriving in March and April, the wheatear is both a moorland and maritime species. Many may be seen on a Scotch grouse moor or any sheep farm in the north of England, THE PERCHING BIRDS and some remain very late in the plowed fields of the midland counties. Number- less pairs spend the summer months playing about the rabbit holes which line the sand banks that form the coast line in many districts of Britain. The wheatear builds its nest in a variety of situations: sometimes in a loose heap of stones, some- times in a rabbit hole or beneath a heap of dried peats, and we once found a family packed into an old tin pot lying in a hollow of a shingly seabeach. The eggs are WHEATEAR, WHINCHAT, AND STONECHAT. (One-half natural size.) light blue. The song consists of some very sweet notes, generally uttered upon the wing. These birds leave the British shores chiefly in August and September, al- though some commence their journey in July, while other belated stragglers linger on into early winter. The range of the wheatear is very extensive, including, according to season, a great part of Asia north of the Himalayas (including Gilgit), Africa, and North America. The adult male in the breeding season has the crown WHEATE /VHINCHAT. THE CHATS 1655 and most of the upper parts grayish blue, the lores and the ear coverts black, the upper tail coverts pure white, and constantly displayed; while the tail is black and white, and the throat and under parts are huffish white. The black chat (S. leticura) inhabits the rocky districts of Spain, B ack Chat Italy, and Northwest Africa, being replaced in India by a closely-allied species. Partially resident in its breeding grounds, it is only a summer migrant to many districts; and it is essentially a bird of desolate mountains, which it enlivens with its lively, active figure. Preferring the wildest and most rugged situations, it is a shy, cautious bird, avoiding the haunts of men; and as, even when wounded, it generally manages to creep into some deep fissure to die, it is difficult to secure. Brehm states that the male black chat often ' ' either dances about on a precipice or a stone, or runs up the precipice, spreading its tail and wings like a blackcock, nods its head, turns sharp round, rises singing into the air like a tree pipit, and then grad- ually sinks with outspread wings to the ground, where it finishes the last strophes of its song in the neighborhood of the female bird, which quite silently watches the antics of her mate. In all its comical postures it knows how to show its beautiful white tail to the best advantage. If there are any trees or prickly pear bushes in the mountains, it will also repose on them during the intervals of its dance and song; otherwise it selects the most prominent positions for its resting places." The black chat builds about the middle or end of April, placing its nest in some hole or fissure of the rock, frequently in a precipitous situation. The nest is large, loosely constructed of dry stalks of grass, and the finer stems of various wild plants, and lined with soft fibres and hair. The eggs are pale light blue, with a zone of pale reddish spots around the larger end. The song of the black chat is wild and sweet, and has been compared, when heard in autumn, to that of the blue thrush, although it is not so loud and clear, and generally concludes with a peculiar churring sound, resembling that of the black redstart. The adult male in the breeding season has the entire plumage of the upper and lower parts of the body sooty black, with the exception of the rump and upper tail coverts, which are pure white. The two cen- tral tail feathers are black, and the remainder white, broadly tipped with black; while the under tail coverts are pure white. The female is a duller bird than her mate, being blackish brown instead of sooty black. The whinchat (S. rubetra}* winters in Africa, extending its range farther north than the stonechat in the breeding season. Passing through Spain in the month of April, it makes its way to the Arctic Circle by the end of May; one of the principal routes by which its spring journey is accomplished lying along the valley of the Rhine, where the species is extremely abundant. The whinchat loves the neighborhood of grass meadows, from which the song of the male may often be heard resounding, while his mate is engaged in the duties of in- cubation. The call note of the species is loud and monotonous, representing the word "utick." The nest, usually placed upon the ground and adroitly concealed, contains eggs of a bluish-green color, often spotted with fine specks of reddish * By many ornithologists the whinchat and its allies are separated as a distinct genus, Pratincola, on account of their Droader beak and more numerous rictal bristles. 1656 THE PERCHING BIRDS brown. When the young are fledged, they live in a family party with the old birds, which exhibit the greatest anxiety over the safety of their progeny. Subsisting upon insects, and especially beetles, the whinchat is very partial to warm, sunny situations, especially if they are well bushed and command a southerly aspect. It leaves its home in Central and Northern Europe in August and September, rarely, if ever, delaying its departure into late autumn. The adult male has the crown and upper parts blackish brown, many of the feathers having light buff edges. The tail is white, banded with blackish brown for the terminal half, while the throat and under parts are pale fawn color, varying much in intensity. A conspicuous white eyebrow is also present. The stonechat (S. rubicola) is found throughout Central and several parts of Northern Europe, being a resident in many places, while to others it is but a summer or winter migrant. During the summer, generally to be found on common lands, chalk-downs, or other open places, the stonechat is an early breeder, nesting in April, and concealing its choice of a site with much care. In Oxfordshire stonechats seem to be very partial to aquatic situations, one old male having haunted a certain wet ditch close beside the Isis for several months during one winter; and they have been known to build at the bottom of a hedge adjoining a flooded meadow. The stonechat builds its nest of moss and dried grass, lining it with feathers and hair; the eggs being pale greenish blue, finely spotted with reddish brown. The stonechat has a short but rather pretty song, and is a somewhat noisy species when its haunts are invaded. The adult male in summer has the entire head and back glossy black, with a white collar; the tail is blackish brown, the outer feathers having the outer web light buff; and the under parts are rufous, but vary considerably in different individuals. The female is a browner bird than her mate. This group of the genus is represented by several species in India, where they are commonly known as bush chats. The redstarts and robins, together with the Indian group of fork- tails, bring us to another subfamily (Rutidllince) , differing mainly from the chats in their habits; these birds being terrestrial, and capturing their insect prey on the ground, instead of flying from a perch and returning thereto, after the manner of the flycatchers. They have a slender, compressed beak, a long meta- tarsus, and feet well adapted for running; and the majority of the species are deni- zens of Europe and Asia, north of and including the Himalayas. The first genus of this subfamily is formed by the Indian fork tails (Henicurus), which are small birds, having the general appearance of pied wagtails, but differing from them in possessing a forked tail and ten primaries, together with a coarse bill. The type has the bill nearly as large as the head, stout and straight; the rictal bristles are well developed; the wing is large, the first primary being about half the length of the second; and the tail is much, longer than the wing, and deeply forked; the outer tail feathers being one-third longer than the innermost ones. Fork tails are chiefly found in the Himalayas, and generally in the neighborhood of mountain streams, but they also range into Tenasserim. All are solitary in their habits, and move their tails incessantly up and down after the manner of wagtails, and are in the habit of generally perching on rocks or bare branches near the ground. THE REDSTARTS 1657 Redstarts Exclusively confined to Europe, Northern Africa, and Asia north of the Himalayas, the redstarts (Ruticilla) are characterized by the short, slender, black beak, and finely developed rictal bristles, and the black and smooth legs; while most of them have the rump and tail red. In Europe the genus has half a dozen representatives. Among the prettiest of the summer migrants to Northern and Central Europe is the graceful and attractive bird popularly known as the fire- tail, or common redstart {R. phcenicurus} , partial to parks and gardens, and on its first arrival often perching on the lower branches of large trees; the male possessing a very charming song. The redstart commonly builds in a hole in a wall, or the REDBREAST AND REDSTART. (One-half natural size.) interior of some hollow tree, or upon a shelf in some outhouse, and we once found an open nest of this species placed in the top of a thick bush. The eggs are pale blue, sometimes slightly speckled with red; while the young are easily reared from the nest by hand, and are rather liable to sport a few white feathers in the first plumage. Foraging among dead leaves for insects, they spend more time upon the ground than the young of any of the allied forms. Often rearing two broods of young during the course of the summer, the redstart in its flight is swift and elegant. Although the male birds generally sing from the branches of trees (unlike the male 1658 THE PERCHING BIRDS black redstarts), we have known them to sing habitually upon the roof of a house, exactly as the latter would have done. Leaving their breeding ground in early autumn, stray birds of this species are often to be met with on the British coast at that season when waiting for an opportunity of taking their departure. The adult male, in summer, has the forehead pure white, the top of the head, scapulars, and back leaden gray; the rump and upper tail coverts are bright chestnut, as is the tail, with the exception of the two central feathers; the chin and throat being jet black and the lower parts bright bay. The black redstart (-/?. titys] is a well-known bird in many parts of (start £entrai prur0pe, frequently seen even in large cities. Modifying its habits according to the region it inhabits, in Switzerland the black redstart breeds chiefly about the chalets on the mountains, attaching itself to the neighborhood of farm buildings, and obtaining most of its food around the outhouses. In Germany it is quite a common garden bird, dwelling near human habitations, and generally chanting its notes from the gable of a roof. It begins to sing very early in the morn- ing, and continues until late in the evening; no bird being more self-conscious or more frequently seen in a prominent position. The males are pugnacious and des- perately jealous of rivals, although they do not perhaps take to fighting quite as nat- urally as redbreasts. The nest is built of stems of grass, moss, and dry leaves, lined with hair and feathers, thus forming a comfortable cradle for the young. The eggs are white, and five or six in number. The female sits very closely during incuba- tion, and when the young first leave the nest, the old birds continue their devotion and cater for them with unremitting industry. The greater part of their food ap- pears to consist of flies, at least during the finest period of the summer; and even when they first leave the nest the young birds catch midges on their own account. The young of the first brood generally have to be independent of their female parent early, because, as soon as they are qualified to quit the mother, she lays a fresh clutch of eggs, and it falls, therefore, to the male chiefly to feed the fledged young of the first brood, and his usual practice is to take them to the top of a stone wall, or some other sunny place within view of his favorite point of observation, and gradually leave them to shift for themselves. The young that are reared late in autumn have a harder struggle for existence, especially in Switzerland, where the weather often breaks up in August. Black redstarts are birds that like fine weather, and in stormy weather they are apt to become somewhat disconsolate, and sit mop- ing, with their feathers puffed out. In the summer the species is home-loving though certainly somewhat restless, and never seen in the same position for more than half an hour at once. When the season for migration arrives, this redstart loses, however, its domestic habits, becoming shy and unobtrusive, and setting forth on its journey with a restless energy. Although never breeding in the British Islands, many of these birds annually visit the southwestern parts of England dur- ing the autumn, and even pass the winter under the shelter of cliffs or in the neigh- borhood of houses. They generally arrive in Devonshire in parties of two or three in the autumn, while those that winter in England assemble again in March on the coast for their departure. The plumage of the adult male is a dark bluish gray above, with a conspicuous white patch upon the wings; the forehead and throat are THE WARBLERS 1659 black; the tail is chestnut, tipped with blackish brown, excepting, of course, the two central tail feathers, which are blackish brown throughout; the breast and lower parts being slaty gray. The female and young males have the upper parts brownish gray, and lack the black throat of the adult male; the males of the year breeding in the gray plumage just described. So much difference of opinion prevails among ornithologists as to the generic limitation of the birds here included under Erythaciis, that it will not be of much use to attempt to define the genus. For instance, while Professor Newton includes the blue-throated warbler in Rutitilla, Mr. Gates makes it the type of a distinct genus, Cyanccula, and while the same orni- Blue-Throated Warbler BLUE-THROATED AND RUBY-THROATED WARBLERS. (Two- thirds natural size.) thologist separates the nightingales (as Daulias) from the redbreasts, Dr. Sharpe places both in the present genus. We accordingly proceed to notice some of the better-known species without further preliminaries. One of the loveliest of all the group is the blue- throated warbler (Erythacus suecicus], the Arctic form of which, represented in the cut, has the bine gorget spotted with chestnut red; while on the other hand the variety of the bluethroat breeding south of the Baltic has the 1660 THE PERCHING BIRDS throat spotted with white, or even entirely blue without any spots at all. The Arctic form of bluethroat twice annually crosses the length and breadth of Europe, but it is so seldom noticed on migration through Central Europe as to have given rise to suggestions of impossible distances, conjectured to have been accomplished without rest. It should be observed that Mr. Gates, with whom we are disinclined to agree, regards these two forms as specifically distinct. The Arctic bird reaches its northern breeding grounds at the end of May, and takes up its residence in willow swamps and other damp situations. Its song has been compared by Mr. See- bohm to that of several other birds. ' ' His first attempts at singing are harsh and grating, like the notes of the sedge warbler, or the still harsher notes of the white- throat; these are followed by several variations in a louder and rather more melodi- ous tone, repeated over and over again somewhat in the fashion of the song thrush. After this you might fancy that the little songster was trying to mimic the various alarm notes of all the birds he can remember; the chiz-zit of the wagtail, the tip-tip- tip of the blackbird, and especially the whit-whit of the chaffinch. As he improves in voice he sings louder and longer, until at last he almost approaches the night- ingale in the richness of the melody that he pours forth. Sometimes he will sing a* he flies upward, descending with expanded wings and tail to alight on the highest bough of some low tree, almost exactly as the tree pipit does in the meadows of our own land. When the females have arrived, there comes at the end of his song the most metallic notes I have ever heard a bird utter. It is a sort of ting ting, resem- bling the sound produced by striking a suspended bar of steel with another piece of the same metal. The female appears to shun the open far more carefully than her mate, and while Le will be perched upon a topmost spray, gladdening the whole air around him with his varied tuneful melody, she will remain in the undergrowth beneath him gliding hither and thither more like a mouse than a bird through the branches." The nest of the bluethroat is very well concealed in the side of a tussock of grass and is lined with fine roots and hair ; and the eggs are olive colored. When the young leave the nest, they forage about for insects in the undergrowth, peering at a stranger with the pretty wistfulness of young robins, to which they bear a rough resemblance in their actions. In Spain the bluethroat is to be met with in very dry situations, but that is only when the birds are on migration, and the same is probably true of its occurrence in the arid districts of Ladakh. From our own observations the bluethroat seems to migrate singly or in couples, but Mr. Gaetke states that they arrive in flocks upon Heligoland both in the month of May and in early autumn. On Heligoland they are chiefly to be found in the potato fields in autumn, while in spring they frequent the gooseberry and currant bushes of the gardens. We have seen bluethroats sheltering in dry scrub on migration when every now and then a bird would flit out of its cover, dart upon an insect, and then steal away into the recesses of the bushes, to emerge a moment after for another rapid sally. On the Norfolk coast the bluethroat is well known as a Sep- tember visitant, and has even appeared in considerable numbers when weather stayed. We met with bluethroats in the neighborhood of the Lake of Geneva, one of which, with an entirely blue gorget, frequented a garden, although most of those seen inhabited reed beds in the marshes of the Rhone. The adult male has the THE WARBLERS 1661 upper parts brown, with a conspicuous white or bufT eyebrow; the throat and upper breast are metallic cobalt blue, centred with a large spot of pure white or chestnut, a band of black succeeding the blue, bordered by another band of chestnut; the rest of the under parts being buffy white. ' An inhabitant of the greater part of Europe, the redbreast or robin (E. rubecula) is such a familiar and well-known bird as to require but scant notice here. Breeding alike in our gardens and shrubberies and in the middle of lonely woods, it constructs its nest of dry leaves, moss, and dead grass, lined with a little hair. The eggs are white, blotched, and streaked with ^— - light red. When the young birds are fledged, they flit about the gar- dens and outhouses gathering a variety of insects. Many of them migrate in autumn, while others linger to utter their silvery notes during the dead months of the year, drawing near the cottages and farmhouses at the approach of frost. The plumage of the male robin is olive brown above, tinted with gray; the neck, fore- head, and throat being bright orange, the remainder of the lower parts olive brown. The robin of the Canary islands has been classi- THE REDBREAST. fled as a distinct species. Another beautiful species of warbler is the ruby throat {E. calliope), represented on the right side of the illustration on p. 1659, which makes its summer home in the extreme north of Russia and Siberia, breeding among the tundras of the Arctic Circle, after the ice and snow have thawed and disappeared. Mr. Seebohm says that the song of the rubythroat "is very fine, decidedly more melodious than that of the bluethroat, and very little inferior to that of the night- ingale. When first I heard him sing I thought I was listening to a nightingale; he had his back toward me when I shot him, and I was astonished to pick up a bird with a scarlet throat. The feathers were as glossy as silk, and when I skinned him I thought I had rarely if ever seen so beautiful a warbler. ' ' The rubythroat appears in the south of Siberia as early as the beginning of April. Its nest is said to be a slight structure, and the eggs are olive gray. It is a bird of shy and solitary habits, frequenting thickets and close cover, and obtaining its food chiefly upon the ground. It loses the brilliant color of the throat in confinement. It winters in the Philippine islands, South China, Burma, and Northern and Central India, occa- sionally straying into Europe. Jerdon once met with a rubythroat on board ship a little south of Bombay, when a single bird of this species took refuge on board his vessel in the month of November. The adult male has the upper parts of a 1 662 THE PERCHING BIRDS uniform olive brown, the eyestripe and cheeks being white, while the chin and throat are glossy scarlet, and the breast ash gray shading into buffy gray. The nightingale (E. lusdnia} is celebrated in Western Europe as an incomparable songster, and has from all times enjoyed just reputation for the perfection of its vocal powers. Wintering in Africa, it reaches its summer home in the British Isles about the thirteenth of April, the males being the first to arrive. Its range in the British Isles is somewhat circumscribed, and it does not breed north of Yorkshire. The nest is a loose structure of stems of grass and dry leaves, generally raised a little from the ground by a deposit of dead twigs, and screened from observation by a profusion of wild brambles or a crop of stinging nettles; the eggs being uniform olive brown or coffee colored. The female, though shy, is much devoted to her charge, and will allow a stranger to stand close beside her without exhibiting her agita- tion further than by a slight nervous movement of the head which only enables him to obtain a better view of the little russet bird, her dark eye beaming out of its whitish orbit. The nightingale is easily trapped, and was formerly an object of eager pursuit among bird catchers, who used to imi- tate the cry of the bird in order to lead it up to the trap which they had pre- pared for it, baited with a live insect. One bird catcher informed us that he once caught two male nightingales in this manner in less than ten minutes; this occurred, of course, in a locality where nightingales were plentiful, and upon the first arrival of the males. When the nightingale has hatched her young both parents become absorbed in catering for their progeny. The song is chiefly heard during the night, simply because other birds are then comparatively silent, but the nightingale sings with great power even during the middle of the day. The male has the upper parts russet brown shading into chestnut on the upper tail coverts and tail; the lower parts being buffish white shading into grayish white on the breast and flanks. In the east of Europe the English nightingale is replaced by a "VT.*" . . somewhat larger bird (E. philomela), which has a distinct song, differing from that of its congener in its greater volume and inferior perfection. It breeds generally in thickets in the neighborhood of water, and builds a similar nest to that of the well-known bird. The plumage of the eastern nightingale differs from that of the common species in being of a more olive brown, especially on the upper tail coverts, in having a more pointed wing, a smaller bastard primary, and in being slightly spotted or streaked on the breast with gray. A third species is the Persian nightingale (E. golzi). THE NIGHTINGALE. Eastern THE WARBLERS 1663 Here may be noticed two Australasian genera of birds, placed by some ' among the flycatchers, but regarded by Dr. Sharpe as allied to the stonechat and whinchat. It should be observed, however, that the same ornithologist separates (as Pratincola} the last-named birds from Saxicola to place them among the flycatchers. The New-Zealand robins (Miro) are character- ized by having a slender bill, straight, and furnished with rictal bristles; the wings being moderate and extending to half the length of the tail, and rounded; while the tail is broad and even, the feathers being sharply cut off at their tips. The meta- tarsus is very long and slender. This genus belongs to the avifauna of New Zea- land and the Chatham islands; the species peculiar to the latter group of islands being entirely black. The North-island robin (M. australis} is confined to the gloomy forests of the interior of the North island; and the following description of its habits is given by Sir Walter Buller, who writes that, " as the popular name im- plies, it is naturally a tame bird, and in little-frequented parts of the country it is so fearless and unsuspicious of man that it will approach within a yard of the traveler, and sometimes will even perch on his head or shoulder. It is a favorite companion of the lonesome woodcutter, enlivening him with its cheerful notes, and when sit- ting on a log, he partakes of his humble meal, it hops about his feet like the tra- ditional robin, to pick up the crumbs. Like its namesake in the old country, moreover, it is noisy, active, and cheerful. Its note is generally the first to herald the dawn, while it is the last to be hushed when evening shades bring gloom into the forest. But there is this noticeable difference between the morning and the evening performance: the former consists of a scale of notes, commencing very high and running down to a low key, uttered in quick succession, and with all the energy of a challenge to the rest of the feathered tribe. The evening performance is merely a short, chirping note, quickly repeated, and with rather a melancholy sound; three or four of them will sometimes join in a chirping chorus, and continue it until the shades of advancing twilight have deepened into night. It lives almost entirely on small insects, and the wrorms and grubs that are to be found among decaying leaves and other vegetable matter on the surface of the ground in every part of the woods. Its nature is pugnacious, and in the pairing season the male birds often engage in sharp encounters with each other. ' ' The North-island robin goes to nest in October and November. The nest is generally against the bole of a tree at a moderate height from the ground, built of coarse moss, lined with fern hair and vegetable fibres. The eggs are creamy white in ground color, thickly freckled, and speckled with purple and brown. It is much to be regretted that this charming little bird has recently become comparatively rare, though the robin found in the South island is still fairly abundant. The adult male has the upper parts dull ashy gray, the feathers having whitish shafts; the wings are dark brown, with white bases to the secondaries; the tail feathers are dusky brown, margined with ash; the throat, breast, and sides of the body are hoary gray, and the abdomen is white. We come next to a small group of birds closely related to the red- starts and robins, but distinguished from all other members of this subfamily by the black and white tail, equal in length to the wing, and considerably graduated. Peculiar to the Old World, these birds are most abundant in the Indian 1664 THE PERCHING BIRDS region; the finest songster among them being the white-browed warbler {Copsychus albospecularis) of Madagascar, the notes of which rival those of the sweetest Euro- pean birds. The common dhyal bird (C. saularis} of India, represented in the cut, occurs in every part of the empire. It is resident in Ceylon and Southern China, but is replaced by C. mindanensis in the Philippines. The Indian species is a common and familiar bird throughout its range, exhibiting a confiding and friendly disposition like the European redbreast. The cocks are highly pugnacious in the breeding season, and engage in frequent scrimmages with their rivals. The nest is a rough structure, built in a hole of a tree, in an old stump, or in the crevice of a wall. The nesting holes of the barbets and woodpeckers are often utilized by the dhyal bird. The male has a pleasing song, not unlike that of the redbreast, but of greater compass. This species is often kept as a cage bird, and has been trained to turn somersaults at a gesture from its owner. The adult male has the head, neck, breast, and upper parts glossy black; the wings and tail are black, varied with white, and the abdomen and under tail coverts white. The female has the upper parts of a uniform dark brown glossed with bluish; the throat and breast are dark gray, and the wings and tail dark brown varied with white. The sha- mas {Citto- cinda} are closely related in structure to the last, from which they are distinguished by the pro- portionately greater size of the tail, which con- siderably exceeds the wing in length. The shamas are shy and re- tiring birds, avoiding the neighborhood of houses, and obtaining their food in the woods and jungle. The black shama (C. nigra} inhabiting the Malayan region, is a skulking species, haunting the dense cover near to the coast. One has been recently discovered in the Philippines (C. cebuensis); while the Andaman shama (C. albi- ventris) is peculiar to the islands from which it takes its name. The best known is the Indian shama (C. macrura), a permanent resident in the plains of India, and Shamas MALACCA DHYAL BIRD. THE WARBLERS 1665 a timid but graceful bird, much sought after, by Indian bird catchers, on account of its beautiful song. For this reason the shama is often exported to Europe as a cage bird, but it is delicate, and requires care in the colder climate of Great Britain. The shama nests from April to June, retiring into the depths of the jungle, and constructing its nest of grass and dead leaves in the hollow end of the broken branch of a tree. The eggs are greenish marked with reddish brown, and vary in number from three to four. The adult male has the head, breast, back, and wing coverts black; the rump and upper tail coverts are wrhite; the tail feathers are black and black and white, and the abdomen and under tail coverts bright chestnut. The glossy black and chestnut colors of the male are replaced in the female by dark brown and pale rufous. The gray warbler and its congeners (Gerygone} possess a slender 'r straight bill slightly curved and compressed; the wings are rather short and rounded; the tail is long and rather rounded, and the metatarsus long and slender. The birds of this group are found in Australia and New Zealand, ranging also to New Guinea and adjacent islands. The gray warbler ( G. flaviventris} is mentioned here because it performs the function of a foster parent for the young of the two species of cuckoos found in New Zealand. It is a bird of sombre plumage and unobtrusive habits, but utters at short intervals a note of much sweetness, and is plentiful in every part of New Zealand, where it appears to be as much at home in the woods as in the open scrub. Its food consists of small insects, which it obtains in the leafy tops of forest trees as well as in the dense foliage of thick bushes. Sir Walter Buller says: " In the Hot Lakes district I have found it flit- ting round the steaming geysers, apparently unaffected by the sulphur fumes, and catching the minute flies that are attracted thither by the humid warmth. Down by the seashore its note may be heard in the low vegetation that fringes the ocean beach; while far up the mountain side, where the scrub is scarce and stunted, it shares the dominion with the ever-present Zosterops. Its sweet thrilling warble is always pleasant to the ear, being naturally associated in the mind with the hum of bees among the flowers, and the drumming of locusts in the sunshine." The gray warbler is remarkable for the form of its nest, which is a domed structure, belonging to one of two types — the bottle-shaped nest with a porch entrance, and the pear-shaped form without a porch. The materials used in nest building are dry moss, grass, vegetable fibres, and spider webs. The eggs are white, often spotted with red. The gray warbler is an attentive parent to the young of the cuckoos, which are foisted upon it, and probably owes its preservation to the fact that it builds a pensile nest out of the reach of rats and other vermin. The adult male is olive brown above; the sides of the neck are dark ashy gray; the tail feathers are ashy brown, shaded with black, and the throat, breast, and sides cinereous gray. While the chats, redbreasts, nightingales, and other members of the Warblers su^^am^y Ruticillinez are included by Mr. Gates among the Turdida?, the true warblers and their kindred are regarded by the same ornithol- ogist as constituting a separate family, Sylmidtz. On the other hand Professor Newton includes the RuticiUinie in the Sylmidce; thus showing how very close is the resemblance between the true warblers on the one hand and the thrushes on the 105 1 666 THE PERCHING BIRDS other. Accordingly, we prefer to follow Dr. Sharpe in including all those birds under one great family, of which the true warblers will constitute a separate sub- family (Sylviince}. Having thus indicated how extremely difficult it is to separate the thrushes and their allies from the true warblers (Sylvia}, it may be mentioned that the latter are generally of small size, and usually of plain-colored plumage. More insectivorous in their habits than the thrushes, and also more migratory in their movements, they usually possess slender bills, adapted to the pursuit of insects. Their wings are variable in size, and the feet slender and furnished with fine toes. The young of the warblers, unlike those of the typical thrushes, do not differ materially from adults in color. This group of birds, in common with the Ruticillince, is of almost universal distribution, but so preponderates in the Eastern Hemisphere, that Mr. Wallace describes it as an Old-World assemblage only meagrely represented in North America. The common whitethroat (Sylvia rufa) is one of the most abundant oa of summer birds throughout Europe, arriving in its breeding haunts in April, and speedily com- mencing to make its artless nest, composed of dry stems of grass and flowering plants, lined with finer bents and sometimes a little horsehair. The eggs are white, mottled with olive-green specks. The male sings noisily upon the wing, generally starting up from the top of a hawthorn hedge, and then slowly descending, with the tail at an angle to the body. It may fre- quently be seen picking small moths off the blossoms of the gorse, as it flits actively from one plant to another, and utters a harsh croak. The adult male has the upper parts grayish brown; the wing coverts and innermost secondaries being edged with chest- nut, the outer tail feathers margined with white, and the lower parts buffy white. The lesser whitethroat (S. curruca] is a scarcer bird than the last, but its pretty song may be heard about the hedgerows and bushes in many parts of Europe. The LESSER AND COMMON WHITKTHROAT. (One-half natural size.) THE WARBLERS 1667 nest is placed in a bush or shrub, firmly built of strong bents, lined with finer bents, fibre, and horsehair; the eggs being white, spotted with olive brown. The lesser whitethroat is very partial to gardens, this being partly accounted for by its fondness for fruit, which is especially mani- fested when raspberries become ripe. It becomes very tame in confinement, and eats pears and other fruit with avidity. The adult male has the upper parts slaty gray, suffused with brown on the back; the wings and tail are brown; the under parts white, the breast tinged with pink, and the ear coverts dark brown, and conspicuous. The subalpine warbler (S. subalpina) has a wide range, inhabiting the whole of the Mediterranean region, as well as North Africa and Warbler the Canaries. It is an agile bird, building a globe-shaped nest, placed in thick bushes, and situated from three to five feet above the ground, which is built of stems of grass, lined with fine fibres. The eggs are greenish white, finely spotted with brown. The subalpine warbler is full of activity, and flits about the bushes catching insects. The adult male has the upper parts slaty gray; the wings are brown, with pale edges; the tail brown, with more or less white on the outer feathers, and the throat and breast chestnut, shading into paler chestnut on the flanks, and to nearly white in the centre of the breast. This pretty little bird (S. conspitillatd) is another Mediterranean species, resident in some parts of its habitat, and in others a summer Warbler visitant. A migrant in the north of Spain, it is there somewhat shy and retiring, flitting about the roadside in a furtive, uneasy fashion, and quite solitary. The spectacled warbler builds its nest in a small bush about a foot from the ground, and the eggs are white, blotched with green. The short, sweet song has been compared to that of the goldfinch. The adult male has the crown slaty gray, shading into grayish chestnut on the centre of the back; the wings are dark brown, edged with chestnut; the tail feathers dark brown, the outer ones being par- tially pied; while the chin is white, fading into slaty gray on the throat, which again fades into vinous red on the breast and flanks. Another South-European bird is the pretty black-headed Sardinian lf w^bl warbler (S. sarda), an active, restless species, partial to the neighbor- hood of undergrowth. It builds in a branch of some tree, generally at a small distance from the ground, and constructs its nest of blades of grass and roots, lining it with fine bents. The eggs are greenish white blotched at the larger end with greenish gray. This warbler is common in the pine woods around Cannes, as also in the gardens near the sea, and its habits have been compared to those of the whitethroat. The male sings from a bush and then darts off in a jerking flight into the air still singing, while the old birds, like the blackcap, simulate the appearance of being injured when tt\ey find their young endangered, trailing their wings in the dust and exhibiting the greatest distress. The song is not unlike that of a garden warbler, but is more intermittent. The plumage of the adult male is slaty gray above, shading into black on the nape, head, and ear coverts; the wings are dark brown edged with gray, and the tail is dark gray tipped with white; the throat being white fading into grayish white. 1 668 THE PERCHING BIRDS Orphean Warbler The orphean warbler (S. orphea) is one of the larger representatives of the group in Europe, which it visits in April, not continuing its jour- ney north of the Baltic. Mr. Seebohm writes that ' ' the song is louder than that of the blackcap, but I thought it somewhat harsher. Its alarm note is very loud, as loud as that of the blackbird. In the Parnassus I found it very common, and obtained thirteen nests between the third and twenty-first of May. They were easy to find in the bushes which were scattered over the rocky ground above the region of the olive and the vine, but when we got into the pine region they disappeared. My friend Captain Verner informs me that he has found nests RUFOUS AND ORPHEAN WARBLERS. (One-half natural size. ) of this bird in Spain placed near the summit of young cork trees, about twelve feet from the ground. The nest is a tolerably substantial one and deep, composed of dry grass and leafy stalks of plants. Inside it is built of finer grass, and lined sparingly with thistle down or the flower of the cotton grass. . . . The ground color of the eggs of the orphean warbler is white, sometimes faintly tinted with gray, and sometimes tinted with brown. The color of the overlying spots varies from olive brown to nearly black. The orphean warbler is a large form of the blackcap, and decidedly more elegant in shape than that species. The adult male has the crown sooty black; the general color of the upper parts is dull slaty gray; THE WARBLERS the wings and tail are brown, and the under parts white shading into gray upon the breast and flanks. A more skulking species than the last is the garden warbler (S. sali- caria), which arrives in its summer haunts in Europe about the same date as the blackcap. It is rather a retiring bird, and is consequently often overlooked. It has a sweet song, generally poured forth from the centre of some thick bush or other cover; its nest is of dry stems and moss, lined with fibres and a few hairs; its eggs are greenish white blotched with gray and olive brown. BARRED WARBLER, GARDEN WARBLER, AND BLACKCAP. (One-half natural size.) The garden warbler is partial to fruit, but we have not seen it strip the berries from the elder bushes in the same way as the blackcap. The adult male has the upper parts olive brown, darker and grayer on the wings and tail, and the under parts grayish white. Among the sweetest songsters that visit the gardens and shrub- Blackcap «•«»—» benes of Europe is this slim and attractive species (S. atricapilla), which arrives in the British Isles in April, and at once takes up its abode in orchards and woodlands. The male bird upon its first arrival frequently sings in highly 1670 THE PERCHING BIRDS exposed situations; indeed, he can hardly do otherwise, since in backward seasons his progeny are hatched before the leaves of many trees have unrolled. The female constructs her nest of dry stems of grass and fibres, lining it with fine roots and hair; the eggs being generally yellowish brown, clouded with a darker color. The song of the blackcap is rich and well sustained, and from the rich quality of its notes the bird has been termed the Norfolk nightingale. The blackcap is a most anxious parent, exhibiting lively distress if the safety of the young be menaced. The young feather very rapidly and leave the nest proportionately earlier than do many other birds. In July the song of the blackcap becomes soft and subdued, and the bird then sings in close cover, shunning notoriety. The blackcap is a favorite cage bird; we have seen hundreds caged in Paris, and many more in Berne and other continental cities. In the Canaries there occurs a curious variety in which the black of the cap extends over the nape and shoulders as well as round the throat. The typical adult male has the forehead and crown pure black; the upper parts bluish gray, suffused with olive brown; the wings and tail brown; while beneath it is bluish gray. The female has the cap of a rusty red, and in captivity sings sweetly, although less powerfully than her mate. The barred warbler (S. nisoria) arrives in its summer quarters in Europe somewhat later than the majority of migrants, and takes up its abode chiefly in gardens; constructing a bulky nest, more compact than that of most warblers, of roots and dry stems neatly lined with horsehair or fibres. The nest is generally built in a thorn bush not far from the ground, and the eggs are buffish white spotted with brown and ash color. The barred warbler is shy and skulking in its habits, and even in confinement it retains this shyness, although this does not extend to birds reared from the nest. The adult male has the upper parts brownish gray; the under parts being grayish white, finely barred with brown. The Dartford warbler (S. undata) * is a resident but local bird in w . the temperate parts of Europe, breeding also in the mountains of Al- geria. It is a small, retiring species, fond of thick covert, and used to be tolerably common even in the neighborhood of London until exterminated by several severe winters. Mr. Swaysland wrote in 1883: "I have taken several hundreds of eggs of the Dartford warbler within a few miles of Brighton, but the birds were all exterminated in a recent severe winter. I have not heard of any since, though formerly we could find a dozen pairs within a few miles. I have taken the eggs of a single pair three or four times in a season. If the nest contained three eggs when I first robbed it, the next clutch usually contained five eggs, but if it contained four eggs the first time the second laying usually consisted of the same number." The Dartford warbler builds a very slight nest, composed of dry stalks and lined with finer stems added to a little wool. The nest is usually extremely difficult to find, and can only be discovered by patient observation of the old birds. Mr. Newman often observed the Dartford warbler in the neighborhood of Godalm- ing, and has left the following sketch of its winter habits: " When the leaves are off the trees, and the chill winter winds have driven the summer birds to the olive *Frequeatly separated generically as Melizophilus. THE WARBLERS 1671 gardens of Spain or across the straits, the furze wren is in the height of its enjoy- ment. I have seen them by dozens skipping about the furze, lighting for a moment upon the very point of the sprigs and instantly diving out of sight again, singing out their angry impatient ditty for ever the same. They prefer those places where the furze is very thick, high, and difficult to get in." The egg of the Dartford warbler is white or buff in ground color, suffused with olive or reddish brown. The song of the male is livel)', and often uttered upon the wing. The nestlings which Montagu reared began to sing as soon as they assumed adult plumage. The plum- age of the adult male is very dark sooty brown, shading into slate gray on the head; tail dark gray, the outside feathers tipped with white; the under parts are chestnut browrn, shading into white on the centre of the belly, and having the feathers of the chin and upper throat tipped with white; the under tail coverts are gray tipped with white. The yellow-browed warbler {Phylloscopus snperciliosus} , figured e l )w on p. 1680, is an example of a genus differing from the preced- ing by the supplemental bristles in front of those of the rictus of the gape being stronger and more numerous, while the beak is short and stout. The genus includes the chiff-chaff (P. collybita), wood wren (/>. sibilatrix}, willow wren (P. trochilus), etc. The yellow -browed warbler passes the summer in North Siberia, where Mr. Seebohm first discovered its eggs, of which he gives the follow- ing account: "As we were walking along a little bird started up near us, and began most persistently to utter the alarm note of the yellow-browed warbler, a note which I had learned in Gaetke's garden in Heligoland. As it kept flying around us from tree to tree we naturally came to the conclusion that it had a nest near. We searched for some time unsuccessfully, and then retired to a short dis- tance and sat down upon a tree trunk to watch. The bird was very uneasy, but continually came back to a birch tree, frequently making several short flights toward the ground, as if it were anxious to go into its nest but dare not while we were in sight. This went on for about half an hour, when we came to the conclu- sion that the treasure we were in search of must be within a few yards of the birch tree, and we again commenced a search. In less than five minutes I found the nest with six eggs in it. It was built in a slight tuft of grass, moss, and bilberries, semi- domed exactly like the nests of our willow warblers. It was composed of dry grass and moss ends lined with reindeer hair. The eggs were very similar in color to that of our willow warbler, but were rather more spotted and smaller in size. ' ' The yellow-browed warbler occasionally straggles into Europe on the autumnal migra- tion. The adult male has the upper parts olive green; a well-defined narrow greenish-yellow eye stripe extends over the eyes; the wing coverts are tipped with yellow, forming two bars across the wings; the wing quills and tail are brown, and the lower parts white, suffused with yellowish green. As an example of another genus differing from Sylvia by the length ^e . . of the beak from the gape exceeding (instead of falling short of) the third toe and its claw, may be mentioned the icterine warbler (Hypolais philomela); eight other species of the genus being known. Annually vis- iting temperate Europe south of the Baltic, the icterine warbler is a graceful slender 1672 THE PERCHING BIRDS bird, and on its first arrival may be observed flitting actively about the lower branches of trees and bushes in quest of insect prey. Although in coloration this warbler bears some resemblance to the willow warblers, it does not form a dome to its nest like those birds, nor does it build near the ground. On the contrary, its pretty nest is of dry stems of grass interwoven with moss, wool, and other materials, in some small tree, generally eight or ten feet from the ground. The eggs are brownish pink in ground color, spotted with dark purplish brown. Mr. Seebohm gives the following description of the song of the icterine warbler: " Per- haps on the whole the song of the common tree warbler comes nearest to that of ICTERINE WARBLER. (Two-thirds natural size. ) the marsh warbler, but often it reminds you strongly of the sedge warblers. At other times you may trace a fancied resemblance to the chirping of the sparrow, the scolding of the whitethroat, or the scream of the swift." The adult male in spring is olive green above, the wings and tail are brown, the under parts are uniformly of a very beautiful and delicate yellow. The female is identical in plumage with her mate, but rather duller. Yet another genus {Acrocephalus) of warblers is typically repre- sented by the reed warbler, and is distinguished from all the foregoing by the feathers of the forehead being short and rounded, instead of disintegrated Reed Warblers THE WARBLERS 1673 and with elongated shafts. Moreover, there are no hairs or bristles on the forehead, with the exception of the ordinary ones at the rictus of the gape. In this particular genus of the group, displaying .the above characteristics, the first primary quill of the wing is much less than one-third the length of the second, while the rictal bristles are strongly developed, and the tail is but slightly graduated. The reed warbler (Acrocephahis streperus) is an annual visitor to most parts of temperate Europe, arriving in April and May, and generally taking up its abode in extensive morasses. The nest is a singularly beautiful structure, built in the middle of a wood a long way from water; one which we found wras composed of delicate green moss, while another from Romney Marsh was almost wholly constructed of sheep's wooh THE REED WARBLER. The eggs are greenish white in ground color, clouded or freckled with dark olive. The song of this warbler is rich and much varied. The adult male in spring has the upper parts rufous brown, the color being most pronounced upon the rump and upper tail coverts, while the chin and throat are dull white, and the breast and flanks pale buff. The sedge warbler (A. schcenobcenus) , shown on the left figure on p. 1676, is common in many parts of Europe, arriving in April from North Africa, and speedily taking up its residence in some suitable haunt, generally a scrub near the waterside. It generally departs again for the south in September, wintering in Africa. Its song is loud and varied, and often delivered during the stillness of a summer night. 1 6/4 THE PERCHING BIRDS The nest is a slight structure, of dry stems without any lining, or of dry stems and a little green moss, lined with the feathers of the gad wall. The eggs are yellowish brown. The adult male in spring has the upper parts rusty russet brown, with dark centres to the feathers, the eye stripe being buffish white; while the wings and tail are brown, and the under parts buffish white. GRASSHOPPER, RIVER, AND SAVl'S WARBLERS. (Two-thirds natural size.) Nearly allied to the last, the grasshopper warblers (Locustella) . of Grasshopper , . . ,, . , . , ,. i. . , , , w .. which there are some eight species, may be distinguished by the smaller development of the rictal bristles, as well as by the more markedly graduated tail, in which the outermost feathers are less than three-fourths the total length. They derive their name from their peculiar chirping notes. The grasshopper warbler (L. ncevia) is a regular but local summer visitant to Europe, arriving in Britain in the month of April in small flocks which soon break up, each THE WARBLERS 1675 pair taking up its residence in some sequestered nook either on a heath on the mar- gin of large woods or in the bottom of a deep hedge. On its first arrival the hedges are generally bare or nearly so, a circumstance which naturally facilitates the obser- vation of the movements of this shy bird. Both the male and female sing, but most of the ventriloquizing efforts proceed from the male bird. The grasshopper warbler sings its curious song principally during the early hours of day and shortly before dusk, although it would be a mistake to suppose that it does not sing at other times, for it often sings lustily in the middle of the day. The nest is cunningly concealed in thick herbage; the best plan of discovering its whereabouts being to visit the spot, which the birds are known to frequent, shortly before sunset. If every likely corner be thus explored with the aid of a long stick, the female will almost certainly be detected in the act of slipping off her eggs, creeping away through the under- growth with the stealth and rapidity of a mouse. The eggs are pinkish white freckled with darker reddish brown. The adult male has the upper parts olive brown with dark centres to the feathers, while the chin and centre of the belly are white, shading into buffish brown on the breast and flanks. Among the finest of European songsters is the river warbler (Z,. ** flwoiatilis) of Eastern Europe, which spends the summer months on .the shores of the Elbe, the Danube, and other large rivers, where it frequents thick- ets and dense undergrowth, building a cup-shaped nest of dry stems. The eggs are grayish white, spotted with reddish brown. The song for w7hich the river warbler is remarkable has been compared to the chirping of grasshoppers; during the early hours of the day the bird sometimes sings in exposed situations, but under ordinary circumstances skulks in the most impenetrable thickets. Both sexes have the upper parts uniformly dark olive brown with a scarcely perceptible eye stripe, the under parts being grayish brown, shading into white on the throat and belly. Savi' Warbler ^ne °^ t^ie rarer anc* more interesting of European warblers is the little obscurely colored bird known as Savi's warbler (L. luscinoides) , which nests in Holland, building a nest of blades of dry sedge firmly interwoven, which cannot well be mistaken for that of any other bird. The eggs are white, sprinkled with ashy-brown spots. In the Rhone marshes this bird may be observed actively running up and down the reeds, occasionally uttering a curious cry which has been compared to that of a tree frog. The male has the upper parts uniform russet brown, and the under parts are pale buffish brown, shading into nearly white on the centre of the throat and belly. Cetti's warbler (Bradypterus cettii} may be taken as the best-known . European representative of another large group of genera differing from all the foregoing in having only ten (in place of twelve) tail feathers. As the number of these genera is far too large to be even mentioned here, it will suffice to say that Cetti's warbler holds a high position among the song birds of Southern Europe, and that it passes the summer in the Mediterranean region, inhabiting close and impenetrable covert during its summer sojourn. It builds its nest of dry stems and blades of grass in the neighborhood of water. The eggs are brilliant red and without any spots. In some parts of its range Cetti's warbler is resident throughout the year. It sings in every month, and it is somewhat startling 1676 THE PERCHING BIRDS in winter to hear a loud and abrupt burst of song, resembling that of a nightingale, from a thick bush. The adult male has the upper parts rich russet brown; the eye stripe is grayish white, but indistinct; the wings and tail are dark russet brown; the chin and throat are white, shading into ashy gray on the sides of the breast and into brownish gray on the flanks and upper tail coverts. To the same group belongs the Australian pheasant-tailed warbler (Stipiturus malactirus) , distinguished by the elongation and peculiar structure of the three central pairs of tail feathers. SEDGE WARBI.ER, CETTl'S WARBLER, AND FAN-TAILED WARBLER. (One-half natural size.) Another group is represented by the fan-tailed warbler (Cisticola Fan-Tailed •, \ •• «. • f Warblers cursitansi > which is one of the smallest of the European reed war- blers, and is easily recognized by its curved beak and fan-shaped tail. It appears to reside all the year through in many parts of the Mediterranean coun- tries, constantly frequenting swampy grounds, and obtaining its food near water. The members of the genus Accentor possess a fairly-strong bill, broad at the base, with a nearly straight culmen, about half the length of the head; the wings being long and pointed, and the tail nearly square. The legs and feet are strong and generally adapted to progression over rocks and rough Accentors THE WARBLERS 1677 surfaces; while the plumage is generally dark brown, varied with rufous. Belong- ing to Europe, North Africa, and Western Asia, the accentors usually inhabit mountain ranges, although the hedge sparrow frequents bushes and scrub. Com- mon among the mountains of Europe, the Alpine accentor (A. collaris} inhabits the Pyrenees and Alps, occasionally wandering far from its usual haunts, and reaching the British Islands and Heligoland. It begins to build in May; the nest is round, somewhat shallow, fairly compact, and composed mainly of dry grass stems and very small pieces of moss, the inside being lined entirely with the same kind of moss and the small white feathers of the ptarmigan. The eggs are light greenish blue and unspotted. The adult male has the head and neck gray, the upper parts PHEASANT-TAILED WARBLER. are dark brown with light brown edges, the wing coverts tipped with white, the throat white spotted with black, and the breast and under tail coverts dark gray, shading into rich chestnut upon the flanks. Although generally nesting in the vicinity of dwelling houses, the hedge sparrow (A. modularis), which is very widely distributed in Europe, may be found in Spain living far away in the depths of the forest. Its cheery song is often uttered from the top of a small shrub or spray of hawthorn; and, as it is an early breeder, its eggs are often laid before the leaves of the hedges have sufficiently expanded to save them from being chilled by heavy showers of rain. The nest, built of fine roots and moss, is placed in the shelter of Hedge Sparrow i6;8 THE PERCHING BIRDS a hedge on a bank, under a hawthorn bush, or in the side of an ivied wall, and gen- erally contains four or five blue unspotted eggs. The young when first hatched are invested with black down, but they feather rapidly. In the Hebrides, the hedge sparrow nests in the sides of burns, adapting its existence to a moorland life. Dur- ing the winter time, this bird obtains most of its subsistence in gardens, and may often be seen stealing in and out among the growing plants like a mouse. Its call note is loud but monotonous. The hedge sparrow is very subject to variation of plumage, specimens being often seen prettily pied with white, sometimes symmet- rically arranged, while pure white specimens are occasionally met with. The adult has the head and sides of the neck bluish gray, purest in the breeding season; while HEDGE SPARROW AND ALPINE ACCENTOR. (One-half natural size.) the wings and tail are dusky brown, the back reddish brown streaked with darker brown, and the chin and throat gray, the lower parts being white. Altogether, thirteen representatives of the genus are known. While some ornithologists refer the accentors to one distinct family {Accentoridcz} and the goldcrests to a second (Regulidtz} , we prefer to follow Professor Newton in including both in the same family as the warblers, as is done in his edition of YarrelVs British Birds. In addition to their small size, the goldcrests (Regulus) are characterized by the straight and slender beak, which is compressed toward the point, where it is notched. The basally-placed nostrils are Goldcrests THE WARBLERS 1679 covered by a single bristly feather, and there are numerous bristles at the rictus of the gape. The rather long wings have the first primary nearly half the length of the second, which is somewhat shorter than the third, and this exceeded in length by the fourth and fifth. The tail has twrelve feathers, and is slightly forked; the legs are long and slender, with elongated claws. An inhabitant of the pine forests of Europe, the tiny goldcrest (./?. cristatus}, is an exceedingly hardy bird, contriv- ing to obtain subsistence when others are famishing with hunger. During the sum- mer months it haunts gardens and the skirts of woods, building its beautiful little nest upon the under surface of some coniferous tree at very varying distances from the ground; the nest itself — an exquisite structure, chiefly of the softest moss and lined with the most delicate of feathers — being sometimes finished as early as the middle of March, while fresh eggs may be taken in the middle of July, considerable latitude thus existing in the breeding season. The brooding female is never long away from the nest, and, even if disturbed, only flits anxiously about the tree which contains her treasure, uttering a low, troubled cry so long as she is conscious of being under observation. If surveillance be removed, the little bird slips hastily onto her eggs, and probably remains in the nest, trusting to the decorative skill with which she has adorned its exterior to render her detection difficult. The eggs are white, suffused with reddish buff. Montagu found that the female goldcrest would even venture into a room in order to feed her captive young, and this not once in a way but all through the day. When a brood of young goldcrests is going to roost, a scramble takes place among the young for the warmest place, all roosting in a row, and each endeavoring to get an inside position. Although many of the goldcrests haunting the English hedgerows in winter have been bred in the country, the largest proportion congregating in the coverts at that season are birds which have crossed the North Sea; thousands annually arriving upon the east coast of England, often much exhausted by their travels. The adult male has the forehead olive green; the crest being bright yellow or orange, banded by a black stripe on either side; while the upper parts are olive green tinged with yellow, the wings dark brown edged with greenish yellow, and the lower parts grayish olive. The female has the crest pale yellow instead of orange, while all her tints are more obscure than those of her partner. Although a much more local bird than the goldcrest, the firecrest {R. Firecrest . ... , . .. . , , igmcapillus) is fairly common in the pine forests of a good many parts of Europe, often frequenting bushes and scrub as well as the larger branches of trees. Pairing by the middle of April, its whereabouts is generally intimated by its shrill call note, which is louder and less tremulous than that of the goldcrest. The firecrest builds a similar nest to that of the goldcrest, but the eggs are of a warmer coloration. It is a partial migrant, crossing the North Sea in autumn, but only in very small numbers. Mr. Seebohm writes that these birds " twist in and out among the slender twigs, sometimes with head down and sometimes with feet up; but by far the most curious part of the performance is when they come to the end of the twig and examine the under surface of the leaves at its extremity. They have nothing to stand upon, so they flutter more like bees than birds from leaf to leaf, their little wings beating as hard as they can go. The male has the forehead buff; THE PERCHING BIRDS the crest bright orange, bordered with black on either side; two other black stripes pass through the eye and from the base of the bill downward; the upper parts are olive green, varied with gold on the sides of the neck, and the under parts dull buf- fish white." The rubycrest (R. calendula') is a well-known bird in the United States, returning from the far north, in which it breeds, in September, when it presses gradually south into all the southern States, a few continuing their journey into South America. Dr. Coues gives the following description of its hab- its: " To observe the manners of the rubycrown one need only repair at the right Rubycrest YELLOW-BROWED WARBLER, FIRECREST, AND GOLDCREST. (One-half natural size.) season to the nearest thicket coppice or piece of shrubbery. These are its favorite resorts, especially in the fall and winter; though sometimes, more particularly in the spring, it appears to be more ambitious, and its slight form may be almost lost among the branches of the taller trees. We shall most likely find it not alone but in straggling troops, which keep up a sort of companionship with each other as well as with different birds, though each individual seems to be absorbed in its particular business. We hear the slender wiry note, and see the little creatures skipping nim- bly about the smaller branches in endlessly varied attitudes, peering in the crevices THE WOOD WARBLERS 1681 of the bark for their minute insect food, taking short nervous flights from one bough to another, twitching their wings as they alight, and always too busy to pay attention to what may be going on around them." The rubycrest builds a tiny nest consisting of a mass of hair and feathers mixed with moss and some short bits of staw; commonly breeding in the heavy pine and spruce forests on the mountains of Colorado and also in Arizona. It was of the rubycrest that Audubon himself wrote: " When I tell you that its song is fully as sonorous as that of the canary bird, and much richer, I do not come up to the truth, for it is not only as powerful and clear, but much more varied and pleasing." The male has a rich scarlet crest; the upper parts are greenish olive, and the wings and tail dusky; the under parts being yel- lowish white. { BLACK-THROATED GREEN WARBLER. (Two-thirds natural size.) THE WOOD WARBLERS Family MNIOTILTID^, The American family of birds known as wood warblers may be conveniently mentioned here, not only on account of their popular name, which causes them to be associated with the warblers of the Old World, but also from the circumstance that they are probably more or less closely related to the Gzrebidtz, among which they are placed by Brehm. It would be useless to attempt to define the whole family, or to mention the numerous genera; and we consequently select for illustration the black- throated green warbler (Dendr