I

THE

NEW
NATURAL HISTORY

By

RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., F.G.S., RZ.S.

and

R. BOWDLER SHARPE, H. A. MACPHERSON, F. O. PICKARD-CAM-

BR1DGE, W. R. OGILV1E GRANT, C. J. GAHAN, F. A. BATHER,

EDGAR A. SMITH, R. I. POCOCK, M. BERNARD,

H. BERNARD AND R. KIRKPATRICK.

With Introductions by
ERNEST SETON-THOMPSON

NATURALIST AND ARTIST, AUTHOR OF " WILD ANIMALS I HAVE KNOWN," ETC,

JOEL A. ALLEN
CURATOR OF AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY

Illustrated with
SEVENTY-TWO COLORED PLATES 'AND TWENTY-ONE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS

VOLUME IV.

COPYRIGHT, 1901, BY THE SAALFIELD PUBLISHING COMPANY

CONTENTS

BIRDS

CHAPTER VIII.— PICARIAN BIRDS, —continued.

THE CUCKOOS (Cuculidtz). — Crested Cuckoos (Coccysles) — Hawk Cuckoos (Hierococcyx)
— True Cuckoos (Cuculus) — Golden Cuckoos (Ckalcowcyx) — American Cuckoos
(Coccyzus) — Koels (Eudynamis) — Long-Clawed Coucals (Centropus) — Rain
Cuckoos (Phcen icopceince') — Ground Cuckoos (Neomorphince) — Savana and Guira
Cuckoos (Crotophaga and Guira) — The Plantain Eaters (Musophagidce) — Crimson-
Winged Plantain Eaters (Turacus) — Great Plantain Eater (Corythecola),

763

CHAPTER IX.— PICARIAN BIRDS, — concluded.

THE TROGONS ( Trogonidtz). — The Colies (Coliidce} — The Humming Birds (Trockilidte)

— Saw-Beaked Group — Jamaican Humming Bird (sEtfiurus) — White-Crowned
Humming Bird (Microchera) — Intermediate Group — Fork-Tailed Humming Birds
(Lesbia) — Smooth-Beaked Group — Curved-Billed Hermits (Eutoxeres) — True
Hermits (Phaethornis} — Swordbill Humming Bird (Docimastes} — Rivoli Hum-
ming Bird {Eugenes') — King Humming Birds ( Topaza) — Hill Stars (Oreotrochilus)

— Giant Humming. Bird (Patagona) — Racket-Tailed Humming Bird (Loddigesia)

— Double-Crested Humming Bird (Heliactin) — Coquettes (Lophornis) — The
Swifts (Micropodidce) — True Swifts (Micropus} — Pied Swifts (Aeronautes) —
Feather-Toed Swifts (Panyptila) — Edible Swifts (Cluztura and Collocalia) — Tree
Swifts (Macroptcryx) — The Nightjars (Caprimulgidce) — True Nightjars (Capri-
mulgtts) — Leona Nightjar (Macrodipteryx) — Standard-Winged Nightjar (Cosme-

(v)

248635

vi CONTENTS

PAGE

tomis} — Fork-Tailed Nightjars (Hydropsalis,etc.) — Nacunda Nightjar (Podager)
— Wood Nightjars (Nyctibius) — The Todies (Todidce) — The Motmots (Momo-
tidce) — True Motmots (Momotus) — Broad-Beaked Motmots (Eumomota) — The
Bee-Eaters (Meropidce) — Swallow-Tailed Bee-Eaters (Dichrocercus) — Square-
Tailed Bee-Eaters (Melittophagus) — True Bee-Eaters (Merops) — Celebean Bee-
Eater (Mesopogon) — Bearded Bee-Eaters (Nyctiornis) — The Hoopoes ( Upupidce)
The Wood Hoopoes (Irrisoridce) — The Hornbills (Bucertidce) — Ground Horn-
bills (Biicorax} — Rhinoceros Hornbills (Buceros, etc.) — Great Pied, or Two-
Horned Hornbill (Dichoceros) — Wedge-Tailed Hornbills (Lophocerox) — Solid-
Billed Hornbill (Rhinoplax) — The Kingfishers (Alcedinidce) — Stork-Billed King-
fishers (Pelargopsis, etc.) — Pied Kingfishers (Ceryle) — Typical Kingfishers
(Alcedo) — Three-Toed Insectivorous Kingfishers (Ceyx, etc.) — Laughing King-
fishers (Dacelo) — Wood Kingfishers (Halcyon) — Long-Tailed Kingfishers (Tany-
siptera) — The Rollers (Coraciidce) — True Rollers (Coracias) — Broad-Billed
Rollers (Eurystomus) — The Kiroumbos (Leptosomatidce) — The Frogmouths
(Podargidce) — Typical Frogmouths (Podargus) — Eared Frogmouths (Batrach-
ostomus) — Owlet Frogmouths (sEgotheles) — The Oilbird or Guacharo (Steator-
nithidce), .... ....... 177^

CHAPTER X.— THE PARROT TRIBE,— Order Psittaci.

Characteristics of the Order — Distribution and Habits — Nestor Parrots (Nestoridce) — The
Lories and Loriquets (Loriidtz) — True Lories (Lorius) — Loriquets (Tricho-
glossus) — Arfak Parrot (Oreopsittacus) — The Cyclopsittacidce — The Cockatoos
(Cacatuidce) — Great Black Cockatoo (Microglossus) — Raven Cockatoos (Calyp-
torhvnchus) — Ganga Cockatoo (Callocepkalum) — Typical Cockatoo (Cacatua) —
Habits of Cockatoos — Slender-Billed Cockatoos (Lichmetis) — Cockateel ( Callop-
sittacus) — The Typical Parrots (Psittacidce) — Pygmy Parrots (Nasiterna) —
American Sharp-Tailed Parrots ( Conurince} — Hyacinthine Macaw (Anodorhynchus}
— True Macaws (Ara) — Conures (Conurus and Conuropsis) — Slight-Billed
Parraquet (Henicognathus) — Gray-Breasted Parraquet (Myopsittacus} — Parrotlets
(Psittacula) — All-Green Parraquet (Brotogerys) — Blunt-Tailed Green Parrots
(Pionince) — Amazon Parrots (Chrysotis) — Hawk-Billed Parrot (Deroptyus) —
African Green Parrots (Pceocephalus) — Gray and Black Short-Tailed Parrots
(Psittacince} — Gray Parrot (Pstttacus) — Vasa Parrots (Coracopsis) — New Guinea
Black Parrot (Dasypterus) — The Parraquet Group (Palceornithince} — Eclectus
Parrots (Eclectus) — True Parraquets (Palceornis) — Love Birds (Agapornis} —
Hanging Parrots (Loriculus) — The Broadtail Group (Platycercince) — Broadtails
(Platycercus) — Grass Parraquets (Neophemd) — Crested Parraquets (Nymphicus)—
Budgerigar (Melopsittacus} — Ground Parraquets (Pezophorus and Geopsittacus) —
The Owl Parrot (Stringopidce), ........ 1855

CHAPTER XL— THE OWLS AND OSPREYS,— Orders Striges and Pandioncs.

Characteristics of Owls — Distribution and Habits — Barn Owls (Strigidcz) — The Family
Bubonidce — Tengmalm's Owl (Nyctala) — Wood Owls (Syrnium) — Great Gray
Owl — Ural Owl — Barred Owl — Mottled Wood Owl — Eared Owls (Asia) — Short-
Eared Owl — Long-Eared Owl — Pygmy Owls (Glaucidium) — Oriental Hawk Owls
(Ninox) — Burrowing Owl (Speotito) — Little Owls ( Carine) — Hawk Owls (Surnia)
— Snowy Owl (Ncytea) — Screech Owls (Scops} — Eagle Owls (B ubo) — Fish Owls
(Cetupa and Scotopelia) — The Ospreys (Pandiones) — Oriental Fish Eagles (Po-
lioaetus), . . . . . . . . . . . 1904

CONTENTS vii

PAGE

CHAPTER XII. — THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY, OR ACCIPTIRINES, —

Order Acciptres.

General Characteristics of the Order — The Hawk Tribe (Falconidce) — True Falcons (Falco)
— Gerfalcons — Saker — Lannerand Laggar Falcons — Peregrines — Use in Hawking —
Turumti Falcon — Hobby — Merlin — Kestrels — Pygmy Falcons (Hierax) — Mississippi
Falcon (Ictinia) — C rested Falcons (Baza) — Honey Buzzards (Pernis) — Black- Winged
Kite (Elanus) — True Kites (Milvus) — Swallow-Tailed Kite (Elanoides) — Vulturine
Sea Eagle ( Gvpohierax) — Sea Eagles (Haliaetus) — Bateleur Eagle (Helotarsus) — Har-
rier Eagles ( Circaetus) — SerpentEagles (Spilornis) — African Crested Eagle (Lophoae-
tus) — Crested Eagles (Spizaetus) — Hawk Eagles (Nisaetus) — Booted Hawk Eagle —
True Eagle (Aquila) — Golden Eagle — Imperial Eagle — Spotted Eagle — OtherSpecies

— Wedge-Tailed Eagle ( Uroaettts) — Harpy Eagles (Morphnus, Harpy haliaetus, and
Thrysaetus) — Allied Genera — Buzzards (Buteo) — Rough-Legged Buzzards (Ar*'-'
buteo) — Sparrow Hawks (Accipiter] — Goshawks (Astur) — Whistling Ha-- «
(Melierax) — Harrier Hawks (Mic.rastur) — Harriers (Circus) — Naked-Cheeked
Hawks (Polyboroides) — The Caracaras — Brazilian Caracara (Polyborus) — Falkland
Island Caracara (Ibycter) — The Vultures ( VulturidtB) — Lammergeiers (Gypaetus)

— Cinereous Vulture ( Vultur) — Griffon Vultures (Gyps) — White-Backed Vultures
(Pseudogyps} — Eared Vultures (Otogyps) — Abyssinian Vulture (Lophogyps) —
Egyptian Vulture (Neophron) — The Secretary Vulture (Serpentariidce) — The
American Vultures ( Cathartidez) — Condor (Sarcorkamphus) — King Vulture
(CatJiartes) — American Black Vulture (Catharista) — Turkey Vulture (Rhinogry-
phus) — Californian Vulture, . . . . . . ,.. . 1938

CHAPTER XIII.— THE CORMORANT GROUP,— Order Steganopodes.

Characteristics of the Order — Cormorants, Darters, and Gannets (Phalacrocoractdce) —
Cormorants (P/ialacrocorax) — Darters (Plo(us) Gannets (Sula) — The Pelicans
(Pelecanidce) — Frigate Birds (Fregatidce) — The Tropic Birds (Pkaethontidce), 2039

CHAPTER XIV. — HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES, — Order Herodiones.

Characteristics of the Group — The Heron Tribe (Family Ardeidce) — True Herons
(Ardea) — Great White Heron — Little Egret — Other Species — Night Herons
(Nycticorax) — Little Bittern (Ardetta) — Bitterns (Botaurus) — Boat-Billed Heron
(Canchroma) — Whale - Headed Stork (Family Baltenicipitidce) — Hammerhead
(Family Scopidce) — The Stork Tribe (Family Ct'com'td^)—True Storks (Ciconia) —
Maguari Stork (Dissura) — White-Bellied Stork (Abdimia) — Jabirus or Giant Storks
(Mycteria) — Adjutant or Marabou Storks (Leptoptilus) — Shell Storks (Anastomus)

— Wood Storks ( Tantalus and Pseudotantalus) — Ibises and Spoonbills (Family
Plataleidce) — Ibises (Ibis, etc.) — Spoonbills (Platalea), .... 2053

CHAPTER XV. — FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS, — Orders Odontoglossi,

Anseres, and Palamedece.

Common Characteristics of the Three Groups — The Flamingoes (Order Odontoglossi,
Family Phcenicopteridce) — True Flamingoes (Pkaenicopterus) — Short-Legged Fla-
mingoes (Palcelodus) — The Duck Tribe (Order Anseres, Family Anatida;) — Spur-
Winged Geese (Plectropterus) — Half - Webbed Geese (Anseranas) — Cereopsis
Goose (Cereopsis) — New Zealand Goose (Cnemiornis) — True Geese (Anser) —
Their Habits — Brent or Sea Geese (Bernicla) — Northern Species — Habits —
Southern Species — Egyptian and Knob- Winged Geese (Chenalopex) — The Swans
(Cygnus) — Whistling Swans — Bewick's Swan — American Swans — Mute Swan

— Black-Necked Swan — Black Swan — Fossil Swans and Geese — Comb Ducks

viii CONTENTS

PAGE

(Sarcidiornis) — Cotton Teal (Nettapus) — Tree Ducks or Whistling Teal (Den-
drocjgna) — Sheldrakes (Tadorna) — Common Sheldrake — Ruddy Sheldrake —
The True Ducks (Anas) — Mallard — Dusky Duck — Gadwall — Habits of Ducks —
Shoveller Ducks (Spatula)— Pinteiled Ducks (Dafild)— Teal (Querquedula)—Wigeon
(Mareca) — Summer and Mandarin Ducks (^dE#) — Pochards and Scaup Ducks
(Fuligula) — Golden Eye and Buffel Head (Clangula) — Harlequin Duck (Cosmo-
netta) — Long-Tailed Duck (Harelda) — Eider Ducks (Somateria) — Their Habits

— The Scoters (CEdemia) — Stiff-Tailed Ducks (Erismatura) — The Mergansers
(MergHs) — Their Habits — The Screamers (Order Palamedece, Family Palamedeidce), 2085

CHAPTER XVI.— THE PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE,— Order Columbce.

Characteristics of Pigeons — Green, Painted, and Fruit Pigeons (Family Treronidce} —
Wedge-Tailed Green Pigeons (Sphenocercus) — Other Genera (Vinago, Crocopus,
etc.) — Painted Pigeons (Pttlopus, etc.) — Wart Pigeons (Alectrcenas) and their Al-
lies— Fruit Pigeons (Carpophaga, etc.) — Wood, Long-Tailed, and Passenger Pi-
geons (Family Columbidce) — Rock Dove and Allies (Columba) — Stock Dove — Wood
Pigeon — Long-Tailed Pigeons (Turaccena) — Cuckoo Pigeons (Macropygia) — Al-
lied Genera — Passenger Pigeon (Ectopistes) — The Ground Pigeons (Family Per-
isteridfz) — Mourning Doves (Zenaidura, etc.) — Galapagos Pigeons (Nesopelia) —
White - Winged Doves (Melopelia) — Turtledoves (Turtur) — Allied American
Genera — (Columbula, etc.) — Cinnamon Dove (Haplopelia) — Blood-Breasted Dove
(Phlogtznas) — Wonga Wonga Dove (Leucosarcia) — Blue-Bearded Cuban Dove
(Sturncenas) — Cape Dove (^Ena) — African Ground Dove (Ckalcopelia) — Bronze-
Winged Doves (Chalcoptera) — Australian Ground Doves (Pkaps) — Harlequin
Dove (Histriophaps) — Penciled Doves (Geophaps) — Plumed Bronze- Winged Dove
(Lophophaps) — Crested Bronze-Wing (Ocyphaps) — Nicobar Pigeon (Catenas) —
Crowned Pigeons (Family Gouridce) — Tooth-Billed Pigeon (Family Didunculidce)

— Dodo and Solitaire (Family Dididce) — The Sand Grouse (Family Pteroclidce) —
Pallas's Sand Grouse (Syrrhaptes) — Black-Bellied Sand Grouse (Pterocles) — Pin-
Tailed Sand Grouse (Pteroclurus) — Common Sand Grouse, .... 2129

CHAPTER XVII.— THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS,— Orders Gallince and Fulicarice

Characteristics of Game Birds — Grouse and Ptarmigan (Family Tetraonidce) — True
Grouse and Ptarmigan (Lagopus) — Red Grouse — Willow Grouse — Black Game
(Lyrurus) — Capercaillie ( Tetrad) — American Grouse (Canachites) — Other Gen-
era— Prairie Hens (Tympanuckus) — Sage Grouse (Centrocercus) — Sharp-Tailed
Grouse (Pedioc&tes) — Ruffed Grouse (Bonasd) — Hazel Hens (Tetrastes) — Part-
ridges, Pheasants, Turkeys, and Guinea Fowls (Family Phasianidai) — Snow Part-
ridges and Snow Cocks (Ler-uia and Tetrogallus) — Red-Legged Partridges ( Cacca-
bis) — Bonham's Partridge (Ammoperdix) — Francolins (FrancoUnus) — True Part-
ridges (Perdix) — Allied Genera — Tree Partridges (Arboricola) — Wood Partridges
(Caloperdix, etc.) — Quails (Coturnix) — Bamboo Partridges (Bambusicola) — Spur
Fowl (Galloper dix) — Blood Pheasants (Ophrysia) — Monals (Lophophorus) — Fire-
backed Pheasants (A com us) — Bulwer's Pheasant (Lobiophasis) — Eared Pheasants
(Crossoptilum') — Kalij Pheasants (Genn&us) — Koklass Pheasants (Pucrasia) —
True Pheasants (Phasianus) — Golden and Amherst's Pheasants ( Chrysolophus) —
Game Fowls (Gallus) — Peacock Pheasants (Polyplectrum) — Argus Pheasants
(Argusianus) — Reinhard's Argus (ffeinhardins) — Peafowl (Pavo) — Guinea
Fowls (Numida, etc.) — Vulture-like Guinea Fowl (Acryllium') — Turkeys (Melea-
gris) — American Partridges and Quails (OdontopkoritHz) — The Megapodes and
Brush Turkeys (Family Megapodiidce) — Megapodes (Megapodius) — Brush Turkeys
(Talegallus, etc.) — Maleo (Megacephalum) — Curassows and Guans (Family Cra-

CONTENTS ix

PAGE

'cidce) — Curassows ( Crax) — Mituas (Nothocrax) — Pauxi Curassow (Pauxis} — Der-
bian Guan (Orcophasis) — Guans (Penelope, etc.) — The Hoatzin ( Family Opisthoco-
midte)—The Rail Tribe (Order Fulicarice) — True Rails (Family Rallidce, Genus
Rallus) — Weka Rails (Ocydromus) — Corncrake and Carolina Rails (Crex) — Pygmy
Rails (Corethrura) — Water Hens (Tribonyx, Gallinula, etc.) — Gallinules and
Coots (Porphyrio and Fulica) — The Finfeet (Family Heliornithidce), . . 2160

CHAPTER XVIII. — THE BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES, — Order Alectorides.

Characteristics of the Group — The Bustard Tribe (Family Otididce) — True Bustards
(Otis) — Little Bustard — Long-Beaked Bustards (Eupodotis) — Ruffed Bustards
(Hubara) — Florican (Sypheotides) — The Thicknees (Family CEdicnemidce) — The
Seriemas (Family Cariamidce) — The Trumpeters (Family Psophiidce) — The Cranes
(Family Gruidce) — True Cranes (Grus) — Common Crane — Sarus Crane — White
Crane — Other Species — Crowned Cranes (Balearica) — The.Courlans (Family
Aramidce) — The Kagus (Family Rhinochcetidce) — The Sun Bittern (Family
Eitrypygidce), .......... 2219

CHAPTER XIX. — THE PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, AND GULLS, —
Orders Limicolce and Gavice.

Characteristics of the Two Groups — Distinctions of the Plover Tribe — Pratincoles and
Coursers (Family Cursoriidce) — Pratincoles (Glareola) — Cream-Colored Courser
(Cursorius) — Black-Backed Courser (Pluvianus) — The Plover Tribe (Family
Charadriida) — Ringed Plover (sEgialitis) — Sand Plovers (^gialophilus) — True
Plovers and Dotterels (Charadrius) — Lapwings — Four-Toed Lapwings ( Vanellus)

-Three-Toed Lapwings (Hoflopterus) — Wattled Lapwings (Lobivanellus) — Stilts
(Himantopus) — Avocets (Recurvirostra) — Oyster Catchers (H&matopus') — Curlews
and Whimbrels (Numenius) — Phalaropes (Phalaropus) — Hard-Billed Sandpipers
and Ruffs (Tetanus) — Godwits (Limosa) — Snipe-Beaked Sandpipers (Ereunetes)

-Turnstones (Strepsilas) — Cleft- Footed Sandpipers ( Tringa) — Sanderling (Cali-
dris) — Painted Snipe (Rhynchaea) — Woodcock and Snipe (Scolopax) — Jacanasand
Water Pheasants (Family Parridce) — Sheath Bills (Family Chionididce) — Seed
Snipe (Family Thinocoridce) — The Gull Tribe (Order Gavice) —Terns, Skimmers,
and Gulls (Family Laridce) — Terns (Hydrochelidon and Sterna) — Noddies (Anous)

— Skimmers (Rhynchops) — Fork-Tailed Gulls (Xema) — Ross's Gull (Rhodostethia)
—Typical Gulls (Larus) — Kittiwakes (Rissa') — Ivory Gull (Pagopliila) — The Skuas
(Family Stercorariidce), ......... 2239

CHAPTER XX.— THE TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, AND PENGUINS,
Orders Tubinares, Pvgopodes, and Impennes.

Characteristics of the Tube-Nosed Birds — The Albatrosses (Family Diomedeidce) — The
Petrels (Family Procellariidce) — Giant Petrel (Ossifraga) — Fulmar Petrel (Ful-
marus)— Allied Genera — Shearwaters (Puffinus) — Capped Petrel and Bulwer's
Petrel (CEstrelata and Bul-vueria) — Cape Petrel (Daption) — Dove Petrels (Prion}

— Storm Petrels (Procellaria) —Allied Petrels— Wilson's Petrel (Oceanites) — The
Diving Petrel (Pelecanoides) — The Diving Birds (Order Pygopode.s)—^^ Auks
(Family Alcidce) — True Auks (Alca) — Great Auk— Razorbill — Guillemots ( Uria)

— Short-Billed Guillemots (BracJiyrhamphus) — Little Auk (Mergulus) — Pacific
Pygmy Auks (Simorhynckus, etc.) — Puffins (Fratercula) — The Divers (Family
Colymbidcz) — The Grebes (Family Podicipedidce) — Typical Grebes (Podicipes) —
Thick-Billed Grebes (Podilymbus) — The Penguins (Order Impennes) — The Genera

and Habits of the Spheniscidce, ........ 2289

x CONTENTS

PAGE

CHAPTER XXI. — THE TINAMUS, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC, — Groups
Crypturi, Stereornithes, RatitcB, Odontornithes, and Saururtz.

Characteristics and Genera of the Tinamus (Order Crypturi, Family Tinamidce) — Ex-
tinct Patagonian Flightless Birds (Group Stereorntthes) — The Flightless or Ostrich-
like Birds (Subclass Ratitce)— The Ostriches (Family Strtithionidce} —Their Dis-
tribution and Habits — Capture and Domestication — The Rheas or American
Ostriches (Family Rheidce} — The Cassowaries and Emeus (Family Casuariidce} —
Cassowaries (Casuart'us) — Emeus (Dromceus} — Allied Extinct Birds — The Kiwis
(Family Apterygidce) — The Extinct Moas (Family Dinornithidce} — The sEpyor-
nithidce — Toothed Birds (Group Odontornithes) — Lizard-Tailed Birds (Subclass
Saururce, Genus Archceopteryx}, ........ 2322

INDEX, . . » . . . . . . . . . 2349

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

COLORED PLATES

GOLDEN EAGLE, ......... Frontispiece

HOOPOES, . . . . . . . . . .Facing page 1821

KARA PARROTS, ......... " 1858

MACAWS, ........... " 1877

FRIGATE AND TROPIC BIRDS, ....... " 2051

WILD DUCK, .......... " 2110

GOLDEN PHEASANTS, ........ " 2194

FLORICAN AND MACOJJEEN'S BUSTARD, ...... " 2225

EAST-AFRICAN BALEARIC CRANE, ....... " 2232

NIGHT HERON AND BOATBILL, ....... " 2268

GIANT PENGUINS, ......... " 2316

OSTRICHES, .......... " 2327

FULL PAGE PLATES

PAGE

THE HOME OF THE OILBIRD, ......... 1852

BANKSIAN AND SLENDER-BILLED COCKATOOS, ...... 1867

OSPREY AND YOUNG, .......... 1935

THE GREENLAND FALCON, ......... 1941

WHITE-TAILED SEA EAGLES, ......... 1969

GROUP OF HARRIERS, .......... 2006

GROUP OF EUROPEAN VULTURES, ........ 2018

CHINESE PHEASANTS IN COVERT, ........ 2174

GROUP OF BRITISH GULLS AND TERNS, ....... 2277

TEXT ENGRAVINGS

Golden Cuckoo, .... 1763

Great Spotted Cuckoo, . . . 1764

Common Cuckoo, . . - . . 1766

Yellow-Billed Cuckoo, . . . 1768

Indian Koel, .... 1770

Egyptian Coucal, .... 1771

Green-Billed Malkoha, . * . 1773

The Road Runner, . . . 1774

Giant Plantain Eater, . . . 1776

Male and Female Quezal, . . . 1780

Narina Trogon, .... 1782

Long-Tailed Coly, .... 1783

PAGE

Chimborazan Hill Star, . . . 1785

Humming Bird and Nest, . . . 1787

Jamaica Humming Bird, . . . 1789

Pretre's Hermit, .... 1792

Guiana King Humming Bird, . . 1794

Racket-Tailed Humming Bird, . . 1796

Tufted Coquette, .... 1797

Common and Alpine Swifts, . . 1800

Long-Winged Tree Swift, . . 1803

Common and Red-Necked Nightjars, . 1805

Virginian Nightjar, . . . 1806

Standard-Winged Nightjar, . . 1807

(xi)

Xll

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Argentine Fork-Tailed Nightjar, . 1809
Great Wood Nightjar, . . .1811
Jamaica Tody, .... 1813
Brazilian Motmot, .... 1815
Common Bee-Eater, . . . 1817
Blue-Bearded Bee-Eater, . . . 1820
Purple-Tailed Wood Hoopoe, . . 1824
Head of West-African Trumpeter Horn-
bill, ..... 1825
Abyssinian Ground Hornbill, . . 1826
Two-Horned Hornbill, . . . 1829
Yellow-Billed Hornbill, . . . 1831
The Kingfisher, . . . . 1834
Laughing Kingfisher, . . . 1841
African White-Breasted Kingfisher, . 1842
Common Roller, .... 1844
Oriental Roller, .... 1846
Madagascar Kiroumbo, . . . 1848
Great Eared Frogmouth, . . . 1850
Australian Owlet Frogmouth, . . 1851
Cockatoos at Home, . . . 1856
Phillip Island Parrot, . . . 1859
Head and Tongue of Lory, . . 1860
Purple-Capped Lory, . . . 1861
Swainson's Loriquet, . . . 1862
Cockatoos, ..... 1864
Head of Great Black Cockatoo, with

Crest depressed, . . . 1865
Great Black Cockatoo, with Crest

erected, .... 1866

Head of Ducorps' Cockatoo, . . 1869

Head of Blood-Stained Cockatoo, . 1870

Rose-Crested Cockatoo, . .- . 1871

Cockateel, ..... 1873

pygm7 Parrot, .... 1875

Red-Capped Pygmy Parrot, . . 1876

Hyacinthine Macaw, . ' . . 1877

Head of Macaw, .... 1878

Carolina Cunure, .... 1880

Slight-Billed Parraquet, . . . 1881

Gray-Breasted Parraquet, . . 1882

Blue-Winged Parrotlet, . . . 1884

All-Green Parraquet, . . . 1885

Hawk-Billed Parrot, . . . 1886

The Gray Parrot, .... 1888

Red-Sided Eclectus, . . . 1890

Rosy-Faced Love Birds; . . . 1892

Gray-Headed Love Birds, . . 1893

A Group of Hanging Parrots, . . 1894

Blue-Crowned Hanging Parrots Asleep, 1895

Rose Hill Broadtail, . . . 1897

Turquoisine Grass Parraquet, . . 1898

Head of Uvasan Parraquet, . . 1899

Budgerigars, .... 1900

The Owl Parrot, .... 1902

Canon Bone of Snowy Owl,

Barn Owls, ....

Tengmalrn's Owl and Pygmy Owl,

The Tawny Owl, .

Ural Owl, ....

Short-Eared Owl, .

Scops Owl and Long-Eared Owl,

Burrowing Owl, . . .

Little Owl, .....

The Hawk Owl,

Snowy Owl and Lapp Owl,

Eagle Owl, .

Eagle Owl seizing its Prey,

Indian Fish Owl, .

Merlins, . . '

Canon Bone of Buzzard, .

Saker Falcon, . . .

Peregrine Falcon, ....

Cast of Peregrines — Red Falcon and
Blue Tiercel, ....

Turumti Falcon,

Merlins, .

The Kestrel, ....

Lesser Kestrel, ....

Black-Legged Falconet and its Prey,

Mississippi Falcon and Swallow-Tailed
Kite, . . . . .

Honey Buzzards, ....

Black- Winged Kite,

Black Kite and Red Kite, .

Egyptian or Yellow-Billed Kite, .

Vulturine Sea Eagle,

White-Headed Sea Eagle, .

African Sea Eagle,

Bateleur Eagle, . .

Common Harrier Eagle, .

African Crested Eagle,

Warlike Crested Eagle,

Bonelli's Hawk Eagle,

Booted Hawk Eagle,

Feathered Metatarsus of Golden Eagle, .

Golden Eagle's Eyrie,

Immature Golden Eagle, .

Imperial Eagle, ....

Spotted Eagle,

Guianan Harpy Eagle,

Common Buzzard, ....

Rough-Legged Buzzard, .

Sparrow Hawk, ....

Goshawk Rabbit Hawking,

African Naked-Cheeked Hawk and Many-
Zoned Whistling Hawk,

Brazilian Caracara,

Falkland Island and Chimachima Cara-
caras, .....

PAGE
1904
1907
1909
1911
1912
1914
1916
1920
1923

1925
1927

1930

i93i
1932

1938
1939
1943
1945

1946
1948
1950
J952
1953
1955

1956
1959
1960
1963
1964
1967
1970
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1988
1989
1992
1994
1996
1998
1999

2002
2004

2008
201 1

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Xlll

PAGE

Lammergeier and Nest, . . . 2015

Riippell's Vulture, . . . 2020

Pondicherry Vultures Gorging, . . '2022

Pileated Vulture, .... 2024

Secretary Vulture, .... 2026
Condors Flocking to a Dead Guan-

aco, ..... 2029

Male and Female Condors, . . 2030

Gauchos Lassoing Condors, . . 2031

King Vulture, .... 2033

American Black Vulture, . . . 2035

Group of Turkey Vultures, . . 2036

Foot of Pelican, .... 2039

Common Cormorant, . . . 2040

Cormorants Feeding their Young, . 2042

African Darter, .... 2044

Common Gannet, .... 2046

European Pelican, .... 2048

Storks Assembling for Migration, . 2053

Canon Bone of Wood Stork, . . 2O54

Furcula of Heron, .... 2054

Goliath Heron in Breeding Plumage, . 2056

Gray Herons and their Nest, . . 2057

Great White Heron, . . . 2060

Little Egret, .... 2061

Common Bittern in Various Postures, . 2064

Boat-Billed Heron, . . . 2066

Hammerheads and their Nest, . . 2069

Furcula of Stork, .... 2071

White Stork, .... 2072

White-Bellied Stork, . . . 2075

African Adjutant, .... 2077

West-African Wood Stork, . . 2079

Head of Bernier's Ibis, . . . 2081

The Sacred Ibis, .... 2082

White Spoonbill, . . . . 2083

Tibia of Flamingo, . . . 2086

European Flamingoes, . . . 2087

Canon Bone of Duck, . . . 2089

Spur-Winged Goose, . . . 2090

White- Fronted Goose, . . . 2093

Upland Geese, .... 2096

Egyptian Goose, .... 2098

American Knob-Winged Goose, . . 2099

Whistling Swan, .... 2101

Black Swan, .... 2103

Common Sheldrake, . . . 2107

Wild Duck, ..... 2109

Common Shoveller Duck, . . 2111

Eider Ducks and Nest, . . . 2120

Ferruginous Stiff-Tailed Duck, . . 2122

The Goosander, .... 2124

Hooded Mergansers, . . . 2125

Horned Screamer, . . . 2127

A Flight of Pigeons, . . . 2129

Humerus of Sand Grouse, Fowl, and

Pigeon, .... 2130

Abyssinian Walia Pigeon, . . 2131

Madagascar Wart Pigeons, . . 2134

Nutmeg Pigeon, .... 2135

Rock Dove, ..... 2136

Wood Pigeon and Stock Dove, . . 2137

Passenger Pigeon, .... 2140
Domestic Turtledove and African Ground

Dove, ..... 2144

Blood-Breasted Doves, . . . 2147

Blue-Bearded Cuban Doves, . . 2148
Crested and Common Bronze-Winged

Doves, ..... 2150

Nicobar Pigeons, .... 2152

Albertis' Crowned Pigeon, . . 2153

Tooth-Billed Pigeon, . . . 2154

The Dodo, . . . . 2155

A Flock of Pin-Tailed Sand Grouse, . 2158

Ring Dove on Nest, . . . 2159

Vulture-like Guinea Fowl on the Ground, 2160

Ptarmigan in Winter Dress, . . 2161

Ptarmigan in Summer Dress, . . 2162

Spitzbergen Ptarmigan, . . . 2164

Willow Grouse in Summer Dress, . 2165

Willow Grouse in Winter Dress, . . 2166

Black Game at Home, . . . 2167

Black Game in the Snow, . . . 2168

Hybrid Capercaillie, . . . 2169

Prairie Hens, .... 2171

Ruffed Grouse, .... 2172

French Partridges, . . . 2176

A Covey of Gray Partridges, . . 2178

Red-Crested Wood Partridges, . . 2181

Common Quail, .... 2182

Crimson Tragopan, . . . 2185

Manchurian Eared Pheasant, . . 2189

Horsfield's Pheasant, . . . 2190

Silver Pheasant, . . . 2191

A Bouquet of Common Pheasants, . 2193

Amherst's Pheasant, . . . 2195

Argus Pheasant Displaying, . . 2197

Peacock, ..... 2199

Crested and Common Guinea Fowls, . 2200

Vulture-like Guinea Fowl Perching, . 2201

Group of Guinea Fowl, . . . 2202

Common Turkey, .... 2203

Californian Quail, .... 2204

Black-Throated Crested Quail, . . 2205

Australian Brush Turkeys, . . 2206

Celebean Maleo, .... 2208

Crested Curassows, . . . 2209
Derbian Guan, . . . .2211

Carolina Rails, .... 2214

Mortier's Water Hen, . 2216

XIV

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Common Coot, .... 2217

Senegal Finfoot, .... 2218

Group of Bustards, . . . 2219

Little Bustard in Breeding Plumage, . 2222

Arabian Bustard, .... 2224

Common Thicknee, . • 2227

Brazilian Seriema, . . . 2229

Trumpeter, .... 2231

Common Crane, .... 2J33

Sun Bittern, . . . 2237

Common Pratincole, . . 2241

Black-Backed Courser, . . 2243

Ringed Plover, .... 2245

Common Lapwing, . . . 2250

Egyptian Spur-Winged Lapwing, . 2252

Head of Chilian Stilt, . . . 2254

Avocets, ..... 2256

Common Oyster Catcher, . . 2258

Common Curlew, .... -259

Gray Phalarope, . . . 2261

Ruffs and Reeves, . . . 2262

Bar-Tailed Godwit, . . . 2263

Common Turnstone, . . . 2264

Knot Sandpiper, . , . . . . 2266

Woodcock in Covert, . . . 2269

Woodcock and Nest, . . 2270

Common Snipe, .... 2271

A Family of Wilson's Snipe, . . 2272

Brazilian Jacana, .... -274

Common Sheath Bill, . . . 2275

Latreille's Seed Snipe, . . . 2275

Young Gulls covered with Down, . 2276

Head of Broad-Billed Tern, . . 2279

Common Tern, . . . 2280

Black Skimmer, . . . 2281

Black-Headed Gull, . . . 2282

Common Gull, , . . . 2283

Herring Gull, . . . . 2283

PAGE

Lesser Black-Backed Gull, . . 2284

Kittiwakes Nesting, . . . 2286

Pomatorhine Skua, . . . 2287

Albatrosses Nesting, . . , 2291

The Giant Petrel, .... 2293
Fulmar Petrels, .... 2295
Cape Petrels Swimming, . . 2298

Storm Petrels on the Waves, . . 2299

Great Auk, .... 2303

Common Guillemots, . . . 2305

Little Auks, .... 2307

Head of Tufted Auk, . . 2307

Knob-Billed Auks, . . . 2308

Head of Whiskered Puffin, . 2308

Common Puffin, .... 2309.
Great Northern Diver, . . . 2309

Haunt of the Black-Throated Diver, . 2311
Crested Grebe, .... 2314
Metatarsal Bone of Penguin, . . 2316

Rock Hopper Penguins, . . . 2317

Group of Black-Footed Penguins, . 2319

Humboldt's Penguin, . . . 2320

Great Tinamu or Martineta, . . 2323

Pentland's Tinamu, . . . 2324

Skull of Giant Flightless Patagonian

Bird, ...
Breastbone of a Ratite Bird,
Ostriches Feeding,
Head of Common Rhea, .
Head of Long-Billed Rhea,
Australian Cassowary,
Skull of Australian Cassowary, .
Emeu and Chicks,

Emeu Resting, ....
Kiwi Feeding, ....
Skeleton of Short-Legged Moa, .
Leg Bones of Short-Legged Moa,
Skeleton of Lizard-Tailed Bird, .

LIBRARY OF NATURAL HISTORY

VOL IV

BIRDS

CHAPTER VIII

THE PICARIAN BIRDS — continued

THE CUCKOOS
Family CUCULID^I

THE toucans form the last family of the subordirial group, known as climbing
picarians, or Scansores. The cuckoos bring us to the first representatives of a
second group, termed cuckoo-like picarians, or Coccyges. In this assemblage the
palate of the skull is of the bridged, or desmognathous type, while the arrangement

(1763)

1764

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

of the tendons of the muscles of the foot is different from that in the first group.
As a family, the cuckoos are specially distinguished by having a zygodactyle foot,
and a naked oil gland; the after shafts to the body feathers are wanting, and the
arrangement of the feathers shows the tract on the back forked between the shoul-
ders. They are birds of universal distribution, very varied in form and habits, some
being entirely parasitic, while others build nests. They are divided into six sub-
families, and while the usual number of tail feathers is ten, in one group (Croto-
phagina) only eight are present; the other subfamilies are well distinguished.

GREAT SPOTTED CUCKOO.
(Three eighths natural size.)

The first representatives of the typical subfamily Cuculin& are the
crested cuckoos, which, in common with the other members of the
group, have pointed wings, and are strong fliers. The genus is dis-
tinguished by the presence of a crest on the head; and of its eight species five are
African, while one (Coccystes jacobinus) is common to Africa and India, another (C.
coromandus) is peculiar to the Indian region, and the last is European. Although

Crested

Cuckoos

THE CUCKOOS 1765

the great spotted cuckoo (C. glandarius} has twice occurred in England, its home is
in Southwestern Europe and the Mediterranean countries, extending thence through
Syria and Asia Minor to Persia, while in winter the bird ranges into Africa, as far
as Cape Colony. It is of an ashy-brown color, white below, with a buff-colored
throat, and is easily distinguished by its crested gray head and long tail, which is
broadly tipped with white. The length of the bird is about sixteen inches. Its
note is described by Canon Tristram as kee-ow, kee-ou, and it has an alarm note re-
sembling the word cark, as well as a third note, like wurree, wurree. It is parasitic,
like the members of the genus Cuculus, but does not victimize small birds like the
true cuckoos, selecting the nests of crows and magpies, whose eggs bear a consider-
able resemblance to its own. The great spotted cuckoo often places two, or even
four, of its eggs in a nest, where the young cuckoos often live in peace with the off-
spring of the foster parents, and, so far as is known, not attempting to eject the
rightful owners. The Indian pied crested cuckoo (C. jacobinus} lays blue eggs, re-
sembling in color those of the babbling thrushes (Crateropus and Argya), in whose
nests it places them. Apparently the young cuckoo ejects the rightful owners,
when the young are hatched, as the babblers are often seen in attendance on their
parasitic dependants without any of their own young being of the party. Some-
times the cuckoo puts two of its eggs into a babbler's nest, and it is said to break
some of the foster parents' eggs to make room for its own. Colonel Butler says
that when they discover a nest of a babbler, which does not suit them to lay in, the
cuckoos invariably destroy the eggs already there by driving a hole into them with
their bills, and sucking the contents.

The six species of hawk cuckoos are remarkable for their exact
Hawk Cuckoos

resemblance in color and flight to a sparrow hawk, being gray birds
with a great deal of rufous below, large yellow eyes, and very broadly banded
tails. They lay white or greenish-blue eggs, and one species {Hierococcyx sparve-
roides) is said to build its own nest and sit on the eggs. This fact has been
recorded in the Nilgiri hills of Southern India, but in the Himalayas the bird is
stated to be parasitic on the babbling thrushes.
_ c u While the hawk cuckoos may be distinguished from the crested

cuckoos by the absence of a crest, the true cuckoos differ from them
by the shape of the tail, in which the outer feathers are nearly of the same length
as the others, instead of decidedly shorter. Moreover, the tail feathers lack the
transverse dark bars of the hawk cuckoos. The genus is represented by ten species,
all very similar to one another, and hawk-like in coloration and appearance, the old
birds being gray while the young are more or less rufous, the Oriental Sonnerat's
cuckoo {Cuculus sonnerati) having, however, the plumage for the most part rufous
barred with black. Of the ten species, four are African, one Australian, and the
rest Indian. Their notes vary greatly, only one other species besides the European
having the "cuckoo" note from which the bird takes its name, this being the
South African cuckoo (C. gularis), which has a note similar to that of the common
species, but more slowly uttered, and the first syllable not in such a high key. The
red-chested cuckoo of Africa (C. solitarius} has a whistling note, on account of
which it is known to the colonists at the Cape by the name of Piet-mijn-vrouw,

i;66

THE PIC A RI AN BIRDS

while the black cuckoo (C. clamosus} is, as its Latin name implies, a noisy bird,
uttering a very loud harsh note. The Indian cuckoo (C. micropterus) , has a note,
which Mr. Gates renders as bho-kusha-kho, while the Asiatic cuckoo (C. interme-
dius\ on the other hand, has only a single note, a guttural and hollow-sounding
hoo, resembling the cry of the hoopoe. One of the most interesting of all birds is
the common cuckoo ( C. canorus} , not the least remarkable feature in its conforma-
tion being its great similarity to a hawk, as not only evidenced by its color and
form, but by its mode of flight, and which is so marked that the bird is always
mobbed by smaller birds, as if it were really a hawk. Its color is gray above and

COMMON CUCKOO.

(One-half natural size.)

white below, regularly barred with black like a hawk, while the throat is buff. It
has also long thigh feathers, like those of an accipitrine bird, so that with its yellow
eyes the resemblance is complete, and when flying it is by no means easy to tell at
the first glance whether it is a cuckoo or a hawk in the air. An accustomed eye
may at last detect the more elongated look of the head, owing to the long bill of the
cuckoo, whereas a hawk in flight often looks as if it had no bill at all, so blunt is the
aspect of a hawk's head when seen at a little distance. The interest in the history
of the cuckoo is, however, concentrated on its nesting habits, and the success with

THE CUCKOOS 1767

which it imposes on other birds in getting them to rear its young. There can scarcely
be any doubt that the number of males considerably exceeds that of the females, and
some naturalists not only speak of the species as polyandrous, but declare that the
female bird does all the courting. Certain it is that the presence of a female cuckoo
excites the interest of more than one male, as may be seen in springtime by those
who know how to detect what has been well described as the ' ' water-bubbling ' '
note of the female cuckoo, which Brehm renders as kwik-wik-wik, and Seebohm as
kwow-ow-ow-ou1. The female, on giving utterance to this note, is answered at once
by every male in the neighborhood, and they lose no time in flying toward the tree
where she is seated, so that there are often quarrels and fierce fights among them.
It is during the love season that the double call cuc-cuc-koo is heard, as if the male
were trembling with passion. Although the general belief is that cuckoos do not
lay many eggs, it has been recently concluded that each hen deposits about twenty
in the course of the season. The variability in the coloration of the eggs is well
known, and it appears that in each individual the coloration of the eggs is heredi-
tary. That is to say that cuckoos brought up by meadow pipits always select that
species to be the foster parent of their own young in course of time, the same being
the case with regard to hedge sparrows, wagtails, and other ordinary victims of the
cuckoo. The small size of the egg, and the extraordinary similarity which it often
shows to the egg of the foster parent, render it difficult to distinguish the cuckoo's
egg from those of the rightful owner of the nest; and sometimes a cuckoo will lay a
blue egg exactly like that of the redstart or pied flycatcher, the nest of which it is about
to utilize. This is perhaps the most curious instance known of strict similarity in color,
the true cuckoo's egg looking merely like a somewhat larger egg of the redstart.
That such eggs are really those of cuckoos was, however, proved by Messrs. See-
bohm and Elwes, who were in Holland together when a redstart's nest was brought
to them, the eggs of which were hard set. On blowing them the young birds had
to be picked out, and the little cuckoo exhibited the characteristic zygodactyle foot
perfectly formed. In the case of eggs laid by the cuckoo in wagtail's nests and
those of other birds, the resemblance is exact, and when a cuckoo's egg is found in
a nest where the eggs of the foster parent are different, it is probable that the
cuckoo has not been able to find a nest, at the moment in which the eggs belong to
its own hereditary type. The nest of a sedge warbler has indeed been found with a
cuckoo's egg in it, which was the exact counterpart of those of the foster parent;
and a few days after, the finder, having noticed the female cuckoo to be hovering
about the neighborhood all the time, found a cuckoo's egg of the same sedge war-
bler type in a reed bunting's nest, where, of course, it looked thoroughly out of
place. From these facts it would appear that a cuckoo, laying a " sedge warbler"
egg. had been unable to find a second sedge warbler, and had been constrained to
put it into a reed bunting's nest. A series of nests of the meadow pipit, each with a
cuckoo's egg, has been recently presented to the British Museum, all of which were
taken near Portsmouth in 1893. There wTould seem to have been three cuckoos who
visited these nests, since three of the nests contain a grayish type of egg, three an
egg of a lighter character, and three an egg of a purplish gray type. The story of
the way in which the young cuckoo ejects the young of its foster parent from their

i;68

THE PIC ART AN BIRDS

rightful home is well known. The cuckoo feeds entirely on insects, and it is
believed to be the only bird which e#ts hairy caterpillars. It has also been accused
of devouring eggs, and this idea may have arisen from eggs being found in the
mouth of a cuckoo. These were no doubt the bird's own eggs, which it was con-
veying to some nest.

Represented in India and Australia by the nearly allied group of the
bronze cuckoos ( Chalcococcyx) , the golden cuckoos form a genus con-
fined to Africa, and represented by four species. These birds differ
from the true cuckoos by their metallic coloration, of which the latter show no

Golden

Cuckoos

YELLOW- BILLED CUCKOO.

(One-half natural size.)

trace. Among them, the emerald cuckoo (Chrysococcyx smaragdineus) is one of the
most beautiful of birds, being of a brilliant metallic emerald green on the upper
parts, and also on the throat and chest; while the breast and under parts are bright
yellow. Found all over tropical Africa, it inhabits the wooded country; and is con-
spicuous, not only from its brilliant coloration, but also from its habit of sitting on
the top of a tree, sometimes for hours together, uttering its loud call of love or

THE CUCKOOS 1769

defiance. The typical golden cuckoo (C. cupreus}, illustrated on our first page, is a
somewhat smaller species, with the plumage of a metallic golden-green hue, the
throat being white. Mr. Layard says that "this beautiful little cuckoo is known by
the name of Didric, from its oft-repeated mournful cry of di-di-di-didric. We have
frequently seen a dozen or more in a morning, while their loud notes were incessantly
ringing in our ears; they are, however, so shy, that we only procured three speci-
mens in as many months. When calling, they perch on the summit of some dead
branch, ready to do battle with any male, or engage in an amorous chase after any
female that comes within their ken. They pursue each other with great ardor,
turning, twisting, and dashing about with great rapidity. The stomachs of those
examined contained nothing but small insects, chiefly swallowed whole." Mr.
Ayres has found the remains of an egg of the Cape sparrow in the stomach, and as
the cuckoo is parasitic on this species it looks as though it sometimes devoured the
eggs of the foster parent to make room for its own.

The American cuckoos, although of sober gray and brown shades of
ne"ca" coloring, and resembling the true cuckoos in this respect, may always
be distinguished by their oval and not rounded nostrils. They are
gray or brown in color, generally with an olive gloss, although two species have
rufous backs. Except as regards their nesting habits, they are nearly allied to the
cuckoos of the Old World. One of the best-known species is the yellow-billed
cuckoo {Coccyzus americanus} , which is olive brown in color, with white tips to the
tail feathers; the under parts being white, and the inner side of the quills rufous.
This cuckoo, together with its near ally, the black-billed cuckoo (C erythrophthal-
mus) is migratory to the United States in summer, the latter extending its breeding
ranges as far to the north as Manitoba and Labrador. Dr. Coues says that the ways
of these cuckoos are shy and retiring. They are more often heard than seen, "pass-
ing from one tree to another stealthily, with a rapid, gliding, noiseless flight, and
they often rest motionless as statues for a long time, especially when crying out, or
when they have detected a suspicious object. The peculiar notes of this bird,
sounding like the syllables, koo-koo-koo, indefinitely repeated, are probably uttered
more frequently during the atmospheric changes preceding falling weather, and have
given rise to the name Rain crow, by which both our species of Coccyzus are known
to the vulgar. ' ' He also says that they are great plunderers of the eggs of small
birds, and are even said to devour the helpless nestlings. The nest is said to be
like that of a crow, but poorly constructed. In connection with the supposition
that our English cuckoo lays its eggs at intervals, it is interesting to know that the
yellow-billed cuckoo undoubtedly does so, since in its nest there have been found
fresh eggs and young in all stages, from the bird just hatched to the one able to fly,
showing that there must be a considerable interval between the laying of each egg.
Audubon gives an instance in which as many as eleven young birds had been
hatched in a season. The eggs are pale green.

Found only in the Indian and Australian regions, two species being
peculiar to the former and four to the latter, the koels show a remark-
able sexual difference in color, the males being black, and the females rufous with
black bands. In most birds, when the parents differ in plumage, the young at first

1770

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

resemble the hens, but in the instance of the koels the young of both sexes are
black like the cocks. The koels may also be distinguished from the preceding
genus by having a much rounder and stouter bill than in the preceding genera. The
tail is long and wedge-shaped. Regarding the coloration of the young, Mr. White-
head, writing of the Philippine koel, or phow (Eudynamis mindanensis) , asks " Why
should the young birds not follow the general rule, and take the plumage of the

YOUNG MALE OF THE INDIAN KOEL.

(One-third natural size.)

female, or have a plumage distinct from that of both parents? The answer to this
riddle appears to be that the phow lays its eggs in the nest of the yellow-wattled
myna. The young cuckoo being black does not differ from the young myna, and
so the deception is carried on until the young bird can take care of itself. If the
young followed the general rule, and resembled their mother in being of a brown
color, the mynas might not feed them. The myna breeds in holes of old rotten

THE CUCKOOS

1771

trees, sometimes using woodpeckers' holes, making it more difficult to see the in-
truder in the dark; and no doubt, when the young bird emerges into daylight, it
would startle the old birds to see the young cuckoos of any other color. One of the
young cuckoos was shot while being fed by the foster parents, and no doubt the
young cuckoo gets rid of the nestling myna at an early period. Of course it might
be argued that it would not be necessary to deceive the myna, for other birds take
care of their parasites, but perhaps the myna has a greater knowledge of the world."
The Indian koel (£. honorata) is the rain bird of India. The bird is parasitic on
crows, and it would appear from the notes of naturalists in India that the koels

EGYPTIAN COUCAI,.

(One-half natural size.)

must look after their offspring to a certain extent, for they have been seen feeding
their own young ones after they have left the nest.

Distributed over a great part of Africa, India, China, and south-
ward through Malaysia to Australia, the coucals form not only a genus,
but a separate subfamily. They are ground birds, of medium or large
size, remarkable for the long spur on the first toe, whence their English name is
derived. They build nests, and lay several white eggs, the shell of which is
chalky, showing an approach to the remarkable eggs of the anis described further

1772 THE PIC A RI AN BIRDS

on. The general color of the coucals is red and black, but some of them are
entirely black, while the Australian pheasant cuckoo (Centropus phasianellus) is
banded with brown and buff. The young birds of all the other species have a
similar kind of plumage, and it is said that some species also possess a winter
garb or " seasonal plumage." If this is the case, it lasts for a very short period.
The Indian coucal ( C. sinensis] is a species of large .size, measuring nearly two
feet in length, and black in color, with the mantle and wings chestnut, and
having a blue gloss on the head and a green gloss on the under parts. It is found
all over India and Ceylon, and, like the rest of the genus, has a curious howling
note, whoot, whoot, whoot, whoot, followed after a pause of four or five seconds by
kurook, kurook, kurook, kurook. The nest is generally domed, and is a rough
structure, described by Mr. Hume as a "hollow, oblate spheroid, some eighteen
inches in external diameter, and from six to eight inches in height, with a large
hole on one side, from the entrance of which to the back of the nest inside may be
twelve inches. This, of course, is not large enough to admit the whole bird, so
that, when sitting, its tail is commonly seen projecting outside the nest. The latter
is placed at varying heights above the ground, in the centre of thick, thorny
bushes or trees. It is usually made of dry twigs, lined with a few green leaves,
but all kinds of odds and ends are at times incorporated into the fabric. Oc-
casionally quite different materials are made use of, the nest consisting almost
wholly of leaves, rushes, or coarse grass. ' '

. „ , With these birds we come to another subfamily, known as the

Ram Cuckoos

bush cuckoos (Phcenicoph<zin<z), and including upward of sixteen

genera. Their bright metallic plumage, and short, rounded wings, show
that they are resident in the countries where they live, and are not migratory
like the long-winged cuckoos. They are mostly Indian and Malayan, but one
genus (Ceuthmochares) is African; while two genera (Saurothera and Hyetornis)
belong to the New World. With the exception of Coua, which is a Madagascar
form, they have all some bright colors on the face or bill, the latter being in
many of the genera parti-colored and brilliant. The rain cuckoos in the West
Indies are only found inhabiting the Greater Antilles and the Bahamas. They
attain to a size of eighteen or twenty inches, are mostly of an ashy-brown color,
with rufous wings, with white-tipped tail feathers, these having a black bar before
the tip. The Jamaican species is a bird of retiring habits, generally sitting im-
movable in a dull and sluggish manner, but on alighting in a tree it "traverses
the branches with facility by a succession of vigorous jumps, when it appears active
enough." The nest is placed high on a tree, and is a loose, flat structure of twigs,
the eggs being chalky white. In India and the Malayan countries there occurs an
assemblage of genera of bush cuckoos, of which the best known are the malkohas
(Rhopodytes). These birds are met with in gardens, thin tree jungles, and second-
ary scrub, being and having a marvelous capacity for making their way through
dense cover. The notes of the malkohas seem to vary considerably, being described
as a "cat-like chuckle" in one species, in another as a "hoarse chatter, much
like that of a magpie," while another of the malkohas has a "cat-like mew."
These cuckoos build their own nests, and lay white eggs.

THE CUCKOOS

1/73

<Jround Another subfamily {Neomorphina} is represented by the four genera

Cuckoos of groun(i cuckoos, all of which are terrestrial birds with powerful

feet for running, and weak wings in which the secondary quills are as long as the

primaries. In Borneo and

r>GS>-.
^

Sumatra the pheasant
cuckoos (Carpococcyx) rep-
resent the group; the spe-
cies from the former island
being two feet in length,
with the aspect and ways
of a game bird. In South
America the subfamily is
represented by the genus
Ncomorphus, which extends
from Northern Brazil to
Guiana, Amazonia, and
Equador, thence to Colom-
bia and to Nicaragua. All
the five species of this
.genus are extremely rare,
and nothing is known of
their habits. In all the
genera above mentioned the
bill is very stout, but there
remain the two American
genera 'Geococcyx and Mo-
rococcyx, in which it is
longer; a familiar example

of the fomer of these being the so-called road runner
( Geococcyx mexicanus) . In plumage this curious cuckoo
has nothing striking to recommend it, being brown with
rufous or white streaks; the under surface whitish;
and a buff -colored throat, which is also streaked with
black. But if its coloration is somewhat sombre, it has
some bright color on the face, similar to that of the
preceding genera, for the iris is red, and it has a bare
space round the eye of a blue color, fading off into white
behind, and then followed by a patch of orange red.
The length of the bird is about two feet. The road
runner is an inhabitant of the Southern United States,
from Texas to New Mexico, Southern Colorado, and
California. It has obtained its name of the "road

runner" from the speed with which it flies over the ground, some idea of which
may be gained from a statement of Colonel Stevenson, that when in Southern
California he saw on two occasions the ranchmen of that part of the country

GREEN-BITTED MALKOHA.
(One-third natural size.)

1774

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

chase one of these birds on horseback for a distance of a mile or more at full
speed, when the cuckoo, though still in advance, would suddenly stop and fly up
among the upper limbs of some stunted tree or bush near the roadside, and the
rider having kept the bird in view all the way would dismount and easily take the
exhausted bird from its perch alive.

THE ROAD RUNNER.
(One-fourth natural size.)

The last subfamily of the cuckoos is represented by the so-called

savana and guira cuckoos, three of which belong to one genus, while

Cuckoos t^ie fourth constitutes a genus apart. Distinguished from all other

cuckoos by having only eight tail feathers, these birds are further

remarkable for their eggs. Externally these eggs are blue, covered with chalky

white scratches, produced by contact with the lining of the nest; and it appears that

this blue color belongs only to the outer covering, so that when this is removed the

true eggshell, which is white, is revealed. The guira cuckoo (Guira} has a very

slender beak, and a crest; the plumage being brown streaked with black, the under

surface buff, and the back white, while the length of the bird is about eighteen

inches. It inhabits Brazil and Paraguay. The members of the other genus are

black, and have an extraordinary bill with a kind of high and narrow keel on the

upper mandible, looking as if it had a ridge along it. Of the three species, the

THE PLANTAIN EATERS 1775

largest is Crotophaga major, which is eighteen inches in length, and is found from
Brazil and Amazonia to Guiana, and also extends to Colombia. The other species,
C. anis and C. sulcirostris, are smaller, not exceeding thirteen inches in length; the
anis inhabiting much the same areas as its larger relative, but being found also in
the West Indian islands, while it has occurred in the Southern United States. It
has a smooth bill, while the latter has several grooves on the side of the bill. It
likewise occurs in the Southern United States, and extends throughout Central
America to Colombia and Peru, but does not seem to reach Brazil and the other
countries of South America.

The savana cuckoos are gregarious birds, and it will be seen from the notes
given below that they nest in company. Senor Alfaro says that in Costa Rica he
found the zopilotillo, as it is called, very abundant in the fields near Tambor,
a little town about twenty miles northwest of San Jose, where along the hedge-
rows and in the scrubby timber they find their insect food, as well as on the hides
of the cattle. The wood ticks or ' ' garrapatos, ' ' which are found on the legs and
about the head and neck of the cattle, are esteemed above all else a favorite morsel.
The bird is also called the tijo-tijo in imitation of its peculiar notes, which seem
to repeat the word tee-ho over and over again. He likewise tells of the finding of
three nests, one of which was situated in the branches of a mango tree, and con-
tained fourteen eggs. Noticing on one occasion one of these birds building its nest,
he returned in a week's time, and found, to his surprise, not only the nest com-
pleted, but containing six eggs, while in the thorns and leaves about it were scat-
tered seven more. He w'rites that " in the finding of some of the eggs scattered in
the leaves was revealed one of the architect's peculiarities. A hole had been left
in the centre of the nest, and only recently filled with leaves, whose fresh green
color testified that they had been cut and placed there later than the others, form-
ing the carpeting to the bottom of this common incubator. The eggs were all
fresh, the six occupying the nest having the characteristic white calcareous surface
perfectly clean, and without the slightest variation in color. Not so with the eggs
found about the outside of the nest: those found in contact with the leaves had
taken on a dirty yellowish tinge, while those suspended among the leaves and
thorns showed various spots and lines of the lustrous blue color forming the base for
the chalky external coat. ' '

THE PLANTAIN EATERS
Family MUSOPHAGID^E

Having many characteristics in common with the cuckoos, the plantain eaters,
or touracos, of Africa, are regarded as indicating a separate suborder, distinguished
by having the oil gland tufted and after shafts to the body feathers, while the feet
are not wholly zygodactyle, the fourth toe being capable of being turned either
backward or forward. The tail feathers are ten in number. Twenty-five species
are known, which may be divided into two sections, one including those which have
crimson quills, and the other those in which there is no red in the wings.

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

Crimson
Winged
Plantain

These birds are often called louris in South Africa, where they fre-
quent the forest districts, building an open nest of sticks in a bush,
an(j resembling that of a pigeon, the egg being also white like that of
the last-named birds. Of Fraser's plantain eater (Turacus macro-
rhynchus) Mr. Bti ttikofer gives some notes in his account of the birds collected by
himself in Liberia, stating that it is a splendid and very lively bird in a wild state,
always keeping to the densest crowns of the trees in the virgin forest, where it

GIANT PLANTAIN EATER.
(One-fifth natural size.)

lives in pairs or in families after the breeding season. It is so shy that it would not
be easily found by the hunter if it were not for its crow-like voice, interrupted now
and then by a mewing exactly like that of a cat. When not disturbed, these birds
can be very noisy, flapping their beautiful red wings, and running after each other
like squirrels among the branches. As their bright wings would render them too
obvious to their enemies, they seldom fly very far at once, but advance by running

THE PLANTAIN EATERS 1777

through the foliage of the trees, hidden by the resemblance of their color to that of
the surrounding foliage. Their food consists of different kinds of wild fruits, and
insects were never found in dissected specimens. A very interesting fact has been
discovered with respect to the coloring matter in the wing of the touracous, which
consists of a kind of copper called turacine. It was at one time supposed that
this coppery impregnation of the coloring, matter of the bird's wing could be ac-
counted for by its picking up grains of malachite, but the touracous are birds which
live in trees, and do not apparently descend to the ground, while the red feathers
have been assumed by specimens in captivity, some of which molted more than
once.

The sole representative of this genus (Corythceola cristata) is the
largest of all the family, measuring nearly three feet in length, and is

sT IcHlLcllH

Eater remarkable for its fine crest and varied coloring. The upper surface
is blue, the head and crest bluer, the tail feathers yellow with blue
bases, and a broad bar of black near the end; neck blue, with the chin and cheeks
white; rest of under surface of body rufous brown; bill yellow with the tips scarlet;
eyes red. This handsome bird is found all over the forest district of West Africa
from Senegambia to Angola, and extends throughout the Congo region to Equa-
torial Africa. Mr. Biittikofer says this plantain eater is confined exclusively to the
virgin forest, where it lives in companies of five or six together in the crowns of
the tallest trees, generally out of reach of gunshot. It feeds upon a kind of bush
plum and other wild fruits, of which an enormous quantity is sometimes found in
its crop.

112

CHAPTER IX

THE PICARIAN BIRDS— concluded

TROGONS TO OIL BIRDS
Families TROGONID^: to STEATORNITHID^

THE trogons, remarkable for their brilliant coloration and soft plumage, con-
stitute not only a distinct family ( Trogonida) , but are likewise regarded as repre-
senting a special suborder (Heterodactyli} , mainly distinguished from the Pica-
rian families described in the preceding chapters by the structure of the tendons
of the foot. In these birds the second toe is turned backward, and the third and
fourth toes are moved by the splitting of one tendon, while a second tendon is like-
wise divided into two branches to supply the first and second toes. They are
further characterized by having the palate of the slit (schizognathous) type; and
the feather tract on the back is continuous in pi-ace of being forked. Then, again,
we may notice that the hinder border of the breastbone has four notches; the intes-
tine is provided with a pair of blind appendages (c<zca}\ the oil gland is naked; and
the after shafts of the feathers of the body are remarkable for their length. Behind
the head is a patch of loose skin, and the whole skin is of such a fragile and
delicate nature, while the feathers are so loosely attached, that the preservation of
these birds tries to the utmost the skill of the taxidermist. As regards their geo-
graphical distribution, trogons are found in the Oriental region, Africa south of the
Sahara, and Central and South America; one species alone {Trogon ambiguus}
being stated to range as far north as Texas and Arizona. Very numerous in Cen-
tral and South America, in Africa, though widely distributed, they are but poorly
represented in species, but become more abundant in the Oriental region, although
not ranging eastward of the islands of Java and Borneo. Fossil trogons have been
discovered in Tertiary deposits in Southern France, belonging to the upper part of
the Oligocene period. Of the eight genera into which the family is divided, five oc-
cur in Central and South America (among these being the typical Trogon); and it is
noteworthy that the latter and one other genus are exclusively island forms, the one
being confined to San Domingo and the other to Cuba. The three African trogons
are comprised in a single genus (Hapaloderma)\ but there are two Oriental genera,
one of which (Hapalarpactes} is peculiar to Java and Sumatra.

Of these magnificently-plumaged American representatives of the
Long-Tailed ( ., - ...

_ family there are four species, among which we may especially notice

the quezal (Pharomacrus mocinno) of Guatemala. Every naturalist
who has had the good fortune to see this bird in its wild state describes it as ex-
(1778)

THE TROGONS 1779

tremely beautiful; and even when preserved, its plumage differs from that of its con-
geners in its retention of the original coloration, — a skin which has been exposed to
the light in the British Museum for some half a century still being almost as bril-
liant as when first mounted. In the other species, on the contrary, the bright yellow
or crimson of the breast fades with sad rapidity. The range of the quezal extends
from Guatemala to Panama, but as considerable numbers of the skins of these birds
are sent yearly to Europe as plumes for bonnets, the species has become very scarce.
Ornamented with a large rounded crest on the head, the male bird has the ground
color of the plumage a brilliant metallic green, while the throat and chest are like-
wise metallic green, as are also the wings and upper tail coverts; the two central
plumes of the latter being enormously developed, and fully four times as long as the
tail, while the rest of the under parts, from the chest downward, are deep blood red.
The median wing coverts are metallic green, and so produced as to form elegant
drooping plumes; while the outer tail feathers are white with black bases. The
female is much less brightly colored than her mate, having a brownish breast, and
the bill black instead of yellow. The head is golden green , and the outer tail feath-
ers are white barred with black. Mr. Salvin gives an interesting account of his
hunting the quezal in Guatemala. After a difficult march through the forest, the
way barred by swollen torrents and fallen trees, he at last managed to get within
sight of one of the birds, which had been attracted by his guide imitating its notes.
This imitation is not difficult, since the whistle is described as " a low double note,
whe-oo, whe-oo, uttered softly at first, and then gradually swelling into a loud but not
unmelodious cry; this succeeded by a long note which begins low, and, after swell-
ing, dies away as it began." The other cries of the bird are harsh, discordant, and
not so easily imitated. When detected, the bird was observed sitting almost
motionless on its perch, merely moving its head slowly from side to side, with the
tail somewhat raised and occasionally jerked open, and again as rapidly closed, thus
causing a vibration of its long upper coverts. In spite of the length of the stream-
ing tail feathers, which appear to form no bar to its progress, the flight of this
trogon is straight and rapid. Of the golden-headed trogon (/*. auriceps), of Peru,
Mr. Stolzmann writes that it is exclusively a bird of the forests, frequenting the
lower branches of the highest trees at a considerable distance from the ground. It
is generally seen in pairs, but sometimes two or three pairs may be met with
together. " I was struck," he writes, " with the vertical position which it assumes
on the large horizontal boughs, and I observed by the aid of my field glasses that,
instead of perching on the upper surface of the branch it remains attached to the
side of the latter just as woodpeckers glue themselves to the trunks and vertical
branches of trees. Its flight is rapid but weak. It feeds on fruits, especially on
nectandras; and in the stomach of one I found a nectandra fruit so large as to fill
the whole stomach. I suppose, therefore, that the trogon, like the guacharo, rejects
the nut after having digested the flesh, because otherwise some time must elapse
before it could swallow another fruit. The species has two cries, both well known
to me: one like a mocking laugh is seldom heard; the other is a plaintive ha-hau,
with the second syllable much prolonged. It has a ventriloquial quality and often

i;8o

THE PIC ART AN BIRDS

deceives the hearer, who fancies that the bird is ever so far off, whereas it is close
at hand all the while. At Cuterro I had a good opportunity of observing- its singu-
lar way of clinging in a vertical position to the trees, spreading its tail out the

MALE AND FEMALE QUEZAL

while and then shutting it suddenly. In
this locality it feeds on certain black fruits,
which impart to its flesh an odor of mar-
joram. I never saw it nesting, but the na-
tives said that it nested in holes -and laid
eggs of a greenish blue. An egg which
my companion found on the ground was
universally admitted to belong to this
trogon. ' '

Briefly referring to some of
the other genera, it may be
mentioned that the South
American Euptilotis is characterized by the
presence of tufts of hair-like feathers be-
hind the ear coverts; the sole representative
of the genus being an inhabitant of Mexico.
Long hair-like feathers in the oame situa-
tion are likewise distinctive of the single
species of Tmetotrogon, which is confined

to the island of San Domingo; while in the Cuban Prionotelus, of which there is
also but one species, the tail feathers are deeply notched. With the single excep-
tion of a species ( T. ambiguus) occurring just within the southern limits of the

True

Trogons

THE TROGONS 1781

United States, the members of the typical genus Trogon are restricted to Central and
South America, where they are represented by some twenty-four species, ranging as
far south as Southern Brazil and Paraguay. They are all birds of moderate size, with
metallic blue or green colors above, and the breast and abdomen either bright yellow,
scarlet, or blood red. The females differ from the males in their duller plumage and
the color of the tail; the latter being either chestnut, gray, or blackish, whereas in
the males it is as brilliant as the rest of the upper parts, — being either green, blue,
or purple. The habits of these trogons seem everywhere to be the same, the birds
affecting forest districts, and feeding almost entirely on fruit and berries. They
are described as rather stupid, and not even startled by the report of a gun, so that
a whole flock may be shot out of the same tree. Most of the species go about in
pairs, but are occasionally seen in small flocks, sometimes frequenting the lower
branches of trees, but more often the middle and higher levels, where they sit
motionless, or utter their curious notes at intervals. Mr. Richmond mentions that
when in Nicaragua, a trogon flew into his house, but in most parts of South Amer-
ica these birds are inhabitants only of the virgin forests, extending their range to a
considerable altitude on some of the mountains. In Peru, Mr. Stolzmann met with
several species, on some of which he has given short notes. The only example of
T. caligatus obtained during his travels was shot from a considerable height on
a tree, when he had heard its cry repeated at intervals for several of hours; it
resembled the words cou-cou-cou-cou-co-co-co-co , the second half being uttered in a
lower tone than the first. Of another kind ( T. melanurus), his companion, Mr.
Jelski, writes that it was not rare, and allowed of an easy approach, flying off to
take up- another perch in the neighborhood of its previous one, always uttering its
note cou-cou-cou-cou-cou. Its flight resembles that of a magpie, and the beating of
the wings is distinctly heard; from time to time it called ke-ke-ke, lowering the tail
at the same time, seldom flying more than fifty paces at a time, and preferring the
lower branches of the trees. In Costa Rica, Mr. Nutting met with three species of
trogons, which seem to differ somewhat in habits. Of the Massena trogon ( T.
massena] he writes: "I have never seen the species associating in flocks as the
others do. On the contrary, it seems to be rather a silent bird, preferring the deep
recesses of the tropical forests. Its note is a kind of clucking noise, hard to
describe, and its native name is Aula. In common with all the species of the
genus, it seems to be rather a stupid bird, hardly ever taking alarm at the approach
of man"; the black-headed trogon {T. melanocephalus} , very abundant in Costo
Rica, being often seen in flocks of a dozen or more, and commonly found in the
dry open woods away from water. It has a sort of chattering note, low and soft.
In the same situations is also found T, caligatus, which is the only species giving
utterance to a clear, distinct whistle.

In Africa the trogons are represented by three species belonging to

_ e the genus Hapaloderma, and characterized by the naked space behind

the eye, as also by the color of the tail, which is the same in both

sexes, the three central pairs of tail feathers being purplish or greenish, without any

black bands at the end of the central ones. The Narina trogon (//! narina) ranges

from Bogosland in Northeastern Africa throughout East Africa to Natal, extending

1782

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

as far west as the forests of the Knysna district. On the west coast from Fanti to
the Gabun, we meet with Ussher's trogon (H. constantia); while in East Africa,
from the Zanzibar forest region into Kikuyu, is found the banded trogon (H. mt-

tatunt}. Very little has
been noted about the hab-
its of these birds, but
Mr. Layard states that the
Narina trogon is a very
shy species, only found in
the forest districts. Its
food consists of fruit and
insects; and its cry is a
loud moaning note, heot,
which has been compared
to the bark of a poodle
with a cold. This trogon
is reported to nest in hollow
trees, where it lays four
white eggs.

The In-
Indian ,.

Trogons diantrogons,
constituting

the genus Harpades, are
beautifully plumaged
birds, distinguished by the
bare sides of the face, and

>the chestnut tail, barred with black at the tip, of
both sexes. The genus is represented by eleven
species, some of which measure as much as a foot in
length, while all are characterized by their brilliant
coloration. One of the best known is the red-
headed trogon {H. erythrocephalus} , characterized by
the chestnut breast, the deep crimson head, neck,
and under parts, and the black wings, in which the
primaries are edged with white, while the wing cov-
erts and inner secondaries are finely vermiculated
with white; the gape and region of the eye being
bare and of a purplish blue color, while the bill is
bluish with a black tip, the feet pinkish, and the
eye dull red. The female is not quite so bright in
color as the male, the lower parts being duller;
the back as well as the neck and breast reddish

brown, and the vermiculations on the wing coverts buff instead of white. The hab-
its of this trogon differ from those of its American allies, for Mr. Gates says that its
food consists entirely of insects, on which it swoops after the manner of a flycatcher.

THE COLIES

1783

It affects thick forests, and, although solitary in its habits, is so common in some of
the hill forests that a dozen or more may frequently be seen together. The eggs
are three or four in number, of a very pale buff color, and laid on the bare wood in
some hollow of a decayed tree.

THE COLIES
Family COLIID^

The colies bring us to another group of the Picarian order, technically known
as the Coraciiformes, often conveniently spoken of (for want of a better name) as
the fissirostral group. With the single exception of the humming birds, all the
members of the group have a similar arrangement of the tendons on the lower sur-
face of the foot; the first toe being supplied by a branch of one tendon, while the
fourth is served by a different one. As a rule, the palate is of the desmognathous

IX>NG-TAII,ED COLY OR MOUSE BIRD.

type, although in some cases it is of the modification characterizing the perching
birds. The colies themselves are exclusively African, and are remarkable for the
structure of their feet, in which all four toes are directed forward, although it is
probable that the first can be turned backward at will. The breastbone is charac-
terized by the presence of four notches; the oil gland is naked; the intestine is devoid
of blind appendages; and there are ten tail feathers. The whole of the colies are
included in the single genus Co/ms, which is represented by half a score of species.

1784 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

To the colonist of South Africa, colies are commonly known by the name of mouse
birds, and are reported to be good eating. They have a rapid flight, like that of a
parrot, with very quick beats of the wings, and are generally found in flocks of six
or eight individuals, which when disturbed fly off together. Their food generally
consists of fruit and berries, occasionally insects being taken, when their other sus-
tenance is scanty.

At the Cape the white-backed coly (C. capensis) is not uncommon in gardens
during the fruit season, ranging about in small families of from six to eight indi-
viduals. They fly with a rapid, though labored flight, generally at a lower level
than the object at which they aim, and on nearing it they rise upward with a sudden
abrupt curve. They creep about the branches like parrots, and hang, head down-
ward, without inconvenience; indeed, it is said that they invariably sleep in this
position, many of them congregated together in a ball. In Natal Mr. Ayres states
that the white-backed coly lives entirely on fruits, as does Mr. Andersson, who
gives some information as to the flight and nesting habits of the species. The flight,
he says, is short and feeble, seldom extending beyond the nearest bush or tree, on
reaching which the bird perches on one of the lower branches, and then gradually
glides and creeps upward through the foliage, using both bill and feet for that pur-
pose. The nest, which he found in a small bush, was composed externally of grass
and twigs, lined internally with soft grass; the eggs were white, and three in num-
ber. Another well-known representative of the genus is the South African coly ( C.
striatus}, which is brown above w;th numerous dusky cross-lines on the plumage, the
head being crested and a little more ashy, while the forehead and lores are reddish;
the sides of the face, throat, and breast ashy brown, the latter with blackish cross-
lines; the rest of the under surface being ochrey buff. The total length of the typ-
ical form is about fourteen inches, but there is considerable local variation in this
respect. L,arge at the Cape, the bird becomes smaller as it approaches Abyssinia,
but is of about the same size in Senegambia, and then gradually decreases in size in
its west coast habitats; this variation in size being an invariable rule with African
birds. The South African coly breeds in Natal, building its nest in the thick fork
of a mimosa or other low tree, well sheltered by creepers and foliage above.

THE HUMMING BIRDS
. Family TROCHILID^E

Mainly confined to Central and South America, where they range from the
steaming tropical forests of Brazil to the cold and barren rocks of Tierra del Fuego,
but also extending into Mexico, humming birds are now regarded, in spite of their
difference in form and habits, as near allies of the swifts. To a certain extent, in-
deed, the difference in the two groups is not so strongly marked in the young as in
the adult condition, seeing that, while in the full-grown humming bird the beak is
always long and slender, in the nestling it is short and wide like that of a swift. In
the structure of their palate, according to recent researches, both groups conform to

THE HUMMING BIRDS

1785

the passerine type. Having the keel of the breastbone well developed, in accord-
ance with their marvelous power of sustained flight, the humming birds are charac-
terized by the presence of ten feathers in the tail, and the same number of primary
quills in the wing; while the secondaries are reduced to six, and are thus very dif-
ferent from those of the perching birds. The three forwardly directed toes are sup-
plied by as many branches of one tendon, while another serves the backwardly
directed first toe. The most remarkable peculiarity of the humming birds is in the
structure of the tongue, this organ being extensile, with its supporting bones carried
backward over the hinder part of the skull.

CHTMBORAZAN HILL STAR.
(Four-fifths natural size.)

Although adorned with such brilliant metallic colors, the members
of this family do not display their tinseled plumage to any great ad-
vantage during flight; many observers having remarked how little of the brilliancy
of the bird's body is apparent when it is darting through the trees or hovering in
front of a flower. This is due to the extremely rapid motions of a humming bird's
wing, the beats of which are almost invisible from their rapidity. Professor New-
ton has well described the impression conveyed by the bird's flight when he writes
that " one is admiring the clustering stars of a scarlet Cordia, the snowy cornu-
copias of a Portlandia, or some other brilliant and beautiful flower, when between
one's eye and the blossoms suddenly appears a small, dark object, suspended, as it

1 786 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

were, between four short black threads, meeting each other in a cross. For an
instant it shows in front of the flower; an instant more it steadies itself, and one
fancies the space between each pair of threads occupied by a gray film; 'again,
another instant, and, emitting a momentary flash of emerald and sapphire light,
it is vanishing, lessening in the distance as it shoots away, to a speck that the eye
cannot take note of — and all this so rapidly that the word on one's lips is still un-
spoken, scarcely the thought in one's mind changed." Mr. Gould, who specially
studied the ways of humming birds during his visit to America, says that their
flight is unlike that of any bird he had ever seen, and quite different from what he
had expected — in fact, exactly the opposite. When poised before any object, the
tremulous motion of the wings is so rapid that the eye cannot follow it, and a hazy
semicircle of indistinctness on each side of the bird is all that is perceptible. Their
actions strongly reminded him of a piece of machinery acted upon by a powerful
spring, and although frequent intermissions of rest are taken during the day, the
bird may be said to live in the air, — an element in which it performs every kind of
evolution with the utmost ease, frequently rising perpendicularly, flying backward,
pirouetting or dancing off, as it were. Mr. Gosse observes that humming birds
have more or less the habit of pausing in the air and throwing the body into rapid
and odd contortions, and he noticed this especially with the long-tailed humming
bird, on account of the effect which such motions have on the beautiful long
feathers of the tail. He affirms that in these evolutions the birds are engaged in
catching insects in the air, and he was close enough to them to see the tiny flies,
and to hear the snapping of the bird's bill as it captured them. It will be noticed
above that Gould speaks of the capacity of humming birds for flying backward.
This power has frequently been doubted, and Mr. Terry observes that " the Duke
of Argyll lays it down that no bird can ever fly backward. He mentions the hum-
ming bird as appearing to do so, but maintains that in reality it falls rather thaa
flies, when, for instance, it comes out of a tubular flower. But, while watching the
motions of a humming bird, it occurred to me to test the dictum of the Duke; and,
unless my eyes were altogether at fault, the bird did actually fly backward. It was
probing, one after another, the blossoms of a petunia bed, and more than once, when
the flower happened to be low down, it plainly rose rather than fell as it backed
away from it." Mr. Ridgway likewise says that he has observed the same thing,
but he has noticed that the backward motion is greatly assisted by a forward flirt of
the expanded tail, as the bird shifts from place to place or from one part of a tree to
another, sometimes descending, at others ascending. " It often towers up above
the trees," writes the last-named author, "and then shoots off, like a little meteor,
at a right angle; at other times it quietly buzzes away among the flowers near the
ground; at one moment it is poised over a diminutive weed, at the next it is seen at
a distance of forty yards, whither it has vanished with the quickness of thought.
During the heat of the day the shady retreats beneath the trees are very frequently
visited; in the morning and evening the sunny banks, the verandas, and other ex-
posed situations are more frequently resorted to."

Humming birds, as a rule, do not possess any kind of song, and their few
notes are of a twittering character. Mr. F. Stephens, describing the "feeding"

THE HUMMING BIRDS

1787

note of Costa' s humming bird, says that the female, when feeding, keeps up a
pretty constant vocal noise, which somewhat resembles the buzz of the wings, and
that the feeding note of the male is finer and not so frequent. " I think," he adds,
"that the males are the only ones who sing. The song is sweet and very low, but
if it is perfectly quiet around it can be distinctly heard for a distance of ten yards.
As might be expected from the size of the bird, it is in a very high key, something
like the sound produced by whistling between the teeth, very low, yet at a higk
pitch. It might be called a warble, and I have heard it kept up for several minutes
at a time. On such occasions I have never been able to find a female in the vicin-
ity, and have come to the
conclusion that it was sung
for the individual's own
amusement. There is still
another hummer note, —
that of the chase. They are
very fond of chasing one
another, sometimes for sport,
often for spite. This note
also resembles the feeding
note, but is louder and pos-
sesses a chippering character,
sometimes almost like the
sound produced by lightly
and rapidly smacking the lips
together. I can detect but
little difference between the
sexes, and it appears much
the same whether the chase is
in sport or anger. Further-
more, it is often made by the
pursued as well as by the
pursuer. At such times I am
always reminded of a lot of
schoolboys playing ' tag. ' If
a hummer is perched and a
person passes near, it starts
off, uttering a note similar to
that made while feeding; but
should it be a female which
you have frightened from her
nest, she will go off silently."
Mr. Ridgway mentions only HUMMING BIRD AND NEST.

two other records of the song

of the humming birds, quoting Gosse, to the effect that the tiny mellisirga of
Jamaica sings, for ten minutes at a time, a sweet but monotonous little song, while

i;88 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

De Oca has observed a similar fact with regard to the wedge-tailed sabre wing. Mr.
Ridgway adds that "although the muffled buzzing or humming noise which has
given this family of birds its distinctive name is the sound usually accompany-
ing the flight of humming birds, the males of some species accompany their flight
by a most remarkable noise, of an entirely different character." While among the
mountains of Utah, in 1869, the writer was for a long time mystified by a shrill
screeching noise, something like that produced by a rapidly revolving circular saw
when rubbed by a splinter. This noise was evidently in the air, but I could not
trace its origin, until I discovered a humming bird passing through the air over-
head in a curious undulating kind of flight. I afterwards heard the same sound
produced by males of the same species (the broad-tailed humming bird) when they
were driving other birds away from the vicinity of their nests. At such times they
would ascend almost perpendicularly to a considerable height, and then descend
with the quickness of a flash at the object of their animosity, wrhich was, perhaps,
more frightened or annoyed at the accompanying noise than by the attack itself.
Mr. F. Stephens calls this the "courtship song," but from the circumstance that,
in the broad-tailed humming bird at least, it is often produced by solitary individ-
uals while wending their way between distant points, I hardly think that it can be
so considered. Mr. Stephens writes of Costa's humming bird that " the female is
sitting on a twig in a low bush, not on an exposed twig, as is often the case when
she is merely resting; but when the male begins she goes further in, as if she
feared that he really intended mischief, while he rises high in the air, and with a
headlong swoop comes down, passing her, and, turning with a sharp curve as near
her as possible, mounts on high, to repeat the manoeuvre again and again. A
shrill whistle is heard as he begins to descend, starting low and becoming louder
and louder, until, as he passes her, it becomes a shriek, which is plainly audible for
a distance of a hundred yards or more. As he mounts again it dies away, only to
be repeated at the next descent. This is a common manreuvre with the species, the
whistle made during the descent being quite low." The nests are tiny structures,
generally made of moss, and covered externally with lichens, which cause them to
resemble the surroundings in which they are placed. The eggs are two in number,
white, and oval at both ends.

Humming birds are divided into three sections, the characteristics of which are
not very trenchantly marked, the fact being that these birds form a very homo-
geneous group, and thus do not lend themselves to any easily recognizable scheme
of classification. The number of species described is nearly five hundred, these
being divided into one hundred and twenty-seven genera. In these genera every
possible variation of form is perceptible, from the longest to the tiniest bill, the
simplest form of tail to the most elaborate of structures, while the metallic plumage,
so characteristic of the humming birds in general, is absent in not a few of the gen-
era, and the color of the simplest kind.

The members of this section, as its name implies, are characterized

lw~ ea by the serrated cutting edges of the fore part of the upper mandible,

the corresponding portion of the lower jaw being in some instances

similarly notched. The group comprises upward of five and twenty genera, the

THE HUMMING BIRDS

1789

members of which differ infinitely among themselves as regards form and color.
The sole representative of its genus, the long-tailed Jamaican humming bird
(sEthurus polytmus}, may be easily recognized by the abnormal conformation of
the tail, in which the outermost feather but one on each side is produced to an
enormous length. An inhabitant of the island from which it takes its name, its
habits have been admirably described by Gosse in the following words: " The long-
tail is a permanent resident in Jamaica, and is not uncommonly seen at all seasons
and in all situations. It loves to frequent the margins of woods and roadsides,
where it sucks the blossoms of the trees, occasionally descending, however, to the
low shrubs. There is one locality where it is abundant, the summit of that range
of mountains just behind Bluefields, and known as the Bluefields Ridge. Behind
the peaks which are visible from the sea, at an elevation of about half a mile, there
runs through the dense woods a narrow path, just passable for a horse, overrun
with beautiful ferns of many graceful forms, and always damp and cool. The
whirring made by the vibrating wings of the male polytmus is a shriller sound than
that produced by the female, and indicates
its proximity before the eye has detected
it. The male almost constantly utters a
monotonous, quick chirk, both while resting
on a twig and while sucking from flower
to flower. They do not invariably probe
flowers upon the wing; one may frequently
observe them thus engaged, when alighted
and sitting with closed wings, and often
they partially sustain themselves by clinging
with the feet to a leaf while sucking, the
wings being expanded and vibrating. The
humming birds in Jamaica do not confine-
themselves to any particular season for nidi-
fication. In almost every month of the year
I have either found, or have had brought to
me, the nests of polytmus in occupation.
•Still, as far as my experience goes, they are
most numerous in June, while Mr. Hill con-
siders January as the most normal period.
It is not improbable that two broods are
reared in a season. In the latter part of
February, a friend showed me a nest of this
species in a singular situation, but which I
afterward found to be quite in accordance
with its usual habits. It was at Bognie,
situated on the Bluefields mountain, but at
some distance from the scene above de-
scribed. On the twelfth of November, we took, in Bluefields morass, the nest of a
polytmus, containing two eggs, one of which had the chick considerably advanced,

JAMAICA HUMMING BIRD.

1790 THE PIC ART AN BIRDS

the other was freshly laid. The nest was placed on a hanging twig of a black
mangrove tree, the twig passing perpendicularly through the side, and out at the
bottom. It is mainly composed of silk cotton very closely pressed, mixed with the
still more glossy cotton asclepias, particularly round the edge, — the seed remaining
attached to some of the filaments. ' '

Two species of the curious genus Microchera are known to science ;
Crowned tne one confined to the mountains of Western Panama, and the other
Humming (M. parvirostris) taking its place in Nicaragua and Costa Rica. Both
Bird are remarkable for their snow-white crowns and tiny dimensions, be-

ing only about two and one-half inches in length. According to its describer, Mr.
Merrill, the latter is not so persistent in its flight as most of the humming birds,
and rests more frequently, this habit being probably induced by the shortness of its
wings. The first specimen seen was perched on a twig preening its feathers, and,
for a few moments, the observer was doubtful whether such a tiny creature could
really be a bird. Another he noticed bathing, and watched its movements for
some time before shooting it. "The little creature," he says, "would poise itself
about three feet or so above the surface of the water, and then, as quick as thought,
would dart downward, so as to dip its head in the placid pool, then up again to its
original position, quite as quickly as it had descended. These movements of dart-
ing up and down, it would repeat in rapid succession, which produced more than a
moderate disturbance on the surface of the water, for such a diminutive creature.
After a considerable number of dippings, it alighted on a twig near at hand and
commenced pluming its feathers. ' '

The forty -eight genera included under this section are characterized
Intermediate by haying the sheath of the upper mandible of the bill very feebly
serrated toward the end of the cutting edge. As with the previous
section, all kinds of forms are included within its limits, from the lovely hill stars
(Diplogena) to the duller-colored amazilia. The hill stars, which inhabit the Andes
from Equador to Bolivia, are remarkable for their brilliant crown spots, and are
among the largest members of the family, extracting the nectar from flowers in a
leisurely manner. Stolzmann indeed relates that he has even seen them perched on
the dead branch of a tree, flying out into the air, after the manner of a flycatcher.
In this division are likewise included the lovely comets (Sappho}, with their long
coppery or red tails and green throats, these birds extending from the interior of
Argentina to Chili, Bolivia, and Central Peru.

Forming a genus known as Lesbia, these elegant birds are found in

Fork-Tailed ^ And from Colombia and Venezuela to Bolivia; and are dark
Humming
Birds green in color, with a short bill, very nearly straight, while they are

specially distinguished by their very long, forked tails, in which the
feathers are even narrower than in the comets (Sappho). Mr. Stolzmann found one
of :he species (L. gracilis) at the height of from seven thousand five hundred to
ten thousand feet on the Andes of Peru, where it was apparently migratory, as he
noticed it to be common at Tambillo in December and January, whereas in June not
one was to be seen. The same naturalist is the rediscoverer of the wonderful Loddi-
gesia (mentioned below); and he noticed that the fork-tailed species had a great

THE HUMMING BIRDS 1791

antipathy to the racket-tailed Loddigesia, which it was always driving away from
the flowers. Its voice is quite characteristic, a tsi-tsi-tsi, very loudly uttered, and in
a descending scale, and on visiting flowers it makes a sort of clapping noise, like
that produced by pigeons when striking their wings together over their backs.

Although resembling the last in their variety of form' and coloration,
this group differs in the absence of serrations in the cutting edges of

Group *ke beak. As our first representatives of the group may be noticed
the curved-billed hermits {Eutoxeres} , of which there are four species,
all remarkable for the strong curvature of the beak, which describes fully one- third
of a circle. The plumage is dull, and devoid of metallic sheen; while the tail is
rounded, with the extremities of the feathers pointed. In Peru one of these hum-
ming birds (E. condamini) has been observed feeding from the flowers of a plant, in
which the curved form of the corolla exactly corresponded with the curvature of the
bill of the bird, while at the same time the bald patch on the centre of the crown of
the latter affords a fair field for the pistils to smear, as the bird probes the flower.
The plant in question is abundant on the sides of the paths, and is always covered
with plenty of flowers; but although the bird is often met with, it cannot be called
plentiful. It stops but a short time on the flower, and is therefore not very easy to
procure. In the stomach remains of different species of gnats have been observed. In
Salvin's hermit (E. salvini}, ranging from Costa Rica to Panama, the head is wholly
feathered; while the species also differs from the last in having no buff color on the
outer tail feathers, which have likewise no white tips; there is also no blue patch on
the neck. Mr. Merrill, who met with the species in Panama, writes that "one day,
while hunting a short distance from the camp for humming birds, I was startled by
the swift approach of a small object through the close thicket, which darted like a
rifle bullet past me, with a loud hum and buzzing of wings. Indeed, it was this
great noise which accompanied its flight, being so much greater than I had ever
heard before from any of these winged meteors of the southern forests, that espe-
cially attracted my attention as something uncommon. The bird continued its flight
but a short distance beyond the spot where I stood, when it suddenly stopped in its
rapid course directly in front of a flower. There for a moment poising itself in this
position, it darted upon the flower in a peculiar manner; in fact, the movements of
this little creature which now followed were exceeding curious to me. Instead of
inserting its beak into the calyx by advancing in a direct line toward the flower, as
customary with this class of birds according to my limited observations, this one
performed a curvilinear movement, at first stooping downward while it introduced its
bill into the calyx, and then, when apparently the beak had reached the desired
locality in the flower, its body suddenly dropped downward, so that it seemed as if it
were suspended from the flower by its beak. That this was not actually the case,
the continued rapid movement of its wings demonstrated beyond a doubt. In this
position it remained for the ordinary length of time, and then by performing these
movements, in the reverse order and direction, it freed itself from the flower, and
afterward proceeded to the adjoining one, when the same operation was repeated.
The flower was that of a species of palm, the blossoms of which are attached alter-
nately on either side to a pendent stalk. Each flower resembles an inverted Roman

1792

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

The True
Hermits

helmet, and is attached, as it were, by the point of the crest to the stalk. It is a
fleshy mass of a deep crimson color, and the cavity of the calyx extends in a tortu-
ous manner downward toward the attachment of the flower to the stalk. ' '

The members of the genus Pliaethornis are dull-plumaged birds, of a
fair size generally, and remarkable for their wedge-shaped tails, the
feathers of which are mostly tipped with white or buff. The bill is
long and curved, but not to the same extent as in the last genus. Sixteen species
of hermits are known, ranging from Mexico, throughout Central America to South-
ern Brazil and Bolivia. The nest is an elongated structure, placed at the extremity
of one side of long-pointed leaves, as if for protection from the attacks of monkeys
and other animals. The hermits are plentifully represented in Brazil, where they
inhabit the gloomy forests, feeding chiefly on insects, instead of courting the sun-
shine and sucking the honey from flowers. Mr. Stolzmann states that in Peru the
gray-throated hermit (P. griseigularis} , instead of inhabiting the hot and moist
forests, like the other species of the genus, frequents dry and arid valleys, where it
seeks the densest thickets and sometimes banana plantations. While this observer
was passing near some thick bushes, he was once arrested by the sound of a very
shrill note, repeated at intervals, which struck him at first as the utterance of a

tanager, and he searched in vain
to find the bird. Baffled, he at
last lay down at the bottom of
the thicket, and after some
minutes discovered a tiny bird
perched on a branch quite close
to the ground. Here was the
meeting place of the hermits,
and the observer at length found
four or five of these birds seated
at a short distance from each
other, at intervals uttering their
whistle, while sometimes one
would take a short flight round,
and then hasten back to the
same place. Subsequently he
heard the birds on several
occasions in the same thicket,

uttering their characteristic cry. At another place exactly the same curious habits
were observed in an allied species (P. superdliosus}. Mr. Stolzmann also says
that the hermits often come in front of an intruder, and remain suspended in the
air, examining him all the time with marked curiosity.

In the single species of the genus Dodmastes we meet with the

bill Hum- most extreme development of bill among the humming birds, since it

ming Bird *s here equal to the length of the whole bird, measuring, at least, as

much as four inches. The home of this bird is in the Andes, from

Venezuela and Colombia to Peru; and the long bill is specially developed to enable

PRETRE'S HERMIT.

THE HUMMING BIRDS 1793

its owner to extract insects from elongated tubular flowers. In some parts of Peru,
visited by the Polish travelers, Jelski and Stolzmann, the swordbill was by no
means common, although tubular flowers were met with in abundance, and the bird
need fear no rivals, since no others, of its kindred could probe these long tubes.
Jelski states that he found the species frequenting a Jacksonia with a long red co-
rolla; the bird hovering for a moment before the flower; inserting its beak rapidly,
and then withdrawing two or three inches, when it again shot the bill into the
same flower, this manoeuvre being repeated many times on the same blossom. The
bird is also said sometimes to pierce the side of the flower with its lance-like bill to
get at the honey within. According to Mr. Salvin, the female has a longer bill than
the male, this organ reaching a length of seven inches in the hen bird, whose colors
are a little less brilliant than those of her mate.

A long straight beak, a forked tail nearly uniform in color, without
Rivoli Hum- . . . , , ....

D. , any white in it, and a brilliant coloration — to wit, a body of bronzy
ming Bird * J

green, a crown of rich metallic violet, a throat of glittering green, and
an under surface changing with the light from velvety black to green — are the
characteristics distinguishing the single species of the genus Eiigenes, called after
the Due de Rivoli, first found in the highlands of Guatemala, and extending north-
ward to Mexico and to Southern Arizona. In the first-named country this bird
was seen by Mr. Salvin, who writes " that it is a most pugnacious bird. Many a
time have I thought to secure a fine male, which I had perhaps been following from
tree to tree, and had at last seen quietly perched on a leafless twig, when my deadly
intention has been frustrated by one less so in fact, but to all appearances equally
so in will. Another humming bird rushes in, knocks the one I covet off his perch,
and the two go fighting and screaming away at a pace hardly to be followed by the
eye. Another time this flying fight is sustained in mid air, the belligerents mount-
ing higher and higher till the one worsted in battle darts away seeking shelter, fol-
lowed by the victor, who never relinquishes the pursuit till the vanquished, by
doubling and hiding, succeeds in making his escape. These fierce raids are not
waged alone between members of the same species. Eugenes fulgens attacks with
equal ferocity Amazilia dumerili, and, animated by no high-souled generosity,
scruples not to tilt with the little Trochilus colubris. I know of hardly any species
which shows itself more brilliantly than this on the wing, yet it is not to the mid-
day sun that it exhibits its splendor. When the southerly winds bring clouds and
driving mists between the volcanoes of Agua and Fuego, and all is as in a Novem-
ber fog in England, except that the yellow element is wanting, then it is that
Eugenes fulgens appears in numbers; Amazilia devillei, instead of a few scattered
birds, is to be seen in every tree, and Trochilus colubris in great abundance. Such
animation awakes in humming-bird life as would hardly be credited by one who had
passed the same spot an hour or two before, and the flying to and fro, the humming
of wings, momentary and prolonged combats, and the incessant battle cries seem
almost enough to turn the head of a lover of these things. ' ' The nesting of this
species in Arizona is described by Mr. Poling, who relates that he was resting under
a pine tree, when he heard the noise of a humming bird's wing close to his head,
and on looking up he found a female Rivoli humming bird making perpendicular

I794 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

dives at him. When he moved away, the bird alighted on a dead twig, and at last,
when about fifty feet up the tree, she made a dart for a limb, and there at a distance
of ten feet from the trunk was the nest, which was secured only with difficulty.

Two beautiful species alone represent the genus Topaza, one being

King Humming ^ ^^ of Gujana) in which the outer tail feathers are cinnamon;

while the second is T.pyra, from the Rio Negro and Eastern Ecuador,

distinguished by the purplish-black tint of the same feathers. Both species are

GUIANAN KING HUMMING BIRD.
(Three-fourths natural size.)

characterized by the tail feather on each side of the middle pair being elongated,
curving outward, and then crossing its fellow, as shown in the illustration.
Hill Stars In the humming birds commonly designated hill stars ( Oreotrochi-

lus), the beak is relatively short and curved, while the toes are pro-
portionately large, and the tail is squared, with narrow feathers. These birds
are inhabitants of the higher Andes from Ecuador to Chili, each species having a

peculiar and restricted range. Thus, O. pichincha and O. chimborazo occur only in
Ecuador, the former being confined to the volcanoes of Pichincha and Cotopaxi, and
the latter to that of Chimborazo; O. adelce lives on the Andes of Bolivia, O. leuco-
plcurus on those of Chili, while O. melanogaster and O. estellce inhabit the Andes
of Peru, the latter also occurring on those of Bolivia. The Chimborazan species, of
which an illustration is given on p. 1785, is olive green, with the whole of the head,
including the crown and the throat, deep glittering violet blue, the rest of the
under surface of the body being white, with the middle of the abdomen and flanks
blackish brown. Most of these hill stars have a patch of black or chestnut along the
abdomen, and the Chimborazan species differs from its ally only in having the
centre of the throat green instead of being entirely blue. The pichincha hill star
must be a bird which presents many curious features in its economy, if any
naturalist could study and write its history, the few notes which have been
published about it fully warranting this supposition. Mr. L,. Fraser states that
he observed this bird clinging to rocks, a habit which, as he justly observes,
explains the use of the longer feet and claws. He believes that these birds build
their nests under overhanging ledges of rock, and breed in companies, the size of
the nest being very large, equaling that of a man's head. The nest itself is
comprised of wool, vicuna's hair, moss, and feathers, while at the top of this
great mass is a little cup-shaped depression in which the eggs are deposited. One
curious nest was found by Professor Jameson of Quito, suspended to a rope hanging
from the ceiling of a deserted house. When one side of the nest is lighter than
the other, the birds restore the equilibrium by adding a small stone or a square of
earth to- the other side, so that the eggs run no danger of falling out.

The largest known member of the family is the sole representative
*°R' d °^ t^le &enus Patogona, and attains a length of eight and one-half
inches, while the wing measures between five and six inches. This
bird is found along the Andes from Chili northward to Eucador, and is easily recog-
nized by its large size and somewhat sombre coloration; while it is further distin-
guished by its strong feet, and the white band on the rump, which sharply contrasts
with the rest of the plumage of the back. The flight is also peculiar, for although,
according to Darwin, the bird hovers over flowers, it does so with a very slow and
deliberate movement, quite unlike the vibratory one common to most species. When
hovering by a flower, he says, its tail is constantly expanded and shut like a fan,
the body being kept in a nearly vertical position; while he further mentions that
he never saw any other bird where the force of its wings appeared, as in a
butterfly, so powerful in proportion to the weight of its body. Mr. Ridgway adds
that the flight of this great humming bird is quite as noiseless as that of a
butterfly. In Peru the species is not rare in the ravines, where several may often
be met with together. In its flight it presents considerable resemblance to a swift,
and only differs in its more subdued motions, though it often glides through the
air without a movement of the wings. It visits a certain species of Jacksonia, and
the head of every specimen is tinged with yellow from this plant. It has also a
habit of mounting into the air, beating its wings in a vertical position, and return-
ing to its perch. The only note is a subdued whistle.

1796

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

Racket-Tailed

Unmistakable on account of its relatively-large tail and conspicuous
crest, the beautiful and curious racket-tailed humming bird (Loddi-
ng gesia mirabilis) is one of the smallest representatives of the whole
family. In the tail, while the two outermost feathers are long and
pointed, the second pair are produced in a wire-like form, crossing each other near
the middle of their length, and terminating in a large racket-like expansion of a
beautiful purple hue. First described from a single specimen in 1847, the species
was not met with again till 1880, when some fine examples wrere obtained from Mr.
Stolzmann. The original specimen came from Upper Amazonia, from the same
locality where Stolzmaun's examples were obtained. It appears to be confined to
the valley of the Utcubamba, a little river on the right of the Marafion system, at
an elevation of some eight thousand feet. The country is open, with here and
there a little valley more richly clothed with vegetation, while an occasional clump
of trees survives, remains of the ancient forest which once was everywhere
throughout the region. Dense thickets abound, and a species of Alstromeria, of a
red color, is its favorite flower, and wherever this occurs the humming bird may be
observed, and as it is in flower from August to November, and as another humming
bird (Lesbia gracilis) does not affect this tree, the present bird thrives. It is one of
the most active of the family, seldom taking rest, the females being especially
lively. The adult males are more rarely seen than the hens and younger males, but
they are beautiful objects when seen in front of the calyx of a flower, the tail with
its two rackets being depressed, while the bird is hovering with the spatules in close

proximity to each other. When
in flight, the humming noise pro-
duced by the wings is great by
reason of the short wings of the
bird, and is more pronounced in
the male than in the female. One
of the most curious habits con-
nected with this humming bird
is that of assembling. Eight or
ten males, mostly young ones,
were observed by Stolzmann near
Tamiapampa to collect in a bare
and desolate plateau on which
were no flowers at all, the assem-
bly being apparently merely for
manoeuvres. Two young males
would first stop in the air oppo-
site to one another, with their
bodies held vertically, opening
their tails and springing first to
one side and then to the other,

uttering a little cry each time the tail was opened, which the observer likened
to the noise of flipping a finger nail or snapping a watch case. As a rule, this

'

RACKET-TAILED HUMMING BIRD.

THE HUMMING BIRDS

1797

aerial dance is shared by two young males only, but sometimes several take part in
it, and the note of the female bird is almost always to be heard in the vicinity.
Sometimes one of the young males hung below a thin branch while another one
manoeuvred above him, spreading his tail and "snapping." Suddenly in a flash
the positions are reversed, and the suspended bird takes the place of the dancer.
The old males perform curious antics with the tail, and sometimes actually bring
the two rackets close to the crown. Stolzmann has also observed the bird drinking
water at a little cascade, of which there are plenty in the country inhabited by the

TUFTED COQUETTE.
(Two-thirds natural size.)

Loddigesia; this being doubtless the only way in which the bird can appease its
thirst. The cry of the young male and of the female is a tsi-tsi-tsi, rapidly repeated
while the bird is visiting flowers or executing the manoeuvres described above; when
seated they are silent, and the voice of the male has not yet been heard.

This beautiful little species (Heliadin cornuta} is distinguished by
the SlitterinS tllfts over the eyes and wedge-shaped tail, the feathers
of wnich are "arrowed at the end into a blunt point. The color is a
shining grass green, metallic greenish blue on the crown, and inclin-
ing to golden on the back; the tufts at the side of the head being metallic purple,

Bird

1798 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

shading off into golden and then to metallic green; while the sides of the head and
throat are black, the under surface of the body pure white, the flanks green, and all
but the centre feathers white, with their outer webs grayish. The total length is
only four inches. The female is duller in color than the male, and has a green
crown, while the sides of the face are dusky, the throat pale buff, and the tail
feathers white with a subterminal band of black. The home of this species is in
Brazil, where the bird is said to be not uncommon in some portions of the interior,
although little is known of its habits.

This is a very easily -recognized group of humming birds by reason
The Coquettes Q£ thg crested head> and the little spangied frijls which are very con-
spicuous on each side of the neck. Twelve species are known, and the range of
the genus extends from Southern Mexico, throughout the greater part of South
America to Bolivia and Southern Brazil, but not including Ecuador or Peru. One
of the most beautiful species is the tufted coquette (Lophornis ornatui) , which inhab-
its the island of Trinidad and the opposite mainland of Venezuela, whence it
extends into Guiana. It measures not quite three inches in length, the bill half an
inch, and the wing one and six-tenths. The upper surface is of a glittering golden
green, with a buffish-white band across the rump; the crest is long and of a dark
cinnamon color; the throat is glittering green bordered with cinnamon, and the
neck frill is also cinnamon, the feathers tipped with a round spot of glittering
green; the abdomen is gray; the sides of the body and under tail coverts shining
green, the feathers edged with pale cinnamon; the tail is cinnamon, the lateral
feathers broadly, the rest narrowly, edged with golden green externally, and the bill
flesh color, with a black tip. Scarcely anything has been recorded of the habits of
the coquettes. Of one of the Central- American species (L. helentz} Mr. Salvin writes
that its flight is very rapid, and hardly to be followed by the eye as it darts from
flower to flower, and its cry is peculiarly shrill, and unlike that of any other
humming bird.

THE SWIFTS
Family MlCROPODID^*

Allied in some respects to the humming birds, and in others to the goat
suckers, the swifts are readily distinguished from the former by their short and
wide beak, while from the latter they are differentiated by the palate being con-
structed after the Passerine type. The short beak is curved toward the tip, and
is very broad at the base, so that the gape is of great extent. As in the humming
birds, the tail feathers are ten in number; whereas in the swallows, which curiously
resemble the swifts in external appearance, there are twelve of these feathers. Of
primary quills there are ten, and the secondaries are likewise reduced, their
-number never exceeding nine. The breastbone resembles that of the humming

*This family is commonly known as the Cypselidcz, but as the name Cypselus is a synonym of Micropus, the
latter must be taken as the souroe of the family name.

THE SWIFTS 1799

birds, being free from notches in its hinder border, but the upper wing bone, or
humerus, is unique on account of its extreme shortness and width. The swifts
may be divided into three subfamilies, the first of which {Micropodirue) is repre-
sented typically by

In common with two others out of the five genera included in

the subfamily, the true swifts have the metatarsus covered with
Swifts

feathers, and the number of joints in the third and fourth toes

reduced to three; while the first toe is capable of being turned forward like the
others. Among the species the Alpine swift (Micropus tnelba} is of large size. It is
of a general mouse-brown color, with rather darker wings and tail; the throat and
under surface of the body being white, with slight indications of dusky shaft-
hues to the feathers, while there is a broad band of brown across the fore-neck.
The length is eight and one-half inches, and the wing also measures the same in
length. This swift inhabits the countries bordering the Mediterranean as far north
as the Alps, and extending throughout Persia to the Himalayas, but wintering
slightly to the southward; while in Africa it is replaced by the allied M. africanus
extending from Shoa to the Cape. According to Messrs Fatio and Studer, the
Alpine swifts arrive in spring, toward the end of March or the beginning of April,
and depart at the end of October; although considerable difference takes place in the
time of arrival in various years, the backward or forward state of the season appear-
ing to influence the time of their arrival and departure to a considerable degree. In
the town of Berne these swifts frequent the tower of the cathedral. A few arrive
at the beginning of April, and after a .short inspection of their old home dis-
appear. In a few days, however, some few return, and their number is increased
day by day until more than two hundred individuals make the cathedral tower
their home. When they first come, the swifts are in good condition, and it is well
that they are so, as insects are few at that time of year, especially if April happen
to be a bad month. At this time they may be seen sitting in rows, hungry and
waiting for a more propitious season, and if they should attempt a flight, they circle
round the cathedral, without the harsh cries generally uttered during their gambols.
Every spring individuals are picked up which have succumbed to the cold, but on
the approach of fine weather the cathedral tower becomes the centre of great
animation. These swifts are very regular in their habits, at the dawn of day leav-
ing their roosting places to seek their food in mid air, and continuing their flight
until about noon, after which they are not seen. They rest until about five or six
o'clock, and then recommence the chase until nighttime; sometimes, on warm
nights, flying till as late as nine o'clock, and even during the night their cries are
loud enough to inconvenience persons living in the neighborhood. Their nests are
placed in all kinds of situations in the cathedral, in holes, spouts, or on the arches in
the interior; while some of the birds, probably driven away by the inhabitants of the
tower, have taken up their abode in a house in one of the most frequented streets of
the town. When once on the ground, these swifts, like their congeners, are unable
to rise, their long wings and short feet rendering it impossible for them to mount in
the air again, though they are able to cling to the rough surfaces of rocks or stones.
From this disability the swifts place their nests at a higher level than the point of

i8oo

THE PIC A RI AN BIRDS

exit, so that they are able to fall at once into mid air. For the same reason the
materials for the nest are collected from any place except the ground. These con-
sist of hair, wool, dead leaves, etc., and especially fragments of paper, the latter be-
ing supplied to the birds by the keeper of the tower, who throws them into the air,
when they are seized by the swifts, and carried off to their nests. All the materials
are cemented with the birds' saliva to form the nest; and the eggs, although usually
two, may be three in number.

Common
Swift

COMMON AND ALPINE SWIFTS.

(One-half natural size.)

One of the latest of the summer visitors to Europe, this species ( M.
apus), which is figured on the left side of the above illustration, is
almost entirely black in color, the only exception being the white throat.
In length it measures about seven inches. Wintering in South Africa and Madagas-
car, the common swift is represented in the Mediterranean regions by the pale swift
(M. murinus} which accompanies it in winter to the Cape. Much that has been

THE SWIFTS 1 80 1

written concerning the Alpine swift will apply to the present species; the nesting"
habits of both being similar. The flight of the common swift is, however, some-
what less rapid than that of its Alpine cousin, although far swifter than that of any
other bird frequenting the British Isles. Indeed the manner in which a swift
twists and turns in the air is often suggestive of the flight of a bat rather than that
of a bird.

Pied Swift Differing from the true swifts of the Old World by its feathered

toes, soft plumage, and nearly square tail, the pied swift {Aeronautes
melanoleucas} , which ranges from the Southwestern United States to Guatemala,
constitutes a genus by itself. Writing of its habits, Dr. Shufeldt observes: " On
the Chugwater Creek, Wyoming, we passed some very high and imposing chalk
cliffs which constitute the more striking and prominent features of the landscape, as
the country about them is low and unbroken, being quite prairie-like in charac-
ter. The head of one of these large chalk bluffs, as it stood out against the clear
blue sky and far above me, actually looked, with the cloud of white-throated swifts
swarming about it, like some great beehive from which the inhabitants had been
suddenly aroused. These birds were far above the range of my fowling piece,
though one now and then dipped down with the most inconceivable velocity and in
a graceful curve over my head, as if to obtain a better view of me. A snap shot
brought down one of these more accommodating individuals, whose curiosity cost
his life, and gave me not only a' beautiful specimen, but the opportunity to examine'
in the flesh, for the first time, one of the then rarest birds in American collections.
During the past eight years I have only caught glimpses of single specimens of this
bird here and there, and sometimes in most unexpected places. Once, far out on the
open prairie, in the northwestern part of the United States, a magnificent adult
swift of this species shot by me with the velocity of a meteor, his white flank-
patches contrasting conspicuously with his black brown body and wings. It was
not, however, until I came to Fort Wingate that the opportunity was really afforded
me to more intimately study and observe this swift in its favorite haunts; for all
through Northwestern New Mexico occur deep, even-walled canons of rock, to which
M. meianoleucas resorts to rear its young. Early in the spring of 1885 (April) I
found some two dozen pairs of them in just such a canon about three miles west of
Fort Wingate. The walls of this magnificent gorge are of solid rock, being nearly
three hundred feet deep in some places, and for the most part roughly perpendicu-
lar, though frequently arching over and outward at their summits. It was within
the deep and crack-like fissures seen in the walls of the eaves of these latter recesses,
away high up on either side of this rocky chasm, that the swift resorted to lay its
eggs. So wisely had every pair of these birds chosen the cleft wherein their nests
were hidden that all my plans and attempts to secure a set of eggs proved futile.
. From the extent of their wings the birds of this family appear formed to live
in the air, where, in fact, they pass the most of their time, gliding about in exten-
sive circles without effort, and apparently little motion of the wings. This ease of
flight stands them in good need in their migratory movements, allowing them read-
ily to pass into warmer climes. During pleasant weather they find their insect
prey in the upper air, but when cloudy or rainy we find them skimming the ground

i8o2 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

in their pursuit. When on the ground, the shortness and weakness of their legs,
added to the length of their wing, incapacitates them from again rising in the air;
hence I have several times seen the European species ( M. aptis} picked up in the
streets of Geneva, Switzerland, having fallen there during a quarrel with its fellows.
When they wish to take rest during the day, which is rare, they always alight on
some elevated point, whence they can throw themselves into the air and take to
wing. Though numbers were flying about the rocks near Tucson, I heard them
utter no note. Sociable among themselves, gathering in large flocks, they never
mingle with their nearly related brethren, the swallows. They generally construct
their nests in the crevices of rocks or the holes in old buildings; many species have
secretory glands, exuding a glutinous substance with which to fasten them firmly.
The eggs, from four to six in number, are pure white, and of an elongated form."
The two species constituting this genus, although resembling the

^ °e pied swift in the feathering of the toes, differ in the form of the tail,
Switts

the outer feathers of which are pointed. The Cayenne species

(Panyptila cayennensis) ranges through Colombia, Guiana, and Amazonia, while
Salvin's swift (/*. sancti-hieromini) inhabits Gautemala. The latter is an unusually
beautiful bird for such a dull-colored family, its general hue being silky black, with
a narrow white collar round the hinder part of the neck, while the wings and tail
also show a good deal of white at the bases of the feathers. Writing of a nest
devoid of eggs, which he found in Gautemala, Mr. Salvin observes that "in this
nest we see the saliva of the bird used as an adhesive material in nest building, as
in the genus Collocalia of the Old World, but differently applied. At first sight the
saliva appears to have been used merely to secure the foundation of the nest (if
the term may be used inversely) to the overhanging projection of rock upon which
the rest of the structure is woven, as in the nests of the Icteridtz; but, upon closer
examination, it will be seen that the saliva has been applied to secure every one of
the seeds used in the construction of the nest, and in no other way could so firm
and durable a structure be obtained. Another curious feature will be noticed in
this nest, which is the false entrance at the side. I remember to have seen a similar
thing in other nests. They appear to be placed there to deceive some enemy, such
as a snake or lizard, to the attacks of which the parent bird and its offspring would,
during the time of incubation, be more exposed. It would be interesting to know
how the materials for the nest were gathered, whether from the plant itself, or
caught in the air by the bird as the seeds were carried by the wind."
Edible Swifts ^e seven small species constituting this genus belong to the second
subfamily ( Chceturina:} , characterized by the elongated wings, and the
generally spiny tail, in which the shafts of the feathers are prolonged beyond the
barbs so as to resemble needles. The needle-tailed swifts, as the members of
the typical genus {Ch&tura) are called, are indeed unrivaled in their rapidity of
flight. From the other members of the group the edible swifts differ by the
absence of the spiny characteristic in the tail; their chief claim to our interest being
their peculiar nests, which form an article of food in the East. Formed chiefly from
the birds' saliva, these nests are firmly attached to the walls of caverns. Mr. C.
Hose has discovered that the different species of the genus build distinctive nests;

THE SWIFTS

180'

the valuable white nests, which are free from moss, being formed by Collocalia
fnciphaga. Writing of the habits of this species in Ceylon, Colonel Legge states
that the breeding season lasts from March till June, and that the nests form large
colonies. Many of these are known, from seeing the birds haunt the vicinity of
certain precipitous hills, but few have been visited and examined on account of their
general inaccessibility. The narrator then describes his visit to a cave on the
twenty-second day of May, when
nearly all the nests contained
young, two being the average
number. " It is noteworthy, that
the partially-fledged young, which
were procured on this occasion for
me, and which I kept for the
night, scrambled out on the ex-
terior of the nests, and slept in
an upright position with the bill
pointing straight up. This is evi-
dently the normal mode of roost-
ing resorted to by this species.
The interior of this cave, with its
numbers of active tenants, pre-
sented a singular appearance.
The bottom was filled with a vast
deposit of liquid guano, reaching,
I was informed, to a depth of thirty
feet, and composed of droppings,
old nests, and dead young fallen
from above, the whole mingled
into a loathsome mass with the
water lodged in the crevice, and
causing an awful stench, which
would have been intolerable for
a moment even, had not the hun-
dreds of frightened little birds, as
they screamed and whirred in and
out of the gloomy cave, with a

LONG-WINGED TREE SWIFT

(One-half natural size. )

hum like a storm in a ship's rig-
ging, powerfully excited my in-
terest, and produced a long ex-
amination of the colony. This guano deposit is a source of considerable profit to
the estate, the hospitable manager of which informed us that he had manured one
hundred acres of coffee with it during that season."

A third subfamily {Macropterygincz} is represented by the five spe-
cies of the genus Macropteryx, which ranges from India, through Burma
and the Malayan Archipelago, to the Solomon islands. They present such marked

Tree Swifts

1 804 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

differences from the rest of the swifts that they have been separated as a distinct
family. The plumage is much softer than in the majority of the swifts, and thus
shows an approach to that of the goatsuckers. The sexes are different in color,
and the young very distinct from the adults; whereas in the other swifts there is
very little difference between the plumage of the young and the old birds. The head
is generally crested, and some of the species have elongated whisker streaks of white.
The metatarsus is shorter than the third toe, which is not the case in other swifts,
while the hinder margin of the breastbone has two distinct perforations; in ad-
dition to which the nesting habits are quite peculiar. Writing on this subject, Mr.
K. Thompson observes that "it is not in the high or deep forest that the bird
breeds, but in scattered jungle, usually covering low .stony hills and ridges. The
nest in this particular case was in a tree quite by itself, with only a few others
in the neighborhood scattered about here and there. My attention was directed to
the male bird, who was trying his best to dislodge a dove from a tree near to the one
on which I ultimately found the nest. I knew that there must be a nest somewhere
near, and soon caught sight of the female sitting transversely across a thin dead
bough, the tiny nest, glued on to the side of this branch, being, as usual, scarcety
perceptible from below. I have seen two other nests of this swift in this neighbor-
hood, each containing a tolerably well-fledged young one. The nests in these in-
stances also were placed on Boswellia trees. To the best of my belief they never lay
more than one egg in the nest." Mr. Hume adds that " the stem to which the nest
was attached is about eight-tenths inch in diameter; against the side of this the
nest is glued, so that the upper margin of the nest is on a level with the upper sur-
face of the branch. The nest itself is half of a rather deep saucer, one and seventy-
five-hnndredths inches in diameter, and about six-tenths in depth internally. The
nest is entirely composed of thin flakes of bark, cemented together by the bird's
saliva, and is about an eighth of an inch in thickness. The egg is a very elongated
oval, obtuse at both ends, and with little or no gloss. It is white, with a slight
grayish-blue tinge, and measures ninety-four-hundredths in length by sixty-one-
hundredths in breadth."

THE NIGHTJARS
Family CAPRIMULGID^R

Ivike the swifts, these birds, have very wide and gaping mouths; while their
plumage is mottled and vermiculated, very much resembling that of the owls, near
which group they have been placed in many classifications. Beyond the resemblance
of their plumage, and the fact that they are crepuscular birds, coming out to hunt
for their prey in the twilight, there is, however, little in common between the two
groups; the former being birds of prey, devouring chiefly animal food and laying
white eggs, mostly in a concealed position in the hole of a tree; whereas the eggs of
the nightjars are laid in the open, and are more or less spotted and marked. The
number of both the primary quills and tail feathers in the nightjars is ten, the palate

THE NIGHTJARS

1805

is of the Passerine (tegithognathous) type, and the third toe has a comb-like append-
age to the claw, similar to that of the herons and barn owls. The group may be
divided into the two subfamilies Caprimulgintt and NyctibUna, of which the latter
contains only the single genus Nyctibius, while the former comprises upward of
eighteen genera, with ninety-five species.

COMMON AND RED-NECKED NIGHTJARS.
(Two-fifths natural size. )

In common with the rest of their kind, the true nightjars have the
S broad beak thickly beset with strong bristles of considerable length;
while they are specially distinguished by the difference in the sexes; the males hav-
ing a large patch of white on the quills and at the end of the tail feathers, which are
either absent altogether in the females, or are replaced by rufous ones. The nest-
lings are thickly covered with down, and form an exception to the general rule of
young Picarian birds, which are naked when hatched. To this genus belong most
of the species of nightjars including the British Caprimulgus europ&us. They are

i8o6

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

found nearly all over the world, inhabiting both Hemispheres, but never going very
far north, and the only locality where they appear to be wanting is in some of the
Eastern Pacific islands. Of the two European species, the common nightjar shown
in the upper figure of cut on p. 1805, is a migrant from Africa, wintering in the
Cape, and passing south apparently by the Nile valley and East Africa, as it has
not yet been recorded from the west coast. It visits Europe in summer, and breeds
throughout the greater portion of the continent, reaching to the latitude of Arch-
angel, and to about 63 ° north latitude in Scandinavia. The plumage is of a dark,
ashy-gray color, closely vermiculated with black; the scapulars are longitudinally
streaked with black and ochreous buff; quills with a rufous-buff spot on both webs,
the three outer primaries with a large white spot on the inner web; two outer tail

VIRGINIAN NIGHTJAR.
(Three-fifths natural size.)

feathers also with a large white spot at the end of the inner web; under surface
ochreous buff, with blackish bars on the abdomen and the under wing and tail
coverts; the breast marked like the upper surface of the body, and the throat black-
ish, narrowly barred with rufous buff, and spotted with white. The total length is
ten and one-half inches. The red-necked nightjar (C. ruficollis) is a larger bird,
measuring twelve inches in length. It has large white spots on the quills and outer
tail feathers, but differs in having the hind-neck rufous, forming a broad collar,
which has gained the species its familiar name of red necked. It inhabits the coun-
tries of Southwestern Europe and Northern Africa, nesting in Spain, Algeria, and
Morocco; migrating occasionally into Southern France; and it has even reached
Great Britain on one occasion, but its winter quarters are unknown. The food of
the nightjar consists entirely of insects, in pursuit of which1 the bird may be seen

THE NIGHTJARS

1807

flying over the heather or the fields in the twilight, often, as it flies, producing a
clapping noise, apparently by striking its wings together, above its back, like a
pigeon. The ' ' churring ' ' note which the birds make is familiar to all dwellers in
the country, and hence its name of churn owl, by which it is known in many dis-
tricts. Waterton has recorded the notes of one of the species in Demerara as repre-
sented by the words, work away! work, work, work away! Another calls, who are
you? who, who are yori? While another cries mournfully, willy-come-go! willy, willy,
willy-come-go! and a fourth, the one represented in the preceding figure (C. vir-
ginianus), tells you to whip-poor-will! whip-poor-will! in tones wonderfully clear and
startling.

STANDARD-WINGED NIGHTJAR.
(One-half natural size.)

The beautiful and rare bird {Macrodipteryx macrodipterus) thus
ir named is but seldom obtained in its full perfection of plumage, since
the peculiar, long-shaped primary, which forms the distinguishing characteristic of
the genus, is often missing or not developed. The male of the L,eona nightjar has
the ninth primary quill developed to an extraordinary length with the shaft of the
feather bare and ending in a racket, so that, as the bird flies, the wing has a long
pennant, or streamer, on each side. This is probably only developed in the breed-
ing season, and is not found in the female. The species is only found in Africa,

1 8oS THE PICARIAN BIRDS

where it occurs in Western Abyssinia, and on the west coast from Senegambia to
the River Niger. Two other members of the genus are known.

As in the preceding genus, this nightjar (Cosmetomis vexillarius)
Standard- jjas an elongation of the primary quills, of which the seventh and

eighth are greatly developed, while the ninth is prolonged into a
Nightjar

streamer which floats behind the bird as it flies. The shaft, however,

is not bare as in the Leona nightjar, but feathered throughout its whole extent.
This bird is an inhabitant of Africa, and its range extends from Equatorial Africa
westward to the Benue river and Fernando Po, and south throughout Eastern
Africa to the Zambezi and Damaraland. The following account of this nightjar
has been published by Sir J. Kirk, who met with it in Nyassaland, and writes that it
" was first observed about three hundred miles up the Zambezi, a little above Tete,
•on the Keihrabassa rapids, in November, 1858, and was there decidedly common.
It was again met with on the western side of Lake Nyassa, where in September and
October, it was very plentiful, being seen in flocks of from fifteen to twenty. It
was also common at Chibisa on the Shire, in latitude 16 ° south. It was only
during the months from October to January that the singular prolongation
of the wing feathers was observed; these are peculiar to the males. Like
other nightjars, the habits oj: these birds are crepuscular. When startled during
the daytime from the ground, where they always rest, they fly swiftly for a little
distance, and again settle, but are extremely difficult to follow with the eye. Not
so with the males in full plumage. In their case there is no difficulty; their flight
is evidently retarded, and they become prominent objects from the long streamers
waving behind them. A deviation from the usual habits of the bird was observed
when cruising on the Nyassa Lake. On two occasions, being overtaken in a gale,
and riding out a short but dangerous sea, which set in and raised a surf on the
shore, through which it was impossible to land, the male birds came off in flocks of
about fifteen and flew over the surface of the water. On no other occasion have I
seen them take wing of their own accord, or keep on the wing during the day."

South America is the home of a group of nightjars remarkable for
N. , . their enormously developed forked tails; while in Africa there is also a
genus (Scotomis] which has an elongated tail, longer than the body
of the bird itself, the feathers gradually decreasing in length till the outside ones
are the shortest. In South America, the genus under consideration has the outer
tail feathers produced, and the two central ones also, the next pair being the short-
est. In Macrop salis, however, the outside pair of tail feathers are produced to
an enormous length and form a train, the feathers gradually reduced in size toward
the middle of the tail, the two centre -ones being the shortest. Of the Aigentine
fork-tailed nightjar (Hydropsalis furcifera}, Durnford states that it is not uncommon
near Buenos Ayres in spring and autumn, living on the ground in damp situations
where the grass is long and thick enough to afford some slight cover, and is gener-
ally observed in parties of four or five individuals. Its flight is noiseless, and
performed by jerky, erratic movements. In Entre Rios, Mr. J. B. Barrows found
it common in summer, 'arriving in August and leaving in May; and he states that
"while hunting capivaras and armadillos by moonlight, I had frequently good

THE NIGHTJARS

1809

opportunities for watching its move-
ments. Its flight is nearly as ir-
regular and as noiseless as that of a
butterfly, while its beautiful tail is
opened and shut in the same
manner as with the scissor-tailed fly-
catcher. Alighting frequently on
the ground, or on stones or roots, it
keeps up a continual but very soft
clucking, which is the only note
uttered. It was most often seen in
open grassy or sandy spots in the
woods, especially along the margins
of the streams. By day it sits close
on the ground, and, if disturbed,
only flies a few yards, though it
evidently sees well." Mr. O. N.
Aplin found the eggs of this species
in Uruguay; they were of a creamy-
pink color, delicately marked with
lines and veins of pinkish lilac,
something after the manner of bunt-
ing's eggs. "On the seventeenth
of March," he writes, "I saw a
male with the long tail feathers set-
tle on a post of a wire fence which
passed through part of the montt;*
it sat lengthwise to the line of fence.
The curious long swallow tail of the
male does not seem to incommode it
at all, as the bird can turn and twist
about in its rapid gliding flight in a
wonderful way, and accomplishes the
difficult aerial navigation of the
thorny montg with all the ease and
grace of our nightjar in an oak
wood."

The single represent-
ative of this genus
{Podager nacundd} dif-
fers from all the preceding, in the
slight development of the bristles

Nacunda
Nightjar

* The Argentine term for the small woods
surrounding so many of the settlements on the
pampas.

ARGENTINE FORK-TAILED NIGHTJAR.
(One-third natural size. )

i8io THE PICARIAN BIRDS

of the gape, as well as by the shortness of the tail, which only equals about,
half the length of the wing. The general plumage is of the usual mottled hue, but
the tail is distinctly barred; while the primary quills are conspicuously white, and
the secondaries lighter brown, with blackish brown bars and vermiculations; the
central tail feathers being like the back, with broad white tips to the outer ones; the
abdomen and under tail coverts white; the lores and upper throat reddish, with
blackish brown bars; the chin almost uniform rust color; and the lower throat very
dark brown, the breast being similar to the upper parts. The length is eleven and
one-half inches. Mr. W. H. Hudson writes that ' ' the specific name of this goat-
sucker is from the Guarane word nacundd, which Azara tells us is the Indian nick-
name for any person with a very large mouth. In the Argentine country it has
several names, being called dormibu (sleepy-head), or duerme-duerme (sleep-sleep),
also gallina riega (blind hen). It is a large handsome bird, and differs from its
congeners in being gregarious, and in never perching on trees or entering woods.
It is an inhabitant of the open pampas. In Buenos Ayres and also in Paraguay, ac-
cording to Azara, it is a summer visitor, arriving at the end of September and leav-
ing at the end of February. In the love season the male is sometimes heard utter-
ing a song or call, with notes of a hollow mysterious character; at other times they
are absolutely silent, except when disturbed in the daytime, and then each bird,
when taking flight, emits the .syllable kuf in a hollow voice. When flushed, the
bird rushes away with a wild, zigzag flight, close to the ground, then suddenly
drops like a stone, disappearing at the same moment from sight as effectually as if
the earth had swallowed it up, so perfect is the protective resemblance in the color-
ing of the upper plumage to the ground. In the evening, they begin to fly about
earlier than most Caprimulgi, hawking after insects like swallows, skimming over
the surface of the ground and water with a swift, irregular flight; possibly the habit
of sitting in open places, exposed to the full glare of the sun, has made them some-
what less nocturnal than other species that seek the shelter of thick woods or herb-
age during the hours of light. After the breeding season they are sometimes found
in flocks of forty or fifty individuals, and will spend months on the same spot,
returning to it in equal numbers evety year. One summer a flock of about two
hundred individuals frequented a meadow near my house, and one day I observed
them rise up very early in the evening and begin soaring about like a troop of
swallows preparing to migrate. I watched them for upward of an hour, but they
did not scatter as on previous evenings to seek for food; and after a while they
began to rise higher and higher, still keeping close together, until they disappeared
from sight. Next morning I found that they had gone."

With these large and mainly South American nightjars we come to
^Ar ood

N. h . the sole representatives of the second subfamily. They are charac-
terized by the plumage being more mottled than in the true nightjars,
and the extreme shortness of the metatarsus, which is inferior in length to all the
toes, as well as by the absence of the comb on the third toe. Moreover, the sides
of the body and breast carry large "powder-down" patches, which do not exist in
the typical subfamily. Of these birds there are six species, which range from Mex-
ico to Brazil, and are also represented in Jamaica. The note of these nightjars is

THE NIGHTJARS

1811

described as being more extraordinary than that of any other bird. Waterton, for
instance, writes that, ' ' a goatsucker inhabits Demerara, about the size of an Eng-
lish wood owl, whose voice is so remarkable that, when once heard, it is not easily
forgotten. A stranger would never believe it to be the cry of a bird, but
would say it was the departing voice of a midnight murdered victim, or the last
wailing of poor Niobe for her children, before she was turned to stone. Suppose a
person in hopeless sorrow, beginning with a high loud note — Ha ha! ha ha! ha! —
each note lower and lower till the last is scarcely heard, pausing a moment of

GREAT WOOD NIGHTJAR.
(One-third natural size.)

two between each exclamation, and you will have some idea of the moaning of the
great goatsucker of Demerara." Mr. Stolzmann, too, states that in Peru the great
wood nightjar (Nydibius grandis} has a curious habit of perching upon dead
branches, so as to look like a knot or prolongation of the bough, so that it takes
an experienced eye to detect them. " Its cry," he writes, "is one of the most ex-
traordinary of any bird I know, and consists of five notes, descending gradually
one-fifth in the scale, and producing an uncanny impression during moonlight
nights."

I8i2 THE PIC A RI AN BIRDS

THE TODIES
Family

Curious little green and red birds, commonly known as todies, constitute the
family Todidce, all the members of which are included in the single genus Todiis.
They are represented only by five species, four of which respectively inhabit the
islands of Cuba, Jamaica, San Domingo, and Porto Rico, while the fifth ( T. pul-
cherrimus} has been stated to come from Jamaica, although its real home is still
unknown. In these birds the beak is long and flattened, the palate of the desmog-
nathous type, the breastbone has four closed perforations on its hinder border, and
the oil gland is tufted; while there are twelve tail feathers, and the first toe is pres-
ent. The habits of the todies are said to be very much like those of flycatchers,
but Mr. Scott states that sometimes they hunt insects in trees and bushes after the
manner of the American warblers. He found them to be entirely insect eaters, and
no vegetable remains were met with in the stomach of those he has dissected. The
todies are becoming rarer in Jamaica, owing to the introduction of the mungoose
into the island, as the burrows on which the eggs are laid are very shallow and easily
robbed by the animal. Of the Jamaica tody ( T. viridis) Mr. Taylor writes that it
' ' appears to be very generally dispersed throughout the island, and may even be
said to be common in most parts. In all localities that I have visited, whether on
the mountains at high elevations or among the woods of the plains, it has appeared
equally abundant at all seasons. Banks of ravines and gullies, where the fringing
forest is of dense and varied but slender growth, hedges with deep banks, woods
and thickets bordering many roadways, and especially the steep, narrow bridle paths
that wind up the mountain sides, where the banks are high, may be mentioned as
some favored haunts. But of all'localities there are few, perhaps, where these birds
occur constantly in such numbers, or which offer more .perfect situations for nest-
ing, than the gullies before mentioned. Many of these dry water courses that dur-
ing prolonged rains become transformed into rushing, impassable torrents, are of
considerable extent, and their sandy beds may be traced for miles inland. One
gully, in particular, where most of my observations on the habits of the todies have
been made, has a wide and tortuous course, and banks that vary in places from low,
weed-covered mounds to precipitous cliffs of clay, between ten and twenty feet in
height. In their choice of a situation for nesting, the birds are somewhat particu-
lar, preference being given to low, overhanging, weed-covered banks, where the soil
is light and friable. The tunnels are rarely, if ever, in high situations, but, on the
contrary, may frequently be found at the sides of the shallow ditches and hollows
that are commonly formed in soft soil during heavy rains. I have often surprised
the todies at work. In beginning a tunnel, they cling in an awkward manner to the
face of the cliff or bank, fluttering their wings frequently, as if for support. So fai
as I have been able to observe, in digging they appear to employ the beak only, and
I once took a tody that had almost the entire half or side of the upper mandible
worn away; this, however, was during a period of drought, when all vegetation was

THE TODIES

1813

burnt and shriveled, and the earth hard aud unyielding. In most cases the whole
•work of excavation would seem to be performed by the birds, yet I have noticed (in
the gullies at least) that those portions of the banks usually selected for nesting are
nearly always riddled with holes and cavities of different depths. Whether the birds
ever take possession of one of these, or enlarge others to suit their needs, I have not
discovered; but such a proceeding would seem highly probable in view of the labor

JAMAICA TODY.
(Natural size.)

which the work of excavation frequently entails. When digging into some of these
holes in a search for the true nest of a tody, I often find them in the occupation of
strange tenants, such as field mice, lizards, and spiders. The latter, black, repulsive-
looking objects, are of common occurrence, especially in the depressions formed by
the falling away of stones, etc., so that some little caution is necessary in prosecut-
ing a search for the eggs of the bird. The burrows run horizontally and to a con-

1 8 14 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

siderable depth, but invariably (so far as my experience goes) turn at right angles
at a few inches from the entrance. The tunnel terminates in a somewhat rounded
cell, where, upon a little heap or bed of fine soft earth, without any lining whatever,
the eggs are laid. These are usually three or four in number, almost globular,
glossy, and of a beautiful pearly white, except that, when fresh, the contents im-
part a delicate pink tinge to the shell. They are, in fact, miniature kingfisher's
eggs. The tameness of the tody is well known, but, as Gosse well remarks, this
seems rather the tameness of indifference than of confidence. I have accomplished
the capture of specimens with a butterfly net at different times with little difficulty,
and frequently a tody has permitted so near an approach that I have been tempted
to put out my hand in the hope of taking it. The todies keep in pairs, if not con-
stantly, for the greater part of a season at least, and during nidification seem to
range over a very circumscribed space. Their food appears to consist exclusively of
small insects, which they usually pursue and take after a short flight, returning con-
stantly to the same twig, where they will patiently sit and watch, with head drawn
in and beak pointing obliquely upward, the plumage much puffed out; the wings
meanwhile being flirted by a continuous, rapid, vibratory movement."

THE MOTMOTS
Family MOMOTID^E

Exclusively confined to Central and South America, the motmots, of which
there are seven genera, are closely allied to the kingfishers and bee-eaters of the
Old World; and are by no means unlike the latter in external appearance, most of
them having a long tail, with the central feathers produced beyond the others.
The first toe is always present;" the hinder margin of the breastbone has four
notches, which are converted into perforations; and there are no caeca to the intes-
tines. The bill is serrated, its saw-like notches being doubtless of use to the birds
when they nip off the webs of their tail feathers. Both in the wild state and in
confinement, as soon as the central feathers of the tail begin to grow beyond the
line of the others, the birds commence to nibble the web away, leaving a bare shaft
for an inch or an inch and a half, with a large racket at the end of the central pair.
In one instance, quoted by Mr. Salvin, the two middle tail feathers had not grown
symmetrically, one being more developed than the other. The bird was evidently
puzzled to find the central feather, which its instinct warned it to nibble, and it
began operations on several of the other feathers, until in time the middle one
grew out beyond the others, and showed which was the proper one to snip. There
are seventeen species of motmots, distributed among seven genera, all of them
having long tails, with the exception of Hylomanes, which is a bird of small size,
recalling the todies in general appearance.

True Motmots ^s a we^-known example of the typical genus, we select the Mexi-
can motmot (Momotus lessoni}, a species with the general color of the
plumage green; this tint including the tail feathers which become blue toward their ex-

THE MOTMOTS

1815

V

tremities, where they are tipped
with black. On the crown of
the head is a patch of black, bor-
dered with silvery blue, which
passes into turquoise blue, with
an inclination to purple on the
nape; the eyebrows, forehead,
and cheeks are likewise black,
the latter being ornamented with
.a band of turquois blue above
and below; the under surface is
•olive brown, becoming greener
•on the abdomen, and inclining
to emerald green on the throat;
while on the fore neck is a tuft
•of black feathers edged with
greenish blue. In length this
handsome bird measures about
fifteen and one-half inches from
the beak to the tip of the tail.
Writing of its habits, Mr. A. K.
Cherrie observes that ' ' the nests
are built in the ground, some
bank, such as the side of a
stream, being selected. The
•entrance tunnel extends back
horizontally sometimes for a dis-
tance of six feet. At about
half its length there is a sharp
"bend upward for some six
inches, then the course is again
horizontal as far as the chamber
occupied by the nest. The nest
space is twelve or fourteen
inches in diameter, being round,
and about six inches high, with
level floor and ceiling. A few
rather coarse dry twigs are
strewn over the floor. The eggs
I am not acquainted with. Mr.
Jose C. Zeledon, to whom I
am indebted for the above
notes, also tells me that if

one of these nests be opened at about the time the young are ready to leave the
nest, it is found to be one of the dirtiest, most foul-smelling places that can be

V t

BRAZILIAN MOTMOT.
(One-half natural size.)

1816 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

imagined. At the time the young leave the nest, they are able to fly pretty well.
They have the same colors as the adults, but the bill is much shorter, more de-
pressed, and the edges without serration. The tail is shorter than the wings, and
nearly square. The eyes are sepia brown, not chestnut, as in the old bird.
With the first utterances of the notes of the adults, the peculiar jerky motions of
the tail commenced. It was most amusing to watch the four birds sitting in a row
together, almost motionless, only giving the tail first a jerk to this side, then to
that, now up and now down, to see it hold for the space of a minute almost at
right angles to the body, and then go with a whisk to the other side, the birds all
the time uttering their peculiar cooing notes. ' '

In the single representative of this genus (Eumomota superciliaris}

the beak is very much flattened, and has a grooved ridge on the cul-
Motmot

men with hair-like rictal bristles. The tail is long and exceeds the

wing in length, and has a broad racket at the end. The color of the species is
grass green, with the mantle cinnamon, the crown grass green with a broad white
eyebrow, shading off behind into silvery cobalt; at the base of the cheeks a few
spots of silvery blue; the under parts are rusty, inclining to grass green on the fore
neck and breast, and to oily green on the sides of the face and throat, in the centre
of which is a black streak, bordered on each side with silvery blue feathers. This
species, which has a total length of fifteen inches, inhabits Central America from
Yucatan to Costa Rica, where these birds are locally known by the name of toro-
voces. "In the breeding season," writes Mr. R. Owen, "these birds are in full
song, if their croaking note may be so termed, and are as noisy and busy then as
they are mute and torpid during the rest of the year. I do not know of any sound
that will convey a better idea of the note than that produced by the labored respi-
ration occurring after each time the air is exhausted in the lungs by the spasms of
the whooping cough. The nest of the torovoz is subterranean, and is usually found
in the banks of rivers, or of water courses which empty into them. The excavation
is horizontal, and at a distance from the surface, varying with the depth of the bar-
ranco or bank in which it is situated. The size of the orifice is sufficient to allow
the bare arm to be introduced, the shape being round and regular for three or at
most nine feet, where the shaft terminates in a circular chamber about eight inches
in diameter and five inches high. In this chamber the eggs, usually four in num-
ber are deposited upon the bare soil. The banks of the river which winds through
the plain of San Geronimo are full of excavations made by this bird — that is to say,
in such places where the soil is light and the bank chops down perpendicularly. It
is a simple matter to hit upon those which are inhabited, as the entrance to the aban-
doned ones will be found perfectly smooth, whereas the mouths of those which con-
tain eggs or young are ploughed up in two parallel furrows made by the old bird
when passing in and out. The torovoz is exceedingly tame, and when started from
its nest will, perched upon a bough a few yards distant, watch the demolition of
its habitation with a degree of attention and fancied security more easily imagined
than described."

THE BEE-EATERS

1817

THE BEE-EATERS
Family MEROPID^

The bee-eaters constitute a well-marked group confined to the Old World, their
place in America being taken by the motmots and jacamars. They have a long
and curved bill, with a well-marked ridge along the culmen; the feet are syndactyl-
ous, like those of the kingfishers, with the soles very broad, and the third and

t, -~

COMMON BEE-EATER.
(Two-fifths natural size.)

fourth toes united almost for their entire length, while the second is joined to the
third for its basal joint only. The tail feathers are ten in number, the palate
is bridged (desmognathous), and the breastbone has four notches on its hinder
margin; while there are also certain other osteological characteristics distinguishing
the group, into the consideration of which it would be out of place to enter here
Of the five genera by which the family is represented, two {Meropogon and Nyctior-
nis), both of which are Asiatic, are distinguished by a tuft of overhanging plumes
on the breast, which are wanting in the other three. Of the latter, the swallow-

i8i8 THE PIC ART AN BIRDS

tailed bee-eaters {Dichrocercus) and square-tailed bee-eaters {Melittophagus} are con-
fined to Africa, while the true bee-eaters (Merofis) inhabit all the four great
continents of the Old World. As a rule, the bee-eaters lay glossy white eggs in a
nest situate at the end of a long tunnel excavated by the birds themselves, although
the two species of Nyctiornis are stated to nest in trees.

Distinguished by the absence of a tuft on the breast and the forked

Swa ow- swallow-like tail, in which the central feathers lack the elongation
Tailed Bee-
Eaters characterizing the other members of the family, the African swallow-
tailed bee-eaters {Dichrocercus) are represented by two species, one
of which (D.furcatus) comes from the western side of the continent, while the other
(D. hirundineiis) is a southern form. The latter is distinguished by having the fore-
head and eyebrow of the same green hue as the rest of the head, instead of being
blue; while the general color of the upper parts is golden green; the wings being
green, and their primary quills light chestnut with black tips, forming a terminal
band to the wing feathers; the upper tail coverts and the central tail feathers are
blue, the remainder golden olive tipped with white, before which is a shade of
black; a black streak runs along the sides of the head; the cheeks and throat are
orange yellow, followed by a black band; the breast is green; the abdomen and
under tail coverts blue; the bill black; the feet dusky gray, and the iris crimson.
The whole length is eight and five-tenths, that of the wing being three and ninety-
five-hundredths, and that of the tail four inches. The sexes are alike in color.
This bee-eater inhabits the Cape Colony and South Africa generally, extending on
the east as far north as the Zanzibar region, and on the west to Damaraland and
Benguela. In habits this species is like the other bee-eaters, hawking for food in
the open, and capturing insects in full flight. It seems, however, to fly at a lesser
altitude than some of its larger relations, and nests in sandy banks, making a tun-
nel of about three feet in length, the entrance to the tunnel being very small, not
more than two inches wide, but' opening out into a slightly-wider chamber at
the end.

The square-tailed bee-eaters {Melittophagus) are all of small size,
_ p measuring only from six to nine inches in length, and mostly confined
to Africa, although two species range into India and the countries
east of the Bay of Bengal as far as Java. Thirteen in number, these bee-eaters are
easily recognized by their square tails; their general coloration being of the peculiar
green hue common to the group, although with considerable contrasts of blue and
yellow, some also having a black band on the throat. While the African species
frequents water courses, the little bee-eater (M. pusillui) prefers reedy marshes and
swamps, where it perches on low bushes and trees. On the other hand, the white-
fronted species ( M. albifrons} selects higher trees in the neighborhood of water. A
well-known member of the genus is the chestnut-headed bee-eater (M. swinheoi), in
which the lower back and upper tail coverts are silvery blue; the primary quills
having their inner surface rufous, with a blue bar at the end ; while the tail is green-
ish blue; the head and mantle chestnut; the throat yellow, with a black band infe-
riorly; the under surface of the body emerald green; the breast and flanks marked
-with yellow, and the abdomen and under tail coverts blue. This pretty species is

THE BEE-EATERS 1819

found in the Indian Peninsula and Ceylon, extending through the Burmese coun-
tries to Siam and Cochin China, and southward to the Malay Peninsula. The eggs,
like those of the rest of the family, are pure white, and four or six in number; the
holes in which they are laid being tunneled in sandy soil by the birds themselves,
either in a retired bank of a river or in the sides of a road, and the tunnels vary-
ing in length from one foot to seven feet, with the chamber at the end larger than
the rest of the excavation. The direction of the passage is not always straight,
Davison stating that he has found some of them, after a depth of twelve or eighteen
inches, turning off almost at a right angle, while others took an almost circular
direction. There is no nest in the chamber, and the eggs are laid on the bare floor
of the chamber, which is about six inches in diameter.

Of somewhat larger size than the last, the true bee-eaters (^Meropi)
rUp ' are represented by seventeen species, all distinguished by the central

tail feathers being elongated beyond the others. Of these, eight are
peculiar to Africa, while two (M. persicus and M: viridis) inhabit both Africa and
India; Arabia owning two species, namely, M. cyanophrys from Aden, and M. mus-
catensis from Muscat. In Europe M. apiaster is common in summer, M. philippinus
abounds from the Indian Peninsula to Southern China and even extends over the
greater part of Malaysia, while M, Ornatus is Australian. Two {M. bicolor and M.
sumatranus) are confined to the Indian region, and one of the handsomest species is
M. breveri from the Gabun and the Congo in West Africa. The common bee-eater
(M. apiaster) is a rather large species, measuring ten inches in length, with the
wings five and nine-tenths, and the tail four and five-tenths inches. The head and
mantle are chestnut; the back and scapulars creamy buff, the lower back washed
with blue like the upper tail coverts; the lesser wing coverts are green, but the rest
are chestnut like the secondaries, which are tipped with black; the quills are blue
with blackish tips; the tail green with blue edges, the central feathers almost
entirely blue; the cheeks are blue in front, white behind; the crown chestnut, with
a white band on the forehead, followed by a blue line joining a narrow blue eye-
brow; the throat is yellow, with a black band across the lower part; the rest
of the under surface greenish blue; the bill black; the feet grayish brown, and the
iris yellow. The sexes are alike in color, but the young are paler, having a green
eyebrow, with the black bar on the lower throat, and show a general wash of green
over the head, mantle, and back. This bee-eater visits Southern Europe regularly
every summer, and is found as far east as Turkestan, Kashmir, and Sind; breeding
in Afghanistan and plentifully in Kashmir. Its habits are like those of other bee-
eaters, the bird taking its food on the wing, and being very destructive to bees in
certain parts of Southern Europe, visiting the hives and capturing the insects as
they fly out and in. In winter it visits all parts of Africa, and is even said to rear
a second brood in its winter home. Several species of European birds are, indeed,
reported to nest in the southern countries where they winter, but although these
records must be received with caution, in the case of the common bee-eater the evi-
dence is certainly remarkable, for Mr. Layard says that not only did he receive
information of the breeding of the species, but he himself found it nesting in large
numbers on the Berg river in September and October. He observes that ' ' it does

1 8 20

THE PIC A RI AN BIRDS

Celebean

not always select a bank into which to bore the hole destined for its nest, for we
found one flat piece of sandy ground perforated with numberless holes, into which
the birds were diving and scrambling like so many rats. ' '

In the island of Celebes is found a peculiar species (Mesopogon
forsteni), characterized by having the two central tail feathers elon-
gated, as in the genus Merops, but with a bunch of overhanging
plumes on the breast. The color of the bird is green; the quills being dusky at the
ends, the central tail feathers green; but the rest chestnut with green edges; the
head, throat, and breast are deep ultramarine; the hind-neck maroon brown;

BLUE-BEARDED BEE-EATER.
(One-half natural size.)

the abdomen dusky blackish, washed with green, and the under tail coverts chest-
nut with green margins. The total length is thirteen inches. The species is only
found according to Dr. Meyer, in dense forests difficult of access, where it inhabits
the highest trees, and has the manners and ways of other bee-eaters.

The two species constituting the genus Nyctiornis are distinguished

_ _ not only by the tufts of feathers on the breast, but also by the squared

tail and densely- feathered nostrils. The blue-bearded bee-eater (-A^.

ashertoni] is an Indian bird, extending east to Siam, but replaced in Tenasserim and

the Malay region by the scarlet-bearded bee-eater (N. amicta), a beautiful species

with the long feathers of the throat scarlet instead of blue, and the forehead lilac

instead of bluish green. This species is said by Mr. Whitehead to be fairly com-

HOOPOES

THE HOOPOES 1821

mon in parts of Borneo, frequenting the high forest, where it sits solitary on the
lower boughs of trees, making short nights after insects. Although there is one
statement as to its eggs having been taken from a tunnel, the blue-bearded bee-
eater is believed to nest in holes in trees, having been seen to fly out of such cavities
in Tenasserim.

THE HOOPOES
Family UPUPIDJE

The beautiful birds known from their cry as hoopoes form, with the wood
hoopoes, a group having no very close allies, and are regarded, like each of the last
few preceding families, as constituting a suborder by themselves. They have,
indeed, been considered as nearly related to the perching birds, from which they
are, however, sharply distinguished by the bridged structure of the palate,
as well as by the presence of two deep notches in the hinder border of the
breastbone. They are further characterized by a perforation in the fore part of
the latter bone, which allows the two metacoracoid bones to meet in the middle
line; a similar condition obtaining in the bee-eaters and hornbills. Indeed, it
is the latter birds, which at first sight appear so different, that seem to be- the
nearest allies to the hoopoes, both these groups displaying very remarkable nesting
hab.its, and also having certain structural features in common. The whole of the
members of the present family are included in the single genus Upupa, and are
desert-loving birds, inhabiting suitable localities in Africa, the greater part of Asia,
and temperate Europe, and specially distinguished by the sandy hue of their
plumage, which is devoid of any metallic gloss, the squared form of the tail, and
the open and rounded nostrils. They are represented by six species, three of
which are exclusively confined to Africa and Madagascar; while the Indian
hoopoe (£/. indica) ranges from the country from which it takes its name to
Burma, and on the western limits of its range apparently interbreeds with the
common European species.

The latter species ( U. epops), which is the one represented in our colored
plate, has its plumage of a general sandy-brown color, with black and white
bands. Conspicuous from the crest of erectile plumes adorning the head, the
hoopoe has the secondary quills black with four white bars of equal width;
the rump is white; the primary quills are black with a broad band of white; the
lesser wing coverts being of the same sandy hue as the back, while the median
series is black tipped with buff. The dark vinous crest feathers are tipped with
black, bordered inferiorly by a line of white; the flanks have blackish streaks;
the under tail coverts are white; the tail is black with a broad white band, some-
what bent downward on the outer feathers; while the beak is black, with a
flesh-colored base, and the feet are likewise black. In total length the bird
measures about a foot. The range of this species apparently extends from
Southern Sweden and Central and Southern Europe generally, to Japan. Its

i822 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

winter home appears to be in Senegambia, Southeastern Africa, and the peninsula,
of India. In the latter area it probably intergrades with the resident species,
which has no white subterminal bar on the crest feathers, although many inter-
mediate specimens are met with, showing an indication of a more or less perfect
white bar, and are doubtless the result of crossing. The sexes of the common
hoopoe are alike in color, and the young birds resemble the adults, but have
a more fluffy plumage. Breeding as a rule in hollow trees, the hoopoe is now
become rare in those parts of the Continent where the country has been denuded
of timber. Like the hornbills, the female has the habit of sitting very closely
on her eggs, during which period she is fed by her mate. Lord Lilford writes
that hoopoes generally ' ' prefer a hole in a hollow ash or willow for nesting in " ;
but I have seen a nest on the ground under a large stone, others in holes on the
sunny side of mud or brick walls, one in a fissure of limestone rock, and one in
a small cavern. The eggs when first laid are of a beautiful pale greenish
blue, but soon become stained and dirty, so that the average hoopoe's egg is
of a dirty yellow color. Swinhoe, again, writing from China, observes that
' ' many years ago a pair of hoopoes took possession of a hole in the city wall
at Amoy, near my house. The hen sat close until the young were hatched, the
male frequently supplying her with food during the day. Hoopoes have often
bred in the holes of exposed Chinese coffins; the natives hence have an objection
to them, and brand them as the 'coffin bird.' The young, when hatched, are
naked, but soon get covered with small blue quills, which yield the feathers.
The little creature has a short bill, and crouches forward, making a hissing
noise. It looks a strange compound of the young wryneck and kingfisher. They
do not stand upright till nearly fledged. Their crests develop at once, but their
bills do not acquire their full length till the following year." A correspondent
of Blyth's at Calcutta, who was one of the first to draw attention to the circum-
stance of the nesting hen being fed by the cock, writes that two pairs of these
birds, nesting in his veranda, became so tame that his presence never disturbed
them in the least; and he twice saw the males with the females just at the
bottom of the steps, and within ten yards of where he was sitting. ' ' I was there-
fore," he continues, " thoroughly familiar with them, and can assert most positively
that for a number of days I never saw the female of either pair out. I did not
pay any attention at first to the circumstance of there being only two flying about,
until I observed both males going up to the nest with gnats in their bills, giving a
call, and then putting their heads inside for the hens to take the food. The feeding
times were morning and evening, at regular hours — the former about seven or
eight o'clock, and again in the afternoon about four o'clock. I have seen the males
getting the gnats, etc., close under the very steps I was sitting on, and almost
within two yards of my chair, then flying up, giving a call, and coming down again
directly the food was taken. The nests were at opposite ends of the veranda,
and only one of the broods came out. I saw some time ago a notice in the Field,
mentioning the dirty state of the nest, before this could have been caused by the
young; and, if my idea is correct, the explanation is simple. I never saw the
males go inside the holes in which the nests were, and I never saw either of the

THE WOOD HOOPOES 1823

females outside during the time they were hatching, though of course it is possible
they may have gone out. If I should live, I will, next spring, observe more
carefully; but it was a good while before I noticed the absence of the females this
year. Last year I had one nest only in the veranda, and another in the veranda
of my office. The hoopoe, I know, breeds in France; and possibly you may be
able to find out if any notice of this fact has been taken." And in a second
communication he adds: " In continuation of my letter of last year, I may mention
that there were again this spring two hoopoe's nests in my veranda, and in the
same place. I find that the hens do leave the nest once or twice a day, but I have
never seen them stay out longer than to give time to get rid of their droppings, and
I have never seen either of them on the ground when out. Generally speaking,
they perch on a tree near at hand, and after sitting a few moments for the purpose
mentioned, fly back to the nest. Two or three times one of the hens flew out,
passed her dropping while on the wing, and returned to the nest without having
settled anywhere. They are fed most indefatigably by the cocks, and the number
of grubs, small worms, and so forth, destroyed by them is very great." As already
mentioned, the name hoopoe is doubtless derived from the note of the bird, rather
than from the fact of its possessing a remarkable crest, whence may come the
French title, " la huppe." Swinhoe writes that the notes are produced "by puffing
out the sides of its neck, and hammering on the ground at the production of each
note, thereby exhausting the air at the end of the series of three notes, which
make up its song. Before it repeats its call it repeats the puffing of the neck, with
a slight gurgling noise. When it is able to strike its bill, the sound is the correct
hoo-hoo-hoo, but when perched on a rope, and only jerking out the song with nods
of the head, the notes most resemble the syllables, hoh-hoh-hoh!"

THE WOOD HOOPOES
Family IRRISORIDJS

From the members of the preceding family the wood hoopoes are distinguished
by the more or less marked metallic gloss on their plumage, the long, wedge-shaped
form of the tail, which exceeds the wing in length, and the elongated nostrils,
which are partly concealed by an overhanging flap. These birds are represented
by three genera, all of which are confined to Africa, and differ from one another
merely in the degree of curvature of the beak and the contour of the nostrils. The
species which we select as our example of the family is the purple-tailed wood
hoopoe (Srrisor mridis) , which is a bird of considerable size, measuring about four-
teen and one-half inches in total length. The color of the upper surface of the
plumage is metallic green, somewhat inclining to bronze on the back, and with a
steely -blue tinge on the hinder part of the head and neck; while the feathers of the
lower portion of the back, as well as the upper tail coverts, are bluish black edged
with dark copper. The wings are steel blue, their primary coverts being tipped

1 824

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

with white, while the lesser coverts are edged with copper, and the primary quills
crossed with a band of white consisting of twin spots, the outer one smaller than
the inner one; the tail is purple, shot with violet, all but the central feathers with
an oblique subterminal bar of white; the under surface glossy steel blue; the breast
and upper part of the abdomen shining metallic green; the lower abdomen and under
tail coverts glossy purplish black; the bill and feet scarlet, and the iris dark hazel.
This species is an inhabitant of South Africa, whence it ranges as far north as
Angola on the west, and to Mombasa on the east coast. In Northeastern Africa,

PURPLE-TAILED WOOD HOOPOE.
(One-third natural size.)

and on the west coast from Senegambia to the Niger, its place is taken by the allied
species, /.' erythrorhynchus, distinguished by having the tail greenish blue instead of
purple. In habits all the wood hoopoes are very shy and wary, and very active and
erratic in their movements, always frequenting trees, and seldom descending to the
ground. They are said to breed in hollow trees and lay white eggs, and the nests
have the same offensive smell as those of the ordinary hoopoes. Mr. Ayres says
that the birds themselves have a very powerful and disagreeable smell, and he has
seen them creeping about the trunks and branches of trees, after the manner of

THE HORN BILLS 1825

woodpeckers, and feeding on cockroaches, which they take from the crevices of
rough-barked trees. They are generally seen in flocks, probably consisting of fam-
ily parties, and they have a loud and harsh cry, which has caused the name of
kachela or chatterer, to be given to them by the Dutch colonists.

THE HORNBILLS
Family BuCEROTIDsE

The hornbills, which form a suborder as well as a family by themselves, derive
their name from the great development of the bill, which is mostly hollow, and fur-
nished with a casque of greater or less prominence, although the latter appendage
is sometimes represented merely by a straight and compressed keel. Moreover, in
the case of the solid-casqued hornbill (Rhinoplax], the whole of this portion of the
beak is solid, and the entire skull consequently very heavy, whereas in the other

HEAD OF WEST-AFRICAN TRUMPETER HORNBII,!,.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1871.)

species it is remarkable for its lightness. The palate is of the bridged type, and the
upper part of the breastbone has the same perforation as in the hoopoes and bee-
eaters. The spinal feather tract is not defined on the neck, and the tendons of the
foot are split into branches, of which one leads to the first toe and another to
the second, while the third and fourth toes are served by one and the same tendon.
The tail feathers, as in most of the Picarian birds, are ten in number. The egg is
white, and the young are hatched in a naked and helpless condition. Confined to
the Old World, the hornbills are found in Africa and the Indian region, extending
through the Malay countries to Celebes, and thence to New Guinea and the western
"5

1826

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

islands of the Solomon group. They are divisible into three subfamilies, the ground

hornbills (Bucoradncz\ true hornbills {Bucerotince} , and solid-casqued hornbills

(Rhinoplatiiuz') .

These curious and vulture-like hornbills, constituting the first sub-
family, are peculiar to Africa, and have a hollow casque, while the
back of the neck and middle of the back are both feathered; and

the metatarsus is long, even to the extent of twice the length of the middle toe

Ground

Hornbills

ABYSSINIAN GROUND HORNBII,!,.

(One-fifth natural size.)

and claw. The group is represented only by two species, namely, the Abyssinian
hornbill (Bucorax abyssinicus] from Western and Northeastern Africa, and the
South-African hornbill (B. cafer) from South Africa, extending on the west to
Angola, and on the east to the Pangani river and even as far as the Suk country in
Equatoria. These two species differ in the form of the casque, that of the

THE HORN BILLS 1827

Abyssinian bird being very evidently open in front, while the South- African species
has the casque closed, or nearly so. The Abyssinian form measures upward of
three and one-half feet in length, with a wing of twenty-four inches, and has the
entire plumage black, excepting the primary quills, which are white. The bill and
casque are black, with a red patch on the lower mandible, and the feet are dusky
black; while the bare parts of the face are red, with the exception of the naked
skin round the eye and on the middle of the throat, which is blue. The female has
the bare skin of the throat and region of the eye purple. In Northeastern Africa
this hornbill is said to be found in the wooded steppes and on the mountains up to a
height of four thousand feet, though more common between one and two thousand
feet. After the breeding season they assemble in small flocks, when as many as ten
or a dozen are seen together. Of the habits of the South- African ground hornbill
more is recorded. Known to the Boers as the bromvogel, this species is regarded
as a fetich among many of the native tribes, being a rain omen with the Kaffirs,
who believe that if one of these hornbills is killed there will be rain for a long time,
and who, therefore, in times of drought will throw one of the birds into a vley, in
order that rain may follow. Colonel Bowker says that the bird is so offensive that
the native idea is that the throwing of its body into the water will " make the river
sick," and that " the only way of getting rid of this is to wash it away to the sea,
which can only be done by heavy rains and flooding of the river. ' ' These hornbills
seem to be practically omnivorous, and devour great numbers of beetles, worms,
mice, small birds, etc. They generally associate in small companies, and when a
snake is discovered, they come round it, each holding a wing stretched out and flap-
ping the reptile with it until it is irritated and seizes hold of the feathers, when all
the birds crowd round it and peck it, until it looses its hold, — this manoeuvre being
repeated till the snake is dead. If the latter advances, the birds fold both wings
in front of them, so as to form a shield, thus covering their head and other vulnera-
ble parts. Mr. Ayres says that their call note, coo-coo, can be heard at a distance
of two miles. The nests are placed in the holes of trees, or in hollows formed by
three or four branches striking off from the same spot.

The rhinoceros hornbills form the typical representatives of the
Rhinoceros !»*.*•««» ,• *«•«•« , . , .

Hornbills secon(* subfamily Bucerotince, all of which are more arboreal m their

habits than the last group, in consequence of which the metatarsus is
proportionately shorter, not exceeding the third toe and its claw in length. The
subfamily may be divided into two sections, according to the form of the tail. The
first section, in which the tail is squared, includes the African trumpeter hornbills
(Bycanistes}, of which the head is figured on p. 1825, the members of the present
genus, as well as several smaller forms, such as Penelopides of the Philippines and
Celebes, and Lophoceros of Africa; the latter genus containing the smallest member
of the family, measuring only fifteen inches in length. The common rhinoceros
hornbill (Buceros rhinoceros}, inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and the islands of
Sumatra and Borneo, is of large size, measuring nearly four feet in length. The
color is black, with a slight gloss of steel blue or dark green; the rump and upper
tail coverts being white, as is also the tail, which has a broad bar of black just
before the tip; while the under surface of the body is black, with the exception

i828 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

of the lower abdomen, thighs, and under tail coverts. The bill has a large
casque, with the fore part turned up into a horn-like protuberance, whence the
bird's name of rhinoceros. The color of the bill is whitish yellow, black at the
base, the casque lake red, shading off below into orange near the base, which is
black; and there is also a black line from the side of the nostrils to the fore part of
the casque. The feet are yellowish green, and the iris deep lake. The female
resembles the male in color, but has no black base, and no black median line along
the side of the casque. In the young birds there is no fully developed casque, but
only a small orange-colored excrescence on the top of the upper mandible. In Java
another species is found (B. sylvestris} with a nearly straight casque. In many
places this great bird is kept in a state of semi-domestication, and Mr. Burbidge
writing of one which he saw thus kept in Northeastern Borneo, observes that " the
rhinoceros hornbill is very often seen in a state of domesticity, enjoying at the same
time perfect liberty. When very young they are taken from the nest, and accommo-
dated with a bit of old cloth in a basket as a bed, being fed on rice and soft fruits,
until they are strong enough to wander about; they sit on their haunches, wheezing
and shrieking all day long, and continually clamoring for food. Their beauty is
about equal to that of a very fat badly-plucked goose. If well fed, however, they
soon gain strength and assume their plumage, and then they flap about the house
and steal or beg for food. At one place where I stayed collecting for some time, a
native, in whose house I had established myself, had reared a very fine specimen of
this bird. It was the most voracious brute I ever saw. It was omnivorous, and
nothing came amiss to it or seemed to disagree with it. It was a fine full-grown
male, and a jolly fellow into the bargain. Very often he would descend from a tall
camphor-wood tree, which stood a hundred yards or so from the house, in the jun-
gle, to the top of which he was fond of going to sun his wings and clean himself
after a meal. When he was very hungry, it was only by tying a string to his leg,
and moving him to the side of the house, that he could be prevented from eating
off the same plate as myself, or putting his great horned head into the rice dish or
curry bowl. Bones of a fowl, curried or not, were gobbled up instantly, and the
wonder was to me how he managed to bolt big bones and tough biscuits without
choking himself. Whatever was thrown anywhere near his head was sure to fall
into his open bill; indeed, I never saw a dog that could catch food in his mouth
better; everything was caught on the point of his great bill, and then tossed into
the air, being again caught and swallowed; this tossing was always performed.
Bones, the entire bodies of small birds from which the skins had been removed for
preserving, lumps of bread, biscuits, fruit, fish, or wet rice, shavings, and even
nodules of moist earth, all seemed equally welcome, and after taking in a cargo of
provisions which would have formed an ample meal for a pig twenty times his own
weight, he would ' saw the air ' with his great wings, and having gained his favor-
ite perch on the tall camphor tree, would sun himself and plume his wings, and
shriek until he became hungry rather than hoarse. ' '

This species (Dichoceros bicornis) is the largest of the hornbills, measuring nearly
five feet in length, with a great casque concave on the top, and nearly square, rising
into well-marked corners on the fore part. The color is black with white bases

THE HORNBILLS

1829

and tips to the greater wing coverts and quills; the tail being white
Hornbill w^^ a ^roa(^ band °^ black just before the tips of the feathers; while

the bill and the casque are yellow, inclining to orange red on the top
of the latter, with some black marks at the base of the bill and along the margins of
the casque; and the naked skin round the eye is fleshy pink, and the iris blood
red. This hornbill, remarkable for its clumsy-looking bill, inhabits the hills of

TWO-HORNED HORNBIU,.

Southern India, the Himalayas, and their continuation in the Burmese countries to
Siam, ranging southward through Tenasserim and the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra.
It is the only representative of its genus; and, as in the other species of giant horn-
bills, there is a difference in the sexes, displaying itself not in plumage, but in the
color of the bill. Thus in the female there is no black on the casque; while the bare
skin of the face is reddish, and the eye is white, instead of red. Mr. Hume has
published notes on the nesting of the present species, and it is interesting to note

1830 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

that many observers in India must have discovered the fact of the strange nesting
habits of the hornbills previous to Livingstone, who is generally credited with hav-
ing been the first to draw attention to the incarceration of the female bird during
the period of incubation. Colonel Tickell, for instance, writing in 1855 of the nest-
ing of the great pied hornbill in Tenasserim, says: " On my way back to Moulmein
from Mooleyit, when halting at Kyik, I heard by the merest chance from the Karen
villagers that a large hornbill was sitting on its nest in a tree close to the village,
and that for several years past the same pair of birds had resorted to that spot for
breeding. I accordingly lost no time in going to the place the next morning, and
was shown a hole high up in the trunk of a moderately large straight tree, branch-
less for about fifty feet from the ground, in which I was told the female lay con-
cealed. The hole was covered with a thick layer of mud, all but a small space,
through which she could thrust the end of her bill, and so receive food from the
male. One of the villagers at length ascended with great labor by means of bamboo
pegs driven into the trunk, and commenced digging out the clay from the hole.
While so employed, the female kept uttering her rattling sonorous cries, and the
male remained perched on a neighboring tree, sometimes flying to and fro, and com-
ing close to us. Of him the natives appeared to entertain great dread, saying that
he was sure to assault them, and it was with some difficulty that I prevented them
from shooting him before they continued their attack on the nest. When the hole
was sufficiently enlarged, the man who had ascended thrust in his arm, but was so
soundly bitten by the female, whose cries had become perfectly desperate, that he
quickly withdrew it, narrowly escaping a tumble from his frail footing. After
wrapping his hands in some folds of cloth, he succeeded with some trouble in ex-
tracting the bird, a miserable looking object enough, wasted and dirty. She was
handed down and let loose on the ground, where she hopped about, unable to fly,
and menacing the bystanders with her bill, and at length ascended a small tree,
where she remained, being too stiff to use her wings. At the bottom of the hole,
nearly three feet from the orifice, was a solitary egg, resting upon mud, fragments
of bark, and feathers." The number of eggs laid by hornbills seems to vary, some-
times only one being met with, while at other times four or even five are found in
the nest; the present species, apparently, never laying more than four. The female
seems to assist in the matting in of the nest hole, using leaf mold and earth, mixed
with her own droppings and various decaying vegetable substances, so that the nests
are often filthy and give forth an intolerable stench. In all probability the real
reason for the retirement of the female hornbill into the recess of a tree is that the
bird is about to molt, and that this process is completed while concealed in the tree.
Thus the emaciated condition of some of the birds, when liberated, could be accounted
for, while their subsequent fat condition and good plumage would be the result of
the completed molt. The hole is doubtless plastered up as a defense against ene-
mies, of which the hornbills have plenty. The formidable bill of the bird is useful
as a weapon of defense, as well as being of the needful shape to serve as a trowel
for plastering up the hole of the tree.

The wedge-tailed hornbills, as the members of the second section of the typical
subfamily are collectively termed, comprise several genera distinguished from the

THE HORNBILLS

1831

. first section by the elongation of the central pair of feathers in the tail.
Wedge-Tailed . .

Hornbills *n tne case °^ t^le Senus Berenicomis of Malaysia, as well as m the

West African Ortholophus, the tail is very much elongated, and forms a

graceful appendage of graduated feathers, which have conspicuous white tips. To

this section of the hornbills belong the members of the genus Lophoceros, which is

peculiar to Africa, and contains seventeen species. They are all small birds, com-

YELI.OW-BII.LED HORNBILI,.

pared with the general run of the species of Bucerotidcs, and their mode of life seems
to be somewhat different from those of the big hornbills of the east, though they
have the some habit of plastering up the female in a tree at the season of incuba-
tion. They are often found on the ground, and feed on berries, seeds, and insects;
Mr. Andersson stating that he has found considerable quantities of sand in their
stomachs, picked up by the birds when on the ground. Of the yellow-billed horn-
bill (L. melanoleucas) the above-named naturalist remarks that it " is the most com-
mon of the hornbills in the middle of the southern parts of Damaraland. It is

1832 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

found singly or in pairs, and, being a comparatively fearless bird, is easily killed,
especially during the heat of the day, when it invariably perches on or near the
top of a lofty tree (where such are to be found), and will remain for hours in this
situation, keeping up, with short intermissions, a kind of subdued chattering note of
toe toe toe tocke tocke tocke toe, in a tone not unlike the quick yelping of young pup-
pies, and accompanied at intervals by a flapping and raising of the wings and an
alternate lowering and erecting of the head." The yellow-billed hornbill is about
twenty-one inches in length and has a tail about nine inches long. It is easily dis-
tinguished by its yellow bill and by the feathers on the chest being white edged
with black. It is found all over South Africa. Another species of Lophoceros,
namely the South- African gray hornbill (L. epirhinus], is easily recognized by the
pale buff line down the centre of the back, and by having white shafts to the
central pair of tail feathers; the head and neck are gray, with a broad white eye-
brow; the beak is brown, and the quills are tipped with white; the under surface of
the body is white, with the chest brownish gray. Length twenty inches; wing-
nine inches. This species, Mr. Ayres says, is a great fruit eater, and lives in small
companies. He states that he was once much surprised to hear one of these birds,
perched on the top of a small tree, singing very prettily with the voice of a thrush.
" I could scarcely believe my ears," he observes, " until I had watched the bird for
a considerable time; at last he flew away, and the woods were silent." Mr. Anders-
son says that he has found this hornbill in Damaraland and the lake regions of
Southwestern Africa. It is seen in small families, rarely exceeding six in number.
" In common with the rest of the genus it appears to suffer very much from the
heat during the most trying season of the year, when it may be found perched at
noon in the shadiest part of the forest, gasping as if for breath. When on the wing-
this species occasionally utters short, piercing cries."

With regard to the Malayan wedge-tailed hornbill {Anorhinus galeritus} a cu-
rious experience is related by Mr. -Whitehead, who found a nest of the species in
Northern Borneo. He shot three of the birds before he became aware that there
was a nest hole in the tree, but on being assured of the fact, he sent one of his boys
to climb up and let the old female out. When the native went to do this, he found
two or three birds engaged in feeding her and her young one. Mr. Whitehead says
that the hole is firmly fastened up with gutta, dirt, and various gums, and the same
hole is frequently used, judging by the heaps of excrement at the foot of the tree.
He also considers that the plastering of the hole is necessary to protect the helpless
birds against the attacks of monkeys, and the huge tree-climbing monitor lizards,
which cause immense destruction among the feathered population of the forests.

In marked contrast to the light and cell-filled casques of the other

Hornbills memDers °f the family, the beak of the solid-billed hornbill (Rhinoplax
vigil} has, as already mentioned, a perfectly solid casque; on which
account this bird is referred to a separate subfamily. In this species the beak has
the consistence and appearance of ivory, and is indeed carved by the Chinese in the
same way. The species in question is an inhabitant of Southern Tenasserims the
Malayan Peninsula, and the islands of Sumatra and Borneo. In addition to its
solid bill, it is remarkable for having the whole of the throat and back of the neck,.

THE KINGFISHERS 1833

bare. The length of the bird is nearly five and one-half feet, the tail alone being
almost three feet long. The general color is brown, the quills black with white tips,
and the tail brown tipped with white, the tips being preceded by a black band. The
two central feathers are more than double the length of the next pair, and the outer
pair are entirely white. The under surface of the body is white, the breast being
brown, the bill yellow, with the posterior portion red, like the bare throat and neck
while the feet and iris are also red. Davison, who found this species in Southern
Tenasserim, where he procured a single specimen after much trouble in the ever-
green forests of Bankasori and Malwun, says that it is very shy, which is not to be
wondered at, since, whenever one appears near a village, every one who can shoot or
can get hold of a gun is sure to try and kill it, as the heads are in great demand for
carving into love charms, bringing as much as fifty rupees. "The birds," he
writes, ' ' confine themselves almost exclusively to the evergreen forests, where they
frequent the very highest trees. Their note is very peculiar, and can be heard at
the distance of a mile or more. It commences with a series of whoops, uttered at
intervals of about half a minute for five or ten minutes; then the interval between
each whoop grows shorter and shorter, till the whoop whoop whoop is repeated very
quickly ten or a dozen times, the bird ending up by going into a harsh, quacking
laugh. Then there is a pause of ten minutes, or a quarter of an hour or more, and
then it recommences. It chiefly utters this call in the morning and evening, but
occasionally also during the day. It never seems to descend to the ground, and it
feeds on fruit. ' '

THE KINGFISHERS
Family ALCEDINID^E

It is scarcely possible to name a country in the world where kingfishers of
some sort or another are not found. Although they vary greatly in form and
habits, as a rule they have a long and somewhat pointed bill, but the shape of this
organ varies considerably in form, according as the bird is a fish catcher or a
devourer of reptiles and other food than fish. The structure of the foot, however,
scarcely changes throughout the group, for every kingfisher is flat-soled and has
an anisodactyle foot, with the toes for the most part united together, so that the
foot of these birds is by no means unlike that of a hornbill, to which group some
of the larger kingfishers make an approach in general appearance. Unlike so
many of the Picarian birds, most kingfishers have twelve tail feathers instead of
ten, though a few possess the ordinary Picarian number. As in the hornbills and
rollers, the deep plantar tendons of the foot are peculiar, the tendon which usually
supplies the first toe not serving that function in these three families, for the toe
in question is connected with the tendon which usually works the three front toes.
The eggs of the kingfishers are always laid in the hole of a bank of some kind,
or a tree, and are glossy white; while the young birds, when hatched, are naked
and helpless, although in a little while they become covered with feathers, each of

1834

THE PICARIAN BIRDS

which is inclosed in a sheath, thus giving the nestling a peculiar bristly appear-
ance. This sheath incloses the feather till it is almost fully grown, and then falls
off rapidly, leaving the feathers exposed; although in all kingfishers and their
allies the plumage is never very dense. Indeed, in birds which have to plunge into
the water a fluffy plumage would be greatly in the way, and hence we have in the
kingfishers a closely-fitting body plumage, which does not get draggled or wet
through by the immersion which it has to undergo.

THE KINGFISHER.
(Two -thirds natural size.)

In 1871 the writer divided the kingfishers into two subfamilies, namely, the
fish-eating Alcedinince, and the insect or reptile-eating Dacelonince; and even now
the kingfishers seem still to afford an illustration of the utility of considering the
habits of the birds as of primary importance. In this instance characteristics may
be found which can be correlated with the difference in the mode of life. Thus the
fish-eating kingfishers are equipped for their manner of living by the development
of a long and narrow bill, and a tail just long enough to act as a rudder, but not of
sufficient length to be in the way. On the other hand, the bush kingfishers, which
feed less on fish and more on insects and reptiles, have the bill not so narrow or

THE KINGFISHERS 1835

compressed, but more flattened, and in some instances even hooked. Then, again,
whereas in the typical subfamily there is almost always a perceptible groove along
the bill, leaving the upper part of it in the form of a ridge, in the second group
the ridge of the bill is either rounded or flattened, and in one or two instances
there is even a groove along the middle of its upper surface.

This subfamily includes five genera, the members of all of which are

essentially fish catchers, although on occasion they will eat small
Kingfishers. , m - ,

insects and crustaceans as well as other kinds of food. Two of the

genera, viz,, Pelargopsis and Ceryle, although their representatives are thoroughly
piscivorous, have long tails, exceeding the length of the wings; but in the other
three, viz., Alcedo, Corythornis, and Alcyone, the tail is conspicuously shorter than
the wings. The stork-billed kingfishers inhabit the Oriental region, and differ from
the species of Ceryle, the only other fish-eating genus with a long tail, in having the
sexes alike in color, the bill very sharp and pointed, and the base of the upper edge
or culmen flattened and somewhat ridged, instead of being round and smooth. The
species of this genus are further characterized by their bright blue backs, thus re-
sembling those of the under-mentioned Halcyon, whereas in Ceryle there is no bright
blue color. Of the stork-billed kingfishers eleven species are known, their range
•extending from the Indian Peninsula and Ceylon, through the Burmese and Ma-
layan countries to Java, Sumatra, the Philippines, Borneo, and Celebes. The species
which inhabits the last island differs from all the others in having a black bill,
whereas in the rest it is coral red. One of the best-known species is the Indian
stork-billed kingfisher (P. gurial), which is a large bird, measuring fourteen
inches in length, with a wing of nearly six and a half inches. The general color of
the plumage is dull green, with a slight shade of blue on the wing coverts, the outer
aspect of the quills and the tail being greenish blue; the head and nape are dark
chocolate brown; round the hind neck is a collar of pale ochre, and the under
surface of the body is of the latter color; while the bill and feet are dull red. This
species is an inhabitant of Ceylon and the greater part of the Indian Peninsula, but
it does not reach the northwestern provinces, though extending along the L,ower
Himalayas and the Terai country as far as Masuri and the Dun. Eastward it
ranges to Assam, but is replaced to the south by the Burmese short- billed kingfisher
(P. biirmanica). Generally found along rivers, streams, and back-waters, but only
where tolerably shaded by trees, it sits on a branch overhanging the water, and
pounces on fish, crabs, and occasionally frogs. Mr. Stuart Baker writes that " this
kingfisher is by no means common in the Kachar district, so that I have been able
to make but few observations on its breeding and other habits. Personally I have
•only taken two nests. One of these was placed in a hole about two and a half
feet deep, and so large that without much difficulty I was able to put my arm
into it and search for the contents. The other burrow was fully four feet deep, and
the diameter at the entrance about three and three-fourths inches. Both nests were
placed in high sandy banks of the Diyung river, upon which and the Jatinga the
species is most often met with. The first hole contained four young birds, and the
second a single egg. The latter seemed to be rather abnormal in shape, and was
smaller at one end than the other. I have never seen the bird fishing on small

1836 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

streams, but it is by no means unusual to find it perched on trees at some distance
from water, and it occasionally haunts ravines and other insect-producing places,
where there is no water at all. Fish, I believe, form the staple article of its diet,
but it varies this with any living thing which is small enough. It is on record that
it devours lizards and similar small reptiles, and it is not averse to taking young
birds from their nests. Of this latter propensity I myself have been a witness. In
Rungpore, in the collector's compound, there stands, or stood some years ago, a
large tree full of crevices and holes, and much used as a nesting place by many
mynas and other birds. One morning I was passing under this tree, when I was
attracted by the loud shrieking of a Pelargopsis, accompanied by the cries of many
other birds. The most vehement and excited among these last were a pair of
mynas, whose newly hatched brood were in a large hollow in a big limb some forty
feet from the ground, and this had evidently attracted the attention of the blood-
thirsty kingfisher. For some time he sat on a branch close to the nest hole, giving
vent every now and then to his loud cries, but taking no notice of the small birds
which came half-heartedly close to him, with the evident wish, but not the pluck,
to attack him. Finally, in spite of the frantic shrieks of the parent birds, who
ultimately approached quite close to the kingfisher, the latter made a dive into the
hollow, and when he came out of it in his powerful beak there struggled a callow
young myna. Seating himself comfortably on a branch, he proceeded to swallow
it in just the same manner as he would have done a fish, and it may have been
the necessity of getting into position before he swallowed his prey which prevented
him from completing his meal inside the cramped hollow of the tree. At all events,
his action was the saving of the other young birds, for the mynas, rendered
furious by the disappearance of one of the youngsters down the throat of the
kingfisher, summoned up courage to attack him in earnest, whereupon he quickly
decamped."

To the members of this genus it is almost impossible to assign a
6 K' fi h coUective English name; for whereas in the Old World they are pied,
their transatlantic cousins are either gray or green. The genus com-
prises a small assemblage of long-billed and long-tailed kingfishers of fish-catching
habits; few of which are such strongly built birds as their short-beaked allies,
although some of the Oriental forms are nearly their equals in size. Their great
distinctive feature is that the sexes differ in color or markings; this difference gen-
erally displaying itself by the presence in either the male or the female of an ad-
ditional band on the breast. Seventeen species of these kingfishers are known,
twelve of which are American. In color, most of the latter are glossy green, but
four are gray; the best-known species being the belted kingfisher (Ceryle alcyon) of
North America. In the Old World all the species of the genus are either black
and white, or gray and white. One of the largest species is the great pied king-
fisher ( C. lugubris} from the Himalayas and the mountains to the eastward of that
chain throughout China to Japan. The head is crested, the crest feathers being
black with white spots, and there is a tuft of white feathers in the centre of the
crown, while the rest of the upper surface is banded with gray and white; round
the hind neck runs a broad white collar; the under surface of the body is white,

THE KINGFISHERS 1837

with a chest band of black and white feathers, and the sides of the body are also
barred with black. The female is like the male in color, but does not show the
tinge of rufous on the cheeks and breast band which are to be seen in the male.
The under wing coverts and axillaries are pale rufous, thus showing the sexual dif-
ferences which are one of the characteristics of the genus. Writing of a nest with
young found in the Northwestern Himalayas, Mr. Hume states that ' ' the entrance
was a large hole, fully four inches in diameter, and at the end was a chamber fully
ten inches across, in which were four young birds; in the chamber was a quantity
of fish bones and some grass. The eggs are three or four in number, and the birds
are in the habit of carrying to their young fishes from six to seven inches in length,,
and these are always swallowed whole. ' ' Mr. Stuart Baker writes that ' ' I have seen
but three nests of this bird. The first nest taken was found in July, and was placed
at the end of a short tunnel in a bank of one of the biggest rivers in North Kachar,
the Diyung. The burrow itself was about two feet long and the egg chamber was
over seventeen inches long by nearly ten broad, the height being almost as much.
The eggs, of which there were four, reposed on a quantity of malodorous fish bones,
these extending nearly a couple of inches up the sides of the walls and partially
burying the eggs, so this unpleasant material must have been added after the eggs
were laid. The soil in which these were found was loose and sandy. The second
nest was found by a Naga in a small stream called the Mahor, running between
thickly- wooded banks, nowhere much over fifty yards from bank to bank, and, where
the nest was taken, under thirty yards across. This nest was in dimensions much
the 'same as that already described, the entrance tunnel being a few inches shorter.
The fish bones also were not so abundant in the nest, doubtless owing to its being
newer, as the eggs when found were quite fresh, whereas in the last they were very
hard set, indeed almost on the point of hatching. This hole was made in a rather
harder soil than the other, but still not in a clay or really stiff material. The only
other nest I have seen was found on the tenth of April, 1893, the day before this
was written. The female bird I shot as it left the nest, and the male as it came up
calling loudly to its mate. The burrow, chamber and all, was complete when
found, but was quite empty, containing neither eggs nor nest. The tunnel in this
case was not six inches long, and the chamber was about fifteen inches long- by
about seven broad and six high. The soil in which this nest hole was excavated
was composed of clay and sand mixed, and was decidedly stiff. Judging from the
three nests above described, it seems probable that the bird only makes very short
burrows. Halcyon smyrnensis, Alcedo ispida, and many other kinds of kingfishers,
would have dug out a hole some four to six feet deep in the ground in which the
first nest was taken, and would certainly have made them of over three feet in the
other places. In texture and shape the eggs do not differ from the majority of
other kingfishers' eggs, although they are unusually small in size. Amongst the
bed of bones found in the first and second burrows, there were a good many which
must have belonged to fish fully six inches long, but the greater number of them
were those of very small fish. The Kacharis tell me that as a rule this bird only
lays two or three eggs, and that my finding four was exceptional, but a Kachari's
word is not particularly reliable. They are also said to breed principally in May,

1838 THE PIC A RI AN BIRDS

after the first heavy floods, not, as nearly all other birds which make similar exca-
vations for their eggs do, before the floods. This kingfisher is very common on
nearly all the hill streams of any size, up to about two thousand feet; above this it
is much less common, but I have seen it now and then on the L,aisung, a little
stream at an elevation of about three thousand feet. During the breeding season it
ascends higher up than in the cold weather, during which latter season it is often
found well into the plains, but after April I have not heard of any being met with
below about five or six hundred feet. On the Dryring Kopili and Zelinga rivers
this bird and C. rudis meet one another, and for a few miles at their junction both
may be met with, but their limits seem to be very distinctly defined, and a straggler
of either kind is but seldom met with far beyond them. I believe they are entirely
fish eaters. I have never seen them except on fair-sized streams, and the stomachs
of those I have examined contained nothing but fish. While waiting for fish, they
perch very low down amongst the scrubby bushes bordering the streams, or else on
some overhanging bamboo, but whatever the position selected, it seems nearly
always to be one well in shadow, and, instead of sitting on some outside twig or
bough, they choose one well inside or under the bush or bamboo clump. In the
same manner their love of shade and darkness leads them always to select the shady
side of the stream, whenever practicable. As a rule, they are to be found in pairs,
seldom singly, for, though the male and female may be some distance apart, they
keep within hailing distance of one another. They do not as a rule fly at all fast
or far at a time, unless frightened, but on such occasions are capable of flying
extremely fast and powerfully, rising high in the air, well out of gunshot, to avoid
any danger, and then dropping again when past it, continuing their flight low down
close to the water. Their manner of taking prey from the water is by swooping
down obliquely toward it, after which the}7 move further on, seldom returning to
their original perch. Occasionally, as they fly along and are attracted by some-
thing in the water below them, they will hover momentarily, after the manner of C.
rudis, and then drop perpendicularly down into it; in these cases, however, they
seldom dive to any depth, and do not immerse more than their head and shoulders.
The usual cry is much like the typical cry of the family, but is very loud, and gen-
erally uttered in a quick succession of notes. Besides this cry, it gives a low
hoarse croak from time to time when seated in the shadow, which same note is, I
think, merely a call to its mate. This sound is very much like the croak uttered
by Batorides javanica, and I was for some time under the impression that it was
made either by that bird or some other small bittern or egret."

The common European kingfisher (Alcedo ispida), of which a figure
Kin fi h *s &iven on P- 1^34, is the best-known representative of the short-tailed
fish-eating kingfishers; in which section of the family there are three
genera, namely, Alcedo, Corythornis, and Alcyone. Of these, the latter is exclu-
sively Australian, and is characterized by having only three toes; while the second
is confined to Africa and Madagascar, and is distinguished by its well -developed
crest. The members of the genus under consideration are likewise crested, although
to a smaller degree, the feathers giving a pointed form to the structure. Confined
to the Old World, these kingfishers are represented by eleven species, three of which.

THE KINGFISHERS 1839

are African, five Indian, and two Moluccan, while the remaining one is the common,
kingfisher, extending all over Europe, and Northwestern Asia, and represented in
Siberia and the Oriental region by a smaller and brighter form, sometimes separated,
as A. bengalensis. The common kingfisher is a beautiful bird, of a greenish blue
color; with the back brilliant cobalt blue; the crown greenish blue banded with,
dusky black. Above the lores is a rufous sheath; the ear coverts are orange rufous,
succeeded by a band of white feathers on the sides of the neck; the cheeks light
blue, with dusky blackish bars; the throat buffy white; the remainder of the under
surface rich orange rufous, with a patch of greenish blue on the sides of the upper
breast; the bill black; the feet coral red; and the iris brown; the total length being
seven and one-half inches. The female, which is a trifle smaller, may be distin-
guished by having a red base to the lower mandible. In England, owing to the
protection which has been afforded to birds on the Thames and other rivers, the
kingfisher is now more often observed than it was a few years ago, when it was
much sought after for decorating ladies' bonnets. Especially in the autumn, when
a considerable migration takes place, kingfishers may be noticed on the rivers in the
south of England, and there are few more beautiful sights than one of these birds
skimming over the water. Seated under overhanging willows or on an exposed
bough or stump, the kingfisher watches patiently for the approach of its prey, when,
it dives like a flash of lightning under the water. It is, however, by no means al-
ways successful in capturing the fish, not unfrequently missing its stroke. Some-
times it may be seen hovering over the water like a kestrel, and dropping like a
stone on a fish, when the fish comes near enough; while at other times it will perch
on an overhanging reed, in order to take its dive after its prey. The latter com-
prises insects as well as fish; and on the seacoast, where the bird remains for some
time before commencing its migration across the channel, the kingfisher will feed on
small crabs. Although so exclusively a water bird, at most times of the year, the
nest is not unfrequently found at some distance from any river. A few years ago,
for instance, we were shown a nest with seven eggs, situated in the middle of a
wood bordering the Thames, and fully a quarter of a mile from the water. This
distance had to be traversed by the parent birds every time they brought a fish to
their young, and it was a curious sight to see one of these brilliant birds flying like
a meteor through the green foliage of the trees. The nest had been tunneled under
the roots of a fallen tree, which had excavated a deep hole in a sandy bank as it fell;
and in this instance the tunnel was by no means straight, but was carried over and
under the roots which barred the progress of the bird in a direct line. Dawson
Rowley maintained that the kingfisher not only bored its own hole in the banks, but
that the fish bones found in the chamber at the end of the tunnel are placed there
by the birds with the idea of forming a nest. There is, however, quite as often no-
nest whatever, the eggs being laid on the floor of the chamber.

In Africa the beautiful little crested kingfishers (Corythomis) take the place or
the common species. Like the latter, these birds feed on fish and small crustaceans,
boring a hole into some sandy bank in which to lay their eggs, which are four or six
in number, on a small platform of fish bones. The three-toed Australian kingfishers
(Alcyone] seem to have very similar habits.

1 840 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

This group brings us to the second subfamily (Dacelonintz} , all the

e" oe members of which, although by no means disdaining a fish diet and
Insectivor-

ous King- ^1US frequenting rivers, are more exclusively inhabitants of forest and
fishers bush-clad country, where they subsist mainly on small reptiles, insects,
crustaceans, and such-like creatures. The subfamily is characterized
by the frequent large development of the tail; while the beak is either rounded or
flattened, according as the fish-eating habit is more or less predominant. Although
forest hunting, the members of the four genera, Ceyx, Ceycopsis, Ispidina, and Myio-
ceyx, are, however, characterized by having their tails as short as in the typical
kingfishers. The first of these genera comprises a number of brilliantly colored
kingfishers, of small size, inhabiting India and the countries to the east of the Bay
of Bengal, throughout the whole of the Malayan Archipelago as far as Northern
Australia. While many of them have the plumage of a brilliant red, shot with a
lilac gloss, and with blue on the wings and scapulars, some of the Malayan and
Papuan forms are mostly blue or black, with brilliant cobalt or silvery lower shades.
One of the most striking of the red group is the Indian three-toed kingfisher ( Ceyx
tridactyla) , in which the back is black with a mark of deep blue or purple, while the
lower back is glossed with lilac; the wing coverts being "black edged with blue; the
tail cinnamon rufous; the head rufous marked with lilac; the ear coverts and cheeks
orange yellow; the under parts also orange yellow; the bill and feet deep vermilion;
and the iris brown. The total length is five and one-half inches. This pretty little
bird inhabits the forest districts of Southern India and Ceylon, and is found from
Nipal eastward through the Burmese countries down the Malayan Peninsula. Mr.
Stuart Baker states that it is fairly common in Kachar, and is more of a fish eater
than the Malayan species which are forest birds, living chiefly on insects. This
kingfisher, indeed, lives chiefly on fish and water insects, with an occasional shrimp
or fresh- water prawn. Its cry is a shrill, piping note, not unlike that of the com-
mon kingfisher, but shriller and less powerful, and not apparently uttered except on
the wing. It has a very powerful flight, and is capable of great speed, darting
along the stream like a ruby meteor. Even when the bird is not disturbed, but is
merely moving from place to place, its flight is very swift. When it feeds, it re-
turns again and again, to the same perch, and keeps to a confined area, being found
day after day about the same spot, from which it seldom flies more than a mile. Mr.
Baker has watched the birds making their tunnel into a sandy bank, and believes
that the earth is pecked away by the bird's bill and the sand ejected by a backward
motion of its feet.

Inhabitants of Australia and the Papuan islands, these birds are

Kin fishers best known bv the laughing kingfisher (Dacelo gigantea), or laugh-
ing jackass, as it is termed by the Australian settlers, which is a
large bird, measuring seventeen inches in total length, with a wing of eight and
one-half, and a tail of six and one-half inches. The general color is brown, with
the lower back greenish blue; the median wing coverts being also washed with
greenish blue; while the head is strongly crested, brown in color with rufous freck-
lings on the fore part, and the long crest feathers edged with white. There is a
very broad white eyebrow extending backward and joining a collar on the neck;

THE KINGFISHERS

1841

the tail is rufous with irregular black bars, and the under surface of the body is
white with a few margins of brown on the chest feathers, more distinct on the
flanks. The female is like the male, but is rather more rufous on the head.
Gould states that this kingfisher " frequents every variety of situation — the lux-
uriant bushes stretching along the coast, the more thinly timbered forest, the belts
of trees studding the parched plains, and the brushes of the higher ranges being
alike favored with its presence; over all these localities it is rather thinly distributed,

LAUGHING KINGFISHER.
(Two-thirds natural size.)

being nowhere very numerous. Its food, which is of a mixed character, consists
exclusively of animal substances. Reptiles, insects, and crabs, however, appear to
be its favorite diet; it devours lizards with avidity, and it is not an unfrequent sight
to see it bearing off a snake in its bill, to be eaten at leisure; it also preys on small
mammals. I recollect shooting one of these birds in South Australia, in order to
secure a fine rat which I saw hanging from its bill, and which proved to be a rare
116

1842

THE PIC A RI AN BIRDS

species." The laughing kingfisher breeds during August and September, and gen-
erally selects a hole in a large gum tree for the purpose, where it deposits its beauti-
ful pearl-white eggs on the decomposed wood at the bottom. When the young are
hatched, it defends its breeding place with great courage and daring, darting down
upon any intruder who may attempt to ascend the tree. The other species of the
genus are remarkable for the difference in the color of the tail, which is blue in the
male and rufous in the female. Closely allied to the " jackasses" are the curious

AFRICAN WHITE-BREASTED KINGFISHER.
(Three-fifths natural size.)

hookbilled kingfishers (Melidora macrorhina] , distinguished by a complete notch
near the end of the upper mandible, which thus ends in a hook.

The most numerously represented group in the subfamily, these
birds have been called king hunters to distinguish them from the king-
fishers, inasmuch as many of the species do not fish at all. The genus
contains upward of sixty species, all of which are distinguished from the laughing
kingfishers by their more rounded wings and more compressed bill, which has a

Wood King-
fishers

THE KINGFISHERS 1843

groove along the sides of the upper mandible. The best-known species is, perhaps,
the white-breasted kingfisher {Halcyon smyrnensis), a bird of large size, measuring
nearly a foot in length, with a wing of four and one-half inches or more. It is
found all over India and Burma, extending eastward as far as China, while it also
occurs in Palestine and Asia Minor in the west. The bill is red, the general color
chestnut red, with the lower back bright greenish blue, the scapulars being also
bright greenish blue; and the throat and breast pure white. This species generally
makes its nest by burrowing in a sandy bank, the length of the tunnel varying
from one to over three feet. Mr. Hume mentions an instance of a nest hole being
found in Rajputana in a well, at least a hundred feet below the surface. In India
this bird is found in all kinds of situations, often far away from water. In Kachar,
Mr. Stuart Baker has found the nest composed of a few layers of loose moss with
which the bird fills up a crevice in a rock. In most instances, however, there is no
attempt at a nest, the eggs being deposited on the floor of the chamber at the end
of the tunnel. Mr. Baker says that fish form a very minor part of the bird's diet,
the principal part of which consists of locusts and crickets; and these it takes by
swooping down on them from some perch, as if diving after fish, and seizing them
from the bushes and grass, without halting in its flight. It also captures prawns,
small crabs, and water insects from stagnant pools, and he has once or twice seen it
take cicalas from the trunk of a tree. These kingfishers are very plentiful in
Africa, one of the most beautiful species being the African white-breasted kingfisher
(H. semicceruled) , which has an entirely red bill, and is easily distinguished by its
ashy-white head and chestnut breast and under wing coverts; the back being black,
with the lower part bright blue, while the outer surfaces of the wings and tail are blue;
and the throat and chest ashy white like the head. The length of the bird is about
eight inches, and the wing four inches. This species is found over the greater part
of Africa, as far as the Zanzibar district on the east, and to Angola on the west,
being replaced in Southern Africa by an allied species (If. pallidiventris} , and by H.
erythrogaster in the Cape Verde islands. Von Hueglin states that in Northeastern
Africa he found the present species both near water and in the wooded districts. It
feeds on beetles and other insects, but also catches fish, which it seems to prefer.

In the genus Tanysiptera the number of tail feathers is reduced to
"K" ^"h ten' °^ wk*ck t*16 central ones are greatly elongated, and exceed the
body in length, generally ending in a racket-like expansion. Twenty
species are known, all of which are inhabitants only of the Moluccas, the Papuan
islands, and the Cape York Peninsula in Northern Australia. Mr. Wallace, who
discovered several of the species during his travels in the Malay Archipelago, tells us
that he found them in forests and also in rocks by the side of streams. Macgillivray,
who found the beautifiil Tanysiptera sylvia in Northeastern Australia, states that it
frequented the dense bushes and the sunny glades in the woods. The flight is rapid,
and it darts away among the dense foliage like an arrow. It is very wary, and sits
on the bare branch of a tree, keeping a good lookout, and darting on to some pass-
ing insect, and then returning to the same perch. Its cry resembles the words wheet,
wheel, wheel, and it is said to tunnel into the ant hills of red clay, which are com-
mon in that part of Australia.

1844

THE PI CAR! AN BIRDS

THE ROLLERS

Family CORACIIDsE

Birds of brilliant coloration, inhabiting most parts of the Old World, in the
shape of the body, as well as in the conformation of the beak, the rollers strikingly
resemble the crows. The palate is, however, of the bridged type, and the feet are
like those of the kingfishers, both in respect of the flat sole and the union of the
toes; while there are twelve tail feathers. The five genera are arranged under two

COMMON ROZ.I.ER.
(Two-fifths natural size. )

subfamilies. The first subfamily (^Brachypteraciin^ is represented by three genera
confined to Madagascar, and characterized by the length of the metatarsus, and
their terrestrial habits. Of the typical genus, as well as of Geobiastes, little has
been related, but of Atelomis Grandidier states that both species live alone on the
ground in the forests; the flight being straight and the birds only perching on
the lower branches. Sir Edward Newton says that he only observed these birds

THE ROLLERS 1845

in the dusk of the evening near the ground, and remarks that they have a curious
way of jerking the tail when alighting on a branch.

In the true rollers the metatarsus is considerably shortened, and the
habits of all the species are arboreal. In addition to the true rollers,
the second subfamily also includes the broad-billed rollers (Ezirystomus) . In the
common roller (Coracias garnda) and its allies the bill is long and compressed,
being much longer than it is broad at the base; while the members of the genus are
of brilliant plumage, and are found all over Africa, Southern Asia, and Malaysia,
as far as the island of Celebes. The common roller is drab brown above, the
rump greenish blue washed with purple; the wing coverts blue, the lesser ones pur-
ple; the head green with a bluish eyebrow; the base of the forehead sandy buff; the
under surface of the body blue; the breast lilac brown; the sides of the neck and
hind neck purplish lilac; and the wings and tail purplish blue with a band of silvery
cobalt; the total length being twelve inches. Writing of the habits of this well-
known bird, Naun>ann observes that it "is always restless and uneasy, moving
from tree to tree, where it always settles on the summit, or on a dead branch.
When undisturbed it is fond of sitting in the sunshine, but during rainy weather is
dull and moping. It never hops about among the branches, but flies from branch
to branch, now and then descending to the ground, where it hops heavily, and with
an awkward demeanor. Its flight is quick, very easy, and much resembles that of
a pigeon; in flying straight it flaps the wings quickly, turns and overbalances itself
often, and glides or shoots through the air for some distance before dropping onto a
dead branch. The ordinary voice may be best compared to that of the magpie.
Rollers continually give a deep harsh racker-racker-racker-racker, which is very
quickly uttered when they are squabbling; and with this they mingle a harsh rrah.
When sitting peaceably, the note is a high rack and rack-rack and also a plaintive
high krah, not unlike that which a young jackdaw sometimes utters; this last is
their call note. These notes quite often vary, and the bird is generally heard before
he is seen. In fine weather the male rises in the air near where the female is incu-
bating, uttering a single rack, rack-rack, etc., until he attains a considerable height,
from which he suddenly falls, always turning a somersault, and throwing himself
here and there in the air, uttering quickly the following rah-rarah-rrah-rra, etc.,
etc., which he always changes to the rack as soon as ever he begins to turn his
somersault, and then returns to his seat on a dead branch. This appears to repre-
sent his song. The bird chooses a sandy country as its breeding home, and affects
thin woods where old oaks are scattered through, and which are adjacent to open
fields and near large forests, particularly of pines, making its nest in hollow oak,
ash, or other trees, and lining the interior with roots, straw, feathers, and hair.
The male and female incubate in turn for the space of not quite three weeks, and
when breeding they sit so close that, though at other times very shy, they may be
caught on the nest."

These rollers inhabit Africa, Madagascar, India, and China, ranging

R .. north to Eastern Siberia and south to the Malay Archipelago and

Australia. They have the bill as broad as it is long at the gape. The

oriental roller (Eurystomus orientalis} has the tail black with a bluish base; the head

1846

THE PIC A RI AN BIRDS

blackish as well as the mantle; the back green, and the under surface blue, with the
throat streaked with bright purplish blue, forming a gular patch, the total length
being eleven inches. It inhabits the Burmese countries, extending down to the
Malayan Peninsula and to the islands of Borneo, Java, and the Philippines.
Bourdillon, after stating that he was attracted by the chattering of a pair of these
rollers, says that "on going to the spot I found them engaged in ejecting from a

ORIENTAL ROLLER.

(One-half natural size.)

hole in a stump, about forty feet from the ground, a pair of our hill mynas. One
of the rollers was in the mouth of the hole, and enlarging it by tearing away with
its beak the soft rotten wood; the other roller, seated on a tree close by, was
doing most of the chattering, making an occasional swoop at the mynas whenever
they ventured too close. I watched the birds for some time until the mynas went
off, and there and then began building in a pinney tree within the distance of one

THE KIROUMBOS 1847

"hundred yards. Ten days after I sent for some hillmen, who managed to ascend
by tying up sticks with strips of cane, in the way they erect ladders to obtain the
wild honey from the tallest trees in the forest. It was past six o'clock in the
evening before a man reached the hole in which the birds had bred. He found not
the slightest vestige of a nest, but a few chips of rotten wood, upon which were
laid the three eggs. These I found to be slightly set. While the man was climbing
the tree, the birds behaved in a very ridiculous and excited manner. Seated side
by side on a bough, they alternately jerked head and tail, keeping up an incessant
harsh chatter, and as the crisis approached, and the man drew nearer their property,
they dashed repeatedly at his head."

THE KIROUMBOS
Family LEPTOSOMATID^;

The remarkable birds commonly known by their native name of Kiroumbos are
confined to Madagascar and some of the neighboring islands, and may be regarded
as aberrant rollers, although they also exhibit affinities to the under-mentioned frog-
mouths, in the possession of ' ' powder-down ' ' patches on the sides of the lower
part of the back. Only two members of the family are known, both of which are
included in the genus Leptosoma. The bill is roller-like, but the nostrils are quite
peculiar as regards their situation, being placed in the middle of the upper mandi-
ble, and are shut in by a horny plate; while the loral plumes are curved forward so
as to entirely hide the base of the bill. The feet are semi-scansorial, that is to say,
the fourth toe is cleft to the base and partly reversible, and the tail feathers are ten
in number. The sexes are different in color, the male having some considerable
metallic sheen, and the upper surface being green glossed with a distinct coppery
shade; the tail is grayish black, glossed with metallic green, and, more slightly,
with coppery red; the entire under surface is dark ashy gray, becoming white
on the abdomen and under tail coverts; and the head is crested and of a leaden-
gray color, glossed with metallic green and copper. The total length is sixteen
inches. The female is quite different from the male, being rufous brown above,
with the head black, and the sides of the head and back of the neck barred with
black; the back spotted with buff and glossed with dull green and copper; the tail
brown, blackish towards the tip, which is edged with rufous; the tinder surface
of body pale fawn color spotted with greenish black. The Madagascar kiroumbo
inhabits the island from which it takes its name, as well as Mayotte and Anjouan
islands, but in the great Comoro island is replaced by the smaller L. gracile. It is
said by Grandidier to live in little parties of ten or twelve individuals on the edges
of the woods. As soon as one of the birds is shot, all the others come near the
hunter or hover over their dead companions, so that ten or more can be obtained in
a quarter of an hour. That the kiroumbo has a certain element of a roller in
its composition is shown by its habit of playing in the air, which Sir Edward New-
ton describes as follows: "It plays for some time over the same place, ascending

1848

THE PIC A RI AN BIRDS

almost perpendicularly, as it were by a jump, to a great height, and descending
again in a curve nearly to the top of the trees, by almost closing its wings, at
the same time uttering a whistle so like that of an eagle that it was doubted

MADAGASCAR KTROUMBO.

(One-fourth natural size.)

for a long time by us whether the bird that performed this wonderful freak was not
a raptorial. However, after having watched it several times with our glasses, we
satisfied ourselves that it was this species. ' '

THE FROGMOUTHS
Family PODARGID^E

These curious birds have been usually associated with the nightjars, to which
they approximate in their wide mouths and mottled plumage, although they differ
in the more important feature of the palate, being constructed on the desmog-
nathous instead of on the schizognathous type. Accordingly, it seems most
probable that their true position is between the kiroumbos and the oilbirds (to be
mentioned next). From the former they are distinguished by the absence of an
oil gland, and the presence of only ten feathers in the tail; while from the latter
they differ by the absence of the articular surfaces on the rostrum of the hinder part

THE FROGMOUTHS 1849

of the palate, known as basipterygoid processes. Unlike the nightjars, these birds
have no comb-like appendage to the third toe; while they further differ by building
nests, or laying their eggs in hollow trees. Two notches occur in the hinder border
of the breastbone.

These birds, Podargus, are the typical representatives of the firs,

°g~ of the two subfamilies into which the group is divided, this subfamily
Mouths . r

being distinguished by the narrow, slit-like nostrils, protected by an

overhanging membrane, and hidden by plumes and feathers. Powder-down patches
occupy each side of the rump, and the metatarsus is shorter than the third toe. The
present genus, which is characterized by the pointed tail feathers, includes five
species, all inhabitants of Australia and the adjacent Papuan islands. Gould
describes the Australian species as inanimate and sluggish birds, depending on
their supply of food less upon their power of flight than upon the habit they are
said to have of traversing the branches of trees on which their favorite insects
reside. At intervals during the night they sit about in open places, on rails,
stumps of trees, or the roofs of houses. They are strictly nocturnal in their habits,
sleeping during the day, and mostly found in pairs, perched near each other on
the branches of the gum trees, in situations not at all sheltered from the beams of
the midday sun. "So lethargic are its slumbers," he writes, "that it is almost
impossible to arouse it, and I have frequently shot one without disturbing its mate
sitting close by; it may also be knocked off with sticks or stones, and is sometimes
even taken with the hand. When aroused, it flies lazily off with heavy flapping
wings to a neighboring tree, and again resumes its slumbers till the approach
of evening, when it becomes as animated and active as it had been previously
dull and stupid." According to Mr. North, in New South Wales, the tawny-
shouldered frogmouth commences to breed in September, and the breeding season
is at its height in October, and continues for the two following months. It builds a
flat nest of sticks, loosely placed together on the horizontal branch of any suitable
tree. The eggs are three in number, perfectly white, elongated in form, and
the shell finely granulate.

Their smaller size and rounded tail feathers distinguish these birds

from the preceding, while the mode of nesting is also different. The
Mouths

side of the head in some of the species is adorned with ear tufts, end-
ing in bristling plumes. The sexes also are mostly different in color, the female
being rufous and the male grayer. One of the largest species is the great-eared
frogmouth {Batrachostomus aiiritus), inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra,
and Borneo. It measures about sixteen inches in length, and is chestnut brown,
vermiculated with blackish lines, and whitish bars. On the hind-neck is a collar of
buffy-white feathers, with a black border, forming bands; median and greater wing
coverts with large spots of white edged with black; throat and breast brown, with
spots and bars of white; and the abdomen pale buff. Nothing has been recorded
of its habits; but of the nest of the South-Indian frogmouth Mr. Hume writes that
' ' instead of moss, a few fragments of dead leaves are incorporated, but the material
is chiefly a soft felt-like mass, precisely similar to that used by B. hodgsoni, but
grayish white instead of brown. It is a mere pad with a shallow depression on the

1850

THE PIC A RI AN BIRDS

outer surface, a broad groove on the base of the nest showing where it had nested
on the upper surface of an almost horizontal bough." The egg was white. Mr.
Hartert says that the part is formed by the down, taken from the "powder downs "
of the bird itself, and then completed by having the outside interwoven and covered
with bits of bark and lichen, so that the nest entirely resembles the branch to
which it is attached. The nests of B. hodgsoni, which Mr. Hume describes, were
about three and a half inches in diameter and three-quarters of an inch in thick-
ness; the lower surface of the pad, where they were in contact with the branch hav-

GREAT-EARED FROGMOUTH.
(One-half natural size.)

a thin coating of moss. The whole of the nest is a compact, brown, felt-like mass,
very soft and downy, and composed, as it appears to be, of excessively fine moss
rootlets, but withal as soft as the fur of any little mammal. This will doubtless be
found to be the powder down of the bird itself.

These birds differ from the other frogmouths in having the nostrils
Owlet Frog-
Mouths sltuated near the tip of the bill, and being open and prominent.

There are no distinct powder-down patches, and the metatarsus is
longer than the middle toe. The loral bristles are greatly elongated, and give the

7 HE FROGMOUTHS

face a peculiar appearance. Eleven species are known, all found in Australia and
the adjacent Moluccan and Papaun islands, as well as in New Caledonia. The
Australian owlet frogmouth (sEgotheles nwa-hottandia) , which is about eight and
one-half inches in length, has the general color dusky with whitish vermiculations;
the head being darker, with two longitudinal stripes of white and two crescentic
marks of white on the hind part and nape; while the under surface of the body is
white with dusky vermiculations, and the abdomen and under tail coverts more or
less uniform. This species ranges all over Australia and Tasmania, Gould stating
that he found many specimens and procured the eggs, which are four or five in

AUSTRALIAN OWI.ET FROGMOUTH.
(Two-fifths natural size.)

number, pure white, and are laid in the hole of a tree, without any attempt at a
nest. " During the day," he says, "the bird resorts to the hollow branches or
spouts, as they are called, and the holes of the gum trees, sallying forth as night
approaches in quest of insects, particularly small beetles. Its flight is straight, and
not characterized by the sudden turns and descents of the goatsuckers. On driving
it from its haunts, I have sometimes observed it to fly direct to a hole in another
tree, but more frequently to alight on a neighboring branch, perching across and
nevtr parallel to it. When assailed in its retreat, it emits a loud hissing noise,

THE HOME OF THE OILBIRD.

THE OILBIRD OR GUACHARO 1853

and has the same stooping motion of the head observable in the owls; it also resem-
bles these birds in its erect carriage, the manner in which it sets out the feathers
round the ears and neck, and in the power it possesses of turning the head in every
direction even over the back, a habit it is constantly practicing."

THE OILBIRD OR GUACHARO

Family STEATORNITHID^

Forming a family group by itself, the South- American oilbird (Steatomis
caripensis] in external appearance is not very unlike a nightjar; to which group
it also approximates in habits, only coming out to feed in the dusk of the evening.
It is, however, more nearly allied to the frogmouths, having a similar bridged
palate, although differing in certain features of the skeleton. The plumage is less
soft than in either the goatsuckers or frogmouths; while the beak and the form
of the wing are not unlike those of the rollers. The tail .carries ten feathers, and
in the wing the third and fourth primary quills are the longest; while the naked
metatarsus does not exceed the third toe in length. In the skull the basal rostrum
carries articular basipterygoid processes. Measuring from seventeen to twenty
inches in total length, the oilbird is chestnut brown in general color. On the
upper parts the plumage is marked by numerous dark crossbars; the median wing
coverts are ornamented with large white spots, similar spots also occurring on
the lateral upper tail coverts; while the under surface is pale chestnut, with a
grayish tinge, each feather being marked with three rhomboidal spots of white
bordered with black. The beak is chocolate brown; the feet are flesh colored, with, a
violet tinge; the claws are gray; and the iris of the eye is black with a narrow dark
brown ring. The guacharo is principally known as an inhabitant of the island of
Trinidad, where it frequents certain caves, building therein huge nests, having the
appearance of large cheeses. The popular name of oilbird is derived on account of
the peculiar covering of the nestlings, which are simply masses of yellow fat. Num-
bers of the stones of a fruit upon which these birds apparently feed strew the floor
of the caves where they dwell. Elsewhere local, the oilbird is found not only in
Trinidad, but also from Guiana and Venezuela to Ecuador and Peru, occurring in
the latter countries in valleys at an elevation of some seven thousand feet. In the
Tatora district of Peru there are several caverns, situated in a very wild country,
clad from the base to the summit of the hills with dense virgin forest, frequented by
these birds. According to Dr. Stolzmann, if a gun be fired, or any other loud noise
made near these caverns, the birds quit their retreats in the nooks and crannies,
flying to the roof with piercing cries, and the only way to obtain specimens is to
fire at random in the darkness. This, however, is haphazard work, and in the
Ninabamba cavern only eleven birds were killed in return for sixty shots. When
the birds are tired out, they gradually retire to their hiding places, from which no
amount of firing or shouting will induce them to again emerge. When undisturbed,
the guacharos quit their retreats as the sun is setting, to fly about the forest; some

1854 THE PICARIAN BIRDS

of them rising to a considerable elevation, apparently in pursuit of moths. Their
noiseless flight much resembles that of goatsuckers, but in descending rapidly the
wings are frequently raised and held together in a point. Their principal food con-
sists of the fruit of the nectandra trees; these fruits being seized by the birds while
in full flight from the tips of the slender boughs which would be too frail to
bear the weight of the robbers. For seizing such fruits the hooked and powerful
bill of the oilbird is most admirably adapted. The rapidity with which the
guacharos feed is remarkable; two specimens killed by Stolzmann early one
evening having their crops empty, whereas one shot a quarter of an hour later had
swallowed seven fruits, and a second bagged after another quarter of an hour no
less than eleven. The same observer remarks that it would be curious to know
what the birds did for the remainder of the night, after having satisfied their
appetite, for he has seen them on moonlight evenings on the wing as late as eleven.
The note of the guacharo is harsh and disagreeable, and has been compared to the
syllables cri-cri-cirri; although there is another cry which cannot be rendered in
words. From observations on a young bird, in the gray nestling plumage, Stolz-
mann found that the large nectandra stones are regurgitated after the fleshy cover-
ing has been digested. This rejecting process is accomplished without any apparent
effort on the part of the bird; a slight movement of the feathers of the throat takes
place, the beak opens gently, and the stone appears; while, if any of the fleshy
covering still adheres to it, the bird picks it off. The old birds apparently cast up
the stones during flight, and although no insects were found in the stomachs of the
specimens shot, Stolzmann is of opinion that guacharos are partly insectivorous.
Humboldt and Bonpland visited the celebrated cavern of Caripe, from whence these
birds take their specific name, and the following account of the visit is taken from
a biographical work. "The Indians," it is written, "showed the travelers the
nests of the guacharos by fixing a torch to a long pole. These nests were fifty or
sixty feet high above their heads, in holes in the shape of funnels, with which the
roof of the grotto was pierced like a sieve. The noise increased as the travelers
advanced, and the birds were scared by the light of the torches. When this noise
ceased for a few minutes, around them they heard at a distance the plaintive cry of
the birds roosting in other ramifications of the cavern, and it seemed as if different
groups answered each other alternately. The Indians were in the habit of entering
this cavern once a year, near midsummer; when they went armed with poles, with
which they destroyed the greater part of the nests. At that season several thousand
birds were killed, and the old ones, as if to defend their brood, hovered over
the heads of the Indians, uttering terrible cries. The young, which fell to the
ground, were opened on the spot for their fat. At the period commonly called at
Caripe the oil harvest, the Indians built huts with palm leaves near the entrance,
and even in the porch of the cavern. There, with a fire of brushwood, they melted
in pots of clay the fat of the young birds just killed; this fat being known by the
name of guacharo butter." The nest is formed of clay; and the eggs, varying from
two to four in number, have a thick shell, which is at first chalky white, but
by contact with the nest becomes yellowish green.

CHAPTER X
THE PARROT TRIBE— ORDER PSITTACI

ONE of the most interesting groups of birds is that of the parrots, under which
general term may be included not only the true parrots, but likewise the macaws,
lories, love birds, cockatoos, etc. This general interest is due not only to the beauty
of form and gorgeousness of plumage characterizing so many members of the group,
but likewise to the ease with which they are domesticated, their pleasing manners
when in this state, and above all to the extraordinary facility with which they recol-
lect and repeat sentences of human speech. That the memory of parrots is very
strongly developed, there can be no sort of doubt; but whether their intellectual
powers rank really higher than those of some of the Passerine birds is problemati-
cal. The appropriateness to the occasion with which sentences learned by these
birds are sometimes uttered is probably mainly or entirely due to association, and in
no sense implies any knowledge of the meaning of the phrase. It may be added
that the occasions when such phrases are introduced inappropriately are, perhaps,
not much less infrequent than when they are opposite.

Parrots form a large group, including considerably more than five hundred
species, which present well-marked characteristics by which its members can be
readily distinguished from all other assemblages of birds. Their most obvious exter-
nal characteristics are displayed by their feet and bill. In the feet the fourth toe
(as in some of the Picarians) is permanently turned backward, and as the first toe has
likewise a similar direction, the whole foot is divided into a front and back portion,
each comprising two digits; this type of foot structure being termed zygodactyle.
The covering of the feet takes the form of rough granular scales. As regards the
beak, its base is invested with the wax-like protuberance termed the cere, which is
frequently feathered, while in form it is short, stout, and strongly hooked at the'
extremity. In addition to the above, it may be noted that, owing to the presence
of a transverse hinge in the skull, the upper half of the beak is movable, while the
palate is of the bridged (desmognathous) type. The skull, as shown in the figure
in the introductory chapter, is also very generally distinguished by the presence of
a complete bony ring surrounding the socket of the eye, and the symphysis of the
lower jaw is short, obtuse, and deeply channelled. The tongue is also thick and
fleshy, and may be fringed or brush like at the extremity. Extreme shortness
characterizes the legs of most of the species, this shortness being most marked in
the metatarsus, of which the bone is greatly expanded. The leg bone, or tibia,
generally has no bony bridge at- the lower end. The furcula is always weak, and
may be incomplete or even wanting. The feathers are provided with aftershafts,
and the number in the tail is, except in one genus, ten. If an oil gland is present

(i855)

1856

THE PARROT TRIBE

Distribution
and Habits

it is furnished with a tuft of feathers. Finally, the young are born in a nearly
naked and completely helpless condition; and the eggs are usually, if not invari-
ably, white.

For the most part parrots are thoroughly arboreal and climbing
birds, and are essentially characteristic of the tropical and subtropical
regions of the globe. At the present day none inhabit Europe,
although the remains of an extinct species apparently allied to a living West- Afri-
can species, have been obtained from the Miocene rocks of France. In America
one species extends as far south as the straits of Magellan, while another ranges
far into the United States; and in the Macquarie islands of the Australian region,
the group extends as far south as the 55th parallel. Although ranging over all the
warmer regions of the globe, these birds are very unequally distributed, being

v«*M

COCKATOOS AT HOME.

poorly represented in India, and still more so in Africa, while in Malaysia and Aus-
tralia they attain their maximum diversity of type, and in South America their
greatest numerical development.

All the parrots make their nests in the hollows of trees, where they usually lay
from two to three white eggs, although in the case of some of the smaller species
the number is often considerably more. Frequently the males take their share in
the work of incubation, which generally lasts for about twenty-one days. The
young parrots are fed by the parents disgorging half-digested food from their own
crops into their open mouths, after the manner of pigeons. The food of the adult
consists in most cases of various fruits and nuts. Regarding their general habits,
and the important part these birds play in ^tropical scenery, Mr. Wallace writes as
follows: "They usually feed in flocks; they are noisy, and so attract attention; they
love gardens, orchards, and open sunny places; they wander about far in search of
food, and toward sunset turn homeward in noisy flocks or in constant pairs. Their

NESTOR PARROTS 1857

forms and motions are often beautiful and attractive. The immensely-long tails of
the macaws, and the more slender tails of the Indian parraquets; the fine crests of
the cockatoos; the swift flight of many of the smaller species, and the graceful mo-
tions of the little love birds and allied forms, together with their affectionate natures,
aptitude for domestications, and powers of mimicry, combine to render them at once
the most conspicuous and the most attractive of all the specially tropical forms of
bird life."

As is so generally the case with arboreal fruit-eating birds, the prevalent color
among the parrots is green. This is, however, frequently relieved by patches,
bands, or spots or other hues; while in certain groups or species it is replaced by
blue, yellow, cinnamon, crimson, white, and occasionally black. Judging from the
characteristics of the skeleton, it appears to us that the nearest allies of the parrots
are the owls. They may, however, have some kinship with the diurnal birds of
prey, and possibly with some of the Picarians. According to the arrangement pro-
posed by Count Salvadori, who has paid special attention to this group of birds, the
parrots may be divided into five families, of which the first is the

NESTOR PARROTS
Family NESTORID^

Under the common title of nestors may be included a small group of peculiar
parrots confined to New Zealand and certain neighboring islands, all of which belong
to a single genus {Nestor} , and one of which is known to the Maories as the Kea
and the other as the Kaka. The nestors belong to an assemblage of three families
of the order, characterized by the under surface of the hook of the beak being either
smooth or merely marked by some fine longitudinal lines. As a family they are
distinguished by the more or less elongated beak being much compressed, and longer
than deep, with the middle line (culmen) of its upper moiety marked by a longi-
tudinal groove, while the profile of the symphysis of the lower mandible slopes up-
ward to the tip with scarcely any curvature. The tip of the tongue is provided
with a fringe of fine hairs, and the cere of the beak is partially feathered. All the
feathers are soft; those situated at the base of the lower mandibles are hairy, and
project forward, and the rectrices of the tail have pointed shafts projecting beyond
the vane. The metatarsus is longer than usual, and the bony ring round the socket
of the eye is incomplete. The nestors are represented by four well-defined species,
two of which are now extinct. Of these the kea {Nestor notabilis}, which is re-
stricted to the South island of New Zealand, has the general hue of the plumage
dull olive green, with black edges to the feathers. There is no yellow band across
the breast, and the under parts are olive brown without any tinge of red; orange red
is, however, present on the under wing coverts and axillaries. The wing feathers
are dusky brown, the primaries having the outer web bluish, and the inner one
toothed with lemon yellow. The tail is bluish orange, with a broad transverse band
of blackish brown near the end ; the inner webs of the feathers being toothed with
117

1858 THE PARROT TRIBE

yellow. In size the kea may be compared to a raven ; its total length being nineteen
inches, of which one and three-fourths is taken up by the bill. The kaka (JV. meri-
dionalis), which inhabits both islands, and is the species represented in our colored
plate, is a rather smaller bird, readily distinguished by the presence of a red tinge
on the abdomen and under wing coverts, as well as by a wash of golden yellow on
the ear coverts. It is subject to a considerable amount of local variation. Still
smaller, although with a longer beak, is the extinct Phillip island parrot (N. pro-
ductus), of which a figure is given on p. 1859. This bird attained a length of about
fifteen inches, and was distinguished by the broad yellowish-white band across the
chest. Also extinct, the Norfolk island parrot (N. norfolcensis) , the smallest of the
group, was distinguished from the Phillip island species by the high curvature and
length of the bill, which measured three and one-half inches, and by the absence
of a dark bar on the tail.

Confining our attention to the New Zealand representatives of the
genus, it may be observed in the first place that the brush- like ex-
tremity of the tongue of these birds indicates flower-sucking habits. They are gen-
erally found in mountain regions, the kea ascending to elevations of some six thousand
feet. The kaka is an eminently-social bird, and by tar the noisiest of the denizens
of the woods of its native islands. "Being seminocturnal in its habits," writes Sir
W. Buller, "it generally remains quiet and concealed during the heat of the day.
If, however, the sportsman should happen to find a stray one, and to wound instead
of killing it, its cries of distress will immediately raise the whole fraternity from
their slumbers, and all the kakas within hearing will come to the rescue, and make
the forest echo with their discordant cries. Unless, however, disturbed by some
exciting cause of this sort, they remain in close cover till the approach of the cooler
hours. Then they come forth with noisy clamor, and may be seen, far above the
tree tops, winging their way to some feeding place; or they may be observed climb-
ing up the rough vine-clad boles of the trees, freely using their powerful mandibles,
and assuming every variety of attitude, or diligently tearing open the dead roots of
the close epiphytic vegetation in their eager search for insects and their larvae. In
the spring and summer, when the woods are full of wild blossom and berry, these
birds have a prodigality of food, and may be seen alternately filling their crops with
a variety of juicy berries, or sucking nectar from the crimson flowers of the rata
( Metro sideros) by means of their brush-fringed tongues. With the earliest streaks
of dawn, and while the underwoods are still wrapped in darkness, the wild cry of
this bird breaks upon the ear with strange effect. " It is from the oft-repeated cry
of kaka-kaka, that the bird derives its name. In dull weather kakas may often be
seen abroad in the daytime, while occasionally flocks may be observed sweeping
across a forest glade in the full sunlight. In spite of their slow and measured flight,
these birds periodically migrate from one part of the country to another, generally
traveling in parties of three or more, and frequently stopping to rest on the bare
boughs of some dead forest tree. During the pairing season the male and female
are constantly in each other's company, flying side by side, and calling as they go.
The breeding commences in November, the nest being a poor affair, made in the
hollow of the trunk of a decayed tree. Here four eggs are usually laid, although it

KAKA PARROTS.

NESTOR PARROTS

1859

is said that there may sometimes be as many as six ; and the young are able to fly
early in January. Being an excellent mimic, the kaka is highly esteemed by the
Maories as a pet, and, like most parrots, will live many years in captivity.

The habitat of the kea is very different from that of its cousin. In place of
being confined to wooded districts, this bird frequents the almost inaccessible
rocks of the mountains of the South island at elevations where only dwarf
vegetation is to be found. Here the keas may be seen among the crevices of the
rocks when the mountains are shrouded in mist or sleet, or covered with a mantle
of snow; while at other
times they may be observed
soaring with motionless
wings from peak to peak.
During the depth of winter
these birds are, however,
driven to seek their food at
lower elevations. The usual
cry of the kea has been com-
pared to the mewing of a
cat, but a scream not unlike
that of the kaka is also
uttered at times. The most
remarkable feature in con-
nection with the habits of
the kea is its carnivorous
propensities, which appear
to have been developed since
the introduction of sheep
into the colony, and have
led to a great increase in the
number of these birds. Sir
W. Buller writes that those
keas which ' ' frequent the
sheep stations appear to live
almost exclusively on flesh.
They claim the sheep's
heads that are thrown out
from the slaughter shed, and
pick them perfectly clean,
leaving nothing but the
bones. The plan usually
adopted on the stations for PHILLIP ISLAND PARROT.

alluring this bird, is to ex-
pose a fresh sheep skin on the roof of a hut; and while engaged in tearing up the
bait, it is easily approached and snared. Of recent years the keas have gone even
farther than this, and now actually kill sheep for themselves, alighting upon

i860

THE PARROT TRIBE

the backs of the unfortunate Ruminants, and tearing down through the skin and
flesh until they reach the kidneys, the fat of which is greedily devoured. In dis-
position keas display extreme curiosity, and in the mountains they display so little
fear of man that they may easily be knocked over with a stone. ' '

THE LORIES AND LORIQUETS
Family

HEAD AND TONGUE OF LORY.
(From Garrod, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1872.)

Although agreeing with the nestors in the general structure of their beaks, the
beautiful birds known as lories and loriquets, of which there are several genera,
differ by the tongue being furnished with a kind of brush instead of a fringe, and
also by the middle of the upper mandible being devoid of a groove. The beak,

which is much compressed and
generally longer than deep, has
no notch; and the cere decreases
in width from the middle line of
the head to the sides of the
beak. There is great variation
in the length of the tail, but
it is generally shorter, although
occasionally longer than the
wing, while in form it may be
either graduated or rounded.
The wings are sharply pointed
(acute), and generally have the
first three feathers the longest.

Although unrepresented in New Zealand, the members of the family are confined
to the Australasian region, inclusive of Polynesia. They comprise upward of
fourteen genera, of which only a few can be noticed in this work; the dimensions
of the species varying from those of a turtledove to little more than those of a
sparrow. There is one genus ( Oreopsittacus) , represented in New Guinea, in
which the tail has fourteen feathers, and thereby differs from that of all the
other parrots.

We select as our first example of the family the well-known
purple-capped lory (Lorius domicella), from Ceram and Amboyna,
which is the typical representative of the genus to which it belongs. All the
members of this genus — ten in number — are characterized by the tail being of
moderate length and rounded, with the two middle feathers longer than the others.
The bill is orange red, thus distinguishing the group from the black lory and its
allies ( ChalcopsittacMs] , where it is black; while the green wings serve to dif-
ferentiate these parrots from the blue-necked lory, and the other members of the
genus Eos, in which there is a considerable amount of red on the wings. The
purple-capped lory measures about a foot in total length, a third of which is

True Lories

THE LORIES AND LORIQUETS

1861

taken up by the tail. It is a gorgeously-hued bird, the general ground color of
the plumage being scarlet, while the breast is adorned with a gorget of gold; the
wings are green, with blue at the bend and on the under coverts, and the tail is red,
with a band at the tip, which is dark purple red above and golden red below.
The feature from which the species takes its popular name is the deep purple
cap on the head, which is often of so dark a tint as in some lights to. appear almost
black.

Like other lories, this species is a honeysucker, but as the brush on its tongue
is less developed than in some of the other members of the family, it is capable of

PURPLE-CAPPED LORY.
(One-half natural size.)

living on other substances than honey, and is thus more easily kept in captivity.
Lories are generally found in small parties of half a dozen or so, and Dr. Guillemard
states that in the Moluccas they may frequently be seen devouring the soft fruits
of various kinds of figs. They generally lay from three to four eggs on the bare
wood in some hollow bough, and the young leave their domicile in about six weeks
after the commencement of incubation. The species here figured is remarkable for
its gentle and affectionate disposition, as well as for its talking powers; for which
reasons, together with the gorgeousness of its plumage, it is in much request as a
pet. Mr. Gedney writes that " as a ventriloquist the purple-cap possesses no equal,

1 862

THE PARROT TRIBE

and the manner in which he will imitate domestic sounds, throwing his voice to the
opposite side of the room, is perfectly startling to a stranger." The black -capped,
or tricolored lory (L. lory}, from New Guinea, etc., belongs to the group in which
there is no yellow gorget; it has the whole of the abdomen blue, a red throat, green
wings, and a black cap.

The loriquets are smaller birds than the lories, with the tail feath-
ers elongated and gradually tapering to a more or less acute point.
In the present genus, of which we take Swainson's loriquet ( Trichoglossus novte-
hollandice') as a well-known example, the prevailing color of the plumage, both above
and below, is green; the tail feathers being entirely of this hue, and moderate in
length. The two middle feathers of the tail are not greatly elongated; while the

SWAINSON'S

(One-half natural size.)

four or five first primaries of the wings are not greatly narrowed at their tips. On
the forehead the streaks on the shafts of the feathers are more or less blue, while
the breast is more or less tinged with red; these two characteristics serving to dis-
tinguish these birds from the members of the allied genus Psitteuteles. The range
of these loriquets extends from New Guinea to Celebes. Swainson's loriquet attains
a total length of twelve inches, of which five and one-half inches are taken up by the
tail, and is thus one of the largest representatives of the genus. In coloration it is,
perhaps, the handsomest of all the Australian parrots; the head and throat being of a

THE LORIES AND LORIQUETS 1863

brilliant purplish blue, the nape of the neck greenish yellow, the abdomen blue, and
the remainder of the body, together with the upper surface of the wings and tail,
green. The under tail coverts are yellow at the base and green at the tip, while
the under wing coverts are red. A yellow tip characterizes the red bill, and the
feet are slaty gray. This handsome bird is an inhabitant of East Australia, rang-
ing from Cape York to Victoria, and is likewise found in Tasmania. By the colo-
nists it is commonly termed either the Blue mountain lory, or the Blue mountaineer.
L,ike its allies, it is almost exclusively a honeysucker, and so much honey do they
gather, that when shot, as Professor Moseley tells us, it is quite common to see this
fluid streaming out of their beaks. They generally associate in small flocks, and
during their flight utter loud screaming cries. During their migrations, according
to the " Old Bushman," they may, however, congregate in immense numbers, and
may then be seen flying at great heights. With regard to these periodical move-
ments the same observer writes that these birds are ' ' migrants to and from dif-
ferent districts, and their migrations are regulated by the state of the blossoms of
the gums and honeysuckles upon which they feed; not that they ever entirely left
our forests, for I rarely at any time went out without seeing a pair or so. But the
large flocks of them only come at such times as the trees are full of honey, and
depart as suddenly as they come. They are always in larger or smaller flocks, do not
associate with the other parrots, and are never seen feeding on the ground. ' ' The
female lays from three to four eggs, and in their first plumage the young have the
breast yellow, with scarcely any tinge of red, while the band on the nape of the
neck is scarcely visible. In captivity this parrot is by no means a desirable species,
since it is exceedingly noisy and very difficult to keep for long. In this state it will
eat insects and seeds, as well as honey and syrup.

A f k P r t ^^e -A-rf ak parrot ( Oreopsittacus arfaki) already referred to as hav-
ing fourteen tail feathers, is a native of the Arfak mountains in New
Guinea, and only measures six inches in length. The general color is dark green,
with the cheeks and ear coverts blue, a tinge of red on the abdomen, the tail feath-
ers black, with red tips, and the beak black.

Family C TCL OPS ITT A CID^E

Two genera of parrots from Australia, New Guinea, and the Eastern Malayan
islands, known as Neopsittacus and Cyclopsittacus, are regarded by Count Salvador!
as indicating a distinct family of the order allied to the lories. While agreeing
with the two preceding families in having the under surface of the hook of the bill
nearly smooth, they differ in that the bill is deeper than long, and much swollen on
the sides, the profile of the symphysis of the lower mandible being highly convex.
In these respects these parrots serve to connect the lories with the following families.
The nature of the tongue is unfortunately still unknown. Perhaps the best-known
representative of the group is the iris parrot (A7", iris) from the island of Timor —
a small, green parrot, measuring seven and three-fourths inches in length, with a
yellow-orange bill. There is but one other species of this genus (A7, musschenbroeki} ,

1864

THE PARROT TRIBE

from New Guinea, all the species of the allied genus {Cyclopsittacus} being distin-
guished by the dark color of their beaks.

THE COCKATOOS
Family CA CA T UID^,

The remaining groups of the order are distinguished from those already noticed
by the nature of the under surface of the hook of the beak. This, in place of
being smooth or with fine longitudinal striae, is marked by a series of bold trans-
verse ridges, running from either side of the middle line in a more or less oblique
direction, so as to produce a file-like surface. Moreover, in all cases the tongue is
quite simple, being unprovided with any kind of brush or fringe.

The cockatoos are readily
distinguished by the presence of
a crest of feathers on the head,
which is wanting in all the mem-
bers of the next family, with
the exception of the peculiar
horned and Uvsean parraquets
{Nymphicus), respectively from
New Caledonia and the island
of Uvasa in the L/oyalty group.
An absolutely distinctive feature
between the two families is, how-
ever, to be found in the skull.
Thus in all the cockatoos the
socket of the eye is surrounded
by a complete ring of bone, from
the lower border of which is
given off a process extending
backward to the hinder part of
the skull; whereas in the true
parrots (JPsittaddai) this ring is
generally incomplete, while in
such instances as it is entire, it
lacks the posterior bony process.
As minor characteristics it may
be mentioned that the nostrils
open in a cere which is not much
swollen, and is generally naked,
although occasionally feathered.

The bill is of great depth, and usually very short, the upper mandible being gener-
ally much compressed, with its hook at right angles to the axis of the base. In all
cases the metatarsus is extremely short.

COCKATOOS.

THE COCKATOOS

1865

The cockatoos are characteristic of the whole Australasian region, ranging as
far west as the islands of Celebes and L,ombok, and also represented in the Philip-
pines; eastward, however, their range is limited by the Solomon islands, and they
are consequently unknown in New Zealand. With the exception of the aberrant
cockateel ( Callopsittacus] of Australia, which constitutes a separate subfamily, the
whole of the members of the family are characterized by their short and broad tails.

HEAD OF GREAT BLACK COCKATOO, WITH CREST DEPRESSED.
(From Guillemard's Cruise of the " AfarcAesa,")

Their coloration differs markedly from that of the other groups of the order. In the
majority of the species white is the predominant color, but this may be more or less
tinged with red or yellow, more especially in the crest and on the under surface of
the tail. In the rose-breasted cockatoo the whole breast is, however, red, while the
upper surface of the body, together with the wings and tail, are various shades of
gray, while the ganga is all gray with the exception of the red head. In other

1 866

THE PARROT TRIBE

species the prevalent tint is black or dark blackish brown. All lack the green, so
characteristic of the parrots in general, although a tinge of this color exists on the
wings of the ganga.

The largest of all the cockatoos, and indeed one of the biggest of

r . the whole parrot tribe, is the great black cockatoo (Microglossus ater-

rimus), of the Papuan islands and North Australia, which is the sole

representative of its genus, and may be compared in size to a raven. It differs from

GREAT BI,ACK COCKATOO, WITH CREST ERECTED.
(One-fourth natural size. )

all the other members of the family in that the flesh-colored cheeks are entirely
naked, and it takes its generic name from the small size of its tongue, which is
slender and worm-like, and thus quite unlike that organ in other parrots. It is
further characterized by the upper mandible being much compressed, and narrower
than the lower one, while the great elongation and narrowness of the feathers of

BANKSIAN AND SLENDER-BIHED COCKATOOS.

(1867)

1 868 THE PARROT TRIBE

the crest are also distinctive. In the living state the plumage is of a slaty-black
tint, powdered with gray; the forehead and lores being deep velvety black; while
the feathers of the wings and tail exhibit green reflections. The naked cheeks are
pale red, bordered with equally pale yellow, and the bill and feet are black. In
length this magnificent, but funereal-looking bird, measures from twenty-nine to
thirty-one inches, some ten of which are taken up by the tail. The largest speci-
mens come from the mainland of New Guinea, those inhabiting the Aru islands
being considerably smaller. The tongue occupies only a small space in the enor-
mous mouth, and has been compared to a round pink worm with a black head, and is
partially* extensile. The color of the naked skin of the face is subject to consider-
able variation in the living bird, and, at times of excitement, owing to a kind of
blushing process, becomes of a deep blood red. That the enormously powerful bill
of this bird must have some special use is quite evident, and its particular office has
been described by Mr. Wallace in the following interesting account of the creature's
habits: "The great black cockatoo," writes this observer, "frequents the lower parts
of the forest, and is seen singly, or at most two or three together. It flies slowly and
noiselessly and may be killed by a comparatively-slight wound. It eats various
fruits and seeds, but seems more particularly attached to the kernel of the kanary
nut, which grows, on a lofty forest tree (Canarium commune}, abundant in the
islands where this bird is found; and the manner in which it gets at these seeds
shows a correlation of structure and habits, which would point out the kanary as
its special food. The shell of this nut is so excessively hard that only a heavy
hammer will crack it; it is somewhat triangular, and the outside is quite smooth.
The manner in which the bird opens these nuts is very curious. Taking one end-
ways in its bill, and keeping it firm by a pressure of the tongue, it cuts a transverse
notch by a lateral sawing motion of the sharp-edged lower mandible. This done,
it takes hold of the nut with its foot, and, biting off a piece of leaf, retains it in the
deep notch of the upper mandible, a,nd, again seizing the nut, which is prevented
from slipping by the elastic tissue of the leaf, fixes the edge of the lower mandible
in the notch, and by a powerful nip breaks off a piece of the shell. Again taking
the nut in its claws, it inserts the very long and sharp point of the bill and picks
out the kernel, which is seized hold of, morsel by morsel, by the extensile tongue.
Thus every detail of form and structure in the extraordinary bill of this bird seems
to have its use, and we may easily conceive that the black cockatoos have main-
tained themselves in competition with their more active and more numerous white
allies by their power of existing on a kind of food which no other bird is able to
extract from its stony shell." Dr. Guillemard adds that in New Guinea it is ex-
tremely difficult to obtain these birds alive, and that when in captivity their move-
ments are slow and clumsy in the extreme. Moreover, as the pectoral muscles are
small and meagre, when compared to the enormous head and beak, it is probable
that these cockatoos resort to flight as seldom as possible.

Under the general name of raven cockatoos may be included a
Cockatoos grouP °f seven species, which, while agreeing with the last in their
black or brown coloration, are distinguished by their completely-
feathered cheeks, the more ordinary form of the beak, and the shorter and broader

THE COCKATOOS

1869

feathers of the chest. Of this group the Banksian cockatoo (Calyptorhynckus
banksi}, represented in the upper portion of our plate, may be taken as a well-
known example. In all these birds the tail feathers are rather long, with the
middle ones shorter than those on the sides, and they are crossed by a light-colored
transverse band. The beak is characterized by its shortness and depth, and its
highly-curved profile. The whole seven species are confined to Australia. The
Banksian cockatoo belongs to a group of four species in which there is no light-
colored patch on the ear coverts, while in the adult males the band on the tail
is red, although more or less tinged with yellow in the young, and perhaps in
females of all ages. On the other hand, in the second group, of which the funereal
cockatoo (C. funereus} is a well-
known representative, the ear coverts
are marked by a yellow or white
patch, while the tail band is of one
of these two tints at all ages. The
Banksian cockatoo, which measures
twenty-four inches in total length,
has the general color of a greenish
black, with a vermilion tail band.
It is confined to Eastern Australia.
Writing of a South-Australian spe-
cies (C. xanthonotus) belonging to
the group with a yellow tail band,
the "Old Bushman" observes that
it ' ' was common in our forests from
about December, when the old and
young birds came down from their
breeding places, and remained with
us during the winter. They did not
breed in our neighborhood [near
Port Phillip] ; but I think they went
to nest very early, for I once shot a
female in May with a large egg in
her. They principally frequent the

honeysuckles, but are often in the large gums. The old birds are very shy, and
have a loud, hoarse call note, or cackle. When they first come, they are in large
flocks, and they then always frequented the large honeysuckles, over the tops of
which they would fly, or rather float through the air, with a wavering kind of
flight, toying and playing with each other, after the manner of the rook at home.
As the winter advanced, they appeared to separate, and, although you hardly ever
see a single bird, they disperse themselves much more generally over the forests.
Their principal food appeared to be large seeds and grubs, and they score the young
honeysuckles round with their powerful beaks in search for these latter as if cut
with a knife. The young birds are excellent eating. ' ' Basing his experience on
another species, Dr. Guillemard also vouches for the excellent quality of cockatoo pie.

HEAD OF DUCORPS' COCKATOO.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1871.)

i8;o

THE PARROT TRIBE

Ganga

The curiously-colored ganga, or helmeted cockatoo (Callocephalum

Typical

galeatum) , of Southeastern Australia and Tasmania, differs so decidedly
from all its allies as to constitute a genus by itself. The tail, as in the
two following genera, is of moderate length and nearly even; while the head and
crest of the male are of a flaming red, and the general color of the upper and under
parts gray. The cere is peculiar in being feathered, and, while the beak is horn
colored, the feet are nearly black. There is a tinge of green on the primaries of the
wings. The length of this cockatoo is thirteen and one half inches. It is a shy and
forest-loving species, generally leading a solitary life among the topmost boughs
of the tallest gum trees, on the seeds of which it subsists.

With the exception of the rose-breasted species, in the typical cock-
'c^k t atoos, which are those generally kept as pets, the predominant color
of the plumage is either white or rosy white, while in the whole of

them the upper mandible has a short hook
curving downward nearly at a right angle
to its base. The species, fifteen in num-
ber, range over Australia and the islands
to the north as far as the Philippines, and
include the most gorgeously-colored repre-
sentatives of the family. The crest is sub-
ject to considerable variation in form and
color, such variations being of the highest
importance in the determination of the
various species. In the first place, the
genus may be divided into two groups,
according to the form of the crest. In
one of these two main groups the crest
feathers are slender and terminate in sharp
points which curve forward. One of the
best-known representatives of this group
is the greater sulphur-crested cockatoo
(Cacatua galerita) from Australia, in which
the feathers of the body are pure white,

the cere naked, the crest sulphur yellow, and the naked skin round the eyes
white. This is one of the largest species, measuring from eighteen to twenty
inches in total length. In the much smaller lesser sulphur-crested cockatoo, in
which the length does not exceed thirteen inches, the body feathers are slightly
tinged with yellow, while there is also a patch of yellow on the ear coverts, in addi-
tion to that on the crest; this species inhabiting Celebes and some of the neighbor-
ing islands. From both of these the citron-crested cockatoo (C. citrino-cristatus},
from the island of Timor- L,aut, is readily distinguished by the orange yellow of the
crest. Far more gorgeous than all the others is, however, the beautiful L,eadbeat-
er's cockatoo (C. leadbeateri) of South Australia, in which the crest is vermilion
at the base, with a yellow band traversing this colored area, while the tips of the
feathers are white. The cere is also feathered. While the plumage of most of the

HEAD OF BLOOD-STAINED COCKATOO.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1871.)

THE COCKATOOS

1871

upper parts is white, the sides of the head, neck, together with the breast, under
parts, and tail coverts are tinged with a pale rose color, being very bright under
the wings. In size this species comes next to the greater sulphur-crest, its total
length being about sixteen inches.

In the second great group the feathers of the crest, as shown in our figure
of the head of Ducorps' cockatoo (C. ducorpis) of the Solomon islands, are broad

RED-CRESTED COCKATOO.
(One-fourth natural size.)

with rounded tips, which do not curve forward. In the larger forms, which corre-
spond in size to the greater sulphur-crested species, the feathers of the crest are very
long, and the cere is naked. One of the best-known forms is the great white-crested
cockatoo (C. alba), from the Halmahera group of the Moluccas, in which the whole
plumage is white. Readily distinguished by its vermilion crest the rose-crested
cockatoo (C. moluccensis) , represented in the figure on this page, appears to be

1 872 THE PARROT TRIBE

confined to the islands of Ceram and Amboyna. The remaining species are smaller,
and have the cere feathered. Most of them have the under surface of the body
white, but the red-breasted cockatoo (C. roseicapilla) differs from all the other
members of the genus in having the whole of the under surface of the body of a bril-
liant full rose color, and the upper parts gray, the crown of the head being pale rosy
white. It is widely distributed in Australia, and measures fourteen inches in total
length. The blood-stained cockatoo (C. sanguined) is from North Australia.

All the cockatoos of this group are gregarious, some of the species,
like the greater sulphur-crest, associating in immense flocks, and
those who have seen these birds soaring over the trees of an Australian forest bear
testimony to the beauty of the spectacle. At times they will ascend in the sky,
during the full blaze of a tropical noon, far above the range of the unaided human
vision, while at others they may be seen scattered so thickly over a field as to give
almost the appearance of a coating of snow. Some years ago it was attempted to
naturalize these birds in the woods of Norfolk, but the attempt was to a great
extent rendered abortive through their wandering habits, whereby many fell victims
to the guns of the idlers of the neighborhood. When flying at such a height in the
air as to be invisible to the naked eye, the whereabouts of the flock of great white
cockatoos is often revealed on a calm day by the sound of the characteristic cry
from which these birds derive their name. This repetition of the syllables cockatoo-
cockatoo is the ordinary cry of that species, but the harsh, screaming yell, denoting
anger or surprise, is only too well known to all who have kept these birds as pets.
Their food consists mainly of seeds, but it is probable that in the wild state larvae
of insects form a considerable portion of the diet of many of the species, as in cap-
tivity they will readily eat both gnats and flesh. L,ike most of the parrot tribe,
cockatoos do little or nothing in the way of nest-making, generally laying their
eggs on the bare wood in some hollow tree. The eggs vary from three to four in
number, and usually two broods are reared in a year. In those species which have
been bred in Europe, the season extends from May till September. Their elegant
plumage, graceful movements, and the readiness with which they are tamed, render
cockatoos great favorites as domestic pets, although their discordant cries — worse in
some species than others — are a most serious drawback. Writing of the great
white cockatoo, Mr. W. T. Greene observes that "occasionally one of these birds
will learn to pronounce a few words with tolerable distinctness, but their forte lies
in the imitation of the barking of dogs, the crowing of cocks, the gabbling
of turkeys, and the cackling of ducks, hens, and geese, and more particularly in the
rendering, with much fidelity but in an exaggerated key, the outcries of a domestic
fowl that has just produced an egg. They may be readily taught to throw up their
wings, dance on their perch, hold out their foot to shake hands, and bow their heads
in salutation of a visitor. ' ' Not unfrequently these birds can be tamed sufficiently
to admit their being allowed to wander at large, and the writer is acquainted with
an individual of one of the Australian species which is at times let loose in the gar-
den of its owner. Here the bird will generally remain within accessible distance,
although it will occasionally fly to the tops of some tall trees. From such an ele-
vated perch "cockie" will generally descend at the call of its mistress, but occa-

THE COCKATOOS

1873

sionally it is obdurate, and cannot be recaptured without much trouble. The
rose-breasted species assembles in smaller flocks than most of the other kinds, from
which it also differs in its fondness for shade, resting quietly in the tree tops while
its white cousins are soaring in the empyrean above during the midday heat. From
its splendid colors and
engaging ways it would
make an attractive pet,
were it not that its dis-
cordant screams are more
piercing and more fre-
quently uttered than
those of its allies.

The slen- 1
Slender-Billed

Cockatoos

der-billed

cockatoos,

of which there are two
species, one (Lichmetis
nasica) having a wide
range in Australia, while
the other (/,. pertinator)
is confined to Western
Australia, take their name
from the great length and \
slenderness of the upper
mandible, which projects
obliquely forward. The
former species is repre-
sented in the lower figure
of the plate on p. 1867,
and measures fifteen
inches in length, the gen-
eral color of the plumage
being white. The lores
and a narrow band on the
forehead are, however,
red; while the feathers
covering the head, neck,
and breast are scarlet at
the base, and the under
surfaces of the wings and
tail are washed with yellow. The crest is small, and confined to the front of the head.
The small long-tailed Australian species, known as the cockateel

{Callopsittacus novce-hollandicz} , differs so remarkably in appearance
from the other members of the family that it has been considered to be an ally of
the grass parraquets. Nevertheless, as it has the crest and skull of the cockatoos,
118

i '

COCKATEEL.

The Cockateel

1 874 THE PARROT TRIBE

it is referred by Count Salvador! to the present family. It differs from all the other
members of the family in its narrow and pointed tail feathers, of which the middle
pair are much longer than the others. The male measures about twelve and one-
half inches, rather more than half of which is taken up by the tail. Its coloration,
without being very striking, is pleasing. The prevailing hue is dark gray, becom-
ing much paler on the upper tail coverts; the forehead and cheeks are lemon yellow,
while the feathers of the crest, which cannot be depressed, are yellow at the base
and gray above. A bright patch of reddish orange on the ear coverts occupies the
middle of the yellow area, and the median and greater coverts, as well as a portion
of the secondaries of the wings are ornamented with a broad band of white. The
female lacks the brilliant head colors of her consort. The cockateel is found all over
Australia, with the exception of Northeastern Queensland, and associates in flocks
of considerable size. The female lays from five to seven, or even nine eggs, in the
incubation of which the male takes a full share. Strong in its flight, the cockateel
is a somewhat restless, and at the same time a noisy bird. Mr. W. T. Greene
writes that, "taken when about half-fledged from the nest, and brought up
by hand, or rather by mouth, the young male cockateel becomes the most charm-
ing pet that can be imagined; in point of fact, there is scarcely any accomplish-
ment that he cannot be taught. He will perform all manner of little tricks,
such as kissing his mistress, pretending to be dead, flying out of window,
and returning at the word of command; he will also learn to repeat, with great
distinctness, not only words, but short sentences, and even to imitate, in a discon-
nected and rambling fashion, it is true, the chattering of his compatriot, the bud-
gerigar, or the warbling of his rival, the canary." These birds will breed freely in
confinement, and they have the advantage of an equable and contented disposition,
which enables them to live peaceably with the other inhabitants of an aviary,
whether great or small. Indeed, so easy going in disposition is the cockateel, that
it will frequently allow itself to be hustled about and bullied by its smaller cousin,
the budgerigar, the description of which comes later on in the chapter

THE TYPICAL PARROTS
Family PSITTACID^E

With the exception of the peculiar owl parrot of New Zealand, the whole of
the remaining members of the order are included in a single family, which comprises
a far larger number of genera and species than either of the others. The group
is one very difficult to define; but, with the exception of the Uvaean parrot and
a kindred species, all its members are distinguished from the cockatoos by the ab-
sence of a crest; while in the skull the ring of bone is generally imperfect, and if
complete it always lacks the posterior process characterizing that part of the cock-
atoos. The members of this family have a very wide geographical distribution,
ranging over the whole of the tropical regions, and being the only representatives

THE AMERICAN SHARP-TAILED PARROTS

1875

of the order met with in Africa and America. In the Australasian region they are
found in association with all the other five families. The family is divided into six
subfamilies.

Pygmy Parrots

Subfamily

New Guinea
is a country of
strange creatures, but none
of its living products are more
remarkable than the pygmy
parrots, some of which are
actually smaller than an Eng-
lish sparrow. These birds
have their beaks shaped as in
the cockatoos, with a broad
band-like cere, which becomes
narrower in the middle line.
They are, however, specially
distinguished by their short
and squared tails, in which
the pointed extremities of the
shafts of the feathers project
beyond the vanes. When
folded the long wings reach
beyond the end of the tail,
and the claws are remarkably
elongated. The males of
these pygmies are most gor-
geous in color, but their
consorts show much more
sober tints. Altogether nine

species of these parrots are recognized. In the species figured above (Nasiterna
pygnuza), the total length is just over three inches, but it is rather more in the red-
capped species (N. bruijni).

PYGMY PARROT.

(Natural size.)

THE AMERICAN SHARP-TAILED PARROTS
Subfamily CONURIN^E

The pygmy parrots constituting a subfamily by themselves, we come now to a
second very large subfamily, exclusively confined to the New World, and ranging
from Carolina to Patagonia. These parrots, which include the well-known macaws
and the smaller conures, are characterized by their graduated and generally long

1 876

THE PARROT TRIBE

tails, in which each of the feathers tapers to a point, and the middle pair are longer
than any of the others. The bill is strong, almost always deeper than long, and
generally devoid of any notch, while its usual color is whitish or pale brown.
Except in one genus, the two sexes are alike, and the predominant color of the
plumage is usually green, although in some species blue or yellow. The cere, which
may be either naked or feathered, surrounds the whole base of the bill like a band,
and the nostrils may be either exposed or concealed among the feathers. In the
skull the ring round the socket of the eye is generally complete. As there are no
less than fifteen genera in the group, only some of the more interesting can be
noticed.

RED- CAPPED PYGMY PARROT.
(From Guillemard's Cruise of the " Marchesa.")

From their large size, the length of their tails, and the gorgeous
ya5!n " tints of blue, red, and yellow adorning their plumage, the macaws are
the most showy and conspicuous of all the parrots, but they have the
disadvantage of being the most noisy of the whole confraternity, and are therefore
far from being desirable in the house. By many writers the whole of them are in-
cluded in a single genus, but Count Salvadori considers that they may be divided into
three generic groups. The hyacinthine macaw {Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus) from
Central Brazil, of which a figure is given on the left side of our colored plate, is the
best-known representative of a small genus, characterized by the general color of
the plumage being blue both above and below, while the lores are feathered. In the
figured species the whole plumage is of a nearly uniform cobalt blue, becoming a
little lighter on the head and neck, and somewhat duller below, while the under sur-
faces of the wings and tail are black. In marked contrast to the prevailing azure,
stands out the yellow of the naked skin surrounding the eye and at the base of the
lower jaw. The black beak is of unusually large size, even for a macaw, and the

MACAWS.

THE AMERICAN SHARP-TAILED PARROTS

1877

iv^t are blackish. The total length of this fine bird is about thirty-four inches, of
which twenty and one-half are taken up by the tail. The hyacinthine macaw is a
somewhat rare species, and although inhabiting the dense tropical forests affected by
the other macaws, it is said by Azara to differ markedly in regard to its breeding
habits. In place of building in some hollow tree, it is stated to scoop out a burrow
on the bank of a river, where it lays a pair of eggs; two broods being reared in a

HYACINTHINE MACAW.

(One-fifth natural size.)

season. These birds — the ararauna of the natives — fly, according to Bates, in
pairs, and feed on palm nuts, which, although so hard as to be difficult to break with
a heavy hammer, are crushed to pulp by their beaks. The skulls of the hyacinthine
macaw and its congeners differ from those of ordinary macaws in the incompleteness
of the bony ring round the eye. The same feature is probably also characteristic of

1878

THE PARROT TRIBE

True Macaws

HEAD OF MACAW.

Spix's macaw ( Cyanopsittacu s zpixi) , which, although agreeing with the ararauna
in its blue coloration, differs by the naked lore, on which account it is regarded as
representing a distinct genus.

The true macaws differ from the preceding in the absence of blue on
un(^er part of ^e body, and also by the completeness of the bony

ring in the skull round the eye. In
all of them the lores, as well as a
larger or smaller area of the cheeks,
are devoid of feathers. The range
of these splendid birds, which are
locally known as araras, extends from
Mexico to Bolivia and Paraguay, cer-
tain species ranging in the Andes to
elevations of some ten thousand feet
above the sea.

Of the fourteen recognized spe-
cies, a few of the better known will
alone be mentioned. Among these the
rcd-and-blue macaw (Ara macao},
represented on the right side of our

colored plate, is one of the handsomest. In this species the general color of both
the upper and under parts is vermilion red, while the upper wing coverts are chrome
yellow, the lower part of the back, the rump, upper and lower tail coverts, together
with the quills of the wings being blue. The tail feathers are scarlet, with more or
less blue at their tips (except in the central pair) and on their outer edges, the outer-
most being almost wholly blue. Beneath, both the tail and wing feathers are golden
red, while the greater and upper median wing coverts, as well as the scapulars, are
yellow tipped with green. In size this splendid bird attains a total length of three
feet, nearly two of which are taken up by the tail. Its range is large, extending
from Mexico to Guiana and the Amazon valley. In marked contrast to the above,
is the coloration of the blue and yellow macaw {A. ararauna), depicted at the top
of our plate. In this bird while the upper surface of the body, wings, and tail is
blue, almost the whole of the under parts are yellow, while the throat is marked by
a broad black gorget. The crown of the head is grass green, and the contrast of
the light blue of the feathers of the back with the dark blue of the quills of the
wings is very pleasing. This species, which is smaller than the last, is also widely
distributed in tropical America, ranging from Panama to the Amazon valley. A
third type of coloration is presented by the still smaller military macaw {A. mili-
taris), in which, as in the majority of the species, the prevalent tint is green. The
forehead is, however, scarlet, while the lower part of the back, the rump, and the
upper tail coverts are light blue. Blue also appears on the quills of the wings, as
well as on the primary and outermost greater wing coverts; while in the tail the four
middle feathers are brownish red tipped with blue above, and the outer ones largely
blue. The length of this species is only twenty-seven inches, and its range extends
from Mexico to Peru and Bolivia.

THE AMERICAN SHARP-TAILED PARROTS 1879

All the macaws of this genus are denizens of the dense forests of
tropical America, associating in flocks, and feeding on fruits, seeds,
and nuts. Bates compares a flock of the red-and-blue species, feeding on the fruits
of a palm tree, to a cluster of flaunting banners suspended beneath its crown.
When on the wing, such flocks make the air resound with their loud harsh screams.
In the fruit season, Waterton describes the palms in the neighborhood of the Ma-
coushi country as being sometimes absolutely covered with these birds, and states
that any number may be killed with the blowpipe and arrows. They all nest in the
hollows of trees, which they enlarge according to their requirements. The eggs,
usually two, but occasionally three in number, are about the size of those of a hen,
but less pointed. Both males and females take their share in the incubation, and
there are usually two broods in the year. Not unfrequently the whereabouts of a
macaw's nest is betrayed by the protruding tail of the sitting bird. Macaws awake
from slumber with the first streaks of dawn, and at once commence their deafening
clamor, the whole flock generally repairing to some common meeting place, where
they open their wings and warm themselves in the sun's rays. Soon, the flock
departs to its feeding ground, which may be either in the forest or among the culti-
vated lands. Feeding is continued till about ten o'clock, after which the host
repairs to a neighboring stream to drink and bathe. Toward noon the macaws
seek the deepest shade of the forest, where they spend the hottest hours of the day,
till the declining sun once again calls them forth. Before settling down to roost for
the night, the flock, after the manner of rooks, assembles at the meeting place —
usually some large bare tree. Most of the macaws can be readily tamed, and will
live in captivity for long periods. They are, however, but poor talkers, and never
give up their pernicious habit of screaming. Moreover, although properly-tamed
birds seldom attempt to bite adults, many of them cannot safely be trusted where
there are children.

Next to the macaws, the best-known representatives of this sub-
family are the smaller parrots, termed, from the form of the tail, con-
ures, most of which are included in the genus Conurus, although our figured
example ( C. carolinensis} is the sole representative of the distinct genus Conuropsis.
The conures differ from the true macaws by the lore being feathered, and they are
further characterized by the rather swollen form of the beak, which is not in the
least degree compressed, while the lower mandible is broad and not grooved. In
the typical conures, or those included in the genus Conurus, the fourth primary
feather of the wing is attenuated, and the nostrils are exposed, whereas in the Car-
olina conure {Conuropsis} the corresponding feather is not narrowed, and the nos-
trils are concealed among the feathers covering the cere. Various shades of green,
yellow, and orange may be described as the prevalent colors of the conures,
although there is frequently more or less blue on the quills of the wings, while
there may be red on the head and breast; the under parts are, however, never blue.
In the Carolina conure, which measures twelve and one-half inches in length, the
general color is green, becoming yellowish on the under parts, while the forehead
and cheeks are orange red, and the rest of the head and neck bright yellow. Spots
of orange red with patches of yellow adorn the shoulders, and the outer webs of the

i88o

THE PARROT TRIBE

quills are bluish green, becoming yellow at the base. The true conures, of which
there are no less than twenty-eight species, range from Mexico, through Central
America and the West Indies, to Bolivia and Paraguay. Formerly, the Carolina
conure had a more northern range than any other parrot, extending to Iowa, the
Great Lakes, and New York, but it is now confined to the States bordering the
Gulf of Mexico and the Missisisippi valley, and is very local. At one time they
were found in enormous flocks, which used to do great damage to the crops, but of

CAROLINA CONURE.
(One- half natural size.)

late years their numbers have been greatly reduced. Wilson writes that the Caro-
lina conures ' ' are particularly attached to the large sycamores, in the hollows of
the trunks and branches of which they generally roost, thirty or forty and some-
times more, entering at the same hole. Here they cling close to the sides of the
tree, holding just by the claws and also by the bill. They appear to be fond of
sleep, and often retire to their holes during the day, probably to take a regular
siesta. They are extremely sociable and fond of each other, often scratching each

THE AMERICAN SHARP-TAILED PARROTS

1881

other's heads and necks, and always at night nestling as close as possible to each
other, preferring at that time a perpendicular position, supported by their beak
and claws." They lay from three to five eggs, and, if taken young, are readily
tamed. The golden conure (C. solstitialis} , of Guiana, is golden yellow with the
exception of parts of the wings which are green and blue.

SWGHT-BIIXED PARRAQUET.
(Two-fifths natural size.)

The great length and comparative straightness of the upper
Slight-Billed ... * r 4. ' . .. ... &

p mandible of the parrot represented m the illustration, serves to dis-

tinguish it at a glance from all its kindred. This bird is the
slight-billed parraquet {Henicognathus leptorhynchus} , the sole representative of
its genus, and restricted to Chili, where it appears to be abundant. It is about
fifteen inches in total length, and the general color of its plumage is dull green,
becoming somewhat brighter on the top of the head, in which region each feather
has a dusky edge. This color is relieved by dull crimson on the forehead, lores,
and round the eyes; and there is a faint patch of dull red on the abdomen, and some

i882

THE PARROT TRIBE

amount of bluish tints on the wings. The iris of the eye is orange, while the
beak and feet are lead color. These parrots are met with in large flocks, which
may number hundreds or thousands of individuals, and keep up an incessant
screaming. For a part of the year they inhabit the forests, but from October
to April they make their appearance in the cultivated districts of Valdivia,
for the purpose of feeding on the crops. At this season they appear every

GRAY-BREASTED PARRAQUET.

(Two-fifths natural size.)

morning in large flocks flying from the northward, and returning in the evening.
With their long beaks they extract the grains of maize and wheat from the
growing crops, and also dig up roots of grass, which form their staple food. Indeed,
they are more terrestrial than arboreal in their general habits, although they nest
in hollow trees. It is but seldom that these parrots are brought alive to Europe.

THE AMERICAN SHARP-TAILED PARROTS 1883

The gray-breasted parraqtiet (Myopsittaciis monachus) belongs to
S^p '* a grouP °f genera, distinguished from the three preceding ones by the

bony ring round the eye being incomplete; this particular genus being
characterized by the beak being rather swollen at the sides and rounded above, as
well as by the tufted oil gland, and the concealment of the nostrils by the forward
projection of the feathers at the base of the beak. The general color of this
parrot is green, with the upper part of the head, lores, cheeks, throat, and breast
gray; the under parts yellowish green, and the primary feathers and wing coverts
blue, edged with green on their outer webs. The bill is reddish white, the iris
brown, and the foot gray. The total length of the bird is eleven and a half inches.
It is a native of Bolivia, Paraguay, Argentina, and Uruguay. The most interesting
point in connection with this parrot is its habit of building nests in trees,
whereby it differs from all other members of the order, our illustration repre-
senting one of these nests built by a pair in captivity in one corner of their
cage. Darwin states that these birds in Parana select tall trees in which to
build, and that a number of nests are placed so close together as to form one
great mass of sticks. They always associate in immense flocks, and commit
great ravages on the corn crops. On this account they are much persecuted by
the inhabitants, Darwin relating that as many as two thousand five hundred of
these birds were killed near Colonia in the course of a year. In some districts the
nests are constructed in the trees growing in swamps, and attain a huge size, each
nest generally having several entrances, and being frequented by two or three
pairs of birds. On this account the name of swamp parrot is frequently applied to
the species. From observations made on captive specimens, it appears that although
the cock aids in building the nest, the work of incubation is performed by the hen
alone, the usual number of eggs being two.

Nearly allied to this species are several South- American parrots constituting
the genus Bolborhynchus, distinguished from the one under consideration by the
nostrils being exposed and opening in a much swollen cere, from which the name of
the genus is derived. These parrots range from Mexico to Northern Chili and the
Argentine, a well-known species being the Aymara parraquet (B. aymara).

The smallest representatives of this subfamity are the pretty little

green and blue birds, which may be termed, from their Latin name,
parrotlets, and occupy a position in this section analogous to that held by the love
birds in the parraquet group. The largest of these parrotlets is only five and one-
half inches in length, while none of the others exceed five inches. They differ
from all the other members of the subfamily in the relative shortness of their tails,
and also in that the two sexes are unlike, while their skeletons are distinguished by
the absence of the furcula. They range from Mexico to Bolivia and Brazil, and
are divided into three groups, according to the color of the rump in the male. In
the first group, as represented by the blue-winged parrotlet (Psittacula passerina),
the rump is ultramarine blue; in the second (P. speugeli] it is turquoise, and in
the third (P. guianensis) green. We may remark here that the reader will scarcely
fail to notice what a number of members of the parrot tribe are restricted to the
Southern Hemisphere, where they are especially numerous in South America,

1 884

THE PARROT TRIBE

All-Green

Parraquet

Australia, and the Papuan islands. This has been taken to indicate that these
birds constitute an originally southern group, although it is much more probable

that they were pri-
marily developed in
the Northern Hemi-
sphere.

Our
last ex-
ample

of the subfamily is
the all-green or tirika
parraquet (Broto-
gerys tirica) , repre-
senting a genus with
several species, dis-
tinguished by the
long tail, the some-
what compressed
form of the beak, in
BI.UE-WINGED PARROTI,ET. which the nostrils

open in a completely-
naked cere, and the absence of a tufted oil gland. The species figured on the
opposite page is the largest of the genus, measuring ten inches in total length,
whereas some of the others are less than seven. It takes its name from the
all-pervading green of the plumage, to which the only exceptions are the blue
primaries and primary coverts, a slight tinge of olive brown on the lesser upper
wing coverts, and of blue on the middle tail feathers. This species is an inhabit-
ant of Eastern Brazil; the. range of the genus extending from that country, Peru,
and Bolivia, to Central America. In Eastern Brazil the tirika is one of the com-
monest of the parrot tribe, associating in countless flocks, which may be seen flying
from grove to grove, or descending to ravage the rice and maize fields. Their cry
is a short, sharp, clear scream. In captivity these parraquets thrive well.

BUJNT-TAILED GREEN PARROTS
Subfamily PIONIN^

The familiar Amazon parrots are among the best-known representatives of
a large subfamily, containing several American genera and also a single African
one. All these parrots are distinguished from the members of the preceding sub-
family by their broad and short or moderate tails, which are never of the acuminate
and pointed form characteristic of the conures, and have the tips of the feathers
rounded. In the whole of them the cere is entirely naked, and the predominant

BLUNT-TAILED GREEN PARROTS

1885

color of the plumage green. Usually the tail is about half the length of the
wing, and may be either squared or rounded at the end, and the bill is of moderate
strength, sometimes rather longer than deep. The New- World forms are all of
them tropical.

Amazon
Parrots

AH-GREEN PARRAQUET.

(One-half natural size.)

The Amazon parrots, of which there are over forty species, are
mostly comparatively-large birds, sometimes exceeding seventeen
inches in length, and range from Mexico to Argentina, although espe-
cially characteristic of the great river valley from which they take their name.
They are characterized by the tail being of moderate length and rounded, with the
under coverts always green, and also by the absence of a tufted oil gland, as well as
by the completeness of the bony ring round the eye. One of ihe best-known species
is the festive amazon (Chrysotis f estiva], from the Amazon valley, which is a green
bird with a red frontlet, a line of blue above and behind the eye, the back and rump

1886

THE PARROT TRIBE

red, and the bastard wing, together with the primary wing coverts and the outer
webs of the primaries, deep blue. Most of the species are distinguished from one
another by the markings of the head and face, while a few differ by their smaller
size. They are all essentially forest-dwelling birds; associating in flocks, and
feeding upon the fruits of palms and other trees. They usually lay from three
to four eggs, and produce but one brood in the year. If taken sufficiently early
the young are extraordinarily tame, and as these birds are very hardy, they are
favorites in captivity, more especially as many of them rival the gray parrot in
talking and mimicry. Indeed, the festive amazon frequently becomes sufficiently
domesticated to be allowed to wander in gardens at large.

HAWK-BILGED PARROT.

(One-fourth natural size.)

One of the most remarkable members of this subfamily is the hawk-

a™ ~ billed parrot (Deroptyus actipitrinus) of Guiana, the Amazon valley,

and Northeast Brazil, which is the sole representative of its genus. It

differs from the amazons by the presence of a tufted oil gland, and by the relatively

longer tail, and is specially characterized by the beak being rather short, and deeper

than long, but above all by the elongation and breadth of the feathers on the hinder

part of the neck, which form an erectile collar- or ruff. The coloration of this

extraordinary bird is very striking. While the back and upper surface of the wings

BLUNT-TAILED PARROTS 1887

are green, the head is brown, with hoary streaks on the sides; the elongated feathers
of the nape, together with those on the abdomen and breast are dark red, with blue
edges, and the bastard wing, primaries, and primary coverts are black. The tail
feathers are green, tinged with blue near the tips, and below both the tail and wings
are black. The color of the bill is dusky horn, the iris is brown, and the feet are
black. In length this bird measures about fourteen inches. In repose, the elon-
gated feathers of the nape are depressed, and it is only when the bird is excited or
angry that the ruff is raised in the manner depicted in our illustration. But little is
known of this parrot in its native state, beyond the fact that it is an inhabitant of
dense forests, and is far less common than most other species. It is frequently
found on the sawari palms, and its cry is described as of piercing shrillness. The
usual number of eggs laid is stated to be four. Although but rarely exported to
Europe, the hawk-billed parrot, according to Mr. W. T. Greene, is an admirable
bird as a pet, being very hardy, agile and graceful in its movements, readily tamed,
and almost as good a talker as the gray parrot.

Passing by the other American representatives of the present sub-
^ family, brief mention must be made of the African genus Pceocephalns \
which contains several medium-sized parrots, with rather short tails,
and the bill very short and deep, especially as regards its lower mandible, in which
the depth exceeds the length. These parrots are found throughout Africa south of
the Sahara, and agree with their American cousins in the general green hue of their
plumage; well-known examples being L,evaillant's parrot (P. robustus) of South
Africa; Jardine's parrot (P. guliemi} from the west coast, and the brown-headed
parrot (P. fuscicapillus) from Zanzibar. In the second of these, while the general
hue is green, the feathers of the back are black, edged with green; the tail feathers
and primaries black, and the other wing feathers like those of the back. These
colors are relieved by red on the front of the head, the bend of the wings, and legs.
The whole length of the bird is about eleven inches. All are readily tamed, and
may be often trained to talk fairly well.

Subfamily PSITTACINJR

This second group of short-tailed parrots, which are mainly confined
Gray and to Africa and Madagascar, although represented by one genus in New
Guinea, are readily distinguished from the members of the preceding
Tailed subfamily by their prevalent color being either gray or black, with or
Parrots without an admixture of red. The sides of the head are more or less
naked, the bill is never red, and in the skull the bony ring round the
eye is always incomplete. The cere is broad, but narrows toward the nostrils, which
it does not inclose in a swelling; while the bill is without a notch, and has its lower
mandible longer than deep. The tail may be either square or rounded, and is some-
times rather more and at others rather less than half the length of the wing.

Such a universal favorite as the common gray parrot (Psittacus erithacus) — the
type of the whole order — scarcely requires description, as its appearance is familiar

1888

THE PARROT TRIBE

Gray Parrot

to all. It may be mentioned, however, that it is characterized by the
squared tail being less than half the length of the wing, by the rather
compressed and lengthened bill, and by the papillae covering the naked portions of
the face. The general color of the plumage is ashy, with a bright red tail. The
range of this species extends from the Congo and Guinea coast across Equatorial
Africa to the east of Lake Nyassa. In Liberia and lower Sierra Leone it is replaced
by P. timneh, distinguished by its dark gray plumage, and the dark red of the tail.
The best account extant of the habits of the gray parrot in its wild state is one by
Mr. J. G. Keulemans, who had an opportunity of studying these birds during a long

THE GRAY PARROT.

(Two-fifths natural size.)

•

residence on Prince's island, where they especially frequent a hill, known as the
Pico do Papagaio. Mr. Keulemans writes that ' ' these parrots are always found in
flocks which go about the island during the day, returning to their own appointed
place on the mountain in the evening to roost. Their food consists of fruits, such
as the palm nut, the avocat, the banana, goyave, mango, and many other fruits of
a smaller kind, but they always give the preference to the palm nuts. They drink
but little, and as no water is found on the Pico, they must obtain what they require
during the day on the lowland. They make no nest, but deposit their eggs (which
are from two to four in number) on the bottom of the hole. The eggs are in size,

THE PARRAQUET GROUP 1889

shape, and color similar to those of the wood pigeon; when- unblown they are of a
pinkish hue, which may be owing to the thinness of the shell. Both birds take
turns to sit, and while one is sitting the other often comes and feeds it out of its
crop. The young ones are fed in the same way. In time of danger the old birds
defend their progeny vigorously, and should the enemy prove too strong to be suc-
cessfully resisted by one, other parrots come up to their assistance, and, joining
forces, either kill or put the aggressor to flight. The gray parrot delights to dwell
in companies; many nests are found within a few feet of each other, and often in
one tree two or more holes may be seen occupied by hatching pairs. The young
birds are covered with a long and fluffy down, which afterward, when molting,
falls off. Their first plumage is darker, and the iris dark gray, instead of pale
yellow. They leave the nest when about four weeks old, but may be seen looking
outside the hole some time before they are able to fly. ' ' In captivity this parrot is
the best of talkers, and, did space permit, many interesting anecdotes might be
quoted relative to this accomplishment. Contrary to what usually prevails among
higher bipeds, the male is commonly the more voluble and fluent speaker of the
two, although the female pronounces her words more distinctly. L,ike most parrots,
this species attains a great age, and there seems no doubt that examples have been
kept in captivity for periods of between sixty and eighty years. Whether, how-
ever, they have lived in this state for upward of a century, as reported, seems doubt-
ful. The anecdote of the old lady of eighty, who purchased a parrot with the view
of testing by experiment the truth of such report, is probably well known to our
readers.

- Five peculiar parrots inhabiting Madagascar and certain neighbor-

ing islands, constitute a genus easily recognized by their black or
blackish-brown plumage, which gives them at a distance somewhat the appearance
of crows. The region round the eye is naked, the lore also partially bare, and the
whitish bill somewhat thickened and swollen. The greater vasa (Coraccpsis vasa)
attains a length of about twenty inches. Although common in their native islands,
very little is known of the habits of these parrots in the wild state. The few that
are brought to Europe are readily tamed, and soon learn to talk.

This species {Dasypterus perqueti ) is distinguished from its Mala-

™ ' gasy allies by its longer and shallower beak, and the larger amount of

Parrot bare s^^n on t^ie sides °f tne race- The general sable hue is relieved

by a red band on either side of the back of the head; while the under

wing coverts are likewise red

THE PARRAQUET GROUP
Subfamily

The true parraquets, together with the love birds and certain other allied
forms, constitute a fifth subfamily, confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, but exceed-
ingly difficult to define from external characteristics. All of them differ, however,
119

1890

THE PARROT TRIBE

from the members of the foregoing groups, except the pygmy parrots, by certain
peculiarities connected with the course of the carotid arteries. As a rule, the
females are markedly distinct from the males, which, with the exception of the par-
rotlets, is not the case in the preceding groups; the tail feathers are frequently
pointed, and the sides of the head are either completely feathered, or only naked
just round the eyes. The bill is often very strong, and frequently, especially its

?^^^^^/>^//'^

B^fiSiiii:^ f?¥ f •' U

RED-SIDED ECI.ECTUS.
(One-fourth natural size.)

upper moiety, red in color. In the skull the ring round the eye is incomplete. The
cere is always narrow, surrounding the whole base of the bill with a band of equal
width, and is generally partially feathered; while the nostrils may be either exposed
or concealed. The group ranges over the Oriental, Ethiopian, and Australasian
regions.

THE PARRAQUET GROUP 1891

The Moluccas and Papuan islands are the home of a genus of par-

rots of this group, of which the typical red-sided eclectus (Ededus

pedoralis} exceeds the green parrot in size; its total length being from

sixteen to eighteen and one-half inches. In this genus the bill is thick, notched,

and very deep, with its lower mandible marked by a keel along the middle line of the

symphysis. The tail is of moderate length and nearly squared, with its central

feathers of normal form, and the nostrils are hidden. In the females the general

hue of the plumage is red, while in the males it is green.

So different are the two sexes of the red-sided eclectus, that it is at first sight
difficult to believe that they belong to the same species. In the female, the beak
is black and the eye yellow; the plumage of the head and upper parts of the neck
and breast is rich crimson red; a band across the upper part of the back, the lower
breast and abdomen, as well as the edge of the wing and under coverts, are blue;
the back, rump, upper tail, and wing coverts, and the secondaries are blood red; the
primaries and their coverts are blue, edged with green on their outer webs; while
the tail is blood red above, and more dusky beneath. In the more soberly clad
male, the general green hue is relieved by red on the axillaries and under wing
coverts; while there is blue on the angle of the wing, and the primaries and their
coverts; the under surface of both the wings and tail feathers being black. In
the beak the upper mandible is vermilion, and the lower one black. No adequate
conception of the gorgeous coloration of these birds can, however, be conveyed
without the aid of colored illustrations. This splendid parrot ranges from the
Aru islands through New Guinea to the Solomon islands; but, as with its allies,
scarcely anything is known concerning its habits in the wild state. In captivity
it is readil)' tamed; but its chief attraction lies in its brilliant plumage, as its
movements are listless and devoid of interest, and it is at times subject to fits of
deafening screaming.

All who have traveled or resided in India are familiar with the
p t flights of long-tailed parraquets which swarm in every jungle, and

form one of the most characteristic features of an Oriental landscape.
These parraquets, of which there are many species, belong to a genus ranging from
Africa north of the Equator, through Mauritius and the Seychelles, to India,
Burma, the south of China, and Malaysia, and taking its name from the cir-
cumstance that one of the species was brought to Europe by Alexander the Great
from the Punjab. They are characterized by the long and graduated tail, in which
all the feathers, but especially the middle pair, are narrow; and by the presence of
a notch in the upper mandible; while very frequently there is a rose-colored
collar round the neck, at least in the males. The general hue of the plumage
is green; but while in one large group the head is of this color, in a second
it is only partially green, or not green at all. The best-known species is the ring-
necked parraquet (Palceornis torquatus] , belonging to the former group, and ranging
from India to Cochin China. In length, this bird varies from sixteen to seventeen
inches, of which from nine and a half to ten are taken up by the tail, and while its
general color is green, the neck of the male is ornamented with a rose-red collar,
incomplete in front, above which is a black ring incomplete behind. Far

1892

handsomer, however, is the Indian blossom-headed parraquet (P. cyanocephahis},
in which the head of the male is red, tinged with plum color on the sides and
back, and defined by a narrow black collar, while the middle feathers of the tail
are blue. The following account of the habits of the Indian ring-necked species
is given by Jerdon, who wrrites that it frequents "cultivated grounds and
gardens, even in the barest and least wooded parts of the country, and it is

ROSY-FACED I.OVE BIRDS.

(Three-fifths natural size.)

habitually found about towns and villages, constantly perching on the house
tops. It is very destructive to most kinds of grain, as well as to fruit gardens.
When the grains are cut and housed, it feeds on the ground, on the stubble corn-
fields, also on meadows, picking up what grains it can; and now and then takes
long flights, hunting for any tree that may be in fruit; and when it has made a
discovery of one in fruit, circling round, and swirling with outspread and down-

THE PARRAQUET GROUP

1893

Love Birds

pointing wings till it alights on the tree. It associates in flocks of various size,
sometimes in vast numbers, and generally many hundreds roost together in some
garden or grove. It breeds both in holes in trees, and very commonly, in the south
of India, in old buildings, pagodas, tombs, etc. It lays four white eggs. Its breed-
ing season is from January to March. Its ordinary flight is rapid, with repeated
strokes of the wings, somewhat wavy laterally or arrowy. It has a harsh cry,
which it always repeats when in flight, as well as at other times." These parraquets
are readily tamed, and in India will breed in that state. If well trained, they are
fairly quiet; but if their tempers have been unduly tried, they are wont to exercise
their powers of screaming.

The pretty little parrots (of which a group is represented in our
illustration), commonly known as love birds, derive both their popular
and scientific titles on account of the attachment the pairs appear to entertain for
one another. Mr. W. T. Greene remarks, however, that a single bird will live in
captivity for years without any apparent signs of pining, and will actually become
more attached to its owner than if it formed one of a pair. And he adds that the rea-
son why if one of a pair dies the other generally soon follows its companion, is that
the constitutions of the two have been undermined by the hardships of the voyage
to Europe; thus demolishing the pretty fable that the death of the survivor of a pair
is due to inconsolable grief at the loss of its mate.

The love birds, of which the larg-
est does not exceed six and one-half
inches in length, differ from all the
other members of the subfamily, in
that the thick and deep beak has no
ridge along the inferior surface of the
symphysis of its lower mandible; and
they are further distinguished by the
shortness of the tail, which is marked
with a black band near the extremity.
Their skeletons are peculiar, in that
the furcula is absent. In the latter
respect, as well as in their small size,
and the occasional difference in the
coloration of the two sexes, the love
birds resemble the American parrot-
lets (p. 1883), with which they have
frequently been classed. They may,
however, be at once distinguished
from the latter by their rounded in-
stead of pointed tail feathers. The GRAY-HEADED LOVE BIRDS.
love birds, of which there are seven

species, are confined to Africa south of the Sahara and Madagascar, although they
have been introduced into the Mascarene islands. The rosy-faced species (Agapor-
nis roseicollis} belongs to a group in which the rump and upper tail coverts are blue

1 894

THE PARROT TRIBE

and the under wing coverts green. In both sexes the general color is green,
becoming yellowish beneath; the rump and upper tail coverts being light blue, the
forehead bright red, and the sides of the face and throat rose color. This species
inhabits Southwestern Africa from Angola to Namaqualand, and is also reported
from the opposite side of the continent, in the neighborhood of the Limpopo. The
two sexes are almost undistinguishable in this species.

Andersson writes that these love birds are common in Namaqualand, and are
met with in small flocks, never far removed from the vicinity of water. Their
flight is rapid, and while on the wing they utter their sharp cry. Their food con-

sists of berries and large berry-like
seeds. Instead of making nests for
themselves, they take possession of
those of other birds, but Andersson
was unable to ascertain whether they
did so by dispossessing the rightful
owners, or whether they were con-
tent with deserted domiciles. The
number of eggs is not mentioned.

From their small size and en-
gaging manners the love birds are
great favorites in captivity, although
they are all more or less delicate.
The rosy-faced species is, however,
the most hardy, and will readily

breed in confinement, often producing two broods in the year. That love birds
have not always the angelic disposition commonly attributed to them is indicated
by the following extract from a correspondent of Mr. Greene's, who writes, that
" I have a red-faced love bird, to which it would puzzle you to apply the epithet
'amiable,' for a more surly, ill-tempered little glutton never existed. She quar-
rels with her husband, whom she drives about, compels to feed her with partly-
digested food from his craw, and then thrashes if he does not sit closely enough to
her, or if he dares to move before she is ready. In fact, a more hen-pecked wretch

A GROUP OF HANGING PARROTS.

THE PARRAQUET GROUP

1895

never lived, and yet he seems to like it, and to be specially proud of his beautiful,
but utterly unamiable wife. ' '

The last group of this great subfamily is formed by the curious
hanging parrots, — so called from their habit of sleeping head down-
ward, suspended by their feet from a bough. These parrots, which
are about the same size as love birds, comprise twenty species, ranging from India
and the Philippine islands through the Malayan region as far east as Duke of York
island. They differ from all the other members of the subfamily in the thinness

Hanging
Parrots

BI.UE-CROWNED HANGING PARROTS ASLEEP.
(Two-thirds natural size.)

of the beak, in which the length exceeds the depth; the upper mandible being long
and but little curved, while the profile of the lower one slopes upward with very
little convexity. In all of them the under surface of the remiges and tail feathers
is of a bright verditer blue. They are brilliantly colored, with green as the pre-
dominant tint, and Dr. Guillemard describes a species from the Sulu islands (Lori-
culus bonapartei} as looking like a little glowing ball of vivid crimson, yellow, and
green. The blue-crowned species (L. galgulus), here figured, is an inhabitant of
the Malay Peninsula and Islands, and measures just over five inches in total length.

1896 THE PARROT TRIBE

In the male the general color is green, with a deep blue spot on the top of the head,
another of yellow on the interscapular region, a broad band of yellow across the
lower part of the back, the rump and upper tail coverts scarlet, and a patch of the
same color on the throat. The female is duller.

As might be inferred from the conformation of their beaks, all the hanging
parrots are flower suckers, subsisting largely on honey, although they also eat
flower buds and young shoots. The Indian species (L. vernalis) is usually found
in open spaces in the forests, where it associates in small flocks. When feeding, it
keeps up a continual chirping cry; and it is said, like the fruit bats, to be at times
taken in a stupefied condition, lying beneath the pots suspended to catch palm
juice. They appear to pass a large portion of their time in sleep, but when awake
exhibit marvelous activity in climbing. From the nature of their food, these little
parrots are not well adapted for captivity, although they can be kept on a diet of
rice boiled in milk and well sweetened, with the addition of fruit and ants' eggs.
Mr. Greene says that if several are kept in a cage, they will hang suspended side
by side from the roof for hours at a time, in which position they will caress and
feed one another.

THE BROADTAIL GROUP
Subfamily PLATTCERCIN^

The last subfamily of the Psittacida; is represented by the broadtails, grass
parraquets, and their allies, and is entirely confined to Australia, New Zealand,
New Caledonia, and the Society islands. They are distinguished from all the pre-
ceding groups, with the exception of the parrotlets and love birds, by the absence
of the furcula,* while in the skull the ring round the eye is incomplete. The tail
is rather long, graduated, and often pointed, and the beak of moderate size, and
never red in color. The cere is small, merely surrounding the nostrils; the beak
short and thick, with the lower mandible generally concealed by the feathers of the
cheeks, and the plumage much variegated.

The broadtails, of which the best-known example is the Rose Hill
broadtail, or Rosella parraquet (Platycercus eximius}, take their name
from the breadth of the tail feathers, which are not acuminate. The bill is dis-
tinctly notched, and the feathers of the back are black, with broad, light edgings,
and presenting a general scale-like appearance. The genus, of which there are
thirteen species, is restricted to Australia, Tasmania, and Norfolk island.

The Rose Hill broadtail is one of the handsomest of the Australian parrots,
and belongs to a group of three species, in which the cheeks are white and the head
red. Its coloration may be briefly indicated by saying that the head, neck, and
breast are red; the cheeks white, the nape yellow; the feathers of the back black,
with greenish-yellow borders; the rump, upper tail coverts, and lower part of the

*The sitigle species of Naunodes is an exception in this respect, while it also differs from all other Ps-ittacides
in its brush-like tongue.

THE BROADTAIL GROUP

1897

abdomen yellowish green, and the lower breast yellow, with a scarlet band in the
middle. A large portion of the wings is blue, and while the two middle tail
feathers are green, tipped with blue, the outer ones are darker. The total length is
thirteen and one-half inches. This species inhabits Southeastern Australia and
Tasmania. It generally assembles in small flocks, and, although strong on the
wing, is not migratory. Its favorite haunts are open districts, and it specially fre-
quents cultivated lands, where it inflicts much damage on the crops. In addition to
seeds of various kinds, this parraquet is believed to consume insects and their larvae.

ROSE HII.I. BROADTAIL.
(Two-fifths natural size.)

It may be distinguished from most other parrots by its cry, which is described as a
kind of chattering or warbling, with some approach to a whistle. Frequently the
flocks may be observed feeding on the ground, and exhibiting little fear of man,
except when they have been much fired at. In the breeding season these birds col-
lect in large companies, making their nests in hollow trees, where from four to eight
or occasionally twelve eggs are laid; the males taking no share in the work of incu-
bation. Although a very noisy bird, the Rose Hill broadtail is well adapted to
captivity, being active and lively in its habits, and during the breeding season
dancing and singing in an amusing manner. It has frequently bred in Europe.

1898

THE PARROT TRIBE

Grass

Parraquets

The grass parraquets, of which the turquoisine (Neophema pulchella)
is the most familiar example, form a small genus restricted to the
south of Australia and Tasmania. They belong to a group of genera
readily distinguished from the broadtails by the uniform coloration of the feathers
of the back, and are specially characterized by the bill being deeper than long,
without any notch in its upper mandible; by the absence of a yellow collar on the

TURQUOISINE GRASS PARRAQUET.
(Two-fifths natural size.)

neck, and the nearly uniform length of the four middle feathers of the tail. The
turquoisine is about the size of a lark, its total length being eight and one-half
inches, of which rather more than half is occupied by the tail. It derives its name
from the turquoise blue on the front of the head and wing coverts. The general
color of the upper parts is green, with the forehead, a streak over the eye, the
cheeks, and wing coverts turquoise blue; the breast, abdomen, and the under tail

THE BROADTAIL GROUP

1899

coverts rich yellow; the sides green, and the inner wing coverts marked by a chest-
nut red patch. The outer upper wing coverts, together with the under coverts, are
bright blue; while the primaries and primary coverts are deep blue. In the tail
the four middle feathers are green with black tips, and the remainder bluish green
at the base, with the inner webs black and the tips yellow. The female is some-
what paler.

Turquoisines inhabit the southeast of Australia, not ranging far inland, and
being generally found in family parties of from six to eight, although when the
grass is in seed they assemble, with others of their kindred, in large flocks, to feast
on their favorite food. These parrots are largely terrestrial in their habits, and
although the turquoisine nests in hollows of trees, other species select clefts of rocks
in which to lay their eggs. The number of the latter is generally eight, and the
male is said to render no assistance in incubation.

In New Zealand and some of the neighboring islands this group of parrots is
represented by the genus Cyanorhamphus , characterized by the upper mandible of
the beak being black at the tip and pearly gray at the base; the red-fronted parra-
quet (C. nova-zealandice} being a well-known species.

Agreeing with the above-mentioned New Zealand parraquets in their
parti-colored beaks, the crested parraquets of New Caledonia and the
Loyalty islands differ from
other members of the family in the pres-
ence of a small crest of feathers on the
head. In the New-Caledonian crested par-
raquet (Nymphicus cornutus), of which the
general color is green, and the total length
about fourteen inches, the crest consists
of two black feathers tipped with red, the
nape has a yellow collar connecting the
ear coverts, the top of the front of the
head is red, and the face black. In the
smaller Uvaean species (IV. uvcznsis), con-
fined to Uvaea and perhaps Lifu in the
Loyalty group, the crest consists of six
dark green feathers, curving forward at
the tips; there is no yellow collar on the
neck, the middle of the forehead is red,
and the face dark green.

One of the prettiest, and
Budgerigar ,. ,, ,

at the same time the best

known, of the smaller parraquets is the Australian budgerigar (Melopsittacus undula-
tus), also known as the Australian love bird, undulated grass parraquet, or shell
parraquet, which is the sole representative of its genus. It differs from all the
members of the subfamily yet noticed by the long tail feathers being narrow and
acuminate, and is distinguished from the allied genus Nanodes by the absence of a
notch in the beak. It is widely distributed in Australia, and attains a total length

HEAD OF UV^AN PARRAQUET.
(After I,ayar<I.)

1900

of seven and one-half inches, four of which are taken up by the tail. Such a well-
known species as the budgerigar (a term meaning "pretty bird") requires but
little description, and this is the more fortunate, as the complex coloration renders
any exact description somewhat difficult. Its general color is grass green, with
the front of the head primrose yellow, the tail blue, and the remainder of the
head, neck, back, and wings mottled with undulating and alternating bands of
grayish black and yellow. Each cheek has an oblique patch of blue, below which

are three round black spots. The male
is distinguished by the cere being black,
instead of brown or cream colored, as it
is in the female. The budgerigar is a
very common bird in the neighborhood
of Adelaide, where it may be seen in
large flocks, either perching on the
gum trees or feeding on the ground.
Its food consists mainly of seeds; and
the female lays from four to nine eggs
at a time, and produces two broods in
the year. Its v«ice is a kind of warble,
not devoid of melody, and in constant
use. In the domestic state these little
parraquets breed very freely; and, ac-
cording to Mr. Greene, the great ma-
jority of those exported to England are
bred on the continent. Although read-
ily tamed, the budgerigar is always apt
to bite severely; while it is an unde-
sirable inhabitant of an aviary, on ac-
count of its propensity to attack and
disable smaller birds.

The long-tailed ground
Ground

Parraquets Parra1uet' or swamP Par~
raquet {Pezoporus for-

mosus), and the short-tailed ground
parraquet ( Geopsittacus occidentalis) , are
two peculiar Australian species, of ter-
restrial habits, and easily distinguished

BUDGERIGARS. from all others by the alternate dark

and light bars with which the feathers

of the tail are marked; hence the name of " pheasant-cuckoo " which is sometimes
applied to the former. The swamp parraquet may be compared in size to a thrush,
its total length being twelve and one-half inches, of which the tail takes up seven
and one-half inches. It is characterized by the length of the tail, which exceeds
that of the wings, and also by its long and straight nails; while the legs are also
of considerable relative length. Its general color is green, with a band of dark

muimuimiiuiimmmimnnnnininnimi^^

THE OWL PARROT 1901

orange on the forehead, and the feathers of the crown and nape marked with a
broad median streak of black. The remainder of the body plumage is mottled
with irregular bands of black and yellow; the quills are brown, greenish outwardly,
and marked with a yellow spot, and the bars on the tail feathers are alternately
green and yellow.

The ' ' Old Bushman ' ' writes that the swamp parraquet ' ' lives on the ground
(but I have seen them perch on the tea-tree scrub), runs much and quickly, is hard
to rise, flies in jerks, goes away very sharp before a wind, and is very pretty shoot-
ing, rising from the grass and heather. We used to find them during the whole
year, frequenting different localities at different times, and although they could
scarcely be said to flock, I generally rose three or four on the same spot. Dogs
will set them like quail." They generally frequent sandy tracts covered with
sparse grass and other herbage, and are but rarely seen in the neighborhood of
trees. The eggs are laid on the bare ground, and are brooded by both sexes in
turn. The short-tailed ground parraquet of the south and southwest of Australia
differs by the tail being shorter than the wings, and the short and curved claws, as
well as in coloration. It is essentially a nocturnal bird, spending the day in
holes in the ground, and only issuing forth at sunset to wander abroad in search of
food. A specimen in the London Zoological Gardens remained quiet and drowsy
during the daytime, and only became lively and inclined to feed toward evening.
It never attempted to perch, always remaining on the floor of its cage. Its cry was
a sharp monotonous whistle; and its food consisted of corn and young shoots of
grass. The flesh of both species of ground parraquets is said to -be delicate and
well flavored.

THE OWL PARROT
Family STRINGOPID^

From the practical absence in those islands of indigenous mammalian life, many
of the birds of New Zealand have more or less completely lost the power of flight,
owing to the disuse of their wings, and among these flightless species is a very re-
markable member of the present order — the owl parrot, or kakapo (String op s hab-
roptilus} , which is not only the representative of a distinct genus but likewise of a
separate family. This bird is distinguished from the other members of the order by
the rudimentary condition of the keel of the breastbone or sternum, and likewise by
the radiating disc of feathers around the eye, which communicates the characteristic
owl-like appearance to the head. The beak is thick and swollen on the sides, with
no notch, and the nostrils open in a much inflated cere. The wings are short and
rounded, with the fourth, fifth, and sometimes the sixth primaries the longest, and
the tail is also comparatively short, with its extremity rounded, but the individual
feathers pointed. The metatarsus is somewhat elongated, the nails moderately long,
and the whole plumage rather soft.

1 902

THE PARROT TRIBE

The ground parrot is a somewhat large bird, attaining a total length of about
twenty-four inches, nine of which are occupied by the tail. The general color of
the plumage of the upper parts is sap green, each feather having a median yellow
line margined with black, from which spring irregular black rays. The feathers of
the front and sides of the head are, however, pale umber colored, with median lines
of yellowish white, and those of the wings and tail are mainly brownish buff, vari-

THE OWL PARROT.

(One-fourth natural size.)

ously mottled with black and lemon yellow. Beneath, the prevailing tint is greenish
yellow, tinged with lemon yellow, and with somewhat similar dark markings.

Although formerly distributed over the whole of New Zealand, the kakapo is
now confined to the North island and the northern half of the South island; its semi-
fossilized remains being found in association with those of the extinct moas. From
many parts of the country it has been recently exterminated, and is rare in most

THE OWL PARROT 1903

regions, and mainly restricted to mountainous regions, and it is probably doomed to
extinction at no very distant date. Many accounts of the habits of this interesting
bird have been given, from among which we select the following from the pen of
Sir George Grey. This observer writes that during the day the kakapo "remains
hid in holes under the roots of trees or rocks, or very rarely perched on the boughs
of trees with a very dense thick foliage. At these times it appears stupid from its
profound sleep, and if disturbed or taken from its hole, immediately runs and tries
to hide itself again, delighting, if practicable, to cover itself in a heap of soft dry
grass; about sunset it becomes lively, animated, and playful, issues forth from its
retreat, and feeds on grass, weeds, vegetables, fruits, seeds, and roots. When eat-
ing grass, it grazes rather than feeds, nibbling the grass in the manner of a rabbit
or wombat. It sometimes climbs trees, but generally remains upon the ground, and
only uses its short wings for the purpose of aiding its progress when running,
balancing itself when on a tree, or in making a short descent — half jump, half flight
— from an upper to a lower bough. When feeding, if pleased with its food, it
makes a continued grunting noise. It eats greedily, and is choice in its food, show-
ing an evident relish for anything of which it is fond. It cries repeatedly during
the night, with a noise not very unlike that of the kaka, but not so loud. The
kakapo is a very clever and intelligent bird, in fact singularly so; contracts a strong
affection for those who are kind to it; shows its attachment by climbing about and
rubbing itself against its friend, and is eminently a social and playful bird. It
builds in holes under trees and rocks, and lays two or three white eggs about the
size of a pullet's in the month of February, and the young birds are found in March.
The natives assert that, when the breeding season is over, the kakapo lives in socie-
ties of five or six in the same hole, and they say that it is a provident bird, and lays
up in the fine season a store of fern root for use in the bad weather.

The extermination or reduction in the numbers of the owl parrot in certain
districts is attributed to the ravages of dogs, cats, or rats, which have run wild in
many parts of the island; and it is not improbable that- in some parts, at least, pigs
have likewise had a share in the work of destruction. According to Haast these
birds are generally found in the open mossy glades of the beech forests, although
they also frequent open hillsides, where they hide among blocks of stone. On two
occasions the same observer met with a single kakapo during broad daylight, from
which he is led to consider that these parrots are not so strictly nocturnal as has
been supposed.

CHAPTER XI
THE OWLS AND OSPREYS — ORDERS STRIGES AND PANDIONES

THE well-known and peculiar physiognomy characterizing most of the owls
renders the group as readily distinguishable as that of the parrots. This character-
istic "owl-face" is due, firstly, to the forward direction of the eyes; and, secondly,
to a circular disc of radiating feathers, more or less distinctly developed round each
eye, and which may be bounded by a ruff of closely-set feathers. In common with
many diurnal birds of prey, the owls have a short, stout beak,
of which the upper ridge is strongly curved, and the tip
deflected in a perpendicular direction; at its base is a cere,
usually covered with stiff bristles concealing the nostrils. The
feet are furnished with strong, curved, and sharp claws, and
have the fourth toe reversible. The metatarsus, or canon
bone, although longer than in the parrots, is comparatively
short and wide, with the upper part of its front surface deeply
excavated, and usually furnished with a bony bridge over the
outer part of the hollow; at its lower end the three pulley-like
trochlese, when viewed from below, are arranged in an arch.
In the tibia, or leg bone, there is no bony bridge at the lower
end, as in most parrots. The short skull has no well-marked
hinge at the root of the beak; the palate is of the bridged, or
desmognathous type; and the lower mandible has a short and
shallow symphysis, and its angle is not produced behind the
surface for articulation with the quadrate bone. The oil gland
THE RIGHT CANON is present, but naked.

BONK, OR METATAR- The foregoing characteristics, especially those of the toes

sus, OP THE SNOWY and leg bones, serve to distinguish the owls from the parrots

owi,.* on the one hand, and the diurnal birds of prey on the other;

but the two are very closely connected in these respects by the

ospreys. In addition to the features noticed, owls, as a rule, are characterized by

the large size and dense feathering of their heads, the softness and nuffiness of the

whole plumage, and their big, round eyes; the feet being usually feathered down to

the toes. The ears are usually of large size, and are often protected by an opercu-

lum or lid; from which we may infer that the sense of hearing in these birds is

highly developed. Many owls are furnished with tufts or crests of feathers above

the eyes, popularly known as horns or ears, but more properly termed ear tufts.

The coloration is usually a mottled blending of various sombre tints; bright colors

*The bridge over the hollow at the upper end Is imperfect.
(1904)

THE OWLS 1905

being, as might be expected in nocturnal birds, invariably absent. The young are
born in a helpless condition, and covered with down; and the eggs are invariably
white, and of a rounded form. In size, these birds are subject to great variation;
the eagle owls reaching to twenty-eight inches in length, while the owlets are not
larger than a thrush. Considerable diversity of view has obtained as to the affini-
ties of the owls, some authorities considering that their nearest relationships are
with the diurnal birds of prey, while others regard them as more nearly related to
the Picarians. From their osteology alone they appear, however, to be related on
the one hand to the parrots, while on the other they are intimately connected
through the ospreys with the diurnal birds of prey; in their soft internal parts they
differ, however, very considerably from the latter.

Unlike the parrots, the owls (of which there are probably about
Distribution ^wo hundred species), enjoy a cosmopolitan distribution, ranging from
the Arctic regions to the most distant islands of Oceania. • The great
majority of them are crepuscular and nocturnal in their habits, and
are more or less completely dazed if disturbed and driven from their haunts during
the daytime. Others, however, are but little incommoded by daylight; while the
hawk owls actually seek their prey in the full glare of the sun. As owls subsist
entirely on living prey, which at night must be closely approached before it can be
detected, an absolutely silent flight is essential, and this is effected by the soft and
fluffy nature of their plumage. It is doubtless from this ghost-like, stealthy flight,
coupled with their nocturnal habits, their large glaring eyes, and their weird hoot-
ings and screechings, that these birds have in all ages and in all countries been
regarded as creatures of ill-omen. Indeed, in this respect, owls hold a position
among birds precisely similar to that occupied by lemurs among mammals; with the
difference that, owing to distribution, while in the one case the superstition is
universally diffused, in the other it is confined to certain races inhabiting the
warmer regions of the Old World. While the majority of owls are arboreal, some
of the species roost in holes or clefts of rocks or in buildings. It is common to see
owls in museums mounted with three toes in front of and one behind the perch on
which they are seated. An anonymous observer states, however, that this is
totally incorrect, and that no living owl ever places three toes in front of his perch,
although he could do this for a moment if he felt so minded. The same writer also
observes that ' ' no owl seizes his prey or holds it with both feet, though both feet
may be used to carry it when the prey is a large one; such quarry, for instance, as
a full-grown rat. With one foot the owl grasps his prey, .the other foot grasps a
tuft or some other inequality of the ground. Then the bird goes to work. ' '

Owls feed chiefly on small mammals, such as rats, mice, voles, and shrews, —
more especially the two latter, — as well as on birds, reptiles, fishes, and insects.
The large eagle-owls will readily attack and kill hares, rabbits, and the largest
game birds, and it is undoubtedly the case that such species inflict much harm on
game preserves. The smaller kinds do, however, far more good than harm to the
agriculturalist, and although they were formerly shot down ruthlessly, both by the
gamekeeper and the farmer, there is some reason to believe that the latter, at least,
is beginning to see the error of his ways. If proof were needful of the usefulness of

120

1906 THE OWLS

these birds in keeping in check the pestilential field vole, it is afforded by the flocks
of owls that collected from all sides to prey on the hosts of these rodents which
recently infested portions of Scotland. In all owls the indigestible remnants of
their food, such as bones, feathers, hair, scales, etc., are formed into pellets in the
stomach, and disgorged; such castings affording incontestible evidence of the nature
of the food of these birds. All owls are furnished with a syrinx, or organ of voice,
which most of them know only too well how to use; their cries taking the form
of hooting, howling, screeching, or a weird kind of laughter. It is from these
cries that the names of these birds are derived in many languages, as witness the
English owl, the German euley the L,atin ulula, and the Hindustani ulu.

BARN OWLS
Family STRIGID^ft

Although one of the commonest and most familiar of all the group, the barn
owl (Strix flammed) is of special interest as constituting, together with a few
nearly-allied forms, a family apart from that which includes all the other repre-
sentatives of the order. This family (Strigidtz} is characterized by the breastbone,
or sternum, having its lower margin entire, and also by its keel being firmly united
with the furcula. Then, again, the third claw has its inner margin serrated, while
the second and third toes are of equal length. An additional peculiarity is to be
found in the presence of a small patch of stiff feathers between the adjacent portions
of the face discs. In the cannon bone the bridge over the hollow at the upper end
is absent. As a genus, the barn owls are characterized by the completeness of the
discs round the eyes, which are large, and narrow rapidly as they approach the
beak. The wings are long, and extend considerably beyond the tail; the beak is
straight at the base, and decurved only at the tip, and the aperture of the ear is
large, and furnished with a distinct lid. The head is devoid of tufts, and the rather
long legs are feathered down to the origin of the toes.

The common barn owl has a wider distribution than any other member of the
order, being in fact almost cosmopolitan, although comparatively rare in the extreme
north, and unknown in New Zealand, parts of Oceania, Persia, Japan, and China.
With this extensive distribution, it would be only natural to expect great variation
in the color of the plumage; and, as a matter of fact, we find representatives of
this owl from widely distant regions so unlike one another that it is at first sight
difficult to believe that they belong to the same species, more especially as there
are also differences in point of size. In the ordinary British form, of which the
length averages fourteen inches, the face discs are white, with their margins defined
by the feathers being tipped with brown; the top of the head and neck are pale buff,
dotted with specks of black and white; on the back and wTings a darker buff,
speckled with gray and irregularly mottled with black and white, obtains; the
tail feathers are pale buff above, marked with five transverse gray bands, and the
whole of the under parts are white. From this normal coloration there is every

.BARN OWLS

1907

intermediate stage to one where the eye discs are rusty red, the under parts tawny,
and the back darker than usual; while in other cases the discs may be gray, and
the whole plumage tend more or less to this tinge. In other instances, however,
gray may exist only on the discs, while both the upper and under parts are of
various shades of tawny and yellowish brown. Mr. Dresser remarks that the
American form is slightly larger and darker, and the Indian variety both darker
and of a clearer gray above than the ordinary type.

BARN OWI.S.

(One-third natural size.)

In Britain the barn owl is generally distributed, and resident
throughout the year, although it becomes less numerous in Scotland,
and as far north as Ross and Caithness, but seldom nests. Strictly nocturnal in its
habits, this owl spends the day in the recesses of buildings, or in hollow trees, gen-
erally standing with closed eyes. Like other owls, it associates in pairs; and such
pairs, if undisturbed, will return year after year to the same nesting place. In

1908 THE OWLS

hunting the barn owl quarters its ground with the regularity of a spaniel, and its
food consists chiefly of voles. Its usual cry is a kind of scream, but the young
utter a snorting sound. In Europe this owl is a late breeder, usually commencing
to lay from the middle to the end of April, but sometimes not till May. The num-
ber of eggs in a nest generally ranges from three to six, although seven have been
taken. In California the nesting may be as early as January, and there, as in other
parts of America, the nest may be made in some hole in a bank, which is enlarged
to suit the requirements of its tenants. Writing of the habits of the American barn
owl (which he regards as a distinct species), Captain Bendire observes that strictly
speaking, this owl "makes no nest. If occupying a natural cavity of a tree, the
eggs are placed on the rubbish that may have accumulated at the bottom; if in a
bank, they are laid on the bare ground and among the pellets of small bones and
fur ejected by the parents. Frequently quite a lot of such material is found in their
burrows, the eggs lying on and among the refuse. Incubation usually commences
with the first egg laid, and lasts about three weeks. The eggs are almost invariably
found in different stages of development, and young may be found in the same nest
with fresh eggs. Both sexes assist in incubation, and the pair may be sometimes
found sitting side by side, each with a portion of the eggs under them." When the
eggs are hatched at distant intervals, it is probable that the warmth of the young
birds aids in their incubation during the absence of the parents. It is on record
that the eggs of a barn owl have been removed and replaced by those of a hen,
which have been successfully hatched.

The grass owl (S. Candida] is an allied species, ranging from India to Japan
and Formosa, and found almost exclusively in long grass, while in South Africa the
common species is replaced by the Cape barn owl (S. capensis). Both these species
differ from S. flammea in having the upper surface of a uniform brown color, with
spots of white, and lacking the mottlings of gray and black characterizing the
former.

Family BUBONID^E

With the comparatively small species, represented on the left side
'n?.mc of the figure on the opposite page, known as Tengmalm's owl (Nydala

tengmalmi), we come to the first representative of the second family
of the order, distinguished from the last by the breastbone having two or more dis-
tinct notches in its lower border, and also by its keel being firmly attached to the
furcula; in addition to which the third toe is not serrated, and is always longer than
the second. The cannon bone, or metatarsus, has a bridge over the hollow at the
upper end. Tengmalm's owl belongs to a group of three genera, characterized by
having the tube of the ear large and furnished with a well-developed lid, and
also by the face disc being distinct and extending as much above as below the
eye.

Tengmalm's owl, together with the Acadian owl (JV. acadica) of North America,
are the representatives of a genus distinguished by the absence of tufts on the head,
by the extreme shortness of the cere, and the curious circumstance that the bony

TENGMALM'S OWL

1909

tube of the ear is quite unsymmetrical on the two sides of the skull. The toes are
thickly feathered, the head is relatively large, the under mandible notched, the
wings long and rounded, and the tail short. This owl measures only from eight
and one-half to ten inches in length, and may be easily recognized by its thick
and fluffy plumage, which stands out widely on each side of the head, and by
its prettily mottled coloration. The general color of the upper parts is pale brown,
mottled with white bars, and the forehead spotted with white. The tail feathers
are marked with five interrupted whitish bars, and the under parts are grayish
white, mottled with clove-brown. This species, which is rarely met with as a

TENGMAIvM'S OWI, AND PYGMY OWI,.

(One-third natural size.)

straggler in the British Isles, is an inhabitant of the forest regions of Northern
Europe and Siberia, ranging in Russia as far north as the Urals; and also occurring
ns a straggler in Nipal, Southern Europe, and North Africa. Across the Atlantic
it reappears in Eastern North America. In habits it is strictly nocturnal, rarely be-
ing seen abroad in the daytime; and always dazed and stupid in a strong light. It
frequents the densest recesses of the forests, and nests early in hollow trees, laying
its eggs, from four to six in number, on the bare wood at the bottom of the hole.

The Acadian owl, in addition to its smaller size, differs by the nearly uniform
color of its upper surface, by the replacement of the spots on the forehead by stripes,

I9io THE OWLS

and the presence of only three white bars on the tail. In length it only measures
six and one-half inches, so that it is smaller than a robin. Both species feed chiefly
upon insects. Writing to Dr. Coues of the Acadian owl, a correspondent observes
that, "in the hollow of an oak tree, not far from Germantown, lives an individual
of the common chickari squirrel with a specimen of this owl as his sole companion.
They occupy the same hole together in perfect harmony and mutual good will. It is
not an accidental temporary association, for the bird and the squirrel have repeat-
edly been observed to enter the some hole together, as if they had always shared the
apartment. But what benefit can either derive from the other? "

The clear, hooting cry or laughter-like scream of the common Eng-
lish tawny or wood owl is probably familiar to most residents in wooded
districts. The genus of which this owl is the best-known representative includes
comparatively-large species, distinguished from Nyctala by the ears and their tubes
being symmetrical, while the toes may be either feathered or bare. All of the spe-
cies frequent woods and groves, where hollow trees are abundant, and the whole of
them are strictly nocturnal in their habits. Their flight is soft and noiseless, and
their food, in addition to small birds and mammals, may include frogs and fish.
They breed early, and while some of the species select woods as their nesting places,
others prefer old buildings. Nearly thirty members of the genus are recognized,
whose range embraces the whole world, with the exception of Madagascar, certain
of the Malay islands, Australia, and Oceania.

Q . The tawny brown, or wood owl, as it is indifferently called (Syrnium
aluco"), belongs to an extensive group of the genus, characterized by
the crown of the head being either barred or mottled, and the completely feathered
toes. It is by no means one of the largest representatives of the genus, its total
length being about fifteen inches. The color of the face disc is grayish white,
margined with brown; the crown of the head, neck, back, and wings is a mixture
of ashy gray mottled with shades of brown; the primary quills are barred with dull
white and brown, and the tail feathers, with the exception of the middle pair, are
also barred with the latter color. On the under parts the ground color is grayish
white, upon which there are longitudinal streaks and mottlings of brown, without
any trace of transverse bars. The tawny owl is still common in Britain, although
rare in Scotland, most English woods having a pair of these birds. From Britain
their range extends over Europe as far as 67° north latitude, and eastward to the
Urals; while it also embraces North Africa, Syria, and Turkestan. This owl is
essentially nocturnal, seldom stirring from its sylvan resting place during the day-
time, and if driven forth being more completely dazed than any other British spe-
cies. It is this species which is generally mobbed by a crowd of small birds, such
as tits, finches, and warblers, when seen abroad by day. Oak and beech woods,
where hollow trunks are numerous, are the favorite haunts of the tawny owl;
although occasionally the choice falls on ruins or towers. In addition to voles,
shrews, rats, and mice, its food includes an occasional young hare or rabbit, and
sometimes frogs, fish, and beetles. It is an early breeder, laying its three or four
eggs in March, or even earlier. These are usually deposited in a hollow tree, but
sometimes in ruins or old chimneys, or even in a deserted rabbit hole, or on the

WOOD OWLS

1911

bare ground; while occasionally an old rook's nest is selected. The clear hooting
cry, like the words tu-whit, to-who, is uttered at morning and evening; while the
laughter-like cry appears to be peculiar to the breeding season. The young owls
are fed by the parents for a considerable time after leaving the nest, and are reported
to be more easily reared in captivity than are those of any other species.

Great Gray
Owl

THE TAWNY OWI,.

(One-fourth natural size.)

The great gray owl (S. dnereum} of Arctic America, and the closely-
allied Lapp owl (S. lapponicum) of Northern Europe and Asia, are
much larger birds than the tawny owl, and are easily recognized by
the gray face disc being marked by a number of fine concentric brown lines. The
great gray owl has the plumage darker, with less distinct streaks on the breast, than
its European cousin; but Captain Bendire regards the two as merely varieties of a
single species. The great gray owl ranges from the shores of Hudson bay to tne

1912

THE OWLS

limits of forest in about latitude 68°, but in winter it migrates southward even
beyond the Canadian border into the Northern United States. The L,app owl,
which is one of the rarest of the European species, is confined to the boreal districts,
in the upper part of the forest belt, occasionally straying to North Central Europe.
It is distributed over Northern Scandinavia, Finland, and North Russia. The
total length of the gray owl may be as much as thirty inches. The Lapp owl nests
on the summits or forked branches of broken firs; in the former case making little or

URAL OWI,.

(One-fifth natural size. )

no nest, but in the latter erecting a large structure of twigs. The number of eggs
in a clutch is probably from two to four. Writing of the great gray owl, Captain
Bendire observes that ' ' from the limited information we possess about the nesting
habits of this species it appears that in Alaska these birds nest sometimes as early
as April, and in the interior as late as June. From two to four eggs seem to be
laid to a set, and these are small for the size of the bird. The body of the great
gray owl is, however, much smaller than that of the great horned owl, in fact but

WOOD OWLS 1913

little larger than that of the barred owl. The long tail and the loose fluffy plumage
of the bird make it look much larger than it really is. ' '

The Ural owl (S. uralense), of which a pair are represented in our

illustration, belongs to a subgroup distinguished from the preceding
forms by the feathers of the head and neck having a simple median dark streak,
without any lateral bars. In this species the facial disc is dusky white, and the
ruff pure white with dark median streaks to the feathers; on the upper parts the
general color is dull white, streaked with dark brown, each feather being brown in
the middle and white on the sides; on the under parts below the head the hue is
whitish, some of the feathers being tinged with yellow, and all of them with a dark
median streak. The quills of the wings are brown, with whitish tips, and marked
with bands of paler brown, tending to ashy on their outer webs, and the tail feath-
ers are very similarly colored. The total length of this fine bird is twenty-seven
and one-half inches. The Ural owl is distributed over Northern 'and Eastern
Europe, and North and Central Siberia, where it is locally not uncommon, especially
in Scandinavia, Russia, Southeast Germany, and Transylvania. In Mongolia,
China, and Japan, it is replaced by the dusky owl (S. fuscescens), which is smaller
in size and darker and redder in color. Its habits, according to Mr. Dresser, are
still imperfectly known; but in the breeding season it frequents forests and hills,
while in the winter it seeks the open country. It nests early in April, and its
pairing call has been compared to the bleating of a goat. Occasionally it may
be seen hunting during the daytime.

Another well-known representative of the genus is the barred owl

(S. nebulostim) of Eastern North America, distinguished from all the
preceding species by the chest having a regular Series of dark cross-bands, in addi-
tion to the longitudinal streaks. The general color of the upper surface is light
brown, with white cross-bands; the dark tail being marked with six light-brown
bars; and the beak greenish yellow. Captain Bendire writes that the barred owl
"is nocturnal in its habits, but nevertheless sees well enough, and even occasionally
hunts, in the daytime, especially during cloudy weather. The flight is easy, and,
though quite swift at times, is perfectly noiseless. A rapidly passing shadow dis-
tinctly cast on the snow-covered ground is often the sole cause of its presence being
betrayed as it glides silently by the hunter's camp fire in the still hours of a moon-
light night. Far oftener, however, it announces itself by the unearthly weird call
notes peculiar to this species, which surpass in startling effect those of all other owls
with which I am familiar. It is necessary to listen to such a vocal concert to fully
appreciate its many beauties (?), as it is impossible to give an accurate description
of the sounds produced when a pair or more of those birds try to outdo one another. ' '
The barred owl generally nests in hollow trees among damp forests, the time of
laying ranging from February to April, according to the latitude. Occasionally
eggs have been taken resting on a solid cake of ice. No matter how frequently the
nest be despoiled, a pair of birds will return to the same site year after year; and if
one clutch of eggs be taken they will soon be replaced by a second.

The mottled wood owl (S. ocellatum} ot India, which attains a length of twenty-
one inches, may be selected as an example of another section of the group with

1914

THE OWLS

Mottled Wood
Owl

feathered toes, characterized by the under surface of the body being
marked with regular crossbars without any dark longitudinal streaks.
This particular species has a blackish beak, the dark bars on the
breast very narrow, and the upper surface uniform brown with spots or bars of
white. Mr. Hume says that this owl is most commonly met with in moderately dry
country, well furnished with large groves. It usually lays two eggs in a cavity or
fork of some large tree, at a height of from eight to twenty -five feet from the

SHORT-EARED OWI,.
(One-third natural size.)

ground, without attempt to form a nest. Certain other species of the genus, such
as 5*. leptogrammicum of Borneo and several South-American forms, while agreeing
with all the preceding in having the plumage of the crown of the head either mot-
tled or barred, differ in their more or less completely naked toes. In the second
main group of the genus, comprising five species of which the Indian brown wood
owl (S. indiani) will serve as an example, the crown of the head is, on the contrary,

EARED OWLS 1915

always of a uniform brown; the toes being either feathered or bare. The Indian
brown wood owl, which is uniform chocolate brown above, becoming darker on the
head, attains a length of twenty-eight inches; it is replaced in the Himalayas by
the rather smaller Nipal brown wood owl (S. newarense~).

Although several groups of owls are furnished with the tufts of
feathers, commonly denominated ears, it will be convenient to restrict
the title of eared owls to the members of the genus Asio, which includes the common
long and short-eared owls of Britain. While agreeing with those of the two pre-
ceding genera in the structure of their ears and the form of the facial disc, the owls
of this genus are readily distinguished by the presence of longer or shorter ear tufts,
and also by the cere being of much greater length. In all of them the lower mandi-
ble is notched; the tube of the ear very large; the wings long, usually with the
second quill the longest; and the legs and toes are generally more or less feathered
to the claws. They are all purely nocturnal birds, seldom or never hunting by day,
and not leaving their roosts till evening. They may frequent either woods or open
country, and nest either in trees or on the ground. Their flight is very silent, and
their cry a loud hoot. The species are few.

The short-eared owl {A. accipitrinus) is a common and well-known
British species, having an almost world-wide distribution, and ranging
from the Arctic regions to South America and Africa, although un-
known in Australia and Oceania. The distinctive characteristic of the species is
the shortness of the ear tufts, which are less than the length of the third toe and
claw. The general color of the upper parts is fulvous or tawny, with each feather
streaked with brown down the middle; whereas in the allied Cape eared-owl (A.
capensis} the same surface is uniform brown. In the common species the under
parts are pale buff, with streaks of blackish brown; the wings and tail are barred
with brown (five stripes on the latter); the facial disc dusky with a whitish border;
the beak horn color; and the iris golden yellow. The whole length of the bird
varies from fourteen to fifteen inches, and, when closed, the wings reach beyond the
end of the tail.

Widely distributed in Great Britain, the short-eared owl breeds but sparingly,
many of the specimens seen being merely winter visitants. In place of frequenting
woods and groves, this owl haunts open moors, fields, — either stubble, grass, or
turnips, — and generally nests on the ground rather than on trees or bushes. Al-
though mainly nocturnal, if flushed during the day — as not unfrequently happens
in partridge shooting — it flies strongly and well; and it is even said to hunt its prey
at times in cloudy weather during daylight. Its cry is said to resemble the words
keaw-keaw. In most parts of Europe the chief food of the short-eared owl consists
of voles, but in Scandinavia it preys almost exclusively on lemmings. It also kills
small birds and beetles. At such times as plagues of the short-tailed vole have
made their appearance in the British Islands, it has been this owl which has made its
appearance in the greatest numbers to prey upon the obnoxious rodents; and it also
collects in similar flocks during the periodical migrations of the lemming in Norway.
It is a curious circumstance that although the number of eggs laid by this bird is
generally four, yet when food is unusually abundant, as during a lemming migra-

1916

THE OWLS

tion, the number in a clutch will rise to seven or eight; and during the recent vole
plague in Scotland even larger numbers are recorded, reaching to as many as thir-
teen. The eggs are usually laid in a hollow of the ground, with only a very slight
nest. In India Jerdon states that this owl "is almost exclusively found in long
grass, and in beating for florikan many are always flushed; one now and then paying
the penalty of keeping company with such a game bird by falling to the gun of some
tyro. It is migratory in India, coming in at the beginning of the cold weather, and
leaving about March. ' ' In North America the breeding range of this owl extends

SCOPS OWL AND LONG-EARED OWL.

(One-fourth natural size.)

from the middle of the United States to the Arctic regions. "Its home," writes
Captain Beudire, ' ' is amidst the rank grasses or weeds usually found along the
borders of lakes and sloughs in the open prairie country, where it hides during bright
sunshiny days. If the sky is clouded, this owl may be frequently seen hunting in
the early morning or evening, and sometimes in the middle of the day, and at such
times it flies very low, not more than a few feet from the ground, which it carefully
scans for its humble prey. Its flight is remarkably easy, graceful, and perfectly
noiseless. From the fact that these owls are generally seen in pairs at all seasons of
the year, it is very probable that they remain mated through life." While in the
Arctic regions the nesting of this owl is often deferred till June, in the more southern

EARED OWLS 1917

portions of its range it takes place in March or April. In defense of their eggs or
young, both sexes of the short-eared owl display but little boldness, usually circling
round and round the intruder, uttering a shrill cry, accompanied by a snapping of
the beak, but not making any attempt at a direct attack.

As its name implies, the long-eared owl (A. otus) belongs to a group
of which there are three or four representatives, characterized by the
great length of the ear tufts, which are about as long as the third toe
and claw. From its beautifully mottled plumage, of which the general color above
is blackish brown variegated with orange buff, while beneath it is orange brown
streaked and barred with black, this owl is one of the handsomest of the British
species. The facial disc is dusky white, with hair-like lines of brown, while imme-
diately round the eyes the feathers are blackish. The head is finely mottled dusky
and tawny; and both the quills and tail feathers are barred with dark brown, the
number of such bands on the tail being seven. The bill is dusky horn color, and
the iris of the eye orange yellow. In size this owl is rather inferior to the short-
eared species, its total length being thirteen and one-half inches. The typical form
of the long-eared owl is distributed all over Europe as far north as the 64th parallel,
while southward it ranges to North Africa in winter, and eastward it extends to
China, Japan, and Northwestern India. In North America, as far south as Mexico,
it is replaced by the American long-eared owl, regarded by Dr. Sharpe as a mere
variety, but considered by Captain Bendire and others to represent a distinct species
{A. americanus}. It is distinguished from the European form by the darker tone
of the entire plumage, and by the white feathers of the breast being striped down
the middle with brown, and barred on the sides with the same tint. The European
long-eared owl is a forest-dwelling bird; and while in Britain it is resident through
the year, on the Continent and eastward it is more or less migratory. On the Con-
tinent it is much more numerous in winter than summer; and it is not unfrequent in
the former season to see parties of from ten to sixteen, or even more, together; such
parties assembling in the open fields. In England a pair of these birds always keep
to one particular wood. Unlike the majority of its kindred, this owl is a silent bird,
making little or no noise, except when young; on which account its presence is
often unsuspected in districts where it may be comparatively common. It nearly
always nests in woods, frequently selecting a deserted squirrel's drey or crow's nest
in which to deposit its four or five eggs; the usual laying time being March. Al-
though mainly nocturnal, this species is not exclusively so, Mr. Tuke observing that
in Yorkshire he has met it " in the woods, sailing quietly along, as if hawking, on
a bright sunny day. ' ' In their nests the same observer has detected remains of
numerous small birds, as well as the foot of a young hare or rabbit. Both in Europe
and America their chief food consists, however, of the various kinds of smaller
rodents, although, where frogs are numerous, these also contribute to the menu.
In America, Captain Bendire states that very few of the nests are built by the birds
themselves, but one which had been thus constructed was formed of twigs of willows
and aspens, and was remarkable for the depth of the cup, which was lined with
hair. In mountainous regions it is stated that nests are occasionally made on cliffs.
Writing of the American form, the observer just referred to states that "in the day-

I9i8 THE OWLS

time, particularly on a bright sunny day, the long-eared owl will allow itself to be
closely approached, and on discovering the intruder will try to make itself look
slender and long by pressing the feathers, which are usually somewhat puffed out,
close to the body, and sitting very erect and still. It might in such a position very
readily be mistaken for a part of the limb on which it may be sitting. Occasionally,
while on the ground, for instance, and being suddenly disturbed at a meal, they
throw themselves into quite a different attitude — one of defiance, making them-
selves look much larger than they really are, and presenting a fierce and formidable
front. I nearly stepped on one of them once while it was busily engaged in killing
a ground squirrel, which it had evidently just caught. The owl was sitting by the
side of a fallen pine tree, and as I stepped over it my foot was placed within twelve
inches of the bird. All at once she seemed to expand to several times her normal
size; every feather raised and stood at a right angle to the body; the wings were
fully spread, thrown up, and obliquely backward, their outer edges touching each
other over and behind the head, which likewise looked abnormally large; and this
sudden change in appearance, combined with the hissing noise she uttered, made it
appear a very formidable object at first sight."

The Jamaica long-eared owl (A. grammicus} differs from all the other repre-
sentatives of the genus in that the number of light bands on the quills is ten, there
being also about the same number on the tail feathers. It is also distinguished by
the toes being completely bare, although it is approached in this respect by the
Stygian owl (A. stygius) of Brazil.

The pygmy owls, few of which exceed eight inches in length, while
several are less than six, bring us to the first representatives of the
second subfamily of the Bubonida, which includes all the remaining members of
the order. The group is characterized by the ear tube being not larger than the
eye, and unprovided with an operculum, and also by the facial disc being unequal,
and in some cases very imperfectly developed, the portion below the eye being
always much larger than that above the same. The latter difference may be seen
by comparing the figure of the Ural owl on p. 1912 with that of the little owl on p.
1923. The pygmy owls, of which the common species (Glattddium passerinum) is
represented on the right side of the illustration on p. 1909, in addition to their
small size, may be distinguished by the absence of ear tufts, the inflated and swollen
cere, in which are pierced the nostrils, by the first primary of the wing being short,
the whole wing short and rounded, the tail also rounded, and more than half the
length of the wing, and the metatarsus of moderate length, and densely feathered.
There is not unfrequently some confusion between the members of this genus and the
little owls of the genus Carine, but if it be remembered that while in the former the
first primary is short, in the latter it is long, the difficulty will vanish. There are
some twenty species of pygmy owls, ranging over the greater part of the Old World,
but not found eastward of the Malay islands; and also occurring in Southern North
America and the whole of South America. For their size these little owls are bold
and rapacious, many of them flying at birds of larger bulk than themselves. Usu-
ally nocturnal, and hunting in the morning and evening, they may at times be seen
abroad in daylight. Mice, voles, lemmings, small birds, and large insects form

EARED OWLS 1919

their chief food; their cry is a kind of whistling note, which may be imitated by
blowing into a key. They build in hollow trees, without forming a nest.

The common pygmy owl, which is unknown in Britain, is the smallest European
representative of the order, and ranges over Europe and Northern Asia from Nor-
way to Eastern Siberia. It belongs to a group of the genus in which the head is
usually spotted or streaked, although occasionally nearly uniform, the second great
group of the genus being distinguished by the regular barring of the top of the
head. In size this species attains a length of eight and one-half inches, and its gen-
eral color above is umber brown, becoming ashy on the head and back, and varie-
gated with yellowish white spots, tending to bars on the back. The head is thickly
dotted with these round spots; the sides of the face are white, barred with dark
brown, and the white breast is marked with longitudinal splashes of dark brown.
The toes are thickly feathered. This owl is generally distributed in Norway,
where it is commonly found during the summer in forests, either evergreen or decid-
uous, but in winter it approaches human habitations. A certain number of indi-
viduals migrate in winter. It may frequently be seen at midday, sitting silently on
some bare tree, and when made bold by hunger, it will fly at and seize sparrows
and tits while on the wing. It generally nests in hollow aspen trees, and lays four
eggs at a time.

Among the second group of the genus, or those in which the head is regularly
barred across, we may refer to the jungle owlet (G. radiatum) of the plains of
India, and the large-barred owlet (G. cuculoides), ranging from the Himalayas to
Burma, and attaining a length of eleven inches. The former does not exceed
eight inches in length, and has nine bars of white, including the one at the tip,
whereas in the larger species there are seven of such bands. The large-barred
owlet has the whole plumage brown banded with five transverse white bars, giving
it a very unmistakable appearance; but in the jungle owlet there is a large white
patch at the base of the neck in front. The latter species is dispersed in the forest
regions all over India, and breeds in April and May, laying three or four eggs in
the hollows of trees. These owlets are strong flyers, and will kill small birds on the
wing in the daytime. Mr. Hume says that they can easily be tamed, and will then
eat cooked meat, frogs, insects, or almost anything that may be offered them. A
pair he had in captivity " were excessively noisy birds, both by night, and even at
intervals by day, in fact at times a perfect nuisance. Dogs were their abomination,
and in the way in which, menaced by a puppy, who evidently thought it famous
fun, they would lower their heads, set out their wings and ear coverts, and ' curse
and swear' (a mixture of hissing and chattering, utterly indescribable in words),
was really quite edifying ! ' ' The same writer observes that in the Eastern Hima-
layas the large-barred owlet may frequently be seen sitting on trees or stumps in
the full glare of the midday sun. Its presence may be easily recognized by its
chuckling, vibrating call. It generally nests in hollow oaks, at a height of twenty
or thirty feet from the ground, laying four eggs in a clutch.

As the name hawk owl is commonly applied both to the members of the present
genus, and also to the true hawk owl (Sumia), it is necessary to distinguish the
former by the affix Oriental. These owls agree with those of the preceding genus

1920

THE OWLS

Oriental
Hawk
Owls

in the shortness of the first primary quill of the wing, the interval
between its tip and that of the third primary being in all the group
either equal to or greater than the length of the metatarsus. Whereas,
however, in the pygmy owls the wing was short and rounded, in the
present genus it is long and pointed, the interval between its points and the end of
the tail being not more than equal to the length of the metatarsus. From their
nearest allies, the Oriental hawk owls are distinguished by the short metatarsus,
of which only a very small portion is bare. Most of them have relatively small

BURROWING OWI,.

(Two-fifths natural size.)

heads, in which the face disc may be very imperfectly developed, and short bills,
while the tail is long and firm, and the plumage of the wings likewise hard.
The genus comprises a large number of species, ranging from India through
China, Japan, and the Malayan region to Australia and New Zealand, and likewise
represented in Madagascar. The species vary greatly in size, the great Australian
hawk owl (Ninox strenua) attaining a length of twenty-four inches. Writing of
the Indian species, Jerdon remarks, that in the small size of its head, the slight
development of the disc, the firm plumage, and the length of the tail, these owls
approach the diurnal birds of prey.

BURROWING OWL 1921

The Indian brown hawk owl (N. lugubris), which measures twelve inches in
length, and is of a uniform glossy brown above, with a grayish tinge on the head,
is common in the wooded parts of India. Although generally nocturnal, it occa-
sionally issues forth before dark; its food is stated to be mainly insects, although it
will also eat small mammals and reptiles.

The curious little burrowing owl (Speotito cunicularia) of America

has a special interest on account of its habits, and accordingly de-
Owl

mands a somewhat fuller notice. This bird is only some nine inches

in length, and may be easily recognized by the length of its legs, of which a
considerable portion is bare, and its spotted plumage. It differs from the preceding
form by the length of the first primary quill, the interval between its tip and that
of the third feather of the same series being less than that of the metatarsus. The
whole wing is comparatively short, and has but little power of sustained flight. The
general color of the plumage is sandy brown, the head being marked with oval
splashes of buffish white, while all the back, wings, and tail are mottled and barred
with white or buff. The throat and the front of the neck are white, but most of the
remainder of the under surface creamy white, with transverse bars of sandy brown,
gradually becoming more and more indistinct toward the under tail coverts, where
they disappear. Although it has been considered that there are several distinct
species of burrowing owls, Dr. Sharpe is of opinion that only two can be distin-
guished, one of which ranges throughout the southern and western portions of the
United States and the whole of Central and South America; while the second
(S. guadelopensis} is confined to the West Indies. There are two great peculiarities
in the habits of the burrowing owl; firstly, that it is largely diurnal, and secondly,
that it always takes up its residence in underground burrows. Regarding its
diurnal habits in South America, Mr. W. H. Hudson writes that, " all day long, in
cold and in heat, it stands exposed at the mouth of its kennel, or on the viscacha's
mound, staring at the passer-by with an expression of grave surprise and reprehen-
sion in its round yellow eyes; male and female invariably together, standing stiff
and erect, almost touching — of all birds that pair for life the most Darby-and-Joan-
like. ' ' In North America, where these owls are mainly confined to the prairie
regions, Captain Bendire writes that they "may be seen sitting in front of their
burrows at any hour of the day. When not unduly molested, they are not at all
shy, and usually allow one to approach them near enough to note their curious
antics. Their long slender legs give them rather a comical look, a sort of top-heavy
appearance, and they are proverbially polite, being sure to bow to you as you pass
by. Should you circle around them they will keep you constantly in view, and if
this is kept up, it sometimes seems as if they were in danger of twisting their heads
off in attempting to keep you in sight. If you venture too close, they will rise and
fly a short distance, and generally settle down near the mouth of another burrow
close by, uttering at the same time a chattering sort of note, and repeat the bowing
performance. Occasionally, when disturbed, they alight on a small sage bush,
probably to get a better view of the surroundings. ' '

In many parts of North America, the burrowing owl takes up its quarters in
the warrens of the prairie marmot ( Cynomys} , one pair of birds to a burrow; and it

1 922 THE OWLS

was at one time thought that both owls and marmots, together with the rattlesnakes
which likewise frequent the colonies, lived together as a kind of happy family.
Modern research, has, however, shown that this is one of many zoological fables.
Captain Bendire is indeed of opinion that, in spite of its diminutive stature, the
owl is a match both for the marmot and the snake, and that it subsists to some
extent on the young marmots, if not also on the old ones. In parts where there
are no marmots, such as California and Oregon, the owls generally frequent the
burrows of the susliks {Spermophilus) which they enlarge to suit their own require-
ments, and Dr. Coues states, they sometimes occupy the earths of wolves, foxes, or
badgers. From having been found living alone, the latter writer thinks that the
owls may sometimes excavate their own burrows, but this is considered improbable
by Captain Bendire. On the pampas of Argentina, the burrowing owls take up
their residence with the viscacha (Lagostomus). Mr. Hudson says that the " birds
generally make their own burrows to breed in, or sometimes take possession of one
of the lesser outside burrows of the village, but their favorite residence, when not
engaged in tending their eggs or young, is on the viscacheria. ' ' During the day-
time they are exceeedingly bold, flying and screaming round the head of the in-
truder on their domains (as the writer has often witnessed), while at night their
weird cry resounds across the silent pampas. In North America the food of these
owls consists of young prairie marmots, susliks, chipmunks, gophers, and other
small mammals, as well as lizards, frogs, fish, large insects, and perhaps small birds.
The owls hunt their prey mainly in the early evening and during the night, and
but rarely in the daytime; they are exceedingly voracious, each bird being said to
eat fully its own weight in the twenty-four hours, if it can obtain a sufficient sup-
ply. In North America the breeding season commences in the latter part of March,
the same burrow being generally used year after year, and cleaned out and repaired
when necessary. The burrows, according to Captain Bendire, vary from five to ten
feet in depth, and are usually about five inches in diameter, the nesting chamber
being, however, from twelve to fifteen inches across. Frequentty the burrow is
much curved, so that the nest may lie within a couple of feet off the surface; at
times the nest is lined with grass or feathers, but more generally with cow dung.
Seven to nine is the usual number of eggs, but there may be as few as six or as
many as eleven. Both sexes assist in incubation; and, unless the eggs be taken, but
a single clutch is laid in a season. In defense of their eggs and young, these
little owls exhibit determined ferocity, retreating to the ends of their burrows, and
striking out at the intruder with beak and claws.

Although the name little owl, or owlet, is of course equivalent to
pygmy owl, yet it is convenient to restrict the latter term to the mem-
bers of the genus Glauddium, and the former to those of the present genus. As
already mentioned, the little owls are frequently confounded with the pygmy owls,
but the two differ essentially in that the former have a long and the latter a short
first primary quill. The little owls differ from the burrowing owl in that both
the fourth and fifth primaries have their outer webs deeply scalloped, and also in
having the upper part of the metatarsus hidden by feathers, and the base of the
toes enveloped in the plumage of the metatarsus, their legs thus appearing very

LITTLE OWLS

1923

short. In having the nostrils pierced near the front of the cere, they are distin-
guished from an allied Indian owl known as Heteroglaux, in which the nostrils
occupy the middle of the cere. The wings are large, with the third and fourth
quills of nearly equal length, and the head is large and round. The five species of
this genus range from Europe and North Africa across Central Asia to China, and
also from the Mediterranean countries across Persia to India and Burma. The
common little owl (Carine nodua) is about the same size as Tengmalm's owl — from
which it may be at once distinguished by its compact plumage, — and is an occa-
sional straggler to the British Isles. The general color of the upper parts is brown

owi,.

(Two-fifths natural size.)

mottled with oval white spots; the facial disc being grayish white, passing into
brown externally, while the greater portion of the under surface is whitish streaked
with brown, each feather on this aspect having a dark median line and light edges.
This form is found all over continental Europe except the extreme north, but its
extreme eastern limits are not as yet fully known. A desert-hunting variety or
species (C. glaux) differs by its paler coloration, the ground color of the upper parts
being rufous fawn, while the under surface is pure white streaked with rufous.
Moreover, while in one form the toes are but scantily covered with hair-like feath-
ers, in another they are thickly plumed. The pale desert form of the little owl in-
habits the countries to the south of the Mediterranean, except near Tangiers (where
the ordinary form occurs) ; and it also ranges into Northeastern Africa, and extends

1924 THE OWLS

eastward into Persia, India, and Afghanistan. The ordinary form is the commonest
owl in Italy, and is also common in Sicily, although there it is migratory. It breeds
in Italy, Gibraltar, Spain, Greece, and Holland. Professor Newton observes that
" the little owl is not strictly nocturnal in its habits, for one observer has seen it, at
midday, when the sun was shining brightly, carry off a sparrow from a flock, but,
as a rule, toward the evening it becomes more active and vigilant. It seldom haunts
forests, but frequents old buildings, towers, and church walls, where, as well as in
hollow trees, and even in a rabbit hole, its nest is found." The number of eggs
varies from three to five, and both sexes take their share in incubation. No nest is
formed. In Italy the flesh of this owlet is commonly eaten; and this species has a
peculiar interest as being the owl associated with the goddess Pallas in classical
literature. In Persia, Mr. Blanford states that he has often seen five or six indi-
viduals of the pale-colored desert variety in company, and almost every garden in
that country has a pair, whose melancholy cries are regularly heard at night.

In India the genus is represented by the spotted owlet (_C. drama), in which
the under parts are barred instead of streaked, and the general color above grayish
brown, with large and distinct white spots, and five bars on the tail. To the east-
ward of the Bay of Bengal there is a variety of this species, in which the ground
color of the upper parts is slaty brown, and the white spots very small, while the
tail has six bars. Jerdon says that the spotted owlet is to be found everywhere in
India except in dense forests. " Every clump of trees, and often a large single tree,
especially near a village, is sure to be tenanted by a pair, or a small colony of these
noisy birds. It often takes up its abode and roosts during the day in the eaves of
houses, or under the roof, and if anything disturbs its rest, comes forth with its
noisy, chattering, and disagreeable chorus. About sunset it is always on the alert,
and soon after it sallies forth to feed. It takes short flights, frequently seating
itself on the ground, or a paling, -or low branch, or outhouse, and thence captures
beetles and other insects on the wing, or snatches one off the branch of a tree, now
and then taking a low, undulating flight over the plain or garden, and dropping on
any small mouse, shrew, lizard, or insect it may spy on the ground." The writer
has often put his hand into some hole in a tree and had his fingers seized by one of
these owlets, and has frequently noticed the calm nonchalance with which the birds
have sat and regarded him when they have been dragged forth. The spotted owlet
lays from two to four eggs, which are generally deposited in March.
Hawk Owls ^s already mentioned, the term hawk owl, although commonly
applied to the members of the genus Ninox, properly belongs to the
species here represented. It may be well to add that the reader must be careful to
avoid confusing the scientific title of this genus with the name Syrnmm(p. 1910).
The hawk owl brings us to a group of genera differing from those already described
by the cere not being inflated, with the oval nostrils always pierced in its front mar-
gin. The hawk owls, which have no distinct ear tufts, are characterized by the
long and graduated tail, which approaches the wing in length. The head is unusu-
ally flat, with the facial disc nearly obsolete, a strongly-curved and powerful bill,
and a small orifice to the ear. The wings are short, and the whole plumage very
hard and compact, while the legs are rather short, and the toes thickly feathered.

1925

The hawk owl {Surnia ulula) is the most hawk-like member of the order, both
in appearance and habits. The typical form is distributed over Northern Europe and
Asia, ranging through Siberia to Kamchatka and Amurland, a few stragglers rang-
ing into Central Europe in the winter. It is represented in North America, to the
northward of latitude 40°, by a darker variety (fttnerea); and, according to Dr.
Coues, it is to this variety that some of the specimens taken in Britain belong. In

THE HAWK OWL.
(One-third natural size.)

length this owl reaches fifteen or sixteen inches. The general color of the upper
parts is brown mottled with white, — the white being most abundant on the head
and neck, and least so on the umber wings. The facial disc is dirty gray, bounded
on the sides by a crescentic purplish brown patch, extending down from the ears.
The chin is dusky; the throat and upper part of the breast are dull white, while the
remainder of the under parts is dull with numerous dusky bars, the under surface
of the tail being barred with grayish brown and dull white. In addition to the

1 926 THE OWLS

darker color of the upper surface, the American variety is distinguished by the
broader and redder bars on the breast, and the smaller size of the white gorget. In
habits the hawk owl is strictly diurnal, hawking its prey in the bright sunshine. It
is an inhabitant of the subalpine districts of Norway, sometimes reaching as high
as the zone of birch trees, although its true home is the fir woods. Frequently it
may be seen sitting in the full sunlight on some bare tree, surrounded by a mob of
small birds; these the owl generally disregards, although at times it makes a sudden
swoop on one of its tormentors. At the times when lemmings are migrating, hawk
owls make their appearance in great numbers to prey upon the rodent hosts. The
nesting place is usually upon the broken top of some dead tree, the eggs (five to
eight in number) being laid either on the bare rotten wood, or upon a thin layer of
dried grass. The female commences to sit from the laying of the first egg. Never
shy, in the breeding season this owl is bold in the extreme. When the nest is
approached, the bird rapidly raises its head and tail in a series of jerks, after the
manner of a cuckoo, and then suddenly dashes at the intruder. Writing of the
habits of this species in Lapland, Mr. Wolley, in a letter to Professor Newton, ob-
serves that the " hawk owl flies much in the daytime; and, with its long tail, short,
sharp wings, and quick flight, has a very hawk-like appearance in the air, when its
large square head is not seen. It carries itself much after the fashion of the more
regular owls, but while all the feathers at the back give a great breadth to its full
face, there is quite a table at the top of its head. It casts its bright yellow eyes
downward with the true air of half-puzzled wisdom, or turns its head round for a
leisurely gaze in another direction; to glance backward is out of the question, and
to look at anyone with a single eye is much beneath its dignity."

The chief food of this owl consists of lemmings, voles, mice, and birds. The
breeding season apparently commences in the middle of April and continues till the
end of June; and, as the eggs are laid at intervals, some may frequently be found
far on in the latter month. In America the hawk owl probably breeds only in the
fur country and the wooded districts of Alaska. It is there very destructive to
ptarmigan, as it is in the Old World to willow grouse. In America the number of
eggs laid varies from three to seven. Mr. R. MacFarlane states that on the Ander-
son river "four nests of this species were discovered, and the eggs taken there-
from. All of them were built in pine trees at a considerable height from the
ground. One was actually placed on the topmost boughs, and, like the others, con-
structed of small twigs and sticks, and lined with hay and moss."

Conspicuous for its snowy plumes — generally more or less
mottled with black — the great snowy owl (Nydea scandiaca) cannot
be confounded with any other member of the order, being the only representative
of its genus. As a genus the snowy owl is distinguished from the preceding by
the shortness of the tail, which is only about the length of the wing, and also
by the under tail coverts being produced nearly to the tip of the tail. Moreover,
there are slight rudiments of ear tufts. The plumage of the adult bird may vary
from pure white to white largely spotted with black; when present, the dark
markings are placed near the tips of the feathers, and while those on the
under parts are crescentic, those above approach a linear form. Although the

SNOWY OWL

1927

nestling is covered with sooty-black down, the first feathers are similar to those of
the adult; whence we must conclude that the evolution of the white plumage
dates from an extremely remote period. While Professor Newton is disposed to
regard the amount of black in the plumage as an individual peculiarity, Dr. Sharpe
believes that the pure white plumage occurs only in the oldest birds, and then only
in the male sex. In length the snowy owl measures upward of twenty-six inches.

SNOWY OWI. AND I,APP OWI,.

(One-fifth natural size.)

The snowy owl has a circumpolar distribution, inhabiting the northern regions
of both Hemispheres, and straggling southward in winter. Common in L,ewis, and
blown over to the east coasts of Scotland in considerable numbers, and likewise vis-
iting Ireland in winter, the snowy owl does not breed in any portion of the British
Islands. Found in Iceland during the winter, it is a permanent resident in Scandi-
navia, Greenland, and Northern Russia; while in winter it ranges all through

1928 THE OWLS

Siberia to Amurland, and has been taken in Poland and Lithuania, as also at
Peshawur. Although rare in Spitzbergen, it is common in Nova Zembla and on
the northern coast of Asia. At the present day this owl is very rarely seen in the
south of England, but during the Pleistocene period it appears to have been not
uncommon, the bone represented on page 1904, having been obtained from a cave
in Devonshire. And it is noteworthy that during the period in question, lemmings,
which now form such a large portion of the prey of this species, were also common
in England. In America this owl ranges as far south as Texas. The open and
desolate moss-covered tundras of Northern Siberia and Lapland, as well as the cor-
responding regions of North America, are the favorite haunts of the snowy owl. A
shy bird, hunting both by day and night, and endowed with noiseless though pow-
erful flight, it falls suddenly on its prey, which is always immediately devoured on
the spot. In the Old World its food consists of lemmings, young sea birds, ptarmi-
gan, grouse, ducks, and, it is said, the Arctic fox and hare; while in the Trans-
Baikal districts susliks are largely consumed. Whenever lemmings are on the
move, numbers of snowy owls are sure to collect. In America these birds will
often take the musquash from the trap, and in both Hemispheres they have been
known to fish. The nest is usually placed on the bare ground, in a spot raised
somewhat above the general level of the plain, but it may be situated on a ledge of
rock. It is a poor affair in the way of structure, the eggs resting merely on a
few feathers. The usual number of eggs is from four to seven, but in seasons
when lemmings are numerous as many as ten may be laid at considerable intervals
of time. Incubation commences with the first egg, so that eggs and young are fre-
quently found in the nest together. While the female is sitting, the cock bird
remains on the watch near by, and gives the alarm in case of danger. According
to Mr. Turner's observations, the old birds, and more especially the female, exhibit
great boldness in defense of their nests, flying close to the head of an intruder with
outstretched talons and snapping beaks. In such cases the natives are reported to
seize hold of one of the young, whereupon one of the parents charges the despoiler,
who holds up his gun stock, against which the bird dashes headlong.
Screech Owls With the screech owls, or scops owls, we come to a genus of mostly
small species; distinguished from the preceding representatives of the
group with uninflated ceres by the presence of distinct ear tufts. In this character-
istic these owls agree with the large eagle owls to be next mentioned, from which
they are distinguished, in addition to their generally smaller size, by the wings
being very long and reaching nearly or quite to the tip of the tail. As a rule the
toes are feathered, but in certain species the metatarsus is completely bare. There
are between twenty and thirty species of these small-horned owls, which range over
the greater part of both the Old and New Worlds, although only one of them occurs
in Europe. In habits they are largely nocturnal, although they may at times be
seen abroad in the daytime. Groves, gardens, and wooded districts are their favor-
ite resorts; their nests are made in trees, and the food of some of them is to a great
extent composed of the larger insects. Dr. Sharpe remarks that the various species
of screech owls are more difficult to distinguish than are those of any other genus,
although the Old- World forms are very distinct from those of America.

EAGLE OWLS 1929

The common scops owl Scops giu}, which is represented on the left side of the
figure on p. 1916, is one of the smallest European members of the family, and is
occasionally met with in England. It ranges over southern continental Europe in
summer, and in winter reaches North Africa; while eastward it extends to Persia
and Turkestan, being replaced by allied varieties or species in Japan, India, Malay-
sia, and South Africa. In length this little owl does not exceed eight inches, and
it belongs to a group characterized by the dusky hue of the beak, the grayish-brown
color of the face disc, the slender and feathered metatarsus, and the general gray or
brown hue of the plumage, of which the upper surface is vermiculated, while on
both wings the middle lines of the feathers are distinctly streaked with black.
Although generally nocturnal, the scops owl has been observed in Spain in the full
summer sun. Its flight is very like that of the little owl, and its food consists
almost wholly of insects. In May the female lays from five to six eggs in the hol-
low of some tree, and the bird sits so close that it may often be taken by the hand.
" This owl," as Professor Newton observes, " is remarkable for the constancy and
regularity with which it utters its plaintive and monotonous cry, sounding like kew,
kew, and pronounced at intervals of about two seconds throughout the livelong
night."

Among the American species we may mention the flammulated screech owl (S.
flammeolus), ranging from the Southern United States to Guatemala, which is of
small size, with the metatarsus feathered for more than half its length, and the toes
bare; the common North- American screech owl (S. ast'o), which has a very extensive
range and numerous varieties, and is distinguished by its feathered toes, and, lastly,
the crested screech owl (S. cristatus}, of Amazonia, which attains a length of fully
sixteen inches. The common screech owl is an abundant bird exhibiting a gray and
a red phase of plumage, and is not migratory. Although living for the greater part
of the year in forests, when the ground is mantled in snow this owl seeks the pro-
tection afforded by buildings, and is then more frequently seen. It is considered
a true friend to the farmer, as it lives almost exclusively on mice and other small
rodents and the larger insects. Hollow apple and oak trees are its favorite nesting
resorts; the eggs, usually five or six in number, being laid on the bare wood.

The great horned owls, or eagle owls, include the largest and most
powerful representatives of the entire order, but few of the species fall-
ing short of twenty inches in length. Allied to the screech owls, they may be dis-
tinguished by their relatively-shorter wings, which never reach within a considerable
distance of the end of the tail; while the great size of the ear tufts and the beauti-
fully barred plumage aids in recognizing these magnificent birds. Although the
toes may be sometimes bare or but sparsely feathered, the metatarsus is always
plumed throughout. The beak is short and strong, with a compressed tip, and the
large nostrils are either oval or rounded. Of eagle owls there are nearly a score of
species, ranging over the greater part of the Old and New Worlds, although unrep-
resented in Australasia. As being the only species found in Western Europe, the
best known of all is the great eagle owl {Bubo ignavus), of which specimens are
occasionally taken in Britain. This splendid bird, of which the total length may
reach twenty-eight inches, belongs to a group of two or three species characterized

THE OWLS

by the toes being so thickly feathered that even their last joints are concealed. It
has a black beak and bright orange iris, while the plumage is a beautiful blending
of various shades of brown. The ear tufts include a few dark feathers, with light
bars on the inner webs; the hind -neck and back are mottled dark and reddish brown,
with the dark tint occupying the middle of the feathers, and the same colors, but
arranged in transverse bars, occupy the primary quills and tail feathers. On the

^ — —^ r^>77 ^/^UM-"""

EAGLE OWL.
(One-fourth natural size.)

face disc the feathers are light brown with grayish-black speckles, while the breast
is pale brown, with longitudinal streaks of darker brown, and the remainder of the
under parts are shades of brown banded with darker bars.

The great eagle owl inhabits the greater part of Europe and Northern Asia, the
Central- Asian form (B. turcomanus) being paler than ordinary. In Asia it extends
as far south as the Pangong lake and the Himalayas, and it has also been obtained

EAGLE OWLS

1931

from Northeastern Africa. Common in Scandinavia and South Germany, this owl
is rare in Denmark, and although not unfrequent in Italy, is unknown in Sardinia.
Many of the specimens taken in England have been birds escaped from captivity.

EAGI,E OWI« SEIZING ITS PREY.

The eagle owl is one of the boldest and most rapacious of the European birds of
prey, attacking and devouring young fawns, hares, rabbits, other small rodents,
capercaillie, grouse, pheasants, and many smaller birds, as well as reptiles and frogs.

1932

THE OWLS

Mainly nocturnal, it appears early in the evening, and can fly well and strongly in
the daylight. Its cry has been compared to the syllables, boo, boo. When reposing
during the day, the eagle owl usually sits with its feathers ruffled up, and thus
appears much larger than it really is. When irritated it spreads and drops its wings
in the manner represented in our illustration, at the same time, snapping its beak and
hissing, and thus rushes, with flaming: eyes at its aggressor in the most menacing

INDIAN FISH OWI,.

(One-fifth natural size.)

manner. Although it is said that when attacked by the golden eagle it will come
off victorious, this owl appears to be quarrelsome rather than really courageous,
and in the daytime will take wing immediately on the approach of an intruder.
When detected on its perch, it is immediately mobbed by a host of smaller birds,
generally led by a crow. The breeding season commences in the latter half of
March or the beginning of April, and the two or three eggs are usually laid on a

FISH OWLS 1933

ledge or shelf of rock with but little if any attempt at a nest. Occasionally, how-
ever, a large nest of twigs is formed, which, in the absence of suitable rocks, may
be placed in a tree, while sometimes the eggs are deposited in a hole in the ground.
The young are hatched in about three weeks, and are able to fly in eight weeks
after birth, although they frequently remain in the nest for some time longer. This
owl breeds freely in captivity.

The Virginian eagle owl is a somewhat smaller bird, distinguished
s by the head and neck being of the same hue as the blackish back
instead of yellowish and lighter. It ranges over the whole of North, and extends
into Central America, and is liable to great local variation in color. In cultivated
districts this owl inflicts much damage on poultry yards, killing all kinds of birds,
from turkeys down to young chickens, and frequently merely devouring the hearts
of its numerous victims. Where the primitive forests have been destroyed, the
owls breed in the deserted nests of eagles, hawks, or crows, but elsewhere nest in
hollow trees. Usually there are but two or three eggs, although occasionally four
or five; and so early in the year are these laid that in Nova Scotia and Newfound-
land they are not unfrequently found frozen in the nest. The Indian eagle owl, or
rock-horned owl (B. bengalensis] , may be taken as an example of the second group
of the genus, in which the covering of the feathers on the toes is more or less
scanty, the last joint and sometimes the whole toe being bare. This species attains
a length of twenty inches, and is confined to India. Its habits appear to be very
similar to those of the other species, the nesting season being from February to
April, and the eggs usually laid on a shelf of rock near water, although occasion-
ally in a hole in the ground. That the eagle owls are an old group is proved by the
occurrence of remains of extinct species in the I/ower Miocene Tertiary of France;
those of the existing European species occurring in the Pleistocene deposits of
Norfolk. The metatarsus may be distinguished from that of the snowy owl by its
longer and more slender form.

The fish owls of the Oriental region and Africa form a group dis-
tinguished from all other members of the order by the under surface
of the toes being covered with a number of small spicules, thus presenting an ad-
mirable holding surface. In most cases the metatarsus is naked. These owls are
divided into two genera, one of which (Cetupa) is confined to Palestine, India,
Malayana, and China, and is characterized by the possession of large ear tufts;
while the second (Scotopelia) is African, and lacks those appendages. Of the Ori-
ental genus one of the best-known species is the Indian fish owl (C. ceylonensis} ,
which inhabits Palestine, India, Ceylon, the countries on the east of the Bay of
Bengal and part of China. Is is a large bird, measuring twenty-five inches in
length, and is of a general tawny color above, with the individual feathers broadly
streaked with black down the middle. The quills are brown with pale bands; the
tail is also brown with pale fulvous bars; while the greater part of the under surface
is golden tawny, with black streaks down the middle of the breast feathers. The
feet are dark, and, as in all the other members of the genus, the eyes bright yellow.
This fish owl inhabits wooded districts near water, and is mainly nocturnal,
although Professor V. Ball writes that he has seen one flying in the daytime.

I934 THE OWLS

Jerdon says that "it roosts during the day in the densest part of the jungle, coming
forth to feed shortly after sunset, and generally making its way to the nearest
water, be it a tank, brook, or river. Here it may be seen sitting on some overhang-
ing rock or bare tree, occasionally uttering its loud dismal cry, which Tickell well
likens to haw, haw, haw, ho, calling it a repulsive laugh. It feeds much on fish,
and more particularly on crabs." Mr. Hume states, however, that he invariably
found the remains of birds or small mammals round their breeding places. And he
subsequently observes that these owls breed from December to March, but appear
as a rule to lay in February. l< They always nest in the vicinity of water, some-
times choosing a cleft in rocks overhanging a mountain stream, sometimes a broad
shelf in the clay cliffs of some river, sometimes a huge cavity in some old banyan
tree, and at times appropriating an old nest of Haliaetus. Where they make their
own nest, on a ledge or recess of a cliff, it consists of little but a few sticks, mingled
with a few feathers, or when in holes of trees, of a few feathers and dead leaves,
but when they annex an old nest of the fishing eagle's, they seem to line it more
carefully with finer twigs, grass, and feathers." The usual number of eggs is two.
Mr. G. Marshall writes that in the Saharanpur district he found a nest situated in
the fork of a banyan tree, about twenty-five feet from the ground, the hollow being
so deep that the parent bird when sitting could not be seen from the ground. To
this nest the birds returned for three consecutive years.

Of the tree species of African fish owls, two are restricted to the

, west side of the continent, from the Gabun to Senegambia, while the
Fish Owls

third (S. peli) is common to those districts and the neighborhood of

the Zambezi mouth. Pel's fish owl is the largest, measuring twenty-three inches in
length. In habits these owls appear to be very similar to their Oriental cousins,
frequenting the borders of lakes and rivers, but they are all comparatively rare. A
captive specimen fed eagerly on fish, which is probably the food of these birds in
the wild state. The general hue of the plumage in Pel's fish owl is deep rufous
bay above, marked with transverse black bars, while beneath it is pale bay, with
heart-shaped black markings. The iris of the eye is dark brown, instead of the
yellow tint characterizing the Oriental fish owls. We have not met with any ac-
count of the nesting habits of this species, while nothing is known of the two others
in the living state.

THE OSPREYS
Order PANDIONES

The osprey (Pandion haliaetus), together with two species of the Oriental
genus Polioaetus, constitute not only a family (Pandionidte} , but, according to Dr.
Sharpe, a separate order, which appears to connect the owls with the diurnal birds
of prey. While resembling the latter in the lateral position of the eyes, which are
not furnished with a distinct disc, and their firm, hard plumage, they agree with
the owls in the fourth toe being reversible, as well as in the form of the canon

OSPREY AND YOUNG.

(1935)

1936 THE OWLS

bone or metatarsus; which has the bony bridge over the hollow at the upper end,
and likewise in the general form of the lower end of the tibia,* although the latter
retains the bony bridge which has been lost in the owls. Moreover, the osprey
agrees with the owls, and thereby differs from the typical diurnal birds of prey, by
the absence of a distinct aftershaft to the feathers. In the present group the nos-
trils are not concealed by bristles, and the toes are naked, and furnished beneath
with spicules like those of the fish owls. The osprey, or fishing hawk, is the sole
representative of its genus, and is characterized by the length of its wings, and
naked and rather short metatarsus, which is entirely covered with reticulate scales.
In length the osprey varies from twenty-two to twenty-four inches. In color, the
beak is black, the cere blue, and the iris yellow. The elongated feathers at the
tip of the head and nape of the neck are whitish, streaked with brown; the upper
surface of the body and wings is dark brown, with the ends of the primaries black,
and that of the tail two shades of brown. Beneath, the chin and throat are white,
the upper part of the latter being marked with a pale brown band, while the abdo-
men, thighs, and under tail coverts are also white. The wing is partly white and
partly brown beneath, and the lower surface of the tail is white, barred with gray-
ish brown. The legs and toes are blue.

Following the views of most English writers, that there is but a single repre-
sentative of the genus, the osprey has an almost cosmopolitan distribution, although
it is unknown in the extreme south of South America, as well as in parts of
Oceania. In England it is a rare summer visitor, but it used formerly to breed in
many parts of Scotland, where it is now well-nigh exterminated. For nearly a cen-
tury a pair have, however, bred at Loch-an-Eilan Castle. In 1890 three birds
appeared at the nesting place, one of which, after a fierce encounter, was killed,
whereupon the others disappeared. In 1891 a pair again visited the district, but
instead of taking up their old quarters, selected Loch Merlich — some miles distant
— as their abiding place. Here they were unfortunately disturbed, but in 1892
they once more reappeared at I^och-an-Eilan, where effective measures have been
taken to secure them from molestation. The osprey feeds almost exclusively on
fish, which it captures both at sea and in fresh waters, and it is doubtless for the
purpose of holding its slippery prey that the fourth toe is reversible, and the soles
of the feet covered with spicules. Sir J. Richardson writes that " when looking out
for its prey, it sails with great ease and elegance, in undulating and curved lines, at
a considerable altitude above the water, from whence it precipitates itself upon its
quarry, and bears it off in its claws; or it not unfrequently, on the fish moving to
too great a depth, stops suddenly in its descent, and hovers for a few seconds in the
air, like a kite or kestrel, suspending itself in the same spot by a quick flapping of
its wings; it then makes a second, and, in general, unerring dart upon its prey, or
regains the former altitude by an elegant spiral flight. It seizes the fish with its
claws, sometimes scarcely appearing to dip its feet in the water, and at other times
plunging entirely under the surface, with force sufficient to throw up a considerable
spray. It emerges again, however, so speedily as to render it evident that it does
not attack fish swimming at any great depth."

* I have not had the opportunity of examining the leg bones of Polioaetus.

THE OSPREYS 1937

On the Continent the osprey generally builds in the latter part of April, laying
three, or rarely four eggs, which resemble those of the Accipitrine birds in being
blotched with shades of reddish brown. The nest is large, and composed of sticks,
and may be placed either on a tree, a ledge of rock, or in a ruined building. In
North America, where ospreys are numerous, Captain Bendire states that the nest
is usually built in a tall tree — frequently on the top of the broken stem of a
pine. In places where trees are scarce, as in some parts of California, the nest
may be situated either on the ground or on a cliff. Mr. W. W. Worthington writes
that on Plum island many pairs of ospreys "nest on the ground, on the tops of
sand dunes, in such cases depositing the eggs on the sand; the nest consisting of
a few sticks, bunches of seaweed, and pieces of various kind of rubbish arranged
in a circle. In other cases the nests are built up several feet, the height in all
probability being regulated by the number of years the nest has been occupied,
and the amount added to it from year to year." But a single brood is produced
during the year, and, while the period of incubation is commonly considered to be
twenty-one days, Captain Bendire believes it to be a week longer.

The Oriental fish eagles, which must not be confounded with the
sea eagles, constitute a genus {Polioaetus} differing from the preceding
by the shorter wings, longer tail, and differently-formed feet, and con-
fined to India and the Malayan region. The large Oriental fish eagle {P. ichthyae-
tus) somewhat exceeds the osprey in size, whereas the smaller (P. humilis) is
inferior in this respect. The larger species has the upper plumage brown, becoming
paler on the middle of the back, and darker on the wings, while the head and neck
are ashy gray and the tail white, with a broad bar of brown at the tip. Its range
•extends from India to Celebes, and its food consists mostly of fish.

122

CHAPTER XII
THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY, OR ACCIPITRINES— ORDER ACCIPITRES

THE diurnal birds of prey
were long classed in a single group
with the owls and the ospreys, but
first the former and then the latter
were divided off; and there is
little doubt that view is correct,

although, to our thinking, the MERWNS.

ospreys appear to connect the two

groups very intimately. Exclusive of the ospreys, the diurnal birds of prey,
as they may be conveniently designated, include falcons, hawks, kites, eagles,
buzzards, harriers, and vultures, together with the so-called secretary bird of
Africa and the American vultures; the two latter forming very aberrant groups,
one or both of which are by some ornithologists regarded as constituting distinct
orders. By the older naturalists the Accipitrines were placed at the head of the
birds, but by common consent they have now to yield this position to the Passerines,
which are, on the whole, the most highly-organized members of the entire class.
It must, howrever, be remembered that, for their own particular mode of life, the
organization of these birds is as perfect as it is possible to conceive; and, from the
mechanical point of view, the spectacle of a falcon swooping on its quarry presents
us with one of the very highest developments of bird life.

While agreeing with the owls and the ospreys in their desmognathous palate,
their hooked beak and curved talons, and the presence of a cere, the Accipitrines
(1938)

THE HAWK TRIBE

J939

differ from both in that the fourth toe is not reversible, while they resemble the
latter and differ from the former in their laterally-
directed eyes, which are never surrounded by com-
plete discs, and their firm plumage. In the bones
of the leg the tibia differs from that of the owls in
possessing a complete bony bridge at the lower end,
while in the typical forms this lower end is remark-
ably flattened from back to front. The canon bone,
or metatarsus, as shown in the accompanying figure,
is also longer than in the owls and ospreys, and lacks
the bridge at the upper end found almost universally
in these groups, while at its lower end the three
trochlese, instead of forming a very high arch when
seen from below (compare the figure on p. 1904),
are situated in nearly the same transverse plane.
Hence the metatarsus at once serves to distinguish
an owl or an osprey from an Accipitrine. In addi-
tion to its bridged palate, the skull of an Accipitrine
agrees with that of an owl in the absence of any
production of the lower mandible beyond its point
of articulation with the quadrate bone, but it differs
by its more elongated form. I^ike those of the owls,
the young have a downy coat, but the eggs,
although occasionally white, are very generally more
or less colored, usually with reddish blotches on a
pale ground. The whole group is carnivorous, like
the owls and ospreys; but, while some of its mem-
bers kill their own prey, others live on carrion.

,-v, A ••,• i j- -j i • , r i- • From the upper (A), front (£), lower

The Accipitrmes may be divided into four distinct (Qi and hinder (D) aspects. Cidt hinder
families, namely, the falcon group (Falconidtz} , the processes of upper end; a,i>, points of

muscular attachment ; f, foramen ; h,

vultures (yuftunaa), secretary vultures (Serpen- facet for first toe.

tariidcz}, and American vultures ( Cathartidce} . The

first two of this family are closely allied; the other two differ greatly both from the

first two and from one another.

8 - 4

THE LEFT CANON BONE OR MET-
ATARSUS OF THE BUZZARD.

THE HAWK TRIBE
Family FALCONID^E

The present family, which includes the falcons, hawks, kites, buzzards, eagles,
etc. , constitutes together with that of the vultures the typical Accipitrines, which
are collectively characterized by the following features: In the head the nostrils
are separated by a median partition, while on the base of the skull there are no
basipterygoid processes. The feathers have well-developed aftershafts, and the

I940 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

oil gland is crowned with a circle of feathers. Inferiorly the windpipe is provided
with an organ of voice. Although very closely connected by the lammergeier, the
falcons and their allies differ from the vultures (except the lammergeier) by the
head being clothed with true feathers, and by the size of the females exceeding that
of the males. The group includes the smallest members of the order, while its
largest representatives are second only in size to the vultures. As a rule, these
birds subsist mainly or exclusively on prey killed by themselves, although some will
eat carrion, and a few feed on honeycomb. L,ike other Accipitrines, the two sexes
associate in pairs, which mate for life, while the number of young produced in a
brood seldom exceeds four, and is frequently less. They have a cosmopolitan dis-
tribution and may be divided into five subfamilies.

The true falcons, as represented by the peregrine and the kestrel,
are the typical members of a subfamily, characterized by the length of
the tibia being considerably greater than that of the metatarsus, by the scutes on
the hinder aspect of the metatarsus being arranged in a reticulate manner, and by
the sides of the bill being notched. In all of them the cere is large, and often
brightly colored. With regard to the extent of the genus Falco, there is a certain
amount of difference of opinion among ornithologists, some including in it the
whole of the European falcons, while others separate the gerfalcons (as Hierofalco},
and the kestrels (as Tinnunculus, or Cerchneis}. Used in the wider sense, the genus
will include (with the exception of one peculiar species from the Argentine and
another from New Zealand) all the falcons in which the nostrils are circular and
furnished with a distinct tubercle in the middle. The beak in all is short and
curved, with one notch in the upper mandible; the wings are long and pointed, with
the first and third quills of equal length, and the second the longest, and the toes
are elongated. Many of the larger species have a distinct dark stripe on the cheek,
which in the peregrine expands into a large patch. All are subject to great varia-
tion of plumage, according to age~ which renders the discrimination of many of the
species a matter of exceeding difficulty.

Under the common title of gerfalcons are included several closely-
allied falcons of large size, from the northern regions of the Northern
Hemisphere, distinguished by the comparative shortness of the toes, more especially
the fourth, which (exclusive of the claw) is about equal in length to the second.
The wings, moreover, are rather short, and the length of the interval between the
tips of the primary and secondary quills does not exceed half the length of the tail.
The beak is somewhat elongated, and the color of the plumage tends to slaty gray,
or white, these being the only falcons in which there is such a type of coloration.
One of the best known of these species is the Greenland falcon (Falco candicans} , of
Greenland and North America, young birds occasionally straggling to the British
Islands. This is the lightest-colored member of the group, and is hence sometimes
termed the white gerfalcon. Its distinctive characteristics are to be found in the
yellow tint of the cere, beak, and claws, and by the ground color of the plumage
being white at all ages. In old birds, the head, under parts, and tail become almost,
or completely, white; while the upper parts retain small black spots. In the young
the breast and flanks are longitudinally streaked with brown. The length of the

THE GREENLAND FALCON.

1942 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

female reaches twenty-three inches. In the Iceland falcon {F. islandicus) the beak
and claws are of a dusky-horn color, and the plumage darker than the last; its
ground color being brown in the young and gray in the adult. Moreover, in the
adult the flanks have transverse arrowhead dark bars, and the tail is likewise
barred; the crown of the head being lighter colored than the back. In young birds
the dark markings on the under parts are longitudinal; this change from longitudi-
nal to transverse bars being common in the group. The home of this bird is Ice-
land, from which a certain number of individuals migrate to the southeast, a few
from time to time reaching Britain. The Norway, or true, gerfalcon (F. gyrfalco)
is a somewhat larger bird than the last, with the crown of the head as dark as or
even darker than the back, and the whole tone of the plumage tending more to
brown. It has also frequently a distinct cheek stripe, while the wings are relatively
longer, and the tail shorter. This falcon inhabits all Northern Europe and Asia, as
well as North America, and migrates southward in winter, although not reaching
Britain. It is replaced on the Labrador coast by the still darker Labrador falcon.
The habits of all the gerfalcons are probably very similar; although, from the gen-
eral absence of trees in its native country, the Greenland species is compelled to
breed exclusively on cliffs, while the others often resort to trees. The eggs are
usually three or four in number, and are of a creamy-white ground color, blotched
with cinnamon or reddish brown. All of them are extremely shy, but display great
boldness in defense of their nest, circling round the head of the aggressor with loud
screams. When sitting on its nest in the snow, with its white breast toward the
hunter, the Greenland falcon will often escape detection. Their prey consists chiefly
of waterfowl and ptarmigan. Gerfalcons, and especially the white kind, were form-
erly much esteemed in falconry, and commanded high prices; the white Greenlan
falcons exported to the Continent being captured in Iceland. Although larger and *
more powerful birds, all the gerfalcons lack the supreme dash and " go " of the
peregrine, and their former estimation was probably mainly owing to their size and
beauty.

The large and handsome falcon, known as the saker (Falco sacer), a
Saker Falcon

term apparently derived from the Arabic, is a southern form, agreeing

with the gerfalcons in the proportionate length of its toes and wings, but differing
markedly in its plumage. In length the male saker measures upward of eighteen
and one-half inches, while the female falls but little short of twenty-five inches. By
this large size and the relative length of the claws, the saker may be readily distin-
guished from all the other falcons of Europe and Asia. In its ordinary dress, as
shown in the accompanying figure, it is further characterized by the upper surface
of the tail feathers, instead of being completely barred, having whitish bars on the
inner webs, and spots on the outer ones, these spots being especially marked in the
middle pair. Then again the cheek stripe, if present at all, is very narrow. The
head is pale rufous, sometimes turning nearly white, with narrow black stripes
along the middle of the feathers. The general color of the upper parts is pale
brown, with the feathers margined with rufous; while the quills are darker brown,
with white or rufous markings, and the pale tail ornamented in the manner noticed.
The sides of the face and throat are white, while the rest of the under parts are

THE HAWK TRIBE

1943

whitish, with longitudinal streaks of brown, which are largest on the flanks and
abdomen. The cere and feet are yellow, while the beak is greenish horn color. In
the young bird the feet are bluish green. When in its full adult dress, which is not
assumed till late, and but seldom seen, the saker becomes completely barred on the
whole of the upper surface with rufous, and is then compared by Dr. Sharpe to a
gigantic kestrel; the under parts being creamy white, with a few blackish spots
on the abdomen passing into bars on the flanks.

SAKER FALCON.
(One-third natural size.)

The range of the saker extends from Southeastern Europe and Northeastern
Africa through Central Asia to the north of China. Although not definitely known
to breed in the plains of India it extends from Afghanistan and Gilgit to Peshawur,
and thence straggles as far south as Dehli and Amballa. F. milvipes, of Central
Asia, is now regarded as a distinct species. This noble falcon is common in the
Danubian principalities, and generally frequents open country, although nesting in

1944 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

trees — usually in the neighborhood of water. The nest is not large, and the eggs,,
which are generally four in number, are more pointed than those of most Accipi-
trines. In the Harriana desert of India these falcons feed largely on a spiny lizard
of the genus Uromastix. In Palestine the saker is trained for the chase of gazelles,
while in India, where it is termed the cherug, it is flown not only at cranes, bus-
tards, hares, etc., but likewise at kites. The chase of the latter is described as
being exciting in the extreme, the two birds doing all they know to obtain the
higher position, and often flying far from the hawking party. On one such occa-
sion, Mr. R. Thompson, writing to Mr. Hume, says that " after going a consider-
able distance from his quarry, and thereby acquiring what he wanted — superior
height — the saker resumed the chase, returning downward like a thunderbolt on
the kite. Blow after blow was struck, and the helpless kite, with his merciless
enemy, descended, clutched fast together, their wings expanded, in wheeling circles
to the earth, where the kite, already half dead, was soon dispatched." Curiously
enough, kites seem to recognize the saker as their enemy, as, immediately one was
unhooded, all the kites in the vicinity flew off, although they took not the least
notice of other falcons.

The falcon known as the lanner (F. feldeggii), although a much
Lanner and smaller bird, has been frequently confounded with the preceding spe-

T o ornra t"

P . cies, but, together with the laggar, it belongs to a group agreeing with

the under-mentioned peregrine in the relative length of the toes and
wings, although resembling the saker in the absence of the distinct dark barring
on the thighs in the ordinary dress. The lanner is chiefly characteristic of the
countries bordering the Mediterranean, and attains a length of seventeen inches
in the male. It has the back barred, the forehead blackish, and the hinder part
of the head and nape rufous, with a narrow line of black on the forehead, and
a thin black cheek stripe; the general color of the upper parts being ashy brown,
and the tail feathers distinctly barred with pale rufous. The laggar (F. jugger) ,
which is confined to Peninsular India, is a still smaller species, measuring only
fifteen and one-half inches in the male, and having the thighs with scarcely any
or no dark markings, and the middle tail feathers not barred; the crown of the head
being dull rufous, with lines of ashy black on the back. Other well-known species
of this group are the Barbary falcon (F. barbarus} , ranging from West and North-
east Africa to Northwestern India and the Himalayas, and the red-capped falcon (F.
babylonicus} , with a nearly similar range, but extending into Turkestan, and un-
known in West Africa. The former is next in size to the saker, the female
reaching a length of twenty-two and one-half inches, and may be distinguished from
the lanner by the rufous forehead and nape, and the bluish gray of the hinder part
of the crown. The latter is much smaller, and has the under parts uniform sandy
rufous, instead of with wavy dark bars.

In common with the group just noticed, the peregrine falcon (F.

P j peregrinus) — so named from the migratory habits of the young birds

— differs from the gerfalcons and saker by its longer toes, especially

the fourth, which (exclusive of the claw) exceeds the second in length, and also by

the elongation of the wings, in which the interval between the primary and second-

THE HAWK TRIBE

'945

ary quills is greater than half the length of the tail. The peregrine, which attains
a length of fifteen inches in the male and seventeen in the female, is easily recog-
nized by the distinct narrow black transverse bars on the thighs, the blackish
color of the crown of the head, and the expansion of the cheek stripe into a
large black patch. In the adult the whole of the crown of the head, the nape,
and the space below the eyes are nearly black; the back, wing coverts, and

PEREGRINE FALCON.
(One-third natural size.)

tail some shade of bluish gray, with darker bars; the primary quills brownish
black, with the inner webs barred and spotted with reddish white; the throat is
nearly white, and the breast reddish white, with short, dark brown transverse bars;
the remainder of the under parts, as well as the lower surface of the tail, being
marked with more continuous bars of brown and gray. The beak is blue, tending
to black at the tip, and the cere, legs, and toes are yellow. Such is the general

1946

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

coloration of the typical northern peregrine, which ranges over all Europe,
except Iceland and Spitzbergen, while eastward it extends across Siberia to
China and Japan, and thence to the Malay islands. It also occurs in North-
eastern Africa, as far as Kordofan, and occasionally straggles as far as the
Cape, where, however, its place is normally occupied by the very distinct lesser
peregrine (F. minor). Entering India on the extreme northwest, it is replaced
in the peninsula by the shahin falcon (F. peregrinator) . In Java we meet another
.southern form, known as the black-cheeked falcon {F. melanogenys}, which ranges

CAST OF PEREGRINES— RED FAI.CON AND BLUE TIERCEI,.

to Australia, and is distinguished by its redder and more finely-barred plumage.
Ornithologists are now pretty well agreed that the peregrine of North America —
where it is commonly known as the duck hawk — is merely a variety of the Euro-
pean species, but in Chili and the adjacent parts of South America we meet with
another form, apparently allied to the black-cheeked falcon, and known as F.
nigriceps, or F. cassine.

Breeding on the cliffs of the sea coast in the south, and in the more mountain-
ous districts in the interior of the country, the peregrine is best known in England

THE HAWK TRIBE 1947

as a migrant. These migratory individuals are chiefly birds of the first year, and
are most commonly met with in autumn; but there are also a certain number of old
birds which make their appearance in spring on their northward journey. Although
nearly always nesting on some lofty cliff, there are instances of its having bred in
an open marsh, and also in a tree. The nest is usuallj' of large size, and generally
contains four eggs, which are remarkable for the depth of the color of their red
blotchings. Feeding chiefly on birds of different kinds, the peregrine undoubtedly
kills a considerable quantity of game. Professor Newton is of opinion, however,
that the harm it inflicts is not so great as might at first appear to be the case, since
all falcons invariably seize the weakest birds, and the elimination of such weaklings
is probably to the general advantage of the breed. In North America, although by
no means common, the peregrine is the most numerously represented of all the
larger falcons. Captain Bendire writes that in the northern portion of its range it
is only a summer resident, following the immense flocks of water fowl during their
migrations. "Hares, ptarmigan, grouse, bob whites, pigeons, as well as smaller
birds, enter largely into its bill of fare, and the poultry yard as well occasionally
suffers. Next to the goshawk, the peregrine falcon is our most audacious bird of
prey. Its flight, when once fairly started in pursuit of its quarry, is amazingly
swift; it is seemingly an easy matter for it to overtake the fleetest of birds, and when
once in its grasp resistance is useless. I have seen this falcon strike a teal almost
within gunshot of me, kill it apparently instantaneously from the force of the shock,
and fly away with it without visible struggle, and as easily as if it had been a spar-
row instead of a bird of its own weight."

From its docile disposition, its powerful flight, and the ease with
„ . . which it can be procured, the peregrine has always been a favorite
bird in falconry, and is the one most commonly employed in the modern
revival of that sport. In falconry it is the female only that is termed the ' ' falcon ' ' ;
the male bird being designated the " tiercel," corrupted into "tarsel." While the
tiercel was commonly flown at partridges and occasionally at magpies, herons, and
next to them rooks, were the favorite quarry for the falcon. In heron hawking,
the birds were intercepted on their way home, and, if possible, when flying against
the wind. When a heron was viewed, a cast or pair of falcons was loosed; and
thereupon pursuers and pursued immediately began to try and soar above the other,
the heron lightening himself by disgorging his food. The falcons fly in a spiral,
and as soon as one has gained a position of advantage and made its swoop, it should
be succeeded by its fellow, the manoeuvre being repeated until the heron is brought
to the ground. In striking, the falcon attacks only with its claws, and not, as often
represented, with its beak. In India the peregrine, locally known as the bhyri,
used to be employed by the native chiefs in hawking egrets, stalks, herons, cranes,
etc., only a single bird being flown at each quarry. The smaller shahin, or royal
falcon was, however, held in still higher estimation for this sport. It may be added
that the shahin differs from the peregrine by the more rufous tinge of its under
parts, and its dark head and nape.

With the Indian turumti falcon (F. chicquera], which scarcely exceeds the com-
mon kestrel in size, we come to much smaller representatives of the present section

1948

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

Tururati
Falcon

of the genus. This species resembles the peregrines in having the
feathers of the thighs distinctly barred, but is at once distinguished
from that group by the chestnut-colored head, nape, and cheek stripe.
The rest of the upper parts are pale gray, with dark markings, the quills being dark
slaty, and the tail light gray, with a broad black terminal band tipped with white.
The lower surface is white to the breast, behind which there are narrow crossbars

TURUMTI FALCON.

(Three-eighths natural size.)

of dusky gray. The beak is greenish yellow at the base, while the cere and legs
are bright yellow. This species is confined to India, but is replaced in Africa
by the rather paler tawny-headed falcon (F. ruficollis}, which is perhaps only a.
local race. The female attains a length of thirteen, and the male of eleven and one-
half inches. The turumti is spread all over India, generally haunting open country
in the neighborhood of cultivation. Jerdon writes that "it frequents gardens,.

THE HAWK TRIBE 1949

groves of trees, and even single trees in the open country, whence it sallies forth,
sometimes circling aloft, but more generally, especially in the heat of the day, glid-
ing with inconceivable rapidity along some hedgerow, dam of a tank, or across
£elds, and pouncing suddenly on some lark, sparrow, or wagtail. It very often
hunts in pairs, and I have now and then seen it hover like a kestrel for a few
seconds." In addition to the smaller birds, the turumti will attack starlings, quails,
and doves, while it will sometimes prey on bats. It nests from February to May, —
apparently always in trees, — laying usually four eggs, of which the color varies
from yellowish brown, with a few reddish specks, to nearly uniform brownish red.
Mr. R. Thompson, in a letter to Mr. Hume, observes that "I have trained this
species to be thrown from the hand at quails and partridges. The bird readily
learns the lesson, and makes a good bag. The quail or partridge is allowed a good
start, the turumti being held up so as to eye the receding bird, and then thrown in
the direction of the latter, with some force, shooting off at once, more like a dart
than anything else, at the quarry."

The hobby (F. subbuteo} is one of the most elegant of the British

falcons. It belongs to a group in which the thighs are perfectly uni-
form; their color in this species being rufous, while the throat and breast are white,
and the latter marked with black stripes. Above, the general color is dark slaty
gray, tending to black on the head. The length is eleven and one-half inches in the
male and thirteen and one-half in the female. The hobby is a migratory species,
ranging over Europe and Northern Asia, and extending into India and North
China, while in winter it journeys to South Africa. By no means numerous in
Britain, it is still not uncommon in the inland wooded and cultivated districts of the
«outh of England. In addition to preying on small birds, it also feeds on dragon
ilies and beetles, and is thus a benefactor to the farmer.

Our last representative of the typical falcons is the well-known

merlin (F. tesalon), which, together with the smaller pigeon hawk
(F. columbarius) of North America, may be distinguished from other members
•of the genus by the longitudinally streaked thighs and the nearly uniformly-
colored back, in which the feathers have only a median dark streak. Above,
the color of the merlin is a uniform clear bluish gray , with the tail marked by one
broad band near the end. The head is dark slaty, with broad median stripes to the
feathers; the forehead and sides of the face whitish, with narrow median lines; the
ear coverts grayish; the throat white, and the remainder of the under parts white
tinged with rufous, with broad median black streaks, becoming narrower on the
thighs. In the young bird (shown in the lower figure of our illustration) the gen-
eral color of the upper parts is brown with a faint tinge of gray, and the feathers
margined with sandy rufous; while on the under parts, save the throat, the whitish
feathers have very broad reddish brown streaks and black median stripes, the
thighs having smaller brown spots, and the lower part of the abdomen and under
tail coverts being only sparsely marked. It is probable that very old female merlins
assume a blue plumage like the males. The adult male measures ten inches, and
the female about two inches more. The merlin is an inhabitant of Europe and
Northern Asia, but extends southward into India and China. An anonymous cor-

1950

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

respondent of the Times observes that ' ' on the bleak hills of Wales, round the
Peak, and in the wildest Midland heights, further north on the barren moors and
bold bluffs of Yorkshire, over the rugged and romantic ranges of Scotland, on the
short turf of the downs, in the mountain heather, by the slaty and granite boulders
of upheaved rocks, the merlin has its home. Even in the desolate regions it affects,
no member of the pariah family is free from attack; yet, like the other small falcons,

MERWNS.
(Two-fifths natural size.)

it holds its own against the destroying band, and manages to live on and do
its appointed work against all odds." In Britain the merlin usually nests on the
ground, generally on the open moors; but in Lapland and other parts of the conti-
nent it commonly takes possession of the deserted nest of some other member of the
family, while in other cases it lays on a shelf of rock. When on the ground,
scarcely any nest is made. The eggs, which vary from four to six in number, are

THE HAWK TRIBE 1951

frequently of a uniform brick-red color, but they may be mottled with a darker
shade. The merlin commonly preys upon small birds, and has been trained to fly
at snipe, larks, thrushes, etc. According to Messrs. Salvin and Brodrick, "the
strongest female merlins may be trained to fly pigeons admirably, and from their
small size, and the way in which they follow every turn and shift of the quarry, are
better adapted for this chase than the peregrine; unlike it, they do not stop when
the pigeon takes refuge in a hedge or tree, but dash in and generally secure it."

In addition to its smaller size and much darker general color, the American
pigeon hawk is distinguished by having four black bars on the tail, of which the
last is much the widest. This falcon is a migratory species, with a swift and pow-
erful flight, breeding in open nests or hollows of trees, as well as on cliffs, and in
cavities in the banks of rivers. The following interesting anecdote is given by Mr.
R. Macfarlane regarding this species. On the twenty-fifth of May, 1864, an Indian
in his employ ' ' found a nest placed in the midst of a thick branch of a pine tree at
a height of about six feet from the ground. It was rather loosely constructed of a
few dry sticks and a small quantity of coarse hay; it then contained two eggs; both
parents were seen, fired at, and missed. On the thirty-first he revisited the nest,
which still held but two eggs, and again missed the birds. Several days later he
made another visit thereto, and, to his surprise, the eggs and parents had disap-
peared. His first impression was that some other person had taken them; after look-
ing carefully around he perceived both birds at a short distance, and this led him
to institute a search which soon resulted in finding that the eggs must have been
removed by the parent birds to the face of a muddy bank at least forty yards dis-
tant from the original nest. A few decayed leaves had been placed under them,
but nothing else in the way of lining. A third egg had been added in the interim. ' '
The small falcons, of which the common kestrel or windhover is
the most familiar representative, constitute an extensive and easily
recognized group of the genus, distributed all over the globe with the exception of
Oceania. They are all short-toed birds, agreeing with the gerfalcons in the propor-
tionate lengths of the second and fourth digits; but resembling the peregrines in the
length of their wings, as shown by the interval between the tips of the primary and
secondary quills exceeding half the length of the tail. They have a peculiar and
characteristic type of coloration, easy of recognition but difficult of description;
and in the majority of the species (as shown in the figure of the lesser kestrel on p.
1953) the plumage is very differently colored in the two sexes, the hen bird being
barred, while the cocks are more uniform. Although the common kestrel feeds
chiefly on mice, many of the other species subsist to a great extent on insects.

The common or true kestrel (F. tinnuncului) derives its name of windhover
from its habit of hanging suspended in mid-air, with its wings in rapid motion, its
fan-like tail spread out, and its head directed to windward. . When in this position
it spies a mouse or small bird below, it drops upon it suddenly and noiselessly with
unerring aim. The male kestrel, which attains a length of twelve and one-half
inches, has a yellow cere and limbs, bluish beak, and black claws. The crown of
the head, nape, and cheeks are ashy gray with dark streaks; the upper parts red-
dish fawn, with a small black spot on each feather; the quills blackish gray with

1952

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

lighter margins; and the tail feathers ashy gray, with a single broad black band
near the end, and the extreme tips white. Beneath, the general color is pale rufous
fawn, with dark spots or streaks, both of which disappear on the thighs and under
tail coverts; while the tail is grayish white with indistinct bars. The female, which
scarcely exceeds her consort in size, differs by the top of the head being reddish
fawn with dark streaks, the upper parts being banded with bluish black, and the
tail rufous with several incomplete black bars. The young males are nearly like

THE KESTREL.
(One-third natural size.)

the females, the tail changing blue first and the head last. Our illustration repre-
sents a female in which the bars are not so well defined as in some specimens. A
further specialization in the kestrel would involve a similar change of color in the
female; and to this there is an approximation in a dark southern race, where the
rump and part of the tail of the hen bird tend to blue. The kestrel ranges over the
whole of Europe and Northern Asia, migrating in winter into the north of China,
India, and Northeastern Africa, and occasionally straying into the western and
southern parts of the latter continent. It is replaced in the New World by the so-

THE HAWK TRIBE

1953

called American sparrow hawk {F, sparvorius} , in which the centre of the crown of
the head of the male is rufous, and the wing coverts blue with black spots. Al-
though its chief food consists of mice and voles, the kestrel occasionally kills small
birds, and will also eat frogs, beetles, worms, and grubs, while in India it frequently
•devours lizards. That it will occasionally kill a young partridge or chicken is
doubtless true, but such small robberies are far more than counterbalanced by the
benefits it confers on the agriculturist by the destruction of hosts of pernicious

LESSER KESTREL.
(Two-thirds natural size.)

rodents, and it ought therefore to be carefully preserved, instead of being ruthlessly
shot down. Although occasionally placed in a hollow tree, the nest is more gener-
ally situated among rocks or old buildings, while still more frequently the deserted
nest of some other bird, such as a crow, magpie, or raven is taken advantage of.
The eggs, usually four or five, but sometimes six in number, may be either mottled
all over with brownish red or orange, or blotched with these colors upon a light
123

1954 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

ground. They are generally hatched late in April, or early in the following
month.

The lesser kestrel (F. cenchris) is an inhabitant of Southern and Southeastern
Europe, migrating in winter to South Africa, and while scarcely smaller than the
common species, has shorter wings. In the adult male the head, hinder neck,
rump, upper tail coverts, and tail are bluish gray, the latter having a broad subter-
minal dark band and a white tip, while the whole of the back is cinnamon rufous,
without any black spots. The throat is yellowish white, and most of the other
under parts are cinnamon colored with small black spots, becoming larger on the
sides of the body, but disappearing on the thighs, which are uniform pale rufous.
Although the cere and limbs resemble those of the common species in color, the
claws are generally white. The female is very similar to the hen of the common
species, although lighter in color, and with white claws. Spain, Malta, Southern
Italy, and especially Greece, are some of the countries where the lesser kestrel is
most common, but it also ranges into Syria, Turkey, Asia Minor, and Persia, and has
been obtained from the steppes of Western Siberia. It may be seen on the Acropo-
lis of Athens, the churches of Madrid, and the Moorish temples of Granada. In
Greece and Spain it nests late in April or early in May, selecting either buildings,
locks, or hollow trees for its breeding place, and being often found in company with,
the ordinary kestrel. In Malta it may be seen in flocks, where, according to L,eith-
Adams, its prey is chiefly small birds. L,eith Adams says that both kinds of kestrel
were held in high veneration by the ancient Egyptians, their function being sup-
posed to be to investigate, in conjunction with Anubis, the actions of the soul.
Their destruction involved the penalty of death, and " no trouble was spared in pre-
serving them, so that, besides the sacred birds in captivity, it was customary to place
food in the way of wild individuals. The kestrel, therefore, must have enjoyed un-
bounded freedom and protection, and it is a remarkable circumstance nowadays, that,
being one of the most common rapacious birds of Egypt, it is far more familiar
than any of the others, allowing man to approach it within a few yards."

As there are pygmy parrots and pygmy owls, so there exist diminu-
ygmy t-ye representatives of the falcons, which, although not larger than

larks, are as bold and dauntless as their larger relatives. These pygmy
falcons range from the Eastern Himalayas, through Tenasserim and Burma to the
Malayan islands, and thence to the Philippines, and are also represented by an out-
lying species in the Nicobar islands; and since they differ from the true falcons by
their oval nostrils, which have neither a central tubercle, nor an overhanging flap of
skin, they are referred to a distinct genus. The beak is short, with a sharp tooth,
and a notch on each side, often described as a double tooth. The wings are short,
and the tail is of no great length, while the third toe is not much longer than
the others.

The black-legged falconet (Hierax fringillarius) represented on p. 1955 in-
habits Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, Java, Sumatra, and Borneo, and meas-
ures six and one-tenth inches in length. The upper parts, together with the quills
and tail feathers, are deep bluish black, with the inner webs of the two latter barred
with white. The forehead, together with a stripe running from the eye down the

THE HAWK TRIBE

1955

side of the neck, and likewise the front of the cheek, the throat, and breast are
white, while the abdomen is tinged with rufous. The lores and the space behind
the eye, as well as the sides of the body and the outer aspects of the thighs, are
glossy black. The bill and feet are dark; although in young birds the former is
yellow at the base. The white-legged falconet (H. melanoleucas} of Cachar and
Assam differs by its white abdomen and thighs; while the Philippine falconet
(H. erythrogenys) is distinguished from the latter by its black thighs. The small-
est of all is the red-legged falconet (If. ccerulescens) , which measures only five and
one-half inches, and ranges from Nipal and Sikkim, through Tenasserim and

BLACK-LEGGED FALCONET AND ITS PREY.
(One-half natural size.)

Burma, to Cambodia. It is distinguished from all the others by its white legs,
and derives its name from its rufous thighs. All the falconets are quick and active
in their movements, making their way with a rapid and direct flight, during which
the wings are constantly flapped. They are generally to be seen hawking insects
with swallow-like speed, and when tired are said invariably to select a dead branch
upon which to rest. Their chief food appears to consist of dragon flies, beetles, and
butterflies; although they undoubtedly at times attack and kill birds, which may
exceed themselves in size. Davison writes that he has seen a black-legged falconet
swoop at a rock thrush, and he once shot a male with a living and partially -plucked
swallow in its talons. All the species nest in hollow trees, making at the bottom

1956

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

of the cavity a pad of the wings of dragou flies and butterflies, upon which to lay
their eggs. The latter are white, but the number in a clutch does not appear to be
ascertained. It is said that the Malays train the falconets for hawking, throwing
them from the hand at the quarry.

The three remaining genera of falcons are distinguished from the
foregoing by their oval nostrils being provided with an overhanging
flap of skin. In this group the oval nostrils have the long axis par-
allel or oblique to the bill, whereas in the pygmy falcons it is at right angles to it-

Mississippi
Falcon

MISSISSIPPI FALCON AND SWALLOW-TAILED KITE.
(One-half natural size.)

Of these genera, the one to which the Mississippi falcon belongs is characterized by
the bill having but one notch, and by the wings reaching to the tip of the tail;
whereas in the other two (Baza and Harpagus] the beak has two notches, and the
wing does not reach the end of the tail. The Mississippi falcon (Idinia mississippi-
ensis) is one of the two American species which are the sole representatives of the
genus, and are characterized by the leaden-black plumage of the upper parts, and
the gray head, neck, and under parts. In the figured species the secondary feathers
of the wing are silvery gray, like the head; whereas in the other (/. phimbea) they

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 1957

are of the same black hue as the primaries; this species being also distinguished by
the presence of three white bars on the tail. The Mississippi falcon, which ranges
from the Southern United States to Guatemala, is thirteen and one-half inches in
length, while the other species, which is a fraction larger, extends from Mexico to
Brazil.

In its native land, where it is generally known as the Mississippi kite, the
figured species is a common bird in many districts, more especially in parts of
Texas. Its favorite feeding grounds are said to be the cotton fields, where
it may be seen at one moment soaring high in the air, and soon after just skim-
ming above the tops of the plants, or flying between the rows. It seldom alights,
but may now and then be observed perched on some dead tree, when it suffers
itself to be approached within fifteen or twenty yards before taking wing. The
food of this species is believed to consist mainly of. large insects, probably
supplemented with small rodents and reptiles. The nest is built in a tree, usually
in a fork, and may be used for two or more seasons in succession. Usually but
two or three eggs are laid, which differ from those of most members of the family
in being of a uniform bluish-white color, without spots. In defense of their
nest and young these birds are said to display great courage.

The crested falcons, of which there are several species ranging
^ ^rom *nc^a through Malayana to North Australia, and to Africa, and

Madagascar, differ, as we have seen, from the last genus by having
two notches on the edge of the beak and by their shorter wings; while they are dis-
tinguished from all other members of the subfamily by the crest of elongated
feathers at the back of the head. These birds vary from fourteen to seventeen
inches in length, and many of them are remarkable for their handsome coloration.
The Indian representative of the genus is the black-crested falcon, or, as it is
commonly called, kite (Baza lophotes), which has the plumage of the upper parts of
a glossy greenish black, and a uniformly black tail. It is a rare bird, frequenting
forests, and feeding almost exclusively on insects. The other species have the
tail brown or gray, with darker bars; some, like the Philippine crested falcon (B.
magnirostris) , having the breast marked with broad transverse bars of white and
chestnut; while in the West- African cuckoo falcon (B. cuculoides) the brown bands
are narrower, less continuous, and confined to the sides of the body beneath the
wings. Three Central and South- American falcons, constituting the genus Harpa-
gus, differ from the crested falcons by the absence of the plume of feathers, and also
by the presence of a tubercle in the centre of the nostrils.

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

The preceding genera are included, as we have seen, in the subfamily
Falconina; and we now come to a second subfamily, known as the Aquilince,
which includes the honey buzzards, kites, eagles, etc. The members of this group
differ from the last by the sides of the beak being simply festooned, instead of

1958 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

notched; although they resemble them in having the hinder aspect of the metatarsus
reticulated, that is to say, with the scales small and polygonal. As regards their
insectivorous habits, the Mississippi and crested falcons serve to connect the more
typical members of the preceding subfamily with the kites. In the whole group the
nostrils are not concealed by plumes.

A rare visitor to the British Islands, the honey buzzard (Pernis

onf.y mellivora) is a well-known although locally distributed bird on the

Buzzards

Continent, and is the only European representative of the small genus

to which it belongs. The honey buzzards agree with a considerable number of
other genera in having the lower portion of the metatarsus bare, the length of the
naked part being, however, less than that of the third toe, exclusive of the claw,
and also in the oblique form of the nostrils, which are generally closed in by
a membrane, so as to render their aperture little more than a slit. They are
more specially characterized by the tail being rounded, with the outer feathers
inferior in length to the middle pair. From their immediate allies they are dis-
tinguished by the shortness of that portion of the beak in advance of the cere,
as compared with the third toe, while the bill itself is stout and the feathers on the
lores short and not produced beyond the hinder edge of the nostril. The wings are
long and large, and the tail also elongated; the toes are of moderate length, and the
claws but slightly curved. The shortness of the feathers on the lores, together with
its peculiar gait, which has been compared to the running of a hen, render the
honey buzzard the most unhawk-like of all the British representatives of the family^
It is subject to a great amount of variation in the color and markings of the plum-
age, more especially in birds of the first and second year. Generally speaking,
it may be said, however, that the adult male (as shown in our upper figure)
has an ashy-gray head, brown upper parts, with the feathers margined with
a lighter tint, and having a dark median streak, and the tail pale brown with the
extreme tip whitish, and marked by three dark transverse bars. Beneath, the
plumage is white, narrowly streaked with brown, such streaks expanding on
the sides of the body into spade-shaped markings. As in our figure, there may
be some white on the tips of the wing feathers. The iris is straw colored, the beak
black, and the feet yellow with black claws. Young birds, as shown in the lower
figure of our illustration, are generally brown or yellowish brown, with the shafts
of the feathers distinctly streaked with black, and the under parts more rufous than
the upper surface. The ashy -brown tail is broadly tipped with buffish white, and
is crossed by two distinct chocolate bars, one near the end and the other near
the middle, between which are a number of imperfect dark bars. The iris is hazel.
The length of the adult bird is about twenty-five and one-half inches, so that it
may be compared in size to a kite. The honey buzzard ranges over the greater
part of Europe, and probably occurs in several parts of Northern Asia, as it has
been recorded from Japan and near Pekin. In Sweden it breeds within the Arctic
Circle, and it has frequently nested in England. During the winter it migrates to
Arabia, Africa, and Madagascar. In India it is replaced by the crested honey
buzzard (P. ptilorhynchus] , a species ranging through the Malayan region, dis-
tinguished by the crest of the adults, and remarkable for its great individual varia-

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

tion, some individuals being light fulvous, while others are nearly black. A third
species (P. celebensis) inhabits Celebes. The honey buzzard derives its name from
its habit of feeding on the larvae of bees and wasps, digging out the combs with its
claws, and tearing them to pieces. It will, however, also eat adult insects of various
kinds, together with worms, slugs, the eggs of birds, moles, and even grain. It
may be taken in traps baited with wasp or bee comb, and in captivity has been
known to kill and eat rats, as well as comparatively large birds. The nest is said to
be generally placed at a considerable height from the ground in some tall oak, and
is composed of lichen-clad sticks, lined with wool and the leaves of the oak

HONEY BUZZARDS. '
(One-fifth natural size.)

and beech. . . Professor Newton was informed by Mr. Newcome that in
France the honey buzzard surrounds the nest, after the young are hatched, with a
barrier of leafy boughs, which are renewed from time to time as the foliage withers,
but whether this was to prevent the young from falling out, or to act as a screen,
was not ascertained. The eggs are not more than three in number, and usually
have a buffish- white ground color upon which are dark blotches.

A much smaller bird than the last is the black-winged kite (Elanus
Black- Winged 7 . «_• «• f ^ i A 1

K cesruleus) , which is one of the best-known representatives of a small

genus widely distributed over both hemispheres. Agreeing with the
honey buzzards in their nearly even or slightly emarginate tails, the hawks of

1960

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

this genus differ by their more elongated bill, of which the length, in advance of the
cere, is greater (instead of less) than half the length of the third toe, exclusive
of the claw. They are further characterized by the extreme shortness of the
bare portion on the front of the metatarsus, and also by the feathered lores, and the
wings reaching to the end of the tail, these characteristics distinguishing them from
certain allied genera which we have not space to notice. The black-winged kite is

BI.ACK-WINGED KITE.

(One-half natural size.)

an inhabitant of Southeastern Europe, Africa, and India, and attains a length of
just over thirteen inches. Above, it is of a beautiful ashy-gray color, with the fore-
head and under parts white, and the shoulders and lesser wing coverts deep glossy
black, the lores and a narrow streak above the eye being also sable. The iris is of
a full carmine red, and the beak black, while the cere, like the feet, is yellow. In
young birds the upper surface is brownish gray, with the under parts yellowish.

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 1961

streaked with brown, and most of the feathers with light borders, the iris being
yellow. In America this species is replaced by the white-tailed kite (E. leucurus),
easily distinguished by the feathers of the tail (except the middle pair, which are
gray) being pure white; while two other species inhabit Australia, and a fifth
the Philippines, Java, Borneo, and Celebes.

Mr. Hume writes that the black-winged kites hover over grass in the fashion of
a kestrel, t4 but in a clumsier and heavier manner. The wings point upward, so
that they are within three or four inches of each other, instead of being retained
nearly horizontally as in the kestrel, and the legs and tail hang down unlike those
of any other bird that I have noticed. Thus hovering, they after a time slowly de-
scend, and when within a few feet of the ground generally drop suddenly. They
are very tame, bold birds, passing unconcernedly within a few feet of a sportsman
when busy hunting, over fields or grass, and sitting composedly on the bare end of
a bough, while gun in hand one walks up to within a few paces of their perch."
They are frequently to be seen sitting on the telegraph wires alongside the Indian
railways, while in Egypt they may be observed (as shown in our illustration),
perched on the summits of the long poles used for raising water from the Nile. The
nests are usually placed in low trees; and the eggs have a creamy or bluish- white
ground, sparingly streaked and blotched with pale yellowish brown, and are usually
two or three in number. One of the Australian species usually nests in large com-
panies; the nests being placed as near together as possible, and composed of twigs>
lined with the cast pellets of the fur of the rodents on which the birds have fed.
The black-winged species subsists chiefly on insects, but also devours rats and mice.
The American white-tailed kite does not apparently breed northward of South Cali-
fornia, but extends south to Argentina. Its habits seem to be very similar to
those of the other species, but whereas in North America it usually lays four or five
eggs, in Argentina the number reaches eight. Messrs. Sclater and Hudson write
that " it is a handsome bird, with large ruby-red irides, and when seen at a distance
its snow-white plumage and buoyant flight give it a striking resemblance to a gull.
Its wing power is indeed marvelous. It delights to soar, like the martins, during
a high wind, and will spend hours in this sport, rising and falling alternately; and
at times, seeming to abandon itself to the fury of the gale, is blown away like
thistle down, until, suddenly recovering itself, it shoots back to its original position.
Where there are tall poplar trees, these birds amuse themselves by perching on the
topmost slender twigs, balancing themselves with outspread wings, each bird on a
separate tree, until the tree tops are swept by the wind from under them, when
they often remain poised almost motionless in the air until the twigs return to their
feet."

Although the term kite is now commonly applied to many members
of the present family, it should properly be restricted to the .species of
the genus Milvus, and belongs, strictly speaking, only to the common or red kite
(M. idinus}, also known in England as the glead. In Britain the kite is one of
those species which has suffered most severely from incessant persecution, having
gradually diminished in numbers from the time of Shakespeare, when these birds
were to be seen in numbers on the Thames in London, till the present day, when it

1962 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

is practically extinct in the southern and midland counties, although still lingering
in the west and north. The kites belong to a group of five genera, easily distin-
guished from the foregoing members of the subfamily by their more or less deeply-
forked tails, in which the outermost feathers are the longest. In the kites the
forking of the tail is of moderate depth, and approximately equal in length to the
interval between the tips of the primary and secondary quills, while the head is
devoid of a crest. The wings are long, reaching nearly to the end of the tail, with
the fourth or the third and fourth quills the longest, the beak slightly festooned, and
the metatarsus and toes short, with claws of moderate length. There are some half-
dozen species, exclusively confined to the Old World, where they range over all the
continents and Australia. Kites are the scavengers of the hawk family, feeding
chiefly on refuse and garbage, although also consuming insects, reptiles, and such
young or feeble birds or mammals as they can capture. Spending most of their time
on the wing, they soar gracefully in large, sweeping circles, and form a striking
feature in the bird life of all eastern cities. Their nests may be built either in trees,
buildings, or on rocks.

The common or red kite of Europe, represented in the lower figure of our illus-
tration, attains a length of about twenty-four inches, and differs from all its congen-
ers by its rufous tail and the general rufous tinge of the entire plumage. In old
males the head and throat are whitish with brown streaks, the upper parts having
the feathers dark brown in the middle with rufous edgings, tending to buff on the
extreme margins, more especially in the wing coverts. The primary quills and
primary coverts are black, with some white at the base of their inner webs; the
upper tail coverts rufous, the tail feathers reddish brown, .with their inner webs
barred with dark brown, and the under parts rufous brown with a dark median
streak to each feather. The beak is horn color, and the cere and iris, together with
the legs and feet, yellow, the claws being black. The kite is distributed over the
greater part of Europe, breeding -as far north as the south of Scandinavia, and be-
coming gradually more rare in the eastern districts. In winter it ranges to Lower
Egypt, Algeria, and Palestine. The nest is built either in the fork of a tree or,
more rarely, in a cleft of rock, and the three or four eggs are laid in April or May.
Nothing comes amiss to a kite when building, and, while the main framework of
the nest is formed of sticks, these are supplemented by all kinds of rubbish, such as
bones, fragments of leather, and rags, the latter forming the lining. When their
nest is attacked, the parent birds make a vigorous resistance. As we have already
had occasion to notice, the kite was a favorite quarry in hawking, showing excel-
lent sport by the manner in which it endeavored to baffle the falcon in its efforts to
gain the advantage of position. More rarely the kite itself was trained to fly at the
smaller kinds of birds.

The black or migratory kite (M. migrans] , represented in the upper figure of
our illustration, is a rather smaller bird than the last, from which it may be distin-
guished by its dark brown tail, faintly barred with a still deeper tint, the general
dark brown hue of the plumage of the upper parts, save on the head and throat,
where the feathers are whitish with dark stripes. It is further characterized by the
black beak, and the absence of any distinct patch of white at the base of the pri-

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1963

mary quills. This kite is distributed over the whole of Africa and Madagascar, from
whence it migrates into Southern and Western Europe, while it occasionally reaches
Scandinavia, and has been taken in England. Mr. H. Saunders observes that this
kite appears on the Swiss lakes and rivers about the middle of April, and leaves
early in the autumn. Frequently it may be seen fishing in the L,ake of Geneva,
and often, while one of a pair is engaged in this occupation, its fellow will be soar-

S

BLACK KITE AND RED KITE.

(One-fifth natural size.)

ing high in the air. I^eith- Adams writes that as the red kites were formerly wont
to play the part of scavengers in London, so do the black kites at the present day in
the filthy lanes of Cairo. "Assisted by its ally, the Egyptian kite (M. tzgyptius),
which may be distinguished from the other on wing by the pale color of its bill,
they hover over the refuse heaps, slaughterhouses, and wherever carrion and offal
are collected, now pouncing on their food and bearing it off in their talons, or, with

1964

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

that remorseless activity characteristic of the genus, pursuing pigeons, until the ter-
rified birds, worn out by exertion, sink exhausted, and are dispatched by the enemy.
Nor is this all: the fisherman has to keep a good lookout when he lands his net, as
one or other is sure to be on the lookout for the small fry. They dispute the own-
ership of a bone with the lean pariah dog, or pick up refuse floating down the river;
they hover over the farmer as he plows his field, and are the dread of a village from

EGYPTIAN OR YELLOW- BILLED KITE.
( One-fourth natural size. )

the number of chickens they pilfer. The nest is built in the top of a palm tree,
where the Nubians catch them in traps baited with pigeons. ' '

In India and the Himalayas the black kite is replaced by the smaller pariah or
govind kite (M. govinda], the chil of the natives, distinguished by the well-marked
patch of white at the base ot the primaries. There is, however, in India another
and larger species (M. melanotis], measuring upward of twenty-five and one-half
inches in length, against twenty in the smaller species, and also distinguished
by some differences in coloration, this larger species ranging eastward to China,.

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 1965

Japan, and Formosa. The pariah kite ranges to elevations of about eight thousand
feet in the Himalayas, and abounds in every Indian city and village, where it per-
forms the same useful offices as does the black species in Egypt. These kites fre-
quently display the most astonishing familiarity and impudence; and the writer,
when in camp, has seen a portion of his dinner snatched from a plate carried by a
servant by one of these marauders. So numerous are they, that in Calcutta from
two hundred to three hundred may be seen together at a time; and when the white
ants are swarming, the air is sometimes almost darkened by the hosts of kites,
buzzards, and crows, which collect to prey upon the flying insects. Their Indian
name chil is given to them after their cry, which is a kind of long, tremulous
squeal. Jerdon describes the flight of the Indian kite as bold, easy, and graceful,
when the bird is once mounted aloft, although some heaviness is displayed in taking
wing. In the air the bird ' ' soars slowly about, in greater or less numbers, in large
circles. When in pursuit of another kite, it is capable of considerable speed, and
shows great dexterity in suddenly avoiding any obstacle and changing its course; in
this its long tail is a great help. Occasionally one may be seen dropping down
almost perpendicularly from the top of a house on a piece of offal in a narrow
street, but in general it reaches the ground from a height by a series of oblique
plunges." In the plains the breeding time lasts from January to April, although
most individuals lay in February. The nest, which is very similar to that of the
European species, is nearly always placed in a tree, and mostly in a fork. The
usual number of eggs is two, although there may be three, and rarely four.

Distinguished from all its relatives, with the exception of an allied
T '1 dK't sPec^es» by its deeply-forked tail and extremely long wings, the
swallow- tailed kite of America (Elanoides furcatui) , with its striking
piebald plumage, cannot be mistaken for any other member of the family. This
bird, which is depicted on the right side of the illustration on p. 1956, may be com-
pared in size to the pariah kite, its total length being twenty-one inches. As
regards coloration, the entire head and neck, together with the hinder part of the
back and rump and the whole of the under surface are pure white; while nearly all
the rest of the upper plumage is black with grayish or purplish reflections in differ-
ent regions. The beak is dark steely blue, the iris dark reddish brown, and the
foot bluish white.

The range of this handsome and dashing bird extends from the southern states
of North America to Colombia and Brazil, a few individuals being occasionally
blown across the Atlantic to the western shores of Europe. Of its habits, Dr. W.
I/. Ralph writes to Captain Bendire as follows: "Excepting perhaps the turkey
vulture, I think this bird is the most graceful of any while on the wing. It has the
same easy, floating motion, but at times it flies very rapidly and turns very quickly,
which is something I have never seen the former bird do. Their motions are very
swallow-like, and that, with their forked tails, makes them look like gigantic swal-
lows; and, like the chimney swifts, they have a habit of traveling together in small
companies, usually consisting of three individuals, especially when they first return
from the south. During the breeding season flocks consisting of from two or three
to ten or twelve birds, but oftener of three, may be seen following one another

1966 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

around, frequently uttering their calls, and circling in and out among the tree tops
so fast as to make one dizzy to look at them. Except during this season, one seldom
sees one of these birds unless it is flying, and I have often wondered if they did not
at times sleep on the wing. At least I know that they usually, if not always, eat
while flying; for I have many times seen one sailing leisurely along, occasionally
bending its head to tear a piece from a small snake that it held in its talons, and I
have never seen one alight on its food, as other birds of prey do. When hunting,
they fly close to the ground, like marsh harriers, but at other times they sail above
the tree tops, and sometimes so far above that it takes a good eye to see them.
Their food consists almost entirely of reptiles; small snakes seem to be a favorite
article of food with them. I have never seen one catch a bird, and believe they do
not. This habit of eating snakes has given them the name of snake hawk among
the natives of Florida." These birds begin to arrive from the south in the latter
state about the middle of March, but do not become common till two or three weeks
later. There they nest in April, usually building in tall pines, frequently at a
height of ninety, and sometimes as much as a hundred and thirty feet from the
ground. The nest is a very irregular structure of mossy twigs, and usually con-
tains two eggs, spotted and blotched with rich brown and ferruginous. The African
swallow-tailed kite (Nauclerus riocouri) is about two-thirds the size of the above,
with relatively shorter wings. It is grayish above and white beneath, and is con-
fined to the western and northeastern parts of the continent.

The vulturine sea eagle (Gypohierax angolensis) brings us to a

group of four genera which, while agreeing with the preceding in the

shortness of the bare portion of the metatarsus, differ in the absence

of a flap of membrane to the nostrils, which have a clean, bony margin. In three

of them the aperture of the nostril is oval, with its longer axis placed more or less

nearly at right angles to that of the beak, but in Haliastur the aperture is circular.

In all, the tails are rounded or slightly emarginate. It may be well to mention

that Haliastur is represented by the common brahmany or maroon-backed kite (H.

indus], easily recognized by its white head, neck, throat, and breast, and the

maroon chestnut of the rest of the plumage.

The vulturine sea eagle, which is the sole representative of its genus, differs
from the other forms with oval nostrils by the naked space above the eye, and is
conspicuous for its parti-colored plumage. It has a peculiarly vulture-like appear-
ance, and may be compared in size to the kite, the total length of the male being
twenty -three inches, while the female is one and one-half inches longer. The beak
and head are elongated and the wings very long and pointed, while the short tail is
very markedly rounded. In the adult bird the color of the plumage, with the
exception of the ends of the primary quills, the secondaries, most of the scapulars,
and the tail feathers (save their tips), which are black, is pure white. The cere is
gray, the bare skin of the face flesh colored, the iris light yellow, and the foot rosy
flesh colored. The feathers of the hinder part of the head are somewhat elongated,
so as to form a slight crest. In the young the whole plumage is dark brown and
the iris also brown, the complete change to the adult dress not taking place till the
third or fourth year. This bird is exclusively African, and is met with on the west

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1967

coast from Senegambia to Angola, and on the opposite side of the continent on
Pemba island, near Zanzibar. Although so like a vulture in general appearance, in
its habits it much more resembles the sea eagles. According to Reichenow, the
vulturine sea eagle is one of the commonest birds on the west coast. Essentially a
fish eater, it frequents the sea coast and rivers, and is but rarely seen in the dry
highlands of the interior. Its favorite haunts are the wide mangrove swamps bor-

VUI/TURINE SEA EAGLE.
(One-fifth natural size.)

dering the larger rivers, where it may always be met with in numbers, sometimes
associating in pairs, and at other times singly. When seated, it may be easily mis-
taken for a vulture, but its flight, although slower, is more like that of a sea eagle.
When fishing, it generally flies close to the surface of the water, returning as soon
as it has captured a fish to the shore to devour its prey. In the breeding season
these birds proceed higher up the rivers, where the trees are taller, and thus afford

1968 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

better nesting places than the low mangroves. The number of eggs in a nest is
usually only two.

The noble birds known as sea eagles, which include the largest
member of the whole family, differ from the preceding genus by the
absence of a naked space above the eye, and are further characterized by the lance-
olate feathers of the crown of the head, and by the wings reaching nearly or quite
to the end of the tail. The beak is long and powerful, straight for some distance
from the base, and then curving regularly downward in a deep hook. In the leg
the metatarsus is feathered for nearly half its length, and the naked portion reticu-
lated down to the toes, while the latter are scutellated above. The strong, curved
claws are grooved beneath, that of the first toe being the largest of all. There are
some eight species of sea eagles distributed over the whole world, with the excep-
tion of South America; and, as the habits of all are generally similar, it will be con-
venient to notice the species together, and then to consider their mode of life. It
may be mentioned that they are often confounded with the true eagles, from which
they may be distinguished at a glance by the naked lower half of the metatarsus
and the scutellation of its front surface. The sea eagles may be divided into three
groups, according to whether the tail in the adult is entirely white, black with a
white band at the end, or white with a terminal band of black. In the former group
the white-tailed or gray sea eagle (ffaliaetus albidlld) is noteworthy as being the
only species met with in the British Isles. In addition to the characteristic from
which it takes its name, it is distinguished by the brown abdomen, the brownish
wing coverts, and the ashy-brown hue of the head and neck, which are lighter than
the back. The female attains a length of thirty-eight inches, the male being about
four and one-half inches less. This species ranges across Europe and Northern
Asia from Ireland to Japan, and also occurs in Southern Greenland, while it extends
southward to Northwestern India. Its distribution includes the whole of Europe,
but it has now become extremely rare in the British Islands, although still breeding
in the Hebrides. The largest of all eagles are the giant or Steller's sea eagle
(H. pelagians], and the allied Corean sea eagle (H. bramcki], the former attaining
a length of forty-one inches. Steller's sea eagle, which is confined to the north-
eastern regions of the Old World, inhabiting Northeastern Siberia, North China,
Japan, and Kamchatka, is distinguished by its pure white wing coverts, thighs, and
upper and lower tail coverts, and is further characterized by its highly wedge-shaped
tail, which has fourteen feathers in place of the usual twelve. In young birds the
wing coverts and thighs are, however, brownish, although in this state the species
can be distinguished from the white-tailed sea eagle by the head and neck being of
the same dark hue as the back. The Corean species is a uniform slaty-black color,
without the white shoulder patches, thighs, and tail coverts. In correspondence
with their giant size, the cry of both these species is much louder and more pene-
trating than that of all the other eagles. It is remarkable that a leg bone, appar-
ently referable to Steller's sea eagle, has been obtained from the superficial deposits
of Walthamstow in Essex. The white-headed sea eagle, or bald eagle (H. leucoce-
phalus) , the national emblem of the United States, differs from the white-tailed
species, by having the whole of the head and neck pure white; the rest of the plum-

124

WHITE-TAILED SEA EAGLES.

(1969)

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

age of the upper parts being dark brown, approaching black, while beneath the
color is a lighter brown. The length of the female is thirty-eight inches. This
bird ranges over the whole of North America, extending southward to Florida, Cal-
ifornia, and Mexico. The species known as Pallas' s sea eagle (ff. leucophceus) dif-
fers from all the preceding by having the tail of the adult white with a broad band
of black at the end; the remainder of the plumage, except the sides of the face,

WHITE-HEADED SEA EAGI.E.
(One-sixth natural size.)

which are buffi sh white, being various shades of brown. This species is smaller
than the foregoing, measuring only thirty inches in length. Typically an inhabit-
ant of the Caspian region, it ranges eastward to India and Burma. The white-
bellied sea eagle (H. leucogaster) is still smaller than the last, its length not exceed-
ing twenty -eight inches. It differs from all the others by the tail being black with
a broad terminal band of white, and is further characterized by the white head,

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 1971

neck, and under parts, the general tint of the upper surface being gray slightly
shaded with brown. This eagle extends from India and Ceylon through the Ma-
layan region to Australia. The handsomest of the whole group is the African sea
eagle (ff. vocifer], which is smaller than all the northern species, attaining a length
of only twenty-five inches in the female. Resembling the white-headed sea eagle,
in its white head, neck, and tail, this species, which is figured on p. 1970, is distin-
guished by the white area extending on to the interscapular region above and
including the breast below, and by the whole of the abdomen, together with the
axillaries, being of a deep chestnut hue, while the upper parts are blackish brown,
passing into black on the primary quills. The species is confined to Africa, where
it ranges over the whole continent. It is replaced in Madagascar by the Madagas-
car sea eagle (H. vociferoides} , distinguished by the white being confined to the
head and neck, the brown under parts, and the chestnut under wing coverts; the
latter characteristic distinguishing it from the larger white-headed sea eagle, in
which these coverts are brown. An extinct sea eagle occurs in the Miocene depos-
its of France.

Although several of the species are more commonly found in the neighborhood
of the coasts, sea eagles are also met with in the interior of the various continents
and islands in the neighborhood of the larger rivers and lakes. Writing of the
white-tailed sea eagle, Mr. Seebohm observes that "the haunts of this noble-
looking bird are the barren hills of the Hebrides and the adjacent isles, and the wild
mountain country of the mainland in the west. On the bold and rocky headlands
of this wild, rugged coast, whose hoary peaks are washed by the treacherous waters
of the Minch, the sea eagle finds a congenial home. In Pomerania, especially
between Stettin and the Baltic, the sea eagle is a common resident, building in for-
ests. It builds an enormous nest, sometimes six or eight feet in diameter, near the
top of a pine, or on the horizontal branch of an oak or beech, preferring forests near
inland seas and large lakes. Instances have been known of its breeding in the same
' horst ' for twenty years in succession. Every year some addition is made to the
nest, until it becomes some five or six feet high. Occasionally a pair of sea eagles
have two ' horsts ' which are used alternately. They are shy birds and leave the
nest at the least alarm, but do not easily forsake their old home. If the eggs are
taken early in the season, the birds will frequently lay again in the same nest.
They make a very flat nest, and generally line it on the top with moss. The male
and female are said to sit alternately, and the female is said to be shyer than the
male at the nest. Two is the usual number of eggs, but frequently only one is
found; in rare cases as many as three are laid. Eggs may be taken from the first
week in March to the middle of April." The nest may be situated either on rocks,
in trees, or on the ground. In some countries the cliffs on which it is built are of
comparatively easy access; but at the present day in the Hebrides and formerly on
the west coast of Ireland, these birds build on ledges of the most stupendous cliffs,
where their eyries can only be approached by the aid of a rope lowered from above.
Many anecdotes record the boldness of the Irish peasants in thus attacking the
strongholds of both golden and sea eagles. The food of the white-tailed sea eagle,
like that of its allies, consists chiefly of fish and water fowl; although these birds

1972 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

will at times not' disdain a meal of carrion, while they probably carry off an occa-
sional lamb or kid. It is related that an instance has occurred of a sea eagle, when
attempting to carry off a large salmon, into which it had firmly fixed its talons,
being partially dragged under water by its prey, both bird and fish being ultimately
secured by a peasant who had witnessed the scene. In India, Pallas' s sea eagle, ac-
cording to Mr. Hume, always builds in trees, its nest being very similar to that of
the last species, and the eggs laid from November to January. The nest may be
occupied for several years, but the construction of a new one demands immense
labor on the part of the birds. " I once," writes Mr. Hume, "watched a young pair
constantly occupied for a full month, building a new nest, which they were still at
work finishing off when I left. Nothing can seem rougher or more rugged than
their nest when finished, and yet out of every four sticks and branches that they
brought, they rejected and threw down at least three. Both birds brought mate-
rials, and side by side the pair would work away, throwing down almost as many
sticks as they brought; then apparently they would quarrel over the matter; there
would be a great squealing, and one would fly away and sit sulky on some cliff point
near at hand; after a time the one left on the nest would go off in quest of materials.
Immediately the other would drop softly onto the nest and be very busy till the
absent bird returned, not unfrequently with a fish instead of a stick. It is a curious
fact, that if the female, which is much the larger, brought the fish to the nest, the
male set to work on it at once, without so much as ' by your leave ' ; while if the
male brought it, the female used to eye it, sidle gradually up, and only take slow
and modest mouthfuls. When, however, the female begins to sit, the male will
bring her fish or fowl, and go off for other food for himself, not attempting to share
it with her; and, when not on the nest, neither seems to presume with the other's
capture without permission." The eggs, like those of the other species, are uni-
formly colored, being in this case of a pale grayish white; their usual number is
three. Like the white-tailed sea eagle, this species will often lay again when its
nest is robbed; but, according to Captain Bendire, this is never the case with the
American white-headed species. All are agreed that so long as there are merely
eggs in the nest Pallas' s sea eagle never makes any attempt at defending its home;
and, according to the extensive experience of Mr. Hume, the same is the case after
the young are hatched. Hutton relates, however, that a native whom he had sent
up a tree to deposit a nest, was once fiercely attacked, at first by the female, and
then by both birds in concert; and that it was necessary to disable the eagles by
shooting, in order to prevent the man being hurled from the tree.

Continuing his account of its habits, Mr. Hume states that Pallas' s sea eagle is
never found far away from rivers, lakes, or swamps. " Early in the morning, even
in the cold weather, it goes down to the water side, and has a good bath. It is
amusing to watch this large bird standing up to its belly in water, sitting down,
first on one side, then on the other, so as to wash the wings and back, ducking the
head in and out, and splashing, spluttering, and fluttering the wings for all the
world like a pigeon or sparrow. After its bath, it resorts to the top of some tree,
or, along the banks of large rivers, to some craggy point, where it sits for a while
sunning itself, generally with its wings half outspread. Thence it flies off heavily

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1973

to seek a meal. A large fish near the surface attracts its attention, as it flies pretty
low over the river, down it swoops with more activity and rapidity than its habitual
demeanor and method of flight would lead one to expect, and strikes for a break-
fast, dashing its huge feet and long legs into the water right up to the body."
This action shows how adapted is the conformation of the bird to its mode of
life, as heavily-feathered legs like those of the true eagles would become heavy

AFRICAN SEA EAGI,E.

(One-fifth natural size.)

and bedraggled with water. The food of those birds is, however, by no means
confined to fish; and they may frequently be seen on the larger Indian rivers
hawking for ducks, teal, and paddy birds, while Mr. Hume states that they will
pursue and carry off such a large animal as a wounded, wild goose, of which the
weight may be as much as seven pounds. Hutton, too, writes that he has often
watched one of these birds sitting on some dead tree on the river bank itself,

1974 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

suddenly utter its shrill, clamorous, half croak-like, half scream-like cry, spread out
its wings, and sweep across the water in search of winged game on the plains. Ris-
ing at first in wide circles, until nearly lost to view, it would gradually descend in
similar gyrations, until with a sudden swoop it would dart upon some unfortunate
partridge or hare, and bear it off in its talons.

The American white-headed sea eagle ranges from the frozen regions of Alaska
and the Aleutian islands to the torrid plains of Mexico, although it is only a
summer visitant to the more northern portions of its habitat. The nests appear to be
similar to those of the European species, and but rarely contain more than a single
pair of eggs. Usually situated in tall pines, at a height varying from twenty to one
hundred feet above the ground, they may occasionally be found on the ground
itself. Captain Bendire states that this bird subsists more on winged game captured
by its own exertions than on fish, and that the accusation of its gaining its subsist-
ence mainly by robbing the osprey is unfounded. Still, however, like others of its
genus, there is no doubt that it does at times obtain a meal in this comparatively
easy manner, and in some cases it has to depend entirely on fish for its food supply.
A correspondent writes to the author just referred to, that on one occasion he
noticed one of these sea eagles hovering over the sea in a manner very similar
to that of the osprey when about to strike a fish. ' ' Suddenly he plunged down
and grappled with what I supposed to be a large fish, but was unable to rise with
it from the water, and after struggling a while he lay with wings extended and ap-
parently exhausted. After resting a minute or two, he again raised himself out of
the water, and I saw he had some large black object in the grasp of one of his
talons, which he succeeded in towing along the top of the water toward the shore, a
short distance, and then letting go his hold. He was then joined by two other
eagles, and by taking turns they soon succeeded in getting it to the shore. ' ' The
booty was a large cormorant, upon which the eagles were about to feast. It is a
remarkable fact, that of the two~ eggs usually laid by this species, one is always
superior in size to the other, the difference between the two in this respect being
sometimes very great. Steller's sea eagle subsists on young seals, Arctic hares,
and foxes, and ptarmigan, but it will also eat dead fish and the carcasses of
mammals.

An inhabitant of the whole of Africa lying to the south of the
1 l.eur. Sahara desert, the handsomely-colored bird known as the bateleur eagle

(Helotarsns ecaudatus} differs from the sea eagles, and indeed from all
other members of the family, by the extreme shortness of its tail, that appendage
being far inferior in length to the wings. A further point of distinction is to be
found in the feathers of the head, which are elongated so as to form a voluminous
crest. As regards coloration, this bird is perhaps the most striking of all the eagles,
presenting bold contrasts of maroon, black, and gray, which give to the entire
plumage a most pleasing effect. The head, neck, and under parts are of a deep
glossy black, the same hue also obtaining on the scapulars; contrasted with which
is the chestnut maroon of the hinder part of the neck and the greater part of the
back. The wing coverts are brown with a bronzy sheen; the primary quills
blackish, externally shaded with gray; while the secondaries are mostly gray with

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1975

white tips, although the innermost have the sooty hue of the scapulars. The tail,
with its inferior coverts, is chestnut maroon, like the back; the under surface of the
wings being mainly gray and white. The cere and naked skin in front of the eyes,
together with the feet, are of a deep coral red, while the iris is brown, and the
beak black. Such are the striking colors of the ordinary form of the bateleur eagle,
although individuals have been obtained in which the chestnut maroon of the back
is replaced by creamy fulvous. Such birds have been regarded as representing a

BATELEUR EAGLE.
(One-fifth natural size.)

distinct species, but it is suggested by Dr. Sharpe that they may prove to be the fully
adult condition of the ordinary form. The females attain a length of twenty-
five, and the males of about twenty-one inches Visitors to the eagle house in the
Zoological Society's Gardens in Regent's Park may perhaps think that we have
exaggerated the color of the cere and face in the bateleur eagle, as they will find
these in the captive birds of a pale orange-yellow tint. This fading is, however,

1976 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

solely due to the effects of captivity, the same change showing itself in captive
specimens of the Accipitrines known as caracaras. The bateleur eagle is a common
bird in many parts of Africa, preferring mountains to plains, and generally
frequenting open districts rather than forests. In Abyssinia, where it is by no
means abundant, it has been obtained from considerable elevations in the mountains.
Mr. Blanford describes them " as soaring at a great height, their pointed wings and
extremely short tail rendering them no less conspicuous than the contrast between
the white under side of the wings and the black body. The flight is superb, more
like that of a vulture than of an eagle, as the bird sweeps along with motionless
wings, occasionally high up in the air, but more frequently at about one hundred
and fifty to two hundred feet above the ground." Awakening with the first streaks
of dawn, it leaves the trees on which it has roosted during the night in search of
food, and after hunting for some hours seeks a resting place in which to pass the
hottest portion of the day, issuing forth again to hunt in the evening. Levaillant
states that these eagles prey upon young antelopes, lambs, and sick sheep, and that
they will also eat carrion, while Heuglin mentions them as feeding largely upon the
smaller mammals. Their chief food consists, however, of various snakes and
lizards, of which they are said to consume a larger amount than the secretary vul-
ture. Snakes of all sizes, whether venomous or harmless, are attacked by the bateleur,
and speedily disabled by rapid blows from its powerful beak. At such times as the
grass jungles are on fire, the bateleur, like the other serpent-eating birds of Central
Africa, beats along the line of flame in order to seize the snakes and other reptiles,
as they creep out, sometimes dashing into the very thick of the smoke to secure its
prey. The nest of these birds is usually built in a tall tree, and frequently in those
whose boughs are thickly beset with thorns. It contains from two to four white
eggs. The breeding season takes place at the commencement of the hot weather,
when the snakes are more easily captured than when the grass is long and rank.

The remaining members of the Aquiline subfamily in which the
metatarsus is partially bare have the naked portion longer than in the
preceding group, and either equal in length to, or longer than the third toe, exclu-
sive of the claw. Of the several genera thus characterized, the buzzard eagles
{Butastur) , which ranges from India, China, and Japan through the Malayan region
to New Guinea, and also occur in Northeastern Africa, differ from the rest in having
the oval nostrils provided with a membrane above, the others having a clean bony
margin to these organs. Omitting mention of three unimportant genera, severally
represented by a single species, we find the harrier eagles characterized by the nos-
trils taking the form of transverse ovals, by the feathers of the small crest being of
a lance-like shape, and by the elongation of the wing. The long tail is nearly even,
the metatarsus long and reticulate, and the short beak somewhat compressed and
deeply hooked at the extremity, while the toes are very short. Most of the few
species of this genus are confined to Africa, but the common harrier eagle (Circaetus
gallicus) has a much wider distribution, ranging from the countries bordering the
Mediterranean to India, and the small islands of Timor and Flores, and being some-
times found in Central Europe. They are usually met with in open plains, living
much on the wing, and feeding chiefly on snakes and other reptiles, and in appear-

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1977

ance and habits resembling the buzzards, with which they are connected by the
afore-mentioned buzzard eagles. The common harrier eagle, represented in the illus-
tration on this page, is one of the smaller members of the group, the females measur-
ing twenty-six inches, against thirty-two in the largest African species. It is thus
rather larger than a kite. The general color of the adult bird is dark brown, with a
purplish gloss above, and the head tending to ashy brown, the quills being dusky

COMMON HARRIER EAGI.E.

(One-fourth natural size.)

black. The tail is pale ashy brown, with a white tip, and three dusky transverse
bars. Beneath, the color is white, the throat narrowly streaked with brown, and
with a black shaft stripe to each feather, while the flanks are banded with widely
separated dark bars. The iris is orange yellow, the cere whitish, the bill horn col-
ored at the tip and gray at the base, and the feet pale grayish brown. Jerdon writes
that in India this harrier eagle is spread over all the more open parts of the country,

1978 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

generally avoiding thick jungle and forest. " It may often be seen sitting on a low
tree, when it occasionally darts on its quarry, but it generally circles in the air,
taking a long and lofty flight, now and then flying heavily along the ground like a
harrier. I have frequently seen it hover in the air like a kestrel, and drop down on
its prey, like a stone, afterward. It is a rather noisy bird, frequently uttering a
wild plaintive scream. I have seen several together occasionally, but it is usually
solitary. Its chief food is snakes and lizards, but it will eat anything, — rats,
weakly birds, crabs, frogs, centipedes, and large insects. I have seen one strike at
a wounded hare, and it will occasionally carry off a wounded teal or duck." Ac-
cording to Mr. Hume, by whom this species is termed the short-toed eagle, it nests
in Upper India from January to March, nearly always building in trees, and laying
one or two eggs of a pale bluish-white color. The nest, which is formed of sticks,
and from two to three feet in diameter by from six inches to a foot in depth, may
be almost entirely devoid of lining, or so thickly coated with grass or straw that the
eggs look as though packed in a basket for traveling. This eagle is comparatively
rarely met with in the south of France, where it is known as Jean-le-Blanc, but is
more common in Palestine, where its nesting habits have been described by Canon
Tristram. Nests have been taken in France in the middle of May.

Although the term serpent eagle is not unfrequently applied to the
' -. . members of the preceding genus, as a matter of convenience it is far

preferable to restrict it to the nearly allied species coming under the
generic title of Spilornis. These birds are distinguished from the harrier eagles by
the feathers of the crest being of greater length, and rounded, instead of lanceolate,
at the tip, and also by the shorter wing. The genus is mainly characteristic of India
and the Malayan region, although also represented in the Philippines, the south of
China, and Formosa. In habits these birds are more arboreal, and far less constantly
on the wing than the harrier eagles, darting on the snakes and other reptiles, which
form their food, from the boughs of trees. The serpent eagles derive their scientific
name from the white or pale spots which ornament the dark colored plumage of all
the species save one, and the name of spotted eagles would have been exceeding
appropriate had it not been already employed in another sense. The Indian serpent
eagle (S, chila) is by far the largest member of the genus, the female measuring
thirty inches in length, and is a decidedly handsome bird. The head is black, with
conspicuous white bases to the long feathers of the crest; above and below, the gen-
eral color is brown, with small spots on the scapulars and wing coverts, and larger
ones on the hinder part of the lower surface, the chest being uniform. The quills
have some dusky markings, and the tail is mottled with white, and crossed with
three bars of darker brown. Two other species share in this general type of colora-
tion; but in another pair the chest is rufous, one of them (S. sulaensii) having the
abdomen banded instead of spotted with white, while in the sixth (S. holospilus),
from the Philippines, the entire body is spotted. The Indian serpent eagle ranges
from India to China and Formosa; and in the former country is most common in
jungly districts, although also found in wooded places. In addition to reptiles, it
eats large insects and frogs, catching the latter in tanks. It nests in trees, laying
two white eggs marked with a few dark specks.

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1979

The handsome bird represented in the illustration below, and
known as the African crested eagle (Lophoaetiis octipitalis), is the
Eagle s°le representative of a genus which brings us to the last group of
the Aquilince, the members of that group differing from all the pre-
ceding forms by the metatarsi being completely feathered throughout their length.

AFRICAN CRESTED EAGI.E.
(One-third natural size.)

The African crested eagle belongs to a group of several genera characterized by the
tail being nearly square, or slightly rounded, while it is distinguished from all the
others, with the exception of the true crested eagles, by the length of the interval
between the tips of the primaries and secondaries of the wings being inferior to that
of the metatarsus. The great size and pendent characteristic of the crest of the

1980 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

present bird at once serves to mark its distinctness from the members of the next
genus. The nostrils are circular, the beak short, and the metatarsi of considerable
length, with short feathers. In point of size the African crested eagle is somewhat
inferior to the red kite, the total length of the female being twenty-one inches. The
general color of the plumage is chocolate brown, with some of the feathers on the
back and wing coverts paler and the head darker, with a black crest. The forehead
and legs are whitish, and there are a few white spots on the upper tail coverts, while
the under wing coverts are also mostly white. The tail has dark bars. The bill is
bluish with a black tip, the cere and feet are yellow, and the claws black. This
eagle is one of the most widely distributed of African Accipitrines, ranging all over
that continent, from the Cape to the Red Sea, wherever there are wooded districts.
It frequents mountains and plains alike, and is even represented in such of the open
regions as have patches of mimosa- jungle, more especially on the river banks. In
the wooded parts of the upper Nile it is especially common, where it may be seen
sitting placidly among the branches of a mimosa, not far removed from the main
stem. From this coign of vantage it watches for its prey, swooping down like light-
ning upon any mouse, rat, ground squirrel, or dove, or other small bird that may
come within its range. In its general habits it is very similar to the crested eagles,
and, for its size, is one of the most powerful and active of the Accipitrines. In ad-
dition to small mammals and birds, it consumes numbers of lizards and snakes, and
also eats fish and frogs, while, when hard pressed, it will resort to carrion. It has
been seen perched on a branch in the neighborhood of a slaughterhouse, watching
its opportunity to feast on the offal or to seize a bone. Little is known of its breed-
ing habits, although it is said to nest in trees, and lay two nearly round eggs, of a
pale ground color blotched with reddish brown.

C t d E 1 There is a difference of opinion among ornithologists as to the best
English name to be applied to the members of the present genus, some
terming them hawk eagles, while" by others they are designated crested eagles. In
the British Museum the latter designation is adopted, and the term hawk eagles
applied to the members of the genus Nisaetus, and it is this ruling which is followed
here. These eagles are readily distinguished by the crest (occasionally absent)
being very much smaller than in the African crested eagle, and by their shorter
wings. The beak is short, sharply curved at the tip, and with a prominent festoon;
the toes are large, and very unequal, and the claws strong and much curved. The
genus is represented by a considerable number of species, and has a very wide geo-
graphical distribution. It is spread all over Africa, the Indian and Malayan re-
gions, Celebes, Japan, and Formosa, and it is found in Central and South America,
exclusive of the extreme south.

The species shown on the next page (Spizaetus bellicosus) is from South Africa,
and is one of the largest members of the genus, the total length of the female being
thirty-one inches. It belongs to a group in which the chest is uniformly colored,
and is distinguished from some of its allies by the barred tail. In the immature
bird, of which our figure is an example, the general color of the upper parts is pale
brown, with white margins to the feathers of the back; the feathers of the head
and neck are white, with a terminal spot of brown; the greater and primary wing

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1981

coverts and quills are ashy brown, tipped with white, and barred with darker brown;
and the tail feathers are likewise ashy brown, with buffish-white tips, and crossed
with eleven dark brown bars. With the exception of a few dark brown spots on
the chest and under wing coverts, the whole of the under parts are uniform buffish
white. In the adult the general color becomes dark brown above, the head being
dark brown, with narrow pale margins to the feathers; the tail has but six bars;

WARLIKE CRESTED EAGLE.
( One sixth natural size. )

and the front of the neck and chest are dark brown, the remainder of the under
surface being white, with some dark spots. All the Oriental species are smaller,
some having the inferior portion of the under surface marked with dark barrings.

The following account of the habits of the marsh crested eagle (S. limnaetus),
which ranges from India to Java, is given by Captain Fielden, who writes from
Pegu. He observes that this eagle ' ' seems to be a very common bird about Thy-

1982 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

etmyo; every ravine in the spurs of the Arracan mountains seems to contain one or
more pairs, as well as every wooded stream in the lower ground. Their wild scream-
ing (whistle) is almost always to be heard long before the bird is seen, as it sits in
some large tree rising above the rest of the jungle, or wheels in circles far over-
head; it is one of the wildest and wariest of birds. One that I took from the nest
nearly two years ago is still as wild as ever, and constantly ruffles up the feathers
of its head till they look almost like the crest of a bloodsucker, leaving the top of
the head almost bare. It has also a habit of throwing back the head, apparently
looking for a hole in the top of its cage, and bending backward till it frequently
falls over. These birds, as far as I know, feed on mynas, rats, and frogs. I have
taken a young bird from the nest in the middle of May, and seen several young
birds about the end of that month. They build the usual hawk eagle's nest in the
fork of the largest and most inaccessible tree that they can find, invariably over-
hanging the bed of a stream. Either numbers of these birds build and do not lay,
or else they desert their nests on the slightest suspicion of having been discovered.
Several pairs of birds belonging to nests in more remote parts of the jungle seemed
all to have succeeded in rearing one young each. The Burmese state that the
birds lay only one egg, which is pure white. While the trees are in full leaf, these
eagles shelter themselves in the middle of some thick tree during the heat of the
day." A later observer in the same district, Mr. W. Davison, in commenting on
this account, states that he found the crested eagles perfectly silent, and accord-
ingly believes that the peculiar cry is uttered only during the breeding season.

Another Indian species, the changeable crested eagle (S. caligatus), is known
in Garhwal as the peacock killer, and is said lo destroy a large number of
game birds. Mr. R. Thompson writes that he once saw one of these eagles ' ' stoop
at a peacock which was on the ground, and strike at his head. The peacock
dodged, rose, and flew into a patch of tall grass, where he lay concealed. The
eagle took himself to a tree close' by, whence he quietly watched the movements of
the other. After a while, the peacock began to move from his place of conceal-
ment; the moment he was well out of the grass, the eagle darted down and caught
him by the neck. When I got up to the place, having been a witness to the whole
proceeding, the eagle left his quarry and flew up into a tree; the peacock was quite
dead. I have often put up black partridge for these birds, and have had much
sport watching them flying after the game. These birds are first rate at jungle
fowl in the wild state. I have caught several and tried to tame them; but all my
falconers either refused to keep them, or destroyed them shortly after they were put
in their possession. A small chicken, or in its place a grown-up hen or cock, is a
capital bait for catching this bird. The net used is a vertical one, about eight feet
square, with large and stout meshes. The eagle dashes into this like fury, and is
always caught."

Omitting mention of a few comparatively unimportant genera, we

come to the consideration of those species to which, as we have seen,

it is convenient to restrict the name of hawk eagles. Together with the true

eagles, the hawk eagles may be distinguished from the foregoing genera with

feathered metatarsi by the interval between the tips of the primary and secondary

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1983

quills being less than the length of the metatarsus; and they are further character-
ized by the absence of a crest. The hawk eagles have the metatarsus of considerable
length, but of no great thickness, and their wings are as a rule proportionately
shorter than in the true eagles; while there are generally more large scales on
the upper surface of the toes than in the latter. The most sure way of distinguish-
ing between the two genera, according to Dr. Sharpe, is by comparing the length

BONEUJ'S HAWK EAGI.E.
(One-sixth natural size.)

of the fourth toe, measured from the commencement of the metatarsal feathers,
and exclusive of the claw, with the circumference of the beak in front of the
cere; when it will be found that whereas in the hawk eagles the two diameters
are equal, in the true eagles the former is less than the latter. The range of the
hawk eagles includes Africa, the north coast of the Mediterranean, India, Ceylon,
and Australia. Among the small number of species constituting this genus, the

1984 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

best known is Bdnelli's hawk eagle (Nisaetus fasciatus), which is at the same time
one of the largest, the female measuring twenty-six inches in length, and thus
being somewhat more than two-thirds the size of the golden eagle. In general
color the adult bird (shown in the lower figure of our illustration) is dark brown
above, with some white about the head and in the region of the neck; the quills
are deep brown, with white mottlings on their inner webs, and the tail is ashy
brown, with a broad terminal band of dark brown, and several incomplete bars of
the same tint higher up. The axillaries are white, streaked with black, and the
under parts are white, with dark shaft stripes of variable breadth to the feathers,
passing on the flanks into arrowhead -like markings. The beak is black, with a
lighter base; the iris yellow, the cere dull yellow, and the foot whitish yellow.
In the young bird, as shown in the upper figure of our engraving, the general
color of the upper parts is brown, and that of the head, neck, and under parts
fawn, with distinct black shaft stripes to all the feathers. The range of this fine
eagle includes the regions lying on both sides of the Mediterranean, from whence it
extends eastward through Palestine and Syria to Arabia. In India, where it is
termed "mohrangi" (i. e. , peacock killer), it is generally only seen in hilly or
jungly districts, although it occasionally resorts to neighboring cultivated ground.
It is common in the Nilgiri hills of Madras, where its nests are often placed on
such precipitous cliffs as to be accessible only with the aid of a rope. Passing much
of its time on the wing, and invariably visiting certain spots within its beat at
almost the same hour day by day, this eagle may be seen when in repose perched
either on the summit of some tall tree, or on some rocky prominence. Its prey
consists of various game birds, ducks, herons, and other waterfowl, as well as
hares and small mammals; and it is said at times to carry off trained falcons that
are employed in hawking. It also occasionally kills peafowl, and is a great
marauder in poultry yards and dove cots. Jerdon says, in reference to its pigeon-
killing habits: "On the pigeons taking flight, one of the eagles pounced down from
a vast height on the flock, but directing its swoop rather under the pigeons than
directly at them. Its mate, watching the moment when, alarmed by the first swoop,
the pigeons rose in confusion, pounced unerringly on one of them and carried it off;
and the other eagle, having risen again, also made another, and, this time, a fatal
swoop." Nesting in the Nilgiris and Himalayas on rocky cliffs, in the plains of
India Bonelli's eagle more generally selects the tall clay banks of the larger rivers
on which to build, although instances are known of the nest being placed in trees.
In the plains of India the breeding season is in December and January, but is
delayed in the Himalayas till April and May. The nest is four to six feet in
diameter, and varies in height from a few inches to a couple of feet, its summit be-
ing always finished off level, with scarcely any central hollow. The eggs, two in
number, are oval in shape, and frequently unspotted, while they are at most but
faintly blotched with pale yellowish or reddish brown upon a grayish ground.
Bonelli's eagle is a common bird in Spain, and a pair breed regularly upon the rock
of Gibraltar. It is likewise fairly abundant in Palestine.

The booted, or dwarf hawk eagle (N, pennatus} is a far smaller bird than the
last, and may be compared in size to a kite, the total length of the female being

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1985

Booted Hawk
Eagle

only twenty-four inches. It may be easily recognized by the conspic-
uous white patch on the shoulder. In the greater relative length of the
wing, and the generally brown color of the iris, it differs from the two
more typical members of the genus, and approaches the true eagles, although it has
the characteristic long legs of the present group. This bird is subject to great vari-
ation with regard to the color of the plumage of the under parts; a difference

BOOTED HAWK EAGLE.
(One- fourth natural size.)

which was long considered to be due to age, and has given rise to much discussion.
Dr. Sharpe, for instance, considered that the dark colored variety represented on
the left in our illustration was the immature dress, while the light individual on
the right was an individual in the adult plumage. Dr. Scully, writing from
observations made in Gilgit, states, however, that in that district ' ' the dark and
light forms are about equally common, the difference in color not being dependent
125

1986 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

upon sex." And he adds that he captured a nestling with white under parts,
thus effectually disposing of the theory that the dark form was the young. In the
light variety the general color of the upper parts is brown, with a tinge of purple
on the scapulars, and the above-mentioned distinct white patch on the uppermost
feathers of that series. The lowest scapulars and wing coverts have buffish-white
borders; while the quills are blackish, the secondaries having light borders. The
head and neck are fawn color, with streaks of dark brown; the sides of the face
being streaked with blackish, and the frontal feathers nearly white. A slight
lengthening of the feathers at the back of the head gives rise to an incipient crest.
The brown tail is tipped with dull white and marked with several indistinct darker
bars. On the under parts the ground color is buffish white, with a tinge of fawn
on the throat and chest, upon which are a number of dark streaks, which disappear
on the abdomen and thighs. The beak is bluish black, with a pale blue base, and
the cere and feet are yellow. In the dark variety, the plumage differs from that of
the adult by the brown color of the under parts, where the feathers have black
shaft lines. The booted eagle inhabits all the countries bordering the Mediterra-
nean, extending into Southern Africa and Southeastern Europe, and also occurring
in Gilgit, India, and Ceylon. It is represented in Australia by the nearly-allied
S. morphnoides. In India the species under consideration frequents groves, gardens,
and cultivated lands, and in the neighborhood of towns and villages inflicts serious
loss on the owners of pigeons and poultry. Jerdon says that this eagle generally
swoops down on its prey — which includes small mammals — while circling in the
air, but that it will occasionally pounce down from a bough. It breeds in Spain
and other parts of Southern Europe, as well as in India and Africa, the nest being
apparently always situated in a tree. Writing of the nests observed by him in
Spain, Lord Lilford states that they always contained two eggs, this seeming to be
invariably the number laid by this eagle. In Spain the booted eagle is one of the
most common Accipitrines, arriving late in April and remaining till October.
" The nests," continues Lord Lilford, " of which we found several, were generally
placed on the lowest branches of a tall pine, at the junction of the main trunk, and
were built of sticks, but inside invariably contained fresh twigs with the green
leaves adhering to them." The breeding season in Spain lasts from April till June,
and the oval eggs have grayish or dead white grounds, which may or may not be
blotched with pale yellowish or reddish brown. The booted eagle is remarkable for
its shrill piercing scream, which is stated both by Lord Lilford and Mr. Hume to-
be unlike the cry of any other Accipitrine. In Gilgit, this eagle is found from
March till October, and it breeds there at an elevation of five thousand feet.

The characteristics by which the true eagles may be distinguished
True Eci2"Ics

from the hawk eagles having been already indicated under the heading

of the latter, it will suffice here to refer to some of the leading features of the
present group. The true eagles are all birds of large size, and, with the exception
of Steller's sea eagle, include the largest representatives of the whole family. In
all of them the beak is strong and of moderate length, curving gradually from the
cere, with a sharp point and nearly straight cutting edges; while the nostrils may
be either oval and oblique or circular. The wings are large and long, and have

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1987

THE FEATHERED METATARSUS OF THE
GOLDEN EAGLE.

the fourth quill rather the longest. The feathered metatarsus is of moderate length ;
and its reticulated scales extend far on to the toes, which have only a few large
scutes near the claws, these features
at once serving to distinguish the
limb of one of these birds from that
of a sea eagle. The claws are of
moderate size and curvature. They
are mostly birds of plain and dark
colored plumage, with the iris of the
eye some tinge of brown. Inferior
in courage to the falcons, the eagles
are much superior in this respect to
the kites and buzzards; and, while
the majority kill their own prey, few
will refuse to eat the carcasses of
such animals as they may find dead,
and some feed greedily on carrion.
The range of the genus includes the
whole of Europe and Africa, and
the greater part of Asia, but stops
short of the Malayan region and does

not extend to Australia. In America eagles are found as far south as Mexico.

From its large size and magnificent appearance, the golden eagle

g e (Aquila chrysaetus) has by almost universal assent been regarded as

the "king of birds," although the tendency of modern writers has been rather to

detract from the boldness and fierceness of its character, and one at least has even

gone so far as to suggest the accusation of downright cowardice. All, however,

who have enjoyed (as the writer has) the opportunity of seeing the flight of this

splendid bird, are in full accord as to its power and majestic character.

The female of the golden eagle usually attains a length of thirty-five and one-
half inches, while the male is some three inches less. In the fully adult bird, the
pointed feathers covering the head and neck are rufous brown, tending to tawny
on the back of the neck; while the general color of the plumage of the upper parts
is blackish brown, with light margins to the feathers of the middle of the back and
the wing coverts. The primary quills are nearly black; the feathers of the abdo-
men, thighs, and legs pale brown, and the remainder of the under parts blackish
brown. The tail is blackish at the tip and browner toward the root, where it is
mottled with ashy gray, while it is crossed near the middle with one or two gray-
ish bands. The beak is bluish-horn color, darkening at the tip; the cere yellow;
the iris hazel; while the feet are yellow, with black claws. In young birds, as
shown in the cut on next page, the whole of the root of the tail is whitish or
pure white, becoming gradually mottled with gray and brown toward the middle,
and only the terminal third of the feathers is nearly black. The feathers on the
back of the neck are thus generally less rufous, the general color of the plumage of
the body and wings is darker and more uniform, and the primary quills, save the

1988

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

first three, have much white at their roots. In this state the bird is termed a
' ' ring-tail. ' ' There is, however, a great amount of individual variation in the col-
oring of golden eagles. For instance, some old birds are almost uniformly dark
brown, and others golden brown, while in some the upper parts are blackish, and
the lower surface golden brown. In others again, the white at the base of the pri-
mary quills is retained, and in some cases the quills are banded. Very rarely white
individuals have been observed. In the Old World the range of the golden eagle
embraces the whole of Europe and Northern Asia, extending southward into North-
ern China and the Himalayas, while a few individuals straggle into Peninsular
India. The bird is common in Palestine during the winter, and is more rarety met
with in Arabia, Egypt, and Abyssinia, while it breeds in Algeria. It is now defi-

GOI.DEN EAGLE'S EYRIE.

nitely settled that the so-called Canadian eagle of North America is identical with
the Old- World species; its range extending from Alaska to California and Mexico.
The young of the American race are peculiarly light colored in the region of the
head and neck, and many American specimens attain a very large size, even up to
forty-one inches. Dr. Sharpe states, however, that nearly equally large examples
have been obtained from Northern India. In the United Kingdom the golden eagle
still holds its own to a limited extent in the Scottish islands, and probably also
breeds in some of the wilder mountainous districts of Ireland.

Habits Generally a rock-haunting and cleft-nesting bird, in many parts of

Lapland, Siberia, and the North-American prairies, the golden eagle

frequents more open districts, where it is compelled to nest either in trees or on the

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1989

steep clay banks of rivers and streams. Its powerful build and strong rapid flight
render it more than a match for any animal of its size, and its food consequently
comprises many of the larger kinds of game, as well as lambs. In Europe these
eagles prey largely upon fawns, hares, rabbits, and the various kinds of feathered
game, and are consequently formidable enemies to the game preserver. One has
been known to carry off a wounded grouse from in front of the guns of the sports-

IMMATURE GOI.DEN EAGI.E.

men; while another is recorded to have picked up a hare running before hounds.
In pursuing hares and rabbits, two eagles will at times combine their efforts in the
chase. An Irish peasant reported to the author of Wild Sports of the West, that,
in coursing hares, ' ' one bird was the active follower, while another remained in
reserve at a distance of forty or fifty yards. If the hare, by a sudden turn, freed
herself from her most pressing enemy, the second bird instantly took up the chase,

1990 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

and thus prevented the victim from having a moment's respite." That such a
sporting bird can deign to feed on carrion, seems surprising; nevertheless the golden
eagle will not only eat such garbage when pressed by hunger, but actually seems to
prefer it; and it is owing to this unsavory taste that these birds are so easily
approached and killed. In America the golden eagle, preys on marmots, prairie
marmots, wood rats, squirrels, and smaller rodents, as well as grouse, geese, ducks,
and wading birds; while more rarely it seizes the fawns of the prongbuck and vari-
ous deer, as well as lambs. A correspondent of Captain Bendire relates, on native
authority, that a golden eagle once struck down and killed a full-grown black-tailed
deer which had been badly wounded. In devouring their prey, these birds usually
swallow the smaller mammals, hair and all, although birds are generally previously
plucked.

In Northern Europe the golden eagle begins to breed in March or the early
part of April, frequently while the ground is still covered with snow, and generally
occupies the same eyrie for many successive years. The nest is of large size and
composed of sticks, in the shape of a flattened platform, and lined with roots, dry
grass, heather, moss, or fern, but never in the Old World with feathers. In
Shetland, where sticks are scarce, the material may be long rope-like seaweed. It
appears that although in rocky districts the nests are situated on ledges of cliffs or
precipices, yet they are by no means always in inaccessible places. As the nest is
repaired year after year, it eventually attains an enormous size if its owners are un-
disturbed. A correspondent writing to Captain Bendire from Colorado states that
he has seen a nest over seven feet in height, and with a diameter of fully six feet,
which he estimated to contain two cart loads of material. In that State the old nests
are repaired as early as February; a bough of evergreen being invariably laid on
each, as if to mark its being occupied. In California the nests are always in trees;
and, although generally lined with vegetable substances, an instance has been ob-
served where the lining was of 'feathers, evidently from the breast of one of the
parents. One case is on record where a golden eagle built in Scotland in a tree.
During the breeding season each pair of golden eagles usually has a definite region
over which they hunt, and into which no others intrude. In Oregon the nests are
stated to be at distances of as much as twenty miles apart, although in California
from two to six miles is given as the width of the range of a pair of these
birds. The eggs are usually two in number, but may be three, while four
have been occasionally taken. Although fairly constant in size, they are subject
to extreme variation in color; some being pure white, while others are more
'or less blotched with shades of red or purplish brown. In Scotland the eggs are
commonly hatched in the latter part of April; the newly-born nestlings being
clothed in pure white down, which, however, is soon replaced by the dark first
plumage.

With regard to its courage, Captain Bendire writes that "notwithstanding the
many sensational stories of the fierceness and prowess of the golden eagle, espe-
cially in the defense of its eyrie, from my own observations I must confess that, if
not an arrant coward, it certainly is the most indifferent bird in respect to the care
of its eggs and young I have ever seen. This may possibly be due more to utter

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 1991

parental indifference than to actual cowardice, as three of these birds, an adult
male caught in a trap, and a pair of young — male and female — taken from the nest
when three years old and raised by me, did not seem to be deficient in spirit by
any means, and were always ready to attack anything and everything on the
slightest provocation." In captivity the golden eagle is far more tractable than
the sea eagles, and in Central Asia, where it is known as the birkut, or karakush,
it is trained to kill mammals and large birds. Dr. Scully writes that the trained
bird " is always kept hooded when it is indoors, except when about to be fed, and
the method of carrying it in the chase is the following: The man who is to carry
the eagle is mounted on a pony and has his right hand and wrist protected by a
thick gauntlet. A crutch, consisting of a straight piece of stick carrying a curved
crosspiece of horn or wood — the concavity being directed upward — is attached to
the front of the saddle; the man grasps the crosspiece of the crutch with his gloved
hand, and the eagle then perches on his wrist."

Although frequently mistaken in the later stages of its immature
ag e plumage for the preceding species, the imperial eagle (Aquila heliaca)
is really very distinct, and may be easily recognized in the adult state by the more
or less conspicuous white patch on the scapulars. In size it is smaller than the
golden eagle, with less difference between the two sexes; the length of the female
of this species being the same as that of the male of the golden eagle (thirty-two
inches), while that of the male is but an inch less. The body is stoutly built, the
tail short, and the wings so long as to reach slightly beyond the extremity of the
former. In the adult bird the general color of the plumage is blackish brown, be-
coming lighter on the back and tail coverts; the head and neck are light fulvous;
the scapulars have the above-mentioned white patch, which is exclusively confined
to that series of feathers, and the tail is ashy gray, marked with indistinct dark bars
for the greater part of its extent, but its terminal portion blackish, with a narrow
fulvous border. The young bird is rather light brown above, with the feathers
tipped with buffish fawn, so as to give a spotted appearance to the plumage, and
some of the wing coverts have whitish ends; the plumage of the under surface
being tawny fulvous, with the breast feathers margined with brown, so as to look
as though streaked. The tail is uniform brown, tipped with buffish white. In
an intermediate stage the brown edgings of the breast feathers appear to extend to
their centres, so that the whole plumage becomes brown; and it is when in this
state that the bird is so often mistaken for the golden eagle. At all ages the
cere and feet are pale yellow, while the beak is bluish, and the iris brownish
yellow. The imperial eagle is mainly a southern form, occurring in South-
eastern and rarely Central Europe, whence it ranges through Palestine and
the adjacent countries to India and China. In Northern Africa it is replaced
by Adalbert's eagle (Aquila adalberti], which also occurs in Spain, and differs
by the white patch on the wing extending on to the carpal plumes. In the
neighborhood of India the imperial eagle regularly breeds in the Himalayas, but
the majority of the specimens seen in the plains of India are winter visitors al-
though a few remain to nest in the Upper Punjab. In Southern India the specie is
rare, although it is not uncommon in the high table-lands of the Peninsula.

1992

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

In India, according to Jerdon, this eagle " prefers the neighborhood of hills,
and the bare open country, or thin and low jungle. It may frequently be seen
seated on the ground, or on a stone on the top of a low hill, till an hour after
sunrise, when it rises, apparently unwillingly, and takes a cast after game at no
great elevation, hunting slowly over the bushy valleys and ravines, and occasionally
over cultivated ground. If unsuccessful in its search, it reseats itself, and after an

r

IMPERIAL EAGLE.
(One-sixth natural size.)

interval again takes wing, and this time soars to a great height, circling slowly in
the air, and transversing a large extent of country. It pounces on hares, florikins,
rats, lizards, and various other rodents and birds, and in default of these will eat
carrion. I have several times seen one captured in a net by a portion of a carcass
of a sheep being put down as a bait. When it does condescend to partake of car-
rion, it allows no other bird to approach till it has satisfied its hunger."

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 1993

In Palestine Canon Tristram writes that this truly imperial bird is more abun-
dant than in any other country which he had visited, and may be said, in summer at
least, to replace the golden eagle of Europe. ' ' There is a beauty and majesty in
its movements," the Canon continues, "and in its great fearlessness of man, when
in search of food, which at once attracts one; while the very distinct white scapu-
lars, and the light head, show conspicuously when on the wing. Unlike the golden
eagle, it was as common at one time of the year as another, though we never
took a nest. ' ' This account gives an idea that the imperial eagle is a noble and
courageous bird endowed with considerable fierceness. The experience of Mr.
Hume in India does not, however, countenance the attribute of these qualities;
although it is suggested, perhaps humorously, that its deficiencies in these respects
may be due to the enervating nature of the climate. Mr. Hume says that " I have
driven the female off hard-set eggs, and plundered the nest before the eyes of the
pair, without either flapping a pinion, even to defend what even a little shrike will
swoop at once to save. I have seen a couple of crows thrash one of them soundly;
and, whether it be that familiarity breeds contempt, I am bound to record, that
after having seen many hundreds, and shot, I dare say, a good hundred myself, I
look upon the Konigs-adler as no better than a great hulking kite. ' ' Contrary to
the opinion of Jerdou, the writer adds that in his experience this eagle is generally
a foul feeder.

The nest appears to be always situated in a tree, and is of large size; one taken
in a pollard tree on the Danube having a circumference of about fifteen feet, and
being lined with wool. The eggs are very variable in size, and have a grayish-
white ground, which is usually unspotted, but may be marked with pale brown, or
more rarely with purplish brown. In the Punjab the usual laying time is February
and March, but it may be prolonged for another month; the nest referred to above
from the Danubian provinces was taken at the end of April.

tt d E 1 ^^e sPotted eagle (.Aquila maculata) of Central Europe, which is
selected as an example of species much smaller than the golden eagle,
of which it is only about one-third the size, is a bird which has received more than
the usual liberal allowance of scientific names. The total length of the adult female
is twenty-five inches, and that of the male only half an inch less. The general
color of the adult bird is liver brown on the upper parts, with the head somewhat
lighter, and its upper feathers lanceolate. The wing coverts are somewhat paler,
with simple whity-brown margins; and the quills are blackish, shaded with ashy on
the primaries, and browner on the secondaries. The tail feathers are lighter than
the quills, with their inner webs bronzy, and the tips inclining to tawny; the under
tail coverts being earthy brown with lighter tips, and the lower surface of the tail
uniform brown. The beak is bluish horn color, the cere yellow, the iris hazel, and
the toes yellow with black claws. In the young bird, as shown in the central fig-
ure of our illustration, the general color is a darker chocolate brown, the tips of the
wing coverts, inner secondaries, upper tail coverts, and tail feathers being marked
with somewhat crescentic spots of a pale wood brown; the cheeks and under surface
pale brown, becoming lighter, with a tinge of tawny on the under tail coverts; some
of the chest feathers are a rather darker brown with tawny -brown centres, and cer-

1994

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

tain of the under wing coverts have light tips. It is of course only in the immature
and intermediate stages of plumage that the name ' ' spotted eagle ' ' is strictly appli-
cable to the bird.

The ordinary form of the spotted eagle inhabits Central Europe, ranging into
Northern Germany, Pomerania, and Poland, and migrating during the winter into
Egypt and other parts of Northern Africa. In Southern and Western Europe it is
rare. Eastward it doubtless extends into Palestine, and it is represented in India

-f

SPOTTED EAGLE.
(One-fifth natural size.)

by a variety distinguished by the general presence of small white spots on the lesser
wing coverts. There is also a larger variety, or species, known as the larger spotted
eagle (Aquila danga), attaining a length of twenty-six and one-half inches in the
female. This variety is characteristic of Southeastern Europe, being but seldom
found in Poland, Pomerania, and Germany, and ranging eastward into Siberia.
During their migrations specimens of the spotted eagle are occasionally blown on to

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 1995

the English coasts, and an immature example in .an exhausted 'condition was cap-
tured at Colchester in November, 1891. In general appearance the adult of this
species is very similar to the golden eagle in miniature. It is especially abundant
in Pomerania, and in Europe frequents wooded districts, sometimes building in low
blackthorn bushes, or even on the ground itself. In India, according to Mr. Hume,
this eagle is always found either in the neighborhood of swamps or where the
country has been irrigated; and he refers to the sudden immigration of a num-
ber of these birds into a district where irrigation works had been recently
opened. The same observer notes that this eagle generally sits in a slouching
kite-like fashion across a. branch, halfway up a tree; whereas, on the other hand,
the imperial and tawny eagles generally sit bolt upright at the very top of a tree,
and consequently cannot be seen by an observer immediately beneath. The spotted
eagle commonly nests in trees.

Other species of the genus are the tawny eagle (A. rapax) of

Africa, distinguished by the tawny hue of the immature plumage;
the slightly smaller but closely-allied Indian tawny eagle {A. vindhiana); the
small brown Wahlberg's eagle (A. wahlbergi) of Africa, distinguished by a slight
occipital crest; and the remarkable South- African vulturine eagle (A. verreauxi},
which differs from all the rest in having the lower part of the beak and rump
white, the rest of the plumage being black. Remains of extinct eagles, some of
which probably belong to Nisaetus, while others may pertain to Aquila, occur in
the Miocene strata of France. The gigantic Harpagornis, from the superficial
deposits of New Zealand, was by far the largest representative of the whole family.
The wedge-tailed eagle ( Uroaetus audax) of Australia^ is a large
CP species generically separated from the true eagles by its regularly

graduated wedge-shaped tail, in which, when closed, the middle pair
of feathers are far longer than the outer ones; whereas in the true eagles the differ-
ence in the length of the corresponding feathers is inappreciable. This fine eagle
attains a total of thirty-eight inches in the male, and has the general color of the
plumage black, with a yellow cere and feet. In young birds the general color is
rufous tawny. These birds are found both in the forests and on the open plains of
Australia and Tasmania, frequently soaring at a great height in circles, with no ap-
parent movement of the wings. The large nest is invariably placed in the fork of a
gum tree, sometimes at no great height from the ground. Carrion appears to be the
chief food of these eagles.

The Accipitrines we have now to consider include the harpy eagles,

buzzards, and their kin, forming the subfamily Buteonincz. While
agreeing with all the foregoing types in having the tibia considerably longer than
the metatarsus, they differ from them in that the posterior aspect of the metatarsal
segment of the leg is covered with large transverse plates instead of with small
reticulate scales. The largest members of this subfamily are the magnificent harpy
eagles, which, while rivaling the true eagles in size and strength, have the plated
metatarsus of the buzzards, and may be easily recognized by their long crests of
feathers. They are exclusively American, and are mainly confined to South and
Central America, although one of the species ranges into Mexico. Represented by

1996

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

three well-defined 'species, the harpies are referred to as many genera. The Guianan
harpy eagle {Morphnus guianensis} , which is the species represented in our illus-
tration, is readily characterized by the length of its tail, which is fully four times as
long as the metatarsus. The range of this species includes Amazonia and Guiana
as well as Panama. The crowned harpy {Harpyhaliaetus coronatus), which has a
more extensive distribution, extending from Northern Patagonia and Chili to Cen-

GUIANAN HARPY EAGI.B.

(One-fifth natural size.)

tral America, differs by the much shorter tail, of which the length is less than thrice
that of the metatarsus. Both these species agree in that the interval between the
summit of the nostril and the upper line of the beak is less than the length of the
nostril; whereas in the true harpy (Thrysaetus harpyia), ranging from Bolivia and
Paraguay to Mexico, the corresponding interval is greater than the length of the
nostril.

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 1997

The largest of the three is the last-named species, of which the total length is
thirty-eight inches. The figured species occupies a middle position in point of size,
measuring thirty-six inches in length. L,ike the others, it has the greater portion
of the metatarsus naked, and a powerful and strongly-curved beak. In this species
the crest is very long and pointed, but varies considerably according to the age of
the bird. The Prince of Wied describes the head, neck, breast, abdomen, rump,
and thighs as being white, faintly spotted here and there with yellow; the feathers
of the back, shoulders, and wing coverts mottled with reddish gray; the quills black-
ish brown, with small, reddish gray oblique bars; and the tail similarly colored, but
with the bars horizontal. This stage, which is the one represented in our illustra-
tion, is, however, according to Von Penzeln, the plumage of the immature bird.
The adult is much darker, having the head and throat grayish brown, most of
the upper parts dark blackish brown shaded and mottled with ashy, the upper tail
coverts with white tips and irregular white barrings, the chest dark colored, and
the remainder of the under parts white. The dark tail, according to Dr. Sharpe, is
tipped with whitish brown and crossed with only three pale bars, above which it has
some whitish markings. But little is known of the mode of life of this handsome
bird, which occurs both in the forest near the coasts, and the wooded districts of the
plains, but more commonly on the banks of the rivers. During its periods of repose
this eagle will sit for hours on the summit of some dead tree, uttering at intervals
its peculiarly loud and harsh cry. Its prey comprises mammals and birds, and its
nest is said to be generally built in a hollow tree. More is known concerning the
true harpy eagle, which is the most powerful bird of prey in North America. It
breeds in Southern Mexico, and then to Brazil and Bolivia. Known to the Span-
iards as the king eagle, and to the Aztecs as the winged wolf, the harpy attacks and
kills animals of more than thrice its own size and weight. Turkeys, fawns, foxes,
badgers, peccaries, sloths, and monkeys alike fall victims to this fell destroyer. In
regions which it frequents the harpy may be seen sailing in the early morning high
up in the clear sky, or wheeling in circles over the forests; while from March to June
the tree tops resound with the loud cries of its young. The nest, it is stated, may
be situated either in a lofty tree or on the ledge of a cliff.

The whole of the three genera above mentioned are characterized by
the shortness of the interval between the tips of the primary and sec-
ondary quills, which is less than the length of the metatarsus. Three other genera
from South and Central America, viz., Urobitinga, Buteogallus, and Busarellus,
comprise much smaller buzzard-like birds, agreeing with the harpies in the above-
mentioned characteristic but differing by the absence of crests. The last two genera
have but a single species each, but there are several kinds of urobitingas, two of
which range northward into the south of Mexico.

"The buzzard," writes Gilbert White, " is a dastardly bird, and
beaten not only by the raven, but even by the carrion crow;" and no
better description could be given of the pusillanimous disposition of the birds of the
genus Buteo. The buzzards are the typical representatives of the subfamily under
consideration, and belong to that section in which the interval between the tips of
the primary and secondary quills equals or exceeds the length of the metatarsus.

1998

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

They are specially characterized by the squared tail being of considerable length, and
extending markedly below the closed wings; and also by the long oval nostrils, de-
void of any central tubercle, and the bare metatarsus. The beak is rather small and
weak; the wings have the fourth quill the longest, and the first four deeply notched
on their inner margins; the naked metatarsus is of moderate length and covered with
scales and scutes; and the toes are short with strong claws. Buzzards are repre-
sented by nearly twenty species, and have an almost world-wide distribution, al-
though they are unknown in the Indian and Malayan regions, as well as in Oceania
and Australasia. The common buzzard (B. vulgaris} is one of the species of British

COMMON BUZZARD.

(One-fifth natural size.)

hawks which has suffered the least from the persecution of gamekeepers, and may
still not unfrequently be seen in the wooded parts of the country. It belongs to a
large group of the genus in which the tail is marked by more or less complete dark
transverse bars, the number of such bars in this species varying from ten to thirteen.
The general color of the plumage is a clear dark brown, becoming paler on the crown
of the head and cheeks and much darker on the primary quills, but there is such an
extraordinary amount of individual variation in respect to color, that scarcely any
two birds can be found which are precisely alike. The under parts are, however,
generally yellowish white, with the feathers more or less streaked with brown, but

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

1999

the flanks and thighs are of a more uniformly brown hue. The under wing coverts
are also light colored, and the under tail coverts white; while the tail, which is
brown above and grayish white below, is barred on both aspects. Some buzzards
are, however, brown all over; while in others, as in our figure, the throat and chest
are brown, and as well as the thighs, are as dark as the upper surface, only the re-
mainder of the under parts being light colored. The color of the iris varies from

ROUGH-LEGGED BUZZARD.

(One-fifth natural size )

dark hazel to light brownish yellow; the legs and toes are yellow, and the claws
black. White specimens are occasionally met with. The length of the male is
about twenty-two inches, and that of the female about an inch more. The common
buzzard is distributed over the greater part of Europe, and is in many districts
comparatively abundant. In Northern Africa and Eastern Europe it is, however,
replaced by the nearly-allied desert buzzard (£. desertorum) , which also ranges into

2000 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

India; while in Japan and China its place is occupied by B. plumipes, distinguished
by the greater extent to which the metatarsus is feathered. This species also ranges
through the Himalayas to Gilgit, and occurs occasionally in India. America pos-
sesses another closely-allied species in Swainson's buzzard (B. obsoletus), ranging
over the greater part of that continent. In searching for their prey, which consists
mainly of small mammals, birds, and reptiles, buzzards fly slowly and sluggishly;
and their cowardly disposition, to which allusion has already been made, is exhibited
by their generally selecting young or feeble animals for their victims. At times,
however, and especially in the breeding season, these birds will soar in circles high
in the air, occasionally uttering their shrill and melancholy whistle-like cry. After
feeding, they usually take up their station on a tree, from which, if disturbed, they
fly in what appears to be a frightened manner. In England, according to Professor
Newton, the nest is usually in a tree, while in the more mountainous districts of
Scotland preference is given to rocks. The eggs, which are usually two or three,
but occasionally four in number, much resemble those of the red kite. In America
Captain Bendire relates that Swainson's buzzard has been observed nesting in har-
monious association with other birds, especially with Arkansas kingbirds and
shrikes; the nests of these birds being sometimes only a few inches below those of
the buzzards. Fossilized remains of the common buzzard have been found in caverns
in Devonshire and Westmoreland; the metatarsus figured on p. 1904 coming from
the latter county.

Although the rough-legged buzzards, of which there are but very few

oug - egge gpec}es differ from the true buzzards merely in having the metatarsus
Buzzards r

feathered right down to the toes, it is found convenient to distinguish

them by a separate generic name. Their range includes Central and Northern
Europe, Northern Asia, and the whole of North America; the European species
sometimes straggling as far as South Africa. The European rough-legged buzzard
(Archibuteo lagopus) — the species represented in our illustration — is a bird some-
what larger than the common buzzard, and not exhibiting quite as much individual
variation in color as the latter. Ranging over Northern and Central Europe and
Siberia, this buzzard is met with yearly in the British Islands, where it sometimes
occurs in considerable numbers, more especially in the autumn and winter. In the
case of such a variable bird it will be unnecessary to give any description of the col-
oration, beyond stating that, according to Dr. Sharpe, the species is specially char-
acterized by the brown color of the markings on the flanks and thighs; and by the
ground color of the head, throat, and chest being white or buffish white, upon
which are buff streaks. In North America this species is replaced by St. John's
buzzard {A. sancti-johannis}, distinguished by its generally darker color and the
larger amount of black on the lower surface. The ferruginous buzzard (A, ferru-
gineus) of Southwestern North America differs by the white flanks and the chestnut
fawn of the flanks. A fourth species (A. strophiatus} , characterized by its uni-
formly brown head, neck, and chest, inhabits Nipal and Tibet. The habits of the
rough-legged buzzards are so generally similar to those of the members of the genus
Buteo, that they require but brief notice. The individuals of the European species
visiting Britain prefer, however, according to Professor Newton, open districts,

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 2001

more especially where rabbits are abundant; those rodents together with water-
fowl, constituting a large proportion of their food. The same writer describes the
flight of the bird as slow but smooth, and, except during the periods of migration,
not of long continuance. The nest, which is made rather late in the season, is gen-
erally placed in a high tree, and may contain from three to five eggs, the latter
being subject to great variation in form, size, and coloration. Breeding com-
monly in the higher parts of Norway and Sweden, the rough-legged buzzard ranges
as far poleward as Cape North, and at times nests in the British Islands. During
the breeding season it utters a kind of wailing cry, which has been compared to
the mew of a cat. America possesses four other genera of buzzard-like hawks, of
which only Asturina possesses more than two species; and a fifth genus ( Urospizias),
with one species, is confined to Australia.

With the possible exception of some of the American forms just

alluded to, the Accipitrines hitherto described have the metatarsus
Hawks

considerably shorter than the tibia. We now come to a group of long-;

legged hawks characterized by the great elongation of the metatarsus, which is
approximately or quite equal in this respect to the tibia. This group, as repre-
sented by the sparrow hawks, goshawks, and harriers, constitutes the subfamily
Accipitrines. For its size, the common sparrow hawk is one of the most dashing
and rapacious of all the Accipitrines, although its depredations are too frequently
attributed to the harmless kestrel. In common with its congeners, the sparrow
hawk agrees with the great majority of the subfamily in having the sides of the
face completely feathered, and the lores furnished with bristles, while it resembles
a smaller number of genera in the absence of reticulated scales on the back of the
metatarsus. Sparrow hawks may be distinguished from all their allies by the great
length of the third toe, which (exclusive of the claw) is more than double the
length of the ridge of the beak, measured from the front edge of the cere. The
short beak curves regularly from the base, and has a distinct festoon in the upper
cutting edge, while the nostrils are oval. The wings are short, not reaching within
a long distance of the end of the tail, and have the fourth and fifth quills nearly
equal and longer than the others. The long metatarsus is smooth, being covered
with greave-like plates, and the toes are long and slender, with sharp, curved claws.
There are more than twenty species of sparrow hawks, which are distributed over
the whole globe, with the exception of Oceania, the west of Australia, and New
Guinea. A few are rather larger than the European species, while many are con-
siderably smaller. The common sparrow hawk (Accipiter nisus} is still an abun-
dant bird in the wooded districts of England, and the female is the only Accipitrine
which inflicts much damage upon game preserves. It belongs to a group of the
genus characterized by the banded thighs, the absence of a collar round the neck,
and the number of bars on the tail not exceeding five. In the adult male the plum-
age of the upper parts, with the exception of a white spot on the nape of the neck,
is dark bluish gray, while the cheeks, chin, and under parts are rufous, barred with
bands of dark rufous brown, narrower than the intervening light spaces; the tail
being grayish brown, with from three to five dark bands. The beak is blue, and
the iris orange; the legs and toes are yellow, and the claws black. The total
126

2OO2

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

length is about thirteen inches. The female is some two and one-half inches longer
than the male, and differs by the general color of the upper parts (save the white
spot on the nape) being brown, with many of the feathers white at the base, and
the primaries and tail lighter than the rest; the under parts being grayish white
barred with brown. This species is distributed over the whole of Europe and
Northern Asia, and extends during the winter into the north of Africa, India, and

SPARROW HAWK.

(One-half natural size.)

China. In certain parts of Germany, Switzerland, and France, some individuals
are found differing by their superior size and certain peculiarities in coloration. The
sparrow hawk is a frequenter of wooded districts, where it may always be distin-
guished from the kestrel when on the wing by its bold dashing flight. Its prey
includes the smaller mammals and birds, and while young pheasants and partridges
frequently fall victims to its swoop, the chickens in a farmyard are by no means

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 2003

secure from its rapaciousness. It is during the breeding season that this hawk dis-
plays the greatest boldness and most frequently ventures into the farmyard; such
visits being paid as much for the purpose of capturing sparrows and other small
birds as for preying on chickens. The sparrow hawk breeds from the extreme
north of Europe as far south as the Himalayas, and although generally construct-
ing a nest of its own, not unfrequently takes possession of that of a crow or some
other bird. The eggs are four or five in number, and are remarkable for the beauty
of their coloring, being generally blotched with large patches of brownish crimson
on a pale ground; the dark markings being often collected on certain parts of the
shell, leaving the rest bare.

In Europe the sparrow hawk used to be extensively employed in hawking, and
was flown against blackbirds, thrushes, quail, landrails, partridges, etc. Quail
hawking with this bird is still largely pursued in Hungary and the Danubian
provinces; and it is stated that it was considered no uncommon feat for a sparrow
hawk to kill from seventy to eighty quail in a day. In India both this species and
the smaller besra hawk (A. virgatus) — the latter distinguished by its uniformly-
colored thighs — are largely trained. On this subject Mr. R. Thompson writes
to Mr. Hume that though the sparrow hawk is prized by the natives for its
speed and pluck, "it does not really come up to the besra even for courage; its
powers of endurance are much less, and it is less easily reclaimed. It is a delicate
and difficult bird to keep, and with all its boasted speed is but second to the besra
for every kind of hard field or wood work. What the besra would do at the first
throw, the other could not accomplish till the quarry was exhausted. To hunt
with the basha [the native name of the sparrow hawk] requires a deal of tact;
you must not throw it while the wind is high; you must keep well within the
proximity of woods and trees, and not balk it with birds larger than it can afford
to strike and clutch." Both these kinds of hawks are commonly flown in India at
sand grouse and the cream -colored courser. In North America the sparrow
hawk is represented by two nearly -allied species known as the sharp-shinned hawk
(A. fuscus), and Cooper's hawk (A. cooperi), in both of which the rufous bars on
the under surface are wider than the intervening spaces. While the former is some-
what smaller than the sparrow hawk, the latter is as much larger.

The European goshawk, or goose hawk (Astur palnmbarius) , is
the type of a very large genus, differing from the last by the length
of the ridge of the beak from in front of the cere exceeding half the length of
the third toe without the claw; and further distinguished by the fourth toe being
about equal in length to the second, without the claws; by the overhanging tufts
of feathers on the thighs, and the absence of any tubercle in the bony nostrils.
The beak is short, with a distinct festoon in its cutting edge; the short wings
generally have the fourth quill the longest; the metatarsus usually has large scutes
in front, and the toes are of only moderate length. Goshawks have an almost
cosmopolitan distribution, although they are unknown in part of Oceania and the
southern portion of South America. While the more typical forms are equal in
size to the largest falcons, the smaller kinds are not larger than sparrow hawks;
and so closely are the goshawks and sparrow hawks thus connected, that some

2004

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

writers, like Messrs. Seebohm and Bendire, unite the two genera. In general
appearance the European goshawk is, indeed, very like a large sparrow hawk;
having, in the male, the plumage of the upper parts of a deep bluish gray, darker
on the head and neck, with a light band above the eye; while beneath it is white
transversely barred with grayish brown; the tail having four dark bars, and a white
tip. In the female the upper plumage has a browner tinge; while the young bird
is brown above, with five dark bars on the tail. The color of the beak, cere, and
limbs is nearly the same as in the sparrow hawk. The male attains a length of
nineteen and one-half, and the female of twenty-three inches. The goshawk has a
range nearly the same as that of the sparrow hawk, although it does not appear to

ADUI/T GOSHAWK RABBIT HAWKING.

descend from the Himalayas to the plains of India. In North America it is replaced
by the American goshawk (A. atricapillus) , distinguished by its slightly superior
size, and by the plumage of the under parts being merely flecked with ashy gray,
instead of barred. Although rare in Britain, the goshawk is common in Germany
and other parts of the Continent, breeding as far north as Lapland. Instead of
"stooping" to its quarry, after the manner of the falcons, the goshawk flies along
after it, and takes by the mode technically known as "raking." It is flown at the
larger game birds, as well as at hares and rabbits, and will not unfrequently follow
its prey for some distance in covert. The nest is usually built in a tall tree on the

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 2005

outskirts of a wood or forest, and may contain from three to four eggs, which are
white, and may be either unspotted, or more or less streaked with olive, or flecked
with reddish brown.

Nearly allied to the goshawks is a group of African species (one of

which is represented on the right side of the illustration on p. 2008),
Hawks

characterized by the possession of a more tuneful voice than hawks in

general. By recent observers the note of these birds is described as a mellow
piping whistle, and, accordingly, it seems better that they should be designated
whistling hawks, rather than ' ' chanting goshawks," as they were originally termed,
when somewhat exaggerated notions obtained as to the extent of their vocal
powers. These hawks differ from the goshawks by the presence of a tubercle in
the nostrils, situated near the upper margin; while they are distinguished from an
allied South-American genus by the small extent to which the metatarsus is
feathered, and by the whole of the outer side of that segment of the leg being
covered with reticulate scales.

The many-zoned hawk (Melierax polyzonus}, which is the species represented
in our illustration, is a large and handsomely-colored bird inhabiting Northeastern
Africa, and ranging thence across the continent to Senegambia. The males measure
twenty and one-half inches, and the females twenty-one inches in length. L,ike all
the species save one, the general color of the upper parts is pearly gray, the chest
ashy gray, and the abdomen white, barred with a number of very fine grayish-black
bands, so as to present a kind of speckled appearance. The species is particu-
larly characterized by the absence of bars on the middle tail feathers, and the
white upper tail coverts barred with slaty gray. The bill is blackish, with a ver-
milion base, the iris pale brown, and the legs, feet, and cere vermilion. A
nearly-allied species is the South-African whistling hawk (M. canorus); but the
much smaller and widely distributed black whistling hawk {M. niger} differs
from all the others by its sable plumage, in striking contrast to which stands out
the brilliant red of the iris, cere, base of the bill, and feet and legs. In Abys-
sinia the figured species is found at considerable elevations above the sea. Mr.
Blanford states that it is usually to be seen perched on a tree, although occa-
sionally on the ground, and that its food consists of reptiles and insects. Its
flight is rather slow, and somewhat like that of a buzzard, and is seldom pro-
longed for any great distance.

Omitting mention of three unimportant genera, two of which are

South American and the other West African, we come to the American
Hawks

harrier hawks, and the cosmopolitan harriers; both of which are dis-
tinguished from all the foregoing types by having an imperfect disc of feathers
round the eyes, — thus recalling the owls, — and also by the hinder aspect of the
metatarsus being covered with reticulate scales, instead of large scutes. With re-
gard to the harrier hawks (Micrastur), of which there are several species, ranging
from Southern Mexico over the greater part of South America, it will suffice to
state that they are distinguished by having circular nostrils with a bony excrescence,
and form an intermediate step between the goshawks and the harriers, having the
heavy build of the former, and the facial discs of the latter.

GROUP OF HARRIERS.
(2006) i. Hen Harrier; 2. Montagu's Harrier; 3. Pale-Chested Harrier.

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 2007

The harriers, of which there are some sixteen species, are long-
winged and slender-built birds, remarkable for the great diversity
existing in most cases between the plumage of the two sexes, and deriving their
name from their harrying propensities. The nostrils differ from those of the har-
rier hawks in being oval, and devoid of any bony excrescence; they are partly con-
cealed by the radiating feathers of the lores. The beak is small, curving regularly
from the base, and with only a slight festoon in its upper cutting edge. The long
wings have the first quill very short, and the third and fourth the longest, and the
tail is of considerable length, and rounded. In length the metatarsus is relatively
greater than in any other members of the family, the toes are somewhat short and
not very unequal in length, and the claws are very sharp and but slightly curved.
Harriers are distributed over the greater part of the globe, occurring in such widely-
distant countries as New Zealand and Britain, although they are absent from sev-
eral regions, such as Malayana, Persia, and Arabia, where they might reasonably
have been expected to occur. Of the numerous species of the genus, no less than
three inhabit the British Islands; although the drainage of the fen lands has sadly
reduced their numbers, more especially in the case of the marsh harrier. In habits
all the harriers are very similar, although some, like the species last named, prefer
low marshy spots, where they may be seen with their heavy flapping wings slowly
skimming over the reeds; while others, like the hen harrier, also frequent the drier
hillsides. They all roost on or near the ground, and when not hunting, may be
seen, as in our illustration, perched on some low bough, post, or hillock. They
hunt their prey to a great extent in the mornings and evenings, and feed on small
birds, mammals, and reptiles; the marshy-hunting species supplementing this diet
largely with frogs and fish, while others eat grasshoppers and other large insects.
The nest is usually placed on the ground, and in the European species at least the
eggs (three or four in number) are nearly uniform pale-bluish or yellowish green.
In addition to their facial disc and crepuscular habits, the harriers show another
resemblance to the owls in their habit of laying their eggs at intervals, so that both
eggs and nestlings may be taken from the same nest. In hunting, harriers fre-
quently beat and quarter their ground almost with the regularity of a spaniel. Our
remarks on the various species will be mainly confined to those inhabiting the Brit-
ish Islands. So different in appearance are the males and females of the hen harrier
{Circus cyaneus) that they were long regarded as distinct, — the female being termed
the ringtail, — and it was not till Montagu brought up a brood from the nest that
their specific unity was established. In the adult male the general color of the
plumage is bluish gray above, with the throat and chest nearly similar; while the
rest of the under parts, inclusive of the thighs as well as the upper tail coverts, are
pure white. On the upper surface of the tail the two middle pairs of feathers are
uniform gray, and the others more or less indistinctly barred. On the other hand,
in the female, or ringtail, as shown in the left lower figure of our plate, the prevail-
ing hue of the upper parts is brown, and the head is surrounded by a distinct ruff
of mingled white and brown feathers; many of the feathers, especially the wing
coverts, having lighter margins. Below, the ground color is reddish buff, each
feather having a larger or smaller dark brown central mark, and a still darker shaft.

2OO8

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

The tail is grayish brown, tipped with white, and all the feathers banded with
darker brown. In both sexes the legs and toes are yellow, with black claws; but the
cere is a more greenish yellow in the female than in the male. The young male re-
sembles the female in color, but may be distinguished by its relatively-shorter wing.
In length the male measures about twenty-one and the female twenty-two inches.
This harrier is found throughout Europe and Siberia; extending in winter into the
northeast of Africa, Northern India, and China. The American harrier (C. hudso-

AFRICAN NAKED-CHEEKED HAWK AND MANY-ZONED WHISTLING HAWK.

(One-sixth natural size.)

nianus), commonly known as the marsh hawk, replaces the hen harrier in North
America, and is distinguished by the more decided gray of the upper parts and
throat, as well as by some flecks of reddish brown on the white of the under surface
in the male; the naked portion of the metatarsus is also slightly longer. In Britain
the hen harrier seems always to have been the rarest species, but the effects of
drainage have not told so severely upon its numbers as on those of the marsh har-

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY 2009

rier. The pale-chested harrier ( C. macrurus] , of which the male is represented in
the right side of our plate, is a slightly smaller bird than either of the last two,
from both of which it may be at once distinguished by the white upper tail coverts
being banded with gray. The uniformly-colored middle tail feathers distinctive of
the males of this group of species are well shown in our plate. The pale harrier,
although unknown in Britain, is pretty generally distributed over Europe as far
north as the 6oth parallel; it is also found over the great part of Africa, exclusive
of the forest regions of the west coast, and eastward ranges into India, Burma, and
China. The harrier (C. pygargui) which takes its popular name from the distin-
guished ornithologist Montagu, by whom it was first recognized as a distinct spe-
cies, and of which a male is represented in the upper figure of the plate, differs from
the species referred to above by the white thighs of the male being flecked with
reddish brown, and may be still more readily recognized by the three dark bands
crossing the secondaries, one of which is visible when the wings are closed. The
middle tail feathers are uniform bluish gray, and j;he lateral ones white with reddish-
orange bars; the under parts, behind the chest, being colored like the latter. The
general color of the female is brown of various shades. Montagu's harrier is
lighter and more slenderly built than the hen harrier, and appears to have been the
most common of the British species. Its distribution is almost identical with that
of the pale harrier. The largest and most powerful of all the three British species
is the marsh harrier, or moor buzzard (C. (zruginosus) , in which the female meas-
ures twenty-three inches in length. In this species the two sexes are nearly alike
at all ages, the prevailing color of the plumage of the upper parts being brown. It
may be recognised by the nearly- uniform rufous thighs, and the plain bluish-gray
tail of the adult; young birds have the tail brown, with some slight rufous mot-
tlings, and lack the blue gray found on the secondaries of the old birds. The distri-
bution of the marsh harrier is likewise very similar to that of the two preceding
species; this bird ranging from Britain to Japan, and from Siberia to South Africa
and India. The draining of the fens and other of its haunts has rendered it a
comparatively rare bird in England at the present time.

Resembling the whistling hawks in the barred plumage of the under
Naked- parts, the naked-cheeked hawks of Africa and Madagascar, one of

which is represented on the left side of the preceding illustration,
differ from all the other members of the subfamily in having the re-
gion of the mouth and the sides of the face completely devoid of feathers. The
African species (Polyboroides typicus) measures twenty-seven and one-half inches in
the female, and two inches in the male. Its general color above is dark gray, this
tint extending round the neck to occupy the throat and chest, while the remainder
of the under parts is marked with rather broad alternating bands of black and
white. The head is crested, and the black tail has a narrow white tip, and a
broadish band of white at a distance of about one-third from the end. This species
has a wide range in Africa; but it is replaced in Madagascar by P. radiatus, distin-
guished by its silver-gray color above, and the finer banding of the under parts.
These birds prey chiefly upon lizards, snakes, and frogs, and they possess the
unique peculiarity of being able to move the ankle joint both forward as well as

20io THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

backward, thus 'giving an extraordinary range of movement to the lower part of the
leg, which is said to be of the greatest advantage in extracting their reptilian prey
from the crannies where they lie concealed. L,ike the harpy eagles, these hawks
often seek for reptiles along the line of jungle fires, while they frequent marshes
and swamps in search of frogs. The toes are remarkable for their extreme lateral
compression, which is said to be also a feature admirably adapted for capturing the
reptiles on which these birds prey. In addition to reptiles, it is stated that these
hawks will also kill and eat small birds and mammals, especially such of the latter
as, like shrews, frequent moist localities. Nothing appears to have been ascertained
with regard to their breeding habits.

The remaining members of the Hawk family are mainly South Amer-
_ ican, and constitute a subfamily by themselves. These birds, which

are commonly designated caracaras, from a corruption of the native
name of their Brazilian representatives, differ not only in general appearance from
more typical hawks, but likewise^ in the mode of life. In the first place, whereas
in all other members of the family the third and fourth toes alone are connected
at their bases by a small web, in the caracaras both the second and fourth toes are
so connected with the middle one. They are all long-legged birds, with the meta-
tarsus naked, and the beak is generally characterized by its depth and compres-
sion, while there is more or less naked skin on the sides of the face. In their
general habits they are chiefly terrestrial, and nest on the ground; and as they run
well and rapidly, they recall in these respects the gallinaceous birds. Mr. W. H.
Hudson remarks that they are "carrion eaters, also killers on their own account,
and, like wild dogs, sometimes hunt in packs, which gives them an advantage.
They are the unfailing attendants of all flesh hunters, human or feline, and also
furiously pursue and persecute all eagles and true vultures that venture on the
pampas." Formerly the caracaras were considered to be allied to the secretary
vulture, but their true affinities- are now known to be nearer to the harriers, and,
according to the observer just quoted, when on the wing the smaller species present
a striking resemblance to the latter.

The caracaras may be divided into two genera, according to the
azi ian form of the nostrils. The largest member of the group is the Brazilian

caracara, known in the Argentine as the carancha (Polyborus tharus),
and belonging to the genus with oval nostrils. This fine bird, which ranges over
the whole of South America, may be compared in size to a small eagle, attaining
a length of fully twenty-six inches. Its head is crested, and the ground color of
the upper parts deep blackish brown, with the feathers of the back and wing coverts
marked with narrow whitish crossbars. The tail is mostly buffish white, with
darker bars, and the sides of the head and under parts are of the same ground color,
marked, except on the head and throat, with narrow black bars. The large beak
is pale blue, the cere and naked portion of the face are normally carmine red,
and the legs and feet yellow. Under certain conditions naked portions of the
face may, however, assume a pale color. In Northern South America, as well as
in Central America, and Southern North America, together with Cuba and Trini-
dad, there occurs the rather smaller Audubon's caracara (P. cheriway)\ and a third

THE EAGLE-LIKE SUBFAMILY

2OII

Falkland
Island
Caracara

species (P. lutosus} characterizes the island of Guadeloupe. Although largely
carrion eaters, these birds will attack living prey, the Brazilian species some-
times venturing to encounter the
skunk. In North America they
generally nest in cabbage palms.
This species
{Ibycter australis},
which is repre-
sented in the upper
figure of our illustration, may
be taken as a well-known ex-
ample of the second genus, in
which the nostrils are circular,
and most of the species of con-
siderably smaller dimensions
than the last. This bird attains
a total length of twenty-five
inches, and has its plumage of
a general black hue. The nape
and neck are, however, marked
with streaks of white, and there
are also similar white markings
on the throat and chest, which
on the abdomen pass into minute

spots. The quills are dark brown, with lighter tips, and the black tail has a broad
white band at the end. The feathers on the inner surfaces of the thighs are tawny,
the cere and feet are yellow, the greater part of the beak is yellowish, and the iris
"brown. This species is restricted to the Falkland islands, and is replaced in the
Amazon districts and some adjacent parts of South America by the black caracara
(I. ater), which is a much smaller bird, measuring only sixteen inches in length, and
characterized by the whole plumage, with the exception of a white band across the
base of the tail, being black, with greenish reflections. Agreeing in size with the
black caracara is the very differently-colored bird known as the chimachima (/.
chimachima), of which an immature example is represented in the lower figure of
our illustration. This caracara ranges from Brazil northward of the tropic, through
Colombia into Panama. In the adult the prevailing color may be said to be white;
a streak from the eye toward the back of the head, the back, wings, and tail being
mainly dark brown, with lighter margins to many of the feathers. The first four
primary quills are white with dark markings in the middle of their length, while
the remainder are yellowish white at the base, with dark brown tips. The tail
feathers have a lightish ground, marked with narrow brown bars for the greater
part of their length, but near the end show a broad blackish band tipped with
white. The iris of the large eye is grayish brown; the beak is bluish white at the
base, becoming lighter at the tip; the cere and a bare space round the eye are orange
tinged with red, and the feet are pale yellow. In young birds the top of the head

BRAZILIAN CARACARA.

2OI2

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

and cheeks are dark brown; the sides and back of the neck brown, with yellowish-
white streaks; the feathers of the back brown, with straw-colored or fulvous mar-
gins, and the feathers of most of the under parts ochrey colored, with brown
margins in the region of the chest, whereby a general striped appearance is produced.
The chimango (/. chimango) of the southern portion of South America and Tierra
del Fuego differs by having the under parts and under wing coverts of a brownish-

FALKLAND ISI.AND AND CHIMACHIMA CARACARAS.

(One-fourth natural size.)

ochre color in the adult; the feathers of the under surface of the body having dark
brown shaft stripes.

Writing of the habits of these birds, which he collectively designates carrion
hawks, Darwin states that chimangos may often be seen in company with caranchas,
although the two are by no means friends. ' ' When the carancha is quietly seated
on the branch of a tree or on the ground, the chimango often continues for a long

THE VULTURES 2013

time flying backward and forward, up and down, in a semicircle, trying each time
at the bottom of the curve to strike its larger relative. The carancha takes little
notice, except by bobbing its head. ' ' Of the Falkland island species he observes
that ' ' these birds in many respects resemble the caranchas. They live on the flesh
of dead animals and on marine productions, and on the Ramirez rocks their whole
sustenance must depend on the sea. They are extraordinarily tame and fearless,
and haunt the neighborhood of houses for offal. If a hunting party kills an animal,
a number soon collect and patiently await, standing on the ground on all sides.
After eating, their uncovered craws are largely protruded, giving them a disgusting
appearance. They readily attack wounded birds; a cormorant in this state having
taken to the shore, was immediately seized on by several, and its death hastened by
their blows." He adds that like the caranchas, several of these birds will some-
times "wait at the mouth of a rabbit hole, and together seize on the animal when
it comes out." In addition to being exceedingly mischievous, these caracaras are
' ' quarrelsome and very passionate, tearing up the grass with their bills from rage.
They are not truly gregarious; they do not soar, and their flight is heavy and
clumsy; on the ground they run extremely fast, very much like pheasants. They
are noisy, uttering several harsh cries, one of which is exceedingly like that of the
English rook; hence the sealers always call them rooks. It is a curious circum-
stance that, when crying out, they throw their heads upward and backward, after
the same manner as the carancha. They build in the rocky cliffs of the seacoast,
"but only on the small adjoining islets, and not on the two main islands; this is a
singular precaution in so tame and fearless a bird." In the North- American species
of Polyborus the eggs are generally two or three in number, and have a pale ground
color, almost concealed by dark blotchings.

THE VULTURES
Family VULTURID^E

As a matter of convenience it is found advisable to separate the true or Old-
World vultures from the Hawk family, although it is difficult to draw any well-
marked line of distinction between the two groups, which are intimately connected
by the lammergeiers. All the vultures are, however, birds of large size, and, with
the exception of the lammergeiers, characterized by the head and neck being more
or less bare, or clothed only with short stubbly down, true feathers being absent
from the crown of the head. The males are as large or larger than the females.
In all, the beak is rather long, compressed, and straight for some distance from its
base, after which it is sharply bent down; its upper mandible may be sinuated, but
is never toothed. The cere is very large, and the metatarsus, which is generally
naked, is comparatively short, stout, and covered with small reticulated scales.
The toes have rather long and slightly-curved claws; the third toe being always
long and the first short, while the third and fourth are joined at their bases by
a membrane. As in the preceding family, the nostrils are separated by a median

2014 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

partition, and the feathers are furnished with aftershafts. The true vultures, to-
gether with the lemmergeiers, are restricted to the warmer regions of the Old
World, where they are almost universally distributed, although absent from the
Malayan Islands, Ceylon, Madagascar, and Australia.

The magnificent bird known as the lammergeier, or bearded vulture
( Gypaetus barbatus) , is the typical representative of a genus in regard
to the systematic position of which there has been some difference of opinion among
ornithologists. It differs from the true vultures in having the head covered with
feathers, instead of being naked or downy, and thereby approaches the eagles,
among which it is placed by Dr. Sharpe. Its general affinities, as remarked by Mr.
Dresser, are, however, decidedly with the vultures, among which we accordingly
place it. In addition to having the head fully feathered, the lammergeiers are char-
acterized by having the oval nostrils concealed by a number of stiff bristles, and
also by the presence of a tuft, or long beard of forwardly directed bristles. The
long and compressed beak ascends in front of the cere, and then curves, with its
tip much hooked. The wings are long, with the first quill rather longer than
the second, and the third the longest; while the tail is also long, and distinctly
wedge shaped. The true lammergeier, which ranges from the mountains of South-
ern Europe and Northeastern Africa through Asia Minor and Palestine, and thence
to the Himalayas, Central Asia, and the north of China, is distinguished by the
metatarsus being feathered down to the toes, and the presence of black markings on
the cheeks, and commonly attains a length of about forty-two inches. On the other
hand, the somewhat smaller bare-legged lammergeier, from the mountainous districts,
of Northeast and South Africa, has the lower part of the metatarsus naked, and the
sides of the cheeks entirely white. In the adult of the common species, the crown
of the head and sides of the face are white, with the bristles over the nostrils and a
broad cheek stripe, as well as some scattered streaks, black; the rest of the head and
nape being whitish, with the lanceolate feathers of the latter more or less tinged
with bright tawny. The upper parts are black, tending to brown on the rump, and
a tinge of ochre brown on the scapulars, with all the shafts of the back feathers
whitish, as are those of the wing coverts, wings, and tail. Beneath, the general
color is a rich orange tawny, not unfrequently with a black gorget on the chest.
The beak is horn color, and the feet leaden gray; while the iris of the eye is pale
orange, and the surrounding sclerotic membrane or "white," a blood color, thus
producing, with the black pupil, a most remarkable appearance. In the young bird,
as shown in the upper figure of our illustration on the next page, the head, neck,
and throat are blackish brown, and the rest of the body plumage pale brown, with
the exception of some creamy-white patches on the upper part of the back. The
female is somewhat larger than the male, and the expanse of wing often exceeds
nine feet. Indian examples are those which commonly show the black gorget on
the chest.

The lammergeier is essentially a mountain bird, and, in spite of numerous
stories to the contrary, appears to subsist mainly on animals not killed by itself and
carrion, although it may occasionally attack and kill some of the smaller animals;
such at least are undoubtedly its habits in the Himalayas. When on the wing, the

THE VULTURES

2015

lammergeier may be easily recognized by its long, pointed wings and tail, and also by
its mode of flight, which is even and gliding, with an occasional flap of the wings.

I^AMMERGEIER AND NEST.

When hunting, it skims along the sides of the mountains, following every undula-
tion of the hillside, and working backward and forward in regular " beats," so that
scarcely anything escapes its search. In the Alps the lammergeier is now well-nigh

2oi6 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

exterminated, the last Swiss specimen having been found poisoned in the winter of
1887. This was a female which had been known to haunt the Bietsch Horn for
some twenty-five years previously, its mate having been killed in 1862. It is stated,
however, that a single bird was seen in Switzerland in 1888. In the Italian Alps
the lammergeier is still met with, while in Spain and the Caucasus it is abundant.
In the Himalayas these splendid birds may be seen in numbers during the spring in
the outer ranges, especially in the neighborhood of the hill station of Mari, but in
the summer they migrate northward to Kashmir, Baltistan, Ladakh, etc. Usually a
shy bird, in the neighborhood of Abbotabad the lammergeiers became quite accus-
tomed to the shooting on a rifle range, and would approach close to the men.
When driven down by cold and bad weather they will often collect in numbers
round the military hill camps to feed on the offal. Circumstantial stories of attacks
by Alpine lammergeiers on children will be found in many works; but, as Mr. H.
Saunders remarks, those who have examined the weak feet of those birds will form
their own opinion as to their credibility. With regard to their alleged depredations
on flocks, an anonymous observer writes in the Asian that " I never heard of the
Himalayan lammergeier attacking anything, and in Kashmir have often watched
them passing over flocks of goats, on one occasion close over some female ibex with
kids. Also in Dagshai I frequently observed them sail round within a few yards of
fowls and tame pigeons, but never saw them attempt a raid on any living thing,
always contenting themselves with bones thrown out after the soldiers' dinners, or
with offal from the slaughterhouses. ' ' Mr. R. Thompson also had a similar experi-
ence in the Himalayas, mentioning, that although these birds never molested the
fowls and pigeons picketed as lures for hawks, they would always come down to a
carcass or a heap of bones. The lammergeier seems indeed to be specially partial to
bones, which it will sometimes drop from a great height on to rocks in order to smash
them; while in Algeria it is stated to do the same with tortoises. In Spain these
birds are commonly known by the name of bone smasher, and there is little doubt
that the " ossif rage " of Scripture refers to this bird. All these traits of character
strongly confirm the view that the lammergeier is a vulture rather than an eagle,
and Mr. Hume considers that its general habits and gait, more especially its manner
of walking and holding its tail when feeding on the ground, ally it to the scavenger
vultures. In the Himalayas the lammergeier breeds from November to February,
selecting almost inaccessible ledges for the construction of its nest, at elevations of
five thousand feet and upward. Mr. Thompson states that ' ' the nest a huge plat-
form, some four or five feet in diameter, is constructed of small sticks and thick
twigs, placed so as to form a footing for the young, and is lined with pieces of cloth,
rags, etc." There is usually, both in the Himalayas and the Atlas, but a single
egg to a nest, although, rarely, a pair may be met with. The eggs are oval, and
rather small for the size of the bird, with their external surface dull and chalky, of
a buff ground color, often clouded with darker markings. The young bird has been
known to remain in the nest for upward of four months.

The typical representative of the true vultures, and the only living member of
its genus, is the common cinereous or black vulture ( Vultur monachus] , of which
figures are given in the accompanying plate, which differs from all other members

THE VULTURES 2017

of the family in its circular nostrils. This bird derives its name from
ine"°"s the plumage being generally entirely black, with chocolate reflections.

The head is covered with thick velvety down, developed to form a
conspicuous patch at the occiput, and on the cheeks more silky and produced into
tufts. The naked portions of the head and neck are of a livid flesh color, while
the iris is dark brown, the bill black, and the foot yellowish. In total length the
bird is about forty-two inches. This vulture inhabits the countries bordering both
sides of the Mediterranean, whence it extends eastward to India and China. Unlike
the griffon vulture, to be next mentioned, this species is partial to wooded districts;
although, as in our plate, both may frequently meet over the same carcass. It
nests generally in trees, although failing these on rocks, and builds a bulky nest of
boughs lined with twigs, in which a single large white egg, more or less richly
marked with red, is laid. L,ike its kin, the black vulture is a bird of heavy and
ungraceful form and a generally repulsive appearance; its habits, when not engaged
in feeding, being sluggish and inert, its attitude slouching, and its disposition
cowardly. It also resembles its allies in feeding entirely upon dead animals and
other refuse; and it is these carrion-eating habits which render vultures so invalu-
able in tropical countries, where the care bestowed upon sanitary matters appears to
vary inversely with the rise of the temperature. Repulsive and hideous looking as
are a group of vultures assembled round the carcass of a large animal, and gorging
themselves to satiety upon its contents, their appearance is very different as they
are seen wheeling in circles at a great height in the blue sky of a tropical noon, and
no spectacle is more interesting than to watch the vultures flocking up from all
parts when some of their number have detected a prey, and dropped to earth to
feast upon it. Much discussion has taken place with regard to the manner in which
vultures discover their prey, although it is now ascertained that this is mainly due
to their marvelously keen power of sight. On this subject Jerdon writes that he
has ' ' known a small piece of fresh meat — a fore-quarter of a miserable sheep —
exposed in the open bare plain where the eye barely discovered a few floating specks
in the air high above, and in less than half an hour there would be a number of
vultures feeding on it. It is out of the question that smell can have anything to do
with this, and we know from experiments that vultures will discover and descend
on a stuffed carcass of an animal, while they will neglect one well hidden, although
putrid and offensive. I do not mean to assert that their sense of sight is illimit-
able, and, in the cases in which I have myself experimented, I do not mean to imply
that the very distant birds, that looked like specks, were those to discover the piece
of fresh meat; but ever and anon a bird at a much lower elevation, but still very
high above the earth, would sail past, keenly urged by hunger to a closer investi-
gation and on his espying the morsel, and moving toward it, others at a greater
distance, urged by his motions, would descend lower, and on being certified them-
selves, perhaps on the ground near, would drop down in a series of oblique plunges
till they reached the ground also. That vultures, however, have also a strong
sense of smell is undeniable; many experiments are recorded to show this; and I
have myself frequently seen them flying closely, and apparently in an excited and

unusual manner, over a copse or thicket in which a putrefying carcass was placed."
127

THE VULTURES 2019

It is, however, only when the birds are flying at a low elevation that they are able
to detect such hidden carrion. Not uncommon in the Himalayas at all seasons, the
cinereous vulture visits the plains of Northern India during the winter, and is in
some districts one of the commonest of its tribe at that season. Some individuals
are of much lighter color than the typical form; but there is every gradation in the
color of the plumage from one to the other. In Bulgaria the breeding season com-
mences early in March, and the young birds are described as ugly in the extreme,
being covered with brownish-gray down, and having a pink cere and pale yellow
legs and feet.

The second European representative of the true vultures is the
„ j griffon vulture (Gyps fulvus), of which examples are shown on the

right side of our plate. Together with several other species, it con-
stitutes a genus characterized by the somewhat oval and transversely-placed nostrils,
by the length of the metatarsus being less than that of the third toe, and the pres-
ence of fourteen feathers in the tail. The vultures of this genus range over the
whole of Africa except the forest districts of the west coast, the countries bordering
the Mediterranean, a considerable portion of Eastern Europe, and thence through
Persia to India, and so on to Siam and the Malay Peninsula. The griffon, or ful-
vous vulture, is a very variable species, ranging from Spain and Northeastern Africa
to India and Turkestan, the eastern form having a more rufous tinge of plumage.
It is specially characterized by the feathers of the rump and lower part of the back
having a pale centre along the shaft, and by the under wing coverts being ashy or
tawny rufous. In the typical form from Eastern Europe the large ruff round the
throat is white, and the upper parts of the body ashy fulvous, the rump and lower
portion of the back being dark brown, with the above-mentioned fulvous centres
to the feathers, while the wing coverts are mostly edged and tipped with creamy
white, and the upper tail coverts pale-ochrey buff. The quills and tail are black;
and the under parts pale-creamy brown, with narrow whitish shaft stripes to the
feathers. The iris is reddish orange, the cere bluish black, the bill pale-horn
color, and the foot leaden gray. The total length of the bird is about forty inches.
The Himalayan griffon (G. himalayensis) , ranging from the Himalayas to
Turkestan, differs by the white under wing coverts; while the African Riippell's
vulture (G. rueppelli), represented in the illustration on p. 2020, may always be
distinguished by the feathers on the lower part of the back and rump being
brown with broad gray or fulvous margins, instead of with light centres. More-
over, the ruff is yellowish white, and the beak deep orange. The long-billed
griffon (G. indicus) is rather smaller than the typical form of the common
species, and differs from all the rest by its unusually bare head and thin beak, and
is further characterized by the feathers on the lower part of the back and rump be-
ing whitish with faint brownish margins. It is an inhabitant of India and the
countries bordering the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal. An extinct griffon vul-
ture occurs in the Miocene deposits of Malta.

Unlike the black vulture, the European griffon vulture frequents open and
rocky districts. Regarding its flight, Mr. O. Salvin writes that "it is a fine
sight to watch the ease with which the griffon sails through the air; the

2O20

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

apparently effortless extension of the wings seems amply sufficient to sustain
its huge body, and no flapping motion is necessary to enable it to mount to
a great height. It is only on leaving a rock that a few strokes are requisite to
attain the necessary impulse, after which, with primaries bent upward by the force
of the air, it performs its stately evolutions by soaring only. In alighting, the
bird drops its legs some distance from the rock, and, sailing to within a few yards,

RUPPEI^'S VULTURE.
(One-fifth natural size.)

it checks its velocity by two or three heavy strokes of the wings. ' ' The griffon
invariably nests on rocks, and in the south of Europe probably lays in February,
as young ones are commonly found in most nests early in April. During incuba-
tion one bird sits constantly, and, if driven off, immediately returns. The nest is
an immense structure composed entirely of sticks, and it is common to find from
two to six nests placed near together. In the case of the Himalayan species, at

THE VULTURES 2021

any rate, but one egg is laid in each nest; the ground color being grayish white,
upon which there may or may not be dark markings. In some cases the Himalayan
griffon takes possession of the nest of an eagle, before its rightful owners have
thought about breeding. Gifted with the power of undergoing long fasts, the
griffon, when it can obtain sufficient food, is a perfect glutton, Canon Tristram
mentioning that he has seen one of these birds which was too gorged to stand, con-
tinue its feast while lying on its side. Griffon vultures, both of the common species,
and the kind confined to Africa, are exceedingly abundant in Abyssinia.

The long-billed vulture, which is found all over India, although it does not
enter villages and towns, is remarkable for always building in large societies, which
commonly include from ten to thirty pairs of birds. Such breeding places are al-
ways situated on ledges of cliffs, and one near Ajmir described by Mr. Hume "was
a cliff-face some one hundred feet high by three hundred wide, all broken up into
irregular ledges, of which the highest overhung all the rest. In among the ledges
were a few dwarf banyan trees, whose long bare roots and rootlets hung down, here
and there, in dense gray giant skeins. All the ledges, but the uppermost, when
looked at from below, seemed garnished with heavy white fringes, the white drop-
pings of the birds having run down in close parallel lines in a wonderfully symmet-
rical fashion over the weather- smoothed edges of the terraces. Seen from a distance,
the whole cliff face seemed mottled with huge patches of whitewash. Bleached
bones and dusky quills strewed every little plateau, and nestled in every cranny."
The young found at the end of March are described as presenting the appearance of
huge unwieldy masses of yellow down, and were so fat that they could not support
themselves on their feet for more than a few moments. According to native reports,
they do not leave the breeding place until three or four months old.

India and Africa each possess a vulture, agreeing with the long-
1 ' billed griffon in having a white patch on the rump and lower back, but

differing in having only twelve tail feathers, on which account they are
assigned to a separate genus — Pseudogyps. The Indian species (P. bengalensis)
has the rest of the plumage nearly black, while in P. africanus it is browner. The
former is the most common vulture in India, where it is found in immense numbers
both in the open country and in towns; it likewise extends to Burma and Malacca.
Collecting round the carcass of every dead animal in numbers, these vultures may
also at times be seen perched singly on a dead human body floating down the Ganges
with their wings widely spread in order to steady themselves while they enjoy their
ghastly meal. They breed both on rocks and in large trees, and, like all other Indian
vultures, lay but one egg in a season.

Far less common than the members of the preceding genera are the
Eared Vultures . -

two species or eared vultures, so termed on account of the large naked

fleshy lappets on either side of the neck. In addition to these lappets, and other
fleshy folds about the head, these vultures are distinguished by the completely bare
head, and by the length of the middle toe being less than that of the metatarsus.
Of the two kinds, the African eared vulture (Otogyps aiiricularis} , which ranges
from Abyssinia to the Cape, and occasionally visits the south of Europe, is consider-
ably the larger, and is, indeed, only inferior in size to the condor, attaining a length

2O22

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

of some forty-five inches; the general color of its plumage is brown, and the inner
surface of the thigh is feathered. In the smaller Pondicherry vulture (O. calvus},
on the other hand, the inner surface of the thigh is naked, and the plumage black;
hence it is often spoken of as the black vulture, although that name more properly
belongs to the representative of the genus Vultur. Ranging from India through
Burma to Siam, and by no means abundant in individuals, the Pondicherry vulture,

PONDICHERRY VUI/TURES GORGING.
(One-seventh natural size.)

according to Jerdon, is usually seen alone or in pairs, although occasionally four or
five may be observed hunting in company over some rocky hill. Some of the other
Indian vultures usually give place when this species arrives on the scene, on which
account it is commonly known as the raj-sogno, or king vulture, among the natives
of part of India. This vulture is a late breeder, generally laying in March, although
some individuals begin as early as the end of January, and others delay till April.

THE VULTURES 2023

It appears to build invariably in trees; tall peepuls and banyans being its especial
favorites. An anonymous writer to the Asian mentions that in April, 1887, he came
across a nest of this vulture in Sirmur. ' ' Being on the hillside above, I could look
right down into the nest; the owner was sitting very close, and it was only when I
got quite near, shouted, and threw sticks at it, that it moved; then, standing up, it
opened its beak and spread out its wings by way of intimidation, at the same time
disclosing to view one large white egg upon which it had been sitting. The nest,
placed in the crown of the tree, was an enormous mass of sticks, with finer ones as
a lining, and the large round white egg was very nearly hatched." A nest men-
tioned by Mr. Hume, which had been in use for several years, contained over six
hundredweight of material.

Nearly allied is the Abyssinian vulture (Lophogyps octipitalis] , dis-
y.f ' iai tinguished by the head being covered with down, which forms a ridge
on the occiput, and by the absence of the neck lappets. It is a com-
paratively small species, with blackish-brown plumage, and while probably inhabit-
ing the whole of the east side of Africa, is found on the west only in Senegal.

The scavenger vultures, of which there are two well-defined species,
gy^ ian derive their name from the loathsome nature of the food of their typ-
ical representative, which consists chiefly of ordure, and are accord-
ingly the most disgusting of their tribe. They are distinguished from all other
vultures "by their elongated longitudinal nostrils, and likewise by the slenderness
and length of the beak, and are smaller than the other members of the family. The
head and neck are partly bare, and the wings long and somewhat pointed, with the
third quill the longest. The white scavenger vulture, commonly known as the
Egyptian vulture {Neophron percnopterus) , which has occasionally visited the Brit-
ish Islands, and is represented in its adult and immature plumage in the centre of
the plate on p. 2018, is characterized by the general white hue of the plumage of the
adult. The long hackles on the back of the head and neck have, however, a rusty
tinge, and the secondary quills are mostly brown, and the primaries black. The
typical form, which attains a length of twenty-five inches and has the beak of a pale
brown horny color, inhabits the countries bordering both sides of the Mediterranean
and Red Seas, from whence it extends southward to the Cape, and eastward to
Persia and Northwestern India. In Peninsular India it is replaced by a variety or
species distinguished by its inferior size and yellow beak. In young birds the
plumage is of a dirty- brown color, with the back and rump tawny, and during the
intermediate stage the plumage becomes mottled with brown and white.

The Egyptian vulture is commonly seen in pairs or singly, and when on the
ground stalks about with a peculiarly high action of the legs. In addition to the
food already alluded to, these birds will also eat carrion; but their feeble beaks
render them unable to tear open the tough hides of large animals, and they have to
wait till the carcass is opened by their more powerful kindred. These birds build
either on rocks or large buildings, or in trees, frequently in the suburbs of towns.
The nest is large and composed of sticks and rubbish, usually lined with rags; its
general shape being that of an irregular platform, with a slight depression in the
centre. Mr. Hume observes that in many parts of India ' ' wayfarers, as they pass

2O24

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

particular trees, have a semireligious custom of tearing a strip off their clothes to
hang thereon, and the tree soon becomes loaded with rags and tatters. These are
a perfect Godsend to the neophrons of the neighborhood, whom I have more than
once watched robbing these local shrines of their trophies by the score. Sometimes
the rags of various colors are laid out neatly in the nest, as if an attempt had been
made to please the eye; sometimes they are irregularly jumbled up with the mate-

PII.EATED VULTURE.
(One-fourth natural size.)

rials of the nest." The eggs, which are generally laid in the latter part of March,
are commonly two in number, although there may be three. In size, color, and
texture specimens differ much; but they are generally chalky, and vary from pure
grayish or reddish white, with a few specks at one end, to a uniform dingy blood-
red hue. The Egyptian vulture, or " Pharaoh's chicken," is well represented on
the ancient sculptures of the country from which it takes its name, and is the bird

THE SECRETARY VULTURE 2025

alluded to in Leviticus under the name of Geier eagle. On account of its value as
a scavenger, it is still protected in Egypt, as it is in some other parts of Africa.
In the Nile valley its usual breeding places are the tall mud cliffs bordering the
river.

A very different-looking bird to the foregoing is the African pileated

vulture (N. pileatus}. in which the general color of the plumage is
Vulture

chocolate brown, with the quills and tail black; the naked portion of

the head and neck being of a purple hue during life. In the typical South-African
form the total length of the bird is some twenty-six inches, but in Northeastern and
Western Africa there is a rather smaller race, with a relatively-longer and more
slender beak, which has been regarded as indicating a distinct species. Compared
with the Egyptian vulture, Mr. Blanford observes that the present species is " far
more vulturine both in its flight and food. Numbers usually collect around a car-
cass, which is very rarely, if ever, the case with N. percnopterus. The difference
is best shown in the fact that both Europeans and Eastern people frequently speak
of N. percnopterus as a kite, while no one could ever consider N. pileatus as any-
thing else than a vulture." The species is very common on the shores of Annesley
bay, but is less numerous in the Abyssinian highlands.

THE SECRETARY VULTURE
Family SERPENTARIIDJE

The well-known, but nevertheless very remarkable African bird (Serpentarius
secretarius) , represented in the figure on p. 2026, differs so widely from all
other Accipitrines in external appearance that an ordinary observer might have
considerable hesitation in referring it to the same order. Doubts have, indeed,
been entertained by some ornithologists as to its right to be included in the
Accipitrines; but it appears, on the whole, to be allied to the vultures, next to which
it is placed, as the representative of a distinct family. Needless to say, the secretary
derives its name from the crest of long plumes rising from the back of its head,
which have suggested a fanciful resemblance to a man with a bunch of quill feathers
stuck behind his ear. Structurally, the secretary vulture differs from all other
members of the order by the great elongation of the tibia and metatarsus, which
give it somewhat of the appearance of a crane with an eagle's beak; and it is also
distinguished from the members of the two foregoing families by having basiptery-
goid processes on the rostrum of the skull, and its tufted oil gland. It resembles
both groups, however, in having the two nostrils separated by a median partition,
and by the presence of a syrinx, or organ of voice, at the lower part of its windpipe.
Its short-toed feet resemble those of the caracaras in having the three front toes
joined by short webs at their bases.

In addition to the crest of plumes at the back of the head and its lanky limbs,
the secretary is characterized by the great prolongation of the two middle feathers

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

of the tail, which communicate an almost unique appearance. When adult, the
bird will somewhat exceed four feet in height, while the length of the tail is just
under two feet. The prevailing hue of the plumage is a delicate pearly gray, with
the quills and primary coverts black, and the crest feathers either gray tipped with

SECRETARY VUI/ttJRE.
(One-eighth natural size.)

black, or wholly black. The upper tail coverts are white, and of the tail feathers
the long middle pair have white tips preceded toy a broad black band, but are
elsewhere pure gray, while the others are darker gray, with white tips and two
blackish bars. On the under parts the breast and under wing coverts are white,
with a faint-ashy tinge; the thighs and abdomen black, and the under tail coverts

THE SECRETARY VULTURE 2027

white. The iris is gray, and the leg and foot yellowish. The existing secretary
vulture ranges over the whole of South Africa, and extends along the eastern
side of the continent to the Sudan and Abyssinia, while on the west coast it is
found in Senegambia. During the Miocene period the genus was represented by a
species inhabiting the south of France, distinguished by its relatively-shorter and
stouter legs.

Living generally in pairs, the secretary is far from uncommon in many parts
of South Africa, although it is rare in the Abyssinian highlands. One of its
peculiarities is the pace at which it can walk, a wounded individual being described
by Mr. Blanford as walking away as fast as he could run after it. From the
number of snakes, lizards, locusts, etc., taken from the stomachs of these birds,
there can be no doubt but that they are in general large consumers of those reptiles
and insects; although there may perhaps be some hesitation in accepting all the
stories as to the large size of the snakes they habitually kill. Messrs. Nicolls and
Eglington are indeed disposed to throw considerable doubts on the snake-killing
propensities of these birds, and state they have known them in South Africa
•endeavor to avoid coming into contact with even small snakes. On the other hand,
they are declared by the same writers to be deadly foes to the young of all kinds of
game birds, as well as of hares and antelopes, on which account they advocate their
destruction rather than their protection. In a specimen examined by Mr. H. A.
Bryden the stomach was found to contain a small tortoise, a mouse, four lizards,
and a large quantity of locusts. "There were no snakes," writes the narrator, " or
remains of snakes; nor were there any indications that the great bird had been re-
cently feeding on hares or game birds." We have, however, graphic accounts by
Jules Verreaux of combats between the secretary bird and snakes .of five or six feet
in length, which always ended in the victory of the former. And other writers state
that in some districts these birds feed largely on tortoises. With these differences
of opinion, it is obvious that further observations are required before we can speak
•decisively as to the mode of life of the secretary.

With regard to its breeding habits, it appears that during June or July the males
begin to fight among themselves for the possession of the females, and, as soon as
the victor goes off with a consort, the two set about the repair of the nest. The
latter is placed in a tall bush or a mimosa tree, and is said to be used for several
years in' succession. It is formed of sticks and clay at the base, while its flat top is
•covered with vegetable wool, feathers, and other soft substances. In August the
hen bird lays from three to four eggs, which are about the size of those of a goose,
and are generally either pure white, or white faintly spotted with red. During the
time that the hen is sitting, she is regularly fed by the cock- bird, and in the course
of about six weeks the young are hatched. For a long period the j'oung are com-
pletely helpless and unable to stand upon their long legs, and it appears that they
do not leave the nest for five or six months.

In spite of spending such a large portion of its time on or near the ground, the
secretary bird can fly well and strongly, although in a somewhat heavy manner. It
may at times be seen soaring high in the air, with motionless, outstretched wings,
after the manner of a vulture, and may always be recognized by having its head

2028 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

stretched out 'straight in front, and its legs extended backward below the tail. When
pursued, these birds generally keep to the ground, and if hunted from horseback
they give a good chase, which does not end till they fall from pure exhaustion.

THE AMERICAN VULTURES
Family C

That birds so closely resembling in general appearance the true vultures as do
the vultures of the New World should be far less closely related to them than are
the falcons or even the secretary vulture may seem extraordinary, but it is neverthe-
less a fact; and the external resemblance between the members of the two groups
must accordingly be attributed to the effects of that parallelism in development to
which we have before alluded. So different, indeed, are these birds from other Ac-
cipitrines, that it is probable the three preceding families should be brigaded in one
great group equal in rank to a second including only the present family. Some
ornithologists go even further than this, and refuse to admit the American vultures
within the limits of the Accipitrine order; but the correctness of this view we are
not yet prepared to admit. Agreeing in general appearance and their bare heads
and necks with the vultures of the Old World, the American vultures can be distin-
guished at a glance by the absence of any partition between the two nostrils, so that
(as seen in our figure of the turkey vulture on p. 2036) there is a hole right through
the upper part of the beak. They also differ from the Falconida and Vulturidtz by
the absence of aftershafts to the feathers, in which respect, as also in the presence
of basipterygoid processes on the rostrum of the skull and in the naked oil gland,
they resemble the owls. A remarkable peculiarity of the group is the absence of a
syrinx, or voice organ, in the lo.wer part of the windpipe, in consequence of which
the only sound that these birds can utter is a kind of hiss. In their length of limb
these vultures agree with the Old-World group, but the first toe is more elevated.
There are, altogether, about nine species of these birds, of which the majority are at
least partly South American, although the range of the family extends about as far
north as the northern boundary of the United States.

Largest of all the birds of prey, the condor of the Andes (Sarcor-
hampus gryphus} is the type of a genus characterized by the head of
the male being furnished with a large, erect, fleshy wattle, which forms a median
crest immediately behind the beak, and also by the rounded wings, in which the
primary and secondary quills are of nearly equal length, exceeding twice the length
of the tail. The first toe is very short; while the 'second and fourth toes are of nearly
equal length. The female lacks the head wattle of the male; but in both sexes the
beak is characterized by its comparative shortness and depth. In the male condor
the general color of the plumage may be described as glossy black with gray on the
wings; most of the wing coverts, as well as all the secondaries and the inner pri-
maries, having their external margins ashy white. The large downy ruff round the
neck is pure white, and the bare parts of the head, neck, and chest have a wrinkled

2029

and mostly dark-colored skin, developed into a wattle on the throat and another on
the chest. Horny brown at the base, the bill becomes ivory white at the tip, while
the feet are blackish, and the iris of the eye pale brown. In the smooth-headed and
smaller female the iris is red, and there are no wattles on the neck and chest. Ac-
cording to Darwin, the length
of the male is about forty-
eight inches, and the body is

of immense size and weight,
while the span of the wings
probably reaches nine feet. A
smaller condor from Ecuador
and Quito has a uniformly-
brown plumage, and the
whole beak blackish.

The condor is especially
characteristic of the Peruvian
and Chilian Andes, where it
is usually found in the zone
lying between nine thousand

and sixteen thousand feet; its range extends, however, from Quito to the extreme
southern point of the continent, and in Patagonia it frequents the steep cliffs on the
coast. It has been often stated that these birds may be seen soaring round the highest

CONDORS FLOCKING TO A DEAD GUANACO.

2030 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

peaks of the Andes, from whence they suddenly descend to the level of the plains,,
but the observations of Mr. Whymper have shown that this is incorrect. In the
neighborhood of Chjmborazo that traveler never observed these birds anywhere
near the mountain summits, whence he concludes that the upper limit of their ordi-
nary range cannot be more than sixteen thousand feet; while in the same district
they do not appear to descend below some nine thousand feet. Since, however, con-

u\->

MALE AND FEMALE CONDORS.
(One-sixth natural size.)

dors in Patagonia are commonly seen at the sea level, it is probable that there is an
upland and a lowland race, and that the same birds do not range from the level of the
sea to elevations of sixteen thousand feet. In regard to their habits when on the
wing, Mr. Whymper writes that "on the few occasions upon which we were ap-
proached by condors in a menacing manner, we became aware of their presence from
their shadows being cast upon us by a nearly vertical sun. They never came near

THE AMERICAN VULTURES

2031

when the sun was concealed, and if they hovered in our neighborhood they always
kept the sun at their backs. This cannot be their invariable habit in a country
where the sun is so often invisible, though possibly it is adopted whenever there is
a chance, and the motive is obvious. The objects to be attacked are dazzled by the

[Copyright 1892, h/ CHAS. SCRIBNER'S SONS.]

GAUCHOS LASSOING CONDORS.

sun's rays, while the assailants are enabled to inspect their brilliantly-lighted in-
tended victims at their ease, whose eyes are picked out at the earliest opportunity,
and are thus rendered completely defenseless. The herdsmen on Autisana had life-
long familiarity with the condor, and did not stand in awe of it. They told me

2032 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

that the bird was particularly addicted to old horse and young calf, and might after
feeding, be easily caught with the lasso. ' ' Darwin writes that the old birds gener-
ally live in pairs, but on the inland basaltic cliffs of Santa Cruz there is a spot which
used to be haunted by scores of these birds. ' ' On coming suddenly to the brow of
the precipice, it was a grand spectacle to see between twenty and thirty of these
grand birds start heavily from their resting place, and wheel away in majestic cir-
cles. Having gorged themselves with carrion on the plains below, they retire to
their favorite ledges to digest their food. From these facts the condor must to a
certain degree be considered as a gregarious bird. In this part of the country they
live altogether on the guanacos which have died a natural death, or, as more com-
monly happens, have been killed by the pumas. I believe, from what I saw in
Patagonia, that they do not on ordinary occasions extend their daily excursions to
any great distance from their regular sleeping places. The condors may often be
seen at a great height, soaring over a certain spot in the most graceful circles. On
some occasions I am sure that they do this only for pleasure, but on others, the
Chileno countryman tells you that they are watching a dying animal, or the puma
devouring its prey. If the condors glide down, and then suddenly all rise together
the Chileno knows that it is the puma, which, watching the carcass, has sprung out
to drive away the robbers. Besides feeding on carrion, the condors frequently,
attack young goats and lambs; and the shepherd dogs are trained, whenever they
pass over, to run out, and looking upward to bark violently." From the feeble
grasping power of their feet and especially the small size of the first toe, it is per-
fectly evident that condors cannot carry off animals of any size, and all the legends
of their flying away with children may be discredited.

Frequently roosting in trees on the lower grounds during a considerable portion
of the year, in the breeding season condors retire to the most inaccessible parts of the
mountains or sea cliffs. Here during the summer months of November and Decem-
ber the female deposits two lar-ge white eggs on some rocky ledge, without any
attempt at making a nest. The young are clothed with gray down, and remain a
long time in the breeding place, where they have been observed as late as May.
Owing to their destructive propensities, condors are incessantly persecuted by the
natives, and have thus been greatly reduced in numbers in many districts. Mr.
Whymper states, however, that as many as a dozen may still be seen at a time in the
neighborhood of Chimborazo. The birds may either be lassoed when gorged, or
noosed while roosting in trees; while the Chilenos also capture them by surrounding
a carcass with a fence of sticks, in which an opening is left, and then galloping up
on horseback when the birds are gorged, and thus inclosing them. As a condor
requires a certain space in which to run before being able to rise from level ground,
the fence effectually prevents their escape. To shoot a condor on the wing requires
some stratagem, as at a distance of thirty or forty yards a charge of buckshot pro-
duces no effect. Mr. J. R. H. MacFarlane relates that he was able to draw the birds
within distance by tying up his dog and concealing himself behind a rock close by.
"Soon," he writes, "I perceived that the plaintive noises made by my dog had
produced an effect; gradually the condors passed and repassed in their majestic
flight, curiosity bringing them each time nearer and nearer, till at last I saw the

THE AMERICAN VULTURES

2033

most inquisitive bird passing within five yards of my retreat, when to drop the lock
and deliver the contents of both barrels was the work of a second. To see a heavy
bird such as a mallard suddenly drop with a thud, is generally satisfactory, so my
feelings may be understood when my raptorial friend plumped down about two hun-
dred feet below, sliding and rolling down the sand of the precipice, at the foot of
which I found him lying as dead as a stone. ' '

KING VULTURE.

(One-fifth natural size.)

The brilliantly-colored king vulture (Cathartes pat>a\ is distin-
King Vulture . , , . „ - ., , .\ , . . . . f . ' .

guished genencally from the condor, to which it is far inferior in size,

by the second toe being longer than the fourth, and by the whole of the front of
the head of the male being covered with wattles, while the female has a single
upright wattle over the nostril. During life the naked portions of the head and
neck of the male are colored with shades of orange, purple, and crimson; while the
128

2034 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

plumage of a large portion of the upper parts is cream color tending to fawn; the
greater wing coverts and quills, together with the lower part of the beak, rump,
upper tail coverts and tail, are black, and nearly the whole under surface white
with a tinge of cream. Round the neck the feathers are deep gray; the beak is
yellowish-horn color, with a brown base; the feet are grayish black, and the iris
is white. The female is more soberly colored, having the whole of the upper sur-
face dark.

The king vulture has a more northerly range than the condor, extending from
Brazil to Mexico, Texas, and Florida, and also occurring in Trinidad. Reaching
in the mountains to an elevation of about five thousand feet, this splendid bird has
its true home in primeval forests or well-wooded plains, and it is utterly unknown
in dry open districts, or on barren mountains. A comparatively-scarce bird, it
roosts at night in low trees, — frequently in company, — and sallies forth at early
dawn in search of carrion and other food. Although the female is known to lay
two white, eggs, there is some uncertainty as to the location of the nest. Azara
was told by the natives that it was always placed in hollow trees, but this has been
doubted by other writers, and Burmeister states that the nest is built high up on a
tree, frequently on the very summit of one that is dead and bare.

The two remaining genera of the New- World vultures are readily
American Black,. . , , .. ,, ,. , ,, , .

v ., distinguished from the preceding ones by the absence of an erect

wattle on the naked head in both sexes, while they are further char-
acterized by the wings being pointed and less than twice the length of the tail,
with their primary quills considerably longer than the secondaries. The present
species (Catharista atrata), which is the sole representative of its genus, is charac-
terized by -the squared extremity of the tail, and by the interval between the tips of
the primaries and secondaries being less than the length of the metatarsus. In
color the black vulture is a nearly -uniform black, although the shafts of the pri-
mary quills are white on both sides, and those of the tail feathers brown above and
white beneath. Both the beak and feet are bluish, while the iris is dark brown.
The total length is only about twenty -five inches. Its regular range extends from
about the northern frontier of Patagonia to North Carolina and Texas, while irreg-
ularly, or casually, the bird is found as far north as New York and South Dakota.
In the States it is commonly known as the carrion crow. With the exception of the
extreme northern portion of its range, the black vulture is a resident species in the
districts it frequents; and is far more abundant near the coast than in the interior,
in the United States being more numerous than the turkey vulture in the former
situations, while it is outnumbered by that bird in the heart of the country. As
the habits of this vulture are very similar to those of the turkey vulture, it will
suffice to say that these birds are more or less gregarious, frequently breeding in
small companies, and making little or no nest for the reception of their two eggs,
which appear to be always placed on the ground, either under the protection of low
bushes, logs, or rocks, or in perfectly open situations. They rarely breed north of
latitude of 39°; and in the Southern United States the eggs are laid early in March.
The ground color of the eggs is pale-grayish green, upon which are more or less
reddish markings. Describing a breeding place of these birds on a small island off

THE AMERICAN VULTURES

2035

South Carolina, Mr. W. Hoxie states that, under a dense growth of yucca, he has
" taken nineteen eggs in one afternoon, and seen at the same time five or six pairs
of newly-hatched young. There is never the slightest attempt at forming a nest,
or even excavating a hollow. The eggs are laid far in under the intertwining stems
of the yuccas, and, in the semishadows, are quite hard to be seen. The parent
birds have, however, the habit of always following the same path in leaving and

AMERICAN BtACK VUI/TURE.
(One-fourth natural size.)

approaching their precious charge, and, after a little experience, I learned to dis-
tinguish these traces so well that I seldom failed to follow them up, and secure the
coveted treasure."

The name of the turkey vulture, or turkey buzzard, as it is commonly
Turkey Vulture

called in North America, will always be associated with that of

Charles Waterton, as being the bird which gave rise to the great dispute between

2036

THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

that original observer and Audubon as to whether vultures detected their prey by
sight or smell. Although the English naturalist stoutly maintained that Audubon' s
experiments were inconclusive, and that the turkey vulture was solely guided by
scent, the views of his adversary have been now very generally accepted. The
turkey vulture (Rhinogryphus aura} is one of several species, distinguished from
the black vulture by the rounded form of the tail, and by the interval between the
tips of the primary and secondary quills exceeding the length of the metatarsus.

GROUP OP TURKEY VULTURES.
(One-sixth natural size.)

The present species is one of the smaller representatives of the genus, measuring
thirty inches in length, and characterized by its plumage being generally black,
with the wings washed with brown; the shafts of the primaries brown on the upper
surface, and the red head. The allied R. perniger has the plumage all black, and
the head yellow; while in R. falclandicus the wings are washed with gray, and the
head pink; and R. urubitinga differs by its orange head and the white shafts on
both sides of the primaries. All these three latter species are exclusively South

THE AMERICAN VULTURES 2037

American. The turkey vulture, on the other hand, has the widest distribution of
any member of the family, ranging over nearly the whole of temperate and tropical
America, inclusive of the West Indies. Southward it extends to Patagonia and the
Falkland islands, while its northern limits are marked by New York and British
Columbia. In the Southern and Middle United States these birds are exceedingly
common, and in some of the southern towns and villages, when not molested, they
may be seen perambulating the streets, or roosting on the house tops, with perfect un-
concern of the passers-by. Captain Bendire writes that ' ' they look their best aloft,
as their flight is exceedingly easy and graceful; while the apparent absence of all
effort as they sail in stately manner overhead, in ever-changing circles and without
any apparent movement of their well-shaped wings, makes them really attractive
objects to watch." Like all their kin, they are, however, essentially scavengers,
and when on the ground are by no means pleasing creatures. Dr. W. J. Ralph
writes that although carrion eaters, they prefer fresh meat to that which is tainted,
but that being unable to kill game for themselves, while their weak bills are incap-
able of tearing open the skins of large animals, they have seldom an opportunity of
exercising their preference. ' ' When they find a dead animal they will not leave it
until all (but the bones and other hard parts) has been consumed, and if it be a
large one, or if it have a tough skin, they will often remain near it for days, roost-
ing at night in the trees near by. After they have eaten — and sometimes they
will gorge themselves until the food runs out of their mouths when they move —
they will, if they are not too full to fly, roost in the nearest trees until their meal is
partly digested, and then commence eating again. Many times I have seen these
birds in company with the black vulture floating down a stream on a dead alligator,
cow, or other large animal, crowded so closely together that they could hardly keep
their balance, and followed by a number on the wing." In spite of this close
crowding, they never seem to fight much when feeding, although one will at times
peck and hiss at another; and at times two will tug at a particularljr tough frag-
ment, until it either break or the weaker bird gives up his hold.

The nesting habits are very similar to those of the black vulture, although,
instead of always laying its eggs on the bare ground, the present species will also
nest in caverns and crevices of rocks, or in hollow trees, while it has been known
to take possession of a deserted heron's nest in a cactus. Generally, the smell of a
nest is unbearable, and when disturbed the parent birds have sometimes the habit
of disgorging the contents of their stomachs at an intruder, instead of moving.
The young, which are covered at first with soft white down, are fed in a similar
manner. The eggs are usually two, but may be three in number, and an instance
of four young in one nest is recorded. In color the eggs are creamy white,
thickly blotched with red and chocolate. At times the nests, if such they can be
called, are in companies, but at others singly. The only sound uttered is a kind of
hissing wheeze, generally heard only when the birds are disturbed.

Far larger than either of the other members of the genus is the

v . California!! vulture (R. calif omianu s) , which, according to Mr. F. A.

Lucas, may even exceed the condor in expanse of wing. In this bird

there is no distinct ruff of downy feathers round the neck, while the general color

2038 THE DIURNAL BIRDS OF PREY

of the plumage is brownish black; the tips of the greater wing coverts are, however,
whitish, forming a line across the closed wing, and there is a broad band of white
along the under side of the wing, which renders the bird easily recognizable when
flying overhead. This vulture always had a very restricted distribution, being
confined to the Pacific coast region of the United States from Oregon to Northern
Lower California; and it now appears to be found only in California, where its home
is in the almost inaccessible secondary ranges running parallel to the Sierra
Nevada. Never very numerous, the Calif ornian vulture has been decimated by
the poisoned meat laid out by the stockmen for the destruction of carnivorous
mammals, and in 1891 Mr. Lucas considered that the bird was likely to be
exterminated before many years. More recently, however, Captain Bendire states
that in some of the most barren and inaccessible mountains these vultures have
again commenced to hold their own, so that there is a possibility of their increase.
Although from 'the weakness of their claws and beaks the powers of offense of
these vultures are comparatively small in proportion to their size, yet their strength
is very great, as is attested by the fact that four are known to have dragged the
carcass of a young bear weighing one hundred pounds for a distance of two hun-
dred yards. The flight of this bird, according to Captain Bendire, "is graceful
beyond comparison, as it sails majestically overhead in gradually contracting or ex-
panding circles, now gently falling with the wind, and again rising easily against
it, without a perceptible motion of its pinions. While on the wing, it looks more
than the peer of any of our birds, the golden eagle not excepted." Little is known
of its breeding habits, but it appears that the huge nest may be placed either on
rocks or in trees; one that is described being situated on the limb of a large redwood
tree, at a height of seventy-five feet from the ground, and close to the stem.
The eggs are of a uniform greenish-white color.

CHAPTER XIII
THE CORMORANT GROUP— ORDER STEGANOPODES

THE two ordinal groups of birds forming the subject of this and the next chap-
ter agree with those considered in the two previous chapters in having bridged, or
desmognathous palates, and likewise in the want of a projecting external process
at the lower end of the humerus. The first order, which includes not only
cormorants, but also darters, gannets, pelicans, and frigate and tropic birds, may be
known as the cormorant-like, or steganopodous group, and is at once distinguished
from all others by the whole four toes being connected together by a web, which
generally extends to their extremities, while the angle
of the lower jaw is not produced behind its point
of attachment to the skull. These birds are further
characterized by the shortness of their legs, — this
shortness being most marked in the frigate birds, —
and also by the plumage of the neck being without
gaps, and continuous. Their skulls lack the deep
grooves for glands on the frontal region characterizing
many other aquatic birds, and its rostrum has no
basipterygoid processes for the articulation of the
pterygoid bones. There is a tufted oil gland, and the RIGHT FOOT OF PEUCAN.
young are helpless, and pass through a downy stage.

As a rule, their bodies are elongated, the neck of medium length, and the head
small, while the beak may be either long or short. The wings may be long and
rounded, or exceedingly elongated and pointed; and although the tail is variable
in form, it is always very different from that of other swimming birds. Although
several members of the group frequent the coast, it is only the representatives
of two families that are purely pelagic in their habits, while many species inhabit
rivers or lakes far removed from the sea. All are carnivorous, subsisting almost
entirely on fish, but their breeding habits vary considerably, although both parents
take their share in incubation. The eggs, which may be either one, or from two
to four in number, are of relatively-small size, much elongated, and generally in-
vested with a chalky coating over the uniformly-colored shell. Occasionally, how-
ever, they are smooth shelled, with dark markings upon a light ground. While
some fish by diving into the water from a height, others capture their prey by
thrusting their necks down into the water as they swim, while yet others follow the
fish of which they are in pursuit beneath the water. Some diversity of view obtains
among ornithologists as to the number of family groups into which these birds
should be divided.

(2039)

2040

THE CORMORANT GROUP

CORMORANTS, DARTERS, AND GANNETS

Family PHALACROCORACID^E

The cormorants, of which there are some thirty species, are the typical repre-
sentatives of the first family of the order, and are characterized by their elongated
but powerful body; the long neck, which may vary considerably in thickness; the

COMMON CORMORANT.

moderately-long and narrow beak, of which the tip is sharply deflected, and by
their lineal and concealed nostrils. The face and throat are naked; the legs short
and stout, with the first toe articulated to the inner side of the metatarsus, and
the claw of the third toe has a serrated inner margin. The wings are of moderate
length, with the third quill the longest, and the tail has either twelve or fourteen

THE CORMORANTS 2041

feathers remarkable for their extreme stiffness. Cormorants, although far more
numerous in the warmer regions of the globe than in northern climates, have an
almost cosmopolitan distribution, inhabiting countries as remote from one another
as Britain and New Zealand. Whereas, however, some seldom leave the neighbor-
hood of the sea, where they take up their stations on rocky islands, others fre-
quent reedy swamps and marshes, or the banks of rivers and lakes, and rarely, if
ever, visit the sea. While the more northern species are migratory, this is not the
case with their more southern cousins. Fossil cormorants date in Europe from the
lower portion of the Miocene period. All cormorants are characterized by the dark
blackish, bluish, or greenish hue of the plumage of the upper parts, which generally
has a more or less marked metallic tinge, and the head may be ornamented with
one or two crests of feathers. The best-known, and at the same time the typical
representative of the genus, is the common great or black cormorant (Phalacrocorax
carbo}, which ranges over the whole of Europe, a large part of Eastern North
America, Northern Africa and Egypt, and the greater portion of Asia, and is rep-
resented by a closely-allied form in Australia and New Zealand. The species is
characterized by the presence of fourteen tail feathers, and attains a length of about
thirty-six inches. In the adult bird the plumage of the head and part 'of the neck
during the spring and summer is black, with a number of hair-like white feathers
intermingled, while the feathers of the back of the head are elongated into a crest.
The back and wing coverts are dark brown with black margins to the feathers; the
quills and tail are black, and the lower portion of the neck and under parts, save a
white patch on the thigh, are bluish black. Of the naked portions, the base of the
upper mandible, together with the dilatable membrane of the lower jaw, are yellow,
the greater part of the beak is horny, and ,the legs and toes are black. In the
northern part of its range the common species is accompanied by the smaller green,
or crested cormorant or shag (P. graculus}, as it is indifferently called, which also
ranges still farther to the north. This British species, in addition to its smaller
size, may be distinguished by the presence of only twelve feathers in the tail, and
the general green hue of the plumage, which lacks the white patch on the thigh.
Like the larger species, both sexes have a crest in the breeding season; but this is
wanting during the winter, and in young birds at all times. This cormorant is es-
sentially a marine species. It is replaced in the Mediterranean by an allied form, P.
desmaresti or pygmceus, which has brighter colored plumage, and is generally said
to lack the crest. This form extends eastward to Java, and is likewise an inhabit-
ant of salt or brackish water. The South -African P. capensis is also nearly related.
Cormorants are by far the most expert divers of the order to which they belong, and
both swim and dive with a speed and power which cannot fail to arouse the admira-
tion of all beholders. On land their movements are awkward and ungainly, but their
flight, although heavy, is strong and comparatively swift. Feeding almost exclu-
sively on fish, these birds are the very type of greediness, and, after having eaten
till they can swallow no more, will not unfrequently still try to catch any prey that
may come within their reach. When fishing, cormorants often swim with their
heads below water, and they also capture a large number of fish by pouncing down
upon them from a perch near the bank as they appear at the surface of the water.

2042

THE CORMORANT GROUP

In general, cormorants are social birds, and frequently associate in vast flocks as
is the case with the South-African species which is found in such numbers on the
rocks near Cape Town as at times to darken the air when on the wing. Such com-
panies continue together during the breeding season, and may make their nests
either in the neighborhood of swamps, or on ledges of rock. In Burma Mr. Gates
describes vast flocks of the common species breeding on low trees at a height of
from fifteen to twenty feet above the water on the margin of a swamp, and Mr.
Doig records another similar breeding place in India. In the latter instance ' ' the
nests were large platforms of sticks, about two feet in diameter one way and two
and one-half the other; that is, they were more oval than circular. The eggs were

laid on a thin bedding of
rush and grass, and the
greatest number in one
nest was seven. Some
had only three, others
four, five, and six; the
latter seeming to be the
normal number, al-
though some nests had
only four young ones."
That this breeding place
was a very ancient one,
was evident by the cir-
cumstance of the nests
being built on the top of
those of previous years.
The eggs have a very
pale -blue shell, much
incrusted with chalky
matter, and become
very dirty during the
process of incubation.
In Kerguelen' s Land
Moseley states that the
warty cormorant (P. ver-

rucosus) breeds in companies on- the ledges of the cliffs sloping down to the sea.
They make a neat, compact, round nest, raised about a foot from the ground, and
composed of mud, with a lining of grass. The number of eggs in this place was
only two to three in a nest. He also says that the young birds with their coat of
black down were exceedingly ugly; and that "when there are three in the nest nearly
full fledged they form an absurd sight, since the nest is then not big enough to
hold more than one properly, so the greater part of the bodies of the three young
projects out; and then to crown the absurdity, the mother comes and sits on the top
of these three young as big as herself." The young feed themselves by poking
their heads far down into their parents' throats, and extracting the half-digested

CORMORANTS FEEDING THEIR YOUNG.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1882.)

THE DARTERS 2043

fish from their stomachs. Although often roosting on rocks, in some places cormo-
rants spend the night in trees, and on some parts of the Nile in Egypt they con-
gregate at night by hundreds in the palm trees fringing its banks.

In China and Japan cormorants have been trained to fish for their masters from
time immemorial, and early in the seventeenth century this practice was in-
troduced into Europe as a sport, which was also followed in Holland, France, and
England. In the East the cormorants are taught to fish either from the bank or
from a raft, and although young or imperfectly-trained birds wear a collar, to
which a cord may be attached, to prevent them swallowing their prey, in many
cases the fully-trained birds are allowed to fish without any kind of restraint. Till
they receive permission to forage for themselves, they invariabty bring all they
capture to their owner; and it is said that when the bird has seized a fish too large for
it to carry unaided, another immediately comes to its assistance. In captivity cor-
morants are readily tamed, and exhibit considerable intelligence and attachment.
Although generally considered highly unpalatable, their flesh is relished by Arabs
and L,aps. Not only on account of being the largest member of the genus, but as
having been exterminated comparatively soon after its discovery, Pallas' s cormorant
(P. pei spicillatus) claims a passing notice. The plumage both above and below was
a deep lustrous green, with a blue gloss on the neck, and purplish reflections on the
scapulars. Long straw-colored feathers were interspersed on the neck, and the shaft
of the tail feathers was white. Pale, naked rings round the eyes suggested the spe-
cific name. Discovered on Behring island in 1741, this fine species seems to have
become extinct within about a century from that date.

The darters, snake birds, or snake necks, form a group of four
species, readily distinguished from the cormorants by the much elon-
gated body, the extraordinary -long and thick neck, and the small flat and narrow
head terminating in a straight, conical beak with a point as sharp as a dagger, and
the edges of its mandibles finely serrated at the tip. The limbs are placed very far
back on the body, and have long toes; the wings are elongated, but bluntly pointed,
with the third quill the longest, and the long tail is rounded, and composed of
twelve stiff feathers gradually increasing in width toward their tips. Both the
quills and body feathers are lustrous, and generally show metallic tints, those on
the upper parts being more or less elongated. Of the four species, one (Plotus levail-
lanti} is African, another (P. anhinga) South American, a third (P. melanog aster)
inhabits India, Burma, and the Malay region, while the fourth is Australian. In
the African species the prevailing hue of the plumage is black, with a metallic-
green lustre; the feathers of the back and wing coverts having white shaft streaks.
The neck is rusty, with a blackish-brown streak running backward from the eye,
and beneath this a line of white. The iris is generally reddish yellow, the naked
areas on the head yellowish green, the beak horn color, and the foot greenish
gray. In the female the tints are less bright. The New- and Old- World species,
although externally so alike, differ remarkably in the structure of their internal
organs.

Darters frequent the banks of rivers, lakes, and swamps, where they may be
found either singly, in pairs, or in immense flocks, and generally select localities

2044

THE CORMORANT GROUP

where trees are abundant, well- wooded islands being their especial favorites. On
the rivers of the Chobi valley, Livingstone states that one of these birds may be
seen perched bn almost every rock and stump, "either sunning itself over the stream,
or standing erect with outstretched wings. Occasionally it may be seen fishing,
with its'bod)^ so much submerged that hardly anything but the neck appears above
the water. Its time of feeding is by night, and, as the sun declines, it may be seen

AFRICAN DARTER.

(One-fourth natural size.)

flying in flocks to the fishing grounds. It is a most difficult bird to catch, even
when disabled, in consequence of its expertness in diving; it goes down so adroitly
and comes up again in such unlikely places, that the most skillful boatmen rarely
secure them." Of the black-bellied Indian species, Mr. G. Reid writes that " dur-
ing the day it is fond of sunning itself on the grassy banks of lakes and on the bare
branches of trees, on their margins flying off or darting into the water on the

THE CAN NETS 2045

approach of danger. It is capable of moving for considerable distances under water,
and usually swims with nothing but its head and neck exposed, though, when
danger threatens, everything but its bill disappears, till it considers it has gone far
enough to be perfectly safe, when it gradually shows up again. ' ' When swimming
with only the head and neck exposed, these birds may easily be mistaken for snakes,
while their flight is exceedingly like that of cormorants. Their food consists ex-
clusively of small fishes, which they capture in the water and transfix with their
sharp beaks. From observations made on a captive specimen by Mr. Beddard, it
appears that when fishing the darter swims beneath the surface of the water with its
wings partially expanded, and with a peculiar jerky action of the head and neck,
suggestive of a man poising a spear before throwing it. When within striking dis-
tance, the bird, by a vigorous lunge of the neck, impales the fish on the tip of its
beak, and immediately afterward rises to the surface, when it shakes off its prey by
a series of jerks of the head and neck. In order to accomplish this bayoneting proc-
ess, the darter has a peculiar ' ' kink ' ' in the vertebrae of the hinder part of the
neck, which can be suddenly straightened out by muscular action, when the head is
necessarily shot forward. Darters build in trees, the African species generally plac-
ing its nest, which is very like that of the tropic bird, on a bough from four to eight
feet above the water. The eggs, which are three to four in number, have light
green shells, thickly incrusted with the usual chalky coating. Soon after they are
hatched the young have naked heads, but are elsewhere covered with dirty white
down. In India the nests are frequently built in association with those of the little
cormorant and herons. Certain gypsy tribes who travel in boats on the rivers of
Eastern Bengal are very fond of taming darters, each of their vessels having one of
these birds sedately perched on its stern.

The large and somewhat goose-like birds known as gannets and
boobies, of which there are some nine species, are much more-stoutly
built than the darters, and have shorter and thicker necks and beaks. The beak is
strong and conical, with its horny covering composed of several pieces, its cutting
edges serrated, and its gape extending behind the level of the eyes, the nostrils
being, as in the cormorants, situated at its base and almost invisible. The legs are
short, and the claw of the third toe is pectinated like that of the cormorants. The
wings are of great length, with the first quill the longest, and the twelve-feathered
tail is rather short and wedge shaped. A naked area occupies the face and throat.
The skeleton differs from that of the cormorants and darters in that the furcula is
not united by bone to the summit of the breastbone.

The common or white gannet (Sula bassana), as the typical and best-known
example of the genus, will serve as our chief example. Measuring about thirty-
four inches in total length, the adult gannet has the plumage entirely white, with
the exception of that of the head and neck, which is buff, and the black primaries
of the wings. The beak is horny white; the naked part of the face bluish black;
the iris straw color; the front of the leg and foot green, and the remainder
nearly black. In young birds the plumage of the upper parts is blackish brown
flecked with white, while beneath it is mingled ashy and buff. Although occasion-
ally driven inland by stress of weather, the gannet, like its congeners, is a coast-

2046 THE CORMORANT GROUP

haunting bird, associating on certain cliffs, such as the well-known Bass Rock, in
countless swarms. Its range extends over the coasts of the Northern Hemisphere
as far north as latitude 70°, and as far south as the tropics; although the birds only
frequent the southern portion of their habitat during the winter, and are but seldom
seen at any time in the Mediterranean. In Southern Africa, the place of this spe-
cies is taken by the Cape gannet (S. capensis), distinguished by its nearly black

COMMON GANNET.
(One-tenth natural size.)

tail; and the greater number of the representatives of the genus are inhabitants of
the Southern Hemisphere. Although still breeding on the English coast at Lundy
island, it is on the Scotch and Irish shores that the gannet is found in great num-
bers; the Bass Rock being, however, the only station on the eastern coast where
these birds resort for breeding. Gannets are also abundant in the Orkneys and

THE CAN NETS 2047

Hebrides, and although less numerous on the Norwegian coasts, reappear in vast
swarms on the shores of North America. The gannets on the Bass Rock have been
so frequently described, that it will be unnecessary to give any account of the won-
drous scene here. It may be mentioned, however, that the birds usually assemble
in March, although laying does not generally commence till May; and some idea of
the vast numbers of these birds may be obtained from the fact that formerly from
fifteen hundred to two thousand young have been taken in a season. The nest,
which is generally some six inches in height, is formed of a mass of seaweed and
grass placed upon the bare rock, and in this is laid a single egg, which is at first
chalky white, with a faint blue tinge. During incubation, the birds become so tame
that they will allow themselves to be handled, and it is somewhat curious, that on
the ledges of the Bass Rock almost all the sitting birds have their heads turned
toward the cliff. Gannets feed exclusively upon fish, and commit great devastation
upon the shoals of herrings and pilchards, in search of which they often wander for
long distances. Couch observes that ' ' the gannet takes its prey in a different man-
ner from any other of our aquatic birds; for, traversing the air in all directions, as
soon as it discovers the fish, it rises to such a height as experience shows best cal-
culated to carry it by a downward motion to the required depth, and then, partially
closing its wings, it falls perpendicularly on the prey, and rarely without success, the
time between the plunge and immersion being about fifteen seconds. ' ' The serrated
third claw of the gannet, like that of the cormorant, appears to be for the purpose
of dressing the plumage, and not for aiding in the capture of the prey, which is
taken entirely by means of the beak.

On many of the islands of the southern seas gannets, or boobies, of various
species, breed in vast numbers and exhibit remarkable tameness, or rather absence
of fear. Among such breeding places may be mentioned St. Paul's Rocks, Booby
island off Fernando de Noronha, and Raine island off Northeastern Australia. The
white-bellied gannet (S. leucogaster) of St. Paul's Rocks and Raine island, makes a
slight nest of green twigs and grass on the ground; while the blue- eyed ganuet
(S. cyanops) merely digs a hole about an inch and one-half deep. The latter species
is nearly white, with the naked parts of the face blue and the iris bright yellow;
while the smaller Australian S. piscatrix differs from both the others by its bright
red feet. Moseley writes that ' ' on the low cliffs of Booby island the noddies [terns]
and boobies nest on all the available ledges, and sat on their nests quite undisturbed
as we rowed past them. It was curious to see the doves nesting together with
these two sea birds on the same ledges and with their nests intermingled. ' ' Re-
mains of extinct gannets are found in the lower portion of the Miocene deposits of
France; while the rocks belonging to the middle portion of the same period have
yielded bones of a gannet-like bird with wings even longer than those of the alba-
tross, for which the name of Pelargornis has been proposed. Nearly allied to the
latter is the so-called Argillornis from the much older London Clay of England.
Still more remarkable is the tooth-billed cormorant {Odontopteryx} , of the latter
formation, which, while apparently allied to the cormorants, differs from all existing
birds in having the bony margins of the jaws produced into a number of tooth-like
processes.

2048

THE CORMORANT GROUP

THE PELICANS
Family PELECANID^

Although pelicans are now quite unknown in Britain, the occurrence of their
bones in the fens of Norfolk and Cambridge indicates that comparatively recently

EUROPEAN PEUCAN.

they were at least occasional visitors. The largest representatives of their order,
these birds are distinguished from all others by the enormous development of the
beak, which is of great length, much flattened, and marked by a number of fur-
rows. To the lower mandible is affixed a large dilatable pouch of great capacity;

THE PELICANS 2049

so that the whole beak may be compared to a bag net, to which the upper
mandible acts as a lid. The extremity of the latter ends in a slightly hooked
knob, of which the horny covering is from time to time shed. The body is very
massive, the neck long and comparatively slender, the head small, and the legs are
short with very elongated toes. The wings, in which the third quill is the longest,
are large and broad, and the tail, which contains from eighteen to twenty-four
feathers, is short, broad, and rounded. Although thick, the general plumage is
remarkable for its harshness and roughness, the feathers of the breast ending in
narrow points; while on the back of the head there is generally a helmet-like crest.
The adults of the two sexes are nearly similar in coloration, but the young are
very different. In the skeleton the furcula is welded to the breastbone, as in the
cormorants; but the vertebrae of the back differ from those of the latter in having
saddle-shaped, instead of ball-and-socket surfaces for articulation with one another.
All the bones, and likewise the integuments, are penetrated to a most remarkable
extent by air cavities. Pelicans, of which there are some half score of kinds, are re-
stricted to the tropical and warmer regions of the globe, where they have a very wide
distribution. They are all very similiar in general appearance and habits, although
the American white pelican (Pelecanus trachyrhynchus} differs from the rest in being
an expert diver. The common European pelican (P. onocrotalus) , as the best-known
representative of the genus, will serve to illustrate the habits of all. It belongs to
a group characterized by the feathers of the forehead extending forward in a point
on to the upper part of the beak. During the breeding season the back of the head
carries a somewhat elongated crest; the upper mandible is reddish at the base and
yellowish at the tip, with a line of crimson along the middle, while the lower
mandible is pale red, and the pouch and naked space round the eye, as well as the
feet, are flesh colored. Of the plumage, the primaries and bastard wing are black;
the long feathers on the front of the lower part of the neck yellow, and the
remainder white, with a tinge of rose color. The tail has eighteen feathers. In
birds of the first year, the plumage is a uniform grayish brown, the lanceolate
feathers of the breast being wanting; and it is not for some years that the full
plumage is acquired, the depth of the rose tint being most marked during the breed-
ing season. This species, which attains a length of about five feet, inhabits the
more southern parts of Europe and Northern Africa, while it also occurs in Western
Africa at Senegambia and Mozambique. While common in Hungary, the Crimea,
Egypt, and the Ionian islands, it only occurs occasionally in France and Algeria. In
India there is a rather smaller form (P. minor} distinguished by the presence of a
long pendent crest at all seasons; this form also ranging over Greece, Egypt,
Abyssinia, and Western Africa. As to whether the common Bengal pelican is
identical with the European species, there is some doubt. The other European
species is the crested pelican (P. crispus), which belongs to the group in which the
feathers of the forehead are truncated in front and terminate more or less squarely
on the base of the beak. In this species the general plumage is white tinged with
gray, the wing black, and the feathers of the crown and back of the head crinkled
and elongated into a large crest. The eye is silver white, the beak grayish yellow
above, the pouch blood red shaded with blue, and the foot black. Fossil pelicans
129

2050 THE CORMORANT GROUP

occur commonly in the Miocene deposits of Europe, and also in the Pliocene of
Northern India.

Pelicans commonly occur in enormous flocks in the neighborhood of
swamps, estuaries, and rivers, and are sometimes so numerous that
in India Mr. Hume speaks of having seen miles of them. Their food is mainly fish,
of which they consume immense quantities, but crawfish have been taken from the
stomach of the American species. In fishing they generally select water of suffi-
cient depth to swim in, but which is not too deep to prevent them touching the bot-
tom when swimming with their heads beneath the surface. In this posture a flock
will frequently form a line or horseshoe, each bird stationed about a yard from its
neighbor, and will fish the water in a most regular and systematic manner from
bank to bank. On reaching the opposite bank, the birds will either waddle on
shore to preen and dress their feathers, and afford time for the digestion of their
meal, or take flight to another piece of water. In general their periods of feeding
and repose are marked out with great regularity. The females attend to the feed-
ing of the young, this being effected by the old birds pressing their beak against
their breast and raising the upper mandible, upon which the young help themselves
to the fish in the pouch; and it is doubtless from this action that the fable of the
pelican feeding her offspring from the blood of her own breast took its origin. The
eggs, from two to three in number, have thick bluish-white shells, incrusted with
chalky matter; and it is not uncommon to find both eggs and half-fledged young in
the same nest. In India, at least, the male and female birds not unfrequently asso-
ciate in separate flocks. In spite of their bulk and clumsy form, pelicans display
extreme activity when on the wing, flying in lines with the neck bent back over the
body, and all who have seen flocks of these birds under such circumstances,
describe it as one of the most imposing and striking scenes that can be imagined.

FRIGATE BIRDS
Family FREGA TID^E

The two remaining families of the order — each represented by a single genus
— differ from all the foregoing in being completely pelagic in their habits. The
frigate, x or man-of-war birds, are characterized by their slender body; short and
thick neck; long and powerful hooked beak, of which both mandibles are deflected
at the end; the extremely- short legs, feathered down to the toes; their elongated
and sharply-pointed wings, and the deep, swallow-like forking of the long tail.
The feet differ from those of all other members of the order by the webs only ex-
tending a short distance up the long and sharply -clawed toes; and in the wings the
first quill is the longest, while the tail has twelve feathers. There is a tract devoid
of feathers around the eye and on the throat. The bones are more permeated by
air cavities than in any other bird, and there is a large dilatable air sac beneath the
throat. In the great frigate bird (Fregatus aquila}, which inhabits the warmer

THE TROPIC BIRDS 2051

regions of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans, the plumage of the adult male
is brownish black, shot with metallic green and purple on the head, neck, back,
breast, and sides, and shaded with gray on the wings. The eye is brown, with the
surrounding bare space purplish blue; the beak is light blue at the base, white in
the middle, and dark-horn color at the tip; the throat sac orange red in the breed-
ing season, and the foot carmine red above and orange beneath. The females differ
by their duller tints and the presence of a larger or smaller pure white area on the
breast. The lesser frigate bird (F. minor} is confined to the Indian and Pacific
Oceans.

The frigate bird, which has received the title of the Son-of-the-sun, is one of
the most swift and active of all pelagic birds, spending much of its time on the
wing, often far away from land, and subsisting largely on the fish which it compels
terns and other birds to disgorge. In regard to their predatory habits, Mr. H. O.
Forbes writes that in the Cocos Keeling islands hiding in the lee of the cocoanut
trees, the frigate birds would sally out on the successful fishers returning in the
evening, and perpetrate a vigorous assault on them until they disgorged for their
behoof at least a share of their supper, which they caught in mid air as it fell. The
swoop after the falling spoil was so elegant an evolution, that I always hoped that
the poor noddy would give up as heavy a morsel as possible, in order to necessitate
a correspondingly eager dive after it. Refractory gannets were often seized by the
tail by the frigate birds, and treated to a shake that rarely failed of successful
results. Fierce foes as they were in the air, on terra firma they roosted near each
other like the best of friends. On the island of Fernando de Noronha Moseley
describes the frigate birds as building their nests on the verge of an inaccessible
precipice; these being visible on looking down from the top, and each containing a
single egg. On the other hand, in the unmolested Raine island, these birds nest on
the ground.

THE TROPIC BIRDS
Family PHAETHONTID^G

The tropic birds, or "boatswains," as they are commonly called by sailors, are
represented by three species, and are somewhat inferior in size to the common Eng-
lish gull. In general appearance they are not unlike terns, from which they are,
however, distinguished at a glance by the greatly elongated middle pair of feathers
of the tail. In addition to this feature, they differ from the frigate birds in their
conical and pointed beak, near the base of which are situated the very large nos-
trils; by the longer and naked metatarsus, the completely webbed toes, and the
absence of a bare space round the eye, and of a throat sac. The best-known and
most widely-distributed species is the red-beaked tropic bird (Phaethon athereus),
ranging over the tropical regions of the three great oceans. In the adult the body
plumage is white, with a reddish tinge, and black shaft stripes to the feathers; the
outer webs of the primaries are white, the hinder secondaries mingled black and

2052 THE CORMORANT GROUP

white, and the two long tail feathers white. The beak is coral red, the eye brown,
the leg yellow, and the web and toes black. In younger birds the feathers of the
back have black bands at the tips; while in a still younger stage the middle tail
feathers are not elongated, and the beak is brown. The yellow-beaked tropic bird
(P. flavirostris} is distinguished by its yellow beak, and the red middle tail feathers.
Tropic birds often follow in the wake of vessels for long distances, and display
great boldness. During the breeding season they frequent the Bermuda and Pa-
cific islands in great numbers, generally breeding in companies, and making their
nests in holes in the rocks.

The writer once had the good fortune to see a living specimen of the white-
tailed tropic bird, which came on board the R.M.S. Magdalena, in the South Atlan-
tic on September 5, 1893, during the night, in an apparently exhausted condition.
After a night's rest it recovered, and flew away on being liberated. The pearly
lustre of the lovely grebe-like plumage of the head and neck was particularly strik-
ing, and the beauty of the two long tail feathers of this child of the ocean excited
the admiration of all the beholders.

CHAPTER XIV

HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES— ORDER HERODIONES

STORKS ASSEMBLING FOR MIGRATION.

AGREEING with the members of the preceding order in their bridged palates,
the absence of basipterygoid processes on the rostrum of the skull, the tufted oil
gland, and the presence of a downy stage in the helpless young, the herons and
their allies the storks and ibises differ very markedly in general appearance, and
present several important distinctive features. In the first place, their limbs —
especially the metatarsal segment — are greatly elongated; and if the toes are
webbed at all, the first toe is not involved. Secondly, the plumage of the neck,
instead of being continuous, has a large bare tract reaching upward from the
spine. In all, the rather small and slit-like nostrils are placed near the root of the

(2053)

2054

HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

long, powerful, and generally sharp-pointed beak; but whereas
in the majority of the group the hinder end of the mandible is
truncated, this is not the case with the ibises. Mostly birds of
considerable size, the members of this order all have long and
powerful wings, while in habits they are essentially waders and
they generally nest in trees. Externally, herons and storks
present a marked general similarity to cranes but, as we shall
see in the sequel, the latter differ in the structure of the palate,
in their "precocious" young, and also in the conformation of I'OWER END OF THE

, , LEFT CANON BONE

the bones of the leg. In the canon bone the two outer troch- OF THE INDIAN WOOD
leae are of nearly equal length. STORK.

THE HERON TRIBE
Family ARDEIDA?

The members of this family have the body thin and much compressed, the
neck generally long and thin, and the beak straight, narrow, and pointed, with the

grooves in which the nostrils are placed
stopping short of its extremity, and its
cutting edges serrated at the tip. * On the
chin the feathering generally or always ex-
tends considerably in advance of the line of
the nostrils. The leg is of medium length,
with the front surface of the metatarsus
covered with more or less scute-like plates,
the toes are mostly three, and the claw of
the third one is pectinated on the inner side.
The wings, although large, are somewhat
blunt at the tip, owing to the second, third,
and fourth quills being nearly equal in
length. The short and rounded tail has
either ten or twelve feathers, and there are
bare spaces round the eyes and on the lores.
The presence of a so-called powder-down
patch of crumbly downy feathers on each
side of the rump is absolutely characteristic
of the family; and there are no bare tracts
on the sides of the neck. The general

plumage, which is very variable in color, is soft and loose; the feathers on the crown
of the head, back, and upper breast being frequently elongated. Externally the two
sexes are chiefly distinguishable by difference of size. In the skeleton the lower
mandible is not produced posteriorly to its articulation with the skull; and the

FURCUIA OF HERON.

* The boatbill is exceptional in the form of the head and beak.

THE HERONS 2055

V-shaped furcula is characterized by the projection of its median process within the
angle, as shown in the figure. With the exception of the extreme north, herons —
of which there are some seventy species — are met with in all parts of the globe,
and at almost all habitable elevations. They are, however, most numerous in trop-
ical and subtropical regions, where they form the predominating element in the bird
life of swamps and marshes. A few seem to prefer the seacoast, others more gen-
erally frequent rivers, while the majority confine themselves to lakes and marshes.
Some, again, are to be met with in the open country, while others are partial to
thickets or woods. Their gait is slow and measured, and their flight of consider-
able strength, but uniform, and accompanied by continual flapping of the wings.
Many of them habitually associate in large flocks, and all build in company; their
large nests containing from three to six unspotted whitish or bluish-green eggs.
Essentially waders, most members of the family are able to swim to a certain extent;
and, like the other members of the order, the whole of them are carnivorous; fish
forming the greater portion of their diet, although many of the smaller species are
large eaters of insects, and all will devour animals of any kind that they are able to
capture.

The common gray heron (Ardea cinerea) is the type of a large and
widely-distributed genus, characterized by the long, straight, sub-
conical beak, in which the nostrils are pierced in a groove at the base, and partially
concealed by a membrane. The long and slender legs are naked for some distance
above the ankle joint; the front of the metatarsus is covered with large scales,
and the toes, of which the third and fourth are partially joined by a web, are
of moderate length, the third being much shorter than the metatarsus. The wings
are moderate, with the second quill the longest, and the short tail has twelve
feathers of nearly equal length. Formerly strictly preserved in Britain for the
royal sport of hawking, the common heron is in most parts left to look after itself,
although several of its breeding places are still well protected. Its distinguishing
features are the crest of long blackish feathers depending from the back of the
head; the white forehead and cheeks; the gray hue of the plumage of the upper
parts, tail, and wings; the black primaries, and the long white feathers covering
the chest, above which the front of the neck is white marked with elongated
bluish-gray spots; the under parts being grayish white with black streaks. The
beak is yellow, the lore yellowish green, the iris yellow, and the legs and toes
greenish yellow, with the claws brown. In total length the heron measures about
three feet. The female is less brightly colored and has shorter plumes than the male.
The common heron ranges over the greater part of Europe, although it is not
found in the extreme north, while in the south it is mostly a winter visitant only,
although it breeds on the Lower Danube. Eastward it ranges through Asia to
China and Japan, and is common in many parts of India and Ceylon, while it has
been recorded from Australia. It also ranges over Africa to the Cape, although it
is doubtful if it breeds in the south of that continent.

Nearly allied to the preceding is the more slender-necked purple heron (A.
purpurea), in which the crown and back of the head, together with the plumes,
are purplish black; the cheeks and sides of the neck fawn with bluish-black streaks;

2056

HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

the back and wing coverts slaty gray; the long feathers on the back chestnut; the
tail gray; the chin pale, and the neck reddish buff; the point of the shoulder and
under wing coverts chestnut, and the under parts maroon red anteriorly, and a
mixture of maroon, gray, and black posteriorly. The beak and iris are yellow, as
is the tibia; while the greater portion of the metatarsus and feet is brown, the claws
being black. A straggler to Britain, the purple heron is common in Holland and

gm*Q- ,.* ^^H^'^^>A

*^ir*<^^^i^s&^^^w /

GOLIATH HERON IN BREEDING PLUMAGE.
(One-fifth natural size.)

Spain, and ranges over the greater part of Europe to the southward of Central
Germany. To the eastward it ranges from the Mediterranean to the Indian region,
the north of China, and the Philippines, in such districts as are suitable to its
habits, but only breeds in the warmer regions. Common and resident in Egypt,
it appears to be mainly a winter visitor to most other parts of Africa, although
it is a permanent inhabitant of certain marshy districts. The last member of

THE HERONS

2057

this group of the genus we 'shall notice is the goliath heron (A. goliath}, of
which the total length is about half as much again as that of the common spe-
cies. In this splendid bird the crest takes the form of a number of moderately

GRAY HERONS AND THEIR NEST.

long pointed feathers. The head and crest, the point of the shoulder, and the
under parts, with the exception of the white throat, are reddish-chestnut brown;
the sides and back of the neck bright bluish gray; the upper parts a more ashy

2058 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

gray, and the long loose plumes on the front of the neck externally white and inter-
nally black, frequently with reddish shaft stripes. The iris is yellow, the lore
green, the upper mandible black, the lower mandible greenish yellow at the tip and
many colored at the base, while the legs and feet are black. This heron is widely
distributed over Africa; and in 1845-46 numerous specimens were obtained by
Blyth in the market at Calcutta, since which date, according to Mr. Hume, there
is no definite record of its occurrence in India, although it may have been seen in
Ceylon.

Water of every kind, from the sea marge to the mountain stream, forms the
favorite haunt and hunting ground of the herons, and there the common species
may be seen standing alone and silent, knee-deep in the flood, watching patiently
for a passing fish, with its head drawn back and ready to strike with unerring aim
at a moment's notice. Although the chief food of these birds consists of fish, all
kinds of water animals, not too large for their capacities, are captured easily, among
them being frogs, snakes, water voles, young waterfowl, crustaceans, insects, and
worms. The usual time for fishing is early in the morning and late in the even-
ing, while on moonlight nights the business is continued till a later hour. In
spite of its extreme voraciousness, the heron is not considered a wholly un-
welcome visitor to trout streams, on account of the number of voles and coarse
fish it destroys. Mostly solitary during the winter, the common heron assemble
in the early spring for nesting in large numbers; the "heronry" being generally
situated in tall trees, and occupied for generation after generation. Heronries, like
the well-known one at Cressy Hall near Spalding, have been so often described,
that it will be unnecessary to repeat the details here. It may be observed, how-
ever, that the nest, which is of large size, and relatively flat and wide, is formed of
sticks and lined with twigs, fibres, and grass; and that the three or four eggs are
bluish green in color. While the hen is sitting, the male bird takes his stand
during his hours of rest on a branch hard by, where he may be seen maintaining
his position in the face of a gale. Both parents take a part in feeding the young,
and after the first brood is able to take care of itself a second clutch of eggs is laid.
In English heronries the nests are commonly built in oaks, elms, or wych-elms, but
in Kashmir the magnificent chunars or plane trees are the favorite breeding resorts
of these birds. Occasionally the nests are built on rocky cliffs overgrown with ivy
or low shrubs. The alarm cry of the heron is the well-known hoarse crank, crank,
but in the breeding season the note is more prolonged. In Sind, where the common
heron is very numerous, it is employed by the natives as a decoy bird for other
waterfowl. "About every fisherman's village," writes Mr. Hume, "hundreds
may be seen perched about on the boats, on stacks of brushwood thrown into the
water, and on poles, perfectly motionless, and more like stuffed than living birds.
The eyelids of all are sewn up; they dare not move, poor things, and, wherever
they are placed for the day. there they remain immovable. Generally they are
lightly tethered by one leg, but I saw several, perhaps old prisoners, in no way
tied." Occasionally, a bird gets loose and flies skyward in the usual circling man-
ner, and in such cases they are never known to return, but wander forth to perish
miserably from hunger.

THE HERONS 2059

The purple heron is a more nocturnal bird than the common species, approxi-
mating in its habits to the bittern. The goliath heron, according to observa-
tions made by Major E. A. Butler in Natal, does not appear to breed in companies.
A nest seen by this officer " was situated in the centre of an open valley, and placed
on the top of a patch of green sedge beaten down by the wind and rain, and form-
ing, as it were, a sort of small island, being raised about two feet above the level of
the water. It consisted of a dense mass of dry sedge and reeds lined with dark
colored sedge and a species of aquatic creeper, being about two feet in diameter and
very flat on the surface, and exposed to view from all sides. The male bird was
sitting, and as we approached raised himself off the nest and walked slowly away in
an erect attitude for a few yards before taking flight." The three eggs, although
larger, were similar to those of the common species.

Very different in appearance to the more typical representatives of
the genus is the great white heron (A. alba), which, together with the
numerous smaller forms known as egrets, is characterized by its
more slender body and limbs, the extremely-long neck, less robust bill, the white
plumage, and the beautiful elongated plume-like feathers of the back. On account
of these differences some writers have referred these birds to a separate genus
(Herodias). The great white heron is a few inches longer than the common species,
and has the whole plumage of a glistening silvery white; the feathers at the back of
the head are but slightly elongated, but those on the lower part of the front of the
neck attain a considerable length; while the long filament-like feathers of the back
are developed only during the breeding season. In the latter period the bill is
black, although yellow in the autumn; the lore is green; the iris yellow, and the
limbs nearly black. An exceedingly rare straggler to Western Europe and the
British Islands, this splendid heron is more common in Spain and the south of
France, while it is abundant in Sicily and along the southeastern borders of the Med-
iterranean. Eastward it extends through Asia Minor, Turkestan, and the warmer
parts of Asia to Manchuria and Japan; being migratory in the more northern dis-
tricts, but resident in India, Burma, etc. , where its size is somewhat smaller. It
also occurs during the winter in North Africa; while in Australia and New Zealand
it is replaced by a closely-allied form {A. flavirostris) , in which the beak is stated
to be yellow at all seasons.

This species feeds on small fish, reptiles, mollusks, and insects. As a rule
silent, it leaves its feeding ground early in the evening to seek a roosting place
among tall trees; and in Ceylon and India breeds in company with spoonbills, com-
mon herons, and other waders in similar situations. The nest is described as being
remarkably flat, with scarcely any hollow for the reception of the three or four
greenish eggs. Writing of the New Zealand species, Sir W. L. Buller observes
that " it is very interesting to watch this stately bird stalking about in its haunts,
or fishing in the shallow water, its snow-white plumage rendering it a very conspic-
uous object. I have always found it very shy and difficult to approach, the slight-
est sound exciting its suspicion, and making it take wing. It flies high and in wide
circles, the wings forming slow and regular flappings, the head being drawn in
upon the shoulders, and the legs trailing behind." In New Zealand the white

2o6o

HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

heron breeds in several places near the sea in company with the white-throated
cormorant; upward of twenty-five nests having been counted in one of these haunts.
When this species breeds in association with the common heron, it usually occupies
the middle region of the trees, of which the tops are occupied by the herons, while
the lower boughs may be tenanted by night herons.

GREAT WHITE HERON.
(One-sixth natural size.)

The little egret (A. garzetta) , which is one of the rarest stragglers-
to Britain may be taken as a well-known example of small white
herons, collectively known as egrets. The male bird, which measures about

Little Egret

THE HERONS

2061

twenty-five inches in length, during spring and summer has the whole plum-
age pure white, with a crest of two long narrow feathers, some elongated plumes
on the lower part of the front of the neck, and the filament-like feathers of the back
greatly developed. The beak is black, the lore lavender, the iris varying from
yellow to pale lavender, and the legs mostly black, although yellowish interiorly.
The winter dress lacks the crest and the plumes on the back. In Southern and
Southeastern Europe this egret is a common species, and it ranges thence through
Asia Minor and Persia to India, China, and Japan, while it occurs locally through-

•• ' " ' i ;

I.ITTLE EGRET.
(One-fourth natural size. )

•out Africa, and has been obtained from Northern Australia. The little egret nests
in bushes and trees in the neighborhood of swamps, in company with the other
waders; the nest being a platform-like structure of sticks intermingled with a few
reeds, upon which are laid from three to six bluish-green eggs. The bird differs
from the white heron in being generally very noisy. Both this and the preceding
species occur in great numbers on the inland waters of Sind, and both, like the
•common heron, are kept in confinement by the fishermen. Mr. Hume says that a
single boat of about twenty feet in length will contain " a man and his wife, an old

2062 HERONS, STORKS, AND- IBISES

man, some relatives, six children, six or eight herons (gray and white), a couple of
cormorants, a kid, a dog, and otter spears, nets, lines, hooks, and the like, of all
descriptions. ' '

Among other species, brief reference must be made to the beautiful
' buff-backed heron (A. bubulcus}* which is so common along the banks
of the Nile, and is frequently pointed out to tourists as the sacred ibis. During the
breeding season this bird has the plumage of the head, neck, and breast rufous
buff, and some long plumes on the back also of the same tint; the remainder being
white, with a tinge of creamy on the wing coverts. The beak is reddish at the
base, and yellow at the tip; the eye and lore are golden pink, and the limbs yel-
lowish red. This bird always displays great partiality for cultivated grounds, feed-
ing not only upon frogs and locusts, but likewise on worms and larvae turned up by
the plow, as well as on ticks from the backs of cattle, — from which habit it is
frquently termed the cattle egret. The squacco heron (A. ralloides] is a still smaller
species, measuring only nineteen inches in length, and is of special interest as form-
ing a connecting link between the other members of the genus and the night herons.
Its distinctive features are the great length of the beak, and the presence of a mane-
like crest extending from the back of the head all down the neck. In the full
plumage the feathers on the top of the head are yellowish brown, with dark streaks;
those of the crest are white, with black borders; the sides of the head and neck are
reddish buff; the interscapulars and long hair-like feathers of the back pale reddish
brown, and the remainder of the plumage white. The beak is blue at the base and
black at the tip, the lore green, and the legs are yellowish green, with black claws.
Essentially a South-European and African form, the squacco ranges in summer over
the more northern parts of the continent, and has been taken on a considerable
number of occasions in the British Islands.

nerons. °f which the European species (Nycticorax griseus}

N' ht H

is the best known, "are comparatively-small birds, taking their name

from their habit of spending the day in sleep and waking up in the evening to pass
the greater part of the night in searching for food. They are distinguished by the
relatively-short beak being very thick at the base and slightly bent down at the tip;
by the moderately-long and stout legs, in which a portion of the tibia is naked, and
the metatarsus is longer than the third toe; the very broad wings, and also by the
plumage, with the exception of some three thread-like plumes from the back of the
head being smoother and more compact than in the true herons. The scutes on
the front of the metatarsus are six-sided, and the tail has twelve feathers. In the
adult of the common species, the crown of the head, nape, upper back, and shoul-
ders are blackish green, the remainder of the upper parts and the sides of the neck
ashy gray; the under parts pale straw color, and the head plumes (which in old
birds may be increased above the ordinary three) pure white. The iris is a fine
purple red, the beak black with a yellow base, the lore green, and the foot greenish
yellow. In the young bird the head plumes are absent, the general color of the
upper plumage is brown with longitudinal rusty-yellow and yellowish -white flecks;

*Sometimes referred to a distinct genus Bitbulcus.

THE HERONS 2063

while the under parts have a whitish, and the neck a yellow ground with brown
markings; both the iris and beak being brown. In total length the night heron
measures about twenty-three inches.

The genus has an almost world- wide distribution, being found in regions as
remote from one another as Britain and New Zealand, and the common European
species has likewise a very wide range. In Northern Europe the latter is a com-
paratively rare visitor, and it is said to be becoming less numerous in the north of
Germany and Holland, where it'breeds, but it is abundant in Spain, Italy, and the
Danubian provinces. Thence it extends eastward through Palestine to India,
Burma, China, and Japan, as well as the Malayan islands, while it ranges through-
out Africa, and is represented in North America by a rather larger race, which in
South America passes into a darker variety. The habitat of the night heron is
generally in thickly-wooded districts, and by preference in the near neighborhood
of swamps, although not unfrequently these birds inhabit groves at considerable
distances from water, from whence they make long nocturnal flights to their fishing
grounds. Except during the breeding season, they seldom, unless disturbed, rouse
themselves from their slumbers in the daytime; but when the young are hatched,
the parents are compelled to go abroad in search of food during the daylight hours.
Perching with its neck resting on its shoulders, the night heron when disturbed
from its slumbers flies but a short distance, and again settles. When on the wing,
the head is drawn in between the shoulders, and the legs stretched out behind, the
flight being slow and flapping, and the course of the bird indicated in the darkness
by the utterance from time to time of a characteristic hoarse croak. In Europe the
breeding season lasts from May to July, the nests being generally placed in bushes
or low trees near swamps, but at other times in groves which may be also tenanted
by other members of the order, and rarely among reeds. Large numbers of birds
associate in these breeding places, and when the young are hatched, the noise
made by the birds as darkness conies on is described as deafening. The nests in
some places are made of rice straw, and are remarkable for their size and solid
structure; the pale greenish-blue eggs vary from three to five in number. The food
of these birds comprises aquatic insects, worms, mollusks, frogs, and small fish.

Omitting mention of some important genera, brief reference must
Little Bittern , , , ,. . , >. ,,

be made to the little bittern (Ardella mtnuta), as the representative

of a small genus in some respects connecting the night herons with the true bitterns.
These birds are much smaller than the night heron, measuring only thirteen inches
in length, while agreeing with the foregoing genera in having the second quill of
the wing the longest (although but slightly so), and the third toe shorter than the
metatarsus; they differ in having only ten short feathers in the tail, in the tibia be-
ing feathered nearly to the ankle, and in the greater length of the toes. The legs
are rather short, and the straight, slender, pointed beak is slightly longer than the
head. In the male the plumage of the crown of the head, nape, back, and
shoulders, as well as the primaries and tail feathers, are shining greenish black, and
the wing coverts and under parts tawny buff, marked on the breast and flanks with
black. The beak, lore, and iris are yellow, and the legs and feet greenish yellow.
The smallest member of the heron tribe found in Britain, where it is an occasional

2064

visitor, the little bittern ranges over Southern Europe to Northern Africa, and ex-
tends eastward to Kashmir and Northwestern India. , Migrating to South Africa, it
is represented there by a distinct resident species, while in America its place is taken
by a smaller form.

Before the drainage of the fens and the general advance of cultiva-
tion, the boom of the bittern was a familiar sound in many parts of
England, but the bird is now only a somewhat rare visitor, although a nest was
taken as late as the year 1868. The common bittern {Botaurus stellaris) belongs to
a genus easily characterized by the great length of the toes, of which the third is as

Bitterns

COMMON BITTERN IN ITS VARIOUS POSTURES.

(One-fourth natural size.)

long as the metatarsus, by the three first quills being of nearly equal length and the
longest in the wing, and by the short tail comprising ten soft feathers. The strong
beak is rather longer than the head, somewhat higher than broad, and with the
extremity of its upper mandible slightly curved downward, the longitudinal slit-like
nostrils being partially covered by a bare membrane. The legs are of medium
length, feathered nearly down to the ankle, and with large scutes on the front of
the metatarsus, while the toes are of very unequal length, and the first unusually
elongated. Owing to the equality in length of the first three quills, the somewhat

THE HERONS 2065

elongated wings are rounded at their extremities. There is but little difference
between the plumage of the young and mature birds. Although inferior in size to
the heron from which it differs markedly in its much shorter and thicker neck,
larger and plumeless head, and shorter beak, the bittern is a decidedly striking
bird; and its mottled plumage of buff, brown, and black, is adapted to harmonize
with the dead stalks of the reeds and flags among which it habitually skulks. As
regards coloration, the crown of the head is black with a tinge of bronzy green,
the elongated feathers at the back of the head and nape being barred with black
and buff; the remainder of the body plumage is characterized by having a buffish
ground variously marked with reddish-brown and blackish-brown flecks, bars, and
streaks, with a dark stripe from behind the angle of the beak, and another down
the front of the throat. The primaries are mingled grayish black and chestnut,
and the tail feathers reddish brown with black markings. The beak is greenish
yellow, tending to horn color at the tip, the lore green, the iris yellow, and the
leg and foot green with pale horn-colored claws. In length a male bittern may vary
from twenty-eight to thirty inches. The American bittern {B. lentiginosus) , which
is an accidental visitor to Britain, differs from the common species, not only by its
inferior size and more slender limbs, but likewise by the uniformly lead-brown hue
of the primary quills of the wings.

The common bittern, like so many members of the present family, has a wide
geographical distribution, extending all over Europe as far north as latitude 60°
and even to 64° on the Yenisei, in Asia, and ranging eastward through Central Asia
to China and Japan. It also occurs in Persia and Northern and Central India, as
well as in Burma, and likewise ranges over the whole of Africa, in localities suited
to its habits. The New- World species is found over the greater part of North
America. The bittern is essentially a bird of the swamps, among the reeds and
bulrushes of which it either skulks in the rail-like manner shown in the central fig-
ure of our illustration, or stands erect, as depicted in the background, when it pre-
sents a strange resemblance to a pointed stump. When disturbed in the day among
a bed of reeds, it generally rises within easy shot, and after flapping lazily along for
a short distance, once more takes to covert. While on the wing, it utters a resound-
ing cry, replaced during the breeding season by the hollow boom, from which the
bird derives its name; and in its evening flights the bittern is said to soar in circles
to vast heights. The breeding season in Europe commences in March and April,
and the nest, which is formed of a mass of reeds and flags is placed either in thick
covert, or on the marge of a swamp. The four eggs are olive brown in color, but
may be tinged with green when fresh laid. Among our ancestors the bittern was
regarded as a favorite dish; and in Landseer's well-known picture a bittern figures
among the offering sent to the abbot of Bolton Abbey. Instead of booming, the
American species during the breeding season utters a cry which has been compared
to the sound produced by hitting a stake with a mallet. Writing of the American
bird, Dr. Coues observes that-" when the bittern is disturbed at his meditation, he
gives a vigorous spring, croaks at the moment in a manner highly suggestive of his
displeasure, and flies off as fast as he can, though in rather a loose, lumbering way.

For some distance he flaps heavily with dangling legs and outstretched neck, but
130

2o66

HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

when settled on his course he proceeds more smoothly, with regular, measured
wing beats, the head drawn in closely, and the legs stretched out behind like a
rudder. He is very easily shot on the wing, dropping at a touch of even fine shot.
When winged, he croaks painfully as he drops, and no sooner does he touch the
ground than he gathers himself in defensive attitude to resent aggression as best he
can. He fights well, and with more spirit and determination than he might be

BOAT-BII^ED HERON.

(Three-tenths natural size.)

expected to show. He has a very ugly way of pointing his resistance with quick
thrusts of his spear-like bill, capable of inflicting no slight wound on an incautious
hand. The food of this bird consists of various kinds of small aquatic animals. In
its stomach may be found mollusks, crayfish, frogs, lizards, small snakes, and fishes,
as well as insects. Such prey is captured with great address, by spearing, as the bird
walks or wades stealthily along; ' ' the thrust of the bill is marvelously quick and

THE WHALE-HEADED STORK 2067

skillful. It may be added that in America as well as in the Old World bitterns are
to a certain extent migratory.

The last member of the family to which it will be necessary to
allude is the remarkable boat-billed heron (Canc/troma cochlearia) of
South America, which, while agreeing with the other representatives
of the group in essential characteristics, differs by the broad head, terminating in
the wide and boat-like beak, from which the creature derives its name. The boat
bill is about the size of a night heron, and resembles the more typical members of
the family in the pendent plumes at the back of the head, and the presence of
twelve comparatively-stiff feathers in the tail. The broad beak is rounded off in
front, where it is somewhat bent down; the legs are rather short and feathered
to the ankle, with toes of moderate length; the wings are strong and large, with the
fourth quill the longest, and the tail is short and truncated. The crest is large,
and formed by the feathers of the back of the head and nape, but there are no
elongated plumes on the back, the front of the throat is, however, naked. In color,
the forehead, throat, fore-neck, and cheeks are white, the lower neck and breast
yellowish white, the back clear gray, the hinder region of the upper part of the
neck and the under parts rusty reddish brown, passing into black on the sides, and
the wing and tail feathers whitish gray. The iris is mostl}' brown, the beak brown
with a yellow border to the lower mandible, and the leg and foot yellowish.

The savaku, as the bird is called by the natives of South America, frequents
the thick woods bordering the Brazilian rivers, where it may be seen either solitary,
or in pairs during the breeding season. These birds are more numerous in the in-
terior than near the coast, and may be observed either in the low bushes on the banks
or perched on boughs high above the river. Their food consists of various aquatic
creatures, especially worms, but from the conformation of their beak, which is prob-
ably used for groveling in the mud, it is doubtful if these birds can catch fish. Prac-
tically nothing has been ascertained as to their breeding habits, although it is known
that the eggs are uniformly white, and very similar in general appearance to those
of a heron.

THE WHALE-HEADED STORK
Family BAL^NICIPITID^E

The extraordinary -looking and gigantic bird known as the whale-headed, or
shoe-billed stork {Balceniceps rex}, which is peculiar to certain parts of Africa, forms
the sole representative of a distinct family, whose nearest relationship, according to
Mr. Beddard, appears to be with the herons, and from which family it may be a
highly-modified offshoot.* While agreeing with the herons in the presence of
powder-down patches on the rump, and the absence of bare tracts on the sides of the
neck, as well as in several internal features, the whale head is distinguished by the
absence of pectination on the claw of the third toe, and likewise in the V-shaped

* This relationship is not admitted by Professor Newton.

2068 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

furcula having no process jutting forth into the angle. Apart from these morpho-
logical features, the large size of these birds, and their extraordinary beaks, render
them perfectly distinguishable at a glance from all their allies. The broad and de-
pressed beak, unlike that of the boat-billed heron, is concave in profile, with a strong
ridge down the middle of the upper mandible, the tip produced into a bold hook,
and the cutting edges highly curved, the minute nostrils being situated at its base
and not placed in a groove. The lower mandible is covered with a soft, leathery
skin for the greater part of its length, although horny at the tip. The legs are very
long, and naked for a considerable distance above the ankle, and the elongated toes
are not webbed. The long and broad wings have the third and fourth quills the
longest; the tail is of moderate length, with twelve feathers, and there is a short
bushy crest at the back of the head. The prevailing ground color of the plumage
is a fine ashy gray, the larger body feathers being bordered with lighter gray, and
the wing and tail feathers grayish black. The iris is yellow, the beak horn color,
and the leg and foot black. In size this bird comes between the white and the mara-
bou stork, although much nearer to the latter than the former.

Known to the Arabs as abu markub (father of a shoe), this giant bird is re-
stricted to the White Nile and its affluents, and although everywhere rare is most
numerous in the districts of Kitsh and Nuer in Northern Bquatoria, where it may
be found either singly, in pairs, or in small companies. It always frequents regions
the most remote from human habitations, where it may be seen standing — sometimes
breast deep — in the water by the side of some tall papyrus stem, and frequently
resting on one leg only. But seldom is this bird seen away from the neighborhood
of tall reeds, although it sometimes takes its station on a w7hite-ant hill on the bank,
and occasionally resorts to open reaches of the river. When first disturbed by a
boat, it will fly off slowly above the reeds with a great noise, and again settle; but
if roused a second time, it rises high into the air, and will not again return to its
haunt until the danger is past. Its flight is not unlike that of the marabou stork,
but the heavy beak is generally kept resting on the crop. The only sound it utters
is a loud snapping of the beak, in which respect it resembles the storks. Its princi-
pal food is fish, in order to capture which, the bird often stands breast deep in the
stream with its enormous beak lowered to the surface of the water, while at other
times several individuals will combine to drive the fish toward the shallows by march-
ing in a semicircle through the water, and making a great flapping of their wings.
It has been asserted that these storks will kill and eat snakes, but it is probable that
the statement has arisen from their devouring the fish known as the bisher (Polyp-
terus}, which the natives sometimes term a water snake. That dead carcasses and
carrion are also consumed appears to be well ascertained. The breeding season
takes place during the rains, the nest being situated on some slight elevation among
the reeds, especially one surrounded on all sides by water. Here the birds collect
a vast quantity of stalks and water plants, often solidified with mud, so as to form
an accumulation of about a yard in height. The eggs, which are small in proportion
to the size of the bird, have thick white shells, which are, however, bluish when first
laid, but become brownish as incubation progresses; they are overlain with a chalky
coating. Young taken from the nest thrive well on a fish diet, and are easily tamed.

THE HAMMERHEAD

2069

THE HAMMERHEAD
Family S

From a structural point of view the small brown African bird, known as the
hammerhead or umbre (Scopus umbrella}, is even more remarkable than the pre-
ceding, since it combines many features common to the herons and storks, and is

HAMMERHEADS AND THEIR NEST.
(One-fifth natural size.)

accordingly regarded by Mr. Beddard as nearly allied to the common ancestral stork
from which those two groups have sprung. It differs from the herons in the
absence of powder-down patches on the rump, and of pectination in the claw of
the third toe, as well as in having the angle of the furcula without any median pro-

2070 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

jection; but it resembles them in having the rings of the bronchial tubes incomplete
behind, and closed with membrane. In some other parts of its internal anatomy
it agrees with the herons on the one hand and the storks on the other; but it differs
from all herons except the boatbilled species in the shortness of its triangular
tongue, and thereby resembles the whale head and the storks, while it is peculiar in
having large bare tracts on the sides of the neck. The hammerhead measures
about twenty-five inches in total length, and has a .somewhat cylindrical body, a
short and thick neck, a very large head, and a beak rather longer than the head,
much compressed, straight, and bent down at the tip. The legs and toes are of
medium length, the latter connected at their bases by a web; the wing is broad and
rounded, with its third quill the longest; the tail is moderately long and has twelve
feathers, and the contour feathers are thick and long, those on the back and sides
of the head being developed into a broad and bushy crest. The coloration is a
uniform umber brown, generally brighter on the under surface; the quills of the
wings being shining and darker than the back, while those of the tail have a broad
purplish-brown band at the tip, and smaller bars near the root. The iris is brown,
the beak black, and the leg and foot blackish brown or black.

Nowhere abundant, the hammerhead is spread all over Africa, as well as
Madagascar and the south of Arabia; and although generally inhabiting the plains,
in Abyssinia ascends to an elevation of some nine thousand feet in the mountains.
It frequents the neighborhood of water in wooded districts, and appears to be gen-
erally found singly or in pairs. Resembling in many of its general habits the ibises,
the hammerhead when passing from lake to lake flies strongly and ascends high in-
to the air, and is reported to utter a kind of croaking cry. The most interesting
feature connected with this singular bird is, however, its nest. This is a huge,
dome-like structure of sticks, so firmly built that it will bear the weight of a man,
and frequently from a yard and a half to two yards or more in diameter. Generally
placed in a fork of a tree near' the ground, although sometimes in a rocky cleft, the
nest has a single entrance situated on its most concealed side. Internally it con-
tains three chambers — a hall, a drawing-room, and a sleeping apartment, with
entrances so small that the bird can only creep in. The sleeping chamber occupies
the highest portion of the nest, in order to be safe from floods, and in it, upon a
bed of water plants are laid the white eggs, which are from three to five in number
and are incubated by each parent in turn. The middle chamber serves for the
young when they are too big for the inner one, while the hall is used as a lookout
station. In Angola the nests of other birds are said to be taken by the hammer-
head. The chief food of these birds' appears to consist generally of fish; but in some
districts, at least, river mussels, frogs, lizards, small snakes, and worms and
insects constitute a portion of the diet. Although the two members of a pair do
not always remain together, they appear to be associated for life; and at times the
two birds, or occasionally three, will go through a peculiar kind of dance-like per-
formance. Everywhere these birds are mainly crepuscular, and are but seldom
seen in the full daylight.

THE STORK TRIBE

20/1

THIS STORK TRIBE
Family ClCONIID^

The storks may be distinguished externally from the herons by the absence of
pectination on the inner edge of the claw of the third toe, by the metatarsus being
covered with reticulate scales, by the absence of powder-down patches on the sides
of the rump, and by the feathering on the under surface of the lower mandible not
extending in advance of the line of the nostrils. In the skeleton the furcula, which
is generally U-shaped, is characterized by the absence of any median projection
into its angle. All storks have short triangular tongues, whereas herons (except
the boatbill) have long ones; and with the exception of two genera, they are char-
acterized by the rings of the bronchial tubes being complete. There are certain
other anatomical features, into the consideration of which it will be necessary to
enter. As supplemental characteristics, it may be mentioned that in all the mem-
bers of the family the body is plump; the beak in the form of a long compressed
cone, with a sharp point, but may be either turned up at the extremity, or gaping
in the middle; the leg is long, strong, and naked for a considerable distance above
the ankle; the toes are short, and
the three foot ones connected by a
short basal web; the wings large,
and the short and rounded tail
with twelve feathers. The con-
tour feathers of the head and neck
may be either narrow and elon-
gated, or short and rounded; while
in some cases they may become
woolly or hairy, or even, in old
age, with horny lance-like tips.
The two sexes may be distin-
guished by a difference in size,
while the colors of the young are
duller than those of the old birds.
Storks, of which there are some
twenty species, have a world-wide
distribution; those inhabiting the
northern regions of the globe
being migratory. They are all

diurnal in their habits, and the only sound they utter is produced by a sharp snap-
ping of the beak. Extinct genera carry the family back to the early part of the
Miocene period.

The true storks are characterized by their perfectly-straight sharp
True Storks Dea^S) jn the horny covering of which the nostrils are perforated, by
the webs of the front toes extending to their first joints, and by the third, fourth,

FURCUIvA OF STORK.

2072

HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

and fifth quills being of nearly equal length. By far the best-known species is the
white stork (Ciconia alba], in which the whole of the plumage, with the exception
of the black greater wing coverts and quills, is pure white, the beak being red, the
bare space round the eye black, the iris brown, and the foot and leg red, with brown

WHITE STORK.
(One-eighth natural size.)

claws. The whole length varies from forty-two to forty-four inches. With the
exception of the extreme north, the stork ranges over the whole of Europe, al-
though not breeding everywhere, and being merely an irregular visitor to the
British Islands. Eastward its range extends through Turkey and Persia to

THE STORK TRIBE 2073

Central Asia and a great part of India, while in the winter the bird visits Northern
Africa in large numbers. In France, where it is much persecuted, it is now only a
passing visitor; but it breeds in large numbers in Holland, Germany, and indeed
over the greater part of Central and Eastern Europe, where it enjoys protection on
the part of the inhabitants. The stork has become thoroughly habituated to human
habitations and the presence of man, by whom it is esteemed, not only on account of
its value as a scavenger, but likewise from its well-known fidelity to its young, which
has become proverbial. In Palestine, where they only exceptionally breed, storks
make their appearance at the latter part of March on their northern journey, while
in Holland and Denmark they generally arrive about the middle of April. They
arrive and depart (as shown in the illustration on p. 2053) in immense flocks and
on their arrival spread themselves over the country in search of food, which
comprises small mammals and birds, reptiles, frogs, insects, etc. In most parts of
Europe the stork generally builds on chimneys, where boxes or other receptacles
for the nest are frequently placed for its accommodation; and as it returns year
after year to the same spot, the nest, which is originally a shallow structure of
sticks, gradually attains a height of several feet. In the absence of buildings,
trees or rocks are, however, adopted for nesting. The eggs, usually from three to
five in number, are pure white. During the breeding season the birds keep up a
constant clapping noise with their beaks, and this noise not unfrequently betrays
their whereabouts when soaring at such a height as to be quite invisible to the
naked eye. As an instance of the constancy displayed by the males and females of
this species it is stated that for three years a female, which remained during the
winter in Europe, was visited annually by her mate, when both nested as usual. In
the fourth year, however, the male bird also remained with his partner during
the winter, and this continued for three years.* Eventually both birds were shot,
when it was discovered that the female had been prevented from migrating by an
old wound. On the other hand, there are well-authenticated instances of tame
storks having been mobbed and killed by their fellows, and the same fate is stated
to have overtaken a female stork whose eggs had been replaced by those of a hen,
which in due course were hatched into chickens.

The second European representative of the genus is the black stork
(C nigra), which is likewise an occasional visitant to England. In
this bird the plumage of the head, neck, and upper parts is brownish black, with a
variable metallic lustre; the under parts, from the lower breast, being white, and
the wings and tail lacking the lustre of the contour feathers. The iris is reddish
brown, the beak blood red, and the leg and foot carmine. The black stork, which
is a rather smaller bird than its white cousin, inhabits Central and Southern Europe,
occasionally ranging northward, and is found all over Africa, while eastward it
extends to China, and, in winter, India. Unlike the white species, it shuns human
habitations as widely as possible, frequenting the most secluded swamps on the banks
of lakes and rivers, and nesting in tall forest trees. In Jutland Mr. Elwes describes
the nests as being lined with moss, and having a diameter of some four feet; the
four grayish-white eggs being deposited in a shallow cavity in the centre. Writing
of the habits of a captive individual of this species, Montagu observes that ' ' the

2074 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

stork does not gorge an eel instantly like the cormorant; on the contrary, it retires
to the margin of the pool, and there disables its prey by shaking and beating with
its bill, before it ventures to swallow it. I never observed this bird attempt to swim;
but it will wade up to the belly, and occasionally thrust the whole head and neck
under water after its prey."

There are a few other Old- World representatives of this genus, but there are
none in North America; while the Maguari stork of South America (Dissura ma-
guari) and the West-African white-necked stork (D. episcopus) are more generally
referred to a distinct genus, characterized by the tail being deeply forked and its
lower coverts stiffened so as to resemble true rectrices.

Although externally not unlike the black stork in general appear-
s , ance, the white-bellied stork (Abdimia sphenorhyncha] of Africa is

made the type of a distinct genus, as it differs from the more typical
storks in having the rings of the bronchial tubes incomplete behind and closed with
membrane; thus indicating that it is a generalized type retaining evidence of the
original kinship of the family with the herons. Considerably smaller than the
black stork, this species has the head and neck black, with a purple lustre; the back,
wings, and tail black tinged with green, and the bend of the shoulder and under
parts white. The iris is brown, the naked space round the eye blue, and that on
the throat red, the beak greenish with a red tip, and the leg and foot brownish
gray, except at the ankle joint, where it is red. From Dongola in the Sudan,
nearly to South Africa, this stork is found in vast numbers, although it frequents
the villages only during the breeding season. There, however, it nests but seldom
on houses, preferring trees in the neighborhood, and in the south generally select-
ing mimosas. Not unfrequently it breeds in large companies, as many as thirty
nests having been observed in a single tree. The eggs are rather smaller than those
of the white stork, but vary considerably in form and dimensions. The simbil, as
this bird is called in the Sudan,- receives from the natives of that district the same
veneration and protection as is accorded to its white cousin in Holland, while it
closely agrees in its general mode of life.

This group is typically represented by the American jabiru (Myc-
ia americana) of Brazil, but may also be taken to include the saddle-
billed jabiru (M. senegalensis) of West Africa, and the black-necked
jabiru (M. australis) of Australia and Southern New Guinea, although the two
latter are frequently referred to a distinct genus, under the name of Xenorhynchus.
These birds are of large size, and easily recognized by the greatly elongated beak
being nearly straight along its upper border, but curving upward inferiorly toward
the tip, and its cutting edges presenting a similar curvature; while at its base it
often has a saddle-like waxy growth. The leg is much elongated, with the toes
very short; the wing long and rounded, with the third quill the longest; and the
short tail sharply truncated. In the African and Australian species the upper rings
of the bronchial tubes are incomplete behind, as in the white-bellied stork, but in
the third they are complete like those of the true storks, although narrower at the
back than in front. In the American jabiru the head and neck are bare and black,
and the remainder white; but in the African species the feathered head and neck,

THE STORK TRIBE

2075

the wing coverts, the shoulders, and the tail are black, with a metallic lustre, while
the rest of the plumage, inclusive of the quills, is dazzling white. In the latter
species the iris is yellow, and the beak red at the base, then black for a short dis-
tance, and blood red in its anterior half, while the fleshy saddle on the upper part
of its base is variously colored. The legs are mostly grayish brown, but the toes
are carmine red. In length the male measures upward of fifty-nine inches. The

WHITE-BElrUED STORK.

(One-fourth natural size.)

saddle-billed jabiru is described as being one of the handsomest of all the storks
when in its native wilds, being especially beautiful during flight, when the white
quills of the wings stand out in marked contrast to their black coverts. It is found on
both the White and Blue Nile to the southward of the i4th parallel of north latitude,
and thence through the Sudan, but it also occurs on both the east and west coasts.
Living in pairs, it frequents sand banks on the rivers, as well as the margins of lakes

2076 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

and swamps; but it is so shy, and at the same time generally so rare, that but little
is known of its habits.

The largest, and at the same time by far the ugliest, of the storks

jutan or are ^ a(jjutants or marabous of the Oriental region and Africa, which
Marabou
Stork apparently derive their military title from their measured walk. These

ungainly birds are primarily distinguished by the presence of a large,
naked, pendulous pouch on the front of the throat, which may measure as much as
sixteen inches, and has no connection with the gullet, although probably communi-
cating with the respiratory organs. They are further characterized by the large
body, thick and naked neck, by the head being either bare or thinly clad with down,
and by the enormous size of the beak, which is very thick, four-sided, and somewhat
wedge shaped, with a sharp point. The legs are of great length. The whole plum-
age is rough and untidy looking; the large and rounded wings have the fourth quill
the longest; while the moderately-long tail is characterized by the great development
of its under coverts, which form the well-known marabou or comercolly feathers.
Our illustration represents the African species {Leptoptilus crumeniferus} , known to
the Arabs as abu stin (father of the leather bottle*), in which the head is reddish
flesh color, sprinkled over with short hair-like feathers. The plumage of the back
is a dark metallic green, while that of the neck and under parts is pure white; the
quills of the wing and tail being black and lustreless, and the greater wing coverts
having their outer webs bordered with white. The iris is brown, the beak a dirty
whitish yellow, and the leg and foot black, generally with a superficial coating of
white. The total length of a male is about sixty-three inches. In India and the
Burmese countries the genus is represented by the great Indian adjutant (L. du-
bius), of which there is a larger and a smaller race; while the Javan adjutant (L.
javanicus) is a smaller Oriental species. Remains of extinct adjutants occur in
the Pliocene rocks of the north of India, and probably in the Miocene deposits of
France.

In India the adjutant is a summer visitant, arriving toward the close of the hot
weather about the end of April or May, and remaining -through the rainy season till
October. It is, however, a somewhat local bird, being most common in Bengal and
the northeastern districts, and well known to all residents in Calcutta, where these
birds are in the habit of perching in numbers on the parapets of Government House
during the rains. They breed in Burma and the Malayan countries, a favorite nest-
ing place being some lofty scarped limestone rocks called the Nidong hills on the
Attaran river, to the southeast of Moulmein. On account of their value as scaven-
gers, these birds are protected by law in Calcutta and some other Indian cities, noth-
ing seeming to come amiss to them in the way of food, from the carcass of a large
animal to a dead cat, or from small birds to frogs and fish. Adjutants generally
congregate in vast flocks, although in the neighborhood of towns solitary birds may
often be observed, either stalking about alone or standing with outspread wings to
dry their plumage, or perched on one leg while asleep on some building or tree.
Their flight, although heavy and flapping, is powerful in the extreme, and they

* This is the derivation given by Brehm; but Sir S. Baker says that the name is abu seen, or father of the beak.

THE STORK TRIBE

2077

frequently soar at immense .heights in the air, from which they descend to join the
vultures at their feasts. Writing of the arrival of one of these birds at such a car-
nival, Sir S Baker observes that ''a pair of long, ungainly legs, hanging down be-

AFRICAN ADJUTANT.

(One-eighth natural size.)

neath the enormous wings, now touch the ground, and abu seen has arrived, and
he stalks proudly toward the crowds, pecking his way with his long bill through the
struggling vultures, and swallowing the lion's share of the repast." In the Nidong

2078 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

hills the adjutant, according to Mr. C. T. Bingham, nests in vast numbers during
November and December, and in January the parents may be seen feeding the young
birds on the topmost pinnacles of their almost inaccessible rocks. The nest is a
large mass of sticks and twigs,, devoid of lining, and scarcely any depression in the
centre; the number of eggs varying from two to four, and these being large chalky-
white ovals. Occasionally, it is stated, the nests are placed in trees, and the young
birds are thickly covered with fluffy white down.

The shell storks or shell ibises as they are often called, of which
there is one African {Anastomus lamelligerus) and one Indian species
(A. ostitans), are much smaller birds than any of the preceding, from all of which
they are at once distinguished by the two mandibles of the compressed and serrated
beak being in the adult in contact at their two extremities, but gaping widely
in the middle. On account of the second and third quills being the longest, the
large wings are pointed, and the tail is short. Although the Indian species has
a normal plumage, that of the African kind is remarkable in that the shafts of
all the feathers of the throat, under parts, and thighs are prolonged into small
horny processes at their extremities. In color the whole plumage is blackish
with green and purple reflections; the iris is red, the beak yellowish, and the
leg and foot black. Young birds lack the horny plates at the tips of the
feathers. In length the African species measures about twenty-six inches. The
latter species is widely distributed over Central and South Africa, and is also met
with at Mozambique. L,ike its Indian congener, it feeds almost exclusively on
mollusks, especially Ampullarice , and according to Livingstone breeds among reeds,
although it has also been stated to nest in trees. In the Barotse country the breed-
ing places are occupied year after year by vast numbers of these birds, and the
natives are accustomed to make a regular harvest of the young. With regard to
the peculiar gaping of the beak, Professor Ball writes that "this was at one time
supposed to be due to attrition of the edges, caused by the nature of the food upon
which the bird is generally believed to subsist. Jerdon, however, stated that the
bill of a young bird which he examined exhibited the same gaping. This I did not
find to be the case with any of the large members which I saw. The bills were
very much smaller than in the adult birds, were conical in shape, and the edges
were in distinct apposition, or slightly overlapping, throughout. The change does
not appear to me to be due to any loss of material of the bill by attrition, but to a
structural bowing or arching of the mandibles."

Although agreeing with the other members of the present family in
AAf OOQ Storks

the general form of the beak, the wood storks, or wood ibises, form a

kind of connecting link between the typical storks and the ibises, and are frequently
referred to a separate family. In these birds the neck is of medium length; the
head large; the beak thick, long, rounded, tapering, and curving downward at the
tip; the foot long toed, with large webs; the wing long and broad, with the second
quill the longest, and the tail short and truncated. Unlike the storks, the plumage
of the adult differs considerably from that of the young. Although the skull agrees
in essential characteristics with that of the true storks, the furcula is V-shaped.
The American wood stork ( Tantalus loculator) is the sole representative of its genus,

THE STORK TRIBE

2079

and is characterized by the whole head and upper part of the neck being bare.
On the other hand, the African (Pseudotantalus ibis) and Indian wood stork (P. leu-
cocephahis} have only the forehead naked; while the beak, legs, and tail are much
longer. All resemble the ibises in their mode of feeding.

\

WEST-AFRICAN WOOD STORK.

(One-fourth natural size.)

In the African wood stork the general color of the plumage is white, with a
tinge of rose on the back; the scapulars and wing coverts being marked with small
purplish streaks below their white tips. The tail feathers and quills are shining

2080 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

greenish black; the eye being yellowish white, the beak waxy yellow, and the leg
and foot red. In size the bird is somewhat inferior to the white stork. Young
birds have the neck and upper parts ashy gray, and the rest of the plumage yellow-
ish gray. The species is restricted to Western Africa.

The American wood stork is a common bird in many parts of the United
States, where it associates in large flocks. According to Audubon, it feeds entirely
upon fish and aquatic reptiles, of which it consumes enormous quantities. To pro-
cure their food, these birds walk in numbers through, shallow muddy lakes; and
' ' as soon as they have discovered a place abounding in fish, they dance, as it were,
all through it, until the water becomes thick with the mud stirred from the bottom
by their feet. The fishes, on rising to the surface, are instantly struck by the beak
of the ibises, and on being deprived of life they turn over, and so remain. In the
course of ten or fifteen minutes, hundreds of fishes, young alligators, and water
snakes cover the surface, and the birds greedily swallow them until they are com-
pletely gorged, after which they walk to the nearest margins, place themselves in
long rows, with their breasts all turned to the sun, in the manner of pelicans and
vultures, and there remain for an hour or so. ' ' In the adult bird the head and
upper part of the neck are bare and of a livid blue color, tinged with yellow on the
forehead; the legs are blue, tinged with yellow on the webs; while the plumage is
white.

IBISES AND SPOONBILLS
Family PLATALEID^,

The last group of the order comprises the medium-sized birds known as ibises
and spoonbills, represented by some thirty species distributed all over the globe,
and which may be conveniently included under a single family heading. All these
birds are distinguished from the storks by the beak being soft for the greater part
of its length, although hard at the tip, and marked by a deep groove extending from
the slit-like nostril on each side of the base of its upper mandible to the very tip,
which is truncated and bent down. The limbs are stout and of moderate length,
with the front toes connected by a short basal web; the wings are generally pointed;
the tail is' short and truncated, and the plumage soft. As regards their skele-
ton, the lower mandible has its angle produced into a recurved process behind its
articulation with the skull instead of being truncated as in the storks; the skull has
a pair of small vacuities on the occipital surface; and the nasal apertures are in the
form of extremely-long slits (shizorhina) , in place of being ovals. Finally, the
furcula resembles that of the storks. All these birds associate in large com-
panies, and differ from the typical members of the preceding family in their habit
of probing about with their beaks in water in search of food, till they come in
contact with some object, which is then seized. They nest in trees, and lay white
eggs.

IBISES AND SPOONBILLS

2081

Ibises

Owing to the general interest attaching to the sacred ibis, and like-
wise from the gorgeous coloration of the scarlet ibis of America, the
ibises are some of the best-known representatives of the order under consideration.
There birds of which there are several genera, form a subfamily characterized by
the slender and nearly-
cylindrical beak, which
tapers gradually toward
the tip, and is more or
less arched from its base.
In all of them the head
is more or less bald, al-
though occasionally only
the lores are naked; and
they generally have
plume-like scapular feath-
ers at the hinder end of
the back. The sacred
ibis of Africa (Ibis (zthio-
pica) is the type of a
genus characterized by
tne very-long and mod-
erately-stout bill; the
long wing in which the
second quill is slightly

longer than the third; the short, twelve- feathered tail, and the general white hue of
the plumage. The African species attains a length of about twenty -nine inches, and
has the naked head and neck black, while the plumose feathers of the back and the
tips of the quills are greenish black; the rest of the plumage being white, tinged
here and there with buff. It is represented by the closely-allied black-headed ibis
(/. melanocephala] in India; while in Madagascar there is Bernier's ibis (/. bernieri),
distinguished by the much smaller extent of the naked black portion of the neck;
and a third species (7. stridipennis) inhabits Australia. The Japanese ibis (Nip-
penoa nippon} differs by having only the face bare of feathers; it inhabits both
Japan and China.

Although so common in the country of the Pharaohs during its times of great-
ness, the sacred ibis is now unknown in Egypt; and Leith Adams has doubts
whether it was ever indigenous there. As he observes: "There could have been
no difficulty in procuring individuals from the shores of the Red Sea; and to a peo-
ple so well practiced in taming wild animals (as were the ancient Egyptians), we
ma}' conclude that it was soon domesticated, and bred freely. Moreover, like the
black-headed ibis of India, which usually lays from four to five eggs, we can easily
suppose that the numbers rapidly increased. On the contrary, when its protectors
vanished from the land, so did the ibis." This species now breeds in the Upper
Nile, in Nubia, and the Sudan, as it does in Abyssinia, and it extends through the
continent to the Cape, where it is, however, of rare occurrence. It is essentially a

HEAD OF BERNIER'S IBIS.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1870.)

2082

HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

water-loving species, and, like its Indian cousins, may be met with in small or
moderate-sized flocks on the margins of rivers or lakes, or in the flooded rice fields,
where it wanders in search of the mollusks, insects, crustaceans, and worms, which
constitute its chief food. The flesh has a fishy taste, which renders it quite uneat-
able to Europeans. In the lore of Ancient Egypt the ibis was the emblem of Thoth,
the secretary of Osiris, and was consequently held in the greatest veneration, as is
proved by the numbers of its mummified remains found in the temples. At what
date it disappeared from Egypt is unknown, but it remained at the conquest of the

THE SACRED IBIS.

(One-fifth natural size. )

country by the Romans, by whom it was introduced into Italy. Among the other
genera of the subfamily we may first refer to the warty-headed or black ibis ( Ge-
ronticus papillosus}, of India, and the bald-headed ibis (G. calvus}, of South Africa,
as well-known representatives of an Old- World genus distinguished from the last by
the longer and more slender beak, the shorter toes, and the bald part of the head
being confined to the crown, as well as by the dark hue of the plumage. The In-
dian species has a triangular patch of red warts on the top of the head; the general
color of the upper plumage being dark brown, passing into black, with the wings

IBISES AND SPOONBILLS

2083

and tail steel blue, the quills dusky black, and the under parts blackish brown. An
exceedingly-common bird in India, where it is generally known as the curlew, this
ibis is usually found in the open country away from water, where it feeds largely
on insects. It builds in high trees, laying from two to four eggs.

The glossy ibis (Falcinellus igneus), which is an occasional visitant to the
British Islands, represents a third genus, differing from the last by the still greater
length of the beak, by the elongated metatarsus being covered in front with large
scales instead of hexagonal scales, and the longer toes. In the wings the second
and third quills are the longest, and the face alone is naked. This ibis is a dark

WHITE SPOONBII,!,.
(One-fifth natural size.)

colored bird, the prevailing tints of the plumage being various shades of reddish
brown, with purplish reflections; and is remarkable for its wide distribution, rang-
ing over the greater part of Europe and Asia, and also occurring in North America,
and rarely in the north of Africa, as well as in Australia. The genus also contains
other species, and has an almost cosmopolitan distribution. In Eastern Europe and
India, this bird is found breeding in colonies comprising thousands of individuals;
the nests being generally placed in low bushes.

2084 HERONS, STORKS, AND IBISES

The last genus we'have space to mention is exclusively American, and com-
prises the beautiful scarlet ibis (Gitara rubra] , ranging from Northern South Amer-
ica to Central America and the West Indies, and the white ibis (G. alba}, which
is South American. While agreeing with the preceding in having the front of the
metatarsus covered with large scales, they differ in that the whole front of the head
is naked in the adult. Both have the tips of the wings blackish; the rest of the
plumage being scarlet in the one, and black in the other.

While the glossy ibis appears never to have been anything more
than a casual visitor to England, there is good evidence to show that
the beautiful bird known as the white spoonbill (Platalea leiicolodia') , nested in Suf-
folk and Sussex some three centuries ago, although now it is but rarely seen in
Britain. The genus to which the spoonbill pertains represents a subfamily distin-
guished from the ibises by the beak being very broad and depressed, widening out
at the tip into a spatulate expansion, and except at the extremity being almost
straight. Like the storks, spoonbills have no true organ of voice; but they differ
from the members of the former 'group in having the lower end of the windpipe
folded in a figure of eight. Their tongues are short like those of the storks, but
blunted at the end. Spoonbills, of which there are several species, have a cosmo-
politan distribution, although they are not found in Malaysia and Oceania. In
the common species, which attains a length of about thirty-two inches, the whole
plumage of the adult, inclusive of the crest at the back of the head, is white, with
the exception of a band of buff feathers on the front of the lower part of the neck,
and a streak of the same tint up each side of the same. The roots of some of the
feathers of the back also display a rosy tinge. With the exception of the extremity
of its rounded portion, when it is yellow, the beak is black, as are also the legs and
feet; while the iris is bright red, and a patch of naked skin on the throat is yellow.
Young birds have no crests, and the shafts and tips of the primary quills are black.
The spoonbill ranges over the greater part of Europe except the extreme north,
while eastward it extends across Southern Siberia to Amurland and the north of
China; its southern range including India and North Africa. In Japan it is re-
placed by the greater spoonbill \P. major), and this country is also the habitat of
the lesser spoonbill (/*. minor) .

The spoonbill frequents either marshes, lakes, or sand banks in rivers, where
it may be met with in small parties or large flocks. It feeds in shallow water, in
which it dabbles with its broad beak in search of insects, crustaceans, mollusks,
frogs, and small fish. It breeds in numbers in a marsh near Amsterdam, which is,
however, being drained; and there are numerous nesting places in India. In Hol-
land the nests are situated on the mud among reeds, and are raised to a height of
from twelve to eighteen inches, being composed of reeds and mud, and tapering
from base to summit, upon which is a slight depression for the white eggs, — usually
four in number. The eggs are laid at intervals of several days and incubated at
once. In color the eggs are dull white, with reddish-brown streaks and spots. In
India and Ceylon the spoonbill nests in tall trees, the pipal and the tamarind being
favorites.

CHAPTER XV

FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS —
ORDERS ODONTOGLOSSI, ANSERES, AND PALAMEDE^E

TAKING the general term "ducks" as including the geese, swans, etc., the
members of the three groups above named will comprise the remaining orders of
birds with bridged (desmognathous) palates, all of which are broadly distinguished
from those hitherto described by the circumstance that their young are covered with
down when hatched, and are able to run within a few hours of their first appear-
ance in the world. The members of these three orders are accordingly the only
birds which have bridged palates, and ' ' precocious ' ' young. In regard to the
flamingoes, it has only been recently ascertained that the young are hatched in
this forward condition. In the collective group the three front toes are either
completely webbed, or united by a fold of skin; and in most cases the beak is
either depressed and expanded, or has its extremity so bent down as to be at right
angles to its base, while its angle is produced in a recurved process behind the
points of articulation with the skull. Generally the rostrum of the base of the
skull has oval basipterygoid facets placed relatively far forward; and in all
cases the oil gland is tufted. Many of the group are more or less completely
herbivorous.

THE FLAMINGOES
Order ODONTOGLOSSI — Family PHCENICOPTERID^

With an apparently intuitive perception of its zoological relationship, the Per-
sians apply the name of kaj-i-surkh (red goose) to the flamingo, and have thus
forestalled the ornithologist, by whom these birds were always associated with the
storks and herons, as indeed they still are by some. Possessing the above-mentioned
features in common with the other two groups treated in this chapter, the flamin-
goes, if we had only existing forms to deal with, might be readily distinguished by
the peculiar form of their beaks; but it happens that there are certain nearly-allied
extinct birds in which the beak appears to have been of a more normal form; and
we are accordingly compelled to rely largely on other features in defining the order.
The whole group is readily characterized by the great length of the legs, in which
the tibia niay be not greatly longer than the metatarsus, while the first toe is rudi-
mentary, or even wanting. The lower end of the tibia differs widely from that of
the duck tribe in that its lower end is not bent inward, while the corresponding
extremity of the metatarsus is very similar to that of the storks, having the trochlea
for the second toe markedly shorter than either of the others, and much bent back,

(2085)

2086 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

whereas in the storks and herons these three trochlese are of nearly equal length.
In the existing forms the basipterygoid facets on the rostrum of the skull are rudi-
mentary; and in all the metacoracoid (as figured in Vol. III. p. 1466) is charac-
terized by its shortness and breadth, and its firm articulation with the breastbone.
In their long legs and neck, and the absence of unfeathered areas on the latter, as
well as in many features of their internal anatomy, the flamingoes resemble the
storks, near which they are placed by some authorities. Their extinct allies are,
perhaps, still more stork-like, so that the family may probably
be regarded as somewhat intermediate between the storks and
ducks, being ancestrally connected with the former.

The true flamingoes, of which there are some
. nine existing species, constitute the genus Phoe-

nicopterus, and are readily characterized by the
beak being sharply bent down at an angle in front of the nos-
trils, its upper mandible being broad and flattened, and the
FRONT VIEW OF THE lower one deep and channeled. The leg is also of great length,
LOWER END OF THE with the metatarsus but little shorter than the tibia. While

RIGHT TIBIA OF THE . „ - ,, ... .

some species have a small first toe, in others this is completely
a, bony bridge; *, tubercle, wanting, and in all nearly the whole length of the tibia is de-
void of feathers. The neck is of great length and slenderness,
and the wing of moderate size, with the first quill slightly the longest, while the tail
is short and even. Flamingoes, although unknown in Australia, are distributed
over the warmer regions of the greater part of both Hemispheres, a few individuals
occasionally wandering as far north as the British Islands and Northern Germany.
With the exception of two species inhabiting the Chilian Andes, these birds frequent
open country in the neighborhood of large rivers, where the water may be either
fresh, brackish, or salt. In a fossil state flamingoes occur in the lower Miocene
rocks of France. All the members of the genus are characterized by the general red
hue of the plumage, — either rosy white or full scarlet, — with black on the wings.
In the adult of the European flamingo (P. roseus} the whole of the plumage is rosy
white, with the exception of the quills of the wings, which are black, and the light
scarlet wing coverts. The iris and naked skin round the eyes are yellow, the beak
is rosy red at the base and black at the tip, and the legs and feet are pinkish red.
Young birds, on the other hand, lack nearly all the rose color, while their secondary
quills are barred with black, and all the naked parts are of a leaden hue. A full-
grown bird may vary from five to as much as six feet five inches in length. In this
species there is a small third toe, which is, however, wanting in the two Chilian
forms. The common flamingo visits the salt marshes and lagoons at the mouth of
the Rhone and other districts in the south of France during the breeding season,
where it may at times be met with in thousands. It is also abundant in similar
localities in Spain, and its range extends southward to the Cape, and eastward to
Lake Baikal, India, Ceylon, etc. The American flamingo (P. ruber) is, however,
distinct, having the general color of the plumage a full vermilion scarlet. Flocks of
flamingoes, as they may be seen by the lakes of Northwestern India, form one of
the most wonderful sights in the world. On the lakes of Sind, Mr. Hume describes

THE FLAMINGOES

2087

the flocks as comprising tens of thousands of individuals, which may be seen either
massed upon the water, looking like huge rosy islands, or floating above it like a
cloud at sunset. Still more wonderful is it "to see one of these enormous flocks

EUROPEAN FLAMINGOES.
(One-sixth natural size.)

rise suddenly when alarmed; as you approach them, so long as they remain on the
water at rest, they look simply like a mass of faintly rosy snow. A rifle is fired,
and then the exposure of the upper and under coverts of the wing turns the mass
into a gigantic, brilliantly-rosy scarf, waving to and fro in mighty folds, as it floats
.away."

2088 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

Although essentially a wader, the flamingo in deep water can swim well and
powerfully, carrying the neck nearly straight and inclined somewhat forward,
and moving in a series of jerks. In flight, the neck and legs are stretched straight
out in front and behind, the flock progressing in the same formation as geese, and
uttering "gaggling" cries almost indistinguishable from those of the latter. Al-
though flamingoes doubtless consume a number of small aquatic animals, it would
appear that their chief food consists of various water plants, which are pulled up
from beneath the surface. When feeding, the flamingo turns its head the wrong
way up, in which position its bent beak forms a most efficient spoon-like instru-
ment. The nests, as described by Mr. Abel Chapman at the mouth of the Guadal-
quivir, are in the form of round basin-shaped elevations of mud placed in close
continuity on the mud flats. They may vary from two to six inches in height, but
the majority are very shallow, and present somewhat the appearance of a number of
plates spread over the plain. Other single nests were, however, situated in the
water, and were in consequence much taller. The eggs, two in number, have a
chalky external coating, beneath which is a greenish-blue shell. During incubation
Mr. Chapman states that the birds have ' ' their long, red legs doubled under their
bodies, the knees projecting as far as beyond the tail, and their graceful necks neatly
coiled away among their back feathers, like a sitting swan, with their heads resting
on their breasts. " According to Brehm, the period of incubation lasts a month;
the young take to the water almost immediately after hatching, swimming to a
much greater extent than their parents. When conditions are not favorable for
building, nests like the above cannot be formed, and the eggs are dropped any-
where; while, in some seasons, from persecution or want of water, the birds do not
breed at all.

During the Miocene period there existed in Europe numerous
°P~ egge flamingo-like birds which cannot be referred to the existing genus,
even if they belong to the same family. The best known of these
have been named Palcelodus, and were smaller birds than modern flamingoes, from
which they were distinguished by their relatively-shorter and stouter legs and
longer toes, while it is highly probable that the beak was not deflected in the man-
ner characterizing the true flamingoes.

THE DUCK TRIBE
Order ANSERES — Family ANA

Nearly related as are the members. of the duck tribe to the flamingoes, yet
they are very different-looking birds, easily distinguished by external characteris-
tics. In the first place, their legs are always short, and inferior in length to the
wings, the tibia being usually feathered nearly or quite to the ankle, and scarcely
free from the body. The canon bone, or metatarsus, differs from that of the flam-
ingoes in its shortness, although the two resemble one another in the shortness and
backward direction of the trochlea for the second toe, while the tibia is at once

THE DUCK TRIBE 2089

distinguished by the marked inflection of its lower extremity. The first toe,
although generally small, is always present; while, as in the flamingoes, the three
front toes are, except in one instance, completely webbed. The relatively-short
beak is comparatively straight, and more or less depressed and laterally expanded,
with peculiar laminations on its edges; while the rostrum of the lower surface of
the skull shows well-marked basipterygoid facets for the articulation of the ptery-
goid bones. In the skeleton of the body the metacoracoid is much longer and nar-
rower than that of the flamingoes, and is also much less firmly articulated to the
breastbone. The plumage is characterized by its dense and compact nature, and the
facility with which water is thrown off from its surface. In the wings there are
always ten primary quills, but the number of tail feathers is liable
to variation. All the members of the order molt annually in the
autumn, and the quills of the wings are generally shed so rapidly
as to incapacitate the birds for flight for some days. In the true
ducks, however, the males change their contour feathers twice
in the year. Although the ducks resemble the flamingoes in
laying uniformly-colored eggs, they differ in that the number
in a clutch is large, instead of being generally but a pair; the
eggs themselves are further characterized by their hard and usu-
ally very smooth shells.

The general external appearance of the members of the
duck tribe is too well known to need special mention. It may
be observed, however, that their build is the best adapted for
rapid progress through the water, the breast and fore part of
the body being broad and rounded, the hinder extremity narrow
and tapering, and the legs placed relatively far back.

Although it has been attempted to divide the members of FRONT AND I.OWER
the order into several distinct families, the whole of them are VIEWS OF THE RIGHT

i 11- J ^ L -^ • -ui ^r. CANON BONE OF A

so nearly allied that it seems impossible to do more than group DUCK
the genera of the one family Anatidtz under several subfamilies,
and even some of these are very difficult of definition. The species of the family,
which are probably about one hundred and sixty in number, are distributed all over
the globe, although more numerous in the higher latitudes of the Northern Hemi-
sphere than elsewhere. All are thoroughly aquatic in their habits; but while the ma-
jority are swimmers, the members of one group are expert divers. As a rule, they
associate in flocks of larger or smaller size, and migrate in numbers to the northern
portions of their habitat for the breeding season. They are all birds of strong
flight, and when on the wing fly in the well-known chevron -shaped formation, fre-
quently at a great height in the air. Although the majority of the species are more
or less omnivorous in their diet, the mergansers subsist exclusively on fish, while
the greater part of the food of the geese consists of grass. The group is not a very
ancient one, the earliest known forms occurring in the lower beds of the Miocene
division of the Tertiary period.

The African spur- winged geese (Plectropterus} , of which there are two species,
take their name from the long spur on each wing, which is sharply pointed and

20QO

FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

attached to the outer side of the wrist joint; and as they differ in
g several important points from the other members of the order, they con-
stitute a subfamily by themselves, some writers even making them the
representatives of a distinct family. The lores are naked, and the metatarsus is covered
in front with large scutes, thus differing in both these characteristics from the geese.
The beak is of considerable length and of nearly equal width throughout, termina-
ting in a nail-like knob, and having at its base a large protuberance. In the adult
the front of the head is bare and warty, and the cheeks and part of the neck are

SPUR-WINGED GOOSE.
(One-sixth natural size.)

also naked. The leg is of considerable length, with the lower part of the tibia bare,
the metatarsus wide and compressed,, and the first toe relatively long, simple, and
elevated, the front webs being somewhat deeply incised. In the common P. gam-
bensis the plumage of the upper parts and the sides of the breast is black, tinged
with coppery green; the wings are mottled with white, the abdomen white with
patches of black behind the thighs, the naked parts of the face reddish, and the
beak and legs reddish and orange yellow. In size the bird nearly equals the

GEESE 2091

English wild goose. The spur-winged goose inhabits tropical Africa, ranging from
Senegambia southward to the Transvaal and Zambezia, being replaced in Abyssinia
and the adjacent regions by Riippell's spur-winged goose (P. rueppelli). A few
stragglers have been observed in Britain. In the Sudan these birds are generally
found in small parties, which for a considerable part of the year frequent the
banks of rivers, although during the molting time, when unable to fly, they seek
the retirement and shelter of reedy marshes and swamps; in the breeding season
the flocks divide up into pairs. Farther south, according to Messrs. Nicholls and
Eglington, they frequent the reedy margins of L,ake Ngami and the Chobe and
Zambezi rivers, where they breed in immense numbers. When, however, the
smaller water courses and pools are filled with water, these birds desert the impene-
trable swamps, to wander in pairs over the country. " The broods usually num-
ber from eight to twelve, the old birds remaining with their progeny for the
remainder of the season following the nesting. They do not feed in the day, but
may be then observed in the open water, or standing motionless on some dry bank,
rocky prominence, or island. When on the wing, they continuously utter a low,
hissing noise, and shortly after sundown, just before darkness sets in, leave their
day resorts and fly to the feeding ground, which is generally some very shallow
pass or swamp overgrown with grass, and here they spend the night in search of
leeches and water animalculse. " The nest is a huge structure of reeds and flags,
generally built among the reeds, but occasionally in a low bush; and to the north-
ward the number of eggs is said to be much less than that above mentioned. Dur-
ing the night they generally fly low; and, in accordance with the length of their legs,
they walk less awkwardly than the true geese. Shy and wary, as well as endowed
with great vitality, these birds are difficult to kill, and the flesh of the old ones is
rank and tough. They are easily tamed and thrive in confinement, although their
disposition is pugnacious.

A still more peculiar form than the last is the half-webbed or pied
Half-Webbed , A , . , . . ... .. . A. • -

goose (Anseranas melanoleucas) of Australia, in which the front toes

are only webbed at the base, and the hind one is very long and not
raised above their level, and furnished with a large claw. The lores are naked, and
the metatarsus is reticulate and longer than the third toe. This remarkable bird,
which is about the size of the brent goose, constitutes a distinct subfamily by itself,
and has a dull black and white plumage, and a hooked beak, with a large, warty,
comb-like prominence on the front of the head. The claws are long and sharp,
and the whole foot is adapted for perching. In accordance with this structure,
these birds sit for hours on the branches of the Australian tea trees, and but seldom
enter the water. Their cry is loud and hoarse, but quite unlike that of the com-
mon goose; and the windpipe is folded on itself, although on the side of, instead of
within, the breastbone, as in the swans.

The large cereopsis goose ( Cereopsis nov<z-hollandiez} of New Zealand

and Tasmania is the sole-existing representative of another subfamily

characterized by the extreme shortness of the beak, which is covered

at the base with a waxy skin, and has its extremity bent down and truncated so as

to approximate in appearance to that of a fowl. The body is very stoutly built and

2092 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

massive, the neck short and thick, the head small, the leg long, and the foot with
short toes, powerful nails, and deeply-incised webs. The wings are broad, with
strong quills; the tail is rounded, and trie body plumage soft. The color of the
plumage is a clear ashy gray, with brown reflections, passing into lighter gray on
the crown of the head, and marked on the back with blackish-brown spots near the
tips of the feathers; the under tail coverts and the tips of some of the wing feathers
being also blackish brown. The eye is scarlet, the beak black, with its waxy cover-
ing greenish yellow, and the leg and foot blackish.

In habits the cereopsis goose — commonly known in Australia as the Cape
Barron goose — is much more of a land than a water bird, its gait being very unlike
that of an ordinary goose, and its rate of swimming slow. The flight is, moreover,
heavy. Essentially diurnal in their habits, these birds are nowhere common, and
are rapidly diminishing in number, having been even exterminated in some of the
smaller Australian islands. During a long sojourn in Victoria, the " Old Bushman "
states that he only saw these birds on two occasions — " once in a small flock, and
once when two pitched with the tame geese at Mordialloc (as they are fond of
doing), and which were caught alive. They soon became tame, and used to stalk
about the paddock; but they were very pugnacious with the other geese. Their
call note was a deep, trumpet-like sound." The nest, although no great work of
art, is better built than that of most members of the family, being smoothly rounded
inside, and decorated with feathers and down. In size the eggs are relatively small,
while in form they are rounded, and in color yellowish white. The period of
incubation varies from thirty to thirty-eight days, according to the weather, and
the young are able to run immediately after breaking the egg.

Till within a comparatively-recent date New Zealand was in-
ew eaan ^abited ^y a nearly-allied but larger goose (Cnemiomis caltitrans],

GrOOSe

which, like so many of the large birds of those islands, had totally
lost the power of flight, the whigs being very small, and the keel of the breast-
bone wanting. In all probability these birds were exterminated by the Maoris. As
in the cereopsis goose, the metacoracoid of this extinct species was much wider and
shorter than it is in the other members of the family.

The true geese (Anser), together with several allied genera, con-
e_ n stitute a fourth subfamily distinguished by the following character-

istics, and including some forty species, having an almost world-wide
distribution. In size the geese occupy a middle position in the family, none of
-them being large. The neck is of moderate length, being always shorter than the
body; the lores -are feathered; the beak is not longer than the head, and tapers to
the extremity, which is covered by a large nail-like knob; while the metatarsus is
rather long, exceeding the third toe in length, and is covered on all sides with
reticulate scales. The tail feathers may be either fourteen or sixteen; and although
the two sexes are usually very much alike, there is great specific variation in
color. But a single autumnal molt of the plumage takes place; and all these
birds are essentially vegetable feeders, many of them grazing in the well-known
manner of the domestic breeds. They are all birds of strong, though somewhat
heavy flight; and although some are confined to the Southern Hemisphere, the

GEESE

2093

majority seek the remote regions of the north in which to breed, ranging in winter
over the warmer parts of the same Hemisphere. As compared with the swans,
their more elevated bodies and relatively-longer legs (in which the tibia is feathered
nearly to the ankle) are indicative of more terrestrial habits. In the members of
the genus Anser, there is but little if any black in the plumage of the head and
neck; the beak and feet are light colored, and usually reddish in the adult, and the
tail has sixteen feathers.

The genus is represented by some twenty species, ranging over the cold and
temperate regions of the globe, but becoming almost cosmopolitan in the winter.
Of these the typical member is the gray lag goose (A. cinereus), which is probably
the parent form of the domesticated breeds, and is the only species which nests in
the British Islands. It is characterized by the white or whitish nail on the beak;
by the remainder of the beak, together with the feet, being usually flesh colored,
although liable to vary from creamy white to purplish red; while the wing coverts
and rump are slaty gray. In length, the male measures about thirty-five, and the
female thirty inches. Breeding at the present day in the British Islands only, in
the north of Scotland and Ireland,
the graylag goose ranges all over
Europe and North and Central Asia
as far east as Amurland, while in
winter it spreads over Southern
China and Upper India. The
white- fronted goose (A. albifrons),
of which there is a larger and a
smaller variety, is another British
species, although only a winter
visitant, also found in India during
the cold season. It is a much
smaller form than the preceding,
the length of the larger race only
reaching twenty-seven inches,
while in the smaller it varies from
twenty-four to twenty. The beak
is generally orange yellow, with a
white nail; the feet being likewise
of the former hue; while the fore-
head is characterized by the pres-
ence of a variable amount of white
feathers at the base of the beak;

and the plumage of the breast is much mottled in the adult with brownish black.
The Old- World distribution of this species is very similar to that of the last; but it
is found during winter in Northeastern Africa, while it also occurs in Greenland,
and is represented in the rest of North America by a variety (A. gambeli}. The
smaller form is often termed the dwarf goose. Agreeing nearly in size with
the graylag goose, the bean goose (A. segetum) — another well-known British

WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE.

2094 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

species — maybe readily distinguished by the black nail of the beak; the middle
portion of the beak being orange yellow, and its base black; while the legs and
feet are also orange yellow or orange. This species also ranges over the greater
part of the northern half of the Old World, occurring during the winter in
Britain, the shores of the Mediterranean, India, and Japan. It is, however,
essentially a northern form, only breeding in Scandinavia to the north of latitude
64°, and in Siberia on the tundras near lakes and pools beyond or near the limits
of forest. The pink-footed goose {A. brachyrhynchus} is a closely-allied smaller
species or variety, measuring only twenty -eight inches in length, and characterized
by the middle portion of the beak being generally pinkish, although sometimes
orange yellow; while the feet are usually flesh colored. Breeding in Spitzbergen,
probably Iceland, and, perhaps, Nova Zembla, this small goose visits the British
Islands in great numbers during the winter, while it occurs rarely in Northern
India. The snow goose (A. hyperboreus) , of which there is a large and small race,
belongs to a second group of the genus* characterized by the very stout and slightly-
convex beak, and by the head and neck, or the whole plumage of the adult, with
the exception of the primaries, being entirely white. The snow goose is one of
those in which the primaries are black, and the rest of the plumage white; the
smaller variety measuring twenty-three inches in length. Distributed over the
whole of North America, this essentially northern species probably has a circum-
polar distribution, and nests on the barren Arctic tundras, although but little is
known of its habits. Ross's goose (A. rossi] of Northwestern North America, is a
smaller form, with numerous caruncles at the base of its shorter beak; while the
American blue-winged goose (A. ccerulescens} has a large portion of the plumage of
the body grayish brown, with bluish -gray wing coverts and rump.
Habits ^^e *rue &eese f°r ^e greater part of the year frequent marshes,

lakes, moors, or open plains, where there is water, but during the
winter not unfrequently seek the seacoast. Their harsh ' ' gaggling ' ' notes are
among the most discordant of sounds; and although they associate in flocks during
the winter, and frequently also breed in company, each male has but a single con-
sort. The nest is of large size, with the numerous eggs of a creamy white color,
and both sexes take part in the work of incubation. In undisturbed districts they
feed during the day, but, when frequently fired at, their feeding hours are mostly
nocturnal; shoots of young grass and corn forming their favorite food. The snow
goose, however, subsists largely on berries in the summer. Writing of the graylag
goose in India, Mr. Hume observes that when not feeding, these birds " spend their
time dozing or dawdling about on the margin of some lake or the bank of some
river, always by preference choosing some island in these for their noontide siesta.
Unless disturbed, they very rarely take to the water. Although they rise rather
awkwardly and slowly, with violent and rather noisy flappings of their wings, they
fly very strongly and easily when once off, and I do not know a more beautiful
sight than the sudden and rapid descent of a large flock from high in the air to
some sand bank. The flock comes along in sober state, circles round decorously

*Frequently separated as a distinct genus Chen.

GEESE 2095

once or twice, and then suddenly down they come with incredible rapidity, twisting
and turning with an ease and grace for which no one could at other times have
given them credit. ' ' When passing from one piece of water to another, they fre-
quently fly in an irregular mass, but, when journeying long distances, the flock
generally ascends to a great height, and flies either in a line or a chevron. During
the winter in India these geese are commonly seen in flocks of from thirty to a hun-
dred, but at times a thousand or more may be collected together. The graylag
does not go so far north to breed as the bean goose, and its northward, and some-
times also its southward migration, is consequently earlier. The nest of the gray-
lag is built of grass and flags, without lining, and is usually placed either at the
base of a tussock of coarse grass or among heather; the general number of eggs
being six.

Shy and wild as is the graylag goose in many districts, on the larger Indian
rivers, according to the experience both of Mr. Hume and ourselves, it may be
easily approached within range, with the aid of a boat protected in front by a
screen, behind which the sportsman lies concealed. In this manner a flock stand-
ing on a sand bank may be approached within a hundred yards without causing
much disturbance. "As you approach nearer," writes Mr. Hume, "all begin to
walk slowly away, and, as a rule, if you persist in coming within twenty yards, and
coming on quicker than they can walk, they rise and fly; or if you stand up in the
boat, or make any sudden noise, they will equally take to wing, but if you drift
quietly down on them, they will let you come within twenty or thirty yards without
quitting the bank." With the first shot they rise with a deafening clamor, gen-
erally circling round the boat, and often affording the chance of a second shot.

Although nearly allied to the snow geese, the typical brent geese of
the Northern Hemisphere (Bernicla) are distinguished from the true
geese by their darker plumage, in which the head and neck are chiefly
black, and the beak and feet entirely black, at all ages. All these birds are char-
acterized by their short and subconical beaks, of which the length is considerably
less than that of the head; the mandibles having their inner edges nearly straight
and their lamellae nearly or completely concealed; while the nail at the tip is ovate,
and the nostrils oval and nearly central. The long wings are also more pointed
than in the true geese, and the tail is short and rounded.

Of the more typical representatives of the genus, we may first men-
Soecies ^°n t*ie ^rent Soose (B. brenta), characterized by the head and neck
being black, with the exception of a white patch on each side of the
latter. The length is about twenty-two inches; and in the typical form the upper
part of the breast is black, while the lower part of the latter and the abdomen are
slaty gray. There is, however, a variety (glaucogaster) in which the under parts
below the breast are nearly white. The brent goose inhabits all Arctic Europe and
part of Asia, wintering in the British Islands, North Germany, France, Belgium,
etc. , and occasionally ranging to the Mediterranean and the valley of the Nile. It
breeds in Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, and the islands of Arctic Siberia, and thence
to the extreme north; while in America it nests in Greenland, and ranges south-
ward on the east side of the continent as far as New York, or even Texas. In

2096

FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

western Arctic America it is replaced by the American brent goose (B. nigricans},
distinguished by the white of the middle of the neck forming an almost complete
collar; the winter range of this species extending along the Pacific seaboard as far
as Lower California. The bernicle goose (B. leucopsis} — anciently supposed by
some extraordinary confusion of ideas to have been produced from the well-known
ship barnacles — is a larger species, measuring upward of twenty-five inches in

MAI.E AND FEMALE HALF-BRED UPLAND GEESE.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1876.)

length, and easily recognized by the greater part of the front of the head being
white, although the lores and the feathers at the base of the upper mandible are
black. The plumage of the upper parts is largely lavender gray; the scapulars,
wing coverts, and many of the wing feathers tipped with a bluish-black crescent
edged with white at the end, while the primaries and tail feathers are almost black;
the breast and abdomen being grayish white, and the under tail coverts pure white.
This species is an inhabitant of the coasts of Northern Europe, ranging in winter

GEESE 2097

to the British Islands, and occasionally found as far south as Spain and Italy. How
far eastward it extends in Northern Asia is at present unknown; while there is no
definite information as to its breeding, although it probably nests in Nova Zembla,
Spitzbergen, and the regions still further north. It probably also breeds in Green-
land, being occasionally found on the Atlantic coasts of North America. A fourth
very distinct representative of the genus is the Canada brent goose (B. canadensis} ,
easily recognized by its black head and neck, with a large triangular patch of white
on each cheek, usually joined by a band beneath the throat, but sometimes sepa-
rated by a narrow black line. Occasionally there is also a white collar encircling
the lower part of the neck. As regards the rest of the plumage, the tail, rump,
and primaries are brownish black, the upper tail coverts and region of the vent
white, and the remainder grayish brown, lighter below than above, with the tips of
the feathers paler. This goose, which is very variable in size and coloration,
inhabits the whole of North America, as far south as Mexico. Very different from
all the above is the handsome bird known as the red-breasted goose (B. ruficollis),
which may be recognized by the black forehead, white lores, and the rich chestnut
of the neck and upper breast bordered above with white. The ear coverts have also
an angular patch of chestnut bordered with white; the upper parts are blackish
brown; the top of the head, part of the sides of the face, the back of the neck, the
throat, the primaries, tail feathers, and lower breast are black; and the upper and
lower tail coverts and the abdomen white. In length this bird measures from
twenty-one to twenty-two inches. Its native home is the tundras of Siberia, whence
it wanders occasionally during the winter to Scandinavia, Northern Germany, Hol-
land, the British Islands, and other parts of Europe.

H bit From being such exclusively- Arctic birds, our acquaintance with the

habits of the more typical brent geese is not so intimate as would be
desirable. In Europe during the winter they generally frequent the neighborhood
of the coasts, although at times penetrating some distance inland. Usually collecting
at this season in considerable flocks, these birds always indicate their near presence
by the constant gaggling kept up as they feed, or by the hoarse cronk of their call
note. The food of the bernicle goose consists chiefly of grass and bents growing
on the sand hills; while the brent goose eats seaweeds and other water plants, as
well as crustaceans and other small aquatic creatures. On the other hand, the
Canada goose subsists largely on berries and corn. During its migrations the lat-
ter species assembles in flocks, which unite to form a vast column, with each sec-
tion under an appointed leader. At such times they generally fly throughout the
night, although occasionally resting in the daytime. When about to alight, pioneers
descend from the flock to select a favorable and safe feeding ground, and during
the whole time that it is on the ground, the flock is guarded by sentinels. The
watchfulness of these guardians renders a flock of Canada geese almost impossible
to approach by stalking; and the plan adopted in many parts of the States is to
dig pits in a stubble field, in which the sportsmen take up their position surrounded
by a number of decoys. The geese are then shot during their morning and even-
ing flights from lake to lake, when they are attracted within easy range by the
decoys. In the Magdalen islands this species makes its nest in marshy plains, occa-
132

2098

FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

sionally laying as many as nine eggs in a clutch. The brent goose, on the other
hand, breeds on the sides of slopes on the bare space left between the line of snow
and the sea ice; the four eggs being deposited on a bed of grass, moss, and saxi-
frage overlain with down. Occasionally the nest of another bird is adopted by some
of the members of this genus. All the brent geese are readily tamed, and breed
in confinement, several of the species crossing with one another.

The brent geese of the Southern Hemisphere differ more or less
markedly from their northern cousins, and some or all of them have
accordingly been separated (as Cloephaga) from the genus Bernicla,
although we follow Mr. Sclater in including the whole of them under that name.

Southern
Species

EGYPTIAN GOOSE.

(One-fifth natural size.)

Several of these lack the black heads and necks of the northern species, and in some,
such as the upland goose (B.magellanica), ranging from the Falkland islands to
Chili, and the kelp goose (B. antarctica) of the Falkland islands and Patagonia,
the male is mainly white, while the female is mottled brown. In other cases, how-
ever, as shown in our figure, which is taken from hybrids between the upland goose
and another species known as B. dispar, the difference between the two sexes is less

GEESE 2099

marked, although the male still has a lighter head and neck. Other species are the
small Australian brent goose (B.jubata), which is of the size of a duck, and char-
acterized by the extreme shortness of its beak, and its blackish head and neck, and
the Sandwich island goose (B. sandvicensis} . According to Mr. W. H. Hudson,
the upland goose, which, like some other members of the genus, has a small spur
on its wing, visits Patagonia in great numbers during the winter, and inflicts much
damage on the growing crops of young corn and clover.

F . . The Egyptian goose (Chenalopex tegyptiaca) is the best-known
Knob- member of a genus typically represented by the knob-winged goose
Winged {C.jubata) of South America. It is characterized by the beak being
Geese equal in length to the head, and of rather slender form, with the tip
bent suddenly down so as almost to conceal the lower mandible, and the nostrils
placed near its base. The wings are rather long and broad, and are each armed
with a small bare knob, while the tail has fourteen rounded feathers. The legs are
relatively long, with the metatarsus exceeding the length of the third toe, and the
first toe is well developed. The windpipe of the male differs from that of ordinary
geese in being dilated at the lower end. In color the Egyptian goose has the sides
of the head and front of the neck mottled yellowish white; a patch round the eye,
the hinder neck, and a collar round the lower part of the latter are chestnut brown;
on the upper parts the general hue is mingled gray and black, and that of the under
parts yellowish brown, marked
with black and white, and be-
coming lighter on the hinder
parts of the breast and abdo-
men; the breast having a patch
of chestnut brown. The carpal
portion of the wing and wing
coverts is white, with black
tips to the smaller coverts; the
secondaries are tinged with
reddish bay, and edged with
chestnut; and the primaries
and tail feathers are brilliant
black. The iris is yellow; the
beak is horn color above, with
the tip pink, the nail, margin,
and base dark brown, and the
lower mandible cherry red; the
legs and feet being pink.

This handsomely - colored
bird, which is the vulpanser of AMERICAN KNOB- WINGED GOOSE.

Herodotus, was domesticated

by the ancient Egyptians, and, although not sacred, was the emblem of Seb, the
father of Osiris. It now occurs in the Nile valley southward of Cairo, and thence
ranges over the greater part of tropical Africa, and is the common wild goose of

2ioo FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

the Cape Colony. Going about either singly or in pairs, the Egyptian goose fre-
quents both rapid running streams and pools and lakes; and its nest may be situated
either on dry land or among long swampy grass in the Zambezi district. Further
north these birds have, however, been known to rear their young on ledges of
steep cliffs. The young brood leave their parents as soon as they are strong enough
to fly. When on the wing, a loud, harsh, grating noise, which has been compared
to the bark of a dog is continually uttered. This goose has been more or less com-
pletely acclimatized in England, where it may not unfrequently be seen on orna-
mental waters; and in confinement it has bred with several other members of the
family, — among them the spur- winged goose. The flesh is superior in quality to
that of the latter species. The windpipe of the male is peculiar in having a large
bony capsule on the left side of its lower extremity.

So indissolubly was the attribute of whiteness connected among the
ancients with the swans, that the idea of a black swan, as expressed
in the well-known line, rara avis in terris, nigroque simillima cygno, was considered
a mere flight of the poetic imagination. Nevertheless, not only does a black swan
exist, but a second species is remarkable for having a black head and neck and a
white body. The swans, all of which may be included in the single genus Cygnus,
are readily defined as members of the present family characterized by their
exceedingly-long necks, their naked lores, the simple first toe, and the metatarsus
reticulated and shorter than the third toe with the claw. The group as thus defined,
indicates not only a genus, but likewise a distinct subfamily. All these birds are of
large size, and have the flexible and slender neck as long as or longer than the body;
while the beak exceeds the head in length, and has its edges parallel, and the termi-
nal nail small. The tail feathers vary from twenty to twenty-four in number; and,
with the exception of the black Australian swan, the plumage is entirely or mainly
white in the adult state. The two sexes are nearly alike; and there is but a single
molt. Swans, of which there are comparatively-few species, are distributed over
the greater part of the world except Africa south of the Sahara, North Australia,
and the northern districts of South America. The gracefulness of their form, and
especially the beautiful curving of the neck, is proverbial; and they are all birds of
powerful flight, more aquatic in their habits than the geese, but also walking well
on land. Frequenting lakes and other inland waters in summer, they often seek
the sea in winter; but while some prefer open waters, others, like Bewick's swan,
rather favor marshes and narrow rivers. Their food consists of the seeds, stems,
and roots of flags and other water plants, supplemented by insects and mollusks.
All the white swans are migratory, and during their migrations fly both by night
and day. Like the geese, they are more or less gregarious, especially during the
winter, and they also resemble those birds in pairing apparently for life. Their
large untid}^ nests are placed on the ground, often among tussocks of coarse grass,
and contain from three to eight dull whitish eggs. As a rule, the young birds have
feathered lores, and a grayish-brown plumage. The call note is loud and trumpet-
like.

At least two species of swans are winter visitants to the British Islands, while
a third occurs in a domesticated state, although probably a few wild individuals

S IVANS

2IOI

Whistling
Swans

also arrive. The first of these is the whooper or whistling swan (C.
musicus}, which belongs to a group of species common to the northern
half of both the Old and New Worlds, and characterized by their com-
paratively-short and rounded tails; while it is specifically distinguished by the lores
and the basal portion of the beak to below the nostrils being yellow, the remainder
of the nostrils being black. In length this species reaches sixty inches. The
whooper is essentially an Arctic species, breeding chiefly within the Arctic Circle
either on the islands in the deltas of the great rivers, or on the lakes of the Siberian

WHISTLING SWAN.
(One-seventh natural size.)

tundras. Iceland and the northern parts of Scandinavia are also favorite nesting
haunts of this species, which appears to breed in pairs and not in small flocks. Mr.
Hume is of opinion that during its winter migration this species does not, except
in unusually severe winters, go as far south as some of its allies, although at times
it reaches the Mediterranean islands, Egypt, Algeria, and Palestine. Eastward, it
visits the Caspian, Persia, Turkestan, China, and Japan, but is unknown in India
proper. The nesting season commences in the latter half of May, the usual period

2102 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

of incubation being about six weeks; but the young birds are unable to fly before
the end of August. In diet these swans are mainly vegetarians.

A considerably-smaller bird than the last, this species (C bewicki)
may be distinguished by the yellow of the bill not extending below
the nostrils; the total length being about fifty inches. The general
distribution is very similar to that of the whooper, although this swan is only an
accidental visitor to Norway, and does not breed in Iceland. Indeed, it is only
within the last twenty years that its nest and eggs were first obtained, and even
now very little is known of its breeding habits, since this swan is even a more
northerly bird than the whooper. Its note is less loud and harsh than that of the
latter, being indeed somewhat musical in sound. In winter this swan congregates
in enormous flocks, which may be numbered by hundreds, or even thousands; and
it is at all times exceedingly wary and difficult to approach. In both the whooper
and Bewick's swan the windpipe is bent upon itself, and is received into a cavity in
the front of the breastbone, from which it again emerges to enter the chest; but the
nature of the folding is different in the two species, and serves to distinguish
between them.

North America possesses, two representatives of this group of swans,
namely, the American swan (C. columbianus} , and the trumpeter swan
(C buccinator], both of which have the windpipe folded. These two
species have black beaks; but whereas in the former the number of tail feathers is
usually twenty, the beak is not longer than the head, and the naked skin of the lores
generally shows a yellow spot; in the latter there are twenty-four tail feathers, the
beak is longer than the head, and there is no yellow on the lores. The trump-
eter somewhat exceeds the whooper in size, whereas the other species is somewhat
smaller. In defense of wounded companions the American swan is stated to display
great affection, a number having been known to collect round a disabled bird and
aid its escape by pushing it forward in the water and supporting its broken wing.
In its southerly migration it collects in flocks of twenty or thirty, flying only when
the wind is favorable, and then ascending to a great height in the air. The flock
flies in the form of an elongated wedge; the rate of their progress being estimated
at upward of a hundred miles an hour.

The mute swan of the Old World ( C. olor) indicates a second group
of the genus, characterized by the relatively-long and wedge-shaped
tail, the presence of a large tubercle at the base of the beak, and the absence of a
fold of the windpipe entering the breastbone. In addition to these features, the
mute swan may be recognized by the coloration of the beak, in which the base, to-
gether with the lores and tubercle, is black, while the terminal portion is orange red;
the coloration being therefore just the reverse of that met with in the whooper. In
size the mute swan agrees with the latter; the tubercle of the bill attaining its great-
est development in old males. Best known in the British Islands as a domesticated
bird, there is little doubt that during the winter there are some wild visitants. The
range of the species includes Europe and some portions of Asia, the breeding area
embracing South Sweden, parts of Germany, Russia, Transylvania, Turkestan, etc.,
while during winter these birds enter Northern Africa, Egypt, and Northwestern

2103

India. While swimming, the mute swan is the most graceful of all its kin, being
the one in which alone the neck is bent in true ' ' swanlike ' ' form. Deriving its
name from the absence of any cry in the domestic race, it appears that wild birds
trumpet like the whooper. The nesting time — during which the male bird dis-
plays extreme pugnacity — takes place in May; the nests being generally built in
association, and the number of eggs in each varying from five to eight. The only
swannery in England is the one at Abbotsbury, near Weymouth, belonging to the

C

BI.ACK SWAN.

Earl of Ilchester, where in 1880 there were upward of fourteen hundred birds. This
swannery, which dates from very ancient times, is situated on the estuary known as
the Fleet, of which the upper portion is brackish while the lower parts are com-
pletely salt. In the breeding season the nests cover a large area near the shore, and
while some of the young birds remain to increase the numbers in the swannery,
others wander out into the Fleet and become nearly wild. The severe winter of

2104 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

1 880-8 1 reduced the number of swans to about eight hundred, an average which has
been since maintained.

A considerable amount of discussion has taken place as to whether the so-called
Polish swan (C. immutabilis} , distinguished by the smaller size of the tubercle on
the beak, the black edges to the gape, and the slaty legs, as well by the plumage of
the cygnets being often white from birth, is entitled to rank as a distinct species.
It is, however, very probable that the distinctive features of tjie bird itself may be
due to immaturity; while the white plumage of the cygnets may be merely an effect
of domestication.

The handsome black-necked swan (C. nie-ricollis} from Chili, Areren-
Black-Necked

0 tina, and other southern districts of South America, is easily distin-

Swan

guished from all the preceding by the black head and neck; the rest of
the plumage being white, and the lores and base of the beak red. It agrees with the
mute swan in having the tail long and wedge shaped, but differs in the scalloped
margin of the web of the toes.

This Australian species (C. artratus] differs from all its congeners,

not only in the predominant hue of the adult plumage being blackish,
but also by the young having feathered lores, and likewise by the extreme short-
ness of the tail, and the crispness of the scapular and inner secondary feathers.
The naked parts of the head and the skin at the base of the beak are red, and the
feathers of the pinion white, but otherwise the bird is black. Inferior in size to
the whooper, this elegant bird is far less shy than the majority of its genus; and
when flying overhead at night utters a decidedly musical call note. In Victoria the
" Old Bushman " writes that after the young birds could fly, black swans were com-
mon "on all the large swamps and lagoons, sometimes in good-sized flocks, but
generally in small companies, which I took to be old birds and birds of the year.
Early in summer they retired to their breeding haunts, and we saw very little of them
again till the swamps and water holes filled. They appear to breed in August and
September. The nest is a large heap of rushes, and the female lays five to seven
dirty white eggs, not so large as those of tte mute swan." It is added that the
islands in Westernport bay are favorite nesting sites. Being a bird of heavy flight,
the black swan always endeavors to save itself, if possible, by swimming rather
than by taking wing.

Remains of the whooper and Bewick's swan in the superficial de-
Fossil Swans .. , A_., 1-1

and Geese Poslts °* tlie Thames valley indicate that those birds were contempo-
raries of the mammoth; while, in the Miocene of Malta, Falconer's
swan ( C. falconeri ) was of larger size than any existing form, from which it differed
by its extremely-short and goose-like toes. Bones of the existing species of
European geese are found in the same deposits as those yielding the remains of
modern swans; while an extinct species (C. ceningensis] , of the size of the bean
goose, occurs in the Miocene rocks of Baden.

Before coming to the more typical ducks, there are three genera demanding^
a brief notice, which to a certain extent, connect the ducks with the geese, and thus
render the classification of the family so difficult. The comb ducks, of which there
is an Indian (Sarcidiornis melanonotus} , an African (S. africanus] , and a tropical

DUCKS 210$

American species (S. carunculatus) , are large and somewhat goose-
Comb Duck i^e bjr(js with short and high beaks, and characterized by the pres-

ence of a blunt spur on the wing, a fleshy protuberance at the base of
the beak of the male, and the glossy-blackish plumage of the beak, the
wings being brightly marked like those of ducks. Although the two sexes are very
similar, the males are much larger than the females. The Indian species measures
from thirty to thirty-four inches in length. In habits it approaches the tree ducks,
frequently perching on trees, and generally nesting in holes in their trunks.

The Indian cotton teal {Nettapus coromandelianus} is a member of the genus
also having one African and two Australian representatives, and somewhat resem-
bles a miniature of the comb duck, although lacking the comb and spur, and also
differing by the more sombre coloration of the female. The beak, moreover, is still
shorter and higher at the base, and the tail differs from that of all the true ducks in
having but twelve feathers. The Indian species, which associates in large flocks,
measures thirteen or fourteen inches in length.

There being no representatives of the group in Britain, the idea of
Tree Ducks or ducks habitually perching in trees may seem to many persons some-

mg what unnatural, yet this is the normal habit of the tree ducks, or, as
Teal

they are generally called in India, whistling teal. Although approach-

ing the more typical ducks in the form of the beak, which is somewhat depressed
at the end, this genus {Dendrocygna) may be distinguished from them by the front
of the metatarsus being reticulate, in which respect they resemble the geese. The
lores are feathered, the legs rather long, with the lower portion of the tibia bare;
the wings are short and rounded, and the abbreviated tail is almost concealed by
the coverts. The sexes are nearly alike, and although in some species there is a
bright patch or speculum on the wing, in coloration these birds approach the Egyp-
tian goose and ruddy sheldrake, to both of which they may be allied. In their
voice, as well as in the plumage undergoing but one molt, and likewise in the
vegetable nature of their food, these birds again approach the geese, and differ from
the ducks. Tree ducks are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical
regions of the world, and it is highly remarkable that one species (D. viduata)
is common to South America and West Africa. The general color of the plumage
of these birds is some shade of brown or chestnut, with the back, wings, and tail
variously marked with darker brown and slaty, but in one of the American species
the abdomen is black, while in a second the under parts are dirty white. The
Indian D. javanica measures about twenty inches in length. The latter species
frequents well-wooded, well-watered, and well-drained districts throughout India;
being found during the breeding season in pairs, but in cold weather and spring
associating in flocks, which, according to Mr. Hume, may number from twenty to
two thousand head. Migratory in their habits, these birds, writes the last-named
observer, are very tame and familiar, ' ' frequenting village ponds, and living
on the trees surrounding such, even on trees growing inside the inclosures of
cottages. They are rather dull birds, slow on the wing and easily shot, and they
have a habit of circling round and round the gunner when one of their number
has been shot, that often proves fatal to the greater portion of the flock, when

2106 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

it unfortunately falls under the tender mercies of butchers. When absolutely re-
quired for food, a pair or so may be shot, but they are indifferent eating, and fly
so poorly that they really afford no sport. ' ' Their deficiency in the matter of flight,
is, however, counterbalanced by their expertness in swimming and diving, a
wounded bird being most difficult to capture. When not on the wing, these birds
are most commonly seen either feeding on the water, or resting on trees. Chiefly
vegetarians, they subsist largely on rice, as well as various water plants, but also
consume insects and mollusks. They derive their name of whistling teal from their
double hissing whistle-like note, which is always uttered when the birds are alarmed
or about to fly, and is often repeated during flight, although but seldom heard when
they are feeding or at rest. The nest may be situated either in a hollow tree or be-
tween the forks of a large branch, or on the ground, and if built by the birds them-
selves is unlined; a deserted crow's nest is, however, often taken advantage of. The
number of eggs is usually from ten to twelve. Curiously enough, when the nest is
in a tree, the young are carried down by the parent birds to the water. Mr. Hume
has observed the ducklings carried in the claws of their parents, but it has been
stated that they are sometimes borne on their backs.

The handsome birds known as sheldrakes ( Tadorna}, which are near
relations of the tree ducks, may be regarded as the first representatives of
the subfamily Anatincg, in which are included all the more typical ducks.
The members of this group are relatively short-necked birds of smaller size than the
true geese, from which they differ in having the front of the metatarsus covered
with scutes, and the length of that segment shorter than the third toe, while they
are further characterized by having only a small membrane attached to the first toe.
The beak is variable, and the number of tail feathers ranges from fourteen to eight-
een. In the males, the lower end of the windpipe is dilated, as it is in the spur-
winged and Egyptian goose, the comb ducks, etc. None of these birds are in the
habit of diving for their food. The sheldrakes resemble the tree ducks in that the
plumage of the two sexes is nearly alike; but in the ducks there is usually great dif-
ferences be'tween the two, the males having a very beautiful coloration, with a bright
metallic patch or speculum, on the wing. The sheldrakes further agree with the tree
ducks in having but a single annual molt; whereas, in many of the ducks, the
males molt their contour feathers once in the early summer and again in autumn.
The subfamily comprises a very large number of species arranged under many gen-
era, and having an almost world- wide distribution, although most widely spread
during the winter on the Northern Hemisphere. The exigencies of space admit of
a reference only to some of the more important genera. In addition to the similar-
ity in the coloration of the sexes and their single molt, the sheldrakes are charac-
terized by the presence of a conspicuous white patch on the front of the wing, by the
relative length of the metatarsus (above which a portion of the tibia is bare), and
also by the prevalence of chestnut, black, and white — often in strongly-contrasting
masses — in the plumage. The beak is about equal in length to the head, and higher
than broad at the base (near which are situated the nostrils), with the nail bent
down and hooked. In the long and powerful wings, the second quill is the longest.
The sheldrakes form a group of six species, breeding in the temperate regions of

DUCKS

2107

Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia, and visiting India and the adjacent countries
in winter, but quite unknown in the New World.

The handsomest and, in Europe, the best-known representatives of
Sheldrake ^e &enus *s tne common sheldrake, or burrow duck (71 cornuta],
which is sufficiently characterized by the head and neck being dark
glossy green, below which is a broad collar of white, followed by a band of rich
chestnut extending across the back and breast, the remainder of the plumage being
mainly black and white, with the speculum of the wing marked by green and chest-
nut on the secondaries. The beak is red, while the legs and toes are flesh pink.

- -

•• •

COMMON SHELDRAKE.

(One-fifth natural size.)

The usual length is about twenty-five inches. The sheldrake is essentially an inhab-
itant of the temperate regions of the northern half of the Old World, being a resi-
dent throughout the year in the British Islands, and scarcely ever penetrating
within either the Arctic Circle or the Tropics. From Britain its range extends to
Japan, where it is a winter visitor, and the limits of its migration include Persia,
Northwestern India, and North Africa, while it breeds not only in Europe, but in
Southern Siberia, Mongolia, Turkestan, etc. Essentially a coast bird in Europe,
in India the sheldrake is more commonly found on inland waters, although it

2io8 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

haunts the shores of Sind. On the coasts of Europe these birds prefer sandy dis-
tricts, especially those with numerous rabbit burrows, in which they breed, and
hence derive their name of burrow duck. Yarrell writes that the nest is always in
a burrow of some sort, and frequently in one describing part of a circle, so that it
may be situated as much as ten or twelve feet from the entrance. It is composed
of bents of grass, lined with fine soft down. In the Frisian islands the natives con-
struct artificial burrows for these birds to nest in, and make a regular harvest of
the eggs; the number laid by a single bird, if some are from time to time removed,
reaching as many as thirty. The note of the sheldrake is a shrill whistle; its
food usually consists of seaweed and various small marine animals. Its conspicu-
ous white and dark plumage renders the sheldrake easy of detection among the
ducks; but, in India at least, it is extremely shy and difficult to approach.

A very different-looking bird from the last is the ruddy sheldrake, or

Braminy duck (T. casarca}. which, while but a rare visitor to the
Sheldrake

British Islands and Northwestern Europe, generally breeds in Spain,

the valley of the Danube, and Southern Russia in great numbers, and thence ex-
tends through Persia, Turkestan, and South Siberia to Amurland and Japan, while
in winter it visits India, Burma, and China in swarms. Although so largely migra-
tory in Asia and nonmigratory in Europe, the occurrence of this species during the
winter in North Africa indicates that some individuals make a periodical move even
in the western portion of its habitat.

The greater part of the plumage of the Braminy is a full orange brown, but in
the summer the male has a black ring round the neck; while at all times the point
of the wing and wing coverts are pale buffy white, the primaries, rump, and tail
feathers blackish-leaden gray, and the secondaries rather lighter, with a brilliant
bronzy-green speculum formed by their outer webs, except at the tips. The beak
and legs are leaden and blackish. In size, this bird corresponds closely with the
ordinary sheldrake. Some of the favorite breeding places of the Braminy are the
great lakes of the Tibetan Highlands, such as the Pangong and Tsomorari, on the
former of which the writer has seen them in numbers. In such regions these
birds build in clefts or cavities of rocks; but in other districts the nests are more
commonly placed in burrows and other holes, while in Mongolia they have even
been known to be situated in the fireplaces of deserted villages. Visiting the
country during the winter in myriads, Braminys at that season are to be met with
on every piece of water in India; and, as Mr. Hume observes, no object is more
familiar in river scenery "than a pair of these ducks, standing or squatting, side
by side on the banks, or on some chur [island] ; no. sounds are more perpetually
heard as one floats lazily down with the stream, than their loud warning notes,
repeated more earnestly as one draws nearer and nearer, and followed by the sharp
patter of their wings as they rise on the approach of the boat. Very wary they
are, and yet not at all afraid of men, so long as they keep just out of gunshot."
Uneatable except when skinned, and then by no means a bonne bouche, the Braminy
is most cordially detested by the Indian sportsman, as its harsh cry and noisy
flight puts up all other water fowl in the neighborhood while still beyond shooting
range.

DUCKS

2109

The True
Ducks

WII.D DUCK.

The beautiful wild duck or mallard (Anas boscas] is the typical
representative not only of true ducks of the genus to which it be-
longs, but likewise of all the fresh-water nondiving ducks of the
present subfamily, the general char-
acteristics of which have already
been mentioned under the head of
the sheldrakes. The true ducks
are characterized by having the
broad and depressed beak about
equal in length to the head, with
its sides either parallel or partially
dilated, and both mandibles pro-
vided with well-marked transverse
lamellae on their inner edges, the
oval nostrils being situated in ad-
vance of its base. The legs are
shorter than in the sheldrakes,
and placed nearly under the centre
of the body, with the metatarsus
somewhat rounded in front. The
wings are rather long and pointed,

while the tail, which may be either pointed or wedge shaped, is comparatively
short. Of the true ducks there are numerous species, with a cosmopolitan
distribution; and while in the wild duck the plumage of the two sexes is very
distinct, this is not the case in some species, such as the Indian spot-bill duck (A.
pizrilorhyncha ) .

Such a familiar species as the British wild duck — the ancestral
stock of most of our domesticated breeds — might seem to require
little or no description, but the omission of such a notice would entail confusion
later on. The mallard, then, is characterized by the male being more brightly
colored than the female, except during the breeding season, and by the brilliancy
of the wing speculum in both sexes at all times. In winter the adult male has the
four middle tail feathers curled upward; the head and neck are a brilliant velvety
green, and separated by a white collar from the rich chestnut of the breast, while
the wing speculum is a brilliant metallic violet, bounded in front by a black and
then a white bar, and behind by two similar bands. The beak is yellowish green,
and the legs and feet orange red. In length the bird measures about twenty-two
inches. On the other hand, the female at all times, and the male in the breeding
season, have the wings colored as above, and the whole of the rest of the plumage
variegated with dusky and ochre, the former appearing in the centre of the feathers
and on the upper parts, and the latter on the edges of the feathers and lower parts.
Such characteristics suffice shortly to distinguish this handsome species from its allies.
As regards its distribution, the mallard may be said to inhabit the whole of the
Northern Hemisphere, although its chief range is restricted to the zone lying
between the Arctic Circle and the Tropic.

Mallard

2i io FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

The dusky duck {A. obscura] of Eastern North America may
be taken as an example of a second group of the genus in which
the sexes are alike at all seasons, and there is no white at the base of the wing. In
this bird the prevailing color of the plumage is dusky, with the feathers bordered
with dull ochre, the head and neck being deep dull buff streaked with dusky, and
the wing speculum usually deep violet.

This British duck (A. strepera) is a small more markedly-distinct
species, sometimes separated as a distinct genus, under the name of
Chaulelasmus. Structurally it is distinguished from the preceding by the narrower
and shorter beak, in which the edges are not quite parallel, the lamellae are visible
externally, and its upper border is not convex in front, while it is further dis-
tinguished by the dull coloration of the speculum, which is simple black and white
— mainly the latter. The gadwall is a very widely-spread species, occurring in
Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America, and is represented in an island of the
South Pacific by the somewhat smaller Coues' gadwall (A. couesi).
Habit Limits of space preclude any detailed account of the habits of the

various species of ducks of this genus, but the following excellent
account, referring to the mallard, may be quoted from Macgillivray, who writes
that " marshy places, the margins of lakes, pools, and rivers, as well as brooks, rills,
and ditches, are its principal places of resort at all seasons. It walks with ease,
even runs with considerable speed, swims, and on occasion dives, although not in
search of food. Seeds of grasses and other plants, fleshy and fibrous roots, worms,
mollusks, insects, small reptiles, and fishes are the objects of its search. In shallow
water it reaches the bottom with its bill, keeping the hind part of the body erect by
a continued motion of the feet. On the water it sits rather lightly, with the tail
considerably inclined upward; when searching under the surface, it keeps the tail
flat on the water, and, when puddling at the bottom with its hind, part up, it directs
the tail backward. The male emits a rather low and soft cry between a croak and
a murmur, and the female a louder and clearer jabber. Both on being alarmed,
and especially on flying off, quack; but the quack of the female is much the louder.
When feeding, they are silent, but when satiated they often amuse themselves with
various jabberings, swim about, approach each other, move their heads backward
and forward, " duck " in the water, throwing it up over their backs, shoot along its
surface, half flying, half running, and, in short, are quite playful when in good
humor. On being surprised or alarmed, whether on shore or on water, they spring
up at once with a bound, rise obliquely to a considerable height, and fly off with
speed, their hard-quilled wings whistling against the air. When in full flight, their
velocity is very great, being probably a hundred miles in the hour. Like other
ducks, they impel themselves by quickly repeated flaps, without sailings or undula-
tions." With regard to the foregoing statement as to the speed of the mallard's
flight, it is probable that there is considerable exaggeration, since a recent writer
records a case where a couple of wild ducks started off at full speed in front of a
train which had disturbed them, and although the train was running at the rate of
only thirty-seven miles per hour, the birds were overtaken. Like most of its kindred,
the mallard usually builds its nest in a depression of the ground near the margin of

DUCKS

2111

water, although at times some distance from the latter. The nest is lined with dry
grass, leaves, or down, the smooth eggs being of a dull greenish-gray color. The
gadwall, however, lays creamy-yellow eggs, varying in number from nine to thir-
teen. Instances are on record of wild ducks nesting in trees at considerable heights
above the ground, from whence the young were doubtless carried down in the same
manner as those of the tree ducks. Essentially a winter migrant when breeding in
high northern latitudes, the mallard appears at that season in immense numbers in
certain districts of the British Islands as well as in the plains of India. These birds
are, however, rarely seen in large flocks, usually associating in parties of from three
to ten, and later on in pairs. In common with other water fowl, hosts of these
ducks are taken in decoys or shot from punts with swivel guns.

The Shoveller
Ducks

COMMON SHOVEIXER DUCK.

The enormous size and ungainly form of their flat beaks serves at
once to differentiate the large ducks known as shovellers from all their
allies. In these birds the beak is considerably longer than the head,
compressed at the base, and very broad at the tip, where the upper mandible over-
hangs the lower, behind which the lamellae are distinctly exposed. The wings are
pointed, with the first and second quills the longest; the short and graduated tail
includes fourteen feathers. The legs are very short. As being the best-known
representative of the genus, our illustration depicts the common shoveller (Spatula

2i 1 2 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

dypeata), which in the British Isles is mainly a winter visitor, and is spread over
the entire Northern Hemisphere. In the male the head and neck are dark metal-
lic green, the breast and lower part of the neck white, the abdomen and sides chest-
nut, the wing speculum green with a white border in front, the back and inner
scapular dusky brown, and the outer scapulars white, the beak being lead color, and
the legs and feet reddish orange, with black nails. The female lacks the brilliant
coloration of her lord, having most of the feathers mottled with two shades of
brown, the back and scapulars being nearly uniform dusky, and the beak brown,
with its lower mandible orange. In length, the male reaches about twenty inches.
The genus is represented by a second species (S. platalea) in South America, by a
third (S. capensis) in Africa, and by two others in Australia. Nesting in large
numbers near or within the Arctic Circle, and more sparingly in lower latitudes,
the common shoveller commences to arrive in the British Isles during September,
where it sojourns till the following May or April. In the New World it breeds
from Alaska to Texas, and winters as far south as Guatemala, while it spreads in
numbers over the plains of India during the cold season. Writing of its habits,
Mr. Hume remarks that the shoveller is very tame, and in some districts may be
met with "on every trumpery little village pond, half surrounded by huts, the
resort of the washermen, and of the entire population for the purposes of ablution,
and of the village herds, driven thither twice a day for water. Filthy is quite an
inadequate expression for many of these reeking sinks of pollution, but foul or fair
the shoveller is equally at home in them, and may be seen at all hours feeding along
the edge, now just in and now just out of the water, making no epicurean selection,
but feeding on pretty well every organic substance that comes to hand, nice or
nasty." In Britain, on the other hand, it is a shy and wary bird, frequenting
lakes, ponds, and sluggish rivers. The nest, usually situated on dry ground be-
neath a tussock of grass, is made of dry grass; the eggs, which are covered up with
down plucked by the female from her own breast, vary in number from eight to
fourteen, and are greenish buff in color.

The elongation of the middle pair of tail feathers in the male give
Ducks *° ^e a^most cosmopolitan pintail duck (Dafila acuta) its distinctive
title, and at the same time afford one of the most striking character-
istics of the genus of which this bird is the typical representative. In both sexes of
the pintail the neck is unusually long and slender, while the beak is about equal in
length to the head, with its edges nearly parallel, although expanding slightly
toward the tip, and with the lamellae but very little exposed. The wings are long
and pointed, with the first and second quills the longest; and the tail is likewise
sharply pointed in both sexes, the male bird not only having its two central
feathers elongated and pointed, but also showing an equally marked lengthening
of the lanceolate scapular feathers. The legs are rather short, and the webs are
slightly excavated in front. The pintail resembles the mallard in the circumstance
that during the summer the male assumes a plumage resembling that of the female.
At other times the former sex has the head and upper neck dark brown; most
of the upper parts gray, forming by undulating lines of grayish and blackish;
the front of the neck, breast, and considerable portion of the under parts, white;

DUCKS 2113

the wing speculum dark green, and the long tail feathers black, the beak and
feet being lead color or brownish. The female is nearly brown throughout, the
feathers of the upper parts being mottled with two shades, while those on the
under surface are nearly uniform, the tail feathers showing white markings on a
brown ground. The length of the male pintail varies from twenty-four to twenty-
-eight inches.

Found throughout the circumpolar regions, the pintail is a migratory species,
ranging in winter as far south as Panama and Cuba in the New World, and in the
Old World to the Mediterranean, Persia, Ceylon, China, Borneo, and Japan. Its
main breeding area in the Old World lies to the north of latitude 60°, but it
descends below this limit in North Germany and Russia, and still more so in
Siberia. A silent bird during the day, the pintail utters a low quacking sound at
night. It generally frequents shallow waters, where it feeds upon both vegetable
and animal food; and in winter commonly associates in flocks, which in India may
include from twenty to two hundred, or occasionally thousands of head, and are
at times composed exclusively of male birds. The flight of the pintail is rapid in
the extreme, and this, together with its shy and wary habits, renders it one of the
most difficult ducks to shoot, although the excellence of its flesh renders it of
especial value to the sportsman. When once flushed, pintail almost invariably
fly clean away, and cannot be driven backward and forward from one piece of
water to another, like so many other ducks. From the closeness of its breast
plumage, it is especially necessary in the case of the pintail to allow the bird to
pass before firing. In the Southern Hemisphere there are several allied ducks,
such as the Chilian pintail (D. spinicauda} of lower South America, the South
American Bahama duck (D. bahamensis], and the red-billed duck (Z>. erythro-
rhyncha) of South Africa, which are considered by many ornithologists as congeneric
with the European species, although by others they are referred to the distinct
genus Peerilonetta. They differ from the true pintail in the slight elongation of
the middle tail feathers of the male, and the uniformly-dull and much-spotted colora-
tion of the two sexes.

The group of beautiful little ducks known as teal, while presenting a
great general resemblance to the pintails, are distinguished, in addition
to their small size, by their much shorter necks, and the short and rounded tail of
sixteen feathers, the scapulars of the male being also less pointed and elongated.
The beak is about equal in length to the head, with its edges nearly parallel, and
the lamellae very slightly exposed. In the foot the first toe is very short, and the
fourth much shorter than the third. The common teal {Querquedula creccd) is the
best-known representative of a group of the genus in which the nape of the neck in
the male is ornamented with a small mane-like crest. In length this species meas-
ures only fourteen and one-half inches; and in the ordinary plumage the male is
characterized by the vermiculated markings of the back, the bright green band,
bordered with buff, on the side of the head, the rest of the head chestnut, the wing
speculum black, green, and purple, tipped with white, and the breast white, spotted
with black. The female has the upper plumage mainlj'- of two shades of brown,
and the wing speculum mainly black, with but little green. This species is dis-
133

2 1 14 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

tributed over Europe and Asia generally, breeding in the British Islands, and visit-
ing India and North Africa in the winter, while it occasionally occurs in Eastern
North America. On this continent its place is taken by the American teal
(Q. carolinensis} , distinguished by the presence of a broad, white crescent on each
side of the breast. The garganey, or summer teal (Q. circia), is a larger bird
representing a second group of the genus, in which the head is crestless, the bill
longer, and the wing coverts bluish. In the male, of which the length is from
fifteen to sixteen inches, the plumage of the back is not vermiculated; the upper
part of the head is dark brown, beneath which is a white stripe running above the
eye and thence down the side of the neck; the wing coverts are pale bluish gray,
the wing speculum dull green bordered with white, the front of the neck and breast
brown, and the middle of the abdomen white. The garganey is a migratory species
widely distributed over Europe and Asia, occasionally visiting the British Islands in
spring, and wintering in the Mediterranean countries, India, China, Japan, etc.
The American blue- winged teal (Q, discolor] differs by the distinctly-blue wing
coverts, the presence of a white crescent between the beak and the eye, and by the
under tail coverts being black, instead of white spotted with brown, in the male.
The cinnamon teal {Q. cyanoptera) of Western America differs from the latter by
the chestnut, instead of lead colored, head and neck of the male; and there are sev-
eral other species, in some of which, such as the Asiatic clucking teal (Q. formosa},
the scapulars are elongated.

The common teal breeds either among reeds and sedge on the mar-
gin of lakes and swamps, or on boggy moors; the nest being a large
structure composed of water plants, lined with feathers or down, and the number of
eggs in a clutch varying from eight to ten in Britain, and from ten to fifteen in Lap-
land. When unmolested teal feed both by night and day, but when much shot at
they become mainly nocturnal feeders. In India, where they arrive by thousands
in the cold season, teal frequent large sheets of water in the daytime, and resort to
rice fields and shallow marshes in the evening. Nearly as swift on the wing as pin-
tail, teal, writes Mr. Hume, " turn and twist in the air with a rapidity second only
to the cotton teal, and they have a habit after being flushed of dropping suddenly
again. They swim easily, but not very rapidly, and they cannot dive to much pur-
pose, so that a wounded bird, unless there are weeds near, under which it can lie
with only the bill above water, has, as a rule, but a poor chance of escape. On the
land, if the ground be fairly smooth, they walk with tolerable ease; but it is rare
to see them, as one often sees the wigeon, well out on the dry sward, walking for
pleasure." Their chief food is of a vegetable nature, but they also consume water
insects and mollusks. The common teal is usually seen in India in moderate-sized
parties, but occasionally in large flocks, although never in the countless thousands
in which the garganey sometimes congregrates in that country. In March, how-
ever, they associate in pairs, and then afford very pretty shooting when lying on
the water beneath the steep banks of the larger rivers. The teal is the easiest
of all ducks to net and snare; immense numbers being captured during the cold
weather in India, and kept alive through the summer in specially constructed
"tealeries."

DUCKS 2115

The last genus of the subfamily represented in the British Isles is
that which includes the common wigeon ( Mareca penelope) , the North-
American wigeon (M. americana) , and the Chilian wigeon {M. sibilatrix) of South
America. These birds have a bill considerably shorter than the head, and very like
that of the gad wall, but with the lamellae scarcely exposed, and slightly concave
above. The rather long and pointed wings have the first and second quills the long-
est, the tail is short and pointed, and the wing speculum is largely black, while
there is a white patch on the lesser wing coverts. In the legs, a small portion of
the tibia is bare, and the first toe has a small membranous lobe. The male wigeon,
which measures from eighteen to twenty inches in length, may be recognized by its
chestnut head and neck, minutely spotted with green (except on the forehead and
top, where it is whitish), by the black and white vermiculation of the back and
flanks, the white on the wing coverts, and by the wing speculum being formed by
one green band bordered by two equally wide ones of black. The female is a more
soberly-colored bird, lacking the bright head coloration of the male, and with a
grayish-brown speculum. In the late summer the plumage of the male, although
always the brighter, approximates to that of his partner. The slightly-larger
American wigeon, has the head and neck of the male whitish, slightly speckled with
black, and with a metallic-green patch on the side of the head, which may extend
some distance down the neck; while the female has a black wing speculum. In the
Chilian wigeon the speculum is velvety black in both sexes. The common wigeon
is a migratory species having a distribution very similar to that of the teal, breeding
occasionally in the northern parts of the British Islands, as well as in France, Ger-
many, and the Danube valley, but more generally in the belt lying between the
Arctic Circle and the 6oth parallel. At all times gregarious, these birds are even
social in the breeding season; and while in the British Islands principally frequent-
ing estuaries and the neighborhood of the coast, in India they are spread over all
the inland waters. Their habit of walking on land near the margin of water has
been already mentioned under the head of the teal, and it may be added that they
differ from those birds in the facility with which they dive when wounded. They
breed in well-watered districts where the ground is partly swampy and partly cov-
ered with low scrub; the nest being placed near the water beneath tussocks of grass,
or at some distance off under the shelter of a bush. May or June is the usual nest-
ing time, and the number of eggs in a clutch is usually from six to ten, although
occasionally more. In its partiality for grazing the wigeon resembles the geese.

The brilliantly-colored and elegantly-marked plumage and the long
Summer Duck ... , **.«.< j- ,.• • i_ ^

M silky pendent crest of the males, serve at once to distinguish the sum-

darin Duck mer or wood duck (sEx sponsa) of North America and the mandarin
duck (s£x galerita] of China from all the other members of the family.
These birds are further characterized by the beak being much shorter than the head,
with its base elevated, and produced upwrard and backward in an angle nearly to
each eye, while its tip is depressed and covered with an unusually large nail. The
inner secondaries differ from those of the genera just described, by being broad and
rounded, and the tail feathers are not pointed. The two species agree in the gen-
eral plan of their gorgeous coloration, but are distinguished by a difference in the

2ii6 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

arrangement of the feathering at the base of the beak, and also by the circumstance,
that whereas in the mandarin duck the tail feathers are short and exceeded in length
by the under tail coverts, in the American species the long and very broad tail
feathers extend far beyond the coverts. The description of the coloration of those
beautiful birds would occupy too much space.

The summer duck derives its name from being found in most parts of the United
States at that season, while it takes its second title from its habit of frequenting
woods, among the trees of which it flies with the facility of a pigeon. The beauty
of its plumage, its graceful carriage when swimming, and the gentleness of its dis-
position, make it a universal favorite in America, where it is frequently induced to
nest in gardens. Going about in pairs or small parties, the summer duck generally
lays its eggs in hollow trees, but may take possession of the deserted nests of other
birds. In diet it is a somewhat miscellaneous feeder; its food in autumn being
largely composed of acorns. The range of this bird extends from the fur countries
throughout temperate North America. The splendidly-colored mandarin duck has
one of the scapular feathers expanded into a large fan, of which the color is mostly
chestnut brown, but with a broad purple band on the outer hind border. In South
America the place of the summer duck is taken by the much larger Muscovy duck
(Cairina moschata), distinguished by the great difference in the size of the two
sexes, and the presence of brownish fleshy wattles on the forehead and lores; the
secondaries being greatly lengthened, and the greater wing coverts short. The Mus-
covy, or musky, duck has long been domesticated in Europe, and interbreeds with
the common duck and other species.

The pochards and their near allies the scaup ducks, which may be

oc ar s an inciU(je(j jn the single genus Fuligula, although divided by some orni-

Ducks thologists into three generic groups, are the first representatives of a

subfamily distinguished structurally from the preceding one by having

a distinct pendent lobe or membrane attached to the first toe; while in habits they

differ by their practice of diving in search of food , and their extreme expertness on

the water. As a rule, the sexes are different in coloration; and the males undergo a

partial second molt in summer. Of some forty species of diving ducks, as the whole

group maybe collectively designated, the majority are confined to the Northern

Hemisphere and South America, although there are three Australian species, and

another in Africa.

The pochards and their congeners are characterized by the beak being not
longer than the head, and having its base somewhat elevated, and its broad tip
depressed, while the tail feathers are short, moderately stiff, rounded at the tips,
and more than half concealed by the coverts. The wings are rather short and
pointed, and the metatarsus is characterized by its lateral compression. The red-
crested pochard {F. ruf.no) differs from the other members of the genus in the head
of the male being rufous and furnished with a full, soft, rounded, and bushy crest;
the beak being vermilion, the front of the neck and breast rich dark brown, and the
wing speculum white. The female is devoid of a crest, and has the head and neck
yellowish white speckled with black, and no white speculum. This species inhabits
Southern and Eastern Europe (occasionally ranging northward to the British

DUCKS 2117

Islands), Northern Africa, and India. On the other hand, the widely-distributed
scaup duck (F. marila), of Europe, Asia, and the whole of North America, may be
taken as the representative of a second group (the genus Fidix of some) in which
the adult males have no crest, but the whole of the head and neck of a uniform
black color; the beak being about equal in length to the second toe, with its nail
differing from that of the red-crested pochard by being small and narrow in place
of large and broad. In the male the head, neck, and breast are purplish black, the
back and scapulars white with black vermiculations, and the wing speculum and
under parts white. A third group {AZthyia of some) is represented by the common
pochard (F. ferina) of Europe and Northern Asia, and the red-headed (F. ameri-
cana) and canvasbacked duck (F. vallisneria) of North America, as well as other
forms. In all these the beak is rather longer than the inner toe, and the head and
neck of the adult males are red. Finally, we have a fourth group (Nyroca} repre-
sented by the white-eyed pochard (F. nyroca) of Europe and Asia, and the Austra-
lian white eye (F. australis}, which take their name from the white ring formed by
the iris of the eye. In the adult male of the European species the head, neck, and
upper breast are chestnut brown, the wing speculum white, and the beak leaden
blue; while in the female the head and neck are pale chestnut.

During its sojourn in the British Islands from October to March or April, the
common pochard is generally met with on the coast, although in other districts, and
especially India, it is an inland bird at the same season. A bad walker, this duck
is essentially a diver and swimmer, associating in India in immense flocks on open
sheets of water of medium depth. These birds feed chiefly by night, but in undis-
turbed districts they may be seen diving at all hours of the day in search of the
stems and roots of water plants, which constitute their chief food. The same hab-
its characterize the American canvasback, which is met with in countless numbers
on the Chesapeake, where it dives for vallisneria grass, locally known as celery.
Both these ducks are most excellent table birds; and while in India the pochard is
taken by hundreds in nets placed in the water, the canvasback is usually shot in
America, one device being to attract the birds within range by going out at night
in a boat furnished with a powerful lamp and reflector in the bows. Such pochards
as remain to breed in the British Isles usually nest in May and the first half of
June; the nest being constructed of rushes, grass, or flags, sometimes placed among
the rank vegetation near the margin of the water, but at other times being a float-
ing structure. The greenish- gray eggs vary from eight to twelve or even fourteen
in number. Writing of the red-crested pochard, Mr. Hume observes that he has
"watched flocks of them, scores of times, diving for an hour at a time, with a per-
tinacity and energy unsurpassed by any other wild fowl. Examine closely their
favorite haunts, and you will find these to be almost invariably just those waters in
which they must dive for their food." Such haunts being deep broads where the
beds of water weed are several feet below the surface.

The pretty ducks bearing these names, together with Barrow's
Golden Eye and ,, , ~, , . , ,. \ . ...,

Buffelhead £olc*en eye (Clangula islandtca) of North America, constitute a genus

characterized by the beak being much shorter than the head, and high
and broad at the base, but depressed at the tip, where it is covered by a rather

2118

small and bent-down nail. The nostrils are situated near the middle of the beak, in
which the lamellae are concealed by the overlapping of the upper mandible. The
wings are pointed and rather short with the first quill the longest, and the tail of
sixteen feathers is rounded and of medium length. In the male the coloration is
pied black and white, while it is brown and white in the female. The golden eye
(C. glauciori) takes its name from the golden-yellow hue of the iris, and the male may
be recognized by the metallic green of the head and upper neck, the white patch at
the base of the beak below the eye, and by the scapular region being striped with
white. This species, which measures from sixteen to nineteen inches in length,
inhabits Northern Europe and Asia, migrating south in winter, and is represented
by a variety in North America. It always builds in holes in trees at a considerable
height above the ground. Of the American species, Barrow's golden eye may be
distinguished by the white patch behind the beak extending to a point above the
level of the eye; while in the smaller buffelheaded duck (C. albeola), which has
occasionally straggled across the Atlantic, the white patch on the head of the male
is placed behind the eye and extends right across the occiput.

The well-known harlequin duck (Cosmonetta histrionica) , of the
ar equ northern latitudes of both Hemispheres, belongs to an allied genus,

distinguished by the larger size of the nail on the beak, the presence
of only fourteen feathers in the tail, and by the near equality in the length of the
first and second quills of the wing. The male is characterized b}r the general leaden
hue of its plumage, relieved by white markings on the head and white collars on
the lower neck and breast, as well as by the purple wing speculum; while the
female is grayish brown, with white patches on the head. In summer an inland
species associating in pairs, in winter the harlequin duck collects in flocks to fre-
quent sheltered bays and inlets on rocky coasts. It is an occasional straggler to
Britain, but is unknown on the Continent.

Easily recognized by the great elongation of the two middle tail
The Long- feathers of the male, the long-tailed duck (Harelda gladalis) occupies
_ , in respect of this feature a position among the diving series analogous

to that held by the pintail in the nondiving group. In both sexes the
beak is very short and tapering, with a large decurved nail at the tip, and subbasal
nostrils. The wings are rather short and pointed, the scapular feathers of the male
are lengthened, and the tail, which has fourteen feathers, is short and graduated in
the female. In the male bird, of which the length is from twenty-two to twenty-
six inches, the prevailing color of the head and neck in the ordinary dress is white,
with an oval brown patch on the sides of the latter; the breast, middle of the back,
rump, and middle tail feathers are black; the scapulars are striped with white, and
the remaining tail feathers and under parts pure white. The female is a more
sombre-colored bird, with the sides of the head white and those of the neck brown.
As its Latin name implies, the long-tailed duck is an essentially Arctic species,
ranging to the most northerly known lands of both hemispheres, and not generally
migrating very far south in winter, although it has been known to reach Northern
Italy. Not uncommon as a winter visitor to Britain, it regularly frequents at that
season the Caspian, Northern China, Japan, and the Northern United States. Found

DUCKS 21 19

in numbers on the Kara Sea, and breeding in Nova Zembla, Northern Russia,
and all through North Siberia, this duck is mainly marine in its habits, feeding
on mollusks, crustaceans, and small fishes, in search of which it dives with remarka-
ble expertuess. During the breeding season it resorts, however, to fresh waters,
on the margins of which its nests are constructed among low bushes. The note of
the male is loud, but almost indescribable in words; and when flying the mem-
bers of this sex are said to present an exceedingly-graceful appearance, moving
with very rapid strokes of the wings, with the long tail feathers floating behind.

Well known on account of the beautiful soft down collected from

their nests, the eiders, Somateria, are best characterized by the elon-
gated scapulars and emerald or pale green markings on the heads of the males, these
two characteristics serving to distinguish them from other diving ducks. Both
sexes may be recognized by the beak being shorter than the head, and swollen and
elevated at the base, with small and lateral nostrils, but more especially by the
feathers of the forehead extending downward nearly to the nostrils between its
divided upper portion. Generally, the prevailing colors of the plumage of the males
are black and white. The eiders are now represented by six well-defined species,
confined to the northern regions of the Old World, three of which occur in the
British Islands, although two are more occasional visitors. The common or true
eider (S. mollissima) , which is mainly confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, and is
the only resident British species, may be recognized by the upper part of the back
and scapulars of the male being white in the breeding plumage, while the top of the
head and under parts are black; the female being pale rufous brown, with darker
markings. Young males are at first like the females; but in the first year, as shown
in the upper figures of our illustration on next page, the wing coverts and second-
aries become white, and in the third year the full plumage is assumed. In summer,
with the second molt, old males become almost black. In the king eider (S. speda-
bilis], which is circumpolar, although but a rare visitor to Britain, the male in breed-
ing plumage has the upper part of the back white, but the elongated scapulars
black, and also a black chevron on the throat with its apex on the chin. On the
other hand, in the handsome Steller's eider (S. stelleri], which is a still more ex-
clusively-Arctic bird, the adult male in nuptial plumage has the whole back black,
the long scapulars white on their inner, and bluish black on their outer webs, and a
bluish-black collar on the neck.

All the eiders are exclusively dwellers on rocky coasts, where they

subsist mainly on mollusks and crustaceans; and while they are birds
of slow and heavy, although powerful flight, and are at the same time clumsy
walkers on land, in the sea, which is their true home, they are most expert divers
and swimmers. Iceland and the Farn islands are well-known breeding resorts of
the common eider; and the following account of a colony on a small island near the
former locality is taken from Mr. C. W. Sheppard. On landing, that observer
writes, " the ducks and their nests were everywhere. Great brown ducks sat upon
their nests in masses, and at every step startled from under our feet. It was with
difficulty we avoided treading on some of the nests. On the coast of the opposite
shore was a wall built of large stones, just above the high- water level, about three

2120 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

feet in height, and of considerable thickness. At the bottom, on both sides of it,
alternate stones had been left out, so as to form a series of square apartments for
the ducks to nest in. Almost every compartment was occupied, and as we walked
along the shore a long line of ducks flew out, one after the other. The surface of
the water also was perfectly white with drakes, who welcomed their brown wives

EIDER DUCKS AND NEST.
(Three-tenths natural size.)

with loud and clamorous cooing. The house itself was a marvel. The earthen
walls that surrounded it, and the window embrasures were occupied by ducks. On
the ground the house was fringed with ducks. On the turf slopes of its roof we
could see ducks, and a duck sat on the door scraper. The grassy banks had been
cut into square patches, about eighteen inches having been removed, and each

DUCKS 2121

hollow had beeti filled with ducks. A windmill was infested, and so were all the
outhouses, mounds, rocks, and crevices. The ducks were everywhere. Many were
so tame that we could stroke them on their nests; and the good lady told us that
there was scarcely a duck on the island that would not allow her to take its eggs
without flight or fear." In all cases the eiders build on the ground, and their not
very numerous eggs are of some shade of green. In Labrador, where the numbers
of these valuable birds have been greatly reduced by " eggers," Mr. A. S. Packard,
writing of his experiences many years ago, observes that in the middle of June,
"all the eiders were busy in making their nests and in laying their eggs. The old
or completed nests contained a great mass of down, and were twelve to fifteen inches
in outside diameter, the downy moss in which the eggs sank being five or six inches
high; the newer nests were without down, and there were about five eggs to a nest.
Most of the nests which we saw were built on low land near pools, and not far from
the sea water, in a dense thicket of dwarf spruce trees. ' ' The species referred to in
this account is the American eider (S. dresseri), which differs from the common kind
by the greater convexity of the beak, and the greater development of the elongated
scapulars. The nest is formed of seaweed, lined with down from the body of the
female bird, the lining being gradually added during the month occupied by incuba-
tion, till at length it reaches such an amount as to completely conceal the eggs.
The product of down yielded by a single nest is about one-sixth of a pound; the
local value of the commodity varying from three to four dollars per pound. Al-
though such thoroughly-gregarious birds at all seasons, it is somewhat remarkable
that the males of none of the eiders take any share in the work of incubation.

The pied Labrador duck (S. labradoria) is a species which may be included
among the eiders, although frequently referred to a distinct genus ( Camptolamus) .
A handsome bird, formerly abundant on the coast of Labrador and the mouth of
the St. Lawrence, it appears to have become extinct since 1852.

The black marine ducks known as scoters, derive their scientific
title (GLdemia) from their swollen or basally tuberculate beaks,
which are deep, large, and strong, with the tip much depressed, and entirely covered
by the large, flat nail; the oval and lateral nostrils being placed near the middle
of the beak. The wings are pointed and rather short, and the graduated tail is
likewise short and pointed. Placed relatively-far back on the body, the legs are
noticeable for the shortness of the metatarsus, while the large feet are char-
acterized by the second toe being fully as long as the third. In the males the
color is black, with or without white on the head or wing, while in the females
it is dusky grayish brown. The scoters, of which there are five species, although
confined to the Northern Hemisphere, are far less exclusively Arctic birds than the
eiders. The common scoter (E. nigm), which inhabits a large portion of Europe
and Northern Asia, is characterized by the entire plumage of the male being black.
In Japan and North America it is replaced by the American scoter (CE. americana),
in which the whole of the protuberance at the base of the beak is orange yellow,
instead of mainly blackish blue. The velvet scoter ((E. fusca), which is also a
winter visitor to the British Islands, although far less common than the preceding,
differs in that the male has a small white patch behind the eye, and a white

2122

FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

speculum on the wing. Widely spread along the more northern coasts of Europe
and Asia, this scoter is represented by a variety in North America. As another
very well-marked member of the genus, mention may be made of the North Amer-
ican surf scoter (CE. perspicillata} , of which stragglers occasionally reach Britain.
The male may be recognized in its breeding plumage by the presence of one broad
patch of white on the forehead and another on the nape of the neck. All the sco-
ters are regular migrants, and marine and gregarious in their habits; the common
species assembling in such countless numbers on the British coasts in winter, as on
some occasions to cause the water to appear literally black. Scoters generally arrive
from their summer quarters in September and October, and return in the following
April or May. During the breeding season the flocks of adults break up into pairs,
although this is not the case with the immature birds, which do not breed during
their first spring, but remain congregated throughout the summer. Moreover, in
the case of both the common and surf scoter, flocks of these immature birds fre-
quent the British Islands during summer, instead of going northward. All the
scoters are late breeders, the nidification of the common species not beginning in
Iceland till the middle of June, while in Arctic Russia it is deferred for a fortnight
or so later. Islands in the rivers and lakes of the Arctic tundras, where the ground
is covered with dwarf birch and willow, form the favorite breeding grounds for the
scoters; and the eggs, which are usually from five to nine in number, are deposited
in a mere hole in the ground, those of the common species being grayish buff in
color, with a dull exterior. Although rather awkward walkers, all the scoters fly
with rapidity, and are fully equal to their allies in swimming and diving. Their
food in winter consists of various small aquatic invertebrates, and in summer of water
plants; their flesh being almost uneatable. Remains of extinct scoters, which have
been referred to the genus Fuligula, used in a wide sense, occur in the Lower

Miocene strata of France, which
have also yielded others belong-
ing to typical ducks and de-
scribed as Anas.

The genus Eris-
The Stiff-

„ .. . matura comprises

Ducks species known as
stiff-tailed ducks,
all of which are lacustrine rather
than marine in their habits, and
many of which are characteristic
of the Southern Hemisphere.
While agreeing with the pre-.
ceding genera in their broad and
depressed beaks, these ducks are
distinguished by the feathers of
FERRUGINOUS STIFF-TAILED DUCK. the tail being narrow and very

rigid, with the inferior surface
grooved. Moreover, the tail coverts are so-short as scarcely to overlap the base of

THE MERGANSERS 2123

the tail, which is rather long and graduated, and may contain as many as twenty-
four feathers. All are said to be expert divers, and in flight and habits some re-
semble more a grebe than a duck. Southern Europe, North Africa, and parts of
Asia are the home of the white- faced stiff-tailed duck (E. leucocephala} , distinguished
by the breadth and size of the nail at the end of the beak. In other species, such
as E. rubida, of North, and the ferruginous stiff-tailed duck (E. ferrugmea) of
South America, as well as in the Australian E. australis, the nail is very small and
narrow. The great musk duck (Biziura lobata} of Australia constitutes a separate
genus, characterized by the marked superiority in the size of the male over the
female, and the presence of a large lobe of skin depending from the chin of the
former sex. Here also may be mentioned the steamer duck ( Tachyeres cinereus) of
the Falkland islands and Patagonia.

Under the general designation of mergansers may be included a
group of diving and fish-eating birds, which differ from the other
members of the family in the extreme narrowness of their beaks,
although resembling the diving ducks in the structure of their feet. The beak,
which may be either longer or shorter than the head, is, in addition to its narrow-
ness, straight and slender, furnished on its edges with saw-like lamellae, and ter-
minates in a conspicuous hooked nail; the longitudinally-elliptical nostrils being
lateral and placed near the middle of its length. The wings are of moderate length,
with the first and second quills the longest; and the relatively-short legs are placed
somewhat backwardly on the body. Of the five species of mergansers, four are in-
habitants of the northern portions of both Hemispheres, migrating southward in
winter, while the fifth (Mergus australis) is from the Aucklands. All the four
northern species are met with in the British Islands, although two are but casual
visitants, and only one is a regular breeder.

The goosander (M. merganser) , which is a species occasionally breeding in
Britain, belongs to a group in which the beak is longer than the head, and has long
recurved serrations; the metatarsus being rather long, and a depressed and pointed
crest present in both sexes. A handsomely -colored bird, the adult male goosander in
its breeding plumage is characterized by its vermilion beak and the shining greenish
black head and upper neck, as well as by the lower neck and under parts being
whitish, with a rosy tinge on the breast. The upper part of the back and scapu-
lars are black, as are the primaries; the lower back, tail coverts, and tail feathers
are ashy gray, and the point of the wing and wing coverts are white. In the female
the head and upper neck are pale chestnut, and the upper parts and wings, except
the white secondaries, mainly gray. In length the male varies from twenty-five to
twenty-eight inches. The goosander ranges over the northern portions of the Old
World, migrating in winter to the northern shores of the Mediterranean, India, and
Japan, and being replaced in North America by a variety. Nearly allied is the red-
breasted merganser (M. serrator), which has a circumpolar distribution, and breeds
regularly in Scotland and Ireland. It is a rather smaller bird than the goosander,
the male having the head and upper neck greenish black, the middle of the neck
(except a dark streak behind) white, the lower neck and upper breast buff streaked
with black, the white feathers on the sides of the breast bordered with black, and

2124

FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

those on the flanks vermiculated with blackish gray. Very different from either of
the above is the hooded merganser (M. cucullatus} , distinguished by the black beak
being shorter than the head, with smaller serrations, by the shorter metatarsus and
longer wing, and more especially by the full semicircular, erect and compressed
crest of hair-like feathers. In the male the head and upper neck are black, with
the exception of the hinder part of the crest, which is white edged with black, and
the white breast is marked on each side by two black crescentic bands. Mainly

THE GOOSANDER.

(One-fifth natural size.)

North American, where it ranges from Alaska to Mexico, this merganser is a casual
visitor to Europe. Still more different is the beautiful smew (M. albellus}, in
which the bill is much shorter and deeper, with small and inconspicuous serrations,
and the crest much smaller than in the preceding species; while the tail has fre-
quently sixteen, in place of the usual eighteen feathers. The male smew, which
varies from seventeen to eighteen inches in length, has a greenish black patch on
the occiput, extending in a point on each side of the head, and another between the

THE MERGANSERS

2125

eye and the beak, but the rest of the head, neck, and under parts mostly white;
the plumage of the upper parts being pied with black, brown, gray, and white.
Females have the head and back of the neck mainly reddish brown with an incon-
spicuous crest. The smew is an inhabitant of the more Arctic regions of the Old
World in the breeding season, rarely visiting the British Islands in winter, but
to the eastward migrating as far south as the north of Africa, Northern India,
and Japan.

Although in Europe the mergansers very generally frequent the
coast, those species which visit India are more commonly observed on
inland waters. All are strong, albeit somewhat heavy fliers, and most expert swim-

Habits

HOODED MERGANSER.

mers and divers; but on the land their movements are awkward and ungainly.
Their food consists entirely of fish, mollusks, and crustaceans, most of which are
procured by diving; and in consequence of this diet their flesh is unpalatable in the
extreme. When fishing in flocks, as is often the habit of the goosander, the whole
party may frequently be seen to dive simultaneously, although not uncommonly a
few remain above water as if to act as sentinels. While the red-breasted merganser
nests on the ground among bushes, heather, or long grass, the goosander nearly
always, if not invariably, selects a hollow tree, or, failing that, a cleft in a rock, as
a breeding place, sometimes taking advantage of the nest of a crow or other bird.
The creamy white eggs of the latter species are from eight to twelve in number;
and the young, as soon as hatched, are carried down one by one from the nest to
the water in the beak of their parent. When floating at ease the goosander sits as
high in the water as a duck, but when swimming settles down as deep as a cormo-
rant, while when pursued nothing more than the head and neck appears. On the
larger Indian rivers, writes Mr. Hume, "they will float down with the stream for a
couple of miles, and if not hungry, they rise and fly back again, but more commonly
they fish their way back, diving incessantly the whole way, and, despite their ac-

2126 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

tivity, taking a long time to make their way back from where they started from.
When gorged, they often sit on some rock in the middle of the water, sitting very
upright and cormorant-like, often half opening their wings to the sun. In the in-
terior, where you find them in smaller streams, they are rarely in parties of more
than three or four — most generally at that time in pairs — and then they are either
flying up stream or floating down, twisting round and round in the rapids, or fishing
vigorously in. some deep pool near the foot of a waterfall or rapid." Although gen-
erally silent, mergansers utter at times, especially when on 'the wing, a harsh, un-
musical kurr. Three beautifully -colored birds from the mountains of Chili, Peru,
and Ecuador, constitute the allied genus Merganetta.

THE SCREAMERS
Order PALAMEDE^ — Family PALAMEDEID&

If we examine the skeleton of any ordinary bird, such as the one represented
on p. 1464, of the preceding volume, it will be noticed that some of the anterior
ribs are provided with backwardly-directed projections, known as uncinate processes.
If, however, we observe that of one of the peculiar South- American birds designated
screamers, we shall not fail to be struck with the absence of these processes, and as
they are present in all other birds and many reptiles, it will be evident that the
screamers are a very specialized group, although in some other ways they are gen-
eralized. Although these strange birds exhibit certain resemblances in their inter-
nal anatomy to the storks and cranes, it is now generally considered that their
nearest affinities are with the ducks and flamingoes. Agreeing with those two
groups in the features mentioned at the commencement of the chapter, the scream-
ers are readily distinguished from both by their short hen-like beaks, and medium-
sized legs, of which the toes are not completely webbed, but furnished with long
claws, the claw of the first toe being specially elongated. Internally, in addition to
the absence of uncinate processes, they are characterized by the presence of distinct
basipterygoid processes on the rostrum of the skull, by the number of vertebrae in
the neck being more than eighteen (which is not the case in the two allied orders),
and likewise by the absence of any bare spinal tract in the plumage of the upper
parts; while the angle of the lower jaw, although recurved is not much produced
backward. Another peculiarity is to be found in the circumstance that the skin
when touched is yielding and crackling, owing to the presence of a layer of air cells,
which communicates to it a bubbly appearance. In color and texture their eggs
resemble those of the geese.

The screamers are birds of the size of a swan, but of totally different appear-
ance, having a hen-like beak, with a waxy growth at the base, medium-sized neck,
very inflated crop, a pair of powerful spurs on the front of each wing, and the
legs bare to a considerable distance above the ankle joint. Although the second
and third toes are free, the third and fourth are connected at the base by a web.
The long and powerful wings have the third quill the longest, the rounded tail

THE SCREAMERS

2127

has twelve feathers, and the contour feathers are soft and on the neck narrow.
Both sexes are alike in plumage. The screamers are divided into two genera of
which the first is represented by the horned screamer (Palamedea cornuta] of Guiana
and Amazonia, characterized by the presence of a slender horn-like process, five or
six inches arising from the middle of the head, and curving upward and forward.
Of the two spurs on the wing, the foremost is by far the longer and more powerful.

HORNED SCREAMER.

(One-fifth natural size.)

In color, the soft feathers on the top of the head are whitish gray, with blackish tips;
those of the cheeks, throat, upper neck, wings, and tail are dark brown; the inner
secondaries and greater wing coverts having a greenish metallic sheen, and the smaller
wing coverts yellowish roots; while the feathers of the lower neck and upper breast
are silver gray, broadly banded with black, and those of the abdomen pure white.
The iris is orange, the beak blackish brown with a whitish tip, the horn whitish

2128 FLAMINGOES, DUCKS, AND SCREAMERS

gray, and the foot ashy gray. The second genus, Chauna, has no horn on the head,
and is represented by the crested screamer, or chaja (C. chavaria}, of Argentina, and
the Derbian screamer (C. derbiana) of Colombia. In the former the general color
of the plumage is slaty blue, with a black ring round the neck, while the naked
skin round the eyes and the legs are red. According to Mr. W. H. Hudson, to
whom we are indebted for a good account of the Argentine species, these birds only
utter their powerful scream of alarm occasionally; while during the night, or when
soaring high in the air, they give vent to somewhat melodious notes, audible when
the birds are too high up to be visible. " At certain times," writes the author just
mentioned, "in districts favorable to them, the chajas often assemble in immense
flocks, thousands of individuals being sometimes seen congregated, and in these
gatherings the birds often all sing in concert. They invariably — though with-
out rising — sing at intervals throughout the night, 'counting the hours,' as the
Gauchos say, the first song being about nine o'clock, the second at midnight, and
the third just before dawn, but the hours vary in different districts." Although
living for a considerable part of the year in large flocks, the screamers pair for life,
and during the breeding season are only to be seen in couples. The chaja (pro-
nounced chaha), or Argentine species, breeds among the rushes of lagoons, and
during a visit to Argentina in 1893, I had, while staying at the estancia of Las Ban-
durrias, near Colina, on the Great Southern Railway of Buenos Ayres, the oppor-
tunity of observing the habits of a pair Which were nesting in a small laguna a couple
of miles or so from the house. The lagtina in question contained large growths of
reeds and flags, forming masses intersected by open channels, and at the time of my
visit (the latter part of October) growing to a considerable height above the water.
Like other similar spots in this part of Argentina, it was tenanted by large flocks of
ducks and coots, while black-necked swans, small parties of the lovely red South-
American flamingoes, and a few storks were generally also to be seen. On my first
visit to the laguna, for the purpose of duck shooting, I was puzzled by seeing a pair
of large gray birds, with short beaks, and looking somewhat like huge gray geese,
swimming about unconcernedly among the other denizens of the lagoon, since I had
not the least idea such was the habit of the chaja. On wading into the water, and
approaching the birds, I was, however, soon convinced, both from their appearance
and voice, that they were really chajas. They allowed me to approach within easy
gunshot, when they rose heavily and flapped slowly to the bank, where they
alighted. That they had a nest among the reeds in the middle of the laguna I felt
assured, but the depth of water prevented my wading to the spot. I had, however,
reason to believe that the young were already hatched and swimming about among
the reeds, so that, had I succeeded in reaching the nest, my labor would have been in
vain. As soon as I reached the shore, the chajas once more returned to the water,
and recommenced swimming about among the ducks. During several subsequent
visits to the same spot, I nearly always saw the birds swimming far out in the water;
and, indeed, I think it was only once or twice that I observed them on land. It is
therefore evident that during the nesting season this pair of chajas should be de-
scribed as thoroughly aquatic in their habits.

A FUGHT OF PIGEONS.

CHAPTER XVI
THE PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE — ORDER COLUMB/E

THE pigeons form such a well-marked group that there is but little difficulty in
recognizing any of their numerous representatives at a glance. In all, the
moderately-large head is set on a graceful neck, and the body is rather compact and
stoutly built. Swollen at the extremity, the beak has its basal portion covered with
a soft skin, in which open the nostrils. The legs are coated with hexagonal scales,
and are usually more or less thickly feathered on the upper part, although some-
times naked; the feet have four toes, the first of which is placed on the same level
as the others. With the exception of the ground doves, in which the wings are
short and rounded, most of the living species have long, powerful quill feathers, but
the dodo and solitaire were incapable of flight. As regards osteological character-
istics the pigeons have a cleft (schizognathous) palate, in which respect they and
the sand grouse differ from all the preceding groups; the upper bone of the wing or
humerus is provided with a triangular deltoid crest, very similar to that of the sand
grouse, to which is attached the great pectoral muscle, thus rendering these birds
capable of protracted and powerful flight. The majority of the pigeons are indeed
excellent flyers, capable of traversing enormous distances in an incredibly short
time; as an example of which we may mention the performances of the carrier
pigeons. All pigeons are provided with a large crop, which becomes glandular dur-
'34 (2129)

2130

PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

ing the breeding season, and then secretes a milky fluid to moisten the half-digested
food on which the young are nourished. The amount of food which a pigeon can

consume in a day is almost
incredible, it being probable
that one of these birds is
capable of eating a quantity
more than equal its own
weight. I^ike the sand grouse,
pigeons drink by thrusting
the bill into the water and re-
taining it there till they have
quenched their thirst. All
pigeons pair for life, and both

UPPER PORTION OF THE RIGHT HUMERUS OK (a) SAND

GROUSE, (b) FOWI. AND (,) P!GEON. SCXeS ^ P"1 1D the bUlld'

(From Garrod, Proc. Zooi. Soc., 1874.) ing of the nest, incubation,

and rearing of the young.

When hatched, the latter are naked and helpless, and thus need care from both
parents. The bill of the young is larger and more fleshy than that of the adult,
and during the operation of feeding, the old bird thrusts its beak inside that of its
offspring, and injects the semiliquid nutriment. The nest is a simple structure
composed of twigs, and generally placed in a tree; the eggs, never more than two
in number, being invariably pure white.

THE GREEN, PAINTED, AND FRUIT PIGEONS
Family TRERONID^

This family contains a large number of arboreal species inhabiting Africa,
Southeastern Asia, and the islands of the Eastern Archipelago generally, distin-
guished by their rather short legs, which are feathered for more than half their
length, and are usually shorter than the middle toe and claw; the soles of the feet
being very broad, and the skin of each toe expanded on the sides. Of these birds
three subfamilies may be distinguished, the first containing the green pigeons, which
have the bill rather thick. The plumage, with a few exceptions, in which it is
chocolate brown, is mostly green, and most species have a yellow band across the
wings. In the first three genera the base of the bill is soft, and the sheath of the
upper mandible does not reach the feathers of the forehead.

The wedge-tailed green pigeons (Sphenocercus) include seven differ-
Wedge-Tailed ent SpeCies, with wedge-shaped tails, and the middle feathers more or
less pointed, from Southeastern Asia; the best known being the
Himalayan and Burmese forms (S. apicicauda and 5. sphenurus). The
former is distinguished by having the under surface of the tail black, with a broad
gray band across the extremity, and the middle pair of tail feathers long and
pointed; while in the latter the under surface of the tail is uniform gray, and the

Green
Pigeons

GREEN PIGEONS

2131

middle pair of feathers are less pointed and much shorter. The habits of this and
the other green pigeons are very similar. The males are not difficult to indentify,
but the females often resemble one another very closely. Writing of 6*. sphenurus,
Mr. Gates says that it is found in the thick forest country of Burma, frequenting
trees which bear fruit, and going about in flocks. It is a summer visitor to the
Himalayas, and breeds from April to July, constructing a nest of twigs on the
outer branches of trees. In October it collects in small flocks of six or eight, and
quits the country. It is rather shy, and its note is a soft, cooing whistle; its food
consists entirely of small fruits which are swallowed whole.

Other Genera

ABYSSINIAN WAIJA PIGEON.

The African genus Vinago has the tail feathers almost even, the
outer pair being little shorter than the middle, and the feathers on
the legs conspicuously yellow, while the forehead in some species is more or less
naked. The Abyssinian walia ( V. walia} is met with in the subtropical belt, and
rarely seen on the highlands, being first observed at an elevation of about two
thousand feet, and not extending above six thousand. Its call is a liquid whistle,
very similar to that of the Indian green pigeon in tone, but with the concluding
portion a little harsher and more prolonged. It feeds on fruits, especially figs,
and, like its allies, is delicious eating. A third genus (Crocopus) inhabiting the

2i32 PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

Indo-Chinese countries resembles Vinago in having the feathers on the legs
yellow, but is distinguished by the first three flight feathers being pointed. The
nest is roughly made of sticks, and is usually situated rather high up in a mango
tree.

The next genus (Osmotreron) contains seventeen species, inhabiting South-
eastern Asia and the Malay Archipelago, and distinguished by having the feathers
on the legs of a greenish or whitish color. Of its members we may mention the
gray-fronted green pigeon (O. malabarica) , which, like its allies, closely resembles
the thick-billed species in its habits and mode of life. In the male the upper part of
the head is gray shading into olive green on the back of the neck, the upper part of
the back maroon, and the rest of the upper parts and middle tail feathers olive
green; the lateral tail feathers gray, with a black band across the middle; the quills
and wing coverts black, the latter edged with yellow, and the under parts olive
yellow. The female has the upper part of the back olive colored.

In the three remaining genera the sheath of the upper mandible reaches the
feathers of the forehead. The typical genus, Treron, includes only two species
inhabiting Southeastern Asia. Both these birds have the third flight feather
deeply scooped about the middle of the inner web; the thick-billed green pigeon ( T.
nipalensis) being distinguished by having the gray color of the cap darker, and not
extending over the upper part of the cheeks. The latter inhabits the Southeastern
Himalayas, extending to the Malay Peninsula; and is very common in Tenasserim,
where it occurs in moderately-large flocks, feeding on small fruits. They feed in
the morning and evening, and are noisy and quarrelsome. Their flight is rapid, and
they frequent dense forest, thin tree jungle, and even gardens, breeding in February
and March, the nests being flimsy little platforms of straw placed about ten feet
above the ground. In the Philippine Phabotreron the five species are peculiar in
having the general color of their plumage chocolate brown; P. amethystine, being a
handsome bird with the hind-neck of a beautiful amethyst color, and the upper
parts with bronze reflections.

The second group of the family are the painted pigeons, which in-
Painted clude a numberof small brilliantly -colored species, with their plumage
generally variegated with patches of different colors, many of them be-
ing birds of surpassing beauty. They may be distinguished from the last group of
green pigeons by the more slender bill, which is not very distensible at the base;
and in this respect, as well as in their smaller size, they differ from the true fruit
pigeons described below. Of the five genera, by far the largest and most important
is Ptilopus, which contains no less than seventy species, inhabiting a wide range
from the Malay Peninsula to Australia and Polynesia. The numerous species have
been arranged under twelve subgeneric groups, the first eight of which are dis-
tinguished by having the first flight feather abruptly attenuated at the extremity,
the only exception being one species. The subgenus, Lcucotreron, is characterized
by having no defined cap on the upper part of the head and by the tail being rather
long. As an example, we may mention P. occipitalis of the Philippine islands, in
which the upper part of the head is gray, the cheeks and back of the head purple
red, the back of the neck and the rest of the upper parts bronze green, with a gray

FRUIT PIGEONS 2133

band at the tip of the tail; while the under surface of the body is mostly whitish
and gray, with a wide purplish band on the lower part of the breast. In the second
group, which contains the typical species of painted pigeons, the tail is moderately
long, the feathers on the breast are forked at the extremity, and there is a well-
marked cap on the top of the head. Among these the Eastern- Australian painted
pigeon (P. swainsoni) has the crown rose lilac, surrounded by a narrow ring of
yellow; the upper parts are mostly greenish yellow, the inner quills being tipped
with deep blue; the breast is dull green, each of the forked feathers shading into
silvery gray at the tip, and there is a lilac band between the breast and the orange
abdomen. The third group {Lamprotreron} is distinguished by a broad blue-black
band separating the breast from the abdomen. Only two species belong to this
group, viz., P. superbus and P. temmincki, the former being very common in New
Guinea and Australia. The other groups of this section of the genus, in which the
first primary is attenuated at the extremity, include eleven species, which, unlike
those previously mentioned, have the tail rather short, and are all inhabitants of
New Guinea or the islands immediately to the east and west. The remaining sub-
genera differ from those already mentioned in not having the first flight feathers
narrowed, while none have the head, neck, and breast uniform rose carmine. They
include twenty-nine species, many of which are exceedingly beautiful, but none
more so than P. eugenics from the Solomon islands. In both sexes of the latter the
head is pure white, and the rest of the upper parts bronze green, with a small gray
patch on the shoulder and spots on the wing coverts of the same color; the throat
and chest are dark purple red, surrounded by a dull purple band, and the breast is
grayish green, shading into whitish on the abdomen.

Of the four other genera of the subfamily, we may mention Chrys-

'cenas, which is distinguished by having the inner webs of the quills

yellow or orange yellow, and contains three species from the Fiji

islands, one being the splendid C. victor, the male of which has the general plumage

bright orange, with the head and throat olive yellow, and the bill and feet green.

The female has the entire plumage rich green, the head and throat being yellowish

green, and the bill and feet black.

Another genus includes the wart pigeons (Alectrcenas) of Madagascar, in which
the plumage is mostly deep blue, and the feathers of the neck are deeply forked
at the extremity. Two of the species have the tail blue; in one of these the crown
of the head is red, while in the other it is gray; in the third and fourth species the
tail is red, the former having the head of a light gray color, while in the latter it is
deep slaty blue. Finally, the one species of Drepanoptila, from New Caledonia and
the Isle of Pines, is peculiar in having the outer flight feathers divided at the tip
and the legs entirely feathered.

The third subfamily includes the true fruit pigeons (Carpophagince} ,
the giants of the family, none of them being smaller than a rock dove,
and many larger. They have the bill rather long and distensible at the base, thus
enabling them to swallow large fruits whole. Their plumage is not much varie-
gated, and in six out of the seven genera there are fourteen tail feathers, the sev-
enth (Hemiphaga) having only twelve. The genus Globicera contains seven species,

2134

PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

differing from the rest by the swollen fleshy knob at the base of the upper mandi-
ble. Passing over a peculiar form (Serreszus) from the Marquesas, in which the
basal half of the bill is covered with a saddle-shaped production of the skin of the
forehead, we come to the typical genus Carpophaga, which may be divided into six
subgenera, founded on the general color of the plumage, and the shape of the flight
feathers. It will be sufficient to mention one or two species in which the general

MADAGASCAR WART PIGEONS.

(Two-fifths natural size.)

color is mostly metallic on the upper parts, the tail uniform in color, and the flight
feathers normal in shape. In the nutmeg pigeon (C. cznea) , common in the Indo-
Burmese countries, Ceylon, and the Andamans, the head, neck, and under parts of
the body are gray, the upper parts bronze green, and the under tail coverts deep
chestnut. This bird keeps to the larger forest trees, and lives on fruit, especially
the wild nutmeg, which it swallows whole, although only the mace is digested, the

TYPICAL PIGEONS

2135

nutmeg being disgorged. Another closely -allied species, the Nicobar nutmeg pi-
geon (C. insularis), of the islands from whence it derives its name, differs in having
the under tail coverts mixed with dark green. In the Nicobars it occurs singly, in
pairs, or in small parties, and its deep low coo may be heard all day resounding
through the forest. It breeds in February and March, and its nest has been found
in a cocoanut palm about twenty feet from the ground, and contained one large
white egg. The members of the genus Myristirivora may be distinguished from
those previously mentioned by their white and black plumage. The white nutmeg
pigeon (M. bicolor) is a handsome species found in the Philippine islands, the Ma-
lay Archipelago, and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Both sexes have the en-

NUTMEG PIGEON.

tire plumage of a pale creamy white, except the flight feathers, the tip of the tail,
and some spots on the under tail coverts, which are black. This bird is not so gen-
erally distributed throughout the Nicobars as the nutmeg pigeon, and, though oc-
casionally found some distance in the forest, keeps in general to the mangrove
swamps, but on islands such as Treis and Track, where there is little or no man-
grove, it occurs everywhere. Lophol&mus antarcticus, found in Eastern Australia,
is easily recognized by being the only crested species of fruit pigeon, and is the sole
representative of its genus. The last genus, Hemiphaga, contains three species
belonging to New Zealand and adjacent islands, and differs from the six genera
already mentioned in having only twelve tail feathers.

2136

PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

WOOD, LONG-TAILED, AND PASSENGER PIGEONS
Family

This family may be distinguished from the green pigeons and their allies by
having the soles of the feet normal, that is, not very broad, and only the hind-toe
with the skin prominently expanded on the sides. It is split up into three groups,
the first being the Columbines, in which the tail is never longer than the wings;
this group containing the wood pigeon, stock dove, and rock dove, from the last
named of which the domestic breeds of pigeon are derived. Of the first genus,

ROCK DOVE.
(One-third natural size.)

Gymnophaps, only one species (G. albertisi) peculiar to New Guinea is known,
which is distinguished from the allied genera by having the legs feathered for
two-thirds of their length, and a naked carmine space in front of and round the
eyes.

We come next to the large and universally distributed genus, Col-
umba, containing about sixty species. All these birds resemble the
two following genera in never having the legs feathered for more than
half their length, while they differ in having the first flight feather of the wing

Rock Dove and
Allies

WOOD PIGEON

2137

longer than the sixth. Space only permits of mentioning a few more important
members, among which must be included the rock dove or blue rock (C. livid},
widely spread over Europe, and extending as far as India in the east, where it
meets the nearly-allied but gray-rumped species (C. intermedia}; southward it
ranges to the north and west coasts of Africa, where another closely-related form
( C. gymnocydus) is found, differing only in having the plumage dark bluish or

^^^^^i^^fcf^S^g^B

/4^^-f: l^TTi^ss^T^M K^Ssil

WOOD PIGEON AND STOCK DOVE.
(One-third natural size.)

blackish slate color, and perhaps descended from domestic pigeons. In the original
wild stock of the blue rock, the plumage is gray, the rump white, and the neck and
upper breast metallic green and purple, while there are two narrower black bars
across the wing and a broader one across the end of the tail. It is found in a wild
state where caves and deep fissures exist, and is common along the northern coasts
of Scotland and Ireland, wherever suitable caves occur. The nest is placed on a
ledge or in a crevice of the rock in a cavern where little light penetrates.

2138 PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

Another British species is the stock dove ( C. anas) , often confused
with the rock dove, which it resembles in size and general color, al-
though distinguished' by having the rump gray instead of white. This pigeon is
especially common in the southern and eastern counties of England, and large flocks
may be seen feeding in the fields, frequently in company with wood pigeons. The
places chosen by this bird for a nesting site are varied. It frequently breeds on
open ledges in the face of a steep cliff (never in caves), and in rabbit burrows where
the soil is light and sandy, or under the shelter of dense furze. Numbers of nests
are placed in trees, a favorite situation being among the dense bunches of twigs sur-
rounding the stems of old elms.

The third and largest British species is the wood pigeon (C. palum-

Wood

bus) , recognized by the broad white patch on each side of the lower

part of the neck as well by its variously-tinted breast and the white band along the
edge of the wing. Its range extends across Europe as far east as Northern Persia,
and it is also found in Northwest Africa, the Azores, and Madeira. The destruction
of the larger birds of prey, as well as the extent of land devoted to plantations and
green crops, probably accounts for the vast increase in numbers of this pigeon. That
the countless swarms of these voracious birds in parts of the country do an immense
amount of damage, cannot be denied, but that much of their food often consists of
worthless seeds is a fact that may be easily ascertained by examining the contents
of their crops. Booth remarks that ' ' shortly before harvest wood pigeons may often
be seen flying in small parties to the fields of wheat and barley; after wheeling round
for a time, the birds will disappear from view into the standing corn. An examina-
tion of the state of the ground on which they were lost sight of would doubtless
cause astonishment to those who imagined that the birds were in pursuit of grain;
on reaching the spot it would be discovered that for a considerable space the crop
was exceedingly scanty, completely choked, in fact, by a mass of weed rank and
strong, whose seeds, well-nigh ripe, had proved the sole attraction. Immense flights
of these birds arrive on the northeast coast in October and November from the
Continent, and about that time of year large flocks, which have recently arrived ex-
hausted by their long journey, may be observed fluttering along the coast and about
the fir plantations. In the L,ondon parks it has now become one of the commonest
birds, and is steadily increasing in numbers, many pairs breeding each year."

Some remarkable statements have been made concerning the habits
of the band-tailed pigeon (C.fasdata)t which somewhat resembles the
common wood pigeon in having a narrow white band or half collar on the nape, and
is found in the western states of North as well as in Central America. In Oregon
it sometimes breeds on the ground, and the normal number of two eggs are laid,
but in Arizona, where it appears to nest in nearly every month of the year but a
single egg is laid. Mr. O. C. Poling has ascertained that this bird is often in the
habit of carrying off its eggs when frightened from its nest. He remarks that "in
regard to their carrying the egg about, I have, in addition to the cases noted, shot
two other females having the egg imbedded in the feathers of the belly, and further
held by the legs while flying, but in such cases they seem simply to alight on the
limb of a spruce, and incubate there without any nest. This accounts for the shoot-

LONG-TAILED PIGEONS 2139

ing of pigeons having a broken egg smeared over the feathers, as I have done, when
no nest was to be seen. ' ' Some of the species of Columba found in the islands of
the Pacific are more brilliant in coloring, and among these may be mentioned C. albi-
gularis of New Guinea, in which the plumage is blackish slate color, with the edges
of the feathers metallic purple changing into green, and the cheeks and throat white.
The third genus, Nescenas, with one species (N. meyeri) from Mauritius, is distin-
guished by having the first flight feather equal to the sixth. The plumage is pale
pink, darker on the mantle, and shading into brown on the back and wings, while
the tail is uniform cinnamon color. The last genus, Turturtzna, contains five of the
smallest species of this group, not exceeding the common dove in size, with the
the hind-neck brilliantly ornamented with metallic colors. They inhabit Africa,
and differ from other Columbina in having the sexes often very dissimilar in plum-
age.

The second subfamily, Macropygiince ^ or long-tailed pigeons, of
°p~. ai Southeastern Asia and the islands of the Pacific, may be distinguished

by having the tail longer than the wings, in which respect they re-
semble the migratory pigeon, the type of the third section of this family, while they
differ from it in having the feathers of the tail broad and round at the tip. Four
genera, including thirty species, are recognized, although little has been recorded of
their habits. Of the first genus, Turaccena, the two species have the bill fairly
strong, and the tail moderately rounded, the outer feathers being much more than
half the length of the middle pair. The Celebean species ( T. menadensis) has the
plumage slate black, with the face and throat white, while in the one from Timor
(7". modesta) it is uniform slate color, both being ornamented with shades of
metallic green, lilac, and blue.

The great majority of the long-tailed pigeons belong to the genus
s Macropygia, commonly known as cuckoo pigeons. All have the tail

much graduated and wedge shaped, the outer feathers being less than
half the length of the middle pair, and the general color of their plumage is rufous,
chestnut, or cinnamon. In the Indian cuckoo pigeon (M. tusalia) the male has
the plumage of the forehead, chin, and throat vinaceous buff, the top of the head
and rest of the upper parts shining metallic green with purple and bronze reflec-
tions, the latter being also irregularly barred with black and purple chestnut; the
under parts are vinous gray shading into buff on the abdomen, and glossed on the
chest with golden green and bronze; the quills are brown, and the middle pair of
tail feathers barred with black and vinous chestnut, while the outer pairs are mostly
gray. The female is not so brightly colored, and has most of the under parts barred
with brownish black. This bird is of a shy disposition, keeping to thick forest, and
associating in small flocks which feed chiefly on trees and seldom descend to the
ground. In Nipal the two white or sometimes creamy eggs are laid in May and June,
and the nest, which is the usual loose platform of sticks, is placed on some horizon-
tal branch, at no great height from the ground.

In the other two genera the bill is strong and thick, and the tail

wedge shaped, as in Macropygia. The first of these, Reinwardt&nas ,
distinguished by having no crest, contains three species, ranging from Celebes to

2140

PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

the Duke of York island. In Reinwardt's long-tailed pigeon (R. reinwardti) both
sexes have the head, neck, and mantle pale lavender, the back, wings, and middle
tail feathers chestnut, and the front of the neck and breast white shading into
lavender on the abdomen. The last genus Coryphcsnas, contains one crested species
( C. crassirostrii) from the Solomon group. The whole plumage of this bird is slate
color, darker on the upper surface, and the head is dusky brown, the feathers on
the back of the head being lengthened into a grayish-brown crest.

V^AV*

~>* fjAi

PASSENGER PIGEON.

p.

The last group of the subfamily, like the other long-tailed pigeons,
has the tail longer than the wings, but it is also narrower, and the
feathers are pointed at the extremity. Only one species, the passenger
pigeon (Ectopistes migratorius) , of North America is known. In the male the head
and upper parts of the body are bluish gray, spotted with black on the wings, the
quills brownish black with gray edges, the chin whitish gray, and the breast cinna-
mon rufous shading into pale vinous on the rest of the under parts, and white on
the under tail coverts. The back and sides of the neck glitter with golden and
violet metallic colors. In the female the upper parts of the breast are brownish,
shading into white on the abdomen and rest of the under parts.

PASSENGER PIGEONS 2141

There can be little doubt that the vast numbers of this pigeon have greatly
diminished during recent years, and though at present by no means on the verge of
extinction, it seems certain that unless laws be made for its protection its exter-
mination is only a matter of time. Mr. Brewster writes that in Michigan ' ' we
found that large flocks of pigeons had passed there late in April, while there were
reports of similar flights from almost every country in the southern part of the
State. Although most of the birds had passed on before our arrival, the profes-
sional pigeon netters, confident that they would finally breed somewhere in the
southern peninsula, were busily engaged getting their nets and other apparatus in
order for an extensive campaign against the birds. Our principal informant said
that the last nesting of any importance in Michigan was in 1881, a few miles west
of the Grand Traverse. It was only of moderate size, perhaps eight miles long.
Subsequently, in 1886, Mr. Stevens found about fifty dozen pairs nesting in a
swamp near Lake City. He does not doubt that similar small colonies occur every
year, besides scattered pairs. In fact he sees a few pigeons about Cadillac every
summer, and in the early autumn young birds barely able to fly, are often met with
singly or in small parties in the woods. Such stragglers attract little attention, and
no one attempts to net them, although many are shot. The largest nesting he ever
visited was in 1876 or 1877. It began near Petosky, and extended northeast past
Crooked Lake for twenty-eight miles, averaging three or four miles wide. The
birds arrived in two separate bodies, one directly from the south by land, the other
following the east coast of Wisconsin, and crossing at Maniton island. He saw the
latter bod3T come in from the lake at about three o'clock in the afternoon. It was a
compact mass of pigeons, at least five miles long by one mile wide. The birds
began building when the snow was twelve inches deep in the woods, although the
fields were bare at the time. So rapidly did the colony extend its boundaries, that
it soon passed literally over and around the place where he was netting, although,
when he began, this point was several miles from the nearest nest. Nestings usu-
ally start in deciduous woods, but during their progress the pigeons do not skip
any kind of trees they encounter. The Petosky nesting extended eight miles
through hardwood timber, then crossed a river bottom wooded with arborvitse, and
thence stretched through white pine woods about twenty miles. For the entire dis-
tance of twenty-eight miles every tree of any size had more or less nests, and many
trees were filled with them. None were lower than about fifteen feet above the
ground. Pigeons are very noisy when building. They make a sound resembling
the croaking of wood frogs. Their combined clamor can be heard four or five miles
away when the atmospheric conditions are favorable. Two eggs are usually laid,
but many nests contain only one. Both birds incubate, the female between 2
o'clock P. M. and 9 or 10 o'clock the next morning, the males from 9 or 10 o'clock
A. M. to 2 o'clock p. M. The males feed twice each day, namely, from daylight to
about 8 o'clock A. M., and again late in the afternoon. The females feed only dur-
ing the forenoon."

2142 PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

THE GROUND PIGEONS
Family PERISTERID^

In contradistinction to the preceding groups, which may be collectively spoken
of as tree pigeons, we now come to a family whose members live much on the ground.
This family of ground pigeons, which includes almost all the remaining species, is
distinguished from the tree pigeons by having the legs equal to or longer than the
middle toe. Seven subfamilies are recognized, in the first six of which the feathers
of the neck are never hackled.

The group of mourning doves (Zenaidina) . distinguished bv having-
Mourning , , , . .

Dove a ':)lacklsn' more or less metallic, spot below the ear coverts, includes

thirteen rather small American species, placed in four genera, the first
(Zenaidura) resembling the two following ones in having the scapulars and upper
wing coverts spotted with black. It further agrees with the next genus (Zenaida}
in the tail being composed of fourteen feathers, and the bill nearly straight, but
differs in having the tail longer and generally wedge shaped. All the three species
are North and Central American, the best known being the mourning dove (Z. car-
olinensis) of the United States, Central America, and the West Indies. In the male,
of this species the crown and upper parts of the body are bluish, mostly washed with
light olive brown, the rest of the head and under parts being cinnamon buff, tinged
with purple on the breast. The female is smaller, and has the under parts brown
like the back, but paler. Captain Bendire states that this bird is frequently found
breeding in gardens and shrubberies near dwelling houses, feeding in the barnyard
among domestic fowls. Never occurring in large flocks like the passenger pigeon,
it is usually found in small parties of from six to a dozen or more, and in autumn,
previous to its migration, may be met with in flocks of fifty or sixty. It is fond of
alighting in roads, where it may often be seen searching for suitable food or gravel,
or taking a dust bath, of which it is very fond. In the more arid districts of the
West, such as South Arizona, where water is scarce, this dove, like the sand grouse,
visits regular watering places in the morning and evening, to which it may be seen
coming in small parties from all directions. The nesting sites chosen are variable,
and in some localities, such as the Carolinas, these doves nest chiefly on the ground,
while they are said occasionally to lay their eggs in other birds' nests. The old
birds are attentive to their young, even long after they have left the nest, and the
female has been observed covering fully-fledged young. As many as four eggs have
been found in one nest, but whether these were all laid by one bird is uncertain.
The seven species of the genus Zenaida, inhabiting the West Indies and Central and
South America, differ in having the tail only moderately long and rounded. The
Zenaida dove (Z. amabilis) of the West Indies has the upper parts brown, with some
black spots on the wings, the chin white, the cheeks and throat rufescent, two
steel-blue spots above and below the ear coverts, and the top of the head, breast,
and under parts vinous. The quills are black, edged with white, and there is a con-
spicuous white band at the end of the secondaries. Rather solitary in its habits, it

THE GROUND PIGEONS 2143

is never met with in flocks, nor does it breed in communities. Its food consists of
small seeds, the principal part of its time being spent on the ground; and when
flushed it flies off in a straight line much like a quail. The nesting habits vary much
in different localities. In the Bahamas they have been found nesting in the fork of
a fallen tree about three feet from the ground, while other nests were in holes in
rocks. Among the islands at Indian Key, the nest is placed in a small hole scooped
in the sand, and is composed of dry leaves and twigs, with a matted inner lining of
blades of dry grass, the whole structure being more compact than that of other
pigeons. Writing of another South- American species (Z. auriculata) , distinguished
by having no white tips to the secondary flight feathers, Mr. Hudson says, that it
"is the commonest species of the pigeon tribe in the Argentine country, and is known
to every one as the ' Torcasa, ' probably a corruption of Tortola, or turtledove. In
autumn they often congregate in very large flocks, and are sometimes observed mi-
grating, flock succeeding flock, all traveling in a northerly direction, and continu-
ing to pass for several consecutive days. But these autumnal migrations are not
witnessed every year, nor have I seen any return migration in spring ; while the
usual autumn and winter movements are very irregular, and apparently depend al-
together on the supply of food. When the giant thistle has covered the plains in
summer, incredible numbers of torcases appear later in the season, and usually spend
the winter on the plains, congregating every evening in countless myriads wherever
there are trees enough to form a suitable roosting place. On bright warm days in
August, the sweet and sorrowful sob-like song of this dove, composed of five notes, is
heard from every grove — a pleasing, soft, murmuring sound, which causes one to
experience, by anticipation, the languid summer feeling in his veins."

A peculiar genus, Nesopelia, is represented by a single species, the
Galapagos pigeon (TV. galapagoensis) , restricted to the islands from
which it takes its name. This bird has the bill long and bent down-
ward, and the tail rather short, rounded, and composed of twelve feathers.

Of the white- winged doves {Melopelia) two species are known, one

inge from the Southwestern United States, Central America, and the West
Doves

Indies, and the other from Peru and Chili. They are distinguished

from the mourning doves by the absence of black spots on the wings, while there is
a white patch on the upper wing coverts. The northern species (M. leucoptera]
has a note bearing a close resemblance to the first efforts of a young cock attempt-
ing to crow, and this call is frequently uttered and in various keys. In Arizona,
toward the end of summer, this bird, which is by no means shy, collects in small
parties.

The turtledoves (Turturince), of which a species is figured in the
Turtledoves

cut on p. 2144, form the second subfamily of the ground pigeons, and

include twenty-eight Old-World species belonging to one genus (Turtur), which
may be divided into five subgenera. They differ from the mourning doves in having
no black spot below the ear coverts, and the neck ornamented with a more or less
distinct dark collar, or with dark scale-like patches on the sides. In the first three
subgenera {Turtur, Homopelia, and Streptopelia} the feathers of the neck are normal,
in the fourth {Spilopelid} those of the hind-neck, and in the fifth {Stigmatopelia)

2144

PIGEONS 'AND SAND GROUSE

those of the fore-neck, are forked at the extremity. The first two may also be
recognized by having two scale-like patches of dark feathers on the sides of the neck,
while Streptopelia has a complete black collar on the hind-neck. The five typical
species of Turtur have the wing coverts mottled, with the centres of the feathers
darker than the edges. Of these, the turtledove ( T. communis) is widely distributed
over Europe, extending as far east as Yarkand, and ranging southward in winter to

DOMESTIC TURTLEDOVE AND AFRICAN GROUND DOVE.
(One- third natural size.)

Africa, where it reaches at least as far south as Shoa. The crown and hind-neck
are bluish gray, with a black patch of white-margined feathers on each side of the
neck, the back is pale brown, the inner wing coverts cinnamon brown with dark
middles, and the outer gray washed below with ashy, the chin nearly white, and the
throat and breast vinous shading into white on the belly, the quills and the two
middle tail feathers being brown, while the outer pairs are grayish black broadly
tipped with white. The male is rather larger than the female, and has the plumage

THE GROUND PIGEONS 2145

brighter and purer in color. The turtledove, which is a summer visitor to the Brit-
ish Isles, where it is one of the latest migrants, not arriving till the end of April or
the beginning of May and departing in September, may be distinguished from the
three pigeons found in those islands by its smaller size. Shortly after its arrival
it commences to build its nest, which is loosely constructed of slender twigs and
placed in a thick bush, tree, or dense hedge at no great height from the ground.
Two small, creamy- white eggs are laid, and both parents take part in the incubation,
which lasts about a fortnight, two broods being sometimes reared in the season.
The turtledove is chiefly met with in woods, and is partial to thick coverts and fir
plantations, whence its low prolonged coo may be constantly heard, though the bird
itself is rarely to be seen, preferring the seclusion afforded by the thick foliage to
the outer branches of the trees. Its flight is always extremely rapid, and when
among trees it can turn and twist with extraordinary ease and swiftness. It some-
times flies great distances in search of food and water, and may be often seen in cul-
tivated fields searching for grain and seeds, although seldom in such large flocks as
other pigeons. In Britain it is a shy bird, at the slightest sign of danger quickly
seeking shelter in the nearest covert. All the five members of the second subgenus
(Homopelia), which have the upper wing coverts uniform in color, inhabit Mada-
gascar and the adjacent islands. The third subgenus (Streptopelia) , distinguished
by having a black collar round the hind-neck, includes thirteen species, but it is un-
certain from which of these the domestic turtledove ( T. risorius) has been derived.
As an example of this group may be mentioned the Tranquebar dove ( T. tranque-
baricus), from Peninsular India, in which the plumage is vinous red, the lower back,
rump, and flanks gray, the head, under wing coverts, lower abdomen, and under
tail coverts similarly colored but paler, the outer wing coverts darker, the chin
whitish, the vinous-red upper parts separated from the gray of the head by a black
collar on the hind-neck, and the quills blackish with pale edges. A nearly-allied
form ( T. humilis] from the Indo-Chinese countries, is distinguished by having the
under wing coverts much darker and of a gray color. In Tenasserim it is found in
larger or smaller flocks, very wild and difficult to approach, and keeping to the thin
tree and bamboo jungle. These flocks were met with in the vicinity of cultivated
land, feeding on the ground, and when disturbed rose together and settled on the
same tree, sometimes a leafless one, sometimes one with plenty of foliage.

The three species of turtledove constituting the fourth group (Spilopelia) are
distinguished by having the feathers of the hind-neck forked at the extremity, and
black ornamented with two white spots at the tip. The Burmo-Malayan species
( 7! tigrinus} , recognized by the dark brown shaft line on the wing coverts, is the
common dove of Tenasserim, and is met with in gardens, fields, and grassy land;
in fact, wherever the country is open, but not in the forest or on the higher hills.
It is sometimes seen singly, or in pairs, at other times in small flocks or in hun-
dreds. The last group (Stigmatopelia) includes two species which ma}' be recognized
by having the feathers of the fore-neck forked at the extremity, and black with two
rufous spots at the end. They have a wide range, the Senegal turtledove ( T.
senegalensis) being found all over Africa, while the brown turtledove (T. cam-
bayensis) ranges from Asia Minor to Central India. The former is characterized by

2146 PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

the plumage of the upper parts being more or less reddish, and the rump bluish
gray. The subfamily Gcopeliince contains three genera, with a few small species
from both the Old and New Worlds, and is characterized by the short rounded wings,
a rather long tail of fourteen feathers, and no metallic tint on the sides of the neck
or elsewhere. The Old- World forms belong to the typical Geopelia, ranging from
Burma to Australia, and have the first quill feather pointed at the extremity. The
American genus, Scardafella, includes two doves about the size of sparrows, with
the first flight feathers normal, and the tail of twelve feathers; the Inca dove (S.
inca) from Southwestern, North, and Central America being a well-known example.
But a single species ( Gymnopelia erythrothorax} is included in the last genus dis-
tinguished by the large naked patch surrounding the eye.

The six American genera of the subfamily Peristerince are charac-
terized bv their small size and the general uniform coloration of the
Genera

plumage; the wings being, as a rule, ornamented with metallic spots,

and rather short and rounded, while the primaries are not much longer than the
secondaries. In five genera the tail is rather longer than half the length of the
wing; while the two last may be distinguished by having the first primary pointed
at its extremity. The picui dove (Columbiila picui) , the only representative of the
first genus, is peculiar in having a steel-blue band across the wing, and by the mid-
dle and outer pairs of tail feathers being shorter than the intermediate ones. Found
only in South America, it is the smallest dove of Argentina where it is a resident,
frequenting the neighborhood of houses; and its song, consisting of a succession
of long, rather loud, and somewhat monotonous notes, may often be heard in sum-
mer or even on warm days in winter. Six small species, ranging from the South-
ern United States to South America, represent the second genus (Chamcepelia) ,
which has a tail shorter than the length of the wing and rounded at the extremity,
the middle feathers being longer than the outer ones. The remaining genera may
be passed over without notice.

The South-African cinnamon dove {Haplopelia larvata) may be
taken as a well-known representative of another subfamily of ground
doves ( Geotrygoninte) , which contains more than seventy species of
somewhat partridge-like birds with no well-defined metallic spots or bands, although
a violet patch may be present near the bend of the wing. The metatarsus is stout
and longer than the third toe, and in the short and rounded wings the primaries
exceed the secondaries in length. Of the nine recognized genera, the one above
mentioned, which has six African species, is characterized by the primary feathers
being broad and not tapering to a point, while in the remaining eight they are nar-
row and more or less pointed. The cinnamon dove is distinguished from its allies
by having the forehead white, the top of the head, hind-neck, chest, and upper
breast metallic coppery purple, the back and wings olive brown, and the abdomen
and under tail coverts pale cinnamon. The Zamoen Duif, as the colonists call this
bird, is common in the dense bush along the coast of Natal, where its brown coloring
renders it difficult to detect as it sits motionless among the dense creepers. It never
appears in the open, and is generally to be seen on the ground beneath the trees,
silently and busily searching for food. Of the remaining genera with narrow pri-

THE GROUND PIGEONS

2147

maries, two have the outermost pointed at the extremity, and of these, Leptoptila is
distinguished by having the tail equal to more than half the length of the wing.
The species range from Texas through Mexico and Central America to Peru and
Argentina, and may be divided into a long-tailed and a short-tailed group. Twro
handsome species form the genus Osculatea, in which the length of the tail is less
than half that of the wing. In the six following genera, the first primary is not

BLOOD-BREASTED DOVES.
(One-half natural size. )

pointed at the tip; the first five agreeing with one another in having the front of
the metatarsus covered with transverse scales; while in the three genera to be next
mentioned, the tail is composed of less than twenty feathers. The Central- and
South- American genus, Geotrygon, is also characterized by its rather short tail of
twelve feathers. Another genus, Phlog&nas, differs from the above in having four-
teen feathers in the tail. More than twenty species are known, some of which are

2148

PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

remarkably-handsome birds, but none more so than the blood-
eas e breasted dove (P. luzomca), from the Philippines, represented in the

cut on p. 2147. The forehead and crown are pale gray; the top of
the head, upper parts, and sides of the breast dark gray, the feathers being edged
with metallic purple and green; the cheeks, throat, and breast white shading into
buff below, and there is a large patch of blood red on the middle of the breast.
The quills are reddish brown, there are six alternate bands of gray and chestnut
across each wing, and a black band near the tip of the outer tail feathers. The two
remaining genera, with the tail composed of less than twenty feathers, are distin-
guished by the longer tail.

i -**• ii«vr;jj

BI.UE-BEARDED CUBAN DOVES.
(One-half natural size.)

The Australian wonga wonga (Leucosarcia picata) is the only rep-
'ngaresentative of a genus, distinguished from the seventh (Eutrygon) by
the metatarsus being very little longer than the middle toe. This
dove, remarkable for its size, inhabits the brush country of Eastern Australia, where
it spends the greater part of its time on the ground, feeding on seeds and fallen
fruits. The noise made by its wings when rising is said to resemble that of a pheas-
ant, and its flight is never long sustained. In the two species of Eutrygon from
New Guinea, the metatarsus is twice as long as the third toe ; while the genus Oti-
diphaps, including three large black species, with chestnut back and wings, from
New Guinea and Fergusson island, is peculiar in having twenty feathers in the tail.

THE GROUND PIGEONS 2149

The last genus, characterized by having the front of the legs cov-
ered by six-sided scales, contains only the blue-bearded Cuban dove
Cuban Dove

{Starn&nas cyanocephala) , figured on p 2148. The general color of

this bird is olive brown above, and dull rusty beneath ; the top of the head being
blue margined with black, and a broad white stripe running below the eye, while
the feathers of the throat and breast are black, tipped with blue and narrowly mar-
gined with white.

As a well-known representative of the fourth subfamily {Phabind)
of this assemblage, may be mentioned the Cape dove (s£na capensis],
which is the sole member of its genus. The subfamily includes a dozen genera,
and about double that number of species, all of which are confined to the
Old World ; their essential characteristics being their relatively-large size, and
the presence of blue or green spots or patches on the wings. In the first four gen-
era there are two dark bands across the rump. The Cape dove, which may be rec-
ognized by its long wedge-shaped tail, with the middle feathers more than twice as
long as the outer pair, ranges all over Tropical and Southern Africa, as well as Mad-
agascar and Arabia. It occurs in pairs, and is chiefly found on the ground ; and
when disturbed, seeks shelter in low trees and bushes, but rarely in larger trees.
The nest is placed in a low bush, and the two white eggs have a rosy tint, caused
by the thinness and semitransparency of the shell. The next three genera have
the tail moderately long and more or less rounded ; and while Tympanistria has the
first primary pointed, in Chalcopelia and Chalcophaps\ti\§ feather is normal in shape.
The white- breasted wood dove, the only representative of the genus Tympanistria,
inhabits the whole of South Africa as well as Madagascar, the Comoro islands and
Fernando Po.

The African ground dove (Chalopelia afra), the solitary representa-
African Ground,. r ., ' . jj-,. ^1. i. • .•.• u

tiveor its genus, in addition to the characteristics given, may be rec-
ognized by the boldly-marked patches of metallic steel blue or golden
green adorning the wings. Inhabiting the whole of Africa south of about 17° north
latitude, it is met with in Abyssinia among bushes and thick underwood, and in the
jungles along the banks of water courses. It is figured on p. 2144.

The six bronze- winged doves (Ckafaptera), distinguished by having

*. . the upper wing coverts metallic golden green, are mostly inhabitants

Doves °f tne Indo-Malayan and Australian regions; the Indian species (C.

indica), ranging from India to Western New Guinea, having the top

of the head and hind-neck dark gray, the white forehead and eyebrow stripes of the

male less distinct in the female, and the middle of the back and shoulder feathers

golden green like the wing coverts. This dove is not uncommon in the well-wooded

portions of Tenasserim, where it is found singly or in pairs in thick forest or

very shady gardens. Omitting mention of several genera, we come to two Australian

species, in which the beak is feeble, and the tail has sixteen feathers.

The common bronze-winged dove (Phaps chalcoptera) is generally distributed
all over Australia, and differs from its ally, P. elegans, in having the throat white
instead of chestnut, and the breast vinous; while in the latter this part is gray. It
is a plump, heavy bird, weighing fully a pound when in good condition. Its amazing

2150

PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

powers of flight enable it to cross a great expanse of country in an
Australian incredibly-short space of time, and just before sunset it may be seen
r singly, or in pairs, coming swiftly over the plains, or down the gul-

lies to its drinking places. It feeds almost entirely on the ground,
picking up various leguminous seeds; and numbers of old and young are killed in
the stubble fields after the breeding season, which lasts from August to December.
Another genus {Histriophaps} , characterized by the feeble bill and
the tail of fourteen feathers, is represented by one peculiarly-colored
species, the harlequin dove (ff. histrionica] , of Northwestern Austra-
lia. The forehead, a stripe round the ear coverts, and the gorget are snow white; the

Harlequin
Dove

CRESTED AND COMMON BRONZE-WINGED DOVES.
(One-fourth natural size.)

remainder of the head, throat, and ear coverts being jet black, while the upper parts
of the body and middle tail feathers are cinnamon brown, with a patch of metallic
purple on the innermost secondaries; the under parts being bluish gray, and the
outer tail feathers blackish, shading into gray at the base, and tipped with white.
This species breeds in February, depositing two eggs under any low bush in the
middle of the open plains. Towards the beginning of April it collects in large
flocks, and lives on the seeds of the rice grass, which the natives collect for food.
During the short period harvest lasts the flavor of this dove is delicious, but at other

THE GROUND PIGEONS 2151

times it is indifferent. It flies to water at sunset, when, like the bronze wing, it
only wets the bill; and it seems astonishing that so small a quantity of water should
suffice to quench its thirst in the burning deserts it inhabits.

If we omit the white-quilled rock dove {Petrophassa albipennis},

having the general plumage almost uniform dark brown, and the
bases of the primaries white, and inhabiting the sterile districts of Northwestern
Australia, we come to two species forming the genus Geophaps, which, in addition
to the characteristics already mentioned, has the bill rather stout. The penciled
bronze- winged dove (G. scripta} has the top of the head, upper parts, and chest
light brown; the tips of the upper wing coverts being paler, and the inner ones
ornamented with patches of metallic greenish purple, the cheeks, ear coverts, and
throat white bordered by a black band in front of the eye, a second black band
being on the cheek, while a third passes above the eye, the rest of the under parts
being gray, shading into fawn color, the quills brown edged with pale rufous, and
the tail reddish brown, with the outer feathers tipped with black. This bird in-
habits the plains, being most abundant in the neighborhood of water, and is some-
times observed in pairs, but more frequently in small flocks of from four to six.
When approached, instead of taking flight, it runs off rapidly in an opposite direc-
tion, and crouching down, either on the bare plains or among the scanty herbage,
remains till all but trodden on. When it rises, its flight is rapid, and accompanied
by a loud whirring noise of the wings. No nest is made, the two eggs being de-
posited on the bare ground, and the young are able to run when no larger than
quails.

The last two genera of the bronzed-winged doves are distinguished

by having the head crested, while they differ from one another in the
Wing shape of the tail feathers, which are short and nearly even in Lophop-

haps, and in Ocyphaps long, the middle pair being longer than the
outer. Of the former, three Australian species are known, all with the general
color cinnamon, the innermost secondaries with metallic bronze-purple spots, the
cheeks and throat white, the throat having a black band down the middle, com-
mencing on the chin and joining the gorget, which is similarly colored, the breast
having a gray band across it. Writing of the plumed bronze-winged dove (L.
plumifera), of Northwestern Australia, Sturt says it was generally seen perched on
some rock, basking with pleasure in the heat of the sun, and was exceedingly wild,
taking flight at the slightest noise.

The crested bronze- winged dove ( Ocyphaps kphotes} , represented on

the left side of the figure on p. 2150, is the only representative of the

last genus, and is a native of the interior of North and East Australia.

Its crest is black, the head and under parts gray, the sides of the neck
and breast pinkish-salmon color, the back and rump olive gray, and the upper tail
coverts grayish brown, edged with white. The smaller wing coverts are grayish
buff, banded with black, the greater coverts and secondaries edged with white, and
mostly ornamented with metallic green and purple. The primaries are grayish
black, the middle tail feathers brown, and the outer pairs brownish black, glossed
on their outer webs with green, blue, and purple. Gould says this dove " fre-

2I52

PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

quently assembles in very large flocks; and when it visits the lagoons or river sides
for water, during the dry seasons, generally selects a single tree, or even a particu-
lar branch, on which to congregate before descending simultaneously to drink. Its
flight is more rapid than that of any member of the group to which it belongs; and
impetus being acquired by a few quick flaps of the wings, it goes skimming off ap-
parently without any further movement of the pinions. Upon alighting on a branch,
it elevates its tail and throws back its head, so as to bring them nearly together, at
the same time erecting its crest, and showing itself off to advantage."

Nicobar
Pigeon

NICOBAR PIGEONS.

(One-fourth natural size.)

The beautiful Nicobar pigeon (Catenas nicobarica) has a wide range,
inhabiting not only the islands from which it takes its name, but ex-
tending through the Mergui and Malay Archipelagos to the Solomon
islands. Together with a smaller species of an indigo-blue color from the Pelew is-
lands, the Nicobar pigeon represents not only its genus, but likewise a special sub-
family ( Calcsnadince} , distinguished from the preceding groups by the elongated and
narrow feathers of the neck, which resemble the hackles of a game cock. The
general color of the plumage is metallic green with copper-colored reflections,
the under parts are less brightly colored, the head, neck, and upper breast being
nearly black, while the quills are also much the same color, and the short tail
and its coverts are pure white. The bill and the knob at -the base are black, and
the legs and feet dark purple. In one of the Nicobar islands, Davison says
that the birds swarm by thousands, and in the early morning may be seen flying

CROWNED PIGEONS

2153

from the island in flocks out to sea, doubtless to other islands of the group to

feed. When well up in the air, the flight is swift and powerful, and somewhat

like that of sand grouse. Having wandered some distance away from the rest of

his party, and reaching a part of the jungle where the birds had not been disturbed,

he was surrounded by a flock of at least thirty old and young pigeons. Their

gait was pigeon-like, and while digging among the dead leaves in search of food

with their bills they were very silent, their only note being a hoarse croak. He

always met with them

on the ground, and,

when disturbed, they

invariably perched on

the thicker branches

along which they were

often seen to walk.

The Nicobar pigeon

builds a nest of sticks,

in which the single egg

is laid.

CROWNED PIGEONS

Family

The members of
this family are the
largest existing repre-
sentatives of the order,
and are characterized
by the erect fan-shaped
crest which adorns the
head as well as by
their large size, while
they are further distin-
guished by having the
metatarsus covered all
over with small six-
sided scales. Exclu-
sively Australasian in

their distribution, all the six known species inhabiting the Papuan islands have
the general color bluish slate; but the Victorian crowned pigeon (Goura -victoria}
differs from its allies in having the tips of the crest feathers spatulate or club
shaped. Very little has been recorded concerning the habits of these splendid birds,
but they appear to spend much of their time on the ground in search of food, and
being remarkably stupid may be easily approached within gunshot. The species

* - V:>iis23£S
»>„

AI.BERTIS' CROWNED PIGEON.
(From D'Albertis' New Guinea.)

2154

PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

here figured ( G. albertisi) was discovered by the explorer from whom it takes its
name.

THE TOOTH-BILLED PIGEON
Family DlDUNCULID^Z

Occupying an entirely isolated position among the existing members of the
order, the tooth-billed pigeon (Didunculus strigirostris} is perhaps the most inter-

TOOTH-BILLED PIGEON.
(One-third natural size.)

esting representative of the whole group, on account of its kinship to the dodo.
An inhabitant of the Samoan islands, this pigeon possesses a remarkably -heavy pow-
erful bill and short strong legs. The head, mantle, and chest are metallic blackish
green, while the rest of the upper parts are chestnut, and the under parts brownish
black. The bill is orange and the legs and feet reddish ochre. The following
account of its habits is taken from one given by Mr. Whitmee, from which it ap-
pears that the bird now feeds mainly on trees, whereas it formerly procured its
food on the ground: " I did not attribute much importance to that fact," says the
observer, "because the bird being wary, I thought its destruction by wild cats to be

DODO AND SOLITAIRE

2155

chiefly in the night, when roosting, or when on the nest during the process of in-
cubation, while rats would also destroy the eggs or young in the nest. Hence, I
did not see how a change in the place of feeding could alone account for the increase
of the bird. I therefore made particular inquiries from natives as to its roosting;
and from the information thus procured I believe the Didunculi almost invariably
now roost upon the high branches of trees instead of upon low stumps as formerly. ' '
The nest is so rarely found, that few opportunities occur of learning where it is
built; but it appears that it is generally situated in the fork of a tree, and that the
eggs are white; although formerly the bird nested on the ground. Verging some
years ago on extinction, from the assumption of arboreal habits, the Samoan tooth-
billed pigeon is now increasing rapidly in numbers.

Dodo

DODO AND SOLITAIRE
Family DIDIDSE

The dodo and its near ally the solitaire are recently exterminated
members of the order, characterized by their very large size and
massive build, accompanied by a total incapacity for flight. This group was
entirely confined to the islands of Mauritius, Reunion, and Rodriguez. A native
of Mauritius, and the sole repre-
sentative of its genus, the dodo
{Didus ineptus), in size was
somewhat larger than a swan,
with rudimental wings, and a
tail composed of short curly
feathers. The beak was very
large and hooked, the body
remarkably heavy, and the legs C
and feet short and stout. Large,
clumsy, and defenseless, the dodo
was a bird marked out for early
destruction; and soon after its
discovery it fell a prey to sailors,
and the animals introduced by
them into its island home. A THE DODO.

few scattered relics of stuffed

specimens, together with bones dug up from the peat of Mauritius, are all that are
left of this bird, but fortunately a good idea of its appearance is given in several
contemporary pictures. It was discovered by Admiral Van Neck in 1598, and was
still abundant in 1601, and it was known to be living eighty years later, although
by 1691 it appears to -have been exterminated. An allied bird inhabited Reunion,
but its affinities will probably remain unknown.

2156 PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

The gigantic flightless pigeon of Rodriguez, known as the solitaire
(Pezophaps solitaria}, survived till a later date than the dodo, having
probably lingered in the more remote parts of the island till 1761. It was much
longer in the leg than the dodo, and had a proportionately-longer neck, and the
males, which were far superior in size to the females, had a peculiar ball-like ex-
crescence on the wings. L,eguat, who visited Rodriguez in 1691, found the soli-
taires abundant, and has given us a good account of their habits, and a truthful, if
somewhat pre-Raphaelite portrait; while of late years numerous bones of the soli-
taire have been brought to Europe, so that we have now a fair idea of its organiza-
tion and affinities.

THE SAND GROUSE

Family PTEROCLID^E

The sand grouse form a small group intermediate in their affinities between
the pigeons and game birds, resembling the former in the most important particu-
lars of their skeleton, while their digestive organs are very similar to those of the
latter.* Among their other columbine characteristics may be specially noted the great
triangular deltoid crest of the humerus or upper bone of the wing, the peculiar
shape of which is so characteristic of the pigeon tribe; this deltoid crest being the
projecting process on the right side of the upper part of the specimens figured on p.
2158. To this process is attached the great pectoral muscle which renders these
birds capable of sustained and powerful flight. In the game birds this process (as
shown in the same cut) is very differently formed, the edge being rounded and
curved inward instead of nearly flat and triangular. In the sand grouse the body
is rather stout and compact, the neck short, and the head small. The bill is short
and shaped like that of the game birds, although not so strong; there is never any
naked space round the eyes; the wings are long and pointed, and the legs and toes
are remarkably short, rendering it impossible for these birds to perch on trees.
The general tone of the plumage is suggestive of the sandy arid regions these birds
frequent, being a subtle mixture of subdued colors, beautiful in their arrangement
and pattern, but well suited to afford protection by their perfect harmony with the
surroundings. The majority of this group inhabit Africa and Southwestern and
Central Asia, but Pallas's sand grouse ranges in summer to the north of L,ake
Baikal, and westward to Pekin, and the black-bellied sand grouse extends to the
Canary islands and Southwest Europe, while Madagascar contains a species (Ptero-
clurus personatd) peculiar to that island, and the Pyrenean pin-tail sand grouse (P.
pyrenaicus) , a western form of the Asiatic species (P. alchata}, is met with in
Southwestern Europe and North Afiica. The flight of these birds is swift and power-
ful, and on the wing they resemble the plover tribe. All are more or less migra-
tory, and some travel immense distances. They are in the habit of repairing in the
morning and evening to certain favorite drinking places where numbers congregate.

*In placing them here the editor follows the late Professor Garrod, but the writer of this chapter prefers to re-
gard them as representing a distinct order.

THE SAND GROUSE 2157

When drinking, these birds thrust their bill into the water, and retain it there till
their thirst is quenched, after the manner of pigeons. The young are covered with
a close and beautifully-patterned down, and are able to run as soon as hatched.
The only nest is a hole scratched in the sand; and the eggs, generally three in num-
ber and oval in shape, are double spotted with brown and pale violet on a ground
color which is generally cream or buff, but more rarely pale red, the pale violet
spots being more deeply imbedded in the shell than the others. The eggs are like
those of the rails, and unlike those of the game birds, which are always single
spotted.

In this genus the first toe is absent, while the short front toes are

densely covered with feathers, and the central pair of tail feathers are
Sand Grouse

produced into long thread-like points. In Pallas' s sand grouse (Syr-
rhaptes paradoxus) , the first quill of each wing is greatly lengthened and attenuated
at the extremity, but in the other species (S. tibetanus), which is a native of Tibet,
these feathers are much less developed. Pallas' s sand grouse has the general color
of the upper parts pale buff barred with black, the breast being pale gray shading
into dirty white, and the under parts black. The male is distinguished by having
the throat and a patch of feathers on each side of the neck rust colored, the rest of
the head and neck uniform grayish, and a band of white feathers barred with black
across the chest. In the female, on the other hand, the patches of feathers on the
neck and throat are pale yellow, and the throat is bounded below by a narrow black
band; the top of the head, back, and sides of the breast being spotted with black
and the band across the chest absent. The interest attaching to this bird lies in
the incursions which it has from time to time made into Europe, more often in
comparatively-small numbers, but in the years 1863 and 1888 in enormous flocks,
many of which arrived on the eastern coasts of Great Britain, and spread inland to
nearly every county, some individuals even reaching the Scilly islands and Ireland,
and others the Shetlands and Faroes. The reason of these migrations is without
any satisfactory explanation, especially as the flocks arrive in spring. It seems
hardly probable that they could have been driven back by stress of weather while
attempting to reach their breeding haunts, since they are able to endure severe cold,
and have arrived in South Siberia by the end of March.

This species (Pterodes arenarius} represents a genus distinguished
by the naked feet, the presence of the first toe, and by the central pair
•of tail feathers not being elongated. Common during the cold season
in the northwestern parts of India, this bird does not breed within the limits of the
empire. It prefers the great sandy plains where water is easily accessible, but in
places, where the rivers are too distant for it to resort to, it frequents such few
tanks as are to be found. In the early morning plowed land is a very favorite
haunt, and there large numbers may be seen squatting close together and basking
in the morning rays of the sun. Like the rest of their kind, these birds are in the
habit of taking a midday siesta when the sun is hot, but when the weather is cold
and cloudy they are moving about all day. They scratch about among the loose
loam like so many hens till they have made a comfortable depression that fits them,
and there they repose, sunning first one side and then the other, and apparently

2158

PIGEONS AND SAND GROUSE

thoroughly enjoying the scorching heat. During their siesta they are never closely
packed, but scattered over the ground singly or in twos and threes.

Before leaving this genus mention must be made of the little painted
'S sand grouse (P. fasdatus) of India, which is one of the most beautiful
of all the group, and distinguished by its small size and black and white markings
on the head. In habits it differs from the large sand grouse, and resembles the
nearly-allied close-barred sand grouse (P. lichtensteini) , while as regards its plum-
age it so closely approximates to the small African species (P. quadridndus) that it
can only be distinguished by the different arrangement of the black and white bars
adorning the smaller feathers of the wing. This species, which is seldom if ever

A FLOCK OP PIN-TAILED SAND GROUSE.

difficult of approach, and can run faster than the other kinds, is usually met with
in small packs or in pairs, and frequents the neighborhood of low, bush-clad, or
sparingly-wooded hills. Mr. Thompson says it is nocturnal, and that even on the
darkest night the birds arrive at the edge of the plain at dusk and remain feeding
and going to water during the dark hours before the moon gets up, and he has fre-
quently noted parties of six or seven flitting about noiselessly over an opening in the
forest long after sunset.

THE SAND GROUSE

2159

The pin-tailed sand grouse {Pteroclurus alchata) belongs to a genus
" . differing from the last by the elongation of the middle tail feathers, in

Grouse tkis resPect resembling Syrrhaptes. This species ranges from Asia
Minor to India, while an allied western form (P. pyrenaicus) is met
with in North Africa and Southwestern Europe. Although the two are very similar,
the western bird has the wide chestnut band across the breast much darker, and the
marginal lines round the smaller feathers of the wing pale yellow instead of white.
In both the under parts are pure white, and the males have the throat black and the
upper parts dull olive blotched with yellow; while in the females the throat is white
and the upper parts are barred with black. The eastern form is a cold-weather visi-
tant to the northwest of India, where some of the sand grouse habitually associate
in such countless numbers, Mr. Hume stating that he has seen flocks of at least ten
thousand, while similar observations have been made in Mesopotamia and on the
shores of the Persian Gulf.

A third member of the pin-tailed group is the common sand grouse
(/>. exustus}, which has the general color of the plumage yellowish
buff, shading into dark brown on the under parts in the male, while in
the female the breast and upper parts of the back are spotted with brownish black,
and the rest of the upper surface barred with the same color. This bird has a very
wide range, inhabiting the whole of India in localities where the rainfall is moderate,
the soil fairly dry, and the country open and tolerably level, and extending west-
ward across Asia and Northern Africa to Senegal.

Common Sand
Grouse

VUI/TURE-UKE GUINEA FOWI, ON THE GROUND.

(One-fourth natural size.)

CHAPTER XVII

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS— ORDERS GALLING
AND FUL1CARI>E

THE general appearance of the game birds is so well marked that the most
inexperienced can hardly fail to recognize them. The body in all is compact and
stout, and the neck rather long, supporting a fairly-large rounded head, with a
moderately-long, stout bill, the upper mandible being arched and overhanging the
lower. Though the legs vary in length, they are always strong and adapted for
rapid locomotion, the first toe being present, and the feet, with their powerful,
slightly-curved claws, specially suited for scratching up the ground. The wings
are concave, fitting close to the body, and the flight, though noisy and somewhat
labored, is often extremely rapid. The tail varies greatly in shape and size, being
enormously lengthened and developed in some species of pheasant, while in others,
as the painted quail, it is rudimentary and hidden by the upper tail coverts.
Among the more striking skeletal characteristics it may be mentioned in the first
place that the palate is of the cleft (schizognathous) type, while, secondly, the breast-
bone has two deep notches on each side of the posterior margin, and its superior proc-
ess perforated to receive the bases of the metacoracoids. The feathers of the body
(2160)

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN

2161

are provided with aftershafts, and the young are born covered with down, or well
feathered in the case of the megapodes, and able to run coon after they are hatched.
The nesting habits vary, the grouse, partridges, and pheasants habitually laying
their eggs on the ground with little or no nest, while the curassows generally build
in trees, and the megapodes place their eggs among sand and vegetable remains,
where they are hatched by the warmth of the decaying matter and the heat of the
sun. In the true game birds the eggs, if spotted at all, are only marked with sur-
face spots, which are easily scratched off, and never possess the deep, underlying
marks characteristic of the eggs of the sand grouse and rails.

PTARMIGAN IN WINTER DRESS.

(One-third natural size.)

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN
Family TETRAONID^

The grouse form a group of about thirty species, in which the feathering of
the legs and feet varies in the different genera; the ptarmigan and its allies having
the legs and feet entirely covered with feathers, while in others, such as the black -
136

2l62

cock, the toes are naked, and only the legs feathered; and in the hazel-hen group
not only the feet but the greater part of the metatarsi are naked. Those with naked
feet may be distinguished from the pheasant group by the horny processes fringing
the sides of the toes and producing a comb-like appearance; these being absent in
the pheasants, while none of the grouse have spurs on the legs.

Perhaps no members of this group of birds are more interesting
True Grouse than tjje ptarmigan and its allies, on account of the seasonal changes
p . of plumage they undergo in order that they may assimilate them-
selves to the color of their surroundings, and be thus protected from
their numerous enemies. In the ptarmigan (Lagop2is mutus) three changes of
plumage, summer, autumn, and winter, take place; during winter both sexes of

PTARMIGAN IN SUMMER DRESS.

the common species becoming pure white, with the exception of the outer tail
feathers, which are black; the male being distinguished by the presence of a small
black patch in front of the eye. It must, however, be remarked that absolutely pure
white plumage on the back is not often met with in Scotch examples, except in
unusually-severe winters; there being generally a few of the grayish autumn feathers
left in the plumage of the upper parts which are neither replaced by white ones nor
turn white. On the other hand, in such examples as inhabit colder climates, like
the north of Scandinavia, the male at least rarely dons the full summer and autumn
plumages, a number of white winter feathers being retained throughout the

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN 2163

summer, and in some instances only the head, mantle, and chest change color, the
rest of the plumage remaining white. It would thus seem that in those countries
where the summer is of short duration, sufficient time is not allowed for the full
summer and autumn changes to be effected before winter sets in once more; and
no doubt this parti-colored plumage affords even better protection in such localities
than if a complete change to a darker plumage took place. In summer the male
ptarmigan has the general color of the head, upper parts, sides, and flanks dark
brown or blackish brown, finely mottled and barred with gray and rusty; while the
chest and upper breast are blackish, sometimes slightly mottled with buff; the rest
of the under parts and the middle tail feathers remaining white. The female has
the general plumage above, as well as the middle tail feathers, black mixed with
rufous buff, most of the feathers being edged with white or buff, and the under
parts rufous buff barred with black. This plumage so closely approaches in color
the general surroundings of the nesting places, that the bird when sitting on its
eggs is almost invisible. As the autumn advances, the darker-colored feathers in
both male and female are replaced by a gray plumage finely mottled with black, and
sometimes buff, and as the season continues the more or less complete white winter
plumage already mentioned is once more assumed. It is noteworthy that a consid-
erable amount of the changes in color is due not to molting but partly to a rearrange-
ment of the pigment in the feathers themselves. In all the group, except red grouse,
the primary feathers (which, like those of the tail, are only cast at the autumn
molt) remain white throughout the year. All ptarmigan are essentially high-ground
birds; the red grouse being an exception, occurring sometimes on low-ground bogs
close to the sea. Unlike the black grouse, the common ptarmigan and the rest of
its allies pair with one female only, remaining with her throughout the breeding
season.

During the nesting season the ptarmigan is tame, and may be approached
within a few yards. On the barren hill tops and watersheds, where it finds a home
among the scattered boulders, dwarf Alpine plants, deer grass, and mosses, the
wanderer is often startled by the hoarse croaking cry of the male, as he rises sud-
denly from the ground where he was squatting invisible almost at the feet, and
settles on some neighboring rock. On being again approached, he makes a
second short flight to some commanding position, where with outstretched neck he
watches the movements of the intruder. Soon after, one may nearly walk on the
female sitting on her eggs, or in charge of a number of beautiful chicks patterned
with yellow and brown down. The young scatter in every direction, running
with considerable speed, and helping themselves along with their still tiny, un-
developed wings, while the anxious mother covers their retreat by going through
a performance intended, by attracting attention, to cover their retreat and convey
the idea that at least one of her wings has been broken. In a few seconds, how-
ever, she appears to recover, and skulks off among the rocks, and when one looks
to see what has become of the young, they, too, have vanished. The ptarmigan
inhabits most of the higher mountain ranges of Europe, and possibly extends into
Central Asia, where its place is taken by the nearly- allied rock grouse (L. rupestris),
differing in the more rufous plumage of the male in summer, though in some locali-

2164

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

Red Grouse

ties, such as Newfoundland, a grayer phase, closely approaching the European bird
is met with. The rock grouse inhabits Northern Asia, extending eastward to
Japan and through Arctic America to Iceland.

In Spitzbergen a somewhat different species (L. hyperboreus) occurs,
with more white on the basal part of the tail feathers, the outer web
of the outermost pair having only the terminal third black. This is shown in the
accompanying cut. The most curious bird of the group is, however, the red grouse
(L. scoticus} , peculiar to the British Islands, in which the changes of plumage ap-
pear unique; this species differing from all the others in having no white winter
plumage, and the flight feathers being always brownish black. Subject to enor-
mous variation in plumage, the extreme diverseness may be enumerated as the

black, red, and white
spotted phases. The
first form has the entire
plumage black, and is
by far the rarest; the
second, in which the
general color is rufous
chestnut, is chiefly met
with in the west coast of
Scotland, the outer He-
brides and Ireland;
while the white-spotted
variety, in which all the
feathers of the breast
and under parts, and
sometimes also those of
the head and back, are
widely tipped with
white, is apparently de-
pendent on latitude and
altitude.

The near-
est ally of

the red grouse is the
circumpolar ripa or wil-
low grouse (L. albus)
which has three distinct
seasonal plumages,
those of summer and
autumn (shown in the

following cut), closely resembling those of the red grouse, while the winter
dress is white, and the bird can then only be distinguished by its large size and
thick bill. That the red grouse is only an insular form of the willow grouse there
can be little doubt, and it has in all probability gradually ceased to assume a white

Willow Grouse

SPITZBERGEN PTARMIGAN.

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN

2165

winter dress, which in a milder climate was no longer essential for its protection.
Under these circumstances it might be inferred that in the red grouse there would
be only two changes of plumage, namely, in summer and autumn, but this, for
some at present unknown cause, is only the case with the female. In early spring
the latter begins to assume the summer dress of black mottled and barred with buff
or rufous buff, which harmonizes so well with the surroundings of her nest that she
is comparatively safe from detection. At the end of June she casts the whole of her
plumage, and by the beginning of September the change to the dark buff -spotted

WH.I.OW GROUSE IN SUMMER DRESS.
(One-third natural size.)

autumn dress is complete, though in some examples, probably birds of the year, a
few feathers of the back may still be seen in quill as late as December. The male,
on the other hand, makes no spring change, not a single feather being renewed be-
tween January and the end of June; but after the breeding season the entire plum-
age is replaced by the autumn feathers, which are black, marked, barred, and often
edged round the margin with buff. Thus, while at the end of August the cock
bears a considerable resemblance to the female in May, though the buff markings
are never so coarse, no sooner is the autumn plumage donned than the dark

2i66

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

chestnut winter feathers, with their mottled black bars, begin to appear, the whole
change being completed by December. Some of the autumn feathers are, however,
often retained on the back, and may be distinguished from the winter plumage at a
glance. The male breeds in this plumage, and very shabby and worn he is by the
end of the nesting season. It will thus be seen that the male and female have two
changes in the season, but while those of the latter are, as might be expected, made
in spring and autumn, the male changes in autumn and winter. The Rocky Moun-
tain ptarmigan (L. leucurus} is the smallest representative of the genus, and is rec-
ognized by its pure white tail.

ac Game

WH.I/JW GROUSE IN WINTER DRESS.

The next group of grouse we have to notice are the black game,
which have the legs covered with feathers, but the feet naked, and the
sides of the toes are furnished with horny comb-like appendages. Only two species
are known, the black grouse (Lyrurus tetrix} of Europe and Asia, and the Cauca-
sian black grouse (L. mlokosiewiczi ) . The two sexes are commonly known as black-
cock and gray hen; and the males are distinguished by their general black plumage,
the peculiar shape of their tail, the outer feathers of which are elongated and curved
outward at the extremity. In the blackcock the under tail coverts are white, while

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN

2167

in the bird from the Caucasus these parts are black, like the rest of the plumage.
The two species also differ in their changes of plumage; in the former, the young
male assuming the black feathers of the adult more or less completely by the first
winter, while in the young male of the Caucasian bird a female-like plumage is re-
tained throughout the first winter and spring. During the autumn molt, when the
males are rarely met with, the black plumage of the head and neck is replaced by

BI.ACK GAME AT HOME.

brownish-buff and black feathers, barred like those of the female. No doubt this
temporary change is protective, enabling the blackcock to escape observation, when,
owing to the heavy molt in their wings and tail they are rendered almost incapable
of flight. Black game are polygamous, one male pairing with a number of females,
each of which undertakes the entire responsibility of rearing her young. During
the pairing season the males are in the habit of resorting to some spot where in the

2i68

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

morning and evening they fight for the possession of the females; each challenging
the other in turn, and going through a series of skirmishes till the older and stronger
birds have driven off the rest and won the females. Black game are chiefly found
in the neighborhood of pine and birch forests bordering moorland, where bilberry,
cranberry, heath, and bracken flourish, though they may sometimes be seen on the
open moor. Although their flight is straight, and their regular wing beats some-
what labored, they can travel at a great rate. Black game perch on trees, much of
their food consisting of buds and flowers, while in autumn they may be seen on the
stubbles in search of grain. The blackcock by no means confines his attentions
during the pairing season to the hens of his own species, the hybrids produced by
a cross between this species and the capercaillie being not uncommon. Sometimes,
too, he interbreeds with the red grouse; and more rarely with the willow grouse,
hazel hen, and pheasant, while crosses with domestic fowls have been known to
occur.

BI,ACK GAME IN THE SNOW.

The largest members of the tribe are the capercaillie or wood grouse,
inhabiting the pine forests of Northern and Central Europe and Asia.
Three different species and one well-marked local race are known, all of which may
be recognized by their very large size, as well as by their rounded tail composed of
eighteen feathers. The capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus} ranges through Northern
and Central Europe to Turkestan and the Altai, but in the Urals is represented by a
paler form, with the whole of the breast and under parts white in the male. In typ-
ical examples of the common species the breast and under parts are black, with
some of the feathers in the middle of the breast tipped with white, but numerous
examples are to be met with in the London market in every intermediate stage of
plumage, and are believed to be imported from some of the southern states of Rus-
sia, though the exact locality is uncertain. In Northeastern Siberia a different
species ( T. parvirostris} occurs, while the third form ( T. kamchaticus} is confined
to Kamchatka. These eastern birds are distinguished from the common species by
their smaller bill, and by the scapulars being widely tipped with white, the females

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN

2169

being also much darker on the under parts. From one another they may be dis-
tinguished by the white tips of the scapulars in the smaller Kamchatkan species
being wide and forming a continuous white band, while in the Siberian bird they
constitute an interrupted line of white spots. Formerly indigenous in Scotland and
Ireland, the capercaillie was exterminated toward the end of the last century, but

HYBRID BETWEEN BLACKCOCK AND CAPERCAILZIE.

(One-fifth natural size.)

was reintroduced in 1837 int° Scotland, and is now fairly plentiful in the counties
of Perth, Sterling, and Forfar. The capercaillie is polygamous; and its nesting
habits and eggs are very similar to those of black game, the latter being buff
spotted with reddish brown. As many as twelve eggs are sometimes laid, but the

2 1 70 THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

capercaillie hen is a bad mother, and seldom succeeds in rearing more than one or
two of her somewhat delicate young. The male is a remarkably wary bird, much
harder to obtain than the female, and it is astonishing, considering his large size
and weight, how quietly he can slip out of the far side of a pine tree without being
observed. The greater part of his time is spent among the branches of these trees,
the needles forming a considerable portion of his food, and giving the flesh a strong
flavor of turpentine.

This group contains only two representatives, namely, the Canadian
me"Cc grouse or spruce partridge (Canachites canadensis) of Canada and the

Northern States to the east of the Rocky mountains, and its near ally,
Franklin's grouse ( C. franklini) , inhabiting the coast ranges to the west of the
same chain. Both are about the size of a partridge, and have sixteen tail feathers;
the cocks pair with only one female, probably often retaining the same mate for
more than one season. The male Canadian grouse has the upper parts mostly gray
shading into sandy or rufous white on the wings, and barred and mottled with
black; while the throat, chest, and middle of the breast are black, the sides and
under parts being tipped with white, and the tail black tipped with chestnut. The
female has the general plumage barred and mottled with black and rufous yellow.
In both the male and female of Franklin's grouse this chestnut band across the
end of the tail is absent, and the upper tail coverts are tipped with white instead
of gray.

The sharp-winged grouse {Falcipennis} of Northeastern Siberia and
ira Kamchatka may be recognized by having the outer flight feathers
narrowed toward the extremity and sickle shaped. The dusky grouse (Dendraga-
pus obscurus} and its two allies, of the pine forests to the east and west of the Rocky
mountains, have the tail with twenty feathers, and the males are provided with an
inflatable air sac on each side of the neck. The home of the dusky grouse is the
Southern Rocky mountains, from New Mexico to Idaho, its place further west being
taken by the sooty grouse (D. fuliginosus) , ranging along the Pacific coast from
California to Sitka; while, on the east side of the Rockies, Richardson's grouse (D.
richardsoni) is found from Central Montana northward. Much larger than the
Canadian grouse, the males of this species have the upper parts smoky black,
mottled with gray, and the under parts gray, while in the females the plumage of
the upper parts and breast is barred and mottled with buff. In both the dusky and
sooty grouse the tail is somewhat rounded in shape, with a terminal gray band
wider (more than an inch wide) in the former. In Richardson's grouse the gray
band is absent and the tail square.

The males of the three species of prairie hen are characterized by an
elongate tuft of feathers, and an inflatable air sac on each side of the
neck, but in the females these tufts are less conspicuous and the air sacs absent.
The common prairie hen of the Mississippi valley ( Tympanuchus americanus) ,
shown in the cut on p. 2171, has the plumage brown above, barred and marked
with buff and black, the longer feathers of the neck tufts being black, and the under
parts pale brown, barred and fringed with white. During the pairing season these
birds assemble in numbers in the morning on some high dry knoll, when the males

GROUSE AND PTARMIGAN

2171

go through strange antics to captivate the females. Inflating their orange air sacs
and erecting their long neck tufts, they utter their strange, booming love note,
which may be heard at a great distance in the still morning air. The females are
remarkably prolific, laying eleven to fourteen eggs on an average, while as many as
twenty or more are not unfrequently found. The females alone undertake the in-
cubation and care of their young, the males separating from them as soon as all the
eggs are laid.

PRAIRIE HENS.

The largest American representative of the family is the sage grouse
{Centrocercus urophasianus} , inhabiting the dry sage-brush plains of
the Western United States. Distinguished from the allied forms by its long
pheasant-like tail of twenty feathers, with the middle pair elongate and pointed, the
male has an inflatable air sac on each side of the neck, and attains a weight of eight
pounds, the female being smaller. The chief food of this bird, especially during
the winter months, is the sage brush, though during summer it is varied with
grasses, berries, insects, and sometimes grain. The stomach of this species is soft,
and unlike that of other game birds, which are all provided with a muscular gizzard.
Captain Bendire gives the following account of the sage cock's courtship: " Early
one morning, in the first week of March 1877, I had the long-wished-for opportunity
to observe the actions of a single cock, while paying court to several females near

21/2

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

him, and I presume he did his very best. His large, pale yellow air sacs were fully
inflated, and not only expanded forward but apparently upward as well, rising at
least an inch above his head, which, consequently, was scarcely noticeable, giving
the bird an exceedingly-peculiar appearance. He looked decidedly top heavy, and
ready to topple over at the slightest provocation. The few long, spiny feathers
along the edges of the air sacs stood straight out, and the grayish white of the upper

RUFFED GROUSE.

parts showed in strong contrast with the black of the breast. His tail was spread
out fan-like, at right angles from the body, and was moved from side to side with a
slow, quivering movement. The wings were trailing on the ground. While in
this position he moved around with short, stately, and hesitating steps, slowly and
gingerly, evidently highly satisfied with his performance, uttering, at the same
time, low, grunting, guttural sounds, somewhat similar to the purring of a cat
when pleased, only louder."

PARTRIDGES 2173

Another North- American type is the sharp-tailed grouse, of which
two forms are known, namely, the large dark northern race (Pedioccetes
phasianellus} , inhabiting the interior of British North America, and
a smaller more rufous and buff southern form (P. columbianus) . Both are charac-
terized by their wedge-shaped tails of eighteen feathers, in which the middle pair is
larger than the rest, the males not being provided with air sacs.

We now come to two genera forming a somewhat different group of
Ruffed Grouse . , . , . . . ,

grouse, the various members having the lower parts of the legs as well

as the toes devoid of feathers. The ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus} of North
America extends over a wide range and is subject to climatic variations. This bird
is recognized by the frilled ruffles of black feathers on each side of the neck, though
in some specimens they vary to dull chestnut. The general color above is rufous
or gray, but every intermediate stage of plumage may be met with. Captain Ben-
dire writes that "the mating season occasionally commences early in February, but
usually about the beginning of March, when the familiar drumming of the male
may be frequently heard, though the bird is not often seen. This drumming of the
ruffed grouse has been often described, and many different theories have been ad-
vanced as to how the sound is produced. It is generally conceded that the sound is
produced by the outspread wings of the bird being brought suddenly downward
against the air, without striking anything."

The hazel hens form the last group of the family, and differ from
the ruffled grouse in having the plumage of the sexes different, and
lacking the conspicuous ruffles on the sides of the neck, while the tail is composed
of sixteen instead of eighteen feathers. Besides the common species ( Tetrastes
bonasia) of Northern and Central Europe from Scandinavia to Kamchatka and
Spain to North China, a peculiar form (7! griseiventris} , with the breast and under
parts sandy gray narrowly barred with black, comes from Perm in East Russia, while
a third ( T. severtzowi), with the outer tail feathers black barred with white, is found
in Northeastern Tibet. The common species, like its North- American ally, has
two extreme phases of plumage, a rufous and a gray, and every intermediate variety
of color can be found.

PARTRIDGES, PHEASANTS, TURKEYS, AND GUINEA FOWLS
Family PHASIANIDsE

The great bulk of the typical game birds are included in this family, which
contains fifty-nine genera, with forty-seven peculiar to the Old World, and all the
remainder American. In all, the legs and feet are naked, the latter never being
fringed with horny comb-like appendages as in the grouse, while many have the
legs armed with one or more pairs of spurs. The family may be divided into three
subfamilies — the first (Perdiana} including the partridges, francolins, and quails,
and their allies; the second (Phasianinte) the true pheasants; and the third (Odon-
tophorince} the American partridges and quails, in which the cutting edge of the

W V

v, a

« g

£

u

THE PARTRIDGES 2175

upper mandible is notched. The division between the first two groups is, however,
artificial, for the partridges merge into the pheasants, the bamboo partridges
{Bambusicola) , the African and Indian spur fowls {Ptilopachys and Galloperdix} be-
ing the principal intermediate forms. The shape of the wing is almost the only
characteristic of any importance for distinguishing these groups; all the pheasants,
except the typical genus, having the first primary quill shorter than the tenth,
whereas in the partridge the former is equal to or longer than the latter. Unfor-
tunately , the exception among the former is the genus Phasianus, which has the
first primary longer than the tenth, while, on the other hand, in some of the par-
tridges the tenth is somewhat the longer. It is only by using the supplementary
character of the length of the tail, coupled with the shape of the wing, that it can
be decided to which of these divisions some of the species should be referred. Thus
the first group of partridges may be briefly characterized as having the first primary
quill longer than or equal to (rarely shorter than) the tenth, and the length of the
tail less, usually much less, than that of the wing.

The snow partridge (Lerwa nivicola), inhabiting the higher Hima-
layan ranges and extending eastward into Western China, which is
PeirtridcTcs

somewhat peculiar in having the upper half of the legs feathered, has

Cocks t^ie plumage of the upper parts in both sexes black, narrowly
barred with white and rufous, while the general color of the breast,
and under parts is deep chestnut, and the coral-red legs are armed in the male with
stout spurs; the tail having fourteen feathers. Closely allied to but distinguished by
their larger size, differently-shaped wing, and tail of eighteen feathers, are the two
rare species of pheasant grouse ( Tetraophasis} from the highlands of Central and
Eastern Tibet, and from them we pass to the snow cocks which are the giants
among the tribe, and only found at great elevations in the mountains of Asia. The
Himalayan snow cock {Tetrogallus himalayensis) , one of the largest of the six
species, and not much inferior to the capercaillie in size, ranges through the West-
ern Himalayas to the Hindu- Kush, and northward through the Altai. In the
male the feathers of the upper parts are mostly gray, finely mottled and margined
with buff, while there is a large chestnut patch on each side of the nape, and a
band of the same color surrounds the throat, which, together with the chin and eye-
brow stripes, is white. The breast is white barred with black, and the rest of the
under parts mostly gray, the sides and flanks being margined with chestnut and
buff. The female scarcely differs in plumage, but may be distinguished by her
smaller size and the absence of the blunt spurs of the male. These birds are con-
fined to the snowy ranges above the limits of forest, but are driven by the snows of
winter to perform one or in some places two annual migrations to the middle
regions. In summer they are only seen near the limits of vegetation, but from June
till August, however much the sportsmen may wander on the highest accessible
places of the Gangetic hills, only a few are met with, the majority, no doubt, retir-
ing across the snowy range into Chinese Tibet to breed. At the beginning of Sep-
tember they are first seen near the top of the higher grassy ridges, and after the
first general severe fall of snow come down in numbers on some of the bare exposed
hills in the forest regions, where they remain till the end of March. Gregarious,

2176

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

and often congregating in packs, sometimes to the number of twenty or thirty,
snow cocks never enter the forests or jungle, avoiding spots where the grass is long.
When feeding, they walk up hill, picking up tender blades of grass and young shoots
of plants, occasionally stopping to scratch up bulbous roots, of which they are fond.
Easily recognized by their transversely- barred sides and flanks,
which contrast strongly with the rest of the plumage of the breast
and under parts, the red-legged partridges are represented by half a
dozen species. In these birds the tail is composed of fourteen feathers, and the
sexes are similar, except that the male is provided with a pair of blunt spurs. In

Red-Legged
Partridges

FRENCH PARTRIDGES.
(One- third natural size.)

the mountains of Southern Europe, ranging from the Pyrenees to the Balkans, the
so-called Greek partridge is found; but in the Grecian islands and Cyprus its place
is taken by the nearly-allied chukar (Caccabis chukar}, distinguished by having the
lores or space in front of the eye white instead of black. Its range is extensive,
extending across Asia to China, and reaching from the sea level to an elevation of
sixteen thousand feet; while the bird apparently flourishes as well in desert country
as in cultivated hills. Their surroundings largely affect the chukar both in size
and color; the paler-colored birds from the Persian Gulf differing widely from the
dark forms found in Cyprus and the Himalayas. The common red-legged or

THE PARTRIDGES 2177

French partridge (C. rufa), shown in the cut on the preceding page, is a native of
Southwestern Europe, and was introduced into England toward the end of the last
century. It is a handsome bird, the upper parts being olive brown shading into
chestnut on the top of the head and mantle; the eyebrow stripe, chin, and throat be-
ing white, and the throat bounded by a black band. The feathers of the neck and
chest are broadly edged with black, while those of the sides and flanks are gray
barred alternately with white, black, and chestnut; the bill, legs, and feet being
bright coral red. Unlike the common partridge, the red-legged species sometimes
perches on trees, walls, and palings, and when pursued always prefers to escape by
running. During the pairing season the males are pugnacious, fighting not only
among themselves, but with the common species. The eggs vary from ten to
eighteen, and are deposited in a hollow in the ground among rough grass or in
growing crops.

The pretty little Bonham's partridge {Ammoperdix bonhami),
p ., known in India as the sisi, and Hey's partridge {A. heyi}, found on
both shores of the Red Sea, form a small well-marked group nearly al-
lied to the last, but with the plumage of the two sexes different, the males having the
feathers of the sides and flanks margined with black instead of being crossbarred,
while the legs are never armed with spurs. The sisi has a wider range, being
found from Northwestern India to the Euphrates valley, and extending southward
to Aden. The male may be recognized by its gray head and neck, with a white
black-edged band passing across the forehead and along the sides of the head to the
ear coverts, the general color of the rest of the plumage being vinous buff. In the
male of Hey's partridge the head and neck are vinous-fawn color, and the upper
parts much paler. The females of both are almost indistinguishable, having the
head and neck isabelline, faintly marked and barred with rufous buff, and the dark
marking on the upper parts coarser. Bare broken ground is the favorite home of the
sisis, and they may be met with in suitable localities from sea level up to about seven
thousand feet. Unlike most partridges, they care little for concealment, and when
they wish to hide, the color of their plumage harmonizes so perfectly with the sand
and stones, that it is only necessary for them to keep still to avoid detection.

We now come to a large group of spur-legged partridges known as
The Francolins ......... .. , .

francolms, which include more than forty species, the great majority

of which aie natives of Africa. One species, the common francolin (Francolinus
vulgaris), is, however, found in Cyprus, and ranges across Southwestern Asia to
Northern India, while the painted francolin (F. pidus] is peculiar to Western and
Central India, and the Chinese francolin (F. chinensis} inhabits the Indo-Chinese
countries. In all, except two, the males are provided with at least one, and in cer-
tain cases two pairs of sharp spurs, and in some of the African forms the females are
almost as well armed. The common and painted francolins are exceptions to the
rule, the male of the former having but one pair of blunt wart-like spurs, while in
the latter even these are absent. The common francolin or black partridge once ex-
tended over a wider range and inhabited many of the countries bordering the Medi-
terranean, until recently a few pairs still remaining in Sicily. The male has the sides
of the head, chin, throat, and under parts deep black, the sides and flanks being

137

2178

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

more or less spotted with white according to age; there is a white band below the
eye, and a wide chestnut ring surrounds the neck, while the top of the head and
wings are dark brown edged with buff, and the lower back and rump black narrowly
barred with white. The female has the chestnut collar confined to the nape, and
the general color of the upper parts browner, while the sides of the head are buff
shading into white on the throat, and the under parts white mixed with buff and
barred with black. This bird, in common with all the francolins, loves valleys

A COVEY OF GRAY PARTRIDGES.

where high grass and jungle are interspersed with cultivated ground. Although the
males and females of this and several other species differ considerably in plumage,
in the great majority of cases they are very much alike; an instance of this occurring
in two closely-allied African species. Thus, while the male of the Natal francolin
(F. natalensis} has the under parts white with V-shaped black marks on the feathers,
and is similar to the female, in the allied Hildebrand's francolin (F. hildebrandi)
from Kilima-Njaro, and the Johnston's francolin (F. johnstoni) from the Shire high-

THE PARTRIDGES 2179

lands, although the males are very similar to the Natal bird, and only differ in the
shape of the black marking on the under parts, the females are different, their
general color below being bright rust color. One of the largest species is Jack-
son's francolin (F. jacksonf) from Masailand, which is only rivaled in size by
Erckell's francolin (F. erckelli) from Abyssinia. An allied genus includes the bare-
throated francolins (Pternistes) of Africa, of which nine large species are known,
these being easily recognized by their bare throats covered with red or orange skin.
In habits they closely resemble the true francolins.

The next genus is that of the true partridges, which are natives of
Up Europe and Asia, where they are represented by four species belonging

to two distinct types. The common partridge (Perdix cinerea), and
the bearded partridge (P. daurica), with a black horseshoe mark on the breast, have
eighteen tail feathers, and the under parts of the body devoid of black crossbars;
while to the second group belong Hodgson's partridge (P. hodgsoni) from South
Tibet, and the smaller more northern form {P. sifanica) from Kansu, both of which
have only sixteen tail feathers, and the under parts barred with black. The common
partridge ranges over Europe and Western and Central Asia, as far, at least, as the
Barabinska steppes and the Altai. Until recently the chestnut horseshoe mark on
the breast was considered as distinctive of the male, the female having this reduced
to a few chestnut spots, or absent. It is true, indeed, that in old birds the differ-
ences in this patch are generally characteristic of the male and female, but in the
majority of immature females the horseshoe is well developed, and nearly or quite
as large as in the adult male. Immature birds of both sexes may be recognized by
having the first flight feather pointed at the extremity, and the legs yellowish brown;
while in adults this feather is rounded at the tip, and the legs are slate color. In
the southeastern counties of England young females rarely have a well-marked
horseshoe, and in some instances all trace of chestnut is absent. On the other hand,
in most examples from other parts, this patch is greatly developed, and occasionally
is nearly as large as in adult males. The only characteristic for distinguishing the
sexes is in the lesser and median wing coverts; in the male, each of these feathers
being brownish buff, thickly vermiculated with black, with a chestnut blotch on
either web, and a well-defined pale buff shaft stripe down the middle, while in the
female the ground color is mostly black with wide-set transverse buff bars, in addi-
tion to the buff shaft stripe common to both sexes.
Allied Genera Passing over the Madagascar partridge (Margaroperdix madagascar-

iensis), distinguished by having only twelve tail feathers, we come to
the pygmy Indian partridges, forming two genera with five species, all no larger
than the quail, but with handsome plumage. In all, the plumage of the sexes is
different, and the tail feebly developed, being less than half the length of the wing;
in the first genus containing twelve feathers, and in the latter ten. The jungle
bush quail (Pedicula asiatica), and the rock bush quail (P. argunda), are the repre-
sentatives of the first genus. In the males the breast and under parts are white barred
with black, but while in the former the chin and throat are bright chestnut, in the
latter they are dull brick red. The females have the under parts vinaceous buff,
but in the jungle bush quail the chin and throat are bright chestnut as in the males,

2180 THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

while in the other the middle of the chin and throat are whitish. The distribution
of these species is complimentary to each other, that is to say, though both are
found over the greater part of India, the localities they affect are widely different,
the jungle quail being met with on hilly ground covered with moderates-thick for-
est and jungle, while the rock quail prefers half- barren sandy or rocky plains,
studded with low scattered bushes. Mr. Hume describes the former as "little,
bustling, ground birds, always keeping, according to my experience, in packs or
families; never coming out into the open; always feeding in grass, jungle, or stub-
ble long enough to hide their tiny selves." The painted bush quails (Microperdix}
are chiefly found in rocky ground interspersed with bushes, fern, and high grass,
and are met with in coveys, and prized by the natives on account of their pugna-
cious habits.

These partridges form a group characterized by the short tail, its

tridees lengtn being less than half that of the wing, and also by their
peculiarly -long and rather straight nails, that of the first toe being
well developed. There are nearly twenty species, ranging from the Himalayas,
through the Indo-Chinese countries to Sumatra, Java, Borneo, Formosa, and Hai-
nan. Unlike the preceding genera, which are all ground birds, though individuals
may occasionally perch, these partridges are not unfrequently in the habit of sit-
ting in trees. The color in most of the species is a mixture of olive brown, black,
and rufous, but in the species (Arboricola ardens} from Hainan the chest is orna-
mented with a patch of fiery red. All these birds frequent hill forest, the common
tree partridge {A. torqueolus) ranging to an elevation of fourteen thousand feet, and
being seldom flushed except with dogs; but when they rise their flight is strong
and swift. The eggs differ from those of other partridges in being pure white.
The plumage in all but one is practically identical in both sexes, but in the tree
partridge of the outer ranges of the Himalayas, it differs considerably. In both
male and female the general color of the upper parts is olive brown barred with
black, and the sides and flanks are gray, widely edged with chestnut, and spotted
with white; but the male has the top of the head bright chestnut, the eye stripes,
sides of the face, chin, and throat black, more or less margined with white, and
there is a broad white band across the front of the crop. In the female the top of
the head is brown marked with black, and the sides of the head are rufous spotted
with black, the white band being absent.

The members of the three genera now to be considered are peculiar

Partridges *n Caving the nail of the first toe rudimentary. In the ferruginous
wood partridges ( Caloperdix} the legs of the male are provided with
one or more pairs of spurs. The general color of the head, neck, and under parts
is bright rust red, the upper back black and white, the lower parts black with rusty
red markings, and the wings olive brown, spotted with black. The three species
respectively inhabit the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, and Java and Borneo. The
red-crested wood partridge (Rollulus roulroul}, figured in the cut, is an inhabi-
tant of Tenasserim and the Malay Peninsula and islands. In both sexes there is a
tuft of long hair-like bristles on the middle of the forehead and the claw on the
first toe is rudimentary. The male has also a long, fan-shaped maroon crest of

THE QUAILS

2181

hairy feathers, and the rest of the head and neck black with a white band between
the eyes, the wings being maroon glossed with purplish blue, the remainder of the
upper parts rich green with steely-blue reflections, the under parts black glossed
with blue, and the base of the bill, naked skin round the eye, as well as the legs
and feet, scarlet. In the female the head is blackish gray, the wings chestnut, and
the rest of the plumage bright grass green, shading into grayish green on the under
parts. This green color is an unusual tint among game birds, found elsewhere only
in the males of the blood pheasants. These birds ramble about the hillsides, at an

RED-CRESTED WOOD PARTRIDGES.
(One-half natural size.)

elevation of about three thousand to four thousand feet, in bevies or parties of six
or eight to a dozen, and are exceedingly swift of foot, never leaving the jungle, and
rarely taking wing. Their note is a soft, mellow whistle, chiefly heard in the
morning, or when they have been separated. Their nearest ally is the black wood
partridge (Melanoperdix niger} , ranging over much the same area, but not found in
Java. The male has the whole plumage glossy black, while that of the female is
mostly chestnut, the scapulars barred with black, and the upper parts, sides, flanks,
and under tail coverts mottled with the same color.

The most advanced form of the partridge type of wing is found in
the quails, as well as in the snow partridges; all of which have the
first flight feather but little shorter than the second, and equal to the third, while
the tenth is much the shortest. Accordingly, when the wing is expanded the

Quails

2182

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

vertical angle of an imaginary triangle is formed by the second quill, instead of by
the fifth or sixth. The common or migratory quail (Coturnix communis), ranges
over an enormous area, being found over Europe, Africa, and Asia, north of
the Himalayas. In Eastern Asia a distinct species, the Japanese quail (C. japonica),
is found, but during the breeding season many of the common quail invade these
countries, with the result that the two interbreed. The male of the common quail
may be recognized by its white throat with a black anchor-shaped mark down the
middle, while in the Japanese species the throat is uniformly dull brick red. The
females may be distinguished by the former having the white feathers covering the

COMMON QUAII,.

(One-half natural size. )

throat short and rounded, while in the latter they are elongated and pointed, forming
quite a beard. In South Africa a race of the common quail (C. capensis} occurs,
in typical examples of which the males have the sides of the head, as well as the
chin and throat, bright rufous chestnut, and the black anchor-shaped mark
characteristic of the migratory species well developed. The common quail inter-
breeds freely with these birds, and the results are seen in many of the males,
having the chin and throat partially chestnut. Another Australian quail (Syncecus
australis) has no anchor-shaped mark on the throat, and the under parts marked
with V-shaped blackbars; an allied species with the under parts dull rufous inhabit-

SPUR FOWL 2183

ing Timor and Flores. The last genus includes the smallest and most beautifully-
marked birds of the group; the tail being very short, hidden by the upper
tail coverts, and with only eight feathers. The common painted quail (Excalfa-
toria chinensis} inhabits the Indo-Chinese countries, especially the lower hills
where the ground is swampy and grass covered. The male has the upper parts
brown, barred and marked with black, and ornamented with whitish shaft stripes;
the forehead, sides of the head and neck, and wing coverts are washed with slaty
blue, the chest and flanks slaty blue, and the rest of the under parts rich chestnut.
In very old birds the chestnut takes the place of the slate, till very little of the latter
remains on the under parts.

We have now to turn our attention to that group of the family with
a monal type of wing, that is to say, with the first flight feather
shorter than the tenth. As already noted, the true pheasants are the
only exception in this respect, but although the shape of their wings is partridge-
like, their long tails at once serve to distinguish them. Little need be said of the
African rufous-breasted partridge (Ptilopachys) , ranging from Senegambia and the
Gold Coast to Abyssinia, and inhabiting broken ground and stony hillsides. The
plumage of both sexes is similar, and the male is never armed with spurs; though
these appendages are sometimes developed even in the females of the bamboo
partridges. Here the sexes of the three species have the plumage alike; and in
general appearance they recall the male of the common partridge, this being espe-
cially the case with the Chinese species (Bambusicola thoracicus), in which the sides
of the head, throat, and forepart of the neck are chestnut, while the eyebrow stripe
and crop are gray. The nearly-allied Formosan B. sonorivox, may be recognized
by having the sides of the head dark gray, while Fytch's partridge (B. fytchi] from
India, Burma, and China has the eye stripe buff. The note of this species is loud,
liarsh, somewhat fowl-like, and different from the low whistle of the tree partridges.
Found in heavy forest jungle, this partridge generally goes in pairs, and is difficult
to flush, unless hard pressed.

The Indian spur fowl are more pheasant-like, having a rather long
tail, and the plumage of the sexes different. The legs in both sexes
are armed with spurs, the males having two, and sometimes three, pairs, while the
females have one or rarely two, although occasionally two spurs are developed on
one leg and one on the other. The three rather large species are peculiar to India
and Ceylon; the male Ceylon spur fowl being more striking in appearance than its
Indian allies, having the plumage of the head, neck, back, and under parts black
and white, the rest of the upper parts dark chestnut, ornamented on the wing
coverts with white black-edged spots, and the quills and tail black. The female
has the head blackish, the chin and throat white, and the rest of the plumage
chestnut, finely penciled with black. Colonel Legge observes that " the shy habits
of this bird would prevent its being detected in most places where it is even abun-
dant, were it not for its noisy cries or cackling, so well known to all who have
wandered in the Ceylon jungles. It frequents tangled brakes, thickets in damp
nalas, forest near rivers, jungle over hillsides, and in fact any kind of cover which
will afford it entire concealment. It runs with great speed, and has a knack of

2 1 84 THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

noiselessly beating a retreat at one time, while at another it ventriloquizes its excit-
ing notes until the sportsman becomes fairly exasperated, and gives up the attempt
he has made to stalk it in disgust. The cock birds begin to call about six in the
morning, and when one has fairly commenced, the curious ascending scale of notes
is taken up from one to another until the wood resounds with their cries. They
always seem to keep in small parties, which perhaps consist of the young of the
year with their parents." The nest, a mere hollow in the ground, is situated in the
forest, or in thick jungle, under the shelter of a rock or near the projecting root of
a large tree, and it would seem that the full number of the eggs laid is four, but the
red spur fowl {Galloperdix spadiceus} lays as many as ten.

The pheasant quail (Ophrysia superciliosa), occurring in the north-
west of India during the cold season, is probably a native of Tibet,
Pheasants

but is so rarely met with that scarcely anything is known of its habits.

Never coming into the open, it prefers to skulk in the long grass, whence it can
only be flushed with the help of dogs, and when on the wing its flight is slow and
heavy. This is the smallest of the pheasant kind, being no larger than the
common quail, but its affinities are with the blood pheasants, as is shown by
the shape of the wing with its short first primary, the length of the tail, and the
long rather-loose plumage. The male has the general color gray washed wdth
olive, each feather being edged with black, and the head and throat deep black, the
former marked with various white bands. The female has the general color
warm light brown, paler on the under parts, and spotted and marked with black,
while the chin and throat are whitish. The much larger blood pheasants are
represented by three species from Tibet and Western China, the males being
characterized by the peculiar grass-green color of the plumage. The blood
pheasant (Ithagenes cruentus) found in the higher regions of Nipal, Sikkim, and
Bhutan is a handsome bird, the male having the forehead and a ring round the
eye black, the crown buff, and the upper parts gray, washed on the wings with
green, and margined on the upper tail coverts and tail with crimson, the cheeks,
throat, and under tail coverts being crimson, and the rest of the under parts
mostly green, with some of the feathers more or less margined with crimson. The
naked skin round the eye and the legs are bright coral red, the latter being some-
times armed with no less than four pairs of spurs. The female is mostly brown,
lighter on the upper parts, and reddish below, while the back of the head and nape
are slaty gray. Found at elevations ranging from ten thousand to fourteen
thousand feet, these birds are abundant in many of the valleys among forests of
pine and juniper. They seldom or never crow, but emit a weak, cackling noise.
When put up, they take a short flight, and then run to shelter. During September
flocks of ten to fifteen may be seen, males and females in almost equal proportions,
and in December packs of seventy to one hundred birds collect.

The tragopans or horned pheasants, so often misnamed Argus

pheasants, include five large and magnificent species, unsurpassed for

beauty and the harmony of their tints by any other members of the group. The

males are provided with a pair of erectile, fleshy, blue horns inserted on each side

of the crown above the eyes, and during the breeding season the throat is covered

THE TRAGOPANS

2185

with a brightly -colored lappet, hanging down several inches when the birds are
excited by passion, but barely visible during the winter. Their habitat includes
the higher wooded ranges of Northern India and China. By far the most
brilliantly-colored species is the crimson tragopan (Tragopan satyra) ranging in
the Himalayas from Kumaon to Bhutan. The male has the top and sides of the
head black, the neck, mantle, and under parts orange carmine, and the rest of the
upper parts olive brown, each feather being ornamented at the tip with a round

CRIMSON TRAGOPAN.
(One-fifth natural size.)

white spot, partially or entirely margined with black, the outer wing coverts being
edged on each side with dark orange carmine. The throat wattle is salmon color
with transverse blue bars, and the legs are pale flesh. The general color of the
female is black above, mottled and spotted with various shades of buff, the chin and
throat being whitish, and the under parts sandy finely marked with black and pale
buff or whitish shaft spots. !' These birds," writes Mr. Hume, in summer, "are to
be found at elevations of from eight thousand to ten thousand feet, always in thick

2 1 86 THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

cover, by preference in patches of the slender reed-like ringal bamboo, in the neigh-
borhood of water. Although always on hills near to, or bordering on the snow,
they are never seen among it, and seem to shun it as much as the blood pheasant
delights in it." Beavan remarks that " the winter months, when the underwood is
not so dense as at other seasons, are the only period of the year at which even na-
tives can get at them. The usual plan of capture is by making a hedge of bushes
about three feet high, extending down the sides of a hill like the sides of a triangle
with the base open. The sides are made to gradually converge until near the apex,
where small gaps are left, in each of which a noose is placed. The birds are then
slowly driven by men on foot walking in line. ... A curious fact with regard
to this mode of capture is, that the proportion of males to females is generally four
or five of the former to one of the latter." The nuptial dances of this bird are
described by Bartlett, who writes that the " males can only be seen to advantage in
the early morning and in the evening, as they conceal themselves during the day;
the females, however, are less retiring in their habits. When the male is not ex-
cited, the horns lie concealed under two triangular patches of red feathers, their
points meeting on the occiput; the large wattle is also concealed or displayed at the
will of the bird. The male has three distinct modes of showing off. After walking
about rather excitedly, he places himself in front of the female, with the body
slightly crouching upon the legs, and the tail bent downward; the head is then
violently jerked downward, and the horns and wattle become conspicuous. The
wings have a flapping motion, and the bright red patch on them is fully displayed.
The whole of the neck appears to be larger than usual during this action, so do also
the horns, which, moreover, vibrate with every motion. This scene is concluded
by the bird suddenly drawing himself up to his full height, with his wings expanded
and quivering, the horns erect, and the wattle fully displayed. The second mode
consists of simply erecting all his feathers, and elevating one shoulder, thereby ex-
posing a greater surface to view, without, however, showing his headdress. The
third mode is by simply standing boldly erect on an elevated perch, giving the head
one or two sudden shakes, and causing the horns and wattle to appear for a few
moments. ' '

Quite unsurpassed among the pheasant tribe for splendor of plum-
age, the four species of monal are characterized by the males having
most of the upper parts glittering with metallic colors, and the head, except in
Sclater's monal (Lophophorus sclateri) , adorned with an elongate crest of racquet-
shaped plumes. In place of the crest in the latter species, the crown is covered with
beautifully-curled feathers. The haunts of these birds are practically the same as
those of the tragopans, that is to say, the highest forest regions of the Himalayas
and other Asiatic mountains, vegetation and considerable altitude being essentials to
their existence. The male Himalayan monal (L. resplendens} has the crest and
head metallic green shot with blue and purple, the back and sides of the neck purple
shading into reddish copper and glossed with golden green, the mantle and upper
tail coverts shining golden green, the outer wing coverts bluish green, the inner
feathers, scapulars, and rump bronzy crimson in some lights, and purple edged with
bluish green in others, the lower back snow white, the tail pale chestnut, and the

THE MONALS 2187

under parts black slightly glossed with green on the throat. The female has a much
more sombre plumage, the general color of the upper parts, chest, and sides of the
breast being black, with a buff centre to each feather, the lower back and upper tail
coverts irregularly barred with the same colors, the sides of the head reddish buff
mottled with black, the chin and throat white, and the rest of the under parts mot-
tled with black and buff, and with more or less distinct white shaft stripes. The
tail is black, barred with rufous and tipped with white. This species ranges through
the forests of the Himalayas from Afghanistan to Bhutan. Mr. Hume says " there
are few sights more striking where birds are concerned, than that of a grand old
cock shooting out horizontally from the hillside just. below one, glittering and flash-
ing in the golden sunlight, a gigantic rainbow-tinted gem, and then dropping stone-
like, with closed wings, into the abyss below." And Wilson writes that " the monal
is found on almost every hill of any elevation from the first great ridge above the
plains to the limits of forest, and in the interior it is the most abundant of our game
birds. ... In summer, when the rank vegetation which springs up in the
forest renders it impossible to see many yards around, few are to be met with ex-
cept near the summits of the great ridges jutting from the snow, where morning and
evening, when they come out to feed, they may be seen in the open glades of the
forest and on the green slopes above. At that time no one would imagine they were
half so numerous as they really are, but as the cold season approaches, and the
rank grass and herbage die away, they begin to collect, the woods seem full of
them, and in some places hundreds may be put up in a day's walk. ... In
autumn they all descend into the forest, frequenting those parts where the ground
is thickly covered with decayed leaves, under which they search for grubs, and they
descend lower as winter sets in and the ground becomes frozen or covered with
snow. . . . Still, in the severest weather, when fall after fall has covered the
ground to a great depth in the higher forests, many remain there the whole winter;
these are almost all males, and probably old birds. In spring all in the lower parts
gradually ascend as the snow disappears. ... In summer they are more sepa-
rated, but do not keep in individual pairs, several being often found together.. It
may be questioned whether they do pair or not in places where they are at all nu-
merous; if they do, it would appear that the union is dissolved as soon as the female
begins to sit, for the male seems to pay no attention whatever to her while sitting,
or to the young brood when hatched, and is seldom found with them. The call of
the monal is a loud, plaintive whistle, which is often heard in the forest at daybreak
or toward evening, and occasionally at all hours of the day." The eggs are placed
in a depression in the ground scratched by the female under some sheltering rock or
massive root, and are usually four or five in number, and dull white speckled with
red. In Chamba a second species is found lacking the white lower back of the com-
mon monal, and having the breast and under parts glossed with green. While the
male is represented by only very few skins, the female is still unknown. In the
mountains of Northeastern Tibet and Western China the equally brilliant and even
larger bird L. V huy sii occurs, the male being recognized by his black tail glossed
with bluish green and spotted with white. Lastly, the splendid Sclater's monal,
already mentioned, inhabits the Mishmi hills in Assam, and has, in addition to its

2 1 88 THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

peculiarly-feathered head, the whole of the lower back, rump, and upper tail coverts
white, and a white band across the chestnut tail.

The crestless firebacked pheasants from the Malayan region are

about the size of bantam hens, and further resemble these birds in the
Pheasants

shape of their rather short and vaulted tails. In two species (Acomus
erythrophthalmus and A. pyronotus) the males have the lower back and rump fiery
bronze red, while the females are entirely black, glossed with purplish or steel blue,
and armed with spurs like the male; but in the third, from Western Sumatra, the
male has the plumage entirely black, and thus closely resembles the females of the
other species. Closely allied to the above are the crested firebacked pheasants, in-
habiting the same countries, but ranging farther north into Tenasserim, the Shan
States, and Cochin-China. The males are adorned with a full, erect crest, com-
posed of bare-shafted feathers, supporting a bunch of plumes at the extremity, the
sides of the head are naked and covered with large wattles, and the tail is long and
shaped somewhat like that of the jungle fowl. The male of Vieillot's fireback (Lop-
hurarufa) is further characterized by having the neck, mantle, and breast purplish
blue, the lower back and rump bronze red, and the middle tail feathers white. All
the rest of the under parts are black, the feathers of the sides and flanks with white
shaft stripes, the naked facial skin and wattles bright blue, the legs and feet ver-
milion, and the strong spurs whitish. The female has the crest less developed, and
the general color of the plumage chestnut, the throat white, the feathers of the neck
and chest margined with white on the sides, the breast and sides of the belly black,
mottled with chestnut and edged with white, and the rest of the under parts white,
mottled with black. The soft parts are like those of the male, but paler, and there
are no spurs on the legs.

One of the most splendid of the group is Bulwer's pheasant (Lobio-

phasis bulweri*} of North Borneo, in which the male has no less than
Pheasant r

thirty-two tail feathers, and the female two pairs less. In the adult

male the neck and chest are deep crimson, the rest of the plumage mostly black,
each feather being edged with steel blue at the extremity, and the long, curved tail
pure white. The head is almost entirely naked, having only a few feathers down
the middle of the crown, and ornamented with three pairs of elongate wattles, all
being bright blue, while the legs, feet, and spurs are red.

The five species of eared pheasants, from Central and Eastern Asia,

afp are birds of large size, their loose hairy plumage making them look

even larger than they really are. In all except Crossoptilum leucurum,

in which the male appears to have more white in the tail than the female, the

plumage of the sexes is alike, although the females lack the blunt spurs of the

males. The top of the head is clothed with soft, curly feathers, the sides of the

face being naked and covered with warts, while the ear coverts are produced into

long white tufts on each side of the head. The tail is long, full, and rounded, the

number of feathers varying from twenty to twenty-four in the different species, and

the extremities of the middle pairs being much curved, with the webs long and free.

In Hodgson's eared pheasant (C. tibetanum} of Tibet and Western China, the

whole of the plumage is white, with the exception of the black top of the head, the

THE PHEASANTS

2189

dark brown quills, and the tail feathers which are purplish bronze toward the base,
shading into dark greenish blue and deep purple toward the extremities. The
naked sides of the face are scarlet, and the legs coral red. The Manchurian
eared pheasant (C. manchuricuni) figured in the illustration is a somewhat
differently-colored bird, the back of the head and neck being black shading into

i—" — .—

MANCHURIAN EARED PHEASANT.

(One-seventh natural size.)

brown on the mantle and wings, and dirty white on the lower back, rump, and up-
per tail coverts; while the chin and throat, as well as the ear tufts, are white, and
the chest is brownish black, gradually becoming lighter on the under parts. The
range of this species includes the mountains of Manchuria and Northern China.
These birds are met with in the pine forests at an elevation of from ten thousand to

2IQO

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

twelve thousand feet. They are gregarious in their habits, and forty or fifty may
sometimes be met with roosting in company on the pine trees. Being remarkably-
hardy birds, they do well in confinement, and soon become exceedingly tame.

On the lower altitudes of the middle ranges of the Himalayas, and

a ^ thence through the Burmo-Chinese countries, we meet with pheasants

Pheasants

approaching the crested forms of the firebacked pheasants. Nearly a

dozen species belong to this group, which includes the kalij and silver pheasants,
as well as the somewhat aberrant Swinhoe's pheasant (Gennceus swinhoei}. All
have a more or less elongated recumbent crest of hairy feathers, the sides of the
head naked, and the long tail laterally compressed and vaulted, with the middle
pair of feathers at least three times the length of the outer ones. The legs of the

male are armed with a pair of
stout spurs, but in the females
these appendages are wanting.
The most western form of the
genus, the white - crested kalij
(G. albocristatus} , inhabits the
Western Himalayas, and Nipal,
the male having the long, hairy
crest white, the general color
of the upper parts black, glossed
with purplish and steel blue, and
margined, especially on the
rump, with white, while the fore
part of the neck is dirty white,
gradually shading into brown
on the under parts. Proceeding
eastward into Nipal, we meet
with a species (G. leucomelanus) ,

differing only in having the crest black, glossed with purple, while still farther
east in Sikkim and Bhutan the darker form (G. melanonotus) has the black crest of
the latter, but the white terminal margins on the feathers of the rump and upper
parts replaced by deep purplish blue. In Bhutan, Assam, and Burma, we find
Horsfield's pheasant, which is the darkest of all, the whole plumage being black,
glossed with purplish, or steel blue, and only the lower back and rump being edged
with white; we may consider this species as representing the ancestral stock
from which all the others have been derived. There are numerous other species,
among which we select the silver pheasant (G. nycthemerus} of Southern China,
noticeable for its white upper plumage, ornamented with dark markings.

Including seven species, these pheasants range through the Hima-
^rom Afghanistan to Tibet and Manchuria. They may all be
recognized by the long crest of the cocks, and by the feathers above
the ears being elongated to form tufts surpassing the crest in length. The sides
of the head are feathered, and there is no marked naked space surrounding the eye;
the tail is elongated and wedge shaped, and the upper tail coverts are long, extend-

PHEASANT.

Koklass

Pheasants

THE PHEASANTS

ing more than half way toward the extremity. In the typical koklass (Pncrasia
macrolopha] of the Western Himalayas, the male has the crest bright buff, a large,
snow-white patch on each side of the neck, and the rest of the head, including the
long feathers above the ears and the throat black, glossed with dark green, the
upper parts, sides, and flanks being gray, with black middles to the feathers,
the wing coverts similarly marked, but browner, and tinged with rufous, and the
middle of the breast and under parts dark chestnut. The middle tail feathers are

SILVER PHEASANT.
( One-fifth natural size. )

mostly chestnut, the outer pair black shading into reddish brown toward the base,
and tipped with white, while the bill is black, and the legs and feet are gray or
purplish, and armed with a pair of spurs. The female has a much shorter crest,
and no ear tufts, the plumage being black, variously marked with sandy rufous
and buff, the throat and under parts white, the latter being marked with black,
and the under tail coverts chestnut, tipped with white. Of this species Mr. Wilson
remarks that it is " common to the whole of the wooded regions from an elevation
of four thousand feet to nearly the extreme limits of forest, but is most abundant in
the lower and intermediate ranges. The koklass is of a rather retired and solitary
disposition. It is generally found singly or in pairs; and, except the brood of

2192 THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

young birds, which keep pretty well collected till near the end of the winter, they
seldom congregate much together." Unlike the great majority of their kind, these
birds do not separate after the business of incubation is over, and probably pair for
life, since at whatever season one is found, its mate is sure to be met with some-
where near. Their flight is extremely rapid, more so than that of any other Hima-
layan pheasant, and when they dart down the side of the mountains it requires an
experienced shot to stop them. The nest is placed at the root of a tree, or under
some overhanging tuft of grass, and contains from five to nine eggs, resembling
those of the monal in color.

Before mentioning the true pheasants, it may be observed that the
Up well-known chir pheasant ( Catreus wallichi ) , from the middle ranges

of the Himalayas, alone represents an allied genus. Resembling in
general form and the shape of the tail the true pheasants, it lacks the bright metallic
plumage of those birds, while the wing is of the monal type, with the first primary
shorter than the tenth, the head being adorned with a full large crest, most
developed in the males. Inhabitants of low-lying wooded valleys, and including
about a couple of dozen of gorgeously -colored species and varieties, the true
pheasants range from Southeastern Europe across Central Asia to Japan and
Formosa. As already pointed out, the wing in all these birds is partridge-like, and
differs from the characteristic monal type, the first flight feather being much longer
than the tenth; but, unlike the partridges, the tail is long and wedge shaped —
much longer than the wing. The sides of the head are naked, and there is no crest;
but the ear tufts are considerably lengthened in the male, and the legs are armed
with a pair of sharp spurs. The home of the common pheasant (Phasianus colchi-
cus} is Southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, although the bird has for many cen-
turies been established in Great Britain and various parts of the Continent to the
west of its original habitat. The male has the top of the head bronze green, and
the rest of the head and neck dark green, shading into purple on the sides and front
of the latter; the mantle, chest, breast, and flanks are fiery orange red with a pur-
plish green margin to each feather, the middle of the back and scapulars mottled
and beautifully patterned with buff, black, and orange red, the lower back and tail
coverts red, glossed with purplish lake, and the wing coverts sandy brown. The
middle of the breast and sides of the under parts are glossed with dark purplish
green, the rest of the under parts being brown mixed with rufous; the tail feathers
are light olive green, the middle pair being barred along the middle with black;
the naked skin on the sides of the face is scarlet vermilion, and the legs and feet
are brownish horn color. The female is mostly sandy brown, marked and barred
with black and buff, shading into chestnut on the mantle and sides of the breast.

The majority of the species allied to the common pheasant may be divided
into two groups, namely, those inhabiting that part of Central Asia west of the
meridian of Calcutta, which have the rump and upper tail coverts maroon or rufous,
sometimes glossed with green ; while in all the forms found to the eastward of that
line these parts are greenish or bluish slate color. In the most westerly forms of
the first group, such as the common pheasant and the nearly-allied Persian pheasant
(/*. persiciis), which differs in having the wing coverts white, and inhabits the

THE PHEASANTS

2193

valleys to the southeast of the Caspian, there is no white ring on the neck, but
as we go eastward we find other species, such as Severtzow's pheasant (P.
chrysomelas) , from the Amu-Daria, and Shaw's pheasant, from Yarkand and Kash-
gar, in which the white ring, though absent in the typical examples, is in many
individuals distinct or represented by a few white feathers. Farther north along
the valley of the Sir Daria and ranging east through Turkestan to the valley of the

A BOUQUET OF COMMON PHEASANTS.

(One-fifth natural size.)

Black Irtish, we find the Mongolian pheasant (P. mongolicus), and still farther east-
ward, in Dzungaria, the allied P. semitorquatus ', in both of which a wide and nearly
complete white collar is present. In the eastern forms with the slate-colored rump
a very similar arrangement occurs, the western and more southern species having
little or no trace of a white ring, but in the Chinese pheasant (figured on p. 2174),
ranging from the Amur, Manchuria, and Eastern Mongolia, through Eastern
138

2194 THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

China, and its ally, P. satscheunensis , from the north of the Nan-Shan mountains,
as well as in the Formosan pheasant (/*. formosanus), the white ring is well de-
veloped. It will thus be seen that the more northern species of both the rufous and
gray-rumped groups have a white collar, while in the more southern species of both
this is absent, or at best ill-defined. Since it cannot be considered that the individuals
with traces of the collar found among the southern species are the results of inter-
breeding with the northern ringed species, when their ranges are separated by chains
of mountains, we must conclude that the original stock were probably of northern
origin, and, like those still inhabiting the higher latitudes, possessed a white ring;
that as the species spread gradually southward this characteristic, from some cause
or other, has been lost, but that numerous individuals still show traces of a reversion
to the ancestral type. Of the aberrant species we may note the Japanese pheasant
(P. versicolor), with the under parts uniform metallic green, Elliot's pheasant {P.
ellioti}, from the mountains of Southeastern China, and Hume's pheasant {P.
hume&}, from Upper Burma and the Shan hills. In the two latter the lower
back is black barred with white, and there are only sixteen instead of the normal
eighteen tail feathers. Still more different are Soemmerring's pheasant (P. soem-
merringi), from Japan, which has the plumage chestnut shot with purplish carmine
and fiery gold, and Reeves' s pheasant (P. reevesi), from North China, with its white
crown, black collar, tawny plumage, and a tail fully five feet in length in the oldest
males. All the members of the genus are polygamous, each cock pairing with
several hens.

Undoubtedly the most gorgeously-adorned members of the whole
. , , pheasant family are found in the genus which includes the golden
Pheasants an^ Amherst's pheasants (Chrysolophus pictus and C. amherstice), of
the mountains of Eastern Tibet and Western and Southern China.
The characteristics distinguishing the males are the long, full crest of hairy feath-
ers and the cape-like mass of feathers covering the back of the head and neck, as
well as the long tail and its greatly-lengthened upper coverts. The male of the
species figured, although possessing fewer brilliant colors than the golden pheasant,
has the colors purer and more harmonious. The top of the head, mantle, scapulars,
and chest are dark bronze green, the long crest blood red, the feathers forming the
cape pure white, margined and barred across the middle with black glossed with
steel blue, the lower back and rump widely tipped with yellowish buff barred with
dark green, and the long upper tail coverts white, irregularly barred with black and
widely tipped with orange scarlet. The wings and under tail coverts are mostly
black, with dark purplish green reflections, the long middle tail feathers with
arched bars and wavy lines of black, the throat and fore part of the neck brownish
black, slightly glossed with green, and the rest of the under parts pure white,
barred on the flanks with black. Unlike the golden pheasant, both sexes have a
patch of naked blue skin surrounding the eye; but the female has none of the bril-
liant plumage of the male, the general color of the upper parts being rufous and
buff, marked and barred, especially on the wings and middle tail feathers with dark
brown, the outer tail feathers being chestnut mixed with black and barred and
tipped with white, and the breast and under parts mostly pale buff, barred on the

At-

THE PHEASANTS

2195

breast and sides with dark brown. This species has been imported from Western
China and Eastern Tibet to Europe, where, being of a hardy nature, it thrives in
aviaries.

The game fowls inhabit the jungles of the Indo-Malayan countries
and many of the adjacent islands; the males differing from the other
birds of this group in having a high fleshy comb extending along the middle of the

Game Fowls

COCK AND HEN OF AMHERST'S PHEASANT.

(One-fourth natural size.)

head from the base of the bill, and the sides of the face, chin, and throat naked,
and provided with one or two more wattles. The red jungle fowl (Gallus banciva},
with its serrated comb and double-wattled throat, closely resembles its domestic
descendant the game cock in the colors of its plumage, and is a common denizen of
the well-watered jungle country of the lower ranges of the Himalayas from Kashmir
to Assam, and parts of Central India, especially in the vicinity of scattered cultiva-

2196 THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

tion. It is also found throughout the Malay Peninsula and eastward to Cochin-
China, Sumatra, Java, and the Philippines. When running or feeding, jungle fowl
droop the tail, but when challenging their rivals, or paying their addresses to their
mates, they carry it erect like the domestic cock. Of all their kind, these birds,
even in a wild state, are the most pugnacious, the males often fighting till one or
other of the combatants is killed. Besides the above, several other species are
known, such as the Ceylon (G. lafayetti), the gray jungle fowl (G. sonnerati}, from
India, which produces the hackles so much in request for making salmon flies, and
the green jungle fowl (G. varius), of Java, L,ombok, and Flores, distinguished by
having an entire upper margin to the comb, and only a single wattle on the throat.
The peacock pheasants present a different type, with their large,

full, and rounded tails ornamented with metallic eye-like spots, the
Pheasants

sides of the face being naked, or nearly so, and the legs of the males

armed with two, and sometimes three pairs of spurs. Having a distribution very
similar to that of the jungle fowl, they only extend into India as far east as Darjil-
ing, and inhabit the dense hill forests ranging from a little above the sea level to an
elevation of some six thousand feet. The gray peacock pheasant (Pofyplectrum
chinquis) of the Indo-Burmese countries, is a remarkably-handsome bird, the male
having the general color of the upper parts brown dotted all over with dirty white,
and each of the feathers of the mantle and wings ornamented with a large, round,
dark green eye spot, showing violet, purple, and blue reflections, and edged with
successive rings of black, brown, and dirty white, the upper tail coverts and tail
feathers being similarly ornamented with pairs of oval spots, situated on each side
of the shaft at some distance from the extremity, and wholly green in one light and
purple in the other. The throat is thinly covered with white feathers, and the rest
of the under parts are brown with irregular, mottled, and dotted bars of dirty
white, the naked skin on the sides of the face being pale fleshy yellow. The
female is darker, and has the eye spot on the back and wings represented by black
spots slightly glossed with purple, while those of the tail are only present on the
outer feathers and are much reduced in size. Mr. Clarke, writing of this species,
says, it "is common in the northeast of Cachar, where it is found in dense bamboo
jungle, on the sides of ravines, and on the tops of low ranges of hills, wherever
there are jamum trees, as well as on the banks of the river Barak, wherever it is
well wooded. On the rocky faces of the Barak banks there is a tree which, during
the rainy season, is partially submerged, but in cold weather bears a fruit with
seeds like those of a chilli. On these the birds feed greedily in the early morning
and toward sunset; insects and worms, with this fruit, form their chief food, but I
have on one occasion found small land shells and pebbles in the stomach of an
adult male. ' '

Among the most singular representatives of the family are the
Lrgph t ar&us pheasants, distinguished by their large size, enormously-
developed and eyed secondary quills, which far exceed the outer
flight feathers in length, and their extremely-long middle tail feathers. The shape
of the wing is specially remarkable, and may be regarded as representing the ex-
treme type of monal wing, the first flight feather being the shortest, and the tenth

THE PHEASANTS

2197

the longest, or exactly the reverse of what obtains in the quail and snow partridge.
The common argus (Argusianus giganteus) is met with in the forests of Siam,

ARGUS PHEASANT DISPLAYING.

Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra, while in Borneo the smaller,
Gray's argus (A. grayi~), takes its place. The male of the true argus has the

2198 THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

naked skin of the sides of the head, throat, and fore part of the neck dark blue, the
feathers on the crown and the short crest black, the upper parts beautifully
chequered, mottled, or spotted with black and buff, the chest rufous barred with
black, and the rest of the under parts black with wavy bars of chestnut and buff.
The primary feathers are ornamented on the outer webs with closely-approximated
rows of black and rufous spots, while on the basal part of the inner web there is a
rufous band minutely dotted with white and margined by a yellow black-barred
line. The outer webs of the enormous secondary quills are adorned with a series of
large eye-like spots, partly white, yellow, and rufous, and surrounded by a black
ring. In total length the bird measures six feet from the bill to the end of the tail.
The female has the general coloration of the male, but lacks the beautiful ornamen-
tal marking, as well as the enormously -developed secondaries and middle tail
feathers. Davison writes that these pheasants are quite solitary, every male hav-
ing "his own ' drawing-room,' of which he is excessively proud, and which he keeps
scrupulously clean. They haunt exclusively the depths of the evergreen forests, and
each male chooses some open level spot — sometimes down in a dark, gloomy ravine,
entirely surrounded and shut in by dense cane brakes and rank vegetation — some-
times on the top of a hill where the jungle is comparatively open — from which he
clears all the dead leaves and weeds for a space of six or eight yards square until
nothing but the bare clean earth remains, and thereafter he keeps this place scrupu-
lously clean, removing carefully every dead leaf or twig that may happen to fall on
it from the trees above. These cleared spaces are undoubtedly used as dancing
grounds, but personally I have never seen a bird dancing in them, but have always
found the proprietor either seated quietly in, or moving backward and forward
slowly about them, calling at short intervals, except in the morning and evening,
when they roam about to feed and drink. The males are always to be found at
home, and roost on some tree close by. ' '

Another allied pheasant is Reinhard's argus (Reinhardius ocellatus),
A " from the mountains in the interior of Tonkin, in which the secondary
quills are not longer than the primaries, though in the male the mid-
dle pair of tail feathers are enormously lengthened, wide at the base, and tapering
to the extremity. The male measures about seven feet from the bill to the end of
the tail.

The gorgeously-colored peafowl differ from all the birds already
Peafowl .. , . , . .

noticed in having the upper tail coverts developed into a long train far

exceeding the tail in length. The common species (Pavo cristatus}, of India, As-
sam, and Ceylon is too familiar to require description, but in the Indo-Chinese
countries, ranging in the north from Chittagong, westward through Siam to Cochin-
China, and south through the Malay Peninsula to Java and possibly Sumatra, there
'occurs the Burmese peafowl (P. muticus}, the male of which is distinguished by
having the crest feathers more elongate and equally webbed on each side of the
shafts, while the wing coverts and scapulars are black. Widely, though locally, dis-
tributed over the whole of India, the common species prefers broken and jungly
ground in the neighborhood of water and cultivation, but does not, as a rule, range
to an elevation of more than four thousand feet, though it has been obtained as high

GUINEA FOWLS

2199

as six thousand. In India
the Hindus regard the pea-
fowl with a superstitious rev-
erence, and object to their
being shot; and in native
Hindu States, the prohibition
being absolute, they are un-
molested either by Europeans
or natives. A variety of the
peafowl has the whole of the
wing coverts, scapulars, and
secondaries brownish black,
glossed with purple and edged
with green, and the thighs
black instead of buff. It
closely resembles hybrids be-
tween the two species already
mentioned, but rises inde-
pendently in flocks of the
common peafowl which have
been pure bred for years.
Possibly it may be a case of
reversion to the ancestral
type, being unknown in a
wild state.

Turning to
Guinea Fowls . c .

Africa we come

to the various species of
guinea fowl, representing
the pheasant tribe in that
continent, but having the
plumage of both sexes alike.
Before passing to the better-
known genera, we may
briefly notice two rare West-
African forms of which
very little is known. Of
these the black guinea fowl
{Phasidus niger), occurring
between Cape Lopez and
Loango, is smaller than the
common guinea fowl, and has
the whole of the plumage
blackish brown, obscurely
penciled with brown. With

PEACOCK.
(One-seventh natural size.)

22OO

the exception of a band of black feathers, from the base of the bill to the occiput,
the head and neck are almost entirely naked, the skin being yellow shading into-
orange on the throat and neck, and the male having the metatarsus armed with a
pair of stout spurs, thereby showing an approach to the pheasants. The turkey
guinea fowl {Agelastes meleag rides), met with further north, from Liberia to the
Gabun, may be recognized by having the whole head and neck naked, the skin of

CRESTED AND COMMON GUINEA

(One-fourth natural size.)

the former being red, darker on the crown and hind-neck, while the lower neck is
milky white, the mantle and chest being white, and the rest of the plumage black
finely mottled with white. Like the last species the male has a pair of short,
stout spurs. The true guinea fowls, including six species with naked heads
covered on the top with a more or less elevated bony helmet, a pair of wattles
at the angles of the gape, and black, white-spotted plumage, are found all over

GUINEA FOWLS

22OI

Africa, except the more northern parts, as well as Madagascar. The common
species (_Numida meleagris} is also a native of West Africa, ranging from Sene-
gambia to the Gabun, and may be distinguished by having a wide vinous-gray
collar covering the upper part of the mantle and chest. The bare skin on the sides
of the face, neck, and chin, as well as the wattles are red, and the rest of the neck
bluish. It is shown
in the right-hand
figure of the pre-
ceding cut. Like
the rest of its kind it
is gregarious, often
collecting in large
flocks, particularly
on the grass-covered
plains bordering the
forest. It is shy and
difficult to approach,
always preferring to
escape by running,
in which respect it
has few equals. The
Abyssinian guinea
fowl (N. ptilorhyn-
cha], which extends
into Equatorial Af-
rica, is peculiar in
having a bunch of
horny bristles at the
base of the upper
mandible. The left-
hand figure of our
illustration on p.
2 200, represents the
crested guinea fowl
( Guttera cristata ) ,
one of four species
belonging to a group
characterized by
having a well-devel-
oped crest of black feathers, the general color of the plumage being black spotted
with pale blue, and the first four or five secondary quills margined with white, thus
producing a white band along the wing when closed. The present species is
further characterized by the uniform black collar covering the upper part of the
chest, and by the naked skin of the head and neck being cobalt blue, except on the
chin and throat, which are red. This is another West- African form, ranging from

VULTURE-UKE GUINEA FOWL PERCHING.

(From Sclater, List of Animals in Zoological Gardens.)

22O2

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

Sierra Leone to the Gold Coast, its habits being very similar to those of the common
guinea fowl. Allied forms of both these genera are found in both Southern and
Eastern Africa, but need no special mention.

The vulture-like guinea fowl (AcrylUum vulturinum) is a native of
Vulture-like Eastern Africa, possibly ranging into West Africa. The head and

upper half of the neck are naked, and covered with cobalt blue skin,
Fowl

with the exception of a horseshoe-shaped band of velvety reddish-
brown feathers round the nape. The feathers of the neck, chest, and mantle are
developed into long, black, pointed hackles, with white shaft stripes and cobalt mar-
gins, the rest of the upper parts being black, minutely dotted all over with white,
and covered with small, round, black-edged spots; the sides and flanks are also

GROUP OF GUINEA FOWL.

similarly marked, but are washed with purple, and the breast and under parts are
cobalt blue, but black down the middle. The tail feathers resemble the upper parts
in their markings, but the middle pair are much elongated and pointed. The male
is similar to the female, but larger, and with four or five wart-like knobs on each
leg.

The last group of the family is a somewhat aberrant one, comprising
the turkeys, all of which are natives of North and Central America,
where three distinct species and two local races are known. The common turkey
(Meleagris gallopavd) comes from the table lands of Northern Mexico and the neigh-
boring States, and is recognized by the broad white tips to the upper tail coverts
and tail; while in the species (M. americana} of the Eastern States these parts are
dark chestnut. The handsomest member of the group is, however, the ocellated
turkey (M. ocellata) of Guatemala, Yucatan, and British Honduras, each of the tail
feathers being ornamented with a greenish-blue eye spot shot with purple, while the
metallic parts of the body feathers are golden or bronze green, and the naked head
and neck blue covered with red warts. Like its allies, the common turkey is polyg-

AMERICAN PARTRIDGES AND QUAILS

2203

amous, the female only attending to the duties of incubation, while the male, in
addition to neglecting such labors, is even reported to destroy the eggs and young
chicks. Mr. Brown, writing of these turkeys, observes, that "I am of the belief
that they raise two broods of young in a season, as I have seen almost all sizes in
the masting season (October), when they congregate in large numbers in the canons
to feed on a small bitter acorn, common to the canons and parks of Southern Arizona
and southward. I have seen their roosting places at night, in sycamore trees; I
also saw one in an oak grove on the side of a hill, but they appear more to favor the
canons. ' '

Distinguished from their Old- World allies by the tooth-like proc-
esses on the edge of the lower mandible, these birds constitute a sepa-
Partndges

and Quails rate subfamily (Odontopkorina) t represented by eleven genera, con-
taining nearly fifty species, the largest form being about the size of the
common partridge, while the
smallest is inferior in size to
the migratory quail. In the
majority of this group the bill
is stout and grouse-like, and
most have a longer or shorter
crest. Of the three large par-
tridges (Pendrortysc) inhabit-
ing Central America, from
Southern Mexico to Costa
Rica, little need be said. They
are rather handsome birds (es-
pecially D. macrurux), with
tails as long as the wing, or
nearly so. The scaled par-
tridges (Callipepla) are easily
recognized by their short
crests, and gray and black
margined plumage, producing
a beautiful scaled appearance.
They are met with in the
Southwestern United States
and Mexico. Specially attrac-
tive is the mountain partridge

(Oreortyx pictus] from the Western States of North America, with the crest com-
posed of two very long black feathers, the head, neck, mantle, and breast being
gray, the rest of the upper parts olive brown, the throat and fore part of the
neck deep chestnut margined with white, and the sides and flanks similarly
colored, but irregularly barred with black and white. One of the handsomest
and most familiar members of the group is the Californian quail (Lophortyx
calif ornicus) , often seen in aviaries, and at once distinguished by its conspicuous
crest of black club-shaped feathers. In the cock the forehead is buff, the rest of the

COMMON TURKEY.

2204

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

head and the throat black, edged with a white band, the neck, mantle, and chest
being gray, and having each feather margined with black and spotted with white,
while the rest of the upper parts are grayish olive brown, and the under parts buff,
barred with black and shading into chestnut. The female has the crest shorter and
browner, and the feathers of the head and neck are mostly dirty white, with dark

middles. This bird, which in-
habits the extreme Western States,
from Washington to California,
ranging inland to Nevada, has been
introduced into various parts of
the world. A rather peculiar
form is the South-Mexican barred
quail (Philortyx fasciatus) which
has the greater part of both upper
and under parts barred. Central
and Northern South America are
the home of the seven species of
crested quails {Eupsychortyx} , dif-
fering from all those mentioned in
having the tail shorter, as well as
in their smaller size. Closely
allied, but lacking the crest, is the
genus Ortyx, including such well-
known forms as the Virginian
quail ( O. mrginianus) , or " Bob-
white," as it is called in the
States, and several other species,
with the greater portion of the
under parts uniform chestnut or
brick red, and inhabiting the
Southwestern States and Mexico.
Three striking and peculiarly-
marked species of quail constitute
CAIJFORNIAN QUAII,. Cyrtonyx ', inhabiting the South-

western United States, Mexico,

and Central America; the males being distinguished by their full crest, black and
white patterned head, and eyed under parts.

MEGAPODES AND BRUSH TURKEYS
Family MEGAPODIID^

We now come to the second section of the order, containing two families char-
acterized by having the first toe on the same level as the others. The members of

MEGAPODES AND BRUSH TURKEYS

2205

Megapodes

the present family are chiefly remarkable on account of their nesting

habits, their eggs being deposited in the sand or in a mound raised by
one or more pairs of birds, and incubated by the heat caused by the fermentation of
the decaying vegetable matter and the warmth of the sun. The young are hatched
fully feathered, and able to fly almost from birth. The legs and feet of all these
"birds are remarkably strong and stout, and thus well suited for scratching up the
earth and preparing their nesting mounds. The true megapodes include fifteen dif-
ferent species, widely scattered over the islands of the Pacific and Australia, one
{Megapodius cumingi) ranging to the Philippines, another (M. laperousii) being
found in the Ladrone and Peiew islands, while an isolated western form occurs in
the Nicobars. The plumage is remarkably sombre, being generally olive brown or
rufous above and gray beneath. The Nicobar megapode (TV. nicobariensis) during
the day frequents the dense jungle near the coast, and may be met with in pairs or
in flocks of thirty or more. It
is a difficult bird to flush,
usually preferring to escape by
running. The nesting mounds
are generally placed near the
shore, and average about five
feet in height and thirty in
circumference. Davison met
with one ' ' which must have
been at least eight feet high
and quite sixty feet in circum-
ference. It was apparently a
very old one, for from near its
centre grew a tree about six
inches in diameter, whose roots
penetrated the mound in all
directions to within a foot of
its summit, some of them being
nearly as thick as a man's wrist,
level of the surrounding land,

BLACK-THROATED CRESTED QUAII,.

I had this mound dug away almost to the
but only got three eggs from it, one quite
fresh, and two in which the chicks were somewhat developed. Off this mound
I shot a megapode, which had evidently only just laid an egg. I dissected
it, and from a careful examination it would seem that the eggs are laid at long inter-
vals apart, for the largest egg in the ovary was only about the size of a large pea,
and the next in size about as big as a small pea. These mounds are also used by
reptiles, for out of one I dug, besides the megapode' s eggs, about a dozen eggs of
some large lizard. I made inquiries among the natives about these birds, and from
them I learned that they usually get four or five eggs from a mound, but some-
times they get as many as ten; they all assert that only one pair of birds are con-
cerned in the making of a mound, and that they only work at night. When newly
made, the mounds (so I was informed) are small, but are gradually enlarged by the
birds,"

22O6

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

An exceptionally-marked species, Wallace's megapode (Eulipoa wallacei), from
Gilolo and some of the islands to the west of New Guinea, is characterized by
having the secondary flight feathers much shorter than the primaries, and the

AUSTRALIAN BRUSH TURKEYS.

(One- fourth natural size.)

feathers of the middle of the back and most of the wing coverts barred with bright
chestnut. Still larger is the ocellated megapode (Lipoa ocellata) of Southern and
Western Australia, distinguished by having the upper tail coverts reaching to the

MEGAPODES AND BRUSH TURKEYS 2207

end of the tail, and the plumage of the upper parts mostly gray barred with
black.

The brush turkeys ( Talegallus) include three or four species of large,
s dark-colored birds, with stout bills, oval nostrils, and the head,
throat, and front of the neck thinly covered with small scattered feathers; the genus
being confined to New Guinea and some of the adjacent islands. The Australian
brush turkey {Catheturuslathamt) , shown in the cut, differs in having a large
wattle at the base of the neck, the nostrils round, and the tail much longer. In
both sexes the general color of the upper parts is dark brownish black, paler on the
lower back and rump, the under parts being dark brownish gray, broadly edged
with white, the naked skin of the head and neck pinky red, and the wattle bright
yellow, Gould observes that "at the commencement of spring the wattled tale-
gallus scratches together an immense heap of decaying vegetable matter as a
depository for the eggs, and trusts to the heat engendered by the process of
fermentation for the development of the young. The heap employed for this
purpose is collected by the birds during several weeks previous to the period of
laying; it varies in size from two or many cartloads, and in most instances is of a
pyramidal form. . . . The materials composing these mounds are accumulated by
the bird grasping a quantity in its foot and throwing it backward to a common
centre, the surface of the ground for a considerable distance being so completely
scratched over that scarcely a leaf or a blade of grass is left. The eggs are
deposited in a circle at the distance of nine or twelve inches from each other, and
buried more than an arm's depth with the large end upward."

Another genus (sEpypodius} from New Guinea and Waigiou is characterized
by a fleshy crest running from the base of the bill to the crown, a pendulous wattle
at the base of the fore-neck, and the chestnut upper tail coverts.

The last genus of the family contains only the maleo (Mega-
cephalum maleo}, of North Celebes and the Sanghir islands, which is
the most remarkable of the group, both in its structure and habits. In both sexes
the head is naked, the crown being covered with a large black casque, while the
plumage of the upper parts, chest, flanks, thighs, and under tail coverts is dark
brown, and that of the breast and belly beautiful salmon pink. These birds do
not raise mounds in which to lay their eggs, but deposit the latter in holes dug in
the sand. Mr. Wallace describes one of their laying grounds as follows: "The
place is situated in the large bay between the islands of Limbe" and Banca, and con-
sists of a steep beach more than a mile in length of deep, loose, and coarse black
volcanic sand, or rather gravel — very fatiguing to walk over. . . . It is in
this loose, hot, black sand, that those singular birds, the 'maleos,' deposit their
eggs. In the months of August and September when there is little or no rain, they
come down in pairs from the interior to this, or to one or two other favorite spots,
and scratch holes three or four feet deep, just above high-water mark, where the
female deposits a single large egg, which she covers over with about a foot of sand,
and then returns to the forest. . At the end of ten or twelve days she comes again
to the same spot to lay another egg, and each female bird is supposed to lay six or
eight eggs during the season. The male assists the female in making the hole,

2208

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

coming down and returning with her. The appearance of the bird, when walking
on the beach, is very handsome. They run quickly, but when shot at, or suddenly
disturbed, take wing with a heavy, noisy flight, to some neighboring tree, where
they settle on a low branch, and they probably rest at night in a similar situation.
Many birds lay in the same hole, for a dozen eggs are often found together, and

CELEBEAN MAI.EO.
(One-fifth natural size.)

these are so large that it is not possible for the body of the bird to contain more
than one fully-developed egg at the same time. In all the female birds which I
shot, none of the eggs besides the large one exceeded the size of peas, and there were
only eight or nine of these which is probably the extreme number a bird can lay in
one season. ' '

THE CURASSOWS AND GUANS
Family CRA CID^E

The second family of the game birds with the first toe on the same level as the
others contains a number of large Central- and South- American birds, some of

THE CURASSOWS AND GUANS

2209

which, such as the curassows, are nearly as large as turkeys, while others, like cer-
tain guans of the genus Ortalis, are considerably smaller than the common pheas-
ant. All the species have a long and well-developed tail, and in the males the
windpipe is long and convoluted, and, as one would expect, their cry is very loud
and harsh. They differ from the megapodes, not only in their osteological

CRESTED CURASSOWS.
(One-fifth natural size. )

Structure, but also in having a tuft of feathers on the oil gland. Moreover, their
nesting habits are different, the eggs being incubated by the parent in the ordinary
manner, though some of the species habitually nest in trees, and la}'' white eggs.
"When first hatched, the young are covered with a patterned down, like the chicks
139

22io THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

of other game birds. These birds are arboreal in their habits, the greater part of
their time being spent among the highest forest trees. The different genera may be
conveniently grouped into two sections, the first four having the upper mandible

higher than broad, while in the remaining seven it is broader than

high. The true curassows differ from the allied forms in their large
size, and also by having the feathers on the top of the head semi-erect and curled
at the extremities; in the males the crest being uniformly black, while in the
females it is more or less barred with white. The males are all much alike, the
whole plumage being black glossed with purple or dark green, except on the
under parts, flanks, and under tail coverts, which are white; in two species the tail
feathers being also tipped with the same color. The plumage of the females, on
the other hand, varies much in the different species, in the crested curassow closely
resembling that of the male, while in the remainder the upper parts are variously
barred with black, white, rufous, and buff. It will thus be apparent that the dis-
tinctive specific characters are, as a rule, much more marked in the females than in
the males. The crested curassow (Crax aledor) has the plumage of both sexes
very similar, but the female, shown in the foreground of the cut, has the crest
barred with white. This bird is a native of the forests of British Guiana and
Northern Brazil, extending into Colombia. Distinguished by the purple gloss on
the upper parts, and the absence of a swollen knob at the base of the upper, and of
a wattle on the base of the lower mandible of the male, it has the cere and base of
the bill yellow, and the extremity horny blue, while the legs and feet are horn
colored. Being easily tamed, and affording excellent food, these birds are often do-
mesticated.

Passing over the smaller rufous-colored urumutu (Nothocrax urumu-

tum), from British Guiana and the Upper Amazons, distinguished by
its crest of recumbent feathers, and the naked space in front of the eye, we come to
the three species of mituas, which are as large as the curassows, with the greater
part of the plumage black in both sexes. In two species the under parts and under
tail coverts are chestnut, the first having the tail feathers tipped with white and the
second with chestnut, while in the third all these parts are white. All three may
be distinguished from the curassows by their elevated and vaulted upper mandible
and the want of curling of the crest feathers.

The last genus contains only the curious pauxi curassow (Pauxis
^Curassow Pauxi} of tne northwestern parts of South America, remarkable for

the large, fig-shaped blue casque on the forehead. The male has the
entire plumage black, except the under parts, under tail coverts, and the tips of the
tail feathers, which are white, in the female the back, wings, and breast being chest-
nut, paler on the flanks, and barred and mottled with black.

To the second group, with the width of the bill at the base greater
n than the height, belongs the rare Derbian guan (Oreophasis der-
bianus) , from the wooded slopes of the Volcan de Fuego in Guatemala. The char-
acteristic features of this bird are the elevated, straight, deep scarlet horn on the
top of the head between the eyes, and the densely-feathered base of the upper
mandible. In both sexes the general color of the head and upper parts is black

THE HOATZIN

2211

glossed with dark green, the base of the throat being almost naked, the front of
the neck and breast white shading into buff on the sides, with dark shaft stripes
to the feathers, and the remainder of the under parts brownish black, while there is
a wide white band across the middle of the tail.

A more numerous group is that of the guans (Penelope) , including
fifteen species from Central and South America. In all these the chin
and throat are generally naked, with a wattle, and there is a large naked space sur-
rounding the eye. An allied form (Penelopina nigra), with the plumage of the
sexes different, occurs in the highlands of Guatemala, the male being entirely black
glossed with green, and the female rufous above barred with black, and beneath
sandy mottled with dark brown. The habits of all these birds appear to be very
similar; during the breeding season they are only found in pairs, while at other
times they congregate in large flocks, always frequenting the forest, and passing
the greater part of their time in the largest trees, when not engaged in searching for
fallen fruits and insects. In the
next genus (Ortalis), including
seventeen Central- and South-
American forms, the throat is
naked as in the two last, but there
is a thin band of stiff-shafted
feathers down the middle. The
only member of the family which
enters North America is the
chachalaca (O. vetula}, which has
a wide range, extending from
Southern Texas through Eastern
Mexico and Central America to
Colombia; and, as might be ex-
pected, the bird varies somewhat
in the different parts of its range. DERBIAN GUAN.

The aburria (Aburria aburri) in-
cludes but a single species found in the United States of Colombia and Ecuador,
and may be at once recognized by its black plumage glossed with dark green, and
the worm-like wattle situated on the naked part of the fore-neck. Finally, there
are two species with the chin, throat, and fore part of the neck covered with feathers
comprising the last genus (Chamcepetes).

THE HOATZIN
Family OP IS THO c OMIDsE

The very remarkable pheasant-like bird from the northern and western districts
of South America, known as the hoatzin (Opisthoconms hoatzhi), appears on the
whole to be most nearly allied to the game birds, and may therefore be mentioned

2212 THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

here. Many ornithologists regard it, indeed, as representing a distinct order, but
as the editor does not see the advantage of unnecessarily multiplying ordinal terms,
it is alluded to here merely as forming a family. On examining the skeleton of this
bird, which has many striking peculiarities, the observer will be struck by the form
of the breastbone, with its nearly-parallel lateral edges and feebly -developed keel, of
which the anterior part is cut away, and the posterior portion broad and flattened
out. On this flattened surface the greater part of the weight of the body is sup-
ported when the bird is at rest. Another striking feature is the shoulder girdle,
the bones of which are completely welded to one another as well as to the breast-
bone. The crop is enormous, and occupies the upper portion of the chest, being
placed in a deep cavity in the pectoral muscles. The nest of these birds, which is
built of sticks and placed in bushes near the water's edge, contains two or three,
and sometimes as many as five oval-shaped eggs of a white color, doubly spotted with
rufous and purple, and remarkably rail-like in character. Unusual interest attaches
to the young, which are hatched naked, with the thumb and index finger provided
with well-developed claws, enabling them to climb about among the branches soon
after they are hatched; the bill, as well as the legs and wings, being used for hold-
ing on to the twigs. Moreover, when compelled, they are able to swim and dive
with equal facility. The hoatzin spends its existence among the branches, consum-
ing enormous quantities of leaves, and in spite of its large wings, possesses only the
most limited powers of flight.

THE BUSTARD QUAILS OR HEMTPODES
Family

The little bustard quails, usually included among the game birds, and associated
with the quails, are, however, so extremely distinct that they are frequently regarded
as forming an order equal in importance though not in numbers to the Gallinse.
While in some respects they approach both the pigeons and game birds, their affinities
with the rails are undoubted, and we prefer, therefore, to leave their serial position
open. Like the sand grouse and rails, they lay double-spotted eggs, quite different
from those laid by any of the true game birds; but the young are similarly covered
with down, and able to run soon after they are hatched. Among the most singular
features of this group it may be noticed that the females are always larger and more
brightly colored than the males; while the latter undertake all the cares of incubat-
ing the eggs and tending the young. In the typical genus ( Turnix] , which con-
tains all the forms but one, the first toe is entirely absent, but in the Australian
collared hemipode (Pedionomus torquatus) a small first toe is present. The twenty-
one members of the typical genus are distributed over Africa, Madagascar, and
Arabia, and also range through the Indo-Malayan countries to Australia; while one
species, the Andalusian hemipode ( T. sylvatica) , inhabits South Europe. No less than
four of these species are found in India, and as their habits have been more studied
there than elsewhere, we may take the Indian bustard quail ( T. taigur) as typical

THE RAIL TRIBE 2213

of the group. This bird, besides being found all over India, has a wide range
throughout Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Siam, and South China to Formosa and
the Liukiu islands. As might be expected, the plumage of a so widely-spread
species shows considerable climatic variation, examples from the dry plains ot
India having the prevailing color of the upper parts rufous; whereas in specimens
from the Malay Peninsula, with its heavy rainfall, the general tone is grayish
brown. In both sexes the upper parts are barred and marked with black, many of
the feathers being margined on the sides with whitish buff; while the chest and
breast are buff barred with black, and the under parts rusty buff. The female,
besides being much larger, has the middle of the throat and chest deep black, while
in the male these parts are white with narrow black bars. Mr. Hume writes that
" scrub jungle, intermixed with patches of moderately-high grass on dry ground, is
perhaps its natural home; but it may be met with anywhere in low bush jungle and
on the skirts of forests, and in inhabited districts greatly affects gardens, grass pre-
serves, and similar inclosures. It strays into stubbles and low crops in the morn-
ings and evenings, even remaining in these at times throughout the day, but more
generally retreating during the hotter noontide hours to the cover of some thorny
bush or patch of grass upon the margins. ' '

This distinct order includes but two families, namely, the rails, to which the
great bulk of the species belong, and the finfeet including only a few peculiar
forms with grebe-like feet, and no aftershafts to the contour feathers. Agreeing
with the game birds in the structure of their palate, these birds are most nearly
allied to the cranes on the one hand, — an intermediate type being found in the
American courlan, while they are also more distantly related through the hemi-
podes to the true game birds. They probably represent one of the older and more
generalized types of birds. An interesting point is the large number of species
which, from disuse of their wings, have lost the power of flight, several of these
having become extinct within the memory of man; while with many others
their extinction is but a matter of time. The chief characteristics of these birds
are their long legs, elongated toes, loose and rather hairy plumage, feeble, rounded
wings, and short tail. The body is generally narrow and laterally compressed,
enabling them to thread their way among the reeds and grass with great ease
and rapidity; while the neck is long, and the head small, with a long or moderate
bill. A large number of genera, including nearly one hundred and eighty species,
comprise the family, but space will only permit mention of some of the more im-
portant types.

The typical genus, including such well-known forms as the common

water rail (Rallus aquaticus}, is characterized by the beak being

longer than the third toe and claw, with the nostrils nearer the feathers at the base

2214

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

than the anterior end of the nasal groove. In all the other genera mentioned below
the bill is shorter than the middle toe and claw. The clapper rail (R. longirostris)
is a well-known North- American form, with the general color above ashy gray
streaked with blackish brown, the chin and throat white, fore-neck ashy brown,
shading into isabelline on the chest and upper breast, and into whitish on the
tinder parts, the flanks being barred with grayish brown and white. This bird is a
resident in many of the Southeastern States, but only met with in the salt
marshes near the Atlantic, unless driven inshore by high tides. In spring con-

MALE AND FEMALE CAROLINA RAILS.

siderable migrations take place during the night, and are always conducted in
perfect silence. Audubon writes that ' ' from about the beginning of March to that
of April, the salt marshes resound with the cries of the clapper rail, which resemble
the syllables cac, cac, cac, cac, cti, catra, catra. The commencement of the cry,
which is heard quite as frequently during day as by night, is extremely loud and
rapid its termination lower and protracted. At the report of a gun, when thou-
sands of these birds instantaneously burst forth with their cries, you may imagine

THE RAIL TRIBE 2215

what an uproar they make. At this period the males are very pugnacious, and
combats are rife till each has selected a female for the season. The males stand
erect and cry aloud at the least sound they hear, guard their mates, and continue
faithfully to protect them until the young make their appearance. ' ' The nest is
large and very deep, constructed of marsh plants and fastened to the stems in the
midst of the thickest tufts above high-water mark. This species may be called gre-
garious, the nest being placed on the most elevated grass tufts within a few yards
of each other. Eight to fifteen eggs of a pale buff color, thinly spotted with light
brown and purple, are laid, and, being delicious eating, large numbers are collected
for the market. This species can swim fairly well, and can traverse the partially-
submerged weeds with great rapidity."

The next group we have to notice are the curious weka rails
^Af ckei Rciils

{Ocydromus), only found in New Zealand, and incapable of flight,

though provided with ample wings. They may be recognized by their rather
large size, nearly as big as the common pheasant, their bill shorter than the
middle toe and claw, and their elongate wing coverts, which extend nearly to the
extremity of the quills, as well as by their stout, strong legs. A good account of
this bird is given by Sir W. Buller, who writes that it is seminocturnal in its habits,
and usually remains concealed during the day in thick fern or scrub, taking
refuge in a hollow log or other natural cavity. Occasionally its digs itself a sub-
terranean burrow, the bill only being employed for this purpose, which serves as a
retreat as well as a breeding place. This bird is remarkably bold and fearless,
sometimes visiting the farmyards, and even entering houses. It is pugnacious
and perfectly omnivorous, being well known to plunder and eat the eggs and
young of ground birds, and will, it is said, even attack a full-grown rat. The cry
commenced at sunset and continued through the night, is a peculiar and not
unpleasant whistle. A pair usually perform together, calling alternately and in
quick succession, the male always taking the lead. As already stated, these birds
usually breed in burrows, laying two and sometimes three eggs of the usual ralline
type.

The corncrake or land rail ( Crex pratensis) , representing a genus
Corncrake and r ., . ,. , ,, , L , , _.

Carolina own, is found throughout the greater part of Europe and as far

Rail east as the Yenisei in Siberia, ranging south in winter to Africa, while

it is also an occasional visitant to North America and Greenland.
Nearly allied is the Carolina rail (C. Carolina}, in which the general color above is
olivaceous brown varied with black centres and white margins to the feathers; fore-
head, crown, front of the face, and middle of the throat and neck black; the eye-
brow stripes, sides of the face and neck, as well as the chest, ashy gray; the breast
white, and the flanks barred with black and white.

A very beautiful little group of pygmy rails inhabits Africa and
Madagascar, characterized by the soft tail feathers almost hidden by
the coverts. In the South- African form (Corethrura rufa) the general color of the
upper parts, sides, and flanks is black, longitudinally streaked with white; the
inner quills, lower back, and tail being spotted with the same color. The head,
neck, and chest are rich vinous chestnut, and the breast white streaked and barred

22l6

THE GAME BIRDS AND RAILS

with black. Andersson, writing from Damaraland, says that " I have only found

this species at Oman-
bonde, where it is
not uncommon, and
breeds. It frequents
stagnant waters,
thickly fringed and
studded with aquatic
herbage, among the
ever-progressive de-
cay of which it loves
to disport itself and
to search for food.
It is very shy and
reserved in its habits,
seldom going far from
effective cover, and
gliding through the
mazes of the rank
vegetation with as-
tonishing ease and
swiftness. ' '

We

now come

to a group, including
the water hens and
coots, which are char-
acterized by having a
frontal shield at the
base of the upper bill.
The South- Australian
Mortier's water hen
( Tribonyx mortieri) ,
shown in the accompanying cut, is the only representative of its genus, and may
be recognized by its short toes, which do not exceed the leg (metatarsus) in
length, its large size, and feeble wings, with the primary and secondary quills about
equal in length. The general color of this bird is ruddy brown washed with olive,
shading into greenish gray on the wing coverts, which are spotted with white; the
head and neck are dark olive brown, and the rest of the under parts greenish gray
washed with olive, with a large white patch on the sides of the body. Gould states
that ' ' the localities it affects are marsh lands and the sides of rivers. It was daily
seen by me on the Government demesne at New Norfolk, Tasmania, where it
frequently left its sedgy retreat, and walked about the paths and other parts of
the garden, with its tail erect like the common hen. Even here, however, the
greatest circumspection and quietude were necessary to obtain a sight of it; for

Water Hens

MORTIER'S WATER HEN.

(From Sclater, Pt-oc. Zool. Soc., 1867.)

THE RAIL TRIBE

2217

the slightest noise or movement excited its suspicions, and in an instant it vanished

in the most extraordinary manner into some thicket, from which it did not again

emerge until all apparent cause for alarm was past. Its habits and general manners

are very similar to those of the moor hen, but it does not dive or swim so much as

that bird. It is very easily captured with a common horsehair noose. The nest,

which is very similar to that of the moor hen, is formed of a bundle of rushes

placed on the border of the stream; eggs, seven in number." In the following

genera the toes are long, the third toe and claw exceeding the metatarsus in length.

Passing over the common water hen {Gallinula} and its allies, in which the toes,

although not lobed like those

of the coots, have a narrow

lateral membrane, and the nos-

trils are oval and situated in a

distinct nasal depression, we find

in Southeastern Asia and the

adjacent islands a large species

known as the water cock {Galli-

crex cinerea), distinguished by

having no lateral membrane on

the toes. The male has the

plumage black, the upper parts

especially, the wing coverts being

edged with gray, and the scapu-

lars and lower back with brown,

while the under tail coverts are

buff barred with black. The

female is browner and has the wing coverts gray, while the under parts are

buff with dusky bars, except the throat and middle of the belly, which are

white.

The most striking birds of this group, as regards brilliance of col-
> are tlie Purple gallinules (Porphyrio), with their handsome blue
and purple plumage, variously shaded with dark green, olive brown,
and black. Closely allied to these is Mantell's gallinule (Notomts mantelli}, a na-
tive of New Zealand, now nearly, if not quite, extinct, and the white form {N.
alba}, which formerly inhabited Norfolk and Lord Howe islands. Finally, we must
mention the coots {Fulica), at once recognized by their lobed toes. In habits they
resemble both ducks and gallinules, being able not only to swim and dive well, but
to thread their way through grass and reeds with ease and swiftness. In rising
they flap along the surface of the water, and fly like rails with their legs dangling;
and their notes resemble those of the gallinules, but are more harsh and grating.
The distribution of the genus is cosmopolitan.

COMMON COOT.

ind'coots

2218

THE GAME B.IRDS AND RAILS

THE FINFEET

Family HELIORNITHIDJE

As has been mentioned, the birds representing this group are few in number,
and belong to three different genera, one being found in Africa, a second in Central
and South America, and the third in Southeastern Asia and Sumatra. The Sene-
gal finfoot (Podica senegalensis) is, as its name implies, a native of West Africa.
The general color above is dark brown glossed with dark green, the back and
wings being ornamented with round ochreous spots edged with black; the sides of
the face, neck, and throat are gray banded with white; and the rest of the under
parts white tinged with fulvous and barred with black on the sides. Mr. Biitti-

kofer observed these birds on
the Junk and Du Queah riv-
ers in Liberia, where they
were usually met with solitary,
more rarely in pairs, slowly
swimming about, and very shy
and watchful, making for the
bank at full speed on the ap-
proach of a canoe, and hiding
themselves under the thick
foliage of the overhanging
shrubs. They are very hard
to flush unless taken by sur-
prise in the open, when they
flutter hastily away, keeping
so close to the water that they
continually beat the surface

with their wings and feet. When swimming, they sit very deep in the water, and
are therefore not easily killed in that position, especially as it is difficult to get
within shot of them, and, unlike the rails, even when wounded, they never attempt
to escape by diving. Their general habits are much like those of the common
coot. Speaking of the closely-allied Peter's finfoot from South Africa, Mr. Ayres
says the birds he obtained were caught in traps set for otters. ' ' They have the
power of making an extraordinary noise, like the growling of a wild beast, which
they do by drawing the air into their bodies and forcing it gradually from their
throats. ' ' Both birds made this strange noise when taken from the traps, fighting
at the same time with all their might. The young of the American finfoot
(H. fulica) are said to be hatched naked and carried about by the old bird, but
very little appears to be known at present of the nesting habits of any of these
birds.

SENEGAL FINFOOT.

CHAPTER XVIII

THE BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES —
ORDER ALECTORIDES

THE group known as Alectorides, under which were included in Mr. Sclater's
classification the cranes, bustards, and certain other families, is one of those ill-
defined assemblages of birds which afford illimitable difference of opinion as to the
relations of their constituents. For instance, some ornithologists remove the bus-
tards from the group to place them with the rails, while others would associate
them with the Limicola. Others, again, would regard the rails (inclusive of the
bustards) and the cranes as the representatives of two main subdivisions of the Al-
cctorides. Moreover, but few accept the relationship of the thicknees to the bus-
tards; some writers placing them among the Limicola, while Mr. Seebohm would
include them in the Gabies. Admitting that the assemblage may be to some extent
an artificial one, we think that its retention, at least as a provisional measure, is
convenient — more especially as not only can it be defined, but that, in its present
form, it aids in the definition of the two succeeding groups.

All the Alectorides * agree with the game birds and rails in having slit (schi-
zognathous) palates, and their young covered with down, and active almost im-
mediately after birth, as well as in the absence of a projecting (ectepicondylar)
process on the outer side of the lower end of the humerus. They are further char-
acterized by the truncation of the hinder end of the lower jaw, and by this feature,
as well as by the absence of any perforation of the extremity of the breastbone by
the bases of the metacoracoids, they are distinguished from the game birds. From
the rails they may be distinguished by the circumstance that when their nostrils are
oval (holorhinal) either the number of toes is reduced to three, or if four toes are

* Except the kagu.

(2219)

2220 THE BUSTARDS, THlCKNEES, AND CRANES

present either the breastbone has no notch, or the oil gland is naked; while from
both the pigeons and sand grouse they are separated by the upper end of the hume-
rus being of normal form; the condition in which the young are born also forming
a point of distinction between the former of those two groups. Briefly, then, the
Alectorides may be approximately defined as including those schizognathous birds
with active young,* in which the humerus has no process at the lower end, and the
angle of the lower jaw is truncated; the nostrils being either schizorhinal or holo-
rhinal, but, when the latter, either the number of the toes is reduced to three, or the
sternum is entire, or the oil gland naked ; the upper end of the humerus being always
of normal form. Such characteristics may seem not only trivial, but in some cases
difficult to understand, although, when dealing with groups of such nearly-allied
birds, they are almost the only ones available. Like the orders treated in the two
preceding chapters, the members of this group either have the toes free, or but par-
tially connected by webs.

THE BUSTARD TRIBE
Family OTIDID^

The stoutly-built birds known as bustards and floricans agree with the rails in
having the nasal openings in the skull of an oval shape (holorhinal); but they differ
in having only three toes to each foot, and likewise in the absence of bare tracts in
the plumage of the sides of the neck, and of an oil gland. In their skeleton the
breastbone has two notches in its hinder border, and the furcula is U-shaped. Ex-
ternally they are characterized by the relatively-short beak, in which the oval nos-
trils are placed near the base; the stout and moderately -long legs, in which the
metatarsus is shorter than the tibia; the long wings, and the short tail; the number
of primary quills being ten, and that of the tail feathers twelve. They undergo a
complete molt in autumn, and often a partial one in spring; and the plumage of the
two sexes may be nearly similar, or considerably different. The bustards are con-
fined to the Old World, where they are represented by between thirty and forty
species, of which a considerable proportion are natives of Africa south of the Sa-
hara. Essentially terrestrial birds, and chiefly inhabitants of open plains and
steppes, the bustards are admirably adapted for running and walking, although they
are likewise powerful and rapid in flight. Their mottled plumage of brown, black,
and gray harmonizes with the coloration of their surroundings. In some the food is
chiefly vegetable, although supplemented by insects and reptiles, but in others it
consists mostly of animal matter.

The great bustard ( Otis tarda) , which formerly inhabited many of

the wilder, open districts of Britain in large flocks, is the type of a
Bustards . . .

genus which may be taken to include two species, and is characterized

by the shortness of the beak and the absence of a crest on the head. The legs are
relatively short, with a small portion of the tibia bare, and the metatarsus (as in

* In the sun bittern, the young are helpless, while those of the kagu are unknown.

THE BUSTARD TRIBE 2221

the other genera) reticulated all around; while the wings are somewhat rounded,
with the third quill the longest.

The male of the great bustard stands between three and four feet in height,
and has a total length of forty-five inches, whereas the female measures about nine
inches less. The male has a tuft of white bristle-like hairs, passing backward and
downward from each side of the chin, and partially covering a narrow patch of bare
skin. In the same sex the color of the head is gray; the upper parts are chestnut
buff, with black barrings, the primary quills blackish brown, but the rest of the
wings white; the breast is marked with bands of chestnut and gray; the abdomen is
white, and the tail feathers are reddish, barred with black, and tipped with white.
The female, as a rule, lacks the moustache, and the bands on the breast. Like
many other members of the family, the adult male has an air pouch opening
beneath the tongue, and running some distance down the front of the neck, which
is most developed during the breeding season, but at other times probably becomes
so contracted as to become almost unnoticeable. Always unknown in Ireland,
and having disappeared at an earlier epoch from Scotland, the bustard was proba-
bly exterminated as a resident English species in or about the year 1838; and it is
now known only as a rare and casual visitor to the southern counties. Eastward
its range extends across Central and Southern Europe, through Palestine, Turkes-
tan, and Southern Siberia to Manchuria; while it is a winter visitor to China and
Japan, and occasionally straggles into Asia Minor, North Persia, and Northwestern
India. It also inhabits Northwestern Africa, where it has now become rare; and it
is very scarce in France and Greece, while for years it has ceased to exist in Scan-
dinavia.

Haunting the great steppes and plains — whether barren or under corn cul-
tivation— of Europe and Asia, the bustard is a shy and wary bird, associating
during the winter in large flocks, but breaking up into pairs in the breeding
season, although even then several such pairs may frequent the same neighborhood,
and the immature individuals still remain in companies. Its food consists mainly
of grain and the young shoots of cereals and other plants, but it will also consume
insects, as well as small reptiles and mammals. Drinking appears to be quite un-
necessary to these birds and their kin. Generally silent, the female when alarmed
gives vent to a kind of hiss, as does her partner; but the male has also a call note
which has been compared to the syllable prunt. The breeding season commences
in May, toward the latter part of which the two, or occasionally three eggs are laid
in a hollow in the ground, which may be situated either in the open plain, or in a
corn field, and may or may not have a scanty lining of dry grass. In color, the
eggs vary from pale buff to some shade of greenish or brownish olive, speckled with
reddish brown or gray. During the breeding season the males, which sometimes
desert their consorts, are apt to be very pugnacious, instances having been known
where they have actually attacked human beings. Mr. C. A. Nicholson observes
that ' ' bustards when flushed generally fly two miles or more, sometimes at least a
hundred yards high. They never try to run; one that I had winged making the
most awkward attempt possible to get away from me, and, though a young bird,
showing much more disposition to fight than to get away by running. They fly

2222

THE BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES

with a regular flap of the wings, and much faster than they appear to go. I can-
not imagine greyhounds being able to catch bustards, though there seems to be
good authority for believing they did." A full-grown male bustard will weigh
from twenty-six to thirty pounds, or even rather more.

Far inferior in size to its larger relative, the little bustard (O.
tetrax} differs by the absence of the moustache in the male, and' dis-
plays a greater diversity between the plumage of the two sexes, as well as a sea-
sonal variation in that of the male. In the summer plumage, the latter sex, as rep-
resented in our illustration, has the general color of the upper plumage buffish brown.

Little Bustard

BUSTARD IN BREEDING PLUMAGE.
(One-fifth natural size.)

vermiculated with black, and two black and two white gorgets on the lower neck
and breast. On the other hand, the female (which is equal in size to her partner)
at all seasons, and the male in winter have the head and upper parts streaked and
blotched with black, and no black gorgets on the breast. In length these birds
measure only about seventeen inches.

The little bustard, which is but a rare and generally a winter visitor to Britain,
is widely spread in suitable localities over Europe and Central Asia, ranging in
winter to the trans- Indus districts of India and to Northern Africa. From Africa
these birds migrate to their northern breeding haunts in vast flocks during April,

THE BUSTARD TRIBE 2223

returning in still greater numbers in October, when it is said that in crossing the
plains to the south of the Caucasus they reach to millions. Although in many of
their habits resembling the larger species, Mr. Hume states that their flight is very
different, and that they often rise to a great height, and will flutter and twist about
in the air. At other times, however, they fly rapidly and straight, and when on
the -wing always call continually. Wary in the cool of the morning and evening,
during the heat of the day they lie close in the mustard fields, which are their fa-
vorite haunts in the Punjab. "They rise suddenly," writes Mr. Hume, "with a
great pat pat of the wings; and, though quite invisible till they rise, startle one with
the great breadth of pure white the}' suddenly reveal, the whole of the secondaries
and much of the primaries being white. ' '

An extinct bustard belonging to this or one of the allied genera has been de-
scribed by the writer from the middle Miocene rocks of Bavaria, and thus serves to
indicate the comparative antiquity of the group.

Africa south of the Sahara is the home of a number of species of
bustards belonging to a genus (Eupodotis} , distinguished from the
preceding by the greater length of the beak and legs, and of which
there is an outlying representative in India (E. edwardsi}, and others in China and
Australia (E. australis). The wings are large and long, and the plumage of the
two sexes is nearly similar, although the females lack the short pouches found in
the males of most of the species. As there are a great number of these
bustards, and their general type of coloration conforms to that obtaining in the
members of the preceding genus, it would be useless to attempt the description of
any particular species, and our notice may therefore be confined to their habits.
The great Indian bustard frequents open bare or grassy plains, and in the rainy
season collects in small flocks, while in the cold weather it may be observed in
wheat fields, to which it resorts for the purpose of feeding on grasshoppers which
form its favorite. food. Failing insect food, it will, however, take to fruit and
seeds. When flushed, it generally flies for a long distance at a low elevation before
settling again. This species differs from the common bustard in being polygamous;
and during the breeding season the males, like many other members of the family,
are in the habit of making a display before the females, probably for the purpose of
attraction. Describing this display, Mr. Hume remarks that, " first the male be-
gins to strut about, holding his head up as high as if he wanted to lift himself off
his legs; then, after a few turns, he puffs out the upper part of the throat just under
the jaws then draws it in again, then puffs it again, and so on, two, three, or four
times, and then suddenly out goes the whole throat down to the breast, and that
part of it next the latter swells more and more; his tail, already cocked, begins to
turn right back, and the lower throat bag gets bigger and bigger and longer and
longer, till it looks to be within six inches of the ground. All the feathers of the
throat stand out, and, looked at in front, he seems to have a huge bag covered with
feathers hanging down between his legs, which wobbles about as he struts here and
there, with wings partly unclosed, and occasional sharp snappings of his bill.
From time to time he utters a sort of deep moan, and stands quite still, and then off
he struts again close up to the female, and then away from her." In addition to

2224

THE BUSTARDS, THICKNESS, AND CRANES

insects, these birds also consume numbers of rats, mice, and reptiles; and this coarse
feeding renders their flesh unpalatable. Difficult to approach within gunshot range
by stalking, bustards may frequently be bagged by driving. In length this species
measures from forty-five to fifty inches in the male, of which the general weight is
from seventeen to twenty-two pounds.

Of the numerous African representatives of the genus, one of the best known
is the Arabian bustard (E. arabs) of Abyssinia, in which the iris is pale brown,
with dark radiating streaks, the beak is dusky above, and dirty white below, while
the legs are yellowish. The finest of all is, however, the South- African kori bus-

ARABIAN BUSTARD.

tard (E. kori) — the ghaum-pauw of the Boers, — which attains a size and weight
considerably exceeding that of its Oriental cousin. This bird derives its Dutch
name from its habit of feeding on the gum of a species of mimosa, although it is
likewise very partial to grasshoppers; and it differs from many of its allies in being
voiceless. Messrs. Eglington and Nicholls write that, when feeding on the open
plains, the kori is a very ' ' difficult bird to approach sufficiently near for the range
of a shotgun; and the best plan to adopt under such circumstances, if on horseback,
is to ride slowly round at a distance of a couple of hundred yards from the bird and
gradually narrow the circle. If this tactic is adopted it will, like most others of
the bustard tribe, often lie down as if to escape notice, and thus a shot may be ob-

2226 THE BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES

yield a pretty copious crop of grasses; but grasses not so thick nor so high as to im-
pede the movements or vision of a well-sized bird that is ever afoot and always on
the lookout. In spite of the exquisite flavor for which these birds are so famed,
floricans are by no means fastidious in their food, scarcely anything, from lizards and
snakes to young shoots and grass, coming amiss. They are, however, generally
more herbivorous than carnivorous, although when the country is overrun with
locusts they feed almost entirely on those noisome insects. Shy and wary in disposi-
tion, the florican, except on the rare occasions when he is in thick covert, is a diffi-
cult bird to approach within range, more especially as he is a strong flyer, and will
carry a heavy charge of shot without harm. Unlike a heron, a florican flies with its
head stretched out in front, and its legs tucked away beneath the body. Except in
the breeding season, when they utter a kind of cluck, floricans are silent birds; and
they are almost peculiar in that the two sexes, even during the pairing time, live
apart from one another in small companies. During the latter season, the troops of
males and females come into the same neighborhood; and when a male wishes to
attract a temporary partner, he does so by going through an elaborate series of
performances somewhat similar to the well-known pantomimic display of the cock
turkey, although more prolonged and energetic, the bird at times rising perpendicu-
larly in the air, and humming in a peculiar deep tone. The female lays two eggs in
an apology for a nest at the foot of a tussock in some thick grass jungle, one egg
being generally more richly colored than the other. In winter these birds become
extraordinarily fat; and at that season florican shooting in the valley of the Ganges
and other districts is a favorite sport, which may be pursued either on foot or from
the back of an elephant."

THE THICKNESS
Family CEDICNEMID^E

Although placed by many ornithologists with the plovers, the genus of birds
typically represented by the European thicknee or stone curlew ( CEdicnemus scolo-
pax} agrees with the bustards in the holorhinal skull, and the absence of a process
at the lower end of the humerus, as well as in the three-toed feet; and we may ac-
cordingly follow Dr. Fiirbringer in regarding the group as nearly allied to the latter.
Externally the thicknees differ from the bustards by the presence of a tufted oil
gland, by the form and position of the nostrils, by the feet being webbed to the sec-
ond joint, and by the second, in place of the third quill of the wing being the long-
est. Internally, they differ by the vertebrae of the back articulating by cup and
ball, instead of saddle-shaped surfaces, and thereby resemble the plovers. Both have
two notches on the hinder border of the breastbone, and in both the metatarsus is
reticulated all round. In the thicknees the beak is of moderate length, stout, and
nearly straight, with a slight depression at the base, and the ridge of the upper man-
dible prominent, the long nostrils, which do not open in a groove, being placed near
the middle of its length. The wings are of moderate length; the tail is graduated

THE THICKNEES

2227

and formed of twelve feathers; and the legs are rather long, with a small part of the
tibia bare. In all the species the eye is large, and the plumage mottled and striated
with shades of buff and brown. The European species, which measures from sixteen
to seventeen inches in length, is especially characterized by the conspicuous streak-
ing of the breast; the presence of a dark bar across the lesser wing coverts, and the
white tips to the greater wing coverts. A common summer visitor to the heathy
and other open districts of England, as well as to many parts of Northwestern
Europe, the ordinary thicknee is a permanent resident on the shores of the Medi-
terranean and in North Africa, as well as in Palestine arid Persia; while in summer

COMMON THICKNEE.
(One-fourth natural size.)

it also visits Turkestan and Western Siberia, and in winter migrates to India.
India also possesses a resident variety, distinguished by its shorter wing; while the
genus is represented by four species in Africa, by two in South America, and one in
Australia.

The thichnees are largely nocturnal in their habits, and frequent much the
same kind of country as the bustards, where they feed chiefly on worms, slugs, and
insects, although they will also devour field voles and reptiles. Their cry is loud
and clear, although harsh, and is uttered with the greatest frequency on moonlight

2228 THE BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES

nights. A rapid runner, the common thicknee is likewise a bird of strong flight,
frequently flying at some considerable height above the ground. The two blotched
or streaked eggs are laid in England upon bare stony ground, with which their col-
oration harmonizes so exactly as to render them practically invisible; but in India,
where the number is occasionally three, the hollow is lined with a little grass.
Both sexes take part in incubation; and if a sitting bird be disturbed, it will imme-
diately run off, leaving the eggs to be protected by their resemblance to the sur-
roundings. After running a short distance, the bird itself will generally lie down
and skulk, with its outstretched neck closely applied to the ground, and in this posi-
tion is most likely to be mistaken for a large stone, unless its large eye should
happen to attract the spectator's attention.

THE SERIEMAS
Family CA PI A MID^E

The remarkable birds known as seriemas, which are represented by two species,
assigned to as many genera, are confined to South America, and are some of those
puzzling forms which render systematic ornithology so difficult and unsatisfactory.
Various views have obtained as to the relationship of these birds, some ornitholo-
gists believing that they are allied to the secretary vulture. On this view they
were at one time placed among the Accipitrines; but as they possess the slit
(schizognathous) palate, which is the older type, it is clear that if they have rela-
tion to the secretary vulture, the latter (as Mr. Beddard suggests) must be trans-
ferred here, as being a more specialized form. Many ornithologists are, however,
now of opinion that the nearest allies of the seriemas are the rails, bustards, and
cranes, although there is still much divergence of view as to their exact position.
Mr. Sclater's plan of placing them between the bustards and cranes, in near associ-
ation with the trumpeters, which is followed here, must, however, be regarded as a
more or less provisional measure; and it must be confessed that the inclusion of
these two families in the Alectorides very seriously interferes with any attempt to
define that group. In any case, a linear arrangement of the members of this and
the allied order cannot possibly express their true relationships. While" agreeing
with the bustards in their holorhinal skulls, and the absence of tracts bare of
plumage on the sides of the neck, the seriemas differ by the presence of four toes,
and by the breastbone having but one notch, as well as by the presence of a naked
oil gland; the latter being almost the only character by which the group can be dif-
ferentiated from the rails, in which the oil gland is tufted.

The Brazilian seriema (Cariama cristata), from Southeastern Brazil, is a long-
legged, and somewhat long-necked bird, of somewhat larger size than a bittern,
and with a peculiarly -upright carriage. The head is large, and the beak compara-
tively short, broad, and depressed, with its tip bent down somewhat after the fash-
ion of that of a vulture. In the leg the tibia is bare for some distance, the
metatarsus is covered in front with scutes, and the short toes are provided with

THE S ERIE MAS

2229

strong curved claws, which also recall those of an Accipitrine. A tuft of bristly
feathers rises from the base of the bill, while there is also a short crest on the
neck, and the feathers of the breast are lanceolate. The wing is short, although
hard and powerful, with the fourth and fifth quills the longest, and the secondaries
greatly elongated, the tail being long, graduated, and composed of ten feathers.
The internal anatomy comes nearest to that of the cranes, with some approach to the

\

f

BRAZILIAN SERIEMA.

rails. In general color, the plumage is gray, each feather being marked with zigzag
darker lines on the upper parts; the elongated feathers of the head and neck are
blackish brown; the quills are brown, with white bands on the inner webs; and
while the central pair of tail feathers are uniform grayish brown, the other eight
are blackish brown with white tips and roots. The iris of the eye is sulphur yel-
low, the naked ring round the eye bluish, the beak coral red, and the leg reddish
brown in front, and redder on the sides. The female is more yellowish gray in color,

2230 THE BUSTARDS, THICKNESS, AND CRANES

with a shorter crest on the neck. Burmeister's seriema (Chunga burmeisteri) , from
Argentina, now generally considered to represent a distinct genus, is smaller and
browner, with scarcely any tuft at the base of the back.

The most remarkable feature about the Brazilian seriema is its resemblance, as
regards form, carriage, and the coloration of the plumage, to the secretary vulture,
with which, as already mentioned, it has been associated by some ornithologists. If
we are right in placing the bird in its present serial position, and associating the
secretary vulture with the Accipitrines, it is almost impossible to account for this
resemblance in any satisfactory way; the circumstance that the two birds are in-
habitants of widely-separated continents, putting mimicry out of the question.
These birds are found in open districts in the interior of Brazil, where the ground
is either clad with grass, or dotted over with low vegetation; and are generally
found in pairs, or, during the breeding s eason, in family parties of three or four.
The coloration of the plumage harmonizes well with that of the soil of the grassless
districts. Mainly diurnal in its habits, the seriema often reveals its presence by its
peculiar cry, which has been compared to the bark of a dog, and is most generally
uttered in the early morning. In spite of being such an essentially cursorial bird,
at night the seriema roosts on the bough of some tree. Its food consists chiefly of
snakes, lizards, etc. , on which account the bird is strictly protected by the Brazil-
ians; and in this respect we may notice another resemblance to the secretary vul-
ture. Young rats, mice, worms, etc. , also form a portion of the diet. During the
pairing time, which takes place in February, the males attract the females by a dis-
play analogous to that noticed under the head of the bustards. The nest of twigs
is built in a low or moderately-tall tree, and at the proper season contains a pair of
pale-colored eggs sparingly blotched with rusty red. The down-clad young remain,
it is said, a few days in the nest before they are carried down by their parents.
Seriemas have laid in the London Zoological Gardens, and in two instances a
young bird has been hatched, but in both the offspring has been devoured by its
parent.

THE TRUMPETERS
Family

The trumpeters (Psophia), although less aberrant than the seriemas, form an-
other South- American family of somewhat doubtful affinity, which may be best
placed here, as apparently connecting the seriemas with the cranes. While agreeing
with the two preceding families in having oval (holorhinal) nasal apertures in the
skull, they differ from both in that the breastbone has no notch, while there are
long tracts devoid of plumage on the sides of the neck, the number of toes being
four. In appearance, these birds, of which there are several species, may be likened
to large, long-legged, blackish guinea fowls, the head and beak being strikingly
fowl-like. In these birds the body is stout, the neck of moderate length, the head

THE CRANES

2231

of medium size, the beak short and swollen, with its base convex, and its tip bent
down and compressed; the leg is long, with much of the tibia bare, and the toes
(of which the third and fourth are connected by a basal membrane) furnished
with sharply-pointed claws. The short wings have the fourth quill the longest;
the tail is abbreviated, and the plumage is generally elongated above, while beneath
it becomes downy. In the common trumpeter, or agami (P. ocdpitans), the general
hue of the plumage is black, with
purple and greenish reflections in
certain parts, and steely blue on the
lower neck and breast. The iris is
reddish brown, the bare skin round
the eye, as well as the leg, flesh
colored, and the beak grayish white.
The trumpeters are forest-haunting
birds, living in troops, which may
number as many as a hundred or two
hundred head, and taking their name
from the peculiarly-clear and trumpet-
like cry, which is uttered with
widely-opened beak, and lasts for
fully a minute. To produce this
deep-toned cry, the windpipe is spe-
cially modified, being elongated so as
to extend under the skin of the ab-
domen. The trumpeters are poor
flyers, nesting on the ground beneath
the foot of trees, where they lay ten

or more bright green eggs, and subsisting on fruits, corn, and insects. By the
natives of Brazil these birds are tamed and domesticated for the purpose of protect-
ing ordinary poultry; and in this state exhibit remarkable attachment and affection
toward their owners, whom they follow about as closely as does a dog.

TRUMPETER.

THE CRANES
Family GRUIDJR

For a long period associated with the herons and storks, to which they present
a marked outward similarity, the cranes differ widely from those birds in the struc-
ture of the palate, and the condition of their newborn young, as well as in many
features of the anatomy of their skeleton and soft parts. Externally, cranes are
characterized by their elongated legs and neck; generally long beak; the long wing,
with ten primary quills; the plumed and elongated inner secondaries; the short,
twelve- feathered tail, and the elevation of the small first toe above the level of the
other three. In their skeleton they differ from all the preceding families of this

2232 THE BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES

order, in that the nasal apertures of the skull are in the form of long slits (schizo-
rhinal); while they agree with the trumpeters in the absence of any notch in the
breastbone, and also in the presence of a very large aperture on the inner face of the
lower end of the metacoracoid. Their canon bone resembles that of the ducks (see
figure on p. 2089) and flamingoes, in that the fourth trochlea is much shorter than
the second — a feature which at once distinguishes this bone from the correspond-
ing one of a heron or stork, in which the three trochlese are subequal (see figure
on p. 2054); and they differ from the bustards in the V-shaped furcula. In the
presence of bare tracts, some distance up the neck, the cranes approximate to the
trumpeters and rails; and they are further characterized by the oil gland being
tufted. Their plumage undergoes a double annual molt.

Cranes are now represented by about sixteen species, of which the greater
number are confined to the Old World, while there are none in South America.
Geologically, they are a somewhat ancient group, as remains referred to the exist-
ing genus have been obtained from strata of Upper Eocene age. This harmonizes
with the view of Mr. Beddard, by whom cranes are regarded as the ancestral stock
from which originated the rails, the Limicolce, and most of the other birds treated of
in this chapter. It will, however, scarcely support his opinion that the herons are
likewise descended from the cranes, seeing that a member of the latter existed in the
London Clay, belonging to the lower part of the Eocene period; while it is scarcely
likely that the canon bone of the heron could have been derived from that of
a crane.

Although the members of the family have been arranged under sev-
eral genera, it seems on the whole preferable to include all but the
crowned cranes in the typical genus ( Grus) . In the ordinary cranes the long and
straight beak is of moderate length, compressed and pointed, with the nostrils
placed in a groove near the middle, and partially closed behind by membrane; the
wings have the third quill the longest; a large part of the tibia is bare; the front of
the metatarsus is covered with scutes, and the toes are short, with blunt nails.
Generally there is a naked region about the eye and the base of the beak, while oc-
casionally the entire head may be devoid of feathers. They are birds of large size,
with the plumage either gray or white; and the elongation of the inner secondaries
into a kind of false tail, gives them a peculiarly-graceful appearance. Inhabiting
extensive plains and swamps, and endowed with a powerful and long- sustained
flight, most cranes are in the habit of performing migrations of great length. The
windpipe being lengthened and arranged in coils within a cavity in the breastbone
enables them to utter, when alarmed or on the wing, a loud trumpet-like call, which
is often audible at a distance of a couple of miles. Terrestrial in their habits, — it
is said never perching on trees, — all the cranes build on the ground; their huge
nests being placed in swamps, and the two or occasionally three eggs having a
greenish ground more or less spotted with reddish.

The common crane (G. rinerea}, which some three centuries ago
P nested in the British Islands, where it is now but a rare visitor, is the

typical representative of the genus, and is characterized by the mod-
erate length of the beak, which is high and sloping at the base, and straight in its

:ARIC CRA

THE CRANES

2233

terminal half, by the naked forehead, cheeks, and crown, and the general gray hue
of the plumage. The naked part of the crown is reddish, the sides of the face and
neck are white, and the elongated secondaries black. Young birds are nearly
uniformly colored. In length, full-grown specimens measure from forty-three to
forty-eight inches. The crane is widely distributed over Europe and Central and
Northern Asia, visiting India, Persia, South China, and Northern Africa in winter,
and passing through Japan on its migrations. Its breeding range extends from the
Arctic Circle in Western Siberia, to Italy and the Danube valley. In North Amer-
ica this species is represented by the brown crane (G. canadensis}. Cranes usually
reach their breeding grounds in Central Europe from the south at the end of March
or April, while a month later they arrive in the Arctic regions. At all times gre-
garious, they migrate in vast flocks, which fly during the day at a great height in
the air in a V- or W-shaped formation, each bird having its long legs stretched out
behind. Writing of the flight of the American species Dr. Newberry observes that,
under the orders of an experienced leader, ' ' each bird keeps his place in the ranks; the
advancing column now rides higher over some suspected spot, now falls along an
open sandy reach, swaying meanwhile to the right or left. As it passes on, the
individual birds are blended in the hazy distance, till, just before lost to view, the
line becomes like an immense serpent gliding mysteriously through the air. When
about to alight, fearful lest the shadows of the woods harbor unseen dangers, the
cranes pass by the leafy in-
tricacies where the ibises and
other less suspicious birds feed,
and choose a spot for the
advantages it may offer of
uninterrupted vision. By nature
one of the most wary and
discreet of birds, his experience
has taught the crane to value
this gift and put it to the best
use. His vigilance is rarely
relaxed, even when he is feeding,
where less thoughtful birds would
feel perfectly secure." This
wariness renders the crane an
exceedingly-difficult bird to shoot;
although the flocks frequenting
the sand banks of the Indian
rivers may be readily approached
in a boat, to the passing of which
they are indifferent. Cranes feed
regularly in the early morning,

and also at other times in the day, and at night; while the vast quantity of grain a
flock will consume, renders their visits by no means welcome to the cultivator. In
sleeping, they invariably stand upon one leg, with the head and neck thrust in

COMMON CRANK.

2234 THE BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES

among the plumage of the back. In the bogs of Lapland the crane breeds in vast
numbers; the nest being made of small twigs intertwined with long, sedgy grass, its
diameter being about two feet, and its depth several inches.

The sarus crane (G. antigone) of India, which attains a length of
fifty-two inches, together with the nearly-allied Australian crane (G.
australiaca) , represent a second group of the genus, characterized by the longer
beak, and by the head and neck being bare and covered for three or four inches
with numerous crimson warts, from which grow a few scanty black hairs, most
developed down the nape. Below this the neck is whitish gray, passing gradually
into the blue gray of the rest of the plumage, save the quills and inner webs of
the tail feathers, which are dusky slaty. In old birds, however, the elongated
feathers become nearly white. • The sarus is probably confined to India and Upper
Burma, where it is always found in the neighborhood of water, and is less
gregarious than the common species, being generally seen in pairs. It is also far
less of a grain-eating bird; while, except when driven by drought, it does not
migrate. It is likewise tame and confiding, and so attached are the members of a
pair that on two occasions Mr. Hume has known the survivor to pine away and die
on the death of its mate; and he, therefore, recommends the sportsman, if he must
kill one of these beautiful birds, always to shoot the pair.

Far more beautiful than either of the foregoing is the lovely white
crane ( G. leucogeranus) , inhabiting a vast area in Central and North-
ern Asia, and migrating in winter to India, and probably other Oriental countries.
It is characterized by having the head and neck only partially bare, and the whole
plumage, with the exception of the black quills, white; the legs and naked skin .of
the face being red. North America also possesses a white representative of the
genus in the whooping crane (G. americana) . Mr. Hume observes that the Asiatic
species " is the lily of birds; and stand in what position it may, the entire outline of
its form presents a series of the most graceful and harmonious curves. ' ' This crane
is found only where there are large sheets of shallow water, in which grow abun-
dance of the rushes and other aquatic plants forming its chief nutriment. To show
how deceptive is the appearance of cranes when seen from a distance, Dr. Coues
relates that once, while prongbuck shooting on the prairie, his companion and him-
self saw what they " took to be an antelope standing quietly feeding, with his broad,
white stern toward us, and only about five hundred yards off. We attempted for
at least fifteen minutes to ' flag ' the creature up to us, waving a handkerchief on a
ramrod in the most approved style. This proving unavailing, my friend proceeded
to stalk the game, and crawled on his belly for about half the distance before the
' antelope ' unfolded his broad, black-tipped wings and flapped off, revealing at
length a whooping crane. ' '

Among the numerous other members of the genus, space admits
of reference to a few only. Of these the great wattled crane (G.
carunculata) , of South Africa, takes its name from the presence of two feathered
flaps of skin depending from the chin; the general color of the upper plumage being
slaty gray, with the neck white and the remainder black. This crane goes about
in pairs, which haunt one locality for years. The pretty little demoiselle crane ( G.

THE CRANES 2235

-virgo], which breeds in North Africa, Spain, Southern Russia, and a large area of
Central and Eastern Asia, while in winter it visits Central Africa and India, is dis-
tinguished from all the foregoing by its shorter beak, longer legs, and shorter neck,
as well as by its inferior size, and the long lanceolate feathers of the neck and
breast. In length this bird is only about thirty inches, and in color the head,
neck, and long breast plumes are black, a tuft of loose white feathers extends out-
ward and backward from the eye, while the general hue is purplish gray, with the
quills black. In India, where it arrives late in October, this crane associates in
flocks comprising from fifty to one hundred individuals, and frequents rivers rather
than marshes. Being mainly a vegetable feeder, it is very destructive to grain.
The eggs are olive green speckled with rufous; and, while the female is sitting, the
male keeps constant guard. Although somewhat apt to wound its assailant with
its sharp inner claw, this crane affords good sport with a falcon. Allied to this
species is the much larger Stanley crane (G. paradisea) — often referred to the
distinct genus Tetrapteryx — of South Africa; in which the whole plumage is leaden
blue, with the exception of the white crown of the head and the black extremities
of the drooping secondaries. This species, although widely distributed, is nowhere
abundant, and is always found in pairs. It inhabits the Karroo country, at a great
distance from water, and is mainly carnivorous. In confinement it becomes ex-
tremely tame, although in the wild state it is very shy.

The two species of African crowned cranes take their name from
the narrow fan-shaped crest of twisted bristle-like feathers radiating
from an elongated centre on the top of the head, by which they can
be immediately recognized. They are further characterized by the stout body,
moderately-long neck, large head, and the moderate length of the beak, which is
regularly conical, as well as by the broad wing, in which the fourth quill is the
longest, and by the long legs and powerful claws. The cheeks are naked, and the
feathers of the lower part of the neck hackle shaped. Of the two species, the Bal-
earic crane {Balearica pavonina) is mainly a North- and West- African form, while
the Cape crowned crane (B. chrysopelargus} is from the southern districts. In it
the general color of the plumage is leaden gray ; the crown shows rings of white and
yellow, with black tips to its component bristles; the bare parts of the face are red;
the top of the head and chin are black, as is the tail; while the outer feathers of the
wings are white and inner red, both being overhung by some loose yellow plumes.
In the Balearic crane, while the front part of the naked area on the side of the face
is red, the hinder portion is glistening white. The habits of both appear to be very
similar to those of several of the true cranes; these birds associating either in pairs
or small companies, and frequenting the neighborhood of water. On the west
coast the Balearic crane is domesticated by the natives.

2236 THE BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES

THE COURLANS
Family

Agreeing in its osteology and feathering very closely with the cranes, the
Brazilian courlan or limpkiu {Aramus scolopaceus} of tropical South America, is
generally regarded as indicating a distinct family, although by some writers it is
placed with the rails, from which it is at once distinguished by the slit-like nasal
apertures of the skull. This bird, which measures twenty-five inches in length, is
not unlike a large rail in general appearance; having a somewhat slender, straight
beak, which is double the length of the head, and characterized by its extreme
lateral compression. At the base of the beak the slit-like nostrils are situated in a
groove extending along half its length. The legs and feet are long and slender;
the lower half of the tibia being bare, and the compressed metatarsus covered with
large scutes. The wings are broad and rounded. In color, the Brazilian courlan is
chocolate brown, with purple and bronze reflections on the upper parts, and some
longitudinal white flecks on the head and sides of the neck. In the West Indies,
Florida, and Central America its place is taken by the Florida courlan (A. pictus),
distinguished by the white markings extending over the back, wing coverts, and
lower parts. Courlan frequent swampy districts, and are remarkably rail-like in
their habits, flying with the same slow, flapping flight, and, when flushed, soon
dropping again. Among reeds, where they make regular paths, their movements
are extremely rapid.

THE KAGU
Family RHINOCHOSTID^E

A remarkably gray-colored bird from New Caledonia, known as the kagu
{Rhinochcetus jubatus), forms the type of a distinct family nearly allied to the
cranes, from which it is probably a specialized offshoot. Somewhat larger than a
night heron, the kagu is easily recognized by its moderately-long beak, general
gray color, and the elongated pendent crest arising from the back of the head.
While agreeing with the cranes in the form of the nasal apertures in the skull, and
the absence of a notch in the breastbone, the kagu differs by the presence of a
powder-down patch on each side of the rump, and by the naked oil gland; while it
is unique among the group in having a bridged (desmognathous) palate. The
plumage of the under parts is reddish brown, as is the tip of the tail; the primary
quills are barred with black, white, and rufous, and the beak, legs, and feet are
orange. The kagu is a nocturnal bird, feeding upon worms, mollusks, and insects;
but of its breeding habits nothing is at present known. It is remarkable for the
strange antics it performs; these being exhibited to a certain extent even in captiv-
ity, and recalling those of the cranes.

THE SUN BITTERN

2237

Madagascar
Kagu

An allied bird from Madagascar (Mesites variegatus) differs from
the kagu and resembles the other members of the group in having a
slit (schizognathous) palate, and also in having the nostrils perforated
instead of completely separated. It is further distinguished from that bird by the
presence of a notch on each side of the lower border of the breastbone, and by the
more complex powder-down patches. The structure of the palate clearly shows
that it is a less specialized bird than the kagu, from which it is separated as the
type of a distinct family — the Mesitidtz. It may be mentioned that in the posses-
sion of powder-down patches these birds approach the herons; and it is in part
owing to this feature that Mr. Beddard suggests a relationship between the two
groups.

SUN BITTERN.

THE SUN BITTERN
Family EURTPTGID^.

The last of these aberrant crane-like birds is the so-called sun bittern (Eurypyga
helias), of South America, which is structurally characterized by having a notch on
each side of the breastbone, a naked oil gland, and powder-down patches, but shows
no bare tracts on the sides of the neck. It is unique among the group in having
helpless young. The sun bittern is a comparatively-small bird, measuring only six-
teen inches in length, with a long pointed beak, and a somewhat thin and elongated

2238 THE BUSTARDS, THICKNEES, AND CRANES

neck, and a peculiar transversely-striped coloration of white, brown, and black.
The head and neck are black, with a brown streak above the eye, and another run-
ning backward from the angle of the beak to the neck; the chin and throat are
white; the feathers of the back and scapular region are black striped with rusty red;
the bastard wing and wing coverts are black and white; the feathers of the neck
barred with brown and black; those of the under parts yellowish or brownish white;
the quills clear gray, mottled with white and black and barred with brown; while
the tail feathers are similarly colored, but distinguished by the broad bands of black
passing posteriorly into brown. The iris is red, the beak waxy yellow, and the leg
straw colored. This bird, which has not been inaptly compared to a large, broad-
winged butterfly when in flight, always frequents the wooded banks of rivers, and
is especially common on the Orinoco. Frequently solitary, although occasionally
seen in pairs, the sun bittern derives its name from its habit of basking in sunny
spots, where it delights to spread out its plumage. Its food consists of flies and
other insects, which are sought on the ground and low herbage; the bird at such
times being in constant motion, with its head darting here and there, and but sel-
dom taking to flight. In capturing insects it suddenly darts out its head with
lightning-like rapidity, and scarcely ever fails in its aim. The nest is usually placed
in a tree, at a distance of a few feet from the ground; the eggs being two in number,
and of a grayish color, with blotches and specks of reddish.

CHAPTER XIX

THE PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, AND GULLS —
ORDERS LIMICOL/E AND GAVI/E

THE birds named above, together with certain allied forms, are all closely con-
nected, but may be conveniently divided into two orders, of which the second is
represented by the gulls and terns. Both groups agree with those treated of in the
immediately preceding chapters in having cleft (schizognathous) palates, and their
young covered with down and active at birth. They differ, however, from all the
preceding groups of birds in that the humerus (as shown in the figure on p. 1467 of
the third volume) is furnished with a projecting (ectepicondylar) process on the
outer side of its lower extremity; while they are also characterized by the vertebrae of
the back having their articular surfaces of a more or less cup and ball type, instead
of saddle shaped. In all of them the nasal apertures in the skull are slit-like (schiz-
orhinal),* and in all the oil gland is tufted, while on the upper back the spinal tract
of feathers is forked. The whole group is a very extensive one, including consider-
ably over three hundred species.

The plovers, snipe, sandpipers, coursers, etc., collectively constitut-
ing the order Limicolae, are long-legged, and frequently long-billed,
birds, characterized by the angle of the lower jaw being produced back-
ward and recurved, by the very general presence of basipterygoid processes on the
rostrum of the skull, and by the feet being but seldom completely webbed, as well
as by the absence of a certain feature connected with the bones of the wing which
is characteristic of the gulls, and will be alluded to under that heading, f As a rule
the breastbone has two notches on its hinder border, and in some cases the third
toe is serrated, while the third and fourth toes may be connected for some distance
by a web, or all three front toes may have lobe-like expansions, or even a web. In
all cases the first toe is small, and it may be elevated above the plane of the others,
or even wanting. The wings are relatively long and pointed, with ten primary
quills; while the tail is short, with the number of feathers variable. As a rule these
birds undergo an autumnal and a spring molt; the young birds in their first plum-
age more or less closely resembling the adults in their summer dress. In their first
autumn, the young begin to change into the second plumage, differing very little
from the winter dress of the adults; the change taking place, however, not by a molt,
but by an actual alteration in the color of the feathers themselves although a few
battered feathers may be replaced. In the succeeding spring these immature birds
assume the bright summer plumage of the adults, although they differ from the
latter in having brighter wing coverts; these feathers being only changed by the

* Except in the black-backed courser (Pluvianus).

t Mr. Beddard (Proc. Zool. Soc., 1890, p. 339) has formulated certain characteristics by which the skulls of the
group can be defined from those of the cranes and gulls, but they are too abstruse to be quoted here.

(2239)

2240 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, fACANAS, GULLS

adults in the autumn, and thus permanently presenting the dull hues of the winter
dress. In their habits all the members of the order are more or less migratory, and
from this cause the winter distribution of the group is well-nigh cosmopolitan. Con-
siderable diversity of view obtains as to the classification of the typical Limicolae
By some they are divided into the three family groups of plovers, sandpipers and
snipes, and pratincoles; the thicknees — here classed with the bustards — being
added as a fourth. In his monograph on the distribution of these birds, Mr. See-
bohm classed the whole of them (inclusive of the thicknees) in a single family,
but in a later work he removed the thicknees and the black-backed courser to form
one family and the coursers and pratincoles, together with certain other birds, as a
second family, both of which were placed next to the gulls. An equally-marked
diversity of view obtains as to the number of genera into which these birds should
be divided; Mr. Seebohm being one of those who uses such terms in an extended
sense. In both these matters we endeavor to take a middle course.

PRATINCOLES AND COURSERS
Family CURSORIID^E

The birds above named differ from all the other members of the order in the
want of basipterygoid processes on the rostrum of the under surface of the skull;
while they are further characterized by having their oval nostrils opening on the
surface of the beak without being sunk in a groove. In both these characteristics
they resemble the thicknees, to which the black-backed courser presents a further
approximation in the oval (holorhinal) nasal apertures of the skull. Externally,
these birds may be distinguished from the thicknees and bustards by the presence
of four toes in the pratincoles and by the metatarsus of the coursers being covered
with scutes instead of reticulated scales. The absence of basipterygoid processes in
these birds cannot justify their affiliation to the gulls; but it may be a question
whether the pratincoles are rightly included in the same family as the coursers.

The forked tail and somewhat swallow-like appearance and habits
of the pratincole {Glareola pratincola) render it, at first sight, some-
what difficult to believe that these birds are near relatives of the plovers; but closer
observation will show that their comparatively-long legs are adapted for running
in the usual plover-like manner, and that it is only when on the wing hawking for
flies that a superficial resemblance is presented to the swallows. Moreover, in cer-
tain members of the genus, the forking of the tail is well-nig"h obsolete. As a
group, these birds, of which there are ten species, are characterized by the presence
of the first toe, and by the tail being more or less forked. The third toe is united
to the fourth by a short membrane; and the first quill of the wings is the longest.
By Mr. Seebohm they are regarded as specially modified allies of the coursers, re-
taining the first toe of the ancestral stock. Many of them show resemblances to
the latter in their black under wing coverts, white upper tail coverts, and the ser-
ration of the claw of the third toe. The group is confined to the Old World,

PRATINCOLES AND COURSERS 2241

where it is represented in Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia; but the majority
of the species are tropical. Like the coursers, the pratincoles feed almost exclu-
sively on insects, although they differ from those allies in capturing their prey
while on the wing. They frequent sandy plains or marshes, and the banks of riv-
ers and lakes, as well as lagoons. At all times of the year they associate in flocks,
although each male selects but a single partner. The common pratincole, which is
the typical representative of the genus, is a small bird measuring from nine to ten

COMMON PRATINCOLE.
(One-half natural size.)

inches in length, and inhabiting the warmer parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa; an
occasional straggler rarely reaching the British Islands. In color most of the up-
per parts are clove brown; the primaries nearly black; the upper tail coverts white;
the feathers of the deeply-forked tail white at the base and elsewhere brownish
black; the chin white; the throat pale buff, bordered by a black line ascending to
the eye; the breast brownish buff; the under parts and thighs buffish white, and
the under wing coverts and axillaries * chestnut. The especial characteristics of the
species are the great length of the outer tail feathers, and the chestnut axillaries
Nordmann's pratincole (G. melanoptera) , which inhabits a large area of Central and

* The long and stiff under wing coverts lying nearest to the armpit.
141

2242 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

Northern Asia in summer, migrating in winter to South Africa, may be distin-
guished by its black axillaries; while the Indian pratincole (G. orientals}, ranging
from India to North Australia, differs from the common species by the slight fork-
ing of its tail. The white-naped pratincole (G. nuchalis) and Biittikofer's pratin-
cole {G. megapoda) may be cited as examples of an African group of the genus, in
which the nape has a light colored collar, and the forking of the tail is very slight,
Of the common species Mr. Seebohm writes that, although it sometimes frequents
cultivated lands, ' ' its favorite haunts are on the sandy tracts either near the sea or
on the table-lands of the interior. The pratincole spends a considerable portion of
its time in the air, hawking for insects like a gigantic swallow, skimming along
with graceful motion, wheeling and darting about, chasing its prey in all directions.
Upon the ground it is equally at its ease, and runs to and fro with surprising swift-
ness in spite of its short legs. Sometimes it even wades in the little pools with
which its haunts often abound; frequently it flies at a considerable height, occasion-
ally very low, just skimming along above the ground." Beetles and grasshoppers
appear to constitute its favorite food These birds do not make any nest, but lay
their two or three eggs on the bare ground, in most cases without even taking the
trouble of scratching a hollow for their reception. The eggs, which are generally
laid in May, are nearly oval, and extremely fragile; their ground color varying
from yellow to slaty gray, upon which are numerous streaks and blotches of dark
blackish brown. I^ike many other members of the order, pratincoles endeavor to
draw intruders away from their nests by simulating lameness or some other injury.
An early migrant, this species usually reaches its breeding grounds in Spain,
France, the valley of the Danube, Asia Minor, or North Africa during April.

Although agreeing with the lapwings in the scutes covering their
Coursers , L. , , .. , ,

legs, the handsome birds known as coursers resemble the pratincoles

in the absence of grooves in the beak for the nostrils, and likewise in the character-
istics of the base of the skull; but they differ in the absence of the first toe, in the
short and nearly even tail, and in their habit of taking their food while on the
ground. The typical genus includes nine well-defined species, which are mainly
restricted to the warmer parts of the Old World, exclusive of Australia; while the
African black-backed courser represents a genus {Pluvianus) by itself, distinguished
from all other members of the order by the oval (holorhinal) nasal apertures of the
skull.

The best-known and typical representative of the group is the
Cream-Colored , J- „. \ •.•«.• <u tH

Courser cream-colored courser (Cursortus galhcus), which inhabits the desert

areas stretching from Northern and Northeastern Africa, through
Arabia, Persia, Baluchistan, and Afghanistan, to the Punjab, Sind, and Rajputana,
and occasionally wanders into Britain, and other parts of Europe. A somewhat
aberrant member of the group, as regards coloration, this species is characterized
by the general pale, wood-brown hue tinged with reddish buff on the upper parts;
the head being buff on the top, and gray tipped with black behind; a white, and
below it a black streak running above the eye; the primaries and under wing coverts
nearly black; the secondaries dark brown with buff outer webs and white tips; the
tail feathers marked with a black spot near the end; the under parts btiffish white,

PRATINCOLES AND COURSERS

2243

and the legs cream color. The nearly black axillaries and under wing coverts,
coupled with the buff outer webs of the secondaries, will, however, serve to dis-
tinguish it from all its allies, the small courser (C. somalensis} being smaller, with
grayish-buff axillaries. In length the cream-colored courser varies from nine to
ten inches.

Essentially a desert bird, the cream-colored courser (as may be seen in a case of
desert-haunting birds in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington)
harmonizes so closely in coloration with its sombre surroundings as to be almost
invisible at a short distance. In such districts, Mr. Seebohm states that ' ' it lives

BLACK-BACKED COURSER.

(One-half natural size.)

on the arid sand plains or on the bare elevated plateaus, where scarce a tuft of
scanty herbage or a bush is to be found. It loves to frequent the bases of sand
hills, and is sometimes seen in the miserable desert pastures or among the
sand downs on the outskirts of the oases. In these dismal, uninteresting regions
the courser trips about in pairs, or less frequently in little parties. If it is not
exactly a shy bird, it appears to be a very wary one, and runs quickly off to conceal
itself as the traveler approaches. It prefers to run like lightning over the sand
rather than to take wing, every now and then pausing for a moment to look warily

2244 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

around to see if it is still pursued. Wheu alarmed, it often runs off and conceals
itself either by squatting close to the sand, or hiding under a stone or tuft of herb-
age, where its sand-colored plumage effectually conceals it from view. It generally
runs a little distance before taking wing, and seldom seems to fly very high. If a
flock be observed, they are usually seen scattered up and down the sandy tract, not
feeding close together. When danger threatens, each looks out for itself, taking
refuge in the nearest available cover, or crouching flat down on the sand.'' The
food of this bird consists of insects and their larvae, more especially the swarms of
grasshoppers frequenting its haunts. It is reported to generally lay its two or
three eggs in a hollow of the ground, which may be a natural one or excavated by
the bird itself; but in the Punjab it may nest among stubble or beneath tussocks of
grass. The eggs have an ochreous-buff ground color, blotched and speckled with
huffish brown, and marbled with grayish veinings which appear to underlie the
darker colors.

This species (Pluvianus cegyptius) differs, as we have seen, in the

ac - ac e ^^^^3^ of the nasal region of the skull from its allies, and is on
Courser

this account referred to a distinct genus. Externally, it may be rec-
ognized at a glance by its uniformly black back and scapulars, the black also ex-
tending as a band on each side of the breast, running forward as a streak below the
eye to the beak, and crowning the summit of the head. It resembles Jerdon's
courser (C. bitorquatus) of India, in having white bands across some of the primary
quills, and also in the absence of serrations on the claw of the third toe; while in
the relative shortness of the metatarsus it approaches Lich ten stein's courser (C.
senegalensis) of tropical Africa, in which the serrations of the claw of the third toe
may also be sometimes wanting. An accidental visitor to Spain, Algeria, and Pal-
estine, the black-backed courser inhabits the Nile valley, from Cairo to Khartum,
and thence ranges across Central Africa to the Gabun and Angola.

This courser, often termed the black-headed plover, is very common on the
banks of the Nile, where several pairs may often be seen on a single sand bank, and
brings itself under notice by the loud chattering cry it utters every time it takes
wing. The most remarkable peculiarity in its habits is its custom of burying its
eggs in moist sand where they undergo incubation, the trait having been verified by
Captain Verner during the Sudan expedition. That gentleman on two occasions
had the good fortune to come across a clutch of three eggs thus buried, in the sec-
ond instance having seen the bird at work. A relative also noticed that in another
case one of the birds damped the sand round the eggs by first wetting its breast at
the water's edge, and then running to squat down for a couple of minutes. The
action of the sun on the damp sand gives rise to a bleaching process in the eggs,
which in their regularly oval cont5ur resemble those of the cream-colored courser.

THE PLOVER TRIBE

2245

THE PLOVER TRIBE
Family CHARADRIID^

The rest of the more typical members of the order may be included in the
family Charadriidce ', of which the essential feature is that the rostrum on the base
of the skull is furnished with basipterygoid processes. This family may be sub-
divided into three subfamilies, of which the first is represented by the plovers, dot-
terels, and lapwings. While agreeing with the pratincoles and coursers in having
the third and fourth toes connected by a web at the base, these short-billed birds of
the subfamily Charadriince differ in that the nostrils are situated in a groove ex-
tending considerably in advance of the basal fourth of the beak.

The plovers of the genus sEgialitis and the two following genera
e " may be distinguished from all other forms by the peculiar shape of

the beak, coupled with the circumstance that in the sharply-pointed
wings the first quill is the longest. As regards the beak, this, after tapering regu-
larly for about half its length, swells out suddenly both above and below near the
tip. In this characteristic these birds resemble the lapwings, from which they are
distinguished, not only by a difference in the relative lengths of the quills of the
wings, but likewise by the circumstance that the two central tail feathers are
of a uniform brown color for more
than two-thirds their length,
without any white at their base,
and also by the metatarsus being
reticulated. Of plovers in general,
Mr. Seebohm writes that they in-
habit almost every description of
country, " from the bare mountain
tops to the richly cultivated lands,
the open moors and commons, and
the seashore. During the breed-
ing season they are more or less
sociable, and in the winter often
congregate in large flocks. They
run and walk with ease, and their
flight is powerful, moderately
quick, and well sustained. Their

usual note is a loud and shrill whistle, often considerably modulated, during the
pairing season, into a not unmusical trill, uttered as the bird takes a short flight in
the air, after the manner of the pipits." All feed on insects, worms, mollusks,
etc., and they nest either in some depression on the ground, or on shingle or sand;
while their eggs, like those of the lapwings, are generally four in number and of
the well-known pear shape, with a ground color of some shade of buff, upon which
are brownish black blotches and streaks and underlying markings of gray. The

COMMON RINGED PI.OVER.

2246 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, J AC AN AS, GULLS

ringed plovers derive their name from the dark ring or gorget round the neck of
the majority of the species, a white ring being also generally present above the
dark one; but in one species this only forms a collar on the back of the neck, and in
another both are wanting. Obviously, therefore, this dark ring (which is black in
the breeding dress of the males) will not serve to characterize the genus. Accord-
ing to Mr. Seebohm, the group may be best defined by the absence of the first toe,
the dark transverse band near the end of the tail feathers, and the white abdomen
and axillaries, the two latter features serving to distinguish them from the three-
toed dotterels, which also have a dark band across the tail. The beak is always
much shorter than the head, and generally pale colored at the base, while the legs
and feet are invariably of a light tint. Moreover, while the central pair of tail
feathers have but very small white tips, in the other feathers of that part the size
of this white tip gradually increases to the outermost one.

The ringed plovers include at least twelve species, which are distributed over
the greater part of the world except South America, although but poorly represented
in India and the adjacent countries during the breeding season. The majority fre-
quent the banks of rivers and lakes, rather than the coast, laying their eggs in a
mere hollow of the ground. The prettily-colored common ringed plover (s£. hiati-
cula), of which there is a larger and a smaller race, — the former more common in the
British Islands and adjacent parts of Europe, — belongs to a group of the genus in
which the central half of the outer webs of the innermost primaries is white; while
it is specially characterized by the whole of the under parts being white, with the
exception of the lores and a single broad band across the breast both of which are
black in adult males, and also by the web between the third and fourth toes ex-
tending only to their first joints. In length it varies from eight to seven inches.
The larger race is the only one definitely known to breed in Britain, while the
smaller one breeds in Greenland, Iceland, Nova Zembla, etc., as well as in Western
Siberia, Turkestan, and North Africa; in summer it visits the greater part of
Europe northward of the Alps, and in winter it spreads over the basin of the Medi-
terranean and Africa. In North America it is represented by the half- webbed
ringed plover (s£. semipalmata) , differing by the web between the third and fourth
toes extending to their second joints, and likewise by the presence of a shorter web
between the second and third toes. The little ringed plover (^£\ minor], which is
an occasional visitor to Britain, and breeds over the greater part of Europe and
Asia north of the Himalayas, wintering in India and Africa, may be taken as an
example of the second group of smaller species characterized by the dark outer webs
of the inner primaries. It is specially distinguished by the scapulars being colored
like the back, and by the outer tail feathers being less than a quarter of an inch
shorter than the central pair, the latter feature distinguishing it from Hodgson's
ringed plover (s£. placida) of India. In length this species is six and one-half
inches, but a resident Indian variety is smaller. Another well-known representative
of the first group is the American kill-deer plover (SE. vodfera), which measures
from nine to ten inches in length, and is characterized by the chestnut-buff color of
the lower back, rump, and upper tail coverts. In England the breeding season of
the common ringed plover commences in March, and the flocks which have collected

THE PLOVER TRIBE 2247

during the winter begin to break up into pairs; the eggs are not, however, laid till
April, May, or June, and have been found as late as August. When their breeding
grounds are visited, the birds exhibit but little anxiety, as their protective colora-
tion renders the eggs very difficult of detection.

The sand plovers, as typically represented by the Kentish plover
{^Egialophilus cantianus) , while agreeing with the ringed plovers in
the absence of the first toe, and their white abdomen, are distinguished
by the lack of a distinct dark band near the end of the tail feathers, and also by the
white bases of the outer webs of the innermost primary quills, the latter feature
forming a white wing patch somewhat similar to that occurring in the common
ringed plover and its allies, although smaller. There are some twenty species of
sand plovers distributed over the greater part of the world, except the Arctic regions,
but more numerous in the Southern than the Northern Hemisphere. The Kentish
plover, which breeds on the shores of Kent and Sussex, as well as the coasts of the
seas and salt lakes of a great portion of Europe and Asia, visiting India and Africa
in winter, may be recognized by the white collar round the neck, the dark
patch on each side of the breast, the presence of a white area on the central
portion of the shaft of the third primary quill, and the black legs; the length
varying from six to seven inches. Beyond the circumstance that they are all
shore birds, mainly frequenting open stretches of sand, upon which the eggs
are laid, there is nothing calling for notice in the habits of this genus. The wry-
billed plover (s£. frontalis) of New Zealand is unique in having the beak bent on
one side.

By many ornithologists the dotterels are regarded as belonging to a
and genus (Eudromias) distinct from that containing the true plovers, but

Dotterels t^s *s not t*16 v*ew adopted by Mr. Seebohm; and, as we are in the
main following his system, we will here rank them with the plovers
(Charadrius} . The black under parts of the dotterels appear indeed to exhibit rela-
tionship with some of the true plovers, this affinity being confirmed by the colora-
tion of the eggs and the mode of nesting in the two groups. Nevertheless, the
inclusion of all these forms in a single genus renders its definition a somewhat diffi-
cult matter. Having the general characteristics common to all the plovers, the
members of the present genus may be recognized, according to Mr. Seebohm, by
the possession of either one or two of the following features, namely, colored axil-
laries, the presence of the first toe, a barred tail, or a dark patch on the abdomen.
The beak may be rather longer than in the ringed plovers, but in both groups there
are twelve feathers in the tail. Whereas, however, the majority of the species
(about a dozen in number) agree with the two preceding genera in the absence of
the first toe, that digit is present in four members of the genus. The group is
most numerously represented during the breeding season in the Arctic region, al-
though some species nest in Temperate Europe and Asia, and others in Australia
and South America, while during the winter these birds are dispersed over the
greater portion of the globe. Unlike the members of the two preceding groups, the
true plovers and dotterels inhabit open plains, mountains, and the Siberian tundras,
as well as the shores of seas and lakes, and in this respect resemble their cousins,

2248 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, J AC AN AS, GULLS

the lapwings. In constructing slight nests for the reception of their four eggs,
they likewise differ from the foregoing members of the family.

The handsome and well-known bird termed the golden plover (C.
pluvialis) is the typical representative, not only of the true plovers,
but likewise of the entire genus and family. The true plovers, in which the first
toe may be absent or present, are collectively characterized by the barred tails of
the adults, the black under parts in the breeding dress, and the minute reticulation
of the scales of the metatarsus. The golden plover, which attains a length of from
ten to eleven inches, is specially characterized by having but three toes, all the tail
feathers barred, and the axillaries white. In the breeding dress of the adult male
the upper parts are nearly black, spotted with yellow, the forehead, a stripe above
the eye, the sides of the neck, the axillaries, thighs, flanks, and under tail coverts
being white, with some dusky mottling, while the lores, chin, throat, breast, and
abdomen are black. The beak and legs are nearly black, and the iris is dark hazel.
In the female the white parts have more dusky mottlings, and the dark under areas
are browner, with some white feathers. Breeding locally in Britain and some other
districts of Northwestern Europe, this species has its chief nesting haunts on the
fields of Norway and the Russian and Siberian tundras, while in winter it frequents
the shores of the Mediterranean, whence it wanders as far south as the Cape. To
the east of the Yenisei it is replaced by the Asiatic golden plover ( C. fiilvus) , dis-
tinguished by its gray axillaries, this species wintering in India, Australia, and the
intermediate regions, and being replaced in America by a variety whose breeding
grounds are in the northern half of that continent. The second British representa-
tive of the group is the gray plover (C. helveticus}, which is a rather larger bird,
easily distinguished by the presence of a small first toe and black axillaries, its
breeding range comprising the circumpolar tundras beyond the forest regions, and
its winter range including Southern Europe, Africa, India, Japan, Australia, Brazil,
and Peru. It resembles the golden plover in undergoing a marked seasonal change
of plumage.

The golden plover, whose habits may be taken as typical of those of the group,
is a bird of powerful and sustained flight, flying when in flocks in a more or less
wedge-shaped formation, and wheeling in the air, especially before pitching on the
ground, in a peculiarly graceful manner. On the ground it is also equally active,
running and walking with speed, and frequently wading breast deep in the shallows.
Frequenting in summer the open moors, heaths, and tundras, in winter it resorts to
low-lying marshes, meadows near the sea, and flat coasts; while its Asiatic ally is at
that time frequently to be seen on the marshy lakes {jhils} of India. To a certain
extent gregarious, even in the breeding season, the golden plover collects in immense
flocks in autumn preparatory to its migration, and during the latter period moves in
companies which may be numbered by thousands, Mr. C. Dixon stating that, toward
the end of October and beginning of November, he has known these birds "fly over
from Continental Europe in almost one incessant stream, the flocks succeeding one
another so quickly as to form a nearly unbroken throng. ' ' This plover feeds largely
by night, but the nature of its food naturally varies somewhat with its seasonal
change of habit, in summer consisting largely of insects, and in winter mainly of

THE PLOVER TRIBE 2249

various small aquatic animals. In Britain the breeding season commences about the
middle of May, the nest being formed of dry herbage, with scraps of heath and
moss, and situated either in a hole in the ground, on a tuft of herbage, under the
shelter of a bunch of cotton grass, or, more rarely, among short grass or heath.
The eggs are very much like those of the lapwing, from which they may be distin-
guished by their superior size, the absence of olive in their markings, and their
brighter color. The parent birds are adepts in the art of inveigling away the in-
truder from the neighborhood of their eggs or young, the latter scattering them-
selves in all directions at the first alarm, to seek protection by skulking among the
surrounding herbage.

The dotterels, of which the typical forms have but three toes, and,
Dotterels . ' r

as already said, are frequently separated under the name of Eudromias,

are smaller birds, forming a somewhat heterogeneous group, with but few distinc-
tive common characteristics, although none of them have the tail barred. The com-
mon dotterel, which attains a length of nine inches, is one of the species resembling
the typical plovers in having the abdomen of the adult in the breeding plumage
black, and may be recognized by this feature, coupled with the rich chestnut hue of
the lower breast at the same season, the gray axillaries, and the circumstance that
the beak is shorter than the third toe without the claw, the two latter features serv-
ing to distinguish this prettily-marked bird, at all seasons. Although both sexes
are not very much unlike, the female is somewhat the larger and handsomer of the
two, being brighter colored, and having more black on the abdomen, but in both
there is the same white crescent, narrowly bordered with black, on the breast. The
dotterel chiefly breeds on the northern tundras, beyond the limits of forest, of Europe
and Asia, although a few nest in the northern parts of Britain, while it winters in
Palestine, Egypt, and North Africa, a few individuals remaining on the northern
border of the Mediterranean. An allied form is the Oriental dotterel ( C. veredus) ,
which breeds in Mongolia, and winters in the countries from Java to Australia, this
species being distinguished by its shorter third toe, and the white abdomen in the
summer dress. "The dotterel," observes Mr. Seebohm, "is essentially a bird of
the fallows, and where there is no cultivated land it picks out the dry, bare places
on which to feed. It avoids the swamps, and is seldom or never seen on the banks
of rivers or lakes. The seashore has no attractions for the dotterel, nor does it seem
to care for pasture, but it loves to trip among clods of earth, and seeks its food on
the bare mountain sides. There it is very tame, and is easier to approach than any
other species of plover with which I am acquainted." From this tameness the bird
derives its title — the name "dotterel" signifying a foolish or dull person. Dot-
terels migrate in even greater numbers than the true plovers, and from the circum-
stance that out of the tens of thousands that pass in spring from Africa to the
Arctic tundras scarcely are seen to alight in the intervening countries, it is surmised
that this tremendous journey is accomplished in the course of a single night. Dot-
terels formerly bred in the neighborhood of Carlisle. The nest is merely a slight
hollow in the ground, or among moss or grass, in which three eggs are deposited.
Curiously enough, the male dotterel takes by far the larger share in the work of in-
cubation and rearing the young, this being not unfrequently the case in those rare

2250 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, J AC AN AS, GULLS

instances where the female is superior in size and brilliancy of coloration to her lord
and master. The reason for such a total change in the relations of the two sexes
remains, however, a complete mystery.

The three members of this group in which the first toe remains are the Falkland
island dotterel (C. modestus}, the Magellanic plover (C. sociabilis), and the Aus-
tralian four-toed dotterel (C. rufiventris] .

Closely allied to the plovers are the birds commonly known as lap-
wings or green plovers, some of the distinctive features of which have
been already noticed on p. 2245. These birds differ from the plovers in having at
least the basal third of the middle pair of tail feathers white; by the wings, which

COMMON I.APWING.

(One-third natural size.)

may or may not be armed with a spur, being blunt, with the first and second quills
shorter than the third and fourth, which are of nearly equal length, and by the front
of the metatursus being covered with large scutes, instead of small reticulated scales.
The head is often provided with a crest.

The first toe may or may not be present, and the presence or absence of
that toe affords grounds for dividing the group into two sections, which some
writers (whom we follow) consider worthy of generic distinction; the four-toed
types being termed Vanellus, while those with but three toes are designated
Hoplopterus. About fourteen species of lapwings are generally recognized, these

THE PLOVER TRIBE 2251

being distributed over the temperate and tropical portions of Europe, Asia,
Africa, and South America. These birds derive their common English name from
their slow and flapping flight, which is at the same time graceful, and often very
erratic. In general habits they closely resemble the plovers, but most of them are
gregarious at all seasons; and in summer their favorite haunts are open downs,
moors, fallows, or marshy commons, although some kinds seek the neighborhood
of the coast in winter. Partially nocturnal, their food comprises insects, worms,
and mollusks; and their well-known cries are loud and frequently melancholy in
tone. Their nesting habits and eggs are similar to those of the plovers.

The common lapwing ( Vanellus cristatus) is the typical representa-
tive of its genus, and such a familiar bird as to need but little in the
Lapwings

way of description. Belonging to a group in which there is no spur
on the wing, this species is specially distinguished by the combination of a metallic
lustre on the green plumage of the upper parts, and the absence of white on the
wing coverts, while it is also the only member of the two genera in which both the
upper and under tail coverts are chestnut buff. The crest is of great length. This
handsome bird has the widest geographical range of any of the lapwings, extending
from Britain to Japan, and also occurring on the two sides of the American
Continent in Alaska and Greenland, while in winter it migrates as far south as
Northern Africa, Persia, and India. Resident throughout the year in the British
Islands, in the Arctic regions of Scandinavia and the tundras of Siberia it is but
a summer visitor. Not only is this bird the most widely -distributed member of
the genus, but the species is probably the one most numerous in individuals, as is
attested by the enormous number of its eggs which reach the English market
where they form by far the greater proportion of those sold as plovers' eggs.
When associated in their enormous winter flocks, lapwings are among the most
difficult of birds to approach, more especially from their constant habit of changing
their ground. When the breeding place is approached, "the old bird," writes Mr.
Seebohm, "glides steadily off the nest, runs a little distance, then rises in the air
to flutter restlessly above the intruder's head, uttering its harsh, wailing cries.
So closely do the eggs resemble surrounding objects in color that it is no easy
task to find them, but the old birds very often betray their whereabouts by
hovering above them; at these times the birds are easily approached, often coming
within a few feet. When the young are hatched, they soon follow their parents
in search of food. If menaced by danger, the old birds quit their offspring at once,
fly into the air, or reel and tumble along the ground as if wounded, while the
nestlings scurry off in different directions and hide themselves among the herb-
age."

As an example of a species of this genus we may refer to the Cayenne lapwing
( V. cayennensis] , and its variety the Patagonian lapwing, in which the crest is very
small. These birds, which are known in the pampas by the name of teru-teru,
generally live in pairs, and have a curious habit of indulging frequently in a kind
of dance or march, which is described by Mr. W. H. Hudson. This observer writes
that anyone watching a pair of these birds, will see an individual from another pair
rise and fly to them. Advancing to receive their visitor, the pair place themselves

2252 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

behind it; "then all three, keeping step, begin a rapid, uttering, resonant drum-
ming note, in time with their movements, the notes of the pair behind being emitted
in a stream, like a drum roll, while the leader utters loud single notes at regular
intervals. The march ceases; the leader elevates his wings and stands erect and mo-
tionless, still uttering loud notes, while the other two, with puffed-out plumage and
standing exactly abreast, stoop forward and downward until the tips of their beaks
touch the ground, and, sinking their rhythmical voices to a murmur, remain for
some time in this posture. The performance is then over, and the visitor goes back
to his own ground and mate, to receive a visitor himself later on." For the truth -

EGYPTIAN SPUR-WINGED I,APWING.

(One-third natural size.)

fulness of these observations the present writer can vouch from personal experience.
On the pampas these lapwings are a perfect nuisance, dashing up during the breed-
ing season almost into the face of the traveler, and then suddenly wheeling off with
a sudden swoop, at the same time giving vent to their harsh and monotonous cry of
teru-teru. This extreme boldness, and perfect fearlessness of man, is however, as
was long ago remarked by Darwin, characteristic of most of the birds of the Argen-
tine pampas.

Of the three-toed lapwings, among which there are some species with a wing
spur and others without the same, while the presence of a crest is likewise incon-

THE PLOVER TRIBE 2253

stant, we select as the best-known example the Egyptian spur-winged lapwing
(ffoplopterus armatus}, which breeds in the valley of the Nile, in Sene-
gambia, and probably also in the intervening districts of Central Africa,
migrating in the spring to Palestine and some parts of Southeastern1
Europe. It has large spurs, and may be distinguished from its allies by the greater
wing coverts being white, and the lesser ones brown; and it is also unique in having,
when adult, the crown of the head, forehead, nape, chin, throat, breast, flanks, and
legs, black. This bird is extremely common in Egypt and Nubia, where it fre-
quents the banks of lakes, rivers, and canals, as well as marshes and swamps. The
chief interest connected with this species is that it appears to be the bird alluded to
by Herodotus as being in the habit of entering the open mouths of crocodiles for
the purpose of feeding. For a long time it was considered that the black-backed
courser was the bird in question, and that the whole story was a myth. The late
Dr. L,eith Adams gave, however, good reasons for regarding the zic-zac (as this
bird is called by the natives) as being really the kind alluded to, while the recent
observations of Mr. J. M. Cook strongly confirm the original story. The narrative
of the latter gentleman, in a somewhat condensed form, is as follows: " Early in
1876," he writes, " I was on the Nile, between the first and second cataracts, and
noticed on a large sand bank some crocodiles of considerable size, and several of the
birds which are called by all the natives the crocodile bird. As we had plenty of
time, I decided that we would spend a few hours in watching the crocodiles and the
crocodile birds. For this purpose, during the dark hours we had a small pit dug on
the western side of the large sand bank, and about the peep of day the following
morning we ensconced ourselves in the pit, with the intention of remaining until the
crocodiles came on to the bank, as we believed they did every day, to bask in the
sunshine and sleep. We watched patiently until about noon, when two large croco-
diles came out of the water on to the bank, and apparently were soon asleep. Several
crocodile birds commenced flitting over them, and through our field glasses we
watched one bird, and saw it deliberately go up to a crocodile, apparently asleep,
which opened its jaws. The bird hopped in, and the crocodile closed its jaws. In
what appeared to be a very short time, probably not more than a minute or two,
the crocodile opened its jaws, and we saw the crocodile bird go down to the water's
edge. As the sand bank was, I should say, at least a half a mile across, and the
bird's back was turned toward us, we could not see whether it vomited in the
water or drank, but in the course of a few seconds it returned to the crocodile,
which opened its mouth again, and the bird again entered. The mouth was closed,
and in a short time was opened again for the bird to come out, and the same opera-
tion was repeated at the river bank. We saw the same bird enter the crocodile's
mouth three times, and on three occasions run to the water to either vomit or drink.
Having satisfied our curiosity, and knowing that we could not bag the crocodile,
and there being two or three crocodile birds about, I took aim and shot two of
them. I could not assert positively that I shot the actual bird that we had seen go
in and out of the crocodile's mouth, but one of the birds was presented to the Lei-
cester Museum, and the other I have in a case at home." The so-called crocodile
bird was subsequently identified with the present species.

2254 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

Wattled

Lapwings

Stilts

That cordially hated Indian bird the did-he-do-it (so called from its
cry, which alarms all worthier game in its neighborhood), or red-
wattled lapwing {Lobivanellus indicus), may be taken to represent a
large group of species inhabiting the warmer parts of the Old World, all of which
are distinguished from the members of the two preceding genera by the presence of
a fleshy lobe or wattle between the eye and the beak. Like the other lapwings,
they may be divided into two groups, according to the number of the toes; the four-
toed species constituting the genus Lobivanellus, while those in which the first toe
is absent are separated as Sarciophorus , the Indian yellow- wattled lapwing (S.
bilobus) being a familiar example of the latter group. The red-wattled species, fre-
quently termed the bronze-winged mottled lapwing, which may be distinguished by
the broad white band at the end of the tail, ranges from Southern Persia and Balu-
chistan all over India and Ceylon, where it is one of the commonest of birds, while
in Gilgit, and probably Kashmir, it occurs only as a summer visitor. To the east
of the Bay of Bengal it is replaced by a variety differing by having a white collar
on the back of the neck behind the black of the head and fore- neck. As there is
nothing particularly noteworthy in the habits of these lapwings, we pass on to the
consideration of the second subfamily.

The beautiful, long-legged birds known as stilts and avocets are our
first representatives of the Totanintz, or second subfamily of the group
under consideration, all the members of which are characterized by the nostrils be-
ing situated in the basal fourth of the more or less elongated beak, and by at least
the third and fourth toes being united at their bases by a membrane. The genera
of this subfamily are largely characteristic of the Arctic and Temperate regions of
the globe, the great majority having a circumpolar distribution.

The stilts, or stilt plovers (Himantopus) , derive their title from the extreme
elongation of their slender legs, which recall those of the jacanas and parras.
Belonging to a group of four genera, collectively characterized by the metatarsus
being reticulated on all sides, the stilts are specially distinguished by the length

of the metatarsus, which
is equal to or greater
than that of the long,
slender, and nearly
straight beak, by the ab-
sence of the first toe, the
slight webbing of the
front toes, and the black
plumage of the upper
parts. The wings of
these birds are long and
pointed, with the first
quill the longest; the tail
is rounded; a large por-
tion of the tibia is bare;
and the bill is slightly curved upward at the point with the nostrils at the sides of

HEAD OF CHILIAN STII/T.
(From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1873.)

THE PLOVER TRIBE 2255

its base slit-like in form. The genus includes six well-defined species and a variety,
which are distributed over Southern Europe and Asia, Africa, Australasia, and a
considerable part of America, although wanting in the northern regions of this con-
tinent. A single species, the black- winged stilt (.//. candidus}, which is an occa-
sional visitor to Britain, inhabits Southern Europe, and may be distinguished from its
allies by having in the adult condition the whole of the head and neck white, although
immature examples have some black on the crown of the head and back of the neck.
In the adult male, which measures from thirteen to fourteen inches in length, the
upper parts and wings are black, glossed with green on the back; the upper tail
coverts and tail are pearly gray; while the whole of the rest of the plumage is pure
white; the beak being black, and the iris, legs, and feet crimson. Resident in
India, this bird visits Burma in the winter, and straggles as far east as New Zea-
land; while in summer it resorts to Southern Europe, and is found at all seasons in
many parts of Africa. One of its nearest allies is the Australian stilt (//. leuco-
cephalus), in which the back of the neck is black, with a white collar separating it
from the dark area of the black. Of the South- American species, the Chilian stilt
(H. brasiliensis) , which winters in Brazil, has the black of the neck extending for-
ward beneath the eye.

Stilts are essentially marsh birds, although they always keep to open water,
in which they may be seen standing up to their knees on the lookout for insects,
mollusks, tadpoles, etc. ; their most favorite resorts being lagoons, where the water
is brackish. They are generally found in small parties, and whether on land, in
the water, or in the air, are remarkable for their graceful appearance. They walk
with a deliberate step, which may be quickened into a run; and they fly straight
but slowly, with the neck outstretched and the long legs extended beyond the tail.
Ordinarily silent and far from shy, in the breeding season these birds utter a cry
resembling the syllables, kit, kot, kit, and are most assiduous in endeavoring to
lure the intruder away from the vicinity of their nests. In India stilts' breed in
enormous numbers, laying most of their eggs in June, although in Spain they are
at least a month earlier; one of the favorite haunts being some salt works near
Delhi, where the brine is distributed in shallow pools over acres of ground. The
nest varies according to the nature of the locality, being more bulky in moist situa-
tions, and sometimes even floating on the water. The four eggs are pear shaped,
and of a buffish brown ground color, upon which are blackish brown streaks and
blotches, with underlying markings of gray.

Although closely connected with the stilts by two aberrant species,
it seems on the whole convenient to separate the still more graceful
avocets as a genus, under the title of Recurvirostra, the sole distinctive characteristic
applicable to all the members being the more fully-webbed feet. In the more typi-
cal forms, however, such as the common avocet (R. avocetta), the beak is strongly
curved upward at the extremity, the webbed feet are furnished with a small first
toe, and the plumage of the upper parts is pied. The connection with the stilts is
formed in one way by the Peruvian avocet (R. andina), in which the plumage of
the upper parts is black; and in another by the banded avocet (R. pectoralis) , in
which, while the plumage is pied, the beak is straight, and the first toe wanting.

2256 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, J AC ANAS, GULLS

The avocets include five species, having much the same distribution as the stilts,
with the exception that none breed in India or the adjacent countries. The com-
mon avocet, which was formerly a frequent visitor to the fenny districts of Eng-
land, is characterized in the adult dress by the black upper surface of the head and
hinder part of the neck, and the white innermost secondaries; the young birds in
their first plumage have the dark parts of the plumage brown, and the secondaries
barred with white. The total length of the bird is eighteen inches. Owing to
drainage, the European breeding places of the avocet are now restricted to certain
islands off Denmark and Holland, the marshes of Southern Spain, the delta of the

^'^^S^y^Pr <-- ~T:~ ?7r;~»'. "'

AVOCETS.
(One-fourth natural size. )

Rhone, and the lagoons of the Black Sea; but to the eastward it nests in Palestine,
Persia, Turkestan, the southwest of Siberia, etc., and also in Africa. In winter
these birds resort to India, China, and, more rarely, Japan; and they reach their
European breeding places in April and May, and depart in September. The North
American avocet (K. americana) , ranging from the Great Slave Lake to Texas,
differs at all seasons by its white secondaries, and in the breeding plumage by the
pale chestnut hue of the head and neck. The habits of the avocets are so similar

THE PLOVER TRIBE 2257

to those of stilts, that one account will serve for both; and we may accordingly close
our notice with the following description of the appearance of a colony of these
birds on the Arkansas, observed by Dr. Coues. " The avocets," he writes "walked
leisurely about, up to the belly in water, with graceful, deliberate steps, each of
which was accompanied by a swaying of the head and neck. When approached too
closely, they rose lightly from the water, uttering their peculiar cries, flapped leis-
urely to a little distance, and again alighted to pursue their peaceful search for food,
forgetting, or at least not heeding, their recent alarm. As they rose from the
water, their singular long legs were allowed to dangle for a few moments, but were
afterward stretched stiffly backward, as a counterpoise to their long necks; and,
thus balanced, their light bodies were supported with the greatest ease by their
ample wings. When about to realight, they sailed without flapping for a little dis-
tance, just clearing the water, their legs again hanging loosely; as they touched the
ground, their long wings were held almost upright for an instant, then deliberately
folded, and settled in place with a few slight motions."

Much more stoutly built, and with shorter and thicker neck and legs
~rt h than the stilts, the oyster catchers, or sea pies, may be diagnosed by
the metatarsus being inferior in length to the nearly straight and
rather thick beak. The long and pointed wings extend, when closed, to about the
extremity of the squared tail; the beak is somewhat compressed and truncate at the
tip, with considerable specific variation in outline; but a small portion of the tibia
is bare; the reticulated metatarsus is short and stout; and the first toe is wanting.
The common oyster catcher (Hcematopus ostralegus) , which is a resident in the Brit-
ish Isles, is the typical representative of the genus, and while four other species
resemble it in their pied plumage, the remaining two are black. The distribution
of the genus is almost world-wide. Agreeing with all the other Old-World forms,
in its dull crimson-red legs, the European species is specially characterized by the
lower part of the back, rump, and upper tail coverts being white, and by the white
pattern on the primaries being well marked on the outer webs of the fourth and
fifth quills of that series. In this species the beak and region round the eye are
orange; all the upper parts are black, with the exception of the lower back, rump,
and upper tail coverts, the basal portion of the tail feathers, and a band across the
wing comprising the greater wing coverts and some of the secondaries, which are
white; the primaries being also more or less marked with the latter color. With
the exception of the chin, throat, breast, and a few of the wing coverts, all the
tinder parts are white. In length this bird varies from sixteen to seventeen inches.
Migratory in many districts, this species inhabits the whole of Europe, and a con-
siderable portion of the eastern half of Asia, as well as North Africa, ranging to the
Arctic Circle, and visiting Western India in winter. In Japan, Northern China,
Amurland, etc., it is replaced by the Japanese oyster catcher H. osculans), distin-
guished by its long beak, and the white on the primaries not appearing till the
sixth quill while in the New World its place is taken by the American oyster
•catcher (H. palleatus], in which (as in all the New- World species) the legs are pale
flesh color, while the upper parts below the black neck are, with the exception of
the greater wing coverts and tail coverts, brown instead of black. The black spe-
142

2258 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

ties are the Australian black oyster catcher (H. unicolor) , represented by a variety
in Africa; and the American black oyster catcher (//". niger), characterized by the
great compression of its large beak, which in the South- American race tends to
curve upward at the tip.

Mainly coast birds, although frequently ascending rivers for a long distance in-
land, oyster catchers derive their name from their habit of feeding largely upon
bivalve mollusks, the shells of which their compressed beaks are admirably adapted
for prising open. The same efficient Instrument serves for detaching limpets from
their hold on rocks, and extracts marine worms and other creatures from their bur-
rows in the sand.

COMMON OYSTER CATCHER.

(One- third natural size.)

Nearly allied to the members of this genus is a remarkable bird from
o . Central Asia (Ibidorhynchus struthersi), distinguished by the beak be-

Catcher *ng curved down in the manner of that of an ibis. The beak and feet
are red, the front of the head black, and the general tone of the re-
mainder of the plumage olive.

Although evidently related to the preceding genera, the curlews belong to the
second section of the subfamily, in which, at least for the lower portion of its front

THE PLOVER TRIBE

2259

Curlews and
Whimbrels

COMMON CURLEW.

half, the metatarsus is covered with large scutes, and they are defined by this
feature, coupled with
the circumstance that
the long beak is so
arched that the chord drawn from
the base to the tip will pass below
the inferior border of the lower man-
dible. The curlews have moderately-
long and slender necks, with the
beak generally longer than the meta-
tarsus, although this is not the
case with the Eskimo whimbrel
(Numenius borealis} and the least
whimbrel (A^. minutus). In the
legs a large portion of the tibia is
devoid of feathers, and there is a
small first toe. As a rule, only the
lower portion of the front of the
metatarsus is covered with scutes,
but in the least whimbrel this seg-
ment of the leg is thus protected on

all sides. The wings are moderate and pointed, with the first quill the longest,
and the tail is squared. The plumage is colored with various shades of brown and
buff, producing a mottled appearance, recalling that of the thicknees, and is evi-
dently adapted for protective resemblance. With the exception of the two species
above mentioned, all the curlews have pale bars on the inner webs of their primary
quills. Curlews are represented by nine species, two of which have well-marked
local varieties; and during the breeding season are confined to North America,
Europe, North Africa, and Asia north of the Himalayas, although in winter they
have a cosmopolitan range.

The common European curlew (A7", arquatus} is a large bird meas-
uring from twenty -one to twenty-six inches in length, which may be
diagnosed by its metatarsus exceeding three inches in length, and by
the lower back and rump being much paler in color than the remainder of the up-
per parts. In the breeding plumage of the adult male the general hue of the upper
parts is pale brown, shading into white on the wing coverts, each feather having a
dark brown centre; the under parts are white, tinged on the neck and breast with
pale brown, where the feathers are also streaked with dark brown. The rump is
white; the tipper tail coverts are white or whitish, streaked or barred with brown,
the quills dark brown with white bars, and the tail feathers white or whitish with
dark brown bars. The beak is dark brown, and the legs and feet are slaty gray.
This species is resident in the British Islands, whence it extends as far east as the
Caspian, beyond which the typical form is replaced by a paler variety, which ranges
into Eastern Siberia and Amurland. The breeding range extends from the confines
of the Arctic Circle to Holland, and while the migratory individuals of the

Various
Species

2260 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

European form pass the winter in Africa, the Oriental variety is met with at that
season in India. The whimbrel (N. phczopus) is a smaller bird than the curlew,
measuring only sixteen to eighteen inches, and having a relatively-shorter beak,
and may be distinguished, in common with some other species, by the crown of the
head being of a uniform pale brown color, with a lighter median longitudinal
streak, its distinctive specific characteristic being that the lower portion of the back
is much lighter than the rest of the upper parts. Although a more northern species
than the curlew, not breeding in the British Islands south of the Orkneys and Shet-
lands, the distribution of the whimbrel is very similar, the common form being re-
placed in Eastern Asia by a variety which winters in India and Australia. The
nearly-allied American whimbrel {N. hudsonianus) , whose winter range extends to
Patagonia, differs by the chestnut axillaries and under wing coverts, and the sim-
ilarity in the color of all the upper parts. The still smaller Eskimo whimbrel (N.
borealis), which breeds in Arctic America, and occasionally straggles during migra-
tion to Britain, differs by the absence of barring on the primary quills, while the
least whimbrel (TV. minutus), which breeds in Eastern Siberia and winters in Mala-
yana and Australia, may be distinguished from the latter by the metatarsus being
covered with scutes both in front and behind.

All the members of the genus are of very similar habits, frequent-
ing moors, inland marshes, and uplands during the summer, and seek-
ing the coasts more while on migration and during the winter. Even more wary
than the oyster catchers, curlews take wing at the least alarm, and rarely allow
themselves to be approached within gunshot range. Whenever alarmed, they utter
their well-known piercing cry as they rise in the air; and these 'weird notes, es-
pecially when the whole flock of birds join in the chorus, may be heard at great
distances across the moors. Gregarious in winter, the birds break up into pairs in
the spring, and in the breeding season lay, in a slight nest on the ground, four
somewhat pear-shaped eggs, of which the ground color is olive green, marked with
spots of brown and gray. In summer, the food of the European species consists of
insects, larvae, and worms, sometimes supplemented with berries, but in winter it is
largely composed of small marine crustaceans and mollusks. Although generally so
shy and wary, in the breeding season curlews are far bolder, and when the young
are hatched, both parent birds will often fly anxiously round and round the head of
any intruder on their domain. Geologically these birds are known to date from
the period of the middle Miocene, remains of small species having been obtained
from strata of that age in France, and it is not improbable that they date from the
still older upper Eocene beds of the Paris basin.

The three species of phalarope, two of which are met with in Britain,
are readily distinguished from other members of the family by the sides
of the three front toes being provided with lobe-like expansions, some-
what similar to those of the coots, and likewise by the marked lateral compression
of the metatarsus, which is covered with scutes on both aspects. The beak is of
medium length, straight, somewhat depressed and relatively weak, with the oval
nostrils at its base surrounded by an elevated rim. The first toe, although small,
is present, and a small portion of the tibia is bare. In the elongated and pointed

THE PLOVER TRIBE

2261

GRAY PHAI.AROPE.

wings the first quill exceeds all the others in length, and the short tail is of

a somewhat rounded form. The

plumage, like that of the avo-

cets, is remarkable for its softness.

During the breeding season these

birds are confined to the northern

regions of Europe, Asia, and America,

two being inhabitants of the circuin-

polar regions, while the third pertains

to the Western Hemisphere. They

are all more aquatic in their habits

than any other members of the

family, and chiefly frequent deeply

indented coasts, although also found

on the shores of inland lakes. In

general appearance they approach

the sandpipers, but they have shorter

legs; the females are more brightly

colored than the males.

The gray phalarope (Phalaropus fulicarius) , which is but an irregular visitor
to the British Islands, attains a length of eight inches, and is remarkable for the
difference in the color of the winter and summer plumage of the under parts. The
species may be recognized at all seasons by the comparative shortness and width of
the beak, and by the central tail feathers exceeding the outermost in width by half
an inch. In the breeding plumage the whole of the under parts are of a rich chest-
nut, and the back and rump black, but in winter most of the upper parts, as well as
a patch before the point of the wings, are pearly gray, while the under parts are
pure white. Breeding in the circumpolar regions locally, but nowhere in Con-
tinental Europe, this species occasionally visits North Africa in winter, and has
been recorded from New Zealand and Chili. The slightly smaller red-necked phala-
rope (/*. hyperboreus) , which has likewise a circumpolar distribution, although
breeding locally in the Shetlands, Orkneys, and Outer Hebrides, may be recognized
by the tapering and pointed beak, which (like that of the preceding) does not
exceed an inch in length, and likewise by the smaller difference between the
lengths of the central and outer tail feathers. The chief breeding haunts are
beyond the limits of forest; but in winter this species spreads over Europe,
Northern India, the Malayan region, China, New Guinea, Mexico, and Central
America. Finally, Wilson's phalarope (/*. wilsoni), which breeds on the great
lakes of North America, and migrates in winter as far south as Patagonia, differs
from both the others in the greater length of its slender, tapering bill, which
exceeds an inch.

The term sandpiper being a general one, applied collectively to many members
of the family, it is necessary to prefix the term hard-billed to those of which we
have now to treat. These birds are specially characterized by the nearly straight
beak, and by the feathers of the forehead extending in advance of the angle of the

2262 PL O VERS, SA NDPIPERS, SNIPE, JA CA NAS, GULLS

gape. In length the beak is moderate, and it has its tip hard, and the
e *r " nostrils slit-like and lateral. The first toe is always present, and the
Sandpipers metatarsus (except in a Pacific species where they are absent from
and Ruffs the greater portion of the back) is covered with scutes both before
and behind, and some portion of the tibia is bare. In the long
and pointed wings the first quill is the longest, but there is considerable variation in
the form and number of the tail feathers, which in the great majority of species are
barred. The genus comprises about a score of species, of which a large moiety are
represented in the British Islands, and throughout the breeding season are distrib-
uted over the Boreal and Temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, but in

RUFFS AND REEVES.

winter become collectively cosmopolitan. Frequenting moors, marshes, and tundras
during the breeding season, these familiar and pretty little birds resort to the sea-
coasts in the winter throughout many portions of their range and are in the habit of
performing migrations of enormous length. Their food consists of insects, crusta-
ceans, and mollusks, supplemented by fruit, and their shrill, piping notes are among
the most familiar sounds of the seashore. More or less gregarious and social in
their habits, especially in the winter, with the single exception of the ruff, all are
monogamous; their scanty nests are usually placed on the ground, and contain, at
the proper season, four pear-shaped spotted eggs. Among the better-known British
forms are the common sandpiper ( Totanus hypoleucus} , the green sandpiper ( T.
ochropus), the red shank (T. calidris), the greenshank (T. glottis], and the ruff (T.
pugnax) .

THE PLOVER TRIBE

2263

This last is a remarkable and interesting species, characterized by the period-
ical assumption by the males of a large ruff round the neck, which is scarcely ever
exactly similar in any two individuals, the general plumage of that sex being like-
wise very variable at the same season. The immature males and females resemble
an ordinary sandpiper, but they may always be recognized by their white axillaries,
coupled with the absence of any white on the quills and central upper tail coverts.
In length the male measures about twelve inches and the female some two inches
less. Formerly common in the English marshes, the ruff is now mainly a passing
visitor to Britain; its breeding haunts range from the most northern lands of Europe
and Asia as far south as the valley of the Danube and the Kirghiz steppes, while
in winter it wanders as far as the Cape, Northern India, Burma, and even more re-
mote regions. Next to the extraordinary variation in the characteristic of the
plumage, the most interesting features about the ruff are the extreme pugnacity dis-
played by the cocks, and the circumstance that these birds differ from all their kin
in being polygamous — the females largely exceeding the males in number. During
the pairing season the cocks congregate at certain spots known as "hills," and
there display their pugnacious propensities, although, as in French duels, but little
serious harm results to the combatants. The nest, which is roughly lined with dead
grass and sedge, is usually placed on a tussock in the middle of a swamp. Years
ago enormous numbers of ruffs and reeves (as the females are termed) were netted
in the Lincolnshire marshes during the breeding season. By many writers ruffs are
separated as Machetes.

Nearly allied to the preceding group are the birds known as godwits,
distinguished by the feathers of the forehead not extending in advance
of the angle of the gape, the extremity of the long beak being hard and but little
expanded. A large portion of the
tibia is devoid of feathers, and the
claw of the third toe is comb-like.
Were it not that there is a differ-
ence in the conformation of the
upper part of the breastbone in
the two groups, the godwits could
scarcely be separated generically
from the hard-billed sandpipers.
These birds are represented by
four species and two varieties, all
of which breed in the Temperate
and Arctic portions of the North-
ern Hemisphere, but migrate far
to the south in winter, and two of
which frequent the British Islands.
Of the latter the bar-tailed godwit

(Limosa rufa), which measures fifteen or sixteen inches in length, has in summer
the upper tail coverts and tail white with dark brown barrings, but is especially
•characterized by the lower back, rump, axillaries, and under wing coverts being

Godwits

BAR-TAILED GODWIT.

2264 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

white with obscure brown markings. Breeding locally on the Arctic tundras of
Europe and Western Asia, the ordinary form is replaced by a variety eastward of the
Yenisei; while in North America it is represented by the American bar-tailed god-
wit (L.fedoa), in which the axillaries and under wing coverts are chestnut. Rarer
in Britain than the bar-tailed species, the black-tailed godwit (L. melanura} may be
recognized by the tail feathers being black with white bases, and by the white ax-
illaries. This Old- World form is represented in Eastern Asia by a variety, while in
the New World its place is taken by the American black-tailed godwit (L. hudson-
ica) , distinguished by its dark brown axillaries and under wing coverts. All the
godwits migrate far south in winter, the two Old -World kinds then reaching Africa

COMMON TURNSTONE.

and India, and their eastern varieties visiting Australia. Although frequently
breeding far inland, the godwits are essentially shore birds in winter, and to suit
them for such a habitat acquire in autumn a mud-colored livery.

The four species of the genus Ereunetes form a kind of connecting

Smpe-Beake j.^ between the preceding and the snipe, having the frontal feathers
Sandpipers

arranged as in the former, but the extremity of the beak soft, ex-
panded, and rugose, as in the latter. The best-known species is the red-breasted
sandpiper (or snipe, as it is generally called), which breeds in Arctic America, where
it is represented by two varieties, and migrates in winter as far as Brazil and Chili,
occasionally struggling to Western Europe. In Siberia it is replaced by Tacza-
nowsky's sandpiper (E. taczanowskii) .

THE PLOVER TRIBE 2265

Long associated with the plovers, which they resemble in general
bodily conformation and the shortness of the beak, the turnstones are
classed by Mr. Seebohm with the snipes; and whether such an arrangement be nat-
ural or artificial, it certainly enables us to define the third subfamily, or Scolopacinte ,
with ease and exactness. Its members may be distinguished from the preceding
forms by their toes being free to the base, and having no trace of webs. The turn-
stones differ from the other members of the assemblage, and thereby, resemble the
plovers, in that the nostrils extend beyond the basal fourth of the beak, the beak
itself being short, thick at the base, tapering, and somewhat conical, while the meta-
tarsus is covered with scutes in front, and reticulated behind. In the elongated
wings the first quill is the longest, and the short and nearly even tail includes twelve
feathers. The tibia is bare for a short distance, and the first toe is present. The
turnstones are represented by three species, all of which breed in the Arctic regions,
and migrate south in winter. The common turnstone (Strepsilas interpres), which
is a circumpolar species, visiting the British coasts in autumn and spring, and occa-
sionally tarrying there for the winter, may be recognized by its pure white chin and
throat, the general coloration of the plumage being mottled black, white, and chest-
nut, and the total length of the bird nine and one-half inches. The black turnstone
(S. melanocephalus) of Western North America, in addition to its broader wings,
differs by the white lower back,, and the absence of a pure white throat and neck,
while the plover-billed turnstone (S. virgatus), from the Pacific coast of America,
may always be recognized by the vaulted extremity of its beak, and the brown color
of the lower back.

The common turnstone, which in winter is one of the most cosmopolitan of
birds, occurring as far away from its northern home as South America and New
Zealand, takes its name from its habit of overturning pebbles and other stones with
its beak for the purpose of obtaining the various marine creatures that lurk beneath
their shelter. In such tasks the breast as well as the beak is occasionally brought
into requisition; and an instance is on record where three of these birds combined
their forces in order to overturn a stranded fish. Except during migration, the
turnstone is essentially a littoral bird; and in Britain it is generally seen in pairs or
small parties, frequently in association with other waders. Although generally
running along the shore, and taking short flights when disturbed, it is not destitute
of the power of swimming, and its cry is a clear loud whistle. The nest is but a
poor affair, consisting of a sparsely-lined hollow in the sand; and the four spotted
eggs differ in coloration from those of the plovers, and resemble those of the sand-
pipers and snipe. The slight difference between the summer and winter dress of
these birds affords further evidence of their scolopaceous affinities.

Under this general title may be grouped a considerable assemblage
S d i er °^ sma^ wading birds, of which the knot ( Tringa canutui) , the dunlin
(7! alpina), the broad -billed sandpiper (T. platyrhyncha} , the little
stint (7! minuta), and the sanderling (Calidris arenaria), are familiar British ex-
amples, the last named forming a genus by itself on account of the absence of the
first toe, which is present in the remainder. These birds differ from the turnstones
in that the nostrils are situated in the basal fourth of the beak, and in the metatarsus

2266 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS. SNIPE. JACANAS. GULLS

•"O

KNOT SANDPIPER.

being covered with scutes both in front and behind. The beak, which is narrow,
slightly compressed, and rugose toward the tip, where it may be slightly bent
down, is always shorter than the combined length of the metatarsus and third toe:
the first primary quill of the wing largely exceeds the fourth in length, and the tail

is uniformly colored. In addition
to the sanderling, the group com-
prises thirteen species, with certain
local varieties, and is confined in
the breeding season to the higher
latitudes of the Northern Hemi-
sphere, although in winter becom-
ing cosmopolitan. Of the numer-
ous species visiting the British
Islands, only the dunlin breeds
there, and that but sparingly.
Among these the curlew sandpiper
(T. arcuata) demands notice on
account of its curved beak, while
still more remarkable is the
broadly expanded tip of the beak
of the spoon-billed sandpiper (T.

pygnuza), a species probably breeding to the northward of Behring Strait, and
separated by many writers, as Eurhinorhynchus. The sanderling ( Calidris arenaria),
easily recognized by the absence of the first toe, the black legs, and broad beak,
breeds near the coasts of many portions of the Arctic Ocean, although not on the
Norwegian and Russian portions, and has been taken as far south as Java.

Three sandpipers from the Southern Hemisphere, two of which inhabit the
Australian region and the other South America, differ from the preceding in the
slight inequality in the length of the first four primary quills of the wing, and are
thus assigned to a distinct genus, Phegornis.

The beautiful birds commonly termed painted snipe, of which there
are three species inhabiting the warmer regions of both Hemispheres,
are distinguished from the members of the subfamily yet noticed by the difference
in length between the shortest and longest primary quill being much less — instead
of much more — than the length of the beak. They resemble the preceding forms,
however, in that the length of the beak is much less than twice that of the meta-
tarsus, and in the possession of a pale median line on the crown of the head, and
two light stripes down the back, they are like the true snipe. The foot is four
toed, and a considerable portion of the tibia is bare.

The best-known representative of the genus is the common painted snipe
(Rhynchcea capensis} — so familiar to all snipe shooters in Bengal — which is dis-
tributed all over Africa south of the Sahara, Madagascar, Arabia, India, Ceylon,
Burma, and the Malayan region, and thence to the Philippines, China, Southern
Japan, etc. This is one of the two largest species, and is specially characterized by
the large number of buff eye-like spots on the primary quills of the wings. The

Painted Snipe

THE PLOVER TRIBE 2267

adult female is somewhat the larger and more brightly-colored bird, and may always
be recognized by the olive-green wing coverts, in which each feather is crossed by
nearly a dozen narrow dark bars. In the adult female the neck is deep chestnut,
shading into black on the breast, and the outermost of the inner secondaries are
white, forming a conspicuous stripe. The adult male, on the other hand, has only
two dark bars on each feather of the wing coverts, with a buff patch between them.
In both sexes the quills of the wings are olivaceous gray, with narrow dark bars,
and a series of five or more buff eye-like spots on the outer webs, and the inner
webs with similar spots alternating with white bars. The olive-gray tail has four
or five rows of these same buff spots on both webs of the feathers, all of which are
tipped with buff. The plumage of the upper parts is more or less olivaceous, with
the feathers marked by fine zigzag lines, while the chin and lower breast are white,
the white area of the latter passing on to the shoulder to form a stripe on the scap-
ular region. In addition to the pale stripe down the middle of the head, there is
likewise a light area round each, eye. The Australian species (R. australis) may be
distinguished by having two instead of four buff spots on the outer web of the
eighth primary quill, while the female is peculiar in possessing a much convoluted
windpipe. The South-American painted snipe (R. semicollaris} , wandering in sum-
mer as far south as Patagonia and wintering in Peru and Brazil, is a much smaller
bird than either of the others, with conspicuous large round white spots on the
black wing coverts. Differing from the true snipe in their shorter beaks, and low,
flapping flight, the painted snipe haunt the same marshy districts as the latter; and
although they afford but poor sport, the beauty of one of these birds as it falls on the
ground with outstretched wings and tail displaying the spots is quite unrivaled.
Although resident throughout the year in India, the common species has to change
its quarters a good deal in the drier districts of that country, and is only a migrant
to the northwest. When breeding, they are always found in pairs; and, so far
as the writer's experience goes, this is generally the case in Lower Bengal all
through the colder months, but at certain times of the year Mr. Hume says that
they are more frequently met with in small parties. The number of eggs seems to
be four, and both parent birds are always in the neighborhood of the nest. The
young birds, when first hatched, have the beak quite short.

The extreme length of the slender beak, which is more than twice
Woodcock and , . , ,. . . , , , . , ,

. that of the metatarsus, serves at once to distinguish these birds from

their relatives, with whom alone they agree in having the toes com-
pletely free from webs. The long and straight beak is swollen at the sides, and
soft and rugose at the tip, with the laterally-placed and basal nostrils covered with
a membrane. The long wings are generally pointed, while the rounded tail com-
prises a variable number of feathers. Although in all the species the metatarsus is
covered both in front and behind with scutes, the tibia may be either feathered to
its base, or partially naked; but a small first toe, elevated above the level of the
others, is always present. There is but little difference between the summer and
winter dress, and the peculiar mottled russet or ashy tone of the plumage is admi-
rably adapted for concealing the birds in their native haunts. All these birds are
more or less nocturnal in their habits, and all are endued with the power of strong,

2268 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

rapid, and long-sustained flight, frequently accompanied by those peculiar zig-zag
dartings when frightened, which renders snipe shooting in many countries so diffi-
cult to the inexperienced. The long and sensitive beak is adapted for probing in soft
mud in search of the insects, larvae, and worms on which these birds chiefly subsist.
Although each male invariably pairs with a single female in all the species, some
may be gregarious at certain seasons, while others are always solitary. All fre-
quent either marshes or woodland swamps; and they make slight nests on the
ground in which are deposited four pear-shaped and spotted eggs. In the young
the beak is comparatively short. The genus comprises seventeen species, some of
which are divided into local varieties, and have a world-wide distribution, four of
the species occurring in the British Islands, where, however, only two breed.

Contrasted with the common snipe, the woodcock differs so markedly
in several features that if we had these two alone to deal with they
might be referred to distinct genera, but the existence of more or less completely
intermediate types renders it preferable to follow Mr. Seebohm in including the
whole under the genus Scolopax. In the snipe a considerable portion of the tibia is
bare, whereas in the woodcock (S. rusticola) it is completely feathered; there are
fourteen tail feathers in the former and twelve in the latter; in the snipe the pri-
maries are long and the secondaries short, whereas the reverse is the case with its
cousin; the black markings on the head of the snipe are longitudinal, and commence
at the beak, while in the woodcock they are transverse and confined to the back of
the head; the under surface of the tail feathers of the woodcock have silvery- white
tips, which are wanting in the snipe; the snipe has uniformly-colored primary quills,
while those of the woodcock are barred; lastly, the eggs of the woodcock have a
much paler ground color than those of the snipe. Measuring from thirteen to
fourteen inches in length, the common woodcock may be distinguished from its
allies by the above-mentioned transverse markings on the head, and the silvery tips
to the under surface of the tail feathers, coupled with the barred breast, and the
bars on both webs of the primaries; and it will thus be unnecessary to describe the
bird in detail, although reference must be made to its large, brown, beady eye.
Breeding as far north as the Arctic Circle in forest districts, and as far south as
the Alps, Caucasus, and Himalayas, at considerable elevations, as well as in the
mountains of Japan, the common woodcock ranges over the greater part of Europe
and Asia, visiting India and the adjacent regions in winter. Although the individ-
uals breeding in the extreme north are migratory, those whose nesting haunts are
more to the south are probably resident. The smaller North- American woodcock
(S. minor) differs by the narrowness of the first three primary quills, and the
nearly-uniform coloration of all the primaries and under parts; the Moluccan wood-
cock (S. rochusseni) has a uniform breast and barred primaries; while in the
medium-sized Horsfield's woodcock (S. saturata) of Java and New Guinea, only
the outer webs of the primaries are barred. In the same group with the woodcocks
Mr. Seebohm includes six southern species which he terms semi-woodcocks, five of
which are from South America, while the last (S. aucklandica) is from New Zea-
land. Possessing the longitudinal head markings of the two groups of snipe, these
birds differ from all the latter either by having not more than sixteen tail feathers,

THE PLOVER TRIBE

2269

or by the tibia being feathered almost or completely to the joint. Essentially noc-
turnal and solitary in its habits, the woodcock passes the day skulking among the
thick shade of woods, from whence it issues forth at evening to search for food in
the marshes or along the banks of streams. Worms, of which it will consume a
prodigious quantity, form its chief nutriment; and it appears that it ascertains the

WOODCOCK IN COVERT.

position of these creatures by plunging its beak deep down into the mud and re-
maining motionless for a few seconds. If any subterranean movement is then
detected, the beak is once more plunged in the direction indicated, and the hapless
worm extracted. When flushed during daylight, the woodcock rises with a "whirr "
of its wings, and occasionally uttering a snipe-like cry. It always flies much less

22;o PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, J AC AN AS, GULLS

WOODCOCK AND NEST.

rapidly than a snipe, and does not dart so much; while after a long journey its flight
is so slow and flapping that in the Himalayas the writer has kicked up these birds
from beneath his feet without at first realizing what they were. During the pairing

season male woodcocks forsake for a time
their usual skulking habits, and fly slowly
up and down in the open at morn and
eve in a peculiar manner, at the same
time uttering a characteristic cry. The
term ' ' roding ' ' is applied to this nuptial
flight, and if two cocks thus engaged
should chance to meet, a fight immediately
ensues. Breeding very early in the season,
the woodcock nests in a mere depression
of the ground, which it lines abundantly
with dry grass and leaves, the four eggs
being generally laid in April. The nest is
usually situated among dead fern, with the
colors of which the plumage of the old birds
harmonizes. The young are at times car-
ried to a safer spot by their parent, who-
takes them one by one between her thighs,
and partially supports them by the beak.

Under this title Mr. Seebohm groups a small number of species
Aberrant Snipe , • j u • 1 -^.j-iij ««

characterized by possessing longitudinal head markings, and more

than sixteen tail feathers; the tibia being occasionally feathered to the ankle-
joint, while the inner webs of the primaries are either plain, or have the bars
confined to their terminal portions. Of these, the solitary snipe (S. solitaria}, which
breeds in Turkestan and the Himalayas, visiting India in winter, and represented
by a variety in Eastern Siberia and Japan, may be distinguished by the white
streaks on the outer borders of the scapulars, the usual number of tail feathers
being apparently eighteen. It inhabits bare, treeless districts. Another member
is the wood snipe (S. nemorivaga) of the Himalayas, India, and Burma, which has
the habits of a woodcock, and may be recognized by the shortest secondary quills
projecting more than half an inch beyond the longest of the primary coverts, — a
characteristic indicating limited flying powers, while the tibia is usually feathered
to the joint. The small pintail snipe (S. stemird), which breeds as far north as the
Arctic Circle from the Yenisei to the Pacific, and winters in India, China, Burma,
Malayana, etc. , is characterized by its twenty-six tail feathers, of which the
eight outermost on each side are very narrow, although gradually increasing in
width.

members of this group, while agreeing with those of the last
in the longitudinal black markings on the head, are characterized by
the number of tail feathers never exceeding sixteen, by a considerable portion of
the tibia being bare, and by the total absence of bars on the inner webs of the pri-
mary quills. Of these, the great snipe (S. major), which has sixteen tail feathers,

T pical Snioe

THE PLOVER TRIBE

2271

and measures from ten and one-half to eleven and one-half inches in length, is
characterized by the greater portion of the four outer tail feathers on each side be-
ing white, and by the broad white tips to the median tail coverts. A rare straggler
during (chiefly autumnal) migration to the British Islands, the great snipe breeds
in Northern and some parts of Southeastern Europe, and as far eastward as the
valley of the Yenisei, while in winter the majority sojourn in South Africa. East-
ward of the Yenisei its place is taken by Swinhoe's snipe (S. megala), which be-
longs to the preceding group, having twenty tail feathers. The best-known mem-
ber of the whole group is the common
snipe (S. galinago}, some of the leading
features of which have been already alluded
to on p. 2268. This species, which at-
tains a length of ten and one-half inches,
is, however, characterized by possessing
fourteen tail feathers, by the breast being
marked with longitudinal dark streaks,
and by the axillaries being white, more
or less marked with gray. The breeding
range of the common snipe comprises
Northern and Central Europe as far as the
Arctic Ocean, and southward to the Alps
and Southern Russia, while eastward it
extends through Siberia and Turkestan to
Southeastern Mongolia. In winter the
birds from the northern portion of this
extensive area spread themselves over the
countries on both sides of the Mediterra-
nean, Persia, India, Ceylon, Burma, China, and the Philippines. In North Amer-
ica this species is replaced by a variety known as Wilson's snipe, in the typical
form of which the beak is shorter, and the tail feathers sixteen in number, while the
axillaries are barred with brown, and the breast is marked with transverse bars.
Intermediate forms, however, completely connect the two races; these being fre-
quently met with in India. The breeding area of Wilson's snipe extends from the
Arctic Circle to the Northern United States, while in winter the species ranges to
Central and Northern South America. The last species to which we can allude is
the jack snipe (S. gallinula), which is a common winter visitor to Britain, and is
characterized by its small size (length, seven and one-half inches), its twelve tail
feathers, the purple gloss on the feathers of the upper parts, and the metallic-green
hue of the inner webs of the scapulars.

Undergoing but slight seasonal variation in plumage, snipe are to be found at
all times of the year among the protection afforded by the sedge, grass, or other
vegetation of marshy places, from which they rise suddenly when flushed, with the
well-known staich, but without much whirring of the wings, and dart off with
lightning-like rapidity. Of the flight of Wilson's snipe Dr. G. B. Grinnell observes
that ' ' most birds when they rise from the ground appear to have some definite idea

COMMON SNIPE.

2272 PL O VERS, SA ND PIPERS, SNIPE, JA CA NA S, G ULLS

of the direction in which they wish to go, and having started in a particular line of
flight, keep to it, unless turned by some alarming apparition before them. Not so
with the .snipe, however; he springs from the ground uttering his curious squeaking
cry, darts a few yards one way, changes his mind, and turns almost at right angles
to his original course; then he appears to think he has made a mistake, and now
alters his direction, and so twists off, ' angling ' across the meadow until he is out of
gunshot. He then either rises high in the air and swings about for awhile, looking
for a desirable spot to alight, or else settles down into a straight, swift course,
which he keeps up until his fright is over, or he has come to a spot which

A FAMILY OF WILSON'S SNIPE.

is to his liking, when he throws himself to the earth, and with a peculiar toss
of his wings checks his progress, and alights." Fortunately for the sports-
man in India, where the common snipe is more abundant than elsewhere, these
birds do not generally indulge in such vagaries, but fly straight away. The
writer has, however, occasionally seen the common species dart, although the
pintail does so but very rarely. Unless flushed, snipe are but rarely seen on
the wing during the day, and their chief feeding time, like their migration,
is by night. In Europe snipe are essentially solitary birds, but this can scarcely
be said to be the case in India, where a "whisp" of from six to a dozen
may often be seen flying together over a marsh; while these birds may often be
flushed in crowds from one spot, where they must have been feeding in close prox-
imity. They are never found away from covert, although on rare occasions the

J AC ANAS AND WATER PHEASANTS 2273

common species has been observed perching on a tree, and they never settle where
the water is deep enough to wet the feathers of the breast. At ordinary seasons a
very silent bird, when breeding, the common snipe utters a peculiar two-syllabled
note, compared to tyik-tyuk, of which the utterance is accompanied by a nodding of
the head. Moreover, the males at the same season indulge in the peculiar per-
formance known as "drumming," during which they may be seen flying diago-
nally upward or round and round in large circles, and then suddenly swooping down
with vibrating half -closed wings and outspread tail; the "drumming," which has
been compared to the bleating of a goat, being only produced during the descent;

In Britain newly laid eggs of the common snipe may be found from the middle
of April till the middle of May; the nest being a hollow, lined with dried grass,
usually placed in the middle of a tussock of rushes or coarse grass in a swamp, or
under the protecting shelter of the same. The four eggs are somewhat variable in
hue, the ground color being some shade of buff or olive, upon which are large
blotches of rich, dark brown, with large underlying markings of lighter brown and
gray. The main duty of incubation is performed by the hen bird; and but a single
brood is produced during the year. In the Arctic regions the eggs, like those of
the jack snipe, are not laid till June.

JACANAS AND WATER PHEASANTS
Family PARRIDsE

Mainly from the circumstance that many of them have a naked shield on the
forehead, like that of the coots and moor hens, the members of the present small
family were formerly classed with the rails, although their true position appears to
be here. From the Charadriidce they are distinguished by the presence of unossified
vacuities in the occipital surface of the skull, while they differ from all other birds
in the extraordinary elongation of their toes. They are handsomely-colored birds,
black, or black and white, being the predominating tints, but the young are less
brilliant than the adults. The group is confined to South America, Africa, south of
the Tropic of Cancer, the Indian region, Australia, and Papua.

The jacanas (Parra), of which there are ten species, have a dis-

TcLCcLflcLS

tribution coextensive with that of the family; and although their fossil
remains have not been discovered, it is probable that they lived in Europe during
the Tertiary period, and have reached their present habitat by a southerly migra-
tion. The species here figured (P. nigra), is an inhabitant of Brazil. They are
long-legged, slenderly-built birds, with short tails, spurs on the wings, and the
aforesaid shield on the head. Insectivorous in their diet, they frequent lakes and
quiet rivers, where their long toes enable them to walk over the leaves of the water
lilies. The nest is a rude structure, built near the edge of the water; and the eggs,
which vary from four to six in number, and have a bluish-green ground with liver-
colored spots, often rest on the bare soil.

2274 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

The largest member of the family is the beautiful water pheasant

(Hydrophasianus chirurgus} of India and Ceylon, which is the sole
Pheasant v * r

representative of its genus, and is easily recognized by the elongation

of the two central tail feathers, and the pied plumage. These birds, which are
abundant on the lakes of Kashmir, as well as those of India, usually assume their

BRAZILIAN JACANA.

(One-half natural size.)

breeding plumage in May or June, and they utter a peculiar mewing, or wailing
sound, which can be heard for a considerable distance. The nest may be either a
floating structure of grass and herbage, or fixed among the growing stalks of rice
and in July or August receives a clutch of from four to seven bronzy-brown or
green eggs.

SHEA TH BILLS AND SEED SNIPE

2275

\

COMMON SHEATH BII.I,.

SHEATH BILLS AND SEED SNIPE
Families CHIONIDID^ and THINOCORID^

In this place brief mention
may be made of certain birds
which appear to connect to some
extent the members of the pre-
ceding families with the gulls.
These comprise the sheath bills
(Chionis), represented by one spe-
cies (C. alba] in the Falkland
islands and straits of Magellan,
and a second (C. minor} in the
Crozet and Kerguelen islands, and
the seed snipe ( Thinocorus and
Attagis) of Temperate South
America. All these birds differ
from the Charadriida , and re-
semble the coursers and gulls in
the absence of basipterygoid proc-
esses on the rostrum of the skull, as also of a pair of vacuities on the occipital face
of the latter, the sheath bills having more or less slit-like (schizorhinal) nasal aper-
tures in the skull, while those of
the seed snipe approximate to the
oval (holorhinal) type. The sheath
bills in Kerguelen island, writes
Moseley, " are present everywhere
on the coast, and from their ex-
treme tameness and inquisitive
habits, are always attracting one's
attention. A pair or two of them
always forms part of any view
on the coast. The birds are pure
white, about the size of a very
large pigeon, but with the appear-
ance rather of a fowl. They have
light pink-colored legs, with par-
tial webbing at the toes, small
I.ATREII.LE'S SEED SNIPE. spurs on the inner sides of the

wings, and a black bill with a

most curious lamina of horny matter projecting over the nostrils. Round the eye
is a tumid, pink ring bare of feathers; about the head are wattle-like warts. The
birds nest under fallen rocks along the cliffs, often in places where the nest is

2276 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, J AC AN AS, GULLS

difficult of access. The nest is made of grass arid bent, and the eggs are usually
two in number, of the shape of those of the plovers, and of a somewhat similar
coloring, spotted dark red and brown." When first hatched the young are black.
The adult birds utter a harsh note, and feed chiefly on seaweed and mollusks;
their fearlessness being such that they will often allow themselves to be knocked
on the head with a stick. The seed snipe, or quail snipe, are small, short-billed
birds with the general appearance and habits of quail, living in dry inland dis-
tricts, where they subsist on plants, roots, and insects. The figured species
(Attagis latreillei) inhabits the Falkland islands and the higher mountains of
the southern part of South America. In both genera the beak is rather short
and compressed, with the aperture of the nostrils in most cases closed by a
horny membrane covered with short feathers. Generally these birds are met
with in pairs or small coveys of five or six, which frequent the same spots for long
periods. Although they frequent desert regions, the nest is placed near a lake, the
number of eggs being four or five.

THE GULL TRIBE
Order GAVL^S

Formerly associated with the petrels, the terns, skimmers, gulls, and skuas,
are now generally regarded as nearly allied to the Limicolez, with which they agree

in the arrangement of their plumage.
Externally these birds are characterized
by the prevalence of pure gray and white
in their adult plumage, and by the com-
plete webbing of the three front toes, as
well as by their long wings, in which the
fifth secondary quill is wanting. Their
skulls differ from those of the typical
Limicolce in the absence of basipterygoid
processes on the inferior surface of the
rostrum; while the hinder extremity of
the lower jaw is abruptly truncated, and
in the wing the flat bone, corresponding
to the first joint of the human forefinger,
has two circular perforations — a feature

distinguishing the skeleton from that of any of the plover tribe and their allies.
Throughout the group there are deep grooves on the upper surface of the skull for
glands, the development of these being very variable among the Limicola. Except
in the skimmers, the beak is simple, and may be either straight or hooked. In the
wing there are ten large primaries, and one minute and concealed; the whole plum-
age is remarkably compact, the contour feathers having aftershafts; there are
twelve tail feathers; the spinal feather tract is well defined by bare lateral areas on

YOUNG GULLS COVERED WITH DOWN.

GROUP OF BRITISH GULLS AND TERNS.

I. Common Tern; 2. Black -Backed 'Gull; 3. Glaucous Gull; 4. Black-Headed Gull.

2278 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

the neck, and forked on the upper back; and the oil gand is tufted. In their
down-clad and active young, these birds resemble the plovers, but the down is of a
more complex type. The first toe is raised above the level of the others, with
which it is not connected by membrane; and the nasal apertures in the skull are
schizorhinal, while the external nostrils are elongated, and placed rather low down
on the sides of the base of the beak. In the general structure of the palate, as well
as in the presence of a process on the outer side of the humerus (see figure in Vol.
III. p. 1467) , the gulls resemble the plovers. Rarely, if ever, exceeding three in num-
ber, the eggs are spotted or scrolled with dark markings on the light colored
ground.

Gregarious and noisy in their habits, the gulls and terns are chiefly frequenters
of the coasts, although many of them may be found on inland waters, while all
may be driven inland by stress of weather. Even in England gulls may be seen
following the plow in search of worms; and in parts of Argentina, as in the
Colina district, at a distance of some two hundred miles from the sea, they appear
to dwell permanently inland, nesting in the lagunas. In Britain, while some
species breed on coast cliffs, others nest on islands and inland lakes, grassy downs,
and peat mosses. All the members of the group are birds of powerful and sustained
flight, and are capable of floating in the air with scarce a movement of their wings,
while they are equally at home on the surface of the water, where their webbed
feet enable them to swim with facility. The terns are, however, more essentially
aerial and aquatic birds than the gulls, their short legs not being well adapted for
walking on land. In the neighborhood of the sea the food of all these birds con-
sists mainly of fish and refuse, but when inland they consume worms, insects, the
eggs and young of other birds, and the offal from slaughterhouses. Although the
group as a whole has a cosmopolitan distribution, it is noteworthy that in the great
area lying between South America and the neighborhood of Australia and New
Zealand not a single gull is to be met with, although terns are abundant. Along
the southern shores of Australia, and also in New Zealand, a large, dark-mantled
gull (Larus patificus) makes its appearance as an isolated form. Geologically, the
group appears to be one of the oldest of the existing orders of birds, remains of an
extinct genus (Halcyorms} occurring in the London Clay, a formation belonging to
the lowest division of the Tertiary period; while other forms, which have been
assigned to the existing genus Larus, occur in beds pertaining to the lower portion
of the Miocene period. According to the classification adopted by Mr. Howard
Saunders, the order may be divided into two families, the first of which is again
split up into three subfamilies.

THE TERNS, SKIMMERS, AND GULI<S
Family

Including the three groups above named, each of which represents a subfamily,
the present family is characterized as follows: The beak has no cere at its base;

THE TERNS, SKIMMERS, AND GULLS

2279

Terns

there are two notches on each side of the hinder margin of the breastbone; the
toes may be either partially or fully webbed, and the claws are feeble or of
moderate length.

The terns, of which eleven genera are recognized by Mr. Saunders,
constftute a subfamily (Sternince} characterized by the straight and
rather slender beak, in which the two mandibles are of nearly equal length; by the
feather tracts resembling those of the plovers in their arrangement; and by the
slight or distinct forking of the tail. In Britain the group is represented by two
genera, and it is to these that our notice is mainly confined. The marsh terns form
a genus {Hydrochelidon) represented by four species, three of which are British.
Belonging to a group of genera, in which the tail may be either nearly square or
deeply forked, and the head devoid of elongated plumes at the gape of the mouth,
the marsh terns are specially distinguished by the rounded or slightly-pointed tail
feathers, the short tail, which is less than half the length of the wing, the small
beak, with the culmen less than twice the length of the metatarsus, and the feeble
feet, in which the webs are considerably indented between the toes. All these
terns nest in marshes, either on tussocks of grass, or among floating vegetation.
The best known of the British species is the black tern (ff. nigra), in which the
under parts in the adult summer plumage are dark leaden gray, the upper tail
coverts and tail being gray, the beak black, the chin and sides of the face like the
under parts, the crown nearly black, and the under wing coverts pale gray. On
the other hand, the whiskered tern {ff. hybrida), which is but an occasional
straggler to Britain from the south, has the beak blood red, the chin and sides of
the face pure white, the throat and breast gray, passing into blackish gray on the
abdomen, and
the under wing
coverts white.
Abundant in
Southern Eu-
rope, this tern
ranges over a
large part of
Africa and most
of Asia. The
beautiful white-
winged black
tern {ff. leucop-

tera), which is likewise but a rare visitor to the British Isles, differs from both the
preceding in that the upper tail coverts and tail are white in the adult summer
plumage, the under parts being black as far as the vent, and the under wing coverts
of the same hue, while the beak is dull red. Rare in Northern Europe, this species
is more common in the south and east, whence its range extends over the greater
portion of Europe. Mr. Saunders writes that " the black tern breeds in colonies,
the nest being situated in marshes, and formed of decayed pieces of Equisetum and
other plants, or heaps of wrack, which rise and fall with the tide; sometimes they

HEAD OF BROAD-BILLED TKRN.
(From Saunders, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1876.)

2280 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, J AC AN AS, GULLS

are placed on the firmer hummocks of bog in the middle of shallow parts. The
eggs are three in number, of various shades of ochreous clay, olive brown, or olive
green, blotched with dark brown, especially at the larger end. The food of this
tern consists chiefly of beetles and dragon flies, with some small fish; it is also very
partial to leeches."

The true terns, of which the common tern {Sterna fluviatilis} is the typical
form, differ from the marsh terns and their allies by the distinctly-pointed outer tail
feathers, while they are further characterized by the shortness of the metatarsus,
the moderately-elongated tail, and the compressed and slender beak. With two ex-
ceptions, these terns have the crown of the head black; while, as a rule, the under
parts are white or gray, although in the Oriental black-bellied tern (S. melano-
gaster) they are black. The common species, as well as the Arctic (5. macrura),

roseate (S. dougalli), and Sand-
wich tern (S. cantiana) art large-
sized forms belonging to a group
of the genus in which the fore-
head is black to the culmen of the
beak, whereas the sooty tern (S.
fuliginosa) is the British repre-
sentative of another group in
which the front of the forehead is
white in the adult plumage. From
all the above the lesser tern (S.
minuta), together with several
other species, may be distin-
guished by its inferior dimensions,
the length of the wing being less
than eight inches, whereas in the
other groups it varies from nine
and one-half to twelve inches.

The broad-billed tern (S. eurygnatha), of which the head is figured on p 2279, is
an inhabitant of the Atlantic coast of America, from South Brazil to the islalid of
Trinidad, and is represented by a closely-allied species on the Pacific coast of this
continent.

As an essentially tropical genus of the subfamily, brief mention
must be made of the noddies, typically represented by Anous stolidus.
These birds belong to a group of the subfamily, differing from the one including
the last two by the graduated tail, in which the feathers are pointed, and the outer-
most shorter than the next pair. As a genus, the noddies are characterized by the
short middle toe, the strong decurved beak, and by the fourth pair of tail feathers,
counting from the outer side, exceeding all the others in length. The common
noddy appears to be generally distributed throughout the Tropics, one of its best-
known breeding haunts being the Tortuga islands, off Florida: Its general color is
dark; but, like the allied species, it has a light gray patch on the crown of the head
and forehead.

COMMON TERN.

Noddies

THE TERNS, SKIMMERS, AND GULLS

2281

Skimmers

The remarkable birds known as skimmers, or scissor bills, con-
stitute a subfamily {RhynchopinaT) t distinguished not only from
the terns (which they other-
wise resemble), but likewise
from all other birds, by the
peculiar structure of the beak,
this organ being elongated and
compressed to a knife-like form,
with the lower mandible consid-
erably longer than the upper
one, which is freely movable.
The single genus of the sub-
family is represented by three
species, of which the black
skimmer (Rhynchops nigra},
distinguished by its dark beak,
is North American, while the

yellow-beaked skimmer (R. albi- BLACK SKIMMER>

collis] is Indian, the third species

inhabiting the Nile and Red Sea littoral. The American species has been observed
flying close to the water, with the lower half of the beak immersed beneath the sur-
face, doubtless searching for food.

The gulls proper, as distinguished from the other members of the
order, form the third subfamily (Larinte) of the typical family, the
great majority of them belonging to the genus Larus, although the kittiwake and
an allied species from the North Pacific are separated as Rissa; while Sabine's gull
and a kindred but very rare form from the Galapagos islands constitute the genus
Xema; and Ross's gull (Rhodostetkia rossi} and the ivory gull (Pagophila eburnea}
respectively represent distinct generic types. As a subfamily, the gulls are charac-
terized by the upper mandible of the beak being longer than the lower one, over
which its tip is bent down; while the tail is usually squared, although in one genus
it is forked, and in a second wedge shaped. Some of the smaller gulls, like so
many of the terns, assume a dark head and neck in the summer plumage.

Sabine's gull (Xema sabinei}, together with the Galapagos fork-
°r Gulls tailed gull (X. furcatum}, may be at once distinguished by the forking
of the tail, — a characteristic in which they agree with the great ma-
jority of the terns, as they also do in the assumption of a dark head during the
breeding season. Not a very uncommon straggler — especially in the immature
state — to the British Islands, Sabine's gull breeds in Arctic America and Siberia,
generally in company with the Arctic tern, two eggs being laid by the female on
the bare ground. Of the second and larger species but little is known, only a few
examples having found their way into European collections.

As the forked tail serves to distinguish the members of the last
genus, so the single representative (Rhodostetkia rossi} of the present
one is equally well demarcated by the wedge-like contour of the same appendage.

Gulls

Ross's Gull

2282 PL O VERS, SA ND PIPERS, SNIPE, JA CA NA S, G ULLS

It is likewise characterized by its small dove-like beak; while the delicate pink hue
of its plumage is also a striking feature, although one shared by some other mem-
bers of the subfamily. Formerly rare in collections, this gull has more recently
been obtained abundantly off Point Barron; but its true polar haunts appear to be as
yet undiscovered, although it has been seen in summer in Boothia Felix and Franz-
Josef Land.

Represented by nearly half a hundred species, the typical gulls of

the genus Larus differ from both the preceding by the squared tail,

while they are further characterized by the full development of the first or hind-

BLACK-HEADED GUI,!,.
(One-fourth natural size.)

toe. The genus includes both the largest and the smallest representatives of the
subfamily; and while some species assume a dark head in the breeding season,
others lose all trace of dark tints in this region when adult. The smallest of the
dark-headed species visiting the British Islands is the little gull (L. minutus), easily
recognized by its diminutive size, and, when in flight, by the slaty black under
surface of the wings. A straggler to Southern Norway, this gull is common in the
Mediterranean countries, ranging eastward to the Caucasus, and thence northward
across Siberia to the Lena. Nesting in colonies in the vicinity of Lake Ladoga,

THE TERNS, SKIMMERS, AND GULLS

2283

COMMON GUI,!,.

together with the common tern,
the female generally lays three or
four eggs, which may be distin-
guished from those of the former
by the orange-red, instead of yel-
low, color of their yolks. Whereas
the species just mentioned is but
a very occasional visitor there, the
black-headed gull (L. ridibundus)
is a common denizen of the British
coasts, showing an especial par-
tiality for flat shores during the
winter, but in the spring seeking
marshes for the purpose of breed-
ing. In this species the head and
upper part of the neck are dark
brown, and the beak lake red in
the summer dress; but in the Med-
iterranean black-headed gull {L.
melanocephalus) the head is jet
black, and the beak coral red, with
a dark band in front of the angle,

while the primary quills, in fully adult examples, are white, instead of parti -colored.

In America the group is represented by the laughing gull (L. atricilla), distinguished

from the British .species by its larger dimensions, and characterized by having the

first three outer primaries black, with minute white tips. The largest member of

the group is the great

black-headed gull {L.

ichthyaetus) , ranging

eastward from the Levant

to China, and northward

to Mongolia. In length

the male may measure as

much as twenty - seven

inches (against sixteen

inches in the black-
headed gull); and in the

breeding plumage the

adult has a jet-black head

and upper neck, the beak

orange red, passing into

red at the angle of the

mandible, the first pri-
mary mainly white, with

a black streak along the HERRING GUI,!..

2284 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, J AC AN AS, GULLS

outer web, while on the second, third, and fourth quills of the same series the black
forms a bar, followed by a broad white tip.

With the somewhat misnamed common gull (Z,. canus} we come to the first of
a group of mostly large species, characterized by the pure white head and neck in
the summer plumage of the adult. Measuring eighteen inches in length, the adult
in summer has the head and neck pure white, the back gray, the primaries mostly
black, with white spots or tips, the beak yellow at the tip and greenish yellow at
the base, and the total number of flight feathers thirty-one. Breeding throughout
Northern Europe and Asia, the common gull is now only a winter visitor to Eng-
land, although it still nests in Ireland and Scotland. Its nests may be either scat-
tered singly along the shore, or
aggregated into larger or smaller
colonies. On the two sides of
North America this gull is sever-
ally represented by an allied spe-
cies. Another British species de-
manding notice is the herring gull
(L. argentatus} , which considerably
exceeds the last in size, measuring
upward of twenty-three inches in
length. In the adult summer
plumage the head is white, the
mantle pale pearl gray, the beak
wholly yellow, a ring round the
eye yellow, and the legs flesh
colored; there are thirty- four flight
feathers. The range of this species
includes Northern Europe, the is-
lands of the Atlantic, such as the
Azores, where it breeds, and
North America, while in winter it
visits the north of Africa. In
Southern Europe, as well as in Si-
beria, and various parts of America,
the herring gull is replaced by sev-
eral very closely-allied forms, mainly

distinguished by the darker or lighter hue of the mantle, the pattern of the quill
feathers, and the color of the legs and of the ring round the eye. These gulls are
in the habit of following the shoals of the fish from which they take their name,
and may often be seen hovering above the fry,- preparatory to taking a plunge
among them in the water. Their chief food consists, however, of various marine
animals thrown up by the tide, although during the spring and after the rough
weather, they frequently wander far inland. Somewhat superior in size to the com-
mon gull (its length being about twenty-one inches), the lesser black-backed
gull (L.fuscus} in the adult summer plumage has the head white, the primaries

LESSER BLACK-BACKED GULL-

THE TERNS, SKIMMERS, AND GULLS 2285

blackish with white tips, the back blackish, and the legs bright yellow. This spe-
cies is resident in Britain, and ranges eastward to the Caspian, while southward it
extends into Africa, and westward to the Canaries. Of the great black-backed
gull (/,. marinus}, which is larger than all the preceding, a well-known observer,
who writes under the nom de plume of "A Son of the Marshes," says that these
birds "are not particular as to the nature of their food, so long as there is enough
of it; a rat or a bird, a fish or a snail, or bread and milk, will suit almost
equally well. Tradition says that in the early days of our oldest inhabitants the
great black-backed gull bred on some of the wild flats of the Kentish coast, and in
a portion of the lonely salt marshes of Essex." In attacking young lambs, these
gulls invariably commence by pecking out the eyes of their victims; and as many
as nine of these marauders have been captured during a single evening by setting a
number of traps around a dead lamb. In length this gull measures upward of
twenty-eight inches; and in the adult breeding plumage the head is white, the back
blackish, and the legs flesh color, the number of flight feathers being thirty-four.
Essentially an oceanic species, the greater black-backed gull is mainly an inhabitant
of both sides of the North Atlantic, although it has been procured on the Pacific
side of North America, and in winter it ranges as far south as the Canaries. In the
Southern Hemisphere it is replaced by the southern black-backed gull (Z,. domini-
canus}, characterized by its stout beak, brownish black- mantle, and olive-colored
legs. Largest of all the British species, the glaucous gull (L. glaucus), in which
the males may measure fully thirty-two inches, is readily distinguished by the adult
summer plumage being nearly white throughout, as well as by the comparative
shortness of the wings and feet. Essentially an Old-World Arctic bird, this gull
only wanders in winter to temperate and tropical Europe; while in the North Pacific
it is represented by the allied L. glaucescens, ranging from America to Kamchatka,
and distinguished by the faint gray mottlings on the wings. Another occasional
wanderer to the British Isles from the north is the Iceland gull (L. leucopterus} ,
which may be distinguished from the last by its length not exceeding twenty-two
inches, and likewise by the proportionately much longer wings and legs. Bona-
parte's gull (L. Philadelphia}, a small species with a grayish -black head and upper
neck, is remarkable for its habit of breeding in tall trees.

Represented only by the common circumpolar kittiwake (Rissa
tridactyla) and an allied North-Pacific species (R. brevirostris} from
the region lying between Alaska and Kamchatka, these gulls are distinguished by
the shortness of the metatarsus and the absence or rudimentary condition of the
first or hind-toe. It is not a little curious that while in most districts examples of
the common kittiwake in which the latter toe persists are but rarely met with, in
Behring Sea this condition is much more common. Measuring fifteen inches in
length, the kittiwake, in the summer plumage of the adult, has the upper parts
white and gray, the tail white, the first to the fifth primaries tipped with black,
the under parts white, the beak yellow, and the legs brownish black. The kitti-
wake is a resident in the British Isles, where it breeds in numbers on rocky
cliffs, and feeds chiefly on surface-swimming fry of fishes and marine invertebrates.
The nests, which are usually placed close together on narrow ledges of rock, are

2286 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACANAS, GULLS

built of seaweed, and generally contain three eggs. The Pacific species, which
exhibits a similar variation with regard to the first toe, may be distinguished by its
orange-red legs.

Conspicuous on account of its uniform delicate white plumage,

faintly suffused with a rosy tint, in marked contrast to which stand

out the jet-black legs and greenish-yellow beak, the lovely ivory gull (Pagophila

eburnea~) alone represents a genus characterized by the shortness of the beak, the

KITTIWAKES NESTING.

long and slightly-graduated tail, and the connection of the first toe (of which the
claw is unusually long) with the metatarsus by means of a distinct web. A cir-
cumpolar inhabitant of the Arctic seas, this gull wanders into temperate regions
during the winter, its breeding places being in Spitzbergen and other regions in the
far north. In contrast to the snowy white of the adult, the young of the ivory gull
are conspicuously spotted with black.

THE SKUAS

2287

THE SKUAS
Family STERCORAR1ID&

Closely allied to the gulls, the skuas are considered by Mr. Saunders to form a
family by themselves, although many ornithologists are not disposed to admit the
necessity for such separation. As a family these birds are characterized by the
following features: The beak has a cere at the base, and the tip of the upper
mandible hooked; the breastbone has but a single notch on each side; the blind
appendages (cceca) of the intestine are larger than in the preceding family; and

• /_-• •- -

POMATORHINE SKUA.

the completely webbed toes are furnished with strong, sharp, hooked claws.
Represented by six species, the skuas are all included in a single genus; and while
four of them breed only in the colder regions of the Northern Hemisphere, there are
two southern species, one of which (Stercorarius chilensis) is found on the western
coast of South America as far as the straits of Magellan, and thence northward to
Rio de Janeiro, the other ranging from Tierra del Fuego to the Cape, New Zealand,
and the Indian Ocean. In the last edition of YarrelV s Birds it is stated that
' ' the skuas may be considered as forming a conspicuous portion of the predaceous
division among the swimming birds, as indicated by their powerful and hooked
beak and claws. Their food is fish, but they devour also the smaller water birds
and their eggs, the flesh of whales, as well as other carrion, and are observed to

2288 PLOVERS, SANDPIPERS, SNIPE, JACJLNAS, GULLS

tear their prey in pieces, while holding it under their crooked talons. They rarely
take the trouble to fish for themselves, but, watching the smaller gulls and
terns while thus employed, they no sooner observe one to have been successful than
they immediately give chase, pursuing it with fury; and having obliged it from
fright to disgorge the recently-swallowed fish they descend to catch it, being fre-
quently so rapid and certain in their movements and aim as to seize their prize
before it reaches the water. ' ' Of the two members of the group breeding within
the limits of the British Islands, the largest is the great skua (S. catarrhades) , its
only resort within those limits being the Shetlands.

Measuring upward of twenty-four inches in length, the great skua has the two
central tail feathers less than an inch longer than the others, and may be further
distinguished by the white bases to the flight feathers, the general color being dark
brown. It nests in a hole of about a foot in diameter, laying one or two eggs
on a lining of moss and heather. It is to this species that the two southern
forms alluded to above are allied. Taking the other species in their order of size,
the long-tailed skua (S. parasiticus) , which measures twenty-two inches in length,
has the two central tail feathers upward of nine inches longer than the rest. Es-
sentially an Arctic species, this bird is but a very occasional visitor to the British
Islands. The pomatorhine skua (S, pomatorhinus) , on the other hand, is a regular
winter visitor to the last-named area; it may be distinguished by the two central
tail feathers being twisted upward and exceeding the others in length by four
inches, the total length of the bird being twenty-one inches. Lastly, we have
Richardson's skua (S. crepidatus} , measuring an inch less than the last, and distin-
guished by the two central tail feathers being only three inches longer than the
others. Circumpolar and subarctic in its breeding range, this species is much more
abundant in Britain than either of the others, nesting not only in the Hebrides,
Orkneys, and Shetlands, but likewise on the mainland in the counties of Caithness
and Sutherland.

CHAPTER XX

THE TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, AND PENGUINS —
ORDERS TUBINARES, PYGOPODES, AND IMPENNES

WITH the exception that they are all thoroughly aquatic in their habits, the
tube-nosed birds, as represented by the albatrosses, petrels, and shearwaters, have
little or nothing in common with the diving birds, as exemplified by the auks,
divers, and grebes, or with the penguins; and it is merely as a matter of convenience
that the three groups are treated in the same chapter. They accordingly need no
collective notice, so that we at once proceed to the consideration of the leading fea-
tures of the first of the three groups.

The members of this order take their name from the circumstance
that the external nostrils are produced into tubes lying upon the sur-
face of the beak and directed forward; this feature being absolutely
peculiar, and serving at once to distinguish them from all other birds. The horny
sheathing of their beak is composed of several distinct species, separated from one
another by more or less marked grooves, and the tip of the beak is sharply hooked.
In the skull the palate is of the slit (schizognathous) type; while its nasal apertures
are oval, or holorhinal, and the angle of the lower jaw is abruptly truncated be-
hind. As in so many sea birds, the upper aspect of the skull has very deep grooves,
which, however, are always separated from one another on the forehead by a wide
bar. The vertebrae of the back are articulated with one another by the usual saddle-
shaped surfaces. In the wings, which are generally of great length, the humerus
resembles the corresponding bone of the gulls in having a well-marked process on
the outer side of its lower extremity, although the perforations in the basal bone of
the second digit of the wing characterizing that order are wanting. The tibia, or
leg bone, differs from that of all the birds hitherto considered in having a flattened
plate-like crest projecting upward on its front aspect some distance above the level
of the head of the bone. The feet are characterized by the small size or even occa-
sional absence of the first toe, while the three front toes are completely webbed. In
the plumage there is a well-defined bare tract on each side of the neck, and the oil
gland is furnished with a tuft of feathers. The young, which are born in a help-
less condition, and are fed for a considerable period in the nest by the parents, are
clothed with down, arranged in a somewhat complex manner.

In habits, all the tube-nosed birds are marine and carnivorous, subsisting en-
tirely on either carrion, cuttlefish, or crustaceans, together with such refuse as they
can pick up. They are all birds of sustained and powerful flight; and, with the ex-
ception of the members of one aberrant genus, are swimmers rather than divers.
In appearance several of them, more especially the fulmars, present a marked simi-
larity to the gulls; the plumage in this instance being of the gray and white hue
144 (2289)

2290 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

distinctive of that group. This resemblance must, however, be regarded as a purely
adaptive one, brought about by the needs of a similar mode of existence, there
being but little structural affinity between the members of the two groups. Gener-
ally, the tube-nosed birds have a more or less dusky-hued plumage, while they mostly
differ from the chattering and screaming gulls by their comparatively-silent habits.
Although found in the seas of all parts of the world, the group is represented by the
greatest number of species in the Southern Hemisphere, which may consequently
be regarded as its headquarters. Very little is known of the group's geological
history, although a species of shearwater has been stated to occur in the lower Mio-
cene strata of France; the same beds also yielding remains of an extinct genus
{Hydrornis) , which has been tentatively assigned to this order.

THE ALBATROSSES
Family DlOMEDElD^

The albatrosses are distinguished by their tubular nostrils being placed on the
two sides of the beak, and widely separated from one another by the large median
portion of its horny sheath. They are further characterized by the extreme length
and narrowness of the wing, in which the humerus and ulna are greatly elongated;
and also by the large number of quills in the wing, which may vary from thirty-nine
to fifty, or more than in any other birds. In the foot the first toe is wanting, while
the skull is characterized by the absence of basipterygoid processes on the rostrum
of its inferior surface. All the albatrosses (which may be included in the single
genus Diomedea) are of large size, and mainly frequent the southern tropical and
subtropical seas, although one species ranges on the Pacific coast of America as far
north as Alaska. The occurrence of remains of a fossil albatross in the Pliocene
deposits of the east coast of England is noteworthy.

By far the best-known representative of the genus is the wandering albatross (D.
exulans] , which is the one represented in our illustration. It belongs to a group char-
acterized by the absence of a groove in the horny sheath of the sides of the lower
jaw, and also by the length of the wing being equal to three or four times that of
the short and rounded tail. The span of wing varies from ten to twelve feet, while
the average weight of the bird is only some seventeen pounds. The prevailing color
of the plumage is yellowish white, with the quills dusky, and, except in very old
birds, the region of the back and the larger wing coverts are irregularly barred with
blackish. The beak and feet are whitish. Although the true home of this species
is in the south seas, its wanderings occasionally extend to the north of the Equator.
The smaller sooty albatross (D. fuliginosa), of the southern oceans generally, and
the Pacific, alone represents a second section of the genus, in which the horny sheath
of the sides of the lower jaw is marked by a longitudinal groove, while the wing is
only about twice the length of the graduated tail. In the adult the plumage of the
neck, back, and upper parts is dark ashy gray, becoming lighter on the neck and

THE ALBATROSSES

2291

fore part of the back, where the tips of the feathers are nearly white; the wings and
tail are dark slaty; the beak, with the exception of the grooves, is black, and the
legs and feet are pale reddish. In all the species the young, after passing the white
downy stage, are more or less sooty in color; so that in coloration the sooty albatross
is one of the least specialized forms.

The name albatross, it may be observed, is a corruption of the Span-
ish word albatraz, meaning a gannet; and was applied to these birds
by the old voyagers, in conformity with that propensity to designate newly-
discovered creatures by familiar titles, which is so characteristic of the uneducated.
All these birds are strictly oceanic in their habits, rarely visiting the land except

Habits

ALBATROSSES NESTING.

(One-eighth natural size.)

for the purpose of breeding, and then selecting remote islands, like Tristan da
Cunha, or even isolated rocks. Much has been written in regard to the flight of
the wandering albatross, but, according to Moseley, these birds are by no means
beautiful objects when seen following in the wake of a vessel, as the long and nar-
row wings seem out of proportion to the body, while five out of every six birds ob-
served are in the brown immature plumage, and look dirty and draggled. After
referring to the marvelous powers of flight of the species just mentioned, Gould ob-
serves, that although during calm or moderate weather, this splendid bird ' ' some-

2292 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

times rests on the surface of the water, it is almost constantly on the wing — and is
equally at ease while passing over the glassy surface during the stillest calm, or fly-
ing with meteor-like swiftness before the most furious gale; and the manner in
which it just tops the raging billows and sweeps between the gulfy waves has a
hundred times called forth my wonder and admiration. Although a vessel running
before the wind frequently sails more than two hundred miles in the twenty-four
hours, and that for days together, still the albatross has not the slightest difficulty
in keeping up with the ship, but also performs circles of many miles in extent, re-
turning again to hunt up the wake of the vessel for any substances thrown over-
board." Moseley states that these birds make the utmost use of the momentum
acquired by a few powerful strokes of the wings, taking all possible advantage of
the wind, and progressing largely by a gliding movement. Still, however, he adds,
they seem to move their wings more frequently than is generally supposed. ' ' They
often have the appearance of soaring for long periods after a ship without flapping
their wings at all, but if they be closely watched very short but extremely quick
motions of the wings may be detected. The appearance is rather as if the body of
the bird dropped a very short distance and rose again. The movements cannot be
seen at all unless the bird is exactly on the level with the eye."

During the breeding season, when the light colored species are in the full
beauty of their white plumage, albatrosses resort in large numbers to oceanic islands
and rocks. In Tristan da Cunha both the wandering albatross and the smaller
yellow-billed albatross (D. chlororhyncha) are found in numbers during the breeding
season; the latter being easily distinguished by its yellow gape and the broad yellow
stripe on the tip of the otherwise black beak. Commonly known to the sailors as
" mollymauks," the yellow-billed albatrosses, according to Moseley, "take up their
abode in separate pairs anywhere about in the rookery, or under the trees, where
there are no penguins. They make a cylindrical nest of tufts of grass, clay, and
sedge, which stands up from the ground. The nest is neat and round, there is a
shallow concavity on the top for the bird to sit on, and the edge overhangs some-
what, the old birds undermining it, as the Germans said, during incubation, by
pecking away the turf of which it is made. ' ' The nest may be as much as fourteen
inches in diameter, by ten in height; and at the proper season it contains a single
white egg, somewhat larger than that of a goose. During incubation the egg is
held in a kind of pouch, so that the bird has to be driven quite off the nest before
it can be ascertained whether or not an egg is present. In all cases the sitting
birds allow themselves to be approached without making the least movement -, and
almost seem to have forgotten the use of their wings. The wandering albatross
builds a larger and more conical nest than the mollymauk, and its egg is about five
inches in length, or about equal in size to that of a swan. At its larger end the egg
has some specks of red, but is otherwise white. The male birds commonly stand
or sit near their brooding partners; and when the latter are approached, they dis-
play their displeasure by savagely snapping their beaks at the intruder.

THE PETRELS

2293

THE PETRELS
Family PROCELLARIID^E

Next in size to the albatrosses is the giant petrel (Ossifraga gigantea), the
sole member of its genus, and the first representative of the second family of the
order. All the members of this family differ from the albatrosses by the nasal

THE GIANT PETREL.

tubes being laid side by side upon the top of the beak. Generally the wings are
long, but the number of quills does not exceed thirty-nine, and is usually about
thirty, although occasionally reduced to twenty. The hind-toe, although sometimes
minute, is generally present, and there are usually basipterygoid processes on the
rostrum of the inferior aspect of the skull. The giant petrel is distinguished from
all the other members of the family by its large size, and by the length of the beak
exceeding that of the metatarsus. The beak is very stout, and has the nasal tubes

2294 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

of great length, and its outer sheath so produced as to reach beyond the proper
apertures of the nostrils, thus giving the appearance of a single nostril. The tail
is characterized by the presence of sixteen feathers. In general appearance and size
this bird is not unlike some of the smaller dark colored albatrosses, its total length
being about thirty-two inches, and the span of the wing sixty-six inches. Although
pale-hued individuals are far from uncommon, the general color of the plumage is
typically dull slaty brown, becoming paler on the face, throat, and under parts, and
some of the feathers of the upper parts tinged with chocolate, while those of the
back, as well as the wing coverts, have paler grayish margins. The beak is
yellowish-horn color; and the legs and feet are grayish black

Commonly known to sailors by the name of nelly, break bones, or stinker, the
giant petrel is widely distributed over the temperate and high southern latitudes,
occasionally wandering to a considerable distance north of the Equator, and in
power of flight is fully equal to the albatrosses. In habits it differs considerably
from the latter, subsisting chiefly on the blubber and flesh of dead seals and whales,
as well as the bodies of other birds. Moseley, who compares it in these respects
to a vulture, writes that in Kerguelen, this petrel " soars all day along the coast
on the lookout for good No sooner is an animal killed than numbers appear as if
by magic, and the birds are evidently well acquainted with the usual proceedings of
the sealers — who kill the sea elephant, take off the skin and blubber, and leave
the carcass. They settled down here all round in groups at a short distance,
a dozen or so together, to wait, and began fighting among themselves, as if to
settle which was to have first bite." When gorged, they are quite unable to fly;
and, like other members of the family, if disturbed they have an unpleasant habit
of disgorging an ill-smelling oily fluid. These birds breed on Kerguelen and Prince
Edward's island, where they lay a single, dirty, white egg in a natural hollow of
the ground. The newly -hatched young are covered with a long gray down, and
later on the nestlings, when approached, are stated to squirt from their nostrils an
oily fluid to a distance of six or eight feet, the old birds remaining a short distance
away.

In the Arctic regions and other parts of the Northern Hemi-
sphere, the place of the giant petrel is taken by the gull-like fulmar
(Fulmarus glacialis}, which is likewise the only well-defined representative of its
genus. Of much smaller size than the giant petrel, the fulmar differs by the beak
being inferior in length to the metatarsus, and the proportionately shorter and
stouter nasal tubes, in which the septum between the two nostrils extends to
within a 'short distance of the orifice; the tail feathers, moreover, are either
twelve or fourteen in number. The fulmar measures about nineteen inches in
length, and displays great variation as regards color. In the typical form, how-
ever, the head and neck are white, most of the upper parts, as well as the tail
feathers, pearl gray, the primaries slaty gray, and the breast and under parts white.
The iris is dark brown, the beak yellow at the tip, with yellowish-white sides, and
a greenish tinge at the base above, while the legs and feet are pale gray. A
gray phase is also commonly met with, in which the head and neck, as well as
the greater portion of both the upper and under parts are ashy brown, with

THE PETRELS

2295

the back and wings somewhat darker than the rest. The fulmar breeds in the
boreal regions of both Hemispheres; but some authorities consider that in the North
Pacific and Behring Sea it is replaced by two distinct species. In autumn and
winter, the fulmar is a by no means uncommon, although probably involuntary,
visitor to the southern shores of Britain, and has been recorded as far south as the
Mediterranean.

In habits, the fulmar is very like its larger cousin, nesting in hollows in the
ground, instead of in deep burrows like the shearwaters, and feeding largely on

FULMAR

(One-fourth natural size.)

whale blubber and refuse. Scoresby writes that these petrels ' ' are remarkably easy
and swift on the wing, flying to windward in the highest storms, and resting on the
water in great composure in the most tremendous seas; but it is observed that in
heavy gales they fly extremely low, generally skimming along by the surface of the
water. They are extremely greedy of the fat of the whale, and though few should
be seen when a whale is about being captured, yet, as soon as the flensing process

2296 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUIN.

commences, they rush in from all quarters, and frequently accumulate to many
thousands. -They then occupy the greasy track of the ship, and being audaciously
greedy, fearlessly advance within a few yards of the men employed in cutting up
the whale." Highly gregarious during the breeding season, the fulmars then col-
lect on the turfy ledges of the St. Kilda cliffs in thousands. The single white egg
is laid either in a slight nest of dried grass, or on the bare ground, and although
the birds sometimes excavate a hollow of a few inches deep in the turf, they as
often nest on its surface.

Nearly allied to the fulmar is the silver-gray petrel ( Thalassoica
Allied Genera giadaioides} of the Pacific and Southern Atlantic, distinguished by its
more slender beak, in which the nasal tubes are shorter and more depressed, with
their upper border concave. This species extends nearly as far south as the Ant-
arctic pack ice, where it is replaced by the snowy petrel (Pagodroma nivea], — a
pure white species of the size of a pigeon, with a short and weak bill. The "Cape
hen" (Majaqucus tequinoctialis) and the spectacled petrel (M. conspicillatus} are
larger southern species, of the size of the fulmar, with blackish-brown plumage.
The beak is longer than in the latter, with shorter nasal tubes, of which the two
apertures look directly forward. While the Cape hen is wholly blackish brown, the
spectacled petrel has characteristic white bands across the head and throat.
Sh Nearly cosmopolitan in their distribution, the numerous group of

medium-sized dark colored petrels known as shearwaters and included
in the genus Puffinus, are characterized by the length and slenderness of their
beaks, in which the short and depressed nasal tubes open by two separate orifices,
generally directed obliquely upward. The wings are long and pointed, with the
first quill the longest; the graduated tail consists of twelve feathers, and the first
toe is rudimentary.

Shearwaters may be divided into two groups, according as to whether the un-
der parts are white, or are dusky like the back. Among the better-known repre-
sentatives of the former group we may mention the cinereous shearwater (P. kuhli)
of the Mediterranean, Western Europe, and the East Atlantic, characterized by its
stout beak, circular nostrils, and brownish-gray upper plumage. The great shear-
water (P. major], of the Atlantic Ocean generally, which measures eighteen inches
in length, and is an occasional autumn visitor to the British Islands, is a member of
the same group, distinguished by its more slender beak, in which the nostrils form
longitudinal ovals; the general color of the upper parts being sooty grayish brown,
with paler tips to the feathers of the back. The commonest British representative
of the group is the smaller Manx shearwater (P. anglorum], which measures only
fourteen inches in length, and has a uniformly blackish upper plumage, without
pale tips to any of the feathers; it frequents the whole of the North Atlantic,
although more abundant on the eastern than on the western side. Another species
of this group is the dusky shearwater (/>. obscurus), which is smaller than the last,
with a more slender beak, and a deeper black to the upper plumage. Common to
both the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, this species has been obtained from such
widely remote regions as the Bahamas, the Galapagos islands, and New Zealand.
Lastly, we may take the sooty shearwater (P. griseus) as an example of the second

THE PETRELS 2297

group. This species, which may attain a length of eighteen inches, is of a uniform .
dusky tint above and slightly paler beneath; its range being nearly or quite as ex-
tensive as that of the preceding species, and stragglers occasionally reaching the
British Isles. ,

Allied to the shearwaters is the genus CEstrelata, as represented by
Capped Petrel ^e cappe(j petrel (CE. h&sitata) and certain other species. It is

characterized by the great compression of the rather short beak, in
wer's Pet-
rel which the terminal curved " nail " is of very large size, and the short

and very prominent nasal tubes. The long and pointed wings extend
when folded considerably beyond the graduated tail, and the hind- toe is small and
elevated. This species inhabits the warmer parts of the Atlantic, straying oc-
casionally to England and France. While the forehead, the sides of the head, the
neck, the upper tail coverts, and the base of the tail are white, the crown of the
head has an isolated black cap, and the upper parts are bistre brown, the whole
length being sixteen inches. The uniformly blackish-brown Bulwer's petrel (Bul-
weria columbina) is a much smaller bird of some ten and one-half inches in length,
and is the sole representative of its genus. It is more slenderly formed and longer
tailed than the last; frequenting the Atlantic in the neighborhood of the Canaries
and Madeira, and laying in holes or under the shelter of rocks.

From its superficial resemblance to a dark colored pigeon, the bird
properly known as the Cape petrel {Daption capensis) is commonly
designated in the colony the Cape pigeon. It represents a genus distinguished
from those last mentioned by the presence of fourteen tail feathers; and further
characterized by the beak being broad and depressed, except at its tip, where the
nail is small, and occupies less than a third of the total length. The nasal tubes
are depressed and concave, and are separated by a considerable interval from the
terminal nail. In the leg, the metatarsus is shorter than the third toe, although
much longer than the beak. This bird is of medium size and is easily recognized by
the sooty head and neck, the mingled dusky and white plumage of the upper parts,
and the immaculate white of that below.

The Cape, or, as it is often called, pintado petrel, is an inhabitant of the South
Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans, occasionally straggling northward of the Equa-
tor. In the Antarctic seas these birds are frequently met with in vast numbers;
and an observer who accompanied a whaling expedition in the winter of 1892-93,
writes that so eager were they for any scraps thrown over the ship's side, that any
number of them could have been caught with small hand nets only large enough to
contain one at a time, and many of them were thus captured by the crew. In
stormy weather they not unfrequentty come close into land. When gracefully hov-
ering in the air, the bird may be seen to make a sudden dart downward to the
water, in order to secure some floating morsel of food it has espied, and on such oc-
casions will dive readily. It is also said to throw up its tail after the manner of a
duck, and thus to fish up bits of food from slight depths. When caught and placed
on deck, is has to run some distance with outstretched wings before being able to
rise; and when first hauled in or handled, invariably ejects from its mouth or nos-
trils a reddish oily fluid. These petrels breed on Tristan da Cunha and Heard

2298

TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DlVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

Dove Petrels

island, and probably also on some of the Antarctic islands; on Heard island their
nests are made in holes in low basaltic cliffs.

The dove petrels (Prwn) are much smaller birds, represented by
numerous species in the southern seas, and typically characterized by
the great breadth of the base of their beaks. One of the best known is the common
dove petrel (P. desolatus}, which is a small gray species with a broad boat-like
beak, furnished with fine horny lamellae projecting inward from each side. It flies
like a swallow, and may be seen in flocks about a ship, or cruising over the sea, or
attendant on a whale to pick up the droppings from its mouth. Hence it is termed

CAPE PETRELS SWIMMING.
(One-fourth natural size.)

by sealers the whale bird. Its food, as that of all the petrels except the carrion
ones, seems to consist of the very abundant surface animals of the south seas,
especially of small crustaceans. It breeds on Kerguelen, laying its single white egg
in a burrow which may be as much as a yard and a half in depth. The broad-
billed blue petrel (P. vittatus) is another well-known representative of this genus.
The tiny storm petrel (Procellaria pelagica] — the smallest of British
web-footed birds — is the first representative of several genera of pet-
rels, readily distinguished from all the foregoing by their diminutive
proportions; the length of the wing not reaching seven inches. The storm petrels

The Storm
Petrels

THE PETRELS 2299

are characterized as a genus by their very small size, by the even or rounded tail,
by the length of the metatarsus being approximately equal to that of the middle
toe with its claw, and by the presence of a white patch on the rump. The whole
length of the true storm petrel — the "Mother Carey's Chicken" of the sailors
— is rather less than six inches; the general color of the plumage being sooty
black.

STORM PETRELS ON THE WAVES.
(One-half natural size.)

This petrel is confined to the more northerly portions of the Atlantic, and ex-
cept during the prevalence of severe storms and in the breeding season, is but sel-
dom seen in the neighborhood of land. Essentially a child of the ocean, it is
frequently met with far out at sea, where it will follow vessels for considerable dis-
tances, hovering over the surface of the water in a manner which has been compared
to the flutterings of a large butterfly. The breeding places of the storm petrel

2300 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

include the Atlantic coasts of Europe, and portions of the shores of the Mediterra-
nean, but, according to Mr. Ridgway, it is not known to nest on any part of Amer-
ica. The single white egg is deposited in a burrow of considerable length; and in
the island of Soa it is stated that the burrows of several pairs often diverge from a
common vestibule.

The small wedge-tailed petrel {Halocypetna microsoma), of the coast
5 of Lower California, is the sole representative of a genus distin-
guished from the above by the tail being much rounded, the metatarsus exceed-
ing the length of the third toe, and by the absence of any white on the rump.
Leach's petrel (Cymochorhea leucorrhoa} belongs to an allied genus, comprising
several somewhat larger species readily characterized by the deeply-forked tail,
in which the feathers have very broad tips, while there may or may not be a white
rump patch. The species named has a very wide distribution, being common to
both the Atlantic and Pacific. A fourth genus, represented by the fork- tailed
petrel (Oceanodroma furcata) and Hornby's petrel (O. hornbyi}, of the North
Pacific, differs by the feathers of the forked tail being scalloped at the end, there
being no white patch on the rump, and the plumage being either uniform bluish
ashy or gray, with the forehead, cheeks, or collar on the throat, and the under parts
white.

The preceding members of the family collectively constitute a sub-
1 ^n family characterized by the presence of at least thirteen secondary

quills, by the metatarsus being covered with small hexagonal plates,
by the sharp and curved claws, and by the leg bones being shorter than the
wing. On the other hand, the small Wilson's petrel, together with some allied
species, forms a second subfamily distinguished by the presence of only ten
secondaries, by the metatarsus being either booted or covered in front with large
oblique scutes, by the flat and broad claws, and by the leg bones exceeding
the wings in length. In all the group the aperture of the straight nasal tubes
is single and circular. Wilson's petrel (Oceanites oceanicus}, which is somewhat
larger than the storm petrel, inhabits the Atlantic Ocean and Australian seas;
while the other members of the genus are exclusively southern. The general
color of its plumage is dusky, with the quills and tail feathers black. As regards
their muscles, these petrels are highly specialized, and in the boot-like plates
covering the metatarsus, they differ from all other water birds. The white-bellied
petrel {Cymodroma grallaria), of the tropical seas, has an even tail, and the
metatarsus about twice the length of the third toe, exclusive of the claw. The
plumage is parti -colored.

Like the albatrosses, all the petrels hitherto mentioned are essentially
Petrel fly*n£ a°d swimming birds, which dive but little. There is, however,

a remarkable aberrant petrel inhabiting the straits of Magellan which
differs from all the other members of the order in its short wings and diving
habits; while it is further distinguished by the nasal tubes being vertical and
opening superiorly; the first toe being also absent. This bird (Pelecanoides
urinatrix}, which many ornithologists regard as the representative of a distinct
family, is, indeed, in habits and appearance so like an auk, that, as Darwin

THE DIVING BIRDS 2301

remarks, when seen from a distance, either on the wing, or diving and swimming,
it would undoubtedly be mistaken for one of these birds. Nevertheless, both in
structure and plumage, it is essentially a petrel; and we must accordingly regard
its auk-li'ke appearance and habits as special modifications for a peculiar mode of
life. These birds, according to Moseley, may be seen in calm weather in Royal
Sound floating in immense numbers on the ,water, the flocks sometimes extending
over acres, and causing the sea to appear literally black. They dive with extreme
rapidity, and when disturbed, rise and flutter a short distance along the surface,
after which they again drop and dive.

THE DIVING BIRDS
Order PYGOPODES

This group admits of much less concise definition than the preceding, unless
indeed we follow the example of many modern ornithologists in removing from it
the auks. It has been proposed to transfer the latter to the gulls, with which they
agree in having cup and ball articulations to the vertebrae of the back; but since it
is certain that all the primitive birds had cup-like articular surfaces to their verte-
brae, there seems no reason why the cup and ball structure should not have been
independently acquired in two distinct groups. Moreover, the auks differ from the
gulls in the absence of any projecting process to the lower end of the humerus.

In this wider sense the diving birds are characterized externally by the
extremely backward position of their short legs, in which the front toes are either
completely webbed or lobed, the first toe being either absent or rudimentary. In
the skull the palate is of the cleft (schizognathous) type, the lower jaw is abruptly
truncated behind, and there are large grooves for the reception of glands on the
forehead, which are separated from one another merely by a narrow ridge. The
humerus has no process at its lower end; but the tibia has an upwardly projecting
crest, which may unite with the kneecap or patella to form a long spike projecting
upward in front of the femur. The young are born covered with down or feathers,
and are soon active. In the plumage, the spinal feather tract is. either forked on
the upper part of the back, or not defined on the neck; while the oil gland is inva-
riably tufted. The wings are relatively short, and the beak is comparatively
straight and often much compressed, with its horny sheath generally composed of
but a single piece.

Contrasted with the other ordinal groups in which the palate is of the cleft
type, the divers are readily distinguished from the tube-nosed birds by the normal
confirmation of their nostrils, their active young, and the absence of a projecting
process to the lower end of the humerus; the latter feature, together with the more
marked upward extension of the crest of the tibia, and the lack of any perforations
in the bones of the second digit of the wing, differentiating them from the gulls.
They are not likely to be confounded with the Limicolce or any of the remaining
orders; from all of which, except certain of the group named, they are distinguished

2302 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

by the presence of grooves on the front of the skull. The group may be divided
into three families, of which the second and third are much more closely related
to one another than they are to the first.

THE AUKS
Family ALCID^

The auks are characterized externally by the absence of the first toe; while in
the skeleton the crest of the tibia is relatively short, the metatarsus is not laterally
compressed, and the vertebrae of the back are articulated together by cup and ball
joints. The front toes are fully webbed and furnished with sharp, claw-like nails;
the tail, although short, is normal, and the beak, although frequently much com-
pressed, deep, and short, is subject to great variation in form. The family includes
the true auks, guillemots, pygmy auks, and puffins; all of which are marine, and
confined to the colder regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

The typical members of the family are characterized by the large
The True Auks . -,, •,-,•> 1 j • r ^ , , <•

size of the compressed beak, marked in front by oblique grooves, and

feathered at its base close up to the slit-like nostrils, which are almost concealed by
a dense velvety feathering, completely filling the fossae in which they are situated.
The wings are more or less short, and the tail is graduated, with its component
feathers pointed.

On account of its extinction in the past century, as well as from
being the largest representative of the family, and the only bird in the
Northern Hemisphere incapable of flight, the great auk, or garefowl (Alca impen-
nts\ is of great interest. In common with many other northern sea birds, it was
formerly known as the penguin, — a name now transferred to. the well-known birds
of the Southern Hemisphere. In size, the great auk may be roughly compared to
a goose, its total length being about thirty-two inches. It was especially char-
acterized by the rudimentary condition of the wings, which, owing to the reduction
in the length of the ulna and bones of the digits, were quite useless in flight; while
it was further distinguished by the beak being equal in length to the head, and
furnished with numerous grooves on its lower, as well as on its upper mandible.
In color, the plumage of the head, neck, and back was black, while the under parts,
as well as a characteristic spot in front of the eye, were white.

Confined to the North Atlantic, and ranging as far north as Iceland on the one
side and Greenland on the other, the great auk was a migratory species, which in
winter wandered as far south as the Bay of Biscay and the shores of Virginia. Both
in Greenland and Norway it appears to have been always rare; and its chief or only
breeding places were three rocky islands near Iceland, known as the Garefowl Sker-
ries or Geirfuglasker, and Funk island off the Newfoundland coast. By the subsi-
dence in the spring of 1830 of one of these islets, which as being the most inacces-
sible, was the favorite breeding place, the birds were driven to one nearer the shore,
where they were more easily approached; and in the course of the next fourteen

THE AUKS

2303

years the species became extinct in Europe, the last pair having been killed in the
summer of 1844. The existence of the garefowl on Funk island was discovered
about 1534, when the birds were so numerous as to be reckoned, it is said, by thou-
sands, but incessant persecution for more than two centuries eventually brought

GREAT AUK.

(One-sixth natural size.)

about its extermination, which probably took place almost contemporaneously
with its disappearance from Europe. On Funk island, as Mr. Lucas remarks, it
was customary for the crews of several vessels to spend the summer for the sole
purpose of killing garefowl for the sake of their feathers. Although we have but

2304 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

traditions of these expeditions, it is indisputable that stone pens were erected into
which the birds were driven like sheep, that they were slain by millions, and that
their bodies were left to rot where they lay, while for some purpose or other fre-
quent and long-continued fires were lighted on the island. The records of this
slaughter are still extant in the numbers of garefowl bones to be met with in the soil
of Funk island; such relics, together with a few skins, and a number of eggshells,
being all that remain to us of the finest of auks.

That the garefowl was generally a gregarious bird, more especially during the
breeding season, is evident from the foregoing; but it is stated that solitary pairs
were occasionally found nesting with guillemots and razorbills. Although useless
for flight, the wings were admirably suited as paddles, and the swimming and diving
powers of the bird were probably unrivaled, its migrations being more extensive than
those of many of its relatives which possess the power of flight. From the accounts
of the natives of Iceland, it appears that the garefowl sw7am with its head elevated
and the neck retracted, and that, when pursued, instead of flapping along the water,
it immediately dived. As in allied species, the eggs are relatively large in propor-
tion to the size of the bird, often measuring just over five inches in length, and they
have also the same elongated form, with one end much larger than the other. They
have a creamy-white ground color, marked with black or brown streaks and blotches,
with underlying gray patches.

The common English razorbill (A. torda), which is the only other
representative of the genus, differs from the garefowl not only by its
greatly inferior size (length about seventeen inches), but likewise by its well-
developed wings and its relatively-shorter beak, in which there are but two or three
grooves on the lower mandible, and these indistinctly marked. Lacking the large
white spot in front of the eye characterizing the great auk, the adult razorbill in
summer has a narrow white line extending from the beak to the eye. While in sum-
mer the chin and throat of the adult are brown, and the head, hind -neck, and
upper parts black, with the under parts white, in the winter dress the white ex-
tends upward to the throat, chin, and sides of the head, and the plumage of the
upper parts is browner. The razorbill is common to the coasts and islands of both
sides of the North Atlantic, ranging as far north as latitude 70° in Greenland, while
in winter it reaches Gibraltar, from whence it wanders a considerable distance up
the Mediterranean. Resident throughout the year in the British seas, it breeds on
all suitable rocky coasts, from the north of France to Cape North, generally in
large colonies. Concerning its breeding habits, we find it stated in the third edition
of YarrelVs British Birds that "about the middle or latter part of March in the
south of England, and early in April in the northern portions of our islands, the
razorbills, guillemots, and puffins converge to particular points, where, from
the numbers that congregate, and the bustle apparent among them, confusion of in-
terests might be expected. It will, however, be found that, as a rule, the guille-
mots occupy one station or line of ledges on the rock; the razorbills another; the
puffins a third; the kittiwake gulls a fourth; while the most inaccessible crags seem
to be left for the use of the herring gulls. The razorbills generally select the
higher and rougher ledges, and they are partial to crevices, their eggs being some-

THE AUKS

2305

times deposited so far in that it is no easy matter to get at them; at other times
they lay their eggs on the broader shelves along -with the guillemots, but not so
closely together."

Closely allied, both as regards structure, the color, and seasonal
change of their plumage, and habits, to the razorbills, the guillemots
differ by their more slender and straighter beak, in which there are no oblique trans-
verse grooves, while the upper mandible is slightly curved near the point, and has
a small notch on the side. The basal nostrils are partially closed by a membrane,

Guillemots

COMMON GUILLEMOTS.

(One-fourth natural size.)

which is itself partly feathered. There is still some degree of uncertainty as to the
number of species of the typical guillemots, some writers, like Mr. Seebohm,
recognizing but one, while others, like Dr. Sharpe, admit several. Whether, how-
ever, we regard them as species or varieties, all the forms are characterized by the
white plumage of the under parts; this white area in the summer dress stopping
short at the base of the throat, but in winter extending upward, as in the razorbill,
to the throat, chin, and sides of the head. In the typical form of the common
guillemot ( Uria troile) which inhabits both sides of the North Atlantic, the beak is
I4S

2306 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

of considerable length, and the head is of a uniform smoky brown. It is replaced
in the Pacific by a somewhat larger form, known as the Californian guillemot. Both
in the Atlantic and Pacific there are also certain guillemots, like the one in the fore-
ground of the cut, characterized by the presence of a white streak extending back-
ward from the eye, and a white ring round the eye itself. Formerly regarded as
indicating a distinct species, these ringed guillemots, as they are commonly called,
are now generally considered to be merely sports. Pallas' s guillemot, of Behring
Sea and other parts of the North Pacific is the largest representative of the second
modification of the group, in which the beak is much shorter and deeper than in the
preceding, while the nape of the neck and back of the head are black like the back.
A portion of the base of the cutting edge of the mandible is light colored. Finally,
we have the so-called Briinnich's or polar guillemot {U. bruennichi), of the North
Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, in which the size is smaller, and the whole of the cut-
ting edge of the upper mandible yellowish white. Mr. Seebohm considers, however,
that Briinnich's guillemot is so inseparably connected by the Californian form with
the common guillemot, as to render it impossible to regard them as more than varie-
ties of a single species. Whatever diversity of opinion may obtain as to the dis-
tinctness of the above-mentioned forms from the common guillemot, there can be
none as to that of the black guillemot ( U. grylle), which is referred, indeed, by some
writers to a separate genus. It is a smaller bird than the common guillemot, from
which it is at once distinguished by the whole of the under parts being black in the
summer dress, the beak being relatively short. Typically an inhabitant of the North
Atlantic, it is represented in the circumpolar seas by a variety distinguished by the
larger size of the conspicuous white patch on the wings. In the North Pacific it is
replaced by the pigeon guillemot (U. columba), characterized by the under surface
of the wing being gray, instead of smoky white. The typical form of this species
has a large white wing patch; but there are two varieties (carbo and motzfeldi}, sev-
erally distinguished by the presence or absence of white on the head, in which the
wing is uniformly black on the outer side.

All the guillemots are very similar in their mode of life, being essentially
oceanic birds, which only visit the rocks during the breeding season, and are only
found inland when driven there by stress of weather; while they are markedly soci-
able and gregarious. Their food consists of fish, supplemented by various crusta-
ceans, the common species being especially partial to the fry of herrings and pilchards,
which are captured at night in the open sea. Rapid, though heavy and labored in
its flight, the common guillemot is enabled to reach the summits of almost inaccess-
ible cliffs for the purpose of breeding, where, as in the Fame islands and at Flam-
borough, it congregates in myriads. On the ledges of the precipitous cliffs near
Bempton — another noted breeding place — the guillemots, are sometimes so densely
crowded together as to remind one of a swarm of bees. The breeding season in
Britain commences in May and lasts till August; and while the other species agree
with the rest of the family in laying but a single egg, the black guillemot deposits
two. The eggs may be laid either on the bare ledges of rock or in fissures; and
while at times several may be found together, at other times they lie singly. In
coloration, guillemot's eggs are remarkable for their extraordinary variability.

THE AUKS

2307

According to the writer last mentioned, " the ground colors are cream, white, blue,
and yellowish green, dark and clear pea green, and reddish and purplish brown, with
every conceivable intermediate tint. Some are irregularly blotched, others are fan-
tastically streaked with browns, pinks, or
grays in endless variety, while a few are
spotless or nearly so. ' ' Some closely re-
semble those of the razorbill, from which
they may always be distinguished by ap-
pearing creamy white instead of green
when viewed by transmitted light.

The North Pacific is in-

Short-Billed
Guillemots

UTTI.E AUKS.

The Little
Auk

habited by six or seven
much smaller guillemots,
characterized by their very short beaks,
of which the tip is not decurved. These
constitute the genus Brachyrhamphus,
and while in some species, like the mar-
bled guillemot (/?. marmoratus}, the
front of the metatarsus is reticulated, in
others, such as the black-throated guille-
mot (B. antiquus}, it is covered in front
with large scutes.

Breeding solely within the limits of the Arctic Circle, the little auk,
or rotche (Mergulus alle] is an Atlantic species, which only visits the
British Isles in winter, and is even then far more common in the Ork-
neys and Shetlands than in the south. It is a very small bird, measuring only

about eight and one-half inches in
length, and differing from all the
members of the family by the
shortness of the symphysis of
the lower mandible, in which the
angle of the chin is much nearer
to the tip of the beak than to the
nostrils, instead of the reverse.
The whole beak is shorter than
the head, very thick, and broader
than high at the base, the profile
being arched, and the tips of both
mandibles notched, while the up-
per one is faintly grooved. The
rounded and lateral nostrils are
placed at the base of the beak and
partially covered with feathers.

In coloration the little auk very closely resembles the guillemot; the head, chin, and
throat, as well as the upper parts being mostly black, while the remainder of the

HEAD OF TUFTED AUK.
(From Guillemard's Cruise of the " Marchesa.")

2308 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

KNOB-BII.LED AUKS.

lower parts, a spot over the eye, the tips of the secondaries, and the margins of
the scapulars are white. In the winter plumage, on the other hand, the white

area includes the throat, chin, and
sides of the head.

The little auk ranges in the Arctic
regions from Nova Zembla and Spitz-
bergen to Greenland, migrating south-
ward in winter as far as New Jersey on
the one side of the Atlantic, and to the
Canaries on the other. In its breeding
places, where it appears in May, it con-
gregates in countless thousands, if not
in millions. The single bluish-white
egg is laid so deep among the loose
fragments of rock that it can only be
reached with difficulty, and the young
leave the breeding places for the open
sea before they can fly. An expert
diver and a strong swimmer, the rotche
feeds chiefly on crustaceans and ma-
rine worms. In spite, however, of its
oceanic habits, it appears to be ill
adapted to fight against the storms of

winter, during the prevalence of which it is frequently driven far inland, and in the
severe winter of 1894-95 hundreds were thus driven into England.

Related to
Pacific Pygmy ., t .

. , J ''the rotche are
Auks

a number of
small auk-like birds from
the Northern Pacific, all of
which differ from that spe-
cies in having the chin
angle nearer to the nostril
than to the base of the beak.
Among these are the tufted
auk (Simorhynchus crista-
tellus), remarkable for the
forwardly curving tufts oi
feathers at the root of the
beak; the knob-billed auk
(5*. pusillus}, taking its

name from the presence in summer of a knob at the base of the beak which dis-
appears in winter; and the parrot auk (S. psittaculus}. Still more remarkable is
the horn-billed auk (Cerorhyncha monocerata] , in which the compressed and curved
beak is longer than in the preceding forms, and is provided at the base with a

HEAD OF WHISKERED PUFFIN.
(From Guillemard's Cruise of the "Marchesa.")

THE AUKS

2309

Puffins

single horn-like knob above the nostrils, which is shed in winter. All these birds
have much the same habits as the more typical auks, generally frequenting sheltered
bays when the weather is rough. The horn-billed auk breeds as far south as Cali-
fornia and Northern Japan.

Among the most grotesque of all birds are the puffins, or sea par-
rots, whose enormous, compressed, and brilliantly -colored beaks seem
out of all proportion to the size of their heads. Represented only by the common
Arctic puffin (Fratercula arctica) in the Atlantic, the genus attains a greater de-
velopment in that headquarters of the Auk family, the Northern Pacific, where we
meet with the horned puffin (F. corniculata} , characterized by the great develop-
ment of the horny process arising
from the upper eyelid, and the hand-
some whiskered puffin (F. cirrhata],
distinguished by the pendent crest
of feathers at the back of the head,
and the absence of grooves on the
lower mandible. As a group, the
puffins are distinguished from all
the other members of the family
by the claw of the second toe being
considerably longer and more curved
than the other two, as well as by the
presence of a rosette-like prominence
at the angle of the mouth. They
are further characterized by the cir-
cumstance that the feathers at the
base of the beak stop short of the
nostrils, and likewise by the pecul-
iarity that the basal portion of the
greatly compressed beak is furnished
during the breeding season with one
or more sheath-like, deciduous pieces
of an orange-red color which are shed
in winter. The much compressed
beak is shorter than the head, and COMMON PUFFIN.

considerably deeper than long, with

the profile of both mandibles strongly arched, and the ridge of the upper one form-
ing a sharp edge, while there are oblique transverse grooves on one or both mandi-
bles. The common puffin may be compared in size to a teal, the average length
in the southern portion of its habitat being about twelve inches, although in the
Arctic regions it attains somewhat larger dimensions, and has the beak deeper.
Resembling the guillemot in general coloration, it differs in undergoing no seasonal
change of plumage, and in the white area occupying the whole of the sides of the
head, while the throat is encircled by a dark gorget. The beak has its terminal
portion carmine red, behind which are bands of slaty gray and yellow, with a red

2310 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

one on the lower mandible. With the annual molt both the sheath of the basal
half of the beak and the warty red skin at the angle of the mouth are shed. In
Europe the breeding range of this species extends from Cape North to the
mouth of the Tagus, while in winter the birds wander as far south as Gibraltar,
and thence pass up the Mediterranean to the Italian coasts. On the opposite side
of the Atlantic the winter range reaches as far south as New York.

Essentially oceanic in their habits, puffins are gregarious at all seasons, and
fly rapidly somewhat after the manner of ducks. Swimming easily, and diving
with the expertness characteristic of the family, they feed chiefly on the fry of fish;
while their single egg is laid either in a burrow in the ground or among the deep
clefts of rocks. In color, the egg is dull white, faintly spotted with gray and
brown, and in the presence of these markings it forms one of many exceptions to
the general rule that eggs laid in holes are white. From this circumstance, Mr.
Seebohm suggests that these birds have only taken to laying in burrows compara-
tively recently; the faintness of the markings of the eggs being perhaps indicative
that they are in the course of disappearance.

THE DIVERS

Family

In common with
the grebes, the divers
(Colymbus) differ from
the auks (and thereby
from all other birds) in
that the crest of the
tibia is prolonged up-
ward to unite with the
kneecap, or patella,
thus forming a spike-
like projection at the
extremity of the bone,
which must afford a
most efficient lever for
the muscles in the act
of swimming. The
two families are further
characterized by the
saddle-like form of the

articular surfaces of the vertebrae of the back, by the presence of a small
first toe, and the absence of bare tracts on the sides of the neck, while the
metatarsus is compressed and knife-like. In the divers the three front toes are
fully webbed, and furnished with sharp claw-like nails; the number of primary

GREAT NORTHERN DIVER.

THE DIVERS

2311

quills in the wings is eleven; the tail, although short, is normal, and there are but
fourteen or fifteen vertebrae in the neck. Moreover, the beak is long, sharp, and
compressed, while the lores are completely feathered. Apart from the question of
their relationship to the auks, the peculiar structure of the tibia seems clearly to in-
dicate an intimate affinity between the divers and the grebes. Although an extinct
representative of the family ( Colymboides] has left its remains in the Miocene de-
posits of the Continent, the existing divers, of which there are three well-marked
species confined to the Arctic and cooler regions of the Northern Hemisphere, are
included in the single genus Colymbus. The divers, although more slenderly
formed, have somewhat the appearance of geese when seen on the water; but on
land, owing to the backward situation of their legs, are widely different. In plum-
age, the two sexes are alike, but the winter dress differs considerably from that of
the summer, as do the young from the adult. The typical representative of the

HAUNT OF THE BLACK-THROATED DIVER.

genus is the great northern diver (C. glacialis}, attaining a length of some
thirty-three inches, and characterized by its glossy black head and neck, the
presence of two gorgets of velvety black and white stripes on the throat,
and the belts of white spots of varying size crossing the dark back, the under
parts being white. Not uncommon — especially in an immature state — on the
British coasts, and thence wandering as far south as the Mediterranean, this
diver breeds in Iceland, Greenland, and Northeastern Canada, while in North-
eastern Asia and Western Arctic America it is replaced by a larger variety
(C. adamsi), distinguished by the white or yellow hue of its beak. Next in
point of size is the black-throated diver (C. arcticus), which does not exceed
twenty-six inches in length, and is characterized by its light gray head, the pur-
plish black patch, surmounted with a black and white striped gorget on the throat,

2312 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

and the presence of two elongated areas on the black back between the shoulders,
as well as others on the scapulars, marked by transverse white bands formed by
nearly confluent square spots. The breeding area of this species would seem to ex-
tend from the Hebrides and Scandinavia across Arctic Asia over the greater part of
America, although it does not include Greenland, Iceland, or the Orkneys. Some
writers regard, indeed, a variety inhabiting the Pacific coast of America as a dis-
tinct species, although this seems scarcely justifiable. Finally, the smallest, as well
as the commonest species is the circumpolar red-throated diver ( C. septentrionalis) ,
so named from the presence of a patch of reddish gray extending down the throat
of the adult in breeding plumage. On the upper parts the plumage is blackish
brown in color, with a comparatively small number of spots, the head and sides of
the neck being ashy gray, while the nape is marked by streaks of black, gray, and
white. Young birds, in which the throat patch is lacking, are much more fully
striped. Although it does not breed at the present day in Great Britain to the
south of Scotland, remains of this diver, discovered in the superficial deposits of the
east coast, suggest that it was formerly a resident in this part of England, when
the climate was colder.

Feeding almost exclusively on fish, and during the winter being oceanic in
their habits, the divers resort to inland lakes for the purpose of nesting. Unlike
the auks, they are not gregarious, consorting only in pairs, and these generally
keeping far apart from one another. Although they are strong on the wing, the
backward situation of their legs renders the divers extremely ill adapted for moving
upon land, where they walk with the greatest difficulty and ungainliness. Accord-
ingly, in order to avoid the necessity of making the attempt, the slight nest is
always constructed close to the water's marge, so that the sitting bird can at any
moment resort to her native element by merely sliding downward from her sitting
place. In contrast to their awkwardness on land, is the extreme agility displayed
by the divers both on and beneath the surface of the water. They may, indeed,
be regarded as almost the diving birds par excellence, the great northern diver
having been stated to remain below the surface for a period of eight minutes, and
all the species will readily take a baited hook while diving. Seldom seen on the
wing except during the periods of migration, divers fly in a straight, arrow-like
course, somewhat after the manner of ducks. The notes of all the species are harsh
and grating. Arriving at its breeding haunts in the Arctic regions, about the end
of May or beginning of June, synchronously with the breaking up of the ice, the
great northern diver forthwith sets about the work of nesting. For choice, an island
is selected, but, failing this, the shelving shore of some lonely lake, or even of a
mountain tarn, is taken for a site. The nest, which is constructed of grass and
sedge, is placed in an exposed position, where the sitting bird may readily receive
warning of approaching danger, upon which it takes at once to the water. This
might at first sight seem fraught with danger to the eggs; but it appears that the
safety of these is generally sufficiently assured by their protective resemblance to
their inanimate surroundings, their color being dark brown speckled with blackish.
The usual number of eggs in a nest is but two, and both sexes take their share in
the work of incubation.

THE GREBES 2313

THE GREEKS
Family PODICIPEDID^

Best known by the little dabchick of the English meres and rivers, the family of
the grebes is distinguished from that of the divers by the toes being lobated instead
of webbed, and furnished with broad, flat nails, rounded at the tips; by the presence
of twelve primary quills in the wing; by the rudimentary condition of the tail; and
by the number of vertebrae in the neck varying from seventeen to twenty-one. In
all of them a bare stripe extends across the lores from the beak to the eye; the beak,
although very variable in form, is always much elongated, and the nostrils are never
protected by an overhanging lobe. The wings are short and concave, and when
closed have the primaries concealed by the secondaries; while in the aborted tail a
tuft of downy, soft feathers takes the place of the usual stiff rectrices. On the
lower surface of the body, the plumage, which is usually of a pure white hue, is
remarkable for its soft silky texture and brilliant lustre.

The grebes are more addicted to fresh water than any other members of the
order, some of them being inhabitants of lakes and rivers throughout the year,
while others are oceanic during a large portion of their existence. They are repre-
sented by some sixteen species, ranging over the temperate and subtropical regions
of both Hemispheres; five of these being European, and two out of the latter breed-
ing in the British Islands, while the other three are but winter visitants thereto.
The eggs differ from those of the divers in the creamy-white color of their shells,
and their green tinge when viewed by transmitted light, the usual number in a
clutch being either three or four.

Using the term Podicipes in a wide sense, it will include a greater
Grebes number of species of the group, or all those in which the length of
the slender beak varies from two and one-half to six times its basal
depth. Among the larger members of the genus, the western grebe (Podicipes occi-
dentalis} is the sole representative of a group characterized by the great length of
the neck and beak, and the smooth head, which is devoid of tufts at all seasons of
the year, while there is no seasonal difference in the general plumage; this species
being exclusively North American. The great crested grebe (P. cristatus), which
is the largest member of the genus, and attains a length of from twenty-one to
twenty-two inches, belongs, on the other hand, to a section in which the neck and
beak are shorter, and the head of the adult is ornamented in the breeding season at
least, with colored ruffs, tufts, or patches; while the general plumage in the breed-
ing season, differs considerably from that of the adult in winter, and likewise from
that of the young. In this particular species the crest, although largest in sum-
mer, is borne throughout the year, but in others it disappears in winter completely.
In its summer plumage, this bird may be recognized by its chestnut colored ear
coverts, and the white front of the lower neck and breast, while in winter it has the
lores and stripe over the eye white. Confined to the Eastern Hemisphere, this
species is remarkable for the extent of its breeding area, which includes Britain and

23 1 4 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

Southern Europe, the whole of Africa, and the greater portion of Southern and
Central Asia, as well as Australia and New Zealand. It is noteworthy that the Aus-
tralasian forms, though completely isolated, present no differences from the others.
The smaller red-necked grebe (P. griseigena) , which only measures sixteen inches
in length, takes its names from the chestnut hue of the front of the lower neck in
the summer plumage, in which alone the crests on the head are present. Inhabit-
ing a large portion of Northern Europe and Asia, this species appears to have a
circumpolar distribution, although some writers regard the variety occurring in
America and Northeastern Asia as a distinct species, under the name of P. holboelli.
A third group of the genus is characterized by the smaller size of its members, in
which the neck is short, and the beak shorter than the head, while ear tufts are
present in the breeding plumage. Its best-known representative is the circumpolar
Sclavonian grebe (/*. cornutus), which visits the British Islands and Gibraltar in

winter, and, except in

Norway- does not *reed

north of the Arctic Cir-
cle. Measuring a little
over thirteen inches in
length, it is character-
ized by its compressed
beak, and the combi-
nation in the breeding
plumage of a chestnut
fore-neck with black
ear tufts. On the
other hand, the black-
necked grebe (P. nig-
ricollis) may be recog-
nized by the prevalence
of black on both the
fore-neck and the ear
coverts. Ranging over

the greater part of Europe and Asia (except India and Burma), as well as por-
tions of Africa and the whole of Greenland, this species is represented by a
variety in Western North Africa. Lastly, we have the familiar dabchick or little
grebe (P. fluviatilis) of the Old World; and the least grebe (P. dominicus) of trop-
ical America, together with some southern forms, as the representatives of a fourth
group, characterized by the small size of its members, the very short neck and
beak, and the absence of tufts or crests in the breeding plumage. By many writers
these species are regarded as constituting a distinct genus — Tachybaptes. The dab-
chick, which 'is the commonest of the British grebes, has a wide range in the Old
World, its breeding area including the subtropical portions of both the Northern
and Southern Hemispheres south of latitude 42°, as well as elevated regions within
the tropics, while in Western Europe it extends some 20° further north. Not ex-
ceeding nine and one-half inches in length, the dabchick in breeding plumage is

CRESTED GREBE.

THE GREBES 2315

characterized by the chestnut red of the cheeks and front of the neck, which in the
American species are always ashy gray.

With the exception that the dabchick, like its small allies, generally
spends the whole year in the neighborhood of fresh waters, the grebes
are very similar in their habits, all of them resorting to rivers and lakes for the
purpose of breeding. Their diving powers are such that, when pursued, these
birds seldom take to wing, but nearly always endeavor to escape by disappearing
beneath the water to reappear in the most unexpected place. Indeed, although the
larger species fly strongly and well, with the neck stretched out and the wings
moving rapidly, the dabchick but rarely takes to flight. The ordinary alarm note
of the great crested grebe may be expressed by the syllables kek-kek, but at the
pairing season a guttural sound is uttered. Their food consists of frogs, fish,
mollusks, water insects, etc., supplemented by the shoots and seeds of aquatic
plants, and several instances are on record where the dabchick has been found
choked through having endeavored to swallow the common bullhead. *The great
crested grebe frequently associates in parties during the breeding season; when,
like its congeners, it makes its large nest of decaying water plants so nearly level
with the surface of the water that it is generally constantly wet. A colony of these
birds on the Zuyder Zee, near Danzig, is described by Mr. Seebohm, who writes,
that "they were breeding in an immense reed bed, and as our boat neared their
nesting grounds we saw the grebes sailing majestically, not to say indignantly, out
of the side of the reed bed. As soon as we reached the place I put on my waders,
and was soon in a dense forest of reeds, where it was very easy to lose one's way.
The water was above my knees, and the reeds were far above my head. After
stopping to take the nest of a great sedge warbler with four eggs, I soon found the
colony of grebes. There were' dozens of nests, but never very close to each other,
and I soon filled my handkerchief with eggs. It was the fifth of June, and only
about half the nests contained the full complement of eggs. The birds had evi-
dently seen us long before we approached, and had had ample time to retreat with
dignity. In the nests, which contained three or four eggs, these were warm and
covered with damp moss; but in those containing only one or two, they were uncov-
ered and cold." Mr. Seebohm was thus led to believe that the eggs are not covered
till the female begins to incubate, and the purpose of covering them is as a protec-
tion against chill, and not for concealment; white eggs being quite inconspicuous in
the recesses of a dense mass of reeds. The larger grebes are much hunted for the
sake of the beautiful silky plumage of the breast, and on the Lake of Geneva it
is customary in autumn to make up boating parties, for the purpose of shooting the
great crested species.

The thick-billed, pied-billed, or Carolina grebe (Podilymbus podiceps),

e which is an exclusively American form, clearly represents a distinct

Grebe genus, characterized by the shortness and stoutness of the beak, in
which the length is less than twice the basal depth. The much arched
beak is parti-colored; the length of the metatarsus is less than that of the third toe
without the claw; and the head is not tufted, although the throat is ornamented
with a black patch. This grebe inhabits Temperate North America and the West
Indies, as well as the whole of Central and the greater part of South America.

23 1 6 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

THE PENGUINS
Order IMPENNES

Approximating to the diving birds (to which they also present certain re-
semblances in the structure of their soft internal parts) in the backward position
of their short legs and their upright posture when on land, the penguins of the
Southern Hemisphere differ from all other members of the class in two important
structural features. In the first place, the wings, in which
the quills are rudimentary, are transformed into paddles; and,
in the second, the short metatarsus is of great width, with
its three longitudinal elements incompletely fused together,
and separated from one another by small foramina. Conse-
quently, these birds can scarcely be said to have a true canon
bone. As regards their skulls, the penguins agree with the
other birds treated in this chapter in having the palate of the
cleft (schizognathous) type; and there are also hollows on the
RIGHT METATARSAI, forehea(i for the reception of glands. The feathers are pro-
BONE OF THE YEI^OW- vided with aftershafts, and the spinal feather tract is not
CROWNED PENGUIN, defined on the neck, while the oil gland is tufted. The young
although born covered with down, are at first helpless, and

require to be tended for a long period in the nest. In addition to the rudimentary
condition of the wing quills, there are also no functional tail feathers; and it is
very noteworthy that the rudimental scale-like feathers with which the wings
are covered are more numerous than the quills and wing coverts of any other
birds. As additional characteristics of the skeleton, it may be mentioned that the
blade bone or scapula is remarkable for its great breadth, while the bones of the
wings are flattened; the humerus, which has no process on the outer side of its
lower extremity, being very short. In habits the penguins are marine and
carnivorous.

The general appearance of these birds is so well known that it will be un-
necessary to say much on this point. We may mention, however, that the beak is
more or less elongated and straight, with its sides compressed and grooved, and its
tip sharply pointed; the slit-like nostrils being situated within the lateral grooves.
The three front toes are of moderate length and completely webbed; while the first
toe is very small, and united to the sides of the metatarsus. Although it is possi-
ble that the penguins may have some affinity to the diving birds, the structure of
the metatarsus seems undoubtedly to point to their being an extremely primitive
type, since it is difficult to believe that a metatarsus of this kind could have been
evolved from the canon bone of an ordinary bird by a kind of retrograde evolution.
This view is supported by the large number of the rudimental wing feathers, to
which allusion has been already made; and likewise by the circumstance that re-
mains of a very large penguin having been obtained in New Zealand from strata of
Eocene age, thus showing the extreme antiquity of the group. It may be added
that some writers regard the penguins as constituting a group entirely apart from

THE PENGUINS

2317

all the birds hitherto treated, and ranking on an equality with the ostrich-like birds
described in a later chapter.

As already mentioned the penguins are confined to the Southern Hemisphere,
where they range from the Tropic to about the 8oth parallel of south latitude.
They are found not only on the Antarctic ice, but in South Africa, South
America, Australia, and New Zealand, as well as many of the smaller islands of the

ROCK HOPPER PENGUINS.
(One- fourth natural size.)

southern oceans, more especially the Falklands, Kerguelen, and Tristan da Cunha.
Although the whole of the penguins — some twenty in number — are included in
the single family Sphenistid<z , they are now generally divided into five genera, of
which the leading characteristics may be briefly noticed. The largest members of
the whole group are the king penguin (Aptenodytes pennantt), of Marion island,
Kerguelen Land, and other districts in the southern ocean, and the still larger em-

23 1 8 TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

peror penguin (A. forsteri}, of the Antarctic seas. In addition to their large size,
these species, as shown in our colored plate, are characterized by the great length and
slenderness of the beak, which is slightly arched, and the absence of any crest on
the head. In the former the color of the head, neck, and throat is brownish black;
the region behind the ear having a pear-shaped patch of yellow, continued as a
streak down the sides of the neck, and meeting on the upper breast; while the whole
of the upper parts are iron gray, and the under surface glistening white, faintly
tinged with yellow. In the emperor penguin the yellow area is limited to a small
patch behind the eye. Specimens of this species brought to England by Ross,
stand, as mounted, just under three and one-half feet in height; while the largest
example captured by him weighed seventy-eight pounds. Closely allied to these is
the gentle penguin (Pygoscelis ttzniata}, of Kerguelen Land and the Falklands —
a species inferior in size only to the king penguin, and commonly known as the
" Johnny." Devoid of a crest, this penguin is distinguished from the preceding by
the long and pointed red beak being stouter and more feathered. In color the
plumage of the back is blackish and that of the under parts white; the dark of the
back being continued onto the head, the summit of which is marked by a conspicu-
ous white patch.

The crested penguins, as represented by the "rock hopper" (Eudyptes chryso-
coma), of the Falkland islands, the yellow-crested penguin (£. pachyrhynchus) , of
New Zealand and the Antarctic, and several others belong to a third genus, charac-
terized by the smaller size of its members, the short, deep, and compressed beak, in
which the upper jaw has a distinctive oval form, and the presence of a pair of
yellow crests on the sides of the head, which are continued forward as streaks above
the eyes to the neighborhood of the base of the beak. In the rock hopper these
crests are much elongated, attaining a length of from three to five inches, while in
the New Zealand species they are much shorter, never exceeding a couple of inches
in length. The total length attained by the latter species is twenty-seven inches.
Nearly allied is the little blue penguin {Eudyptula minor), of Southern Australia
and New Zealand, which does not measure more than nineteen inches in length, and
has no yellow streaks or crests on the head; the general color of the plumage of the
upper parts being light blue with a median black line down each feather, while the
under parts are dazzling white. Fossil remains of both these genera occur in
the superficial deposits of New Zealand. The remaining penguins are included in
the genus Spheniscus, of which the black-footed penguin (S. demersus}, of South
Africa, Humboldt's penguin (S. humboldti), of Western South America, and the
jackass penguin (S. magellanicus} , of the Falkland islands are well-known examples.
In these the beak is straight and moderately short, but very wide and deep, with
the tip of the upper mandible slightly hooked, and that of the lower truncate.
There are no crests, and the metatarsus is relatively long. In the adult of the
black-footed penguin the general color of the plumage is bluish gray above, and
white below; a band the color of the back extending (as in Humboldt's penguin)
from the front of each thigh up the sides to form an arch on the front of the neck,
while the white of the throat is continued upward on the sides of the neck to
form a line through the eye. The total length is about twenty-six inches. In

THE PENGUINS

2319

young birds a broad blackish band occupies the whole of the front of the lower part
of the throat, and joins directly with the dark area of the back, while there is no
white line through the eye. Humboldt's penguin has the white line running just
above the eye, and no white area below the same.

GROUP OF BLACK-FOOTED PENGUINS.

Habits

Penguins, writes a recent observer, are the strangest creatures
ever seen; presenting a most curious appearance, both when strutting
about with their padded feet over the snow, or when gliding on their breasts down
a slope, toboggan fashion. When a visitor lands upon the Antarctic ice, the

2320

TUBE-NOSED BIRDS, DIVING BIRDS, PENGUINS

emperor penguins approach him fearlessly with their duck -like cry; a proceeding
which too often leads to their destruction. Their tenacity of life is, however,
marvelous, exceeding even that of the proverbial cat; the writer just quoted

stating that he has known
an emperor penguin to live
after its skull had been
hopelessly smashed in. All
the species are gregarious,
frequently assembling in
tens of thousands; and
when on the land during
the breeding season are in
the habit of ranging them-
selves in long lines on the
ledges of the rocks or ice,
"- thus simulating the appear-
ance of soldiers, when seen
from a distance. Although
the king penguins in our
colored plate are represented
with the beaks extended
horizontally, this position,
according to Moseley, is
incorrect, the birds really
standing with the head
and neck stretched verti-
cally upward. The food of
penguins consists exclu-
sively of fish, which the
birds capture beneath the
surface by their agility in
swimming and diving, when

the paddle -like wings are used as the chief instruments of progression. So
thoroughly, indeed, are they at home in the water, that they are apt to be taken
for dolphins rather than birds, as is testified by Moseley, who writes that on first
approaching the shore of Kerguelen Land he was astonished at seeing what ap-
peared to be a shoal of small porpoises or dolphins. "I could not imagine," he
continues, "what the things could be, unless they were indeed some marvelously
small cetaceans; they showed black above and white beneath, and came along in a
shoal of fifty or more, from seaward toward the shore at a rapid pace, by a series of
successive leaps out of the water, and splashes into it again, describing short curves
in the air, taking headers out of the water and headers into it again; splash, splash,
went this marvelous shoal of animals, till they went splash through the surf on to
the black stony beach, and there struggled and jumped up among the bowlders
and revealed themselves as wet and dripping penguins, for such they were-" On

HUMBOLDT'S PENGUIN.
(From Bartlett, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1879.)

THE PENGUINS 2321

landing, the penguins always make for certain well-defined tracts leading up to the
"rookeries," as their places of assembly are called, and where they not unfre-
quently collect in thousands, these main tracts branching out into a number of
diverging paths when they reach the rookey. The nest of the rock hopper is merely
a shallow depression in the black soil, which may or may not be lined with a few stalks
of dry grass. In this are deposited two greenish-white eggs, about the size of those
of a duck, in the incubation of which both male and female birds take their share.
The black-footed species, according to L,ayard, deposits, however, but a single white
egg, which rests on the bare ground. On the other hand, the jackass penguin is in
the habit of nesting in burrows, which may be as much as twenty feet in depth;
and the same is also not unfrequently the case with the little blue penguin of New
Zealand, although the two eggs of this species are sometimes laid in the crevices of
rocks. The breeding time of this species on the islands off the Cape lasts through
August, September, and October.

The penguins inhabiting Tristan da Cunha migrate about April, and return in
July or August; but where they go seems not to be ascertained, although it is quite
certain that they cannot remain at sea for such a protracted period. Although dur-
ing their aquatic journey they do not travel with anything like the speed of birds on
the wing, they have, as Moseley remarks, the compensating advantage of a constant
supply of food. Writing of the habits of the little blue penguin, Gould observes
that "its powers of progression in the deep are truly astonishing; its swimming
powers are in fact so great that it stems the waves of the most turbulent seas with
the utmost facility, and during the severest gale descends to the bottom, where
among beautiful beds of coral and forests of seaweed, it paddles about in search
of crustaceans, small fish, and marine vegetables, all of which kinds of food were
found in the stomachs of those I dissected." Of the jackass penguin, Darwin says
that when crawling, it may be said on four legs, through the tussocks or on the side
of a grassy cliff, it moves so very quickly that it might easily be taken for a quad-
ruped. When at sea and fishing, it comes to the surface for the purpose of breath-
ing with such velocity, and dives again so instantaneously, that I defy anyone at
first sight to be sure that it is not a fish leaping for sport. This species, by the
way, derives its popular name from its habit, when on shore, of throwing back its
head and giving vent to a cry not unlike a donkey's bray.
146

CHAPTER XXI
THE TINAMUS, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

GROUPS CRYPTURI, STEREORNITHES, RATIT>E, ODONTORNITHES,

AND SAURUR^

SOUTH AMERICA is the exclusive home of a group of birds which,
while resembling the game birds to a great extent in outward
appearance and habits, present a peculiarity in the structure of the bony palate of
the skull by which they are distinguished from all the birds hitherto described,
and thus approximate to the ostriches. These birds are the tinamus, constituting
the order Crypturi and the family Tinamidte, and are represented by thirty-nine
species arranged under nine genera. That the tinamus are allied on the one hand
to the game birds, and on the other to the ostrich-like birds, seems most probable;
and it is not unlikely that the type of palatal structure they display is the primitive
one from which the others have originated.

Partridge, or quail-like, in general appearance, tinamus have small heads,
with short, slender, curved beaks; strong, naked legs and feet, in which the first
toe is either small or represented merely by its claw; and short, rudimentary tails,
which are frequently concealed by the coverts; the wings being also short and
rounded. They are specially characterized by the circumstance that while the
narrow breastbone has a well-developed keel, like that of the game birds, in the
palate of the skull, which is of the cleft or schizognathous type, the vomer, or
median element, is fused with the bones immediately in front and behind it, namely,
with the maxillo palatines in front and with the palatines and pterygoids behind,
in which respect they approximate to the ostriches. A further resemblance to
that group is afforded by the circumstance that the last few vertebrae of the tail
do not coalesce to form a plowshare-shaped bone. In the skull the apertures of
the nostrils resemble those of the game birds in their oval (holorhinal) shape;
while on its under surface the sphenoidal rostrum bears well-developed basiptery-
goid processes. In the plumage the feathered tracts, both on the neck and else-
where, are well distinguished from the bare intervening areas; the aftershafts of
the feathers are rudimentary; there are ten primary quills in the wings; and the oil
gland is tufted. The young are active almost immediately after hatching, and are
remarkable for the rapidity with which they acquire their full plumage; being, in
fact, able to fly more rapidly than the adults. The general color of the plumage
is deep yellowish, marked above with bars of dark brown and black. The eggs of
all the species are remarkable for their highly-polished surface, which resembles a
piece of glazed porcelain, the color being either wine red or bluish green. As
regards food, the tinamus are vegetable feeders. Since all the members of the
(2322)

THE TIN AM US

2323

family are very similar in general structure, it will be unnecessary to point out the
distinctive characteristics of the various genera; although it may be mentioned that
the family may be divided into two sections, according to the presence or absence of
a distinct first toe. Of the seven genera with a well-developed first toe, the robust
tinamu (Tmamus robustus) and the solitary tinamu (T. solitarius), of Brazil, are
representatives of the typical genus. The banded tinamu ( Crypturus noctivagus] ,
of Brazil, is a well-known member of the largest genus of the family which contains
some sixteen species; while the martineta, or great tinamu (Rhynchotus rufescens),
of Brazil and Argentina, is one of two congeneric species, which may be compared

GREAT TINAMU OR MARTINETA
(One-fourth natural size.)

in size to a pheasant. Its eggs are of a wine-red color. On the other hand, the
spotted tinamu (Nothura maculata), and the allied Darwin's tinamu (TV. darwini},
both of which are inhabitants of the Argentine pampas, are more nearly the dimen-
sions of a small partridge, their eggs being either purple red or liver color. The
two genera in which the first toe is rudimentary are each represented by a single
species, of which by far the handsomest is the crested tinamu (Calodromas elegans),
of Patagonia, in which both the upper and lower plumage is elegantly mottled, and
the head adorned with an upright crest. This species, which is of the size of an
English pheasant, lays from ten to a dozen blue-green eggs as large as those of a

2324

THE TIN AM US, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

Habits

fowl. Pentland's tinamu ( Tina motis pentlandt) , the representative of the second
three-toed genus, lacks the upright crest.

To ordinary observers, the tinamus, both as regards general appear-
ance and habits, would be considered as game birds, of which, in-
deed, they take the place in South America, where they are so commonly termed
partridges. Endowed with far less powers of flight than ordinary game birds, the
various species of tinamus frequent either the open grassy pampas, or seek the
shelter of woods. The species inhabiting the Argentine pampas, as the author can
testify from personal experience, are in the habit of skulking like rails among the
luxuriant grass, in which they run from under the very feet of the horses. They
can be flushed only with difficulty, although when they do rise their flight is
exceedingly noisy and violent, and soon leads to the birds exhausting themselves.
Writing of the spotted tinamu, Mr. E. W. White states, in Misiones these birds
partake of the color of the soil, which " is of a ferruginous clay, and differ herein

completely from those of Buenos

_, / Ayres. They are so completely

: .:n tame and abundant on the fine
undulating grass lands that
extend hence southward, that
in the early morning they come
right up to the houses, and the
boys knock them over with
stones." On account of their
confiding disposition, coupled
with their general stupidity, and
the excellence of their flesh,
these birds have been well-nigh
exterminated in many districts
where they were formerly
abundant; large numbers being
taken by riding in a circle and
capturing them with a noose.

Generally solitary, many live in close proximity, making their whereabouts known
to one another by their soft plaintive cries. Of all the birds of the pampas, the
great tinamu. according to Mr. Hudson, "is perhaps the sweetest voiced, and sings
with great frequency. Its song or call is heard oftenest toward the evening, and
composed of five modulated notes, flute-like in character, very expressive, and is
uttered by many individuals answering each other as they sit far apart concealed
in the grass." The crested species, which is also a regular singer, seems to associate
in coveys; and, like the game birds, is in the habit of dusting its plumage in
the sandy soil. The young, whose precocity in regard to the development of
feathers has been already mentioned, leave their parents at a very early age
to shift for themselves. The nests are built in a hollow on the ground beneath
the shelter of a tussock of grass or low bush, and scantily lined with herbage and
feathers.

PENTI.AND'S TINAMU.

EXTINCT PATAGONIAN FLIGHTLESS BIRDS

2325

EXTINCT PATAGONIAN FLIGHTLESS BIRDS
Group STEREORNITHES

Although their intercalation between the tinamus and the ostrich-like birds
somewhat interferes with a proper sense of the connection of those two groups, it
is necessary to mention here an assemblage of giant flightless birds, which were
abundant during the Miocene Tertiary in Patagonia and parts of Argentina.
These Stereornithes, as they are called, certainly cannot be included among the
modern flightless group of giant birds, and it is uncertain whether they can claim
a place with the preceding orders in the great subclass of Carinatte; so that they
must, accordingly, be allowed to constitute a group by themselves, of which the
exact serial position cannot yet be fixed. Attaining gigantic dimensions (the tibia

SIDE VIEW OF SKULL OF GIANT FLIGHTLESS PATAGONIAN BIRD (PhororhachlS) .
(About two-fifths natural size.)
(From Ameghino.) '

of one species being upward of thirty inches in length) these Patagonian birds are
especially characterized by the great relative size and remarkable form of their
skulls. In one species, for instance, the lower jaw measures twenty-one inches in
length, and is of extraordinary massiveness; while in another, although shorter, this
massiveness is still more exaggerated. The skull is characterized by the great depth
and compression of the upper mandible of the beak, which terminates in a descend-
ing hook, toward which the extremity of the lower mandible gently ascends. The
nasal apertures (A7") are pierced very high up on the sides of the skull, and have no
partition between them, and the lower mandible is truncated posteriorly, and has its
two branches united by a very long symphysis. A feature in which these birds differ
from the ostrich group is to be found in the circumstance that the quadrate bone
(i£) articulates with the rest of the skull by two heads at its upper extremity, as in
ordinary flying birds. In the leg bones the tibia has a bony bridge at it's lower end
for the protection of the extensor tendons, and the first toe was generally present.

2326 THE TINAMUS, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

Although well-developed wings were retained, these were useless for flight; but the
metacoracoid was of the elongated form characteristic of flying birds, and thus
markedly different from the corresponding bone of the ostrich group. The leg
bones of these birds indicate two well-marked generic types, in one of which the
legs were long and slender, while in the other they were more massive and relatively
shorter; the former type being known as Phororhachis and the latter as Brontornis.
Corresponding differences obtain in the form and proportions of the beak. What-
ever be the exact serial position of these marvelous birds (all of which may be in-
cluded in the single family Phororhachidce) , it is evident they were derived from
flying birds quite independently of the modern flightless birds.

As they may possibly have some connection with the Stereornithes,
1 Bird altnough it is almost as probable they may form a group by them-
selves, it may be convenient to mention here certain giant extinct
birds from the I^ower Eocene of France, England, and the United States, which
constitute the family Gastornithidee. All have a bony bridge at the lower end of the
tibia, while in the European Gastornis the component bones of the skull remained
separate throughout life, and it is possible that there may have been a large tooth
on each side of the upper jaw, while the symphysis of the lower mandible was short.
In North America the group is represented by Diatryma.

THE FLIGHTLESS OR OSTRICH-LIKE BIRDS

Ratitae

With the exception of certain specially modified species like the dodo, in which
the power of flight has been lost, the existing birds hitherto treated are charac-
terized by the circumstance that the breastbone is provided with a strong vertical
median keel, to afford support for the muscles necessary for flight, while both the
scapula and metacoracoid are separate elongated bones, forming an acute or
right angle at their junction. On account of this general presence of a keel to the
breastbone, the foregoing orders are brigaded into a single assemblage or sub-
class known as the Carinat(Z, which may be anglicized into Carinates. As a rule,
the Carinates possess to a greater or less degree the power of flight; and they are
further generally characterized by the circumstance that in the pelvis the bones
known as the ilium and ischium are united at their outer extremities so as to
inclose a foramen;* while the head of the quadrate bone, by which the lower jaw
articulates with the skull, is double; and in the palate the vomer (except in the
tinamus) is not fused with the neighboring bones, or interposed between them and
the rostrum of the sphenoid. On the other hand, in the birds now to be considered
the breastbone is invariably devoid of a keel, while the metacoracoid is short and
united with the scapula, and the two bones form a very obtuse angle at their junc-

* This circular foramen or vacuity is shown in the pelvis of the skeleton of the parrot figured on p. 1464
of Vol. III.

.

^^^•^R^TV *?^ • .•

OSTRICHES

77 rRICW 2327

tion;* moreover, the furcula is incomplete, so thy ro branches n uite

sepa ese birds further agree in having their wings greatly reduced, so as

to be ul'.-. less for flight. They are also characterized by the extremities of

the iliu schium (except in very old individuals of the rheas and en:

stiuct;t and likewise by the single head of the quadrate b

.iich is broad behind, being interposed between the otl
Of ti. , the rostrum of the sphenoid, and also frequently fuset.

Hher features of the group are the absence of au oil gland
.: action between feathered and unfeathered areas on the skr
,e or uncinate pr< ^ the ribs are never more than thret

ental, or even absent. In addition to t
,e of the skull, they resemble the tinamus in that the ten;
niited to form a plowshare-like bone.

On account of the invariable absc'
breastbone, this group of birds, w"i.
ostrich and its allies, are collectively <
- , Ratite or Ratites — so named fr&m the Li

flat-bottomed boat. This group is i
class of equal rank wit
ornithologist
shall content or
l>ers in families. The e

oh are comparatively few in number and have a remarkal -1
ti the surface of the globe, are widely different from o
nclude the largest of all birds, while none of them are
: entertained as to the relationship of t
t one time been supposed that the former r
, hich the latter was derived. There is, ho
of opinion that the Ratites are derived fr<r
ind that the tinamus are their nearest

THE OSTRI

Family

arrai

ugwe

2328

THE TIN AM US, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

acterized by the short stunted nails on the toes, the great proportionate length of
the humerus of the rudimental wing, and the absence of aftershafts to the feathers.
In the skeleton the f urcnla is wanting, the pubic bones of the pelvis unite in a sym-
physis (as they do in many reptiles but in no other birds), and the lower end of the
tibia has no bony bridge over the extensor tendons; while there are also certain
characteristic features in the base of the skull, into the consideration of which it
will be unnecessary to enter. In addition to their large size and two toes, ostriches
are characterized externally by the small and flattened head, in which the short beak

OSTRICHES FEEDING.

is broad and depressed; the long, powerful, and practically-naked neck; the full and
massive body, provided with short wings; the muscular and partly bare thighs, and
the stout metatarsus and foot. The beak has a very wide gape, reaching back to
the line of the eyes, and the nostrils open near the middle of its length. The third
toe is much larger than the fourth, and both are furnished with soft fleshy pads on
the under surface. In the immature state the skin is covered with coarse plumage
of a mottled dark brown and yellowish-white hue, the neck being completely bare.
In the adult female the color changes to a nearly uniform dusky gray; but in the
male, while the body feathers are black, the tail feathers and quills of the wings are

THE OSTRICHES 2329

pure glistening white; the neck in both sexes being clothed with short down. A
peculiarity of the feathers of the wings and tail is that their two webs are of equal
width. The young, like those of all the other members of the group, are active as
soon as hatched; and the eggs are polished and pale yellowish white in color; those
from North Africa being transversed by a number of minute punctures, while those
from the Cape are smoother. Finally, the male is far superior in size to his partner.
There is still some uncertainty whether there is more than a single species of
ostrich, although it is well known that the kind inhabiting Somaliland and East
Africa differs from the more ordinary type, which is now confined to Africa, Arabia,
Syria, and Mesopotamia. In the latter (Struthio camelus) the color of the naked
skin of the neck and thighs is reddish; whereas in the Somali ostrich (S. molybdo-
phanes) it is bluish, and there is a conspicuous red patch on the front of the meta-
tarsus. It is, however, probable that these slight variations indicate local races
rather than distinct species. In regard to the dimensions attained by ostriches,
it may be mentioned that an unusually fine male from the Niger basin, measured
four feet ten inches in height at the back, and had a total length of four feet three
inches. Ordinary examples of the same sex reach only about three feet eight inches
in height.

Although now confined to Africa, Syria, Arabia, and Mesopotamia,

L — and becoming every year scarcer in the three last-mentioned coun-
and Habits .

tries, — there is a probability that ostriches formerly existed within

the historic period, in parts of Central Asia and possibly in Baluchistan, since there
are several allusions to birds which can scarcely be anything else than ostriches in
various ancient writings. Quite apart, however, from this, the evidence of its fossil-
ized remains show that an extinct species of ostrich, nearly allied to the existing
kind, inhabited Northwestern India during the Pliocene period, and a petrified egg
from the province of Cherson in Russia, points to the former existence of these birds
in that country. Originally it is probable that the ostrich ranged in suitable locali-
ties from Senegambia in the west, through Southern Morocco, Algeria, and Egypt, to
Arabia, Syria, and Mesopotamia in the east; while in the other direction it extended
from Algeria through Central and Eastern Africa. Being, however, essentially a
bird of open, sandy districts, there are many regions in Africa, such as the neighbor-
hood of Zanzibar and large tracts on the west coast and in the Congo valley, where,
owing to the prevalence of forest, the ostrich never existed. Moreover, the constant
persecution with which these birds have been harassed for years, on account of their
beautiful plumes, has led to their almost complete disappearance from Egypt and
Nubia, and they are now seldom found to the north of latitude 17°. The ostrich
has also disappeared from large tracts in South Africa, although still to be met with
in small parties in the great Kalahari desert, and especially in the part lying to the
southward of Lake Ngami. It is likewise still fairly common on the borders of
Namaqualand and Damaraland, the great Mabebi flats, and certain parts of Mata-
beleland and Mashonaland, where it is sometimes seen in large flocks.

Always inhabiting more or less desert-like districts, or flats covered with stunted
patches of bush, where the elevated position of their heads gives them a wide field of
vision, ostriches in South Africa generally associate in parties of from ten to twenty

2330 THE TINAMUS, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

individuals, although in the northern parts of the continent the flocks are stated to
be smaller. In Southern Africa they frequently associate with herds of wildebeest
and hartbeest; and their keen sight and wary nature, coupled with their unrivaled
speed, render them almost the most difficult of all animals to capture. Outstripping
the swiftest African antelopes in speed, the ostrich, in cool weather, could indeed
easily escape from any horseman, were it not for its foolish habit of running in a
circle, and thus allowing shots to be easily obtained. In running at speed the ostrich
spreads its wings, and the distances it can traverse are enormous; indeed, during
the daytime it is continually on the move. In the neighborhood of the sea or lakes
ostriches are reported to be in the habit of bathing during the hot season, when
parties have been seen standing up to their necks in water, and salt of some kind
seems absolutely essential to their existence.

The digestion of an ostrich is proverbial; and while in their general diet these
birds are practically omnivorous, they are likewise in the habit of swallowing
stones, sand, bones, or even pieces of metal, to aid in the trituration of their food.
In captivity this habit probably becomes abnormally developed, and there are in-
stances where even the constitution of an ostrich could not resist the effects of
some of the substances swallowed. Among the ordinary food of the ostrich are com-
prised small mammals and birds, snakes, lizards, and insects, as well as grass, leaves,
fruits, berries, and seeds. Although they can go for protracted periods without it,
and will not wander far out of their way to procure it, yet when water is at hand,
ostriches will drink constantly. Young ostriches are said to be silent, but the old
cocks utter a loud cry, which is likened by Livingstone to the roar of the lion, and
by Canon Tristram to the lowing of oxen; this cry being generally uttered in the
early morning. The ostrich's chief mode of attack or defense is by kicking with its
immensely powerful legs, although, in the fights in which the cocks periodically in-
dulge, the birds also peck at one another with their beaks. .

Much interest attaches to the breeding habits of the ostrich, although from
many of the accounts having been derived from native sources, very erroneous no-
tions are prevalent on this subject. At the pairing season, which takes place early
in the spring, each cock, after having gone through various performances to attract
their attention, and frequently many contests with his rivals, associates with three
or four hens. All these hens lay in a single nest, which consists solely of a large
hollow excavated in the sand. There is still some uncertainty as to the number of
eggs laid in a nest, although there is little doubt that this has been much exagger-
ated. As many as twenty are, however, frequently incubated; but in addition to
these it appears that a certain number are deposited round the edge of the nest,
which are never intended to be hatched, and are stated to serve as food for the
young. Although it is generally stated that both sexes take equal shares in the
work of incubation, this is incorrect, the cock bird (as among all the other members
of the subclass) undertaking almost the entire task. He sits, for instance, through-
out the night, when the nest must be protected from prowling jackals; and in such
regions, as the eggs are incubated by day as well as by night, he is only relieved for
short periods during the day in order to procure food. Incubation during the
day takes place, however, only in the cooler districts of the ostrich's habitat; in

THE RHEAS OR AMERICAN OSTRICHES

2331

Capture and
Domesti-
cation

the hotter regions the eggs being left to themselves, with a covering of sand during
the day.

As already mentioned, advantage is taken of the peculiar habits of
the ostrich to surround its flocks by a party of mounted men, and by
this method many are killed in Africa. There are, however, many
other ways of capture. For instance, the bushmen are or were in the
habit of dressing themselves in the skin of an ostrich, and thus disguised penetra-
ting into the midst of a flock, when the birds were dispatched one after another by
means of poisoned arrows. The hunter must, however, take care to keep to the
leeward of his victims. In Somaliland the natives hunt the ostrich on camels; while
in Arabia and the Sahara it is ridden down on horseback. The bushmen and Soma-
lis also resort to the aid of pitfalls; while the lasso is employed by the Haden-
dowa Arabs of the Sudan, and some other tribes; and in Sennar a curved stick is
used in boomerang fashion for the same purpose. In Namaqualand the birds are
either surrounded by a cordon of men on foot, who gradually close in upon the
flock, or they are driven by mounted hunters past concealed relays of their compan-
ions, who in turn take up the pursuit till their victims fall through sheer exhaus-
tion. In addition to the methods noticed, the bushmen have also recourse to
the plan of concealing one of their number in the sand of a nest, after the removal
of the eggs, and by him the birds on their return are shot down with poisoned arrows.

THE RHEAS OR AMERICAN OSTRICHES

Family

In South America
the place of the ostriches
is taken by an allied
group of birds known as
rheas, or, as they are
often termed, American
ostriches, which are dis-
tinguished externally by
the presence of three
toes, furnished with
claws instead of nails,
and by the fully-feathered
head and neck, and the
absence of a tail. The
wings also are propor-
tionately longer, and are HEAD op COMMON RHEA.

COVered with long, slender (From Sclater, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1860.)

plumes. Agreeing with

the ostriches in the absence of aftershafts to the feathers, in their pale colored

2332

THE TIN AMU S, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

eggs, and in the superiority in size of the male over the female, the rheas are
further distinguished by certain peculiarities in regard to the bones at the base of
the skull, and likewise by the circumstance that the ischia, or hinder lower bones
of the pelvis, meet in a symphysis in the middle line, instead of the pubes doing so.
The flattened beak is broad at the base and rounded at the tip, where it has a
curved nail-like sheath, and the extremity of the wing has a horny process. The
lores and region round the eye, as well as a ring round the aperture of the ear, are
devoid of feathers, the ear aperture being clothed with bristles. On the head and
neck the feathers are small, thin, and pointed; while those of the body are large,
broad, and rounded, although so soft that no distinct vanes are formed. In color-
ation the two sexes are very similar, although the female is generally somewhat
paler than her consort. The best known, and at the same time the most abundant,
of the three species by which the single genus is now represented, is the common
rhea (Rhea americana), inhabiting the pampas of Argentina and Patagonia. This
species is far inferior in size to the ostrich, but it is the largest of the three. Black
on the crown of the head and nape, as well as on portions of the upper neck and
the fore-breast, with yellow and bluish gray on the sides and other parts of the neck,
the general color of the plumage on the back, sides of the breast, and wings is
brownish ashy gray in the cock; while the remainder of the under parts are dirty
white. The iris of the eye is pearl gray, the naked portion of the skin flesh colored,
the beak horn brown, and the leg gray. In the female the feathers of the nape and
front of the breast are somewhat lighter in hue. The place of the ordinary species is
taken in Eastern Patagonia by the far less common Darwin's rhea (R. darwini),
distinguished by its smaller size, relatively-shorter legs, which are feathered down to

the ankle joint, as well
as by the more mottled
and less uniformly-
colored plumage, and the
pale green eggs. Lastly,
we have the long-billed
rhea (R. macrorhyncha)
of Northern Brazil,
which is also a small
form characterized by
its longer beak, larger
and more flattened head
feathers, the longer
feathers of the body,
and the more slender
legs, as well as by the
general darker colora-
tion, which is brownish

gray mingled with black. Fossil remains of rheas, some of which belong to exist-
ing species, are met with in the caverns of Brazil and the superficial deposits of
other districts of South America.

HEAD OF LONG-BITTED RHEA.
(From Sclater Proc. Zool. Soc., 1860.)

THE RHEAS OR AMERICAN OSTRICHES 2333

In general habits, rheas, although somewhat more gregarious are
very similar to ostriches, and as thoroughly adapted for a life on the
South-American pampas as are the latter for existence in the* South-African veldt
and karroo. As a rule, each cock rhea associates with from five to seven hens,
which he carefully guards from the attentions of other members of his* kindred;
although after the breeding season such family parties collect in flocks, which
may reach a total of sixty or more head. Possessed of a speed but little in-
ferior to the ostrich, the rhea is further protected by the exactness with which
the general pale bluish-gray hue of its plumage assimilates to the distant haze, thus
rendering it invisible even at a moderate distance. Its* large form seems, indeed,
as Mr. W. H. Hudson remarks, to melt mysteriously out of sight into the sur-
rounding blue, so that the hunter strains his eyes in vain to distinguish it. A truly
noble bird when standing among the tall grasses of its native pampas, the cock
rhea summons his scattered consorts by a hollow booming cry, probably not unlike
that of the ostrich, accompanied by a kind of sighing or hissing sound. When run-
ning from their pursuers, both sexes have the curious habit of raising one wing
above the back in a sail-like fashion. In hot weather these birds will take readily
to the water, not only standing in it with their bodies submerged, but also swim-
ming boldly, though slowly, with their necks bent slightly forward and scarcely
showing any portion of their bodies. In regard to the breeding habits of the rheas,
Darwin writes that ' ' when we were at Bahia Blanca in the months of September
and October, the eggs, in extraordinary numbers, were found all over the country.
They lie either scattered and single, in which case they are never hatched, and
are called by the Spaniards huachos; or they are collected into a shallow excava-
tion, which forms the nest. Out of the four nests which I saw, three contained
twenty-two eggs each, and the fourth twenty-seven. In one day's hunting on
horseback sixty-four eggs were found; forty- four of these were in two nests, and
the remaining twenty scattered huachos. The Gauchos unanimously affirm, and
there is no reason to doubt their statement, that the male bird alone hatches the
eggs, and for some time afterward accompanies the young. The cock when on the
nest lies very close; I have myself almost ridden over one. It is asserted that at
such times they are occasionally fierce, and even dangerous, and that they have
been known to attack a man on horseback, trying to kick and leap on him." The
truth of the statement that the cock undertakes the whole work of incubation has
been demonstrated not only by observations made upon wild birds, but on captive
specimens, which in England have breed freely. In the common-fhea the period of
incubation lasts from thirty to thirty-one days; and while in the south the usual
number of eggs in a nest is from fifteen to twenty, in the north as many as thirty-
two have been observed.

The rhea, like the guanaco, is hunted with the bolas, one method
being for a number of mounted men armed with these implements to
inclose, with the aid of the female portion of the tribe, a considerable tract of coun-
try, and thus slaughter all the game contained within the circle; while the second,
and more sporting plan, is for a single horseman to pursue the bird. In the latter
case a horse of great endurance, and endowed with a fair turn of speed, is abso-

2334 THE TINAMUS, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

lutely essential; while it is further requisite that it should have learned to follow all
the twistings and doublings of the birds. The supreme skill and judgment in cast-
ing the bolas at the right moment, and with the requisite strength and accuracy of
aim, necessary to insure bringing the game to bay, can in general be acquired only by
those who have been accustomed to the use of the weapon from their childhood. The
rheas have been hunted with the bolas for about two centuries, during which pe-
riod they have learned to start off at speed on catching sight of a mounted man; but
till some five-and-twenty years ago, up to which date they were never shot, they
displayed supreme disregard for a person on foot.

THE CASSOWARIES AND EMEUS
Family

Two important features serve at once to distinguish the cassowaries and their
near allies the emeus from the ostriches and rheas; the first of these being that the
feathers have aftershafts of such large size as to make them practically double;
while the second peculiarity is to be found in the eggs, which, instead of being light
colored and smooth, are dark green in color and granulated in texture. From the
observations of Mr. W. Bennett on domestic emeus, it further appears that in this
group the females are larger than the males. Then, again, the wing is extremely
rudimentary, so much so, indeed, that it may be invisible externally; the humerus
being very short. In addition to certain peculiarities connected with the structure
of the bones of the palate, the skeleton is further distinguished by retention of rudi-
ments of the furcula. In the presence of three toes to each foot, both emeus and
cassowaries resemble rheas. By many ornithologists the two genera under con-
sideration are regarded as the representatives of as many distinct families, although
in our opinion the amount of difference between them is sufficiently expressed by
referring them to two subfamilies of a single family.

The cassowaries form an extensive genus containing a* least nine
well-defined species, and confined to Australia, New Guinea, Ceram,
and some of the neighboring islands. They are specially characterized by the
bare head being surmounted by a helmet-like prominence, formed by an upward
extension of the bones of the skull, and covered with naked skin, by the bare neck,
which may or may not be ornamented with pendent wattles, and likewise by the
great length of the claw of the second or inner toe. The body is covered with
dark colored feathers, of a peculiarly loose and coarse structure, which are glossy,
and appear more like hairs than the plumage of an ordinary bird; while the wing
is represented externally merely by some four or five black quills devoid of barbs,
which thus presents the appearance of very coarse bristles. Although the whole
of the nine species of cassowaries are included by ornithologists in a single genus,
this may be subdivided into three minor groups, distinguished by the form of the
helmet, and the number of the wattles on the neck, or the absence. In the first
group, as typically represented by the Ceram cassowary (Casuarius galeatus},

THE CASSOWARIES AND EMEUS

2335

which appears to be confined to the island from which it takes its name, and was
the first of these extraordinary birds made known to science, the helmet is flattened
from side to side, or compressed, while the wattles on the neck are either two or
double; the other representatives of this group are the Australian cassowary (C.
australis} of Northern Australia, of which the skull is represented in the figure on

AUSTRALIAN CASSOWARY.

p. 2336, and Beccari's cassowary (C. beccarii) and the two-wattled cassowary (C.
bicarunculatus) of the Aru islands. Of the second group, the sole representative is
the single-wattled cassowary (C. uniappendiculatus} from the island of Salwatti
and the adjacent coast of New Guinea, which, while agreeing with the members of

2336

THE TIN AM US, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

the preceding group in the form of the helmet, differs by having but one undivided
wattle. Lastly, we have the third group characterized by the circumstance that
the helmet is flattened from above, or depressed, while wattles are absent; this
group being exclusively Papuan, and represented by the Papuan cassowary (C.
papuanus) of Northern New Guinea, Westermann's cassowary (C. westermanni}
from the island of Jobie, the painted cassowary ( C. picticollis] confined to the south-
ern half of New Guinea, and Bennett's cassowary (C. bennetti) from New Britain.
Fossil remains of an extinct cassowary have been obtained from the superficial
deposits of Australia; and, in its whole distribution, the genus corresponds very
closely with the Australasian pouched mammals, none of its representatives occur-
ring to the west-
ward of the deep
channel sepa-
rating Celebes
and lyombok
from Borneo and
Java, and known
asWallace' s line.
I n appearance,
owing to the
brilliant hues of
blue, green, and
red on the naked
skin of the head
and neck, cou-
pled with the
glossy sheen of
the blue-black
plumage, casso-
waries are per-
haps the hand-
somest of all the
Ratittz. The
largest species of
all, and the one
i n which the

horn-colored helmet attains the greatest developmen., is the Australian cassowary,
which, when erect, stands considerably over five feet in height. Among its dis-
tinctive features is the fine cobalt-blue tint of the throat and fore-neck, and the red
terminal flaps of the deeply -divided wattle; the Ceram species having the throat
and fore-neck dull purple. Of the species without wattles, Bennett's cassowary —
the muruk of the natives — has the neck entirely blue; while in Westermann's
cassowary the fore part of the neck is blue and the hinder portion red; the reverse
of this characterizing the painted-necked species. Nestlings have the plumage
mottled, while at a later stage the color is tawny.

SKUI<I« OF AUSTRALIAN CASSOWARY.
(From Sir W. H. Flower, Proc. Zool. Soc., 1871.)

THE CASSOWARIES AND EMEUS 2337

In being forest-haunting birds, cassowaries differ essentially from the
ostriches and rheas, and appear to be generally shy and but seldom
seen in their native haunts. Unfortunately, however, we are still in want of good
accounts of the habits of these birds in their wild state. Those brought to Europe
(where they will lay freely) are characterized by their extreme tameness and do-
cility; but this, it is said, is largely due to their being mostly, if not invariably,
specimens which have been reared from early chickenhood in captivity by the na-
tives, among whom these birds are treated almost like domestic fowls. The Aus-
tralian species is reported to frequent rocky wooded districts, where as many as
seven or eight may be seen together, keeping almost entirely to the more open
portion of the scrub, and seldom venturing out into the plains. Ffom July to
September, at least, it is known to feed chiefly upon an egg-shaped blue berry,
and its entire food is probably of a vegetable nature. Regarding the muruk,
Bennett was informed that the natives of New Britain capture these birds ' ' when
very young, soon after they are hatched, and rear them by hand, but can rarely or
never capture the adult, from its being so shy and difficult of approach. They are
exceedingly swift of foot, and possessed of great strength in their legs. On the
least alarm they elevate the head, and, on seeing danger, dart among the thick
bushes, thread localities where no human being can follow them, and disappear
with incredible rapidity. The muruk, with its powerful legs and muscular thighs
has an extraordinary power of leaping." This species utters a kind of chirping cry,
susceptible of modulations according to the occasion. Unlike the emeu, which
kicks outward and backward, cassowaries invariably kick forward, at the same time
elongating their bodies; in captivity they will not unfrequently perform a kind of
war dance around any object that attracts their attention, accompanied by vigorous
kickings and many bendings of the neck. In spite of their speed, and the rapidity
with which they move their limbs, cassowaries do not run, after the manner of an
ostrich, but may be rather said to trot.

As regards their breeding habits in a wild state very little has been ascertained;
although it would appear that at this season they associate only in pairs. From
native reports concerning the rare Ceram cassowary, Mr. Wallace wrote that the
female laid from three to five eggs, which were brooded by each sex in turn; but
from observations made on menagerie specimens, it appears that all the work of
hatching devolves upon the cock, the period of incubation being about seven weeks.
Although cassowaries will lay freely, it is but seldom that the eggs are hatched in
captivity. In color, the latter are dark green, with the surface of the shell beauti-
fully granulated, or shagreened. The young cassowaries, in which the position of
the helmet is indicated by a flat horny plate, are carefully tended and fed by the
cock bird until able to shift for themselves.

Originally applied indifferently to the members of both the preced-
ing and the present genus, the name emeu (which is itself a derivative
from the Portuguese word emea, meaning apparently a crane, and then any large
bird) is now by common consent restricted to the latter. Agreeing with the casso-
waries in the features mentioned on p. 2334, the emeus — of which the two species
are restricted to Australia and some of the adjacent islands — are distinguished by the

2338 THE TINAMUS, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

absence of a helmet, the complete feathering of the head and neck, and the normal
length of the claw of the second toe; the claws of all three toes being much shorter
than in the allied genus. They are further characterized by the beak being de-
pressed and broad, instead of narrow, compressed, and keeled, as they are by the
absence of the bare black quills in the still more rudimentary wing. Standing next
in point of size among living birds to the ostrich, the common emeu (Drom&us
novtzhollanditf} of Eastern Australia, has the general hue of the plumage light
brown, mottled in some parts with gray; the individual feathers being of a uniform
blackish gray, except near the tips, where they are black, with a broad subterminal
baud of rufous. This species which, from incessant pursuit, has been well-nigh ex-
terminated even on the mainland, formerly also existed in Tasmania and the islands
of Bass Straits, where it has completely disappeared. In Western Australia it is
replaced by the spotted emeu (D. irroratus), a bird of more slender build, having
the feathers barred with white and dark gray, and terminating in a black spot with
a rufous margin. While the two sexes of the adult are nearly similar, the young
of the common emeu have the ground color of the plumage grayish white, with two
stripes of black down the back, and two others on each side, both being divided by
a narrow median streak of white, these stripes being continued onto the head, where
they break up into spots, while there are also others on the fore-neck and breast,
which terminate on the thighs. Like the cassowaries, the emeus are represented by
an extinct species from the superficial deposits of Australia.

At one time abundant on the mainland of Australia, in the neighbor-
hood of Botany bay and Port Jackson, where it formed as characteris-
tic a feature in the landscape as the kangaroos and wallabies, the emeu is now only
to be met with in the far interior, where it is yearly becoming scarcer. Unlike the
cassowaries, emeus are inhabitants of the plains and open forest country, where,
although strictly monogamous during the breeding season, they associate in small
parties. Their food consists of fruits, roots, grass, and other herbage, their chief
feeding time being the cool of the early morning. Possessed of great keenness
of vision, and swift of foot, emeus rival the kangaroos in speed, and afford an
exciting chase with dogs. Such hunts do not end till the birds are thoroughly
exhausted, when, if seized by the neck, in order to avoid kicks from their powerful
legs, they are soon pulled down. As with the other members of the subclass, the
task of incubation falls to the share of the cock, by whom the eggs, which vary in
number from nine to thirteen, are brooded, according to observations made on
specimens by Sir E. G. L,oder, for a period of from fifty-four to sixt)7-four days.
The nest is but a poor affair, consisting merely of a shallow hollow, scooped in the
sandy soil. In color, the eggs vary from a dark bottle green to a light bluish
green, their length being just short of five inches, and their transverse diameter
three and three-fourths inches. During the breeding season, at. least, the hen emeu
utters a peculiar, loud booming sound, which is produced through the intervention
of a pouch communicating with the windpipe, on the front of which it opens by a
small aperture; this structure being confined to the female sex. From its larger
size, the hen emeu is very liable to be mistaken for the cock. Writing of the differ-
ence in the habits and appearance of the two sexes, Mr. Bennett observes, of a pair

THE CASSOWARIES AND EMEUS

in his possession, "one is considerably larger than the other, stouter in limb, and
more robust in every feature; it has a slight topknot, and goes strutting about,
especially in damp weather, with its breast feathers fully out, like a pouter pigeon,
or rather some huge turkey cock. It is usually the more courageous and pugilistic.
It makes a deep, hollow, guttural boom, when under any gentle excitement of
pride or pleasure, especially on damp evenings, or in the still hours of the night,
sounding like a small gong or distant muffled drum. The other is more agile and

EMEU AND CHICKS.

(One-seventeenth natural size. )

graceful in all its movements, corresponding with its slender frame, more docile
and inquisitive, fleeter of foot, and with no voice beyond a suppressed hiss when
angry, and a sort of grunt when distressed." The former, although at first regarded
as the cock, turned out to be the female. In their wild state emeus take readily
to the water, and have on more than one occasion been observed swimming a wide
river. Beneath the skin these birds have a thick layer of fat., yielding a pale

2340

THE TIN AM US, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

amber-colored oil, free from either taste or smell. Very easily tamed, and in a
domesticated state thriving well in Europe, where it breeds freely, the emeu is
noticeable for a curious and somewhat mischievous disposition. It will, for instance,
invariably endeavor to inspect every strange object brought into its vicinity, v-hile
if a visitor shows any symptoms of fear when brought into a paddock or park con-
taining one or more of these birds, and attempts to escape by flight, he will be cer-
tain to be pursued. On one occasion, at Sydney, a man thus hunted by a tame
emeu, was much astonished at having his hat removed by the bird. In such chases,
emeus appear to be actuated more by a spirit of mischief than anything else, but

when they are brought to bay, and to kicking out with their muscular legs, they
are formidable adversaries. In kicking, the blow is delivered outward and back-
ward.

It is not a little remarkable that during the Pliocene period there
existed in Northern India a three-toed Ratite bird apparent!)' closely
allied to the emeus and cassowaries, thus showing that in former times
the group had a wider distribution than at present. This bird was not larger than
an emeu; but during the later portion of the Tertiary epoch Australia possessed
some much larger species, which have been named Dromornis, and apparently indi-
cate an extinct family, more or less closely allied to the present one.

Allied Extinct
Birds

THE KIWIS 2341

THE KIWIS
Family

As the ostriches are the most specialized of the living members of the subclass,
so the kiwis of New Zealand may be regarded as those of its members which
occupy the most generalized position in the group. The specialization of the
ostriches is shown, among other features, by the gigantic stature of those birds, by
the reduction in the number of the toes, and in the total absence of any trace of a
bony bridge at the lower end of the tibia. The kiwis, on the other hand, exhibit
their more generalized nature by their comparatively-small size, — it being obvious
that if the Ratites are derived from flying birds, the intermediate forms must have
been small, — by the presence of four complete toes, and by remnants of the bony
bridge at the lower end of the tibia. Whether the long beak of the kiwis is also a
generalized feature may be doubtful. If these birds have any close affinity with
the tinamus, it cannot be thus regarded; but if, as some think, they are allied to
the rails, then it may be looked upon in this light. The kiwis, then, differ from
all the other living members of the subclass by their small size, the presence of
four toes to the foot, and the long and slender beak. They are further character-
ized by the females being much superior in size to the males, and also by the com-
plete absence of aftershafts to the feathers, while the skeleton lacks any trace
of the furcula. The bones of the wing — especially the humerus — are very
small and slender; and externally the whole wing is completely concealed by
the plumage of the back. In general appearance the entire plumage is markedly
hair-like, the individual feathers being pointed, and composed of separate filaments
toward the end of the shaft, of which the basal half is downy. In build, the kiwis
are very robust, the thighs and legs being very muscular and strong, while the toes
are furnished with strong claws. While in old birds the scales investing the meta-
tarsus have overlapping edges, and form a perfectly smooth surface, in the young
they are soft, detached, and reticulated. The general color of the plumage is
mottled gray and brown, the feathers having in some cases light colored shafts, and
in others dark crossbars. In addition to great individual variations of size, kiwis
are remarkable for their very large eggs, which are of a creamy-white color, and
out of all proportion to the dimensions of the birds by which they are laid. In hav-
ing the nostrils placed at the tip of the beak, the kiwis are unique.

At the present day kiwis are represented by three or four species, of which
the first made known to science was the South island kiwi {Apteryx australis).
This species is of large size and stout build, with a very long beak; the general
color of the plumage being lighter, and the individual feathers of a sandier and
more grayish-brown tinge than in the next form. In the North island kiwi (A.
mantelli} the general color of the plumage of the upper parts is dark rufous streaked
with blackish brown, while the under parts are pale grayish brown; the streaky
appearance of the upper surface being caused by each feather having the middle
lirue pale rufous brown, darker toward the tip, and the long hair-like filaments

2342 THE TIN AM US, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

black. The total length of the male, following the curvature of the back, is about
twenty-three inches, and that of the female twenty-seven and one-half inches. Of
the other two species, the little gray kiwi {A. oweni}, of the South island, is charac-
terized by its small size — the length of the male being only seventeen and one-half
inches, — its moderately-long beak, and more slender legs; the general hue of the
plumage of the upper parts being light yellowish brown, mottled and obscurely
barred with wavy blackish brown markings, while beneath it is paler, becoming
fulvous on the abdomen, where there are faint brown bars. Some doubt exists as
to the right to distinction of the large gray kiwi (A. haasti}, which Mr. H. O.
Forbes, who believed that it occurred only in the South island, thought might be
merely a hybrid between the South island kiwi and the little gray kiwi. Accord-
ing, however, to Mr. Rothschild, it exists also in the North island, where the two
latter do not occur. It is a large and thick-billed species, of darker coloration than
the little gray kiwi, the dark bars on the plumage being nearly black, and the
fulvous markings tinged with chestnut. Fossilized remains of the existing species
occur with those of the moas, while one is supposed to be extinct, and has been
named Pseudapteryx. In habits the kiwis are purely nocturnal; and, at the time
when they were still abundant, were commonly found in parties of from six to
twelve, their shrill nocturnal cries resounding far and wide throughout the moun-
tainous parts of the country they frequent. No better account of their general
mode of life is extant than one from the pen of Sir W. J. Buller, who, after men-
tioning that the kiwi is in some measure compensated for the absence of wings by
its swiftness of foot, proceeds to observe that " when running it makes wide strides
and carries the body in an oblique position, with the neck stretched to its full
extent and inclined forward. In the twilight it moves about cautiously and as
noiselessly as a rat, to which, indeed, at this time it bears some outward resem-
blance. In a quiescent posture, the body generally assumes a perfectly rotund
appearance; and the bird sometimes, but only rarely, supports itself by resting the
point of its bill on the ground. It often yawns when disturbed in the daytime,
gaping its mandibles in a very grotesque manner. When provoked, it erects the
body, and, raising the foot to the breast, strikes downward with considerable force
and rapidity, thus using its sharp and powerful claws as weapons of defense.
. . . When hunting for its food the bird makes a continual sniffing sound
through the nostrils, which are placed at the extremity of the upper mandible.
Whether it is guided as much by touch as by smell I cannot safely say; but it
appears to me that both senses are called into action. That the sense of touch is
highly developed seems quite certain, because the bird, although it may not be
audibly sniffing, will always first touch an object with the point of its bill, whether
in the act of feeding or of surveying the ground; and when shut up in a cage or con-
fined in a room, it may be heard, all through the night, tapping softly at the walls.
The sniffing sound is heard only .when the kiwi is in the act of feeding or hunting
for food; but I have sometimes observed the bird touching the ground close to or
immediately round a worm which it had dropped without being able to find it.
. . . It is interesting to watch the bird, in a state of freedom, foraging for worms,
which constitute its principal food; it moves about with a slow action of the body; and

THE KIWIS

2343

the long, flexible beak is driven into the soft ground, generally home to the very
root, and is either immediately withdrawn with a worm held at the extreme tip of
the mandibles, or it is gently moved to and fro, by an action of the head and neck,
the body of the bird being perfectly steady. It is amusing to watch the extreme
care and deliberation with which the bird draws the worm from its hiding place,

-

KIWI FEEDING.

coaxing it out as it were by degrees, instead of pulling roughly or breaking it. ' '
On getting the worm fairly out of the ground, the bird throws up its head with a
jerk, and swallows its prey whole. The stomachs of specimens that have been dis-
sected contained pebbles, remains of beetles, and the kernels of berries. In captivity,
kiwis are dull, listless creatures during the day, lying closely huddled together, and

2344

THE TINAMUS, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

slumbering so soundly that no noise will arouse them. If stirred up with a stick,
or suddenly wakened, they make a few drowsy movements, and soon relapse into
sleep. From observations made on specimens in captivity, it appears that the
female kiwi (unlike the other members of the subclass) lays but one or two eggs
annually, which are deposited in a hollow in the ground, and incubated by her
partner. When there are two, the eggs, which are placed lengthways side by side,
are of such a size as to protrude from the sides of the narrow body of the sitting
bird. During the breeding season, the kiwi is silent. An egg of the North island
kiwi measured a little over five inches in length by three in breadth.

EXTINCT FAMILIES

Moas

The fate impending over
the kiwis has long since over-
taken their gigantic extinct cousins the
moas (Dinornithidcs ) . which had already
disappeared from New Zealand when those
islands were first colonized from Europe,
although there is good reason to believe
that they lived on till within the last five
hundred or four hundred years, if not to a
considerably later date. These birds, of
which not only the bones, but in some
cases the dried integuments, feathers, and
eggshells, as well as the pebbles they were
in the habit of swallowing, have been
preserved in the superficial deposits of
New Zealand, attained a wonderful devel-
opment in those distant islands, where they
were secure from persecution till man ap-
peared on the scene. Not only did the
larger members of the group far exceed the
ostrich in size, but they were extraordi-
narily numerous in species, as they were also in individuals; such a marvelous exu-
berance of gigantic bird life being unknown elsewhere on the face of the globe in
such a small area. As regards size, the largest moas could have been but little
short of twelve feet in height, the tibia being considerably over a yard in length,
while the smallest were not larger than a turkey. In reference to their numbers,
it may be mentioned that there are some twenty species, arranged in about six
genera; and the surface of many parts of the country, as well as bogs and swamps,
literally swarmed with their bones. Some of the moas had four toes to the foot,
and others but three, all differed from the kiwis in having a bony bridge over the
groove for the extensor tendons of the tibia (as shown in the following figure),
and are therefore evidently the least specialized members of the subclass we have

SKELETON OF SHORT-PEGGED MOA.

EXTINCT FAMILIES

2345

yet referred to, seeing that this bridge is present in the majority of the Carinate
birds, and has thus been lost in the existing Ratites. While agreeing in some parts
of their organization with the kiwis, the moas are distinguished by the short beaks,
and the presence of aftershafts to the feathers; and in the larger forms, at any rate,
not only was the wing, but likewise the whole shoulder girdle wanting. There
is, however, reason to believe that some of the pygmy moas — which from their size
were evidently the most generalized members of the group — retained some of the
bones connected with the wing. The moas were represented by several very dis-
tinct structural modifications; the largest being the long-legged or true moas
(Dmornis), characterized by their long and comparatively-slender leg bones, as
shown on p. 1467 of the preceding volume,
and also by their large and depressed skulls.
In marked contrast to these were the short-
legged or elephant- footed moas (Pachyomis],
in which the limb bones, as shown in the
accompanying figure, were remarkable for
their short and massive form, the metatarsus
being most especially noteworthy in this re-
spect. In these birds the skull was vaulted
and the beak narrow and sharp; but in the
somewhat smaller and less stoutly-limbed
broad-billed moas (Emeus} it was broad,
blunt, and rounded. The other species, in
all of which the beak was sharp and narrow,
are of relatively-small stature, and include
the smallest representatives of the family,
some of which were less than a yard in
height. The eggs of the moas were of a
pale green color, and probably formed a
favorite food of the Maories, by whom these
birds were evidently exterminated.

For a long period the marshes
of Madagascar have yielded the
eggshells of enormous extinct birds, in
search of which the natives are accustomed
to probe with iron rods; the largest of these
eggs having a longer circumference of

upward of thirty-six inches, and a girth of thirty inches. For the monster birds
that laid these eggs (which, by the way, may well have given origin to the far-
famed roc of Arabian romance) the name of ^Pyornis was proposed; and in the
course of time naturalists were rewarded by the discovery of its bones. Some of these
recently disinterred indicate a bird of larger build than the most gigantic moa, the
metatarsus being especially remarkable for its massiveness. Certain of these birds
appear to have had four toes, and they all differ from the moas in the absence of a
bony bridge at the lower end of the tibia. They form the family ^pyornithidce.

RIGHT TIBIA AND METATARSUS OP

SHORT- LEGGED MOA.
(One-sixth natural size.)

2346 THE TIN AM US, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

TOOTHED AND LIZARD-TAILED BIRDS

There remain for brief consideration certain extinct birds, from
formations of earlier age than the Tertiary, which differ from the
whole of those of the present day either in the possession of teeth in the jaws, or of
these, coupled with the retention of a long lizard -like tail, and certain other fea-
tures in the skeleton indicative of affinity with reptiles.

Of the toothed birds ( Odontomithes) , as distinct from the lizard-tailed birds
which are likewise provided with teeth, there are two very well-marked modifica-
tions, both of which have been obtained from strata in the United States, corre-
sponding approximately in age with the Chalk and associated formations of Europe,
and hence frequently spoken of as Cretaceous birds. In their general organization
these birds approximate so closely to the ordinary Carinate birds of the present day,
that they may well be included in the same subclass, of which they will constitute a
separate series characterized by the possession of teeth, and likewise by the circum-
stance that the two halves of the lower jaw remain completely separate in front, in-
stead of having a solid bony union. Of these toothed birds the one type is known
as Ichthyornis, and comprises somewhat gull-like birds characterized by having
a numerous series of teeth implanted in distinct sockets, and also by the vertebrae or
joints of the back bone articulating with one another by means of cup-like surfaces,
whereas in the neck (and generally also in the back) of all existing birds, such sur-
faces are saddle shaped. Although the osteology of Ichthyornis has many resem-
blances to that of the gulls, this being especially shown in the skull, which is
regarded by Dr. Schufelt as coming very close to that of the skimmer, the skeleton
differs, among other points, by the circumstance that there is no projecting process
on the outer side of the lower end of the humerus. Hence, although it is quite
within the bounds of probability that these birds may be ancestral types of the mod-
ern gulls, it is by no means certain that they should be included in the same group.

With Hesperornis we are confronted with a totally different type, in which the
teeth were implanted in an open groove, while the wings were rudimentary, and the
keel of the breastbone was wanting, although the vertebras resembled those of exist-
ing birds in articulating by saddle-shaped surfaces. In general organization
Hesperornis approximated indeed very closely to the modern divers, with which
it agrees in the general conformation of the skull and limb bones, as well as of the
pelvis. Whereas, however, the modern divers, have the long spike-like kneecap,
or patella, united with the tibia, in the extinct bird these two bones remained dis-
tinct. In dimensions, Hesperornis was a bird of large size, attaining a height of
rather more than a yard when in the upright position. That it was thoroughly
aquatic in its habits is self-evident; while it may with considerable probability
be regarded as a specialized and flightless offshoot from the ancestral stock of the
modern divers, although this would not justify its inclusion in the same family
as the latter. An apparently allied, although very imperfectly-known type of bird
(Enaliornis) is represented in England, where its remains have been obtained from
a thin stratum lying at the base of the chalk, known as the Cambridge green sand.

TOOTHED AND LIZARD-TAILED BIRDS

2347

Descending lower in the geological series, and reaching those strata
lying below the chalk, such as the Portland limestone, and known as
the Jurassic series, we meet in certain Bavarian rocks, corresponding in
age to those of Portland, with remains of birds departing much more widely from

Lizard-Tailed
Birds

SKELETON OF UZARD-TAII.ED BIRD.

existing types than any hitherto mentioned. These birds, of which but a couple of
imperfect skeletons, with impressions of the wing and tail feathers, are known, are
named Arch&opteryx , and constitute a group — Saururce, or lizard-tailed birds — re-
garded by some as of equivalent rank to the flying and flightless birds, but by others

2348 THE TIN AM US, FLIGHTLESS BIRDS, ETC.

as of equal importance with the two together. In size these birds were about equal
to rooks, with which they agree in being evidently adapted for perching on the
boughs of trees. In addition to the possession of a small number of conical teeth
in the short jaws, they are characterized by having a long, lizard-like, tapering tail
(which gives the name to the group), and from each joint of this a pair of feathers
take origin. In this respect they differ from all the birds hitherto noticed, in the
whole of which the bones of the tail are shortened, the tail feathers arising in a fan-
shaped manner from its terminal joint. In addition to this, they are further charac-
terized by the first three metacarpal bones of the wing, as well as those representing
the corresponding fingers, being perfectly distinct from one another, and each termi-
nal joint of the latter being furnished with a well-developed claw; all other birds
having the metacarpal bones, as well as some of those of the fingers, welded to-
gether; while there are, at most, but two claws (in the young of the seriema). It
may be mentioned here that although the three-clawed digits in the wing of the
lizard-tailed birds are commonly regarded as representing the first, second, and third
of the typical five-fingered limb, Mr. C. H. Hurst believes that they really repre-
sent the second, third, and fourth; and he is thus led to conclude that the same will
hold good for the digits in the wing of an ordinary bird. Be this as it may, in hav-
ing cup-shaped articular surfaces to the bodies of the vertebrae, the lizard-tailed
bird resembles the later Ichthyornis; but it differs from all other members of the class
in having the three bones constituting the pelvis perfectly distinct from one another
(as in most reptiles), while in the leg the tibia and fibula are likewise separate. As
regards the general structure of the wing and leg, these remarkable birds agree,
however, with their modern allies, the foot having a complete canon bone, and but
four toes, of which the first is directed backward. In the absence of hook-like
(uncinate) processes to the ribs, Arch&opteryx would appear to be more specialized
than ordinary birds, seeing that these elements exist in many reptiles; while in the
possession of a perfectly formed canon bone, it would appear to be on a higher
level than the penguins.

Finally, it will not fail to be noticed that although some of these toothed birds
exhibit certain specialized features suggesting that they are not the direct ancestors
of modern birds, yet that, on the whole, they afford a most valuable contribution in
favor of the doctrine of evolution, approximating more and more, as we descend in
the geological scale, to reptiles, from which it may be confidently stated the Avian
class has originated.

INDEX

VOL. IV

Abdimia, 2074.
Abitrria, 2211.
Accipiter, 2001.
Accipitres, 1938.
Acomns, 2188.
Acryllitim, 2202.
Adjutants, 2076.
^gialitis, 2245.
SEgialophilus, 2246.
^Egotheles, 1851.
^•TLna, 2149.
sfZpypodius, 2207.
SEpyornis, 2345.
^'Epyornithida;, 2345.
Aeronautes, 1801.
SEihurus, 1789.
^Ew, 2115.
Agapornis, 1893.
Agelastes, 2200.
Albatrosses, 2290.
vl/c«, 2302.
AlcediitidcB, 1834.
Alcedo, 1838.
Ale idee, 2302.
Alcyone, 1835, 1839.
Alectorides, 2219.
Alectrccnas, 2133.
Amazi/ia, i793-
Amazons, 1885.
Ammoperdix, 2177-
Anas, 2109.
Anastomns, 2078.
Anatidee, 2088.
Anorhinus, 1832.
Anodorhynchus, 1876.
Anous, 2280.
Anser, 2092.
Anseranas, 2091.
./I «.9£r<w, 2085.
Aptenodytes, 2317.
Apterygidce, 2341 .
Apteryx, 2341.
Aquila, 1987.

adalberti, 1991.

chrysa'etus, 1987.

clanga, 1994.

heliaca, 1991.

maculata, 1993.

rapax, 1995.

verreauxi, 1995.

vindhiana, 1995.

•wahlbergi, 1995.

, 1878.

Aramidce, 2236.
Aramtts, 2236.
Arboricola, 2180.
ArchcEoptcryx, 2347.
Archibuteo, 2000.
Ardea, 2055.
Ardeidez, 2054.
Ardella, 2063.
Argusianus, 2197.
Asia, 1915.
Astur, 2003.
Asturina, 2001.
Atelornis, 1844.*
Attagis, 2275.
Auks, 2302.

Great, 2302.

Horn-Billed, 2308.

Little, 2307.

Parrot, 2308.

pygmy» 2308.

True, 2303.
Tufted, 2308.
Avocets, 2255.

Baleeniceps, 2067.
Balcenicipiiidte, 2067.
Balearica, 2235.
Bambusicola, 2183.
Batrachostomus, 1849.
Baza, 1957.
Bee-Eaters, 1817.

Bearded, 1820.

Celebean, 1820.

Square-Tailed, 1818.

Swallow-Tailed, 1818.

True, 1819.
Berenicornis, 1831.
Bernicla, 2091;.
Birds of Prey, 1938.
Bitterns, 2063.
Biziura, 2123.
Black Game, 2166.
Blood Pheasants, 2184.
Boat Bill, 2067.
Boatswain, 2051.
Bolborhynchusy 1883.
Bonasa, 2173.
Booby, 2047.

Brachyrhamphus, 2307.
Bromvogel, 1827.
Brotogerys, 1884.
Brush Turkeys, 2207.

Bubo, 1929.
Bubonidce, 1908.
Buceros, 1827.
Bucerotidce, 1825.
Biicorax, 1826.
Budgerigar, 1899.
Bulrueria, 2297.
Busarellus, 1997.
Bush Quail, 2179.
Bustard Quails, 2212.
Bustards, 2220.

Little, 2222.

Long-Beaked, 2223.

Macqueen's, 2225.

Ruffed, 2225.

True, 2220.
Butastur, 1976.
Buteo, 1997.
Btiteogallus, 1997.
Buzzard Eagles, 1976.
Buzzards, 1997.

Common, 1998.

Desert, 1999.

Honey, 1958.

Rough-Legged, 2000.

Swainson's, 2000.
Bycanistes, 1827.

Cacatua, 1870.

a#w, 1871.

citrino-cristatus, 1870.

ducorpsi, 1871.

galerita, 1870.

leadbeateri, 1870.

moluccensis, 1871.

roseicapilla, 1872.

sanguinea, 1872.
Cacatuidce, 1864.
Caccabis, 2176.
Cairina, 2116.
Calcenas, 2152.
Cali dr is, 2262.
Callipepla, 2203.
Callocephalum, 1870.
Callopsittacus, 1873.
Calodromtts, 2323.
Caloperdix, 2180.
CalyptorJiyncftus, 1869.
Camptolcemus, 2121.
Canachites, 2170.
Canchroma, 2067.
Capercaillie, 2168.
Caprimulgidce, 1804.

(2349)

2350

INDEX

Caprimulgus, 1805.
Caracaras, 2010.

Brazilian, 2010.

Falkland, 2011.
Carancha, 2010.
Cariama, 2228.
Cariamidee, 2228.
Carinatce, 2326.
Carine, 1918.
Carpococcyx, 1773.
Carpophaga, 2134.
Cassowaries, 2334.
CasuariidcP., 2334.
Casuarius, 2334.
Catkarista, 2034.
Cathartes, 2033.
Cathartidce, 2028.
Catheturuslathami, 2207.
Catreus, 2192.
Centrocercus, 2171.
Centropus, 1772.
Cereopsis, 2091.
Cerorhyncha, 2308.
Ceryle, 1835, 1836.
Cetupa, 1933.
Ceuthmochares, 1772.
Ceycopsis, 1840.
Ceyx, 1840.
Chcetura, 1802.
Chaja, 2128.
Chalcococcyx, 1768.
Chalcopelia, 2149.
Ckalcophaps, 2149.
Chalcopsittacus, 1860.
Chalcopfera, 2149.
Chamcepetes, 2211.
Charadriidoe, 2245.
Charadrius, 2247.
C/iauna, 2128.
Chenalopex, 2099.
Chimachima, 2011.
Chimango, 2012.
Chionididce, 2275.
C/n'onis, 2275.
Chryscenas, 2133.
CJirysococcyx, 1768.
Chrysolophus, 2194.
Chrysotis, 1885.
Chunga, 2330.
Ciconia, 2072.
Ciconiider, 2071.
Circaetus, 1976.
Circus, 2007.
Clangula, 2117.
Cloephaga, 2098.
Cnemiornis, 2092.
Coccyzus, 1769.

americanus, 1769.

erythrophtlialmus, 1769.
Cockateel, 1873.
Cockatoos, 1864.

Banksian, 1869.

Black, 1866.

Blood-Stained, 1872.

Ducorps', 1871.

Funereal, 1869.

Ganga, 1870.

Leadbeater's, 1870.

Raven, 1868.

Cockatoos — continued.

Slender-Billed, 1873.

Sulphur-Crested, 1870.

Typical, 1870.
Coccystes, 1764.

coromandus, 1764.

glandarius, 1765.
jacobinus, 1765.
Cohes, 1783.
Colitdce, 1783.
Coitus, 1783.
Collocalia, 1802.
Columba, 2136.
Cohimbce, 2129.
ColumbidcE, 2136.
Columbula, 2146.
Colymbidce, 2310.
Colymbus, 2310.
Condor, 2028.
Conures, 1879.
Conuropsis, 1879.
Conurus, 1879.
Coots, 2217.
Coraci'as, 1845.
Coraciidce, 1844.
Coracopsis, 1889.
Corcthrura, 2215.
Cormorants, 2040.
Corncrake, 2215.
Coryphcenas, 2140.
Corytktzola, 1777.
Corythornis, 1835, 1839.
Cosmetornis, 1808.
Cosmonetta, 2118.
Cotton Teal, 2105.
Coturnix, 2182.
Co«<z, 1772.
Coucals, 1771.
Courlans, 2236.
Coursers, 2242.

Black-Backed, 2244.

Cream-Colored, 2242.
Cracid(E, 2208.
Crax, 2210.
Cranes, 2231.

Common, 2232.

Crowned, 2235.

Sarus, 2234.

True, 2232.

White, 2234.
Crex, 2215-.
Crocopus, 2131.
Crossoptilum, 2188.
Crotophaga, 1775.

«»«, r775-

major, 1775.

sulcirostris, 1775.
Crvpturi, 2322.
Crypturus, 2323.
Cuckoos, 1763.

American, 1769.

Bronze, 1768.

Bush, 1772.

Common, 1766.

Crested, 1765.

Golden, 1768.

Ground, 1773.

Guira, 1774.

Hawk, 1765.

Cuckoos — continued.

Pheasant, 1773.

Rain, 1772.

Savana, 1774.

Spotted, 1765.

True, 1765.
Cuculidce, 1763.
Cuculus, 1765.

canorus, 1766.

clamosus, 1766.

gularis, 1765.

intermedius. 1766.

micropterus, 1766.

solitarius, 1765.

sonnerati, 1765.
Curassows, 2208.

Pauxi, 2210.
Curlews, 2259.
Cursoriida, 2240.
Cursorius, 2242.
Cyanorhamphus, 1899.
Cyclopsittacidcz, 1863.
Cyclopsittacus, 1864.
Cygnus, 2100.
Cymochorhea, 2300.
Cymodroma, 2300.
Cypselidce, 1798.
Cyrtonyx, 2204.

Dacelo, 1840.
Dafila, 2112.
Daption, 2297.
Darters, 2043.
Dasyptertis, 1889.
Dendragaptis, 2170.
Dendrocygna, 2105.
Dendrortyx, 2203.
Deroptyus, 1886.
Diatryma, 2326.
Dichoceros, 1828.
Dichrocercus, 1818.

furcatus, 1818.

Jitrundincus, 1818.
Dididcz, 2155.
Didunculidce, 2154.
Didttnculus, 2154.
Didus, 2155.
Dinornithidcz, 2344.
Dinornis, 2345.
Diomedea, 2290.
Diomcdeidce, 2290.
Diplogena, 1790.
Dissura, 2074-
Divers, 2310.
Diving Birds, 2301.
Docimastes, 1792.
Dodo, 2155.
Dormibu, 1810.
Dotterels, 2249.
Doves, 2136.

African Ground, 2149.

Australian Ground, 2150.

Blood-Breasted, 2148.

Bronze- Winged, 2149.

Cape, 2149.

Cinnamon, 2146

Crested Bronze Wing,2i5i.

Cuban, 2149.

Harlequin, 2150.

INDEX

Doves — contin tied.

Mourning, 2142.

Penciled, 2151.

Plumed Bronze Wing, 2151,

Rock, 21 -56.

Stock, 2138.

Turtle, 2143.

White- Winged, 2143.

Wonga Wonga, 2148.
Drepanoptila, 2133.
Dromceus, 2238.
Dromornis, 2340.
Ducks, 2088.

Braminy, 2108.

Buffelhead, 2117.

Comb, 2104.

Dusky, 21 10.

Eider, 2119.

Golden Eye, 2117.

Harlequin, 2118.

Labrador, 2121.

Long-Tailed, 2118.

Mandarin, 2115.

Musk, 2123.

Pintailed, 2112.

Scaup, 2116.

Scoter, 21 21.

Shoveller, 2111.

Steamer, 2123.

Stiff-Tailed, 2122.

Summer, 2115.

Tree, 2105.

True, 2109.

Wild, 2109.

Wood, 2115.

Eagles, 1957.

African Crested, 1979.

Bald, 1968.

Bateleur, 1974.

Booted, 1985.

Buzzard, 1997.

Crested, 1980.

Golden, 1987.

Harpy, 1995.

Harrier, 1976.

Hawk, 1982.

Imperial, 1991.

Sea, 1968.

Serpent, 1978.

Spotted, 1993.

Tawny, 1995.

True, 1986.

Vulturine, 1995.

Wahlberg's, 1995.

Wedge-Tailed, 1995.
Eclectus, 1891.
Ectopistes, 2140.
Egret, 2060.
Eiders, 2119.
Elanoides, 1965.
Elanus, 1959.
Emeus, 2337.
Emeus, 2345.
Eos, 1860.
Ereunetes, 2264.
Erismatura, 2122.
Eudromias, 2247.
Budynamis,

Eudyptes, 2318.
Eudyptula, 2318.
Eugenes, 1793.
Etilipoa, 2206.
Eumomota, 1816.
Eupodotis, 2223.
Eupsychortyx, 2204.
Euptilotis, 1780.
Eurhinorhynchus, 2266.
Eurypyga, 2237.
Eurypygidce, 2237.
Eiirystomtis, 1845.
Eutoxeres, 1791.
Eutrygon, 2148.
Excalfatoria, 2183.

Falcipennis, 2170.
Falcinellus, 2083.
Falco, 1940.
Falconets, 1954.
Falconidce, 1939.
Falcons, 1940.

Barbary, 1944.

Black-Cheeked, 1946.

Crested, 1957.

Cuckoo, 1957.

Greenland, 1940.

Iceland, 1942.

Laggar, 1944.

Lanner, 1944.

Mississippi, 1956.

Norway, 1942.

Peregrine, 1944.

Pygmy, 1954.

Red-Capped, 1944.

Saker, 1942.

Shahin, 1946.

Tawny- Headed, 1948.

True, 1940.

Turumti, 1948.
Finfeet, 2218.
Fish Eagles, 1937.
Fish Owls, 1933, 1934.
Flamingoes, 2085.
Florican, 2225.
Flightless Birds, 2322, 2325.
Francolins, 2177.
Francolinus, 2177-
Fratercula, 2309.
Fregatida, 2050.
Fregatus, 2050.
Frigate Birds, 2050.
Frogmouths, 1848.

Eared, 1849.

Owlet, 1850.

Typical, 1849.
Fulica, 2217.
Fulicariiz, 2213.
Fuligula, 2122.
Fulmarus, 2294.

Gadwall, 2110.
Gallicrex, 2217.
Gallince, 2160.
Gallinula, 2217.
Gallinules, 2217.
Galloperdix, 2184.
Gallus, 2195.
Game Birds, 2160.

Game Fowls, 2195.
Gannets, 2045.
Garefowl, 2302.
Gastornithidce, 2326.
Gastornis, 2326.
Gavice, 2276.
Geese, 2089.

Bernicle, 2096.

Brent, 2095.

Cape Barren, 2092.

Cereopsis, 2091.

Egyptian, 2099.

Half -Webbed, 2091.

Knob-Winged, 2099

New Zealand, 2092.

Sea, 2095.

Spur-Winged, 2090.

True, 2092.

Upland, 2098.
Gennceus, 2190.
Geobiastes, 1844.
Geococcyx, 1773.
Geophaps, 2151.
Geopsittacus, 1900.
Geotrygon, 2147.
Gerfalcons, 1940.
Geronticus, 2082.
Glareola, 2240.
Glaucidium, 1918.
Glead, 1961.
Globicera, 2133.
Godwits, 2263.
Goosander, 2133.
Goshawks, 2003.
Goura, 2153.
Gouridce, 2153.
Grebes, 2313.

Thick-Billed, 2315.

Typical, 2313.
Grouse, 2161.

American, 2170.

Canadian, 2170.

Dusky, 2170.

Franklin's, 2170.

Red, 2164.

Ruffed, 2173.

Sage, 2171.

Sharp-Tailed, 2173.

Sharp-Winged, 2170.

True, 2162.

Willow, 2164.
Gruidce, 2231.
Grus, 2232.
Guacharo, 1853.
Guans, 2211.
Guillemots, 2305.

Short-Billed, 2307.
Guinea Fowls, 2199.

Vulture-like, 2202.
Guira, 1774.
Gulls, 2276, 2281.

Fork-Tailed, 2281.

Ivory, 2286.

Kittiwake, 2285.

Ross's, 2281.

Typical, 2282.
Guttera, 2201.
Gymnopelia, 2146.
Gymnopfiaps, 2136.

2352

INDEX

Gypaetus, 2014.
Gyps, 2019.
Gypohierax, 1966.

Hcematopus, 2257.
Halcyon, 1843.

erythrogaster, 1843.

pallidiventris , 1843.

semiccerulea, 1843.

smyrnensis, 1843.
Haley ornis, 2278.
Haliaetus, 1968.

albicilla, 1968.

branicki, 1968.

leucocephalus, 1968.

leucogaster, 1970.

leucophaeus, 1970.

pelagicus, 1968.

•vocifer, 1971.

vocifer oid.es, 1971.
Haliastur, 1966.
Halocypetna, 2300.
Hammerhead, 2069.
Hapalarpactes 1778.
Hapaloderma, 1778, 1781.

constantia, 1782.

narina, 1781.

•vittatum, 1782.
Haplopelia, 2146.
Harelda, 2118.
Harpactes, 1782.
Harpagornis, 1995.
Harpagus, 1957.
Harpy kalia£tus, 1996.
Harrier Eagles, 1976.
Harriers, 2007.

American, 2008.

Hen, 2007.

Pale-Chested, 2009.

Montagu's, 2009.

Marsh, 2009.

Ringtail, 2007.
Hawks, 2001.

Besra, 2003.

Duck, 1946.

Cooper's, 2003.

Harrier, 2005.

Many-Zoned, 2005.

Marsh, 2009.

Naked-Cheeked, 2009.

Pigeon, 1949.

Sharp-Shinned, 2003.

Sparrow, 2001 .

Whistling, 2005.
Hawk Tribe, 1939.
Hazel Hens, 2173.
Heliactin, 1797.
Heliornithldce, 2218.
Helotarsus, 1974.
Hemiphaga, 2133, 2135.
Hemipodes, 2212.
Henicognathus, 1881.
Herodiones, 2053.
Herons, 2054.

Boat-Billed, 2067.

Night, 2062.

True, 2055.

White, 2059.
Hesperornis, 2346.

Heterodactyli ', 1778.
Heteroglaux, 1923.
'Hierax, 1954.
Hierococcyx, 1765.
Himantopus, 2254.
Histriophaps, 2150.
Hoatzin, 2211.
Hobby, 1949.
Hoopoes, 1821.

Wood, 1823.
Homopelia, 2143, 21415.
Honey Buzzard, 1958.
Hoplopterus, 2253.
Hornbills, 1825.

Ground, 1826.

Pied, 1829.

Rhinoceros, 1827.

Solid-Billed, 1832.

Trumpeter, 1827.

Wedge Tailed, 1831.
Hubara, 2225.
Humming Birds, 1784.

Coquette, 1798.

Double-Crested, 1797.

Fork-Tailed, 1790.

Giant, 1795.

Hermit, 1791.

Hill-Star, 1794.

Jamaican, 1789.

King, 1794.

Racket-Tailed, 1796.

Rivoli, 1793.

Saw-Beaked, 1788.

Smooth-Beaked, 1791.

Sword-Bill, 1792.

White-Crowned, 1790.
Hydrochelidon, 2279.
Hydrophasianus, 2274.
Hydropsalis, 1808.
Hydrornis, 2290.
Hvetornis, i772-
Hylomanes, 1814.

Ibidorhynchus, 2258.
Ibis, 2081.
Ibises, 2081.

Shell, 2078.
Ibycter, 2011.
Ichthy ornis, 2346.
Ictinia, 1956.
Impennes, 2316.
Irrisor, 1823.
Irrisoridie, 1823.
Ispidina, 1840.
Ithagenes, 2184.

Jabirus, 2074.
Jacanas, 2273.
Jungle Fowl, 2196.

Kagus, 2236.
Kaka, 1857.
Kalij, 2190.
Kea, 1857.
Kestrels, 1951.
Kingfishers, 1833.

Hook-Billed, 1842.

Insectivorous, 1840.

Laughing, 1840.

Kingfishers — continued.

Long-Tailed, 1843.

Pied, 1836.

Stork-Billed, 1835.

Three-Toed, 1840.

Typical, 1838.

Wood, 1842.
Kiroumbos, 1847.
Kites, 1959.

Black-Winged, 1959.

Govind, 1964.

Swallow-Tailed, 1965.

True, 1961.
Kittiwakes, 2285.
Kiwis, 2341.
Knot, 2265.
Koels, 1769.
Koklass, 2190.

Lagopus, 2162.
Lammergeiers, 2014.
Lamprotreron, 2133.
Lapwings, 2250.

Egyptian, 2253.

Four-Toed, 2251.

Three-Toed, 2253.

Wattled, 2254.
Larus, 2282.
Leptoptila, 2147.
Leptoptilus, 2076.
Lepiosoma, 1847.
I^eptosomatidce, 1847.
Leriva, 2175.
Lesbia, 1790, 1796.
Leucosarcia, 2148.
Leucotreron, 2132.
Lichmetis, 1873.
Limicolce, 2301.
I^imosa, 2263.
Lizard-Tailed Birds, 2347.
I*obivanellus, 2254.
Lobiophasis, 2188.
Loddigesia, 1796.
Lophoaetus, 1979.
Lophoceros, 1827, 1832.
Lophogyps, 2023.
Lopkophaps, 2151.
Lophophorus, 2186.
Lopliornis, 1798.
Lophortyx, 2203.
Lophurarufa, 2188.
Loriculus, 1895.
Lories, 1860.
Loriidce, 1860.
Loriquets, 1860.
Lorius, 1860.
Love Birds, 1893.
Lyrurus, 2166.

Macaws, 1876.

Blue and Yellow, 1878.

Hyacinthine, 1876.

Military, 1878.

Red and Blue, 1878.

Spix's, 1878.

True, 1878.
Machetes, 2263.
Macrodipteryx, 1807.
Macropteryx, 1803.

INDEX

2353

Macropygia, 2139.
Afajaquctts, 2296.
Afaleo, 2207.
Malkohas, 1772.
Mallard, 2109.
Mareca, 2115.
Afargaroperdix, 2179.
Martineta, 2323.
Afegacephalum, 2207.
Megapodes, 2205.
Megapodiidce, 2204.
Megapodius, 2205.
Melanoperdix, 2181.
Meleagris, 2202.
Melidora, 1842.
Afelierax, 2005.
Melittophagus, 1818.

albifrons, 1818.

pusillus, 1818.

svjinhoei, 1818.
Melopelia, 2143.
Melopsittacus, 1899.
Mergansers, 2123.
Afergulus, 2307.
Afergus, 2123.
Merlin, 1949.
Afrropidce, 1817.
Me >• ops, 1819.

apiaster, 1819.

bicolor, 1819.

brei'eri, 1819.

cyanophrys, 1819.

mtiscafensis, 1819.

ornatus, 1819.

persicus, 1819.

philippinus, 1819.

sumatranus, 1819.

viridis, 1819.
Afesites, 2237.
Mesopogon, 1820.
Alicrastur, 2005.
Aficrochera, 179°-
Microglossus, 1866.
Aficroperdix, 2180.
Micropodidce, 1798.
Micropus, 1799.

africanus, 1799.

aptts, 1800.

melba, 1799.

miirinus, 1800.
Afilrus, 1961.

cegyptius, 1963.

govinda, 1964.

ictinus, 1961.

melanotis, 1964.

mi grans, 1962.
Mituas, 2210.
Moas, 2344.
Afotnotidaz, 1814.
Afomotus, 1814.
Monals, 2186.
Moor Buzzard, 2009.
Aforococcyx, 1773.
Aforp/inus, 1996.
Motmots, 1814.

Broad-Beaked, 1816.

True, 1814.
MiisophagidfE, 1775-
Mycteria, 2074.

Afyioceyx, 1840.
Myopsittacus, 1883.
Afyristicivora, 2135.

N anodes, 1899.
Nasiterna, 1875.
Nauclerus, 1966.
Neomorphus, 1773.
Neophema, 1898.
Neophron, 2023.
Neopsittaciis, 1863.
Nesopelia, 2143.
Nestor, 1857.
Nestoridcz, 1857.
Nettapus, 2105.
Night Herons, 2062.
Nightjars, 1804.

Fork-Tailed, 1808.

Leona, 1807.

Nacunda, 1809.

Standard-Winged, 1808.

True, 1805.

Wood, 1810.
Ninox, 1920.
Nippenoa, 2081.
Nisaetus, 1984.
Noddies, 2280.
Notkocrax, 2210.
Nothura, 2323.
Notornis, 2217.
Numenius, 2259.
Numida, 200 1.
Nyctala, 1908.
Nyctea, 1926.
Nyrtibius, 1811.
Nycticorax, 2062.
Nyctiornis, 1818, 1820.
Nymphicus, 1899.

Ocean ites, 2300.
Oceanodroma, 2300.
Ocydromus, 2215.
Ocyphaps, 2151.
Odontoglossi, 2085.
Odontornithes, 2346.
(Edemia, 2121. •
(Edicnemidce, 2226.
(Edicnemus, 2226.
(Estrelata, 2297.
Oilbird, 1853.
Ophrysia, 2184.
Opisthocom us, 2211.
Oreophasis, 2210.
Oreopsittacus, 1863.
Oreorfyx, 2203.
OreotrocJiilus, 1794.

adelte, 1795.

chimborazo, 1795.

estellce, 1795.

leucopletirus, 1795-

melanogaster, 1795.

pichinc/ia, 1795-
Ortholophus, 1831.
Ortyx, 2204.
Osmotreron, 2132.
Osprey, 1934.
Ossifraga, 2293
Ostriches, 2327.

American, 2331.

Otididce, 2220.
Otidiphaps, 2148.

O//J, 2220.

Otogyps, 2 02 1.
Owlets, 1919, 1922.
Owl Parrot, 1901.
Owls, 1904.

Acadian, 1908.

Barn, 1906.

Barred, 1913.

Brown, 1910.

Burrowing, 1921.

Eagle, 1929.

Eared, 1915.

Fish, 1933, 1934.

Grass, 1908.

Great Gray, 1911.

Hawk, 1920, 1924.

Lapp, 1911.

Little, 1922.

Long-Eared, 1917.

Mottled Wood, 1914.

Pygmy, 1918.

Scops, 1929.

Screech, 1928.

Short-Eared, 1915.

Snowy, 1926.

Tawny, 1910.

Tengmalm's, 1908.

Ural, 1913.

Wood, 1910.
Oyster Catchers, 2257.

Pachyornis, 2345.
Pceoce.phalus, 1887.
Pagodroma, 2296.
Painted Snipe, 2266.
Palcelodus, 2088.
Palceornis, 1891.
Palamedea, 2127
Palamedetz, 2126.
Palamedeidcz, 2126.
Pandion, 1934.
Pandiones, 1934.
Pandionidce, 1934.
Panyptila, 1802.
Parraquets, 1881, 1889.

All-Green, 1884.

Blossom-Headed, 1892.

Crested, 1899.

Grass, 1898.

Gray-Breasted, 1883.

Ground, 1900.

Ring-Necked, 1891.

Slight-Billed, 1881.

True, 1891.

Uvaean, 1899.
Parra, 2273.
Parridtz, 2273.
Parrotlets, 1883.
Parrots, 1855.

Amazon, 1885.

Arfak, 1863.

Blunt-Tailed, 1884.

Brown- Headed, 1887.

Broadtail, 1896, 1897.

Budgerigar, 1899.

Eclectus, 1891.

Gray, 1888.

2354

INDEX

Parrots — continued.
Green, 1887.
Hanging, 1895.
Hawk-Billed, 1886.
Iris, 1863.
Jardine's, 1887.
Kaka, 1857.
Kakapo, 1901.
Kea, 1857.
Levaillant's, 1887.
Nestor, 1857.
New Guinea Black, 1889.
Norfolk Island, 1858.
Owl, 1901.

Pygmy > 1874.

Phillip Island, 1858.

Sharp-Tailed, 1875.

Short-Tailed, 1887.

Typical, 1874.

Vasa, 1889.
Partridges, 2173.

American, 2203.

Bonham's, 2177.

Madagascar, 2179.

Mountain, 2203.

Red-Legged, 2176.

Scaled, 2203.

Snow, 2175.

Tree, 2180.

True, 2179.

Wood, 2180.
atagona, 1795.
Pauxis, 2210.
Pavo, 2198.

Peacock Pheasants, 2196.
Peafowl, 2198.
Pedicula, 2179.
Pedioccetes, 2173.
Pedionomus, 2212.
Pclargopsis, 1836.
Pelecanidce, 2048.
Pelecanoides, 2300.
Pelecanus, 2049.
Pelicans, 2048.
Penelope, 221 1.
Penelopides, 1827.
Penguins, 2316.
Perdix, 2179.
Peristeridee, 2142.
Pernis, 1958.
Petrels, 2293.

Bulwer's, 2297.

Cape, 2297.

Capped, 2297.

Diving, 2300.

Dove, 2298.

Fork-Tailed, 2300.

Fulmar, 2294.

Giant, 2293.

Leach's, 2300.

Silver-Gray, 2296.

Snowy, 2296.

Storm, 2298.

Wedge -Tailed, 2300.

White-Bellied, 2300.

Wilson's, 2300.
Petrophassa, 2151.
Pezophaps, 2156.
Pczoporus, 1900.

Phabotreron, 2132.
Pketnicopterida^ 2085.
Phaenicopterus, 2086.
Phaethon, 2051.
Phaethontidce, 205 1 .
Phaethornis, 1792.
PhalacrocoracidcE, 2040.
Phalacrocorax, 2041.
Phalaropes, 2260.
Phalaropus, 2261.
Phaps, 2149.
Pharomacrus, 1778.
Pktuianidcf, 2173.
Phasianus, 2192.
P has id us, 2199.
Pheasants, 2188.

Amherst's, 2194.

Argus, 2196.

Blood, 2184.

Bulwer's, 2188.

Chir, 2192.

Eared, 2188.

Firebacked, 2188.

Golden, 2194.

Kalij, 2190.

Koklass, 2190.

Peacock, 2196.

Swinhoe's, 2190.

True, 2192.
Phcgornis, 2266.
Pfttlortyx, 2204.
Phcenicophceince, 1772.
Phlogcenas, 2147.
Phororhachido!, 2326.
Phororhachis, 2326.
Pigeons, 2129.

Crowned, 2153.

Cuckoo, 2139.

Fruit, 2133. •

Galapagos, 2143.

Green, 2130.

Ground, 2142.

Long-Tailed, 2139.

Nicobar, 2152.

Nutmeg, 2134.

Painted, 2132.

Passenger, 2140.

Tooth-Billed, 2154.

Walia, 2131.

Wart, 2133.

Wedge-Tailed, 2130.
Plantain Eaters, 1775.

Crimson- Winged, 1776-

Giant, 1777.
Platalea, 2084.
PlataleidfCi 2080.
Platvcercus, 1896.
Plectropterus, 2089.
Plot us, 2043.
Plovers, 2239, 2245.

Golden, 2248.

Kentish, 2247.

Ringed, 2245.

Sand, 2247.

True, 2247.
Pluvianus, 2239.
Pochards, 2116.
Podager, 1809.
PodargidcE, 1848.

Podargus, 1849.
Podica, 2218.
Podicipedidce, 2313.
Podicipes, 2313.
Podilymbus, 2315.
Polioaetus, 1937.
Polyboroides, 2009.
Polyborus, 2010.
Poly plectrum, 2196.
Porphyrio, 2217.
Prairie Hens, 2170.
Pratincoles, 2240.
Prionotelus, 1780.
Prion, 2298.
Procellaria, 2298.
Procellariidce, 2293.
Pseudogyps, 2021.
Pseudotantalus, ^079.
Psittaci, 1855.
Psittacidce, 1874.
Psittacula, 1883.
Psittacus, 1887.
Psophia, 2330.
Psophiid(z, 2330.
Ptarmigan, 2162.
Pternistes, 2179.
Pier odes, 2157.
Pteroclidce, 2156.
Pteroclurus, 2159.
Ptilopachvs, 2183.
Ptilopus, 2132.
Pucrasia, 2191.
Puffins, 2309.
Puffinus, 2296.
Pygopodes, 2301.
Pygoscelis, 2318.

Quails, 2181.

American, 2203.

Californian, 2203.
Qtierquedula, 2113.
Qj.iezal, 1778.

Rails, 2213.

Carolina, 2215.

Pygmy, 2215.

True, 2213.

Weka, 2215.
Rallus, 2213.
Ratitce, 2326.
Razorbill, 2304.
Recurvirostra, 2255.
Reeves, 2263.
Reinhardius, 2198.
Reimvardtcenas, 2139.
Rhea, 2331.
Rlieidce, 2331.
Rhinocftcetidce, 2236.
RhinochcKtus, 2236.
Rhinogryphus, 2036.
Rhinoplax, 1832.
RTiodostethia, 2281.
Rhopodytes, 1772.
Rhynchcea, 2266.
Rhynchops, 2281.
Rhvnchotus, 2323.
Rissa, 2285.
Road Runner, 1773.
Rollers, 1844.

INDEX

2355

Rollers — continued ' .

Broad-Billed, 1845.

True, 1845.
Rollulus, 2l8o.
Rotche, 2307.
Ruffs, 2262.

Sanderling, 2266.
Sand Grouse, 2156.

Black-Bellied, 2157.

Common, 2159.

Pallas's, 2157.

Pin-Tailed, 2159.
Sandpipers, 2261.

Cleft-Footed, 2265.

Hard-Billed, 2262.

Snipe-Beaked, 2464.
Sappho, 1790.
Sarcidiornis, 2104.
Sarciophorus, 2454.
Sarcorhampus, 2028.
Saururte, 2347.
Saurothera, 1772.
Scolopax, 2268.
Scopidce, 2069.
Scopus, 2069.
Scops, 1929.
Scoters, 2121.
Scotopelia, 1933.
Scotornis, 1808.
Screamers, 2126.
Sea Eagles, 1968.

Vulturine, 1966.
Secretary Vulture, 2025.
Seed Snipe, 2275.
Seriemas, 2228.
Serpentariidaj, 2025.
Serpentarius, 2025.
Serresius, 2134.
Shearwaters, 2296.
Sheath Bills, 2275.
Sheldrakes, 2106. v

Common, 2107.

Ruddy, 2108.
Siinorhynchus, 2308.
Skimmers, 2281.
Skuas, 2287.
Snake Birds, 2043.
Snipe, 2267.

Aberrant, 2270.

Painted, 2266.

Seed, 2275.

Typical, 2270.
Snow Cocks, 2175.
Snow Partridges, 2175.
Solitaire, 2156.
Somateria, 2119.
Son-of-the-Sun, 20151.
Sparrow Hawks, 2001.
Spatula, 2ii I.
Speotito, 1921.
Spheniscidce, 2317.
Spheniscus, 2318.
Sphcnocercus, 2130.
Spilopelia, 2143, 2145.
Spilornis, 1978.
Spizaetus, 1980.
. Spoonbills, 2084.
Spur Fowl, 2183.

Steatornithidce, 1853.
Steatornis, 1853.
Steganopodes, 2039.
Stercorariidce, 2287.
Stercorarius, 2287.
Stereornithes, 2325.
Sterna, 2280.
Stigmatopelia, 2143, 2145.
Stilts, 2254.
Storks, 2071.

Adjutant, 2076.

Black, 2073.

Giant, 2074.

Maguari, 2074.

Marabou, 2076.

Shell, 2078.

True, 2071.

White, 2072.

White-Bellied, 2074.

Wood, 2078.
Strepsilas, 2265.
Streptopelia, 2144, 2145.
Striges, 1904.
Strigidce, 1906.
Stringopidce, 1901.
Stringops, 1901.
Strix, 1906.
Struthio, 2329.
Struthionidce, 2327.
Starn&nas, 2149.
Sula, 2045.
Sun Bittern, 2237.
Surnia, 1925.
Swans, 2100.

American, 2102.

Bewick's, 2102.

Black, 2104.

Black-Necked, 2104.

Fossil, 2104.

Mute, 2102.

Whistling, 2101.
Swifts, 1798.

Alpine, 1799.

Common, 1800.

Edible, 1802.

Feather-Toed, 1802.

Pied, 1801.

Salvin's, 1802.

Tree, 1803.

True, 1799.
Svncecus, 2182.
Svpkeotides, 2225.
Syrnium, 1910.

aluco, 1910.

cinereum, 1911.

fuscescens, 1913.

indiani, 1914.

lapponicum, 1911.

leptogrammicum, 1914.

nebulosum, 1913.

neivarense, 1915.

ocellatum, 1913.

uralense, 1913.
Svrrhaptes, 2157.

Tacky eres, 2123.
Tadorna, 2106.
Tallegallus, 2207.
Tantalus, 2078.

Tanysiptera, 1843.
Teal, 2113.

Cotton, 2105.

Whistling, 2105.
Terns, 2279.
Teru-Teru, 2251.
Tetrao, 2168.
Tetrogallus, 2175.
Tetraonidce, 2161.
Tetraophasis, 2175.
Tetrapteryx, 2235.
Tetrastes, 2173.
Thalassoica, 2296.
Thicknees, 2226.
7 hinocoridcz, 2275.-
Thinocorus, 2275.
Thrysaetus, 1996.
Tiiiamotis, 2324.
Tinamus, 2322.
Tihamus, 2323.
Tmetotrogon, 1780.
Todidce, 1812.
Todies, 1812.
Todus, 1812.
Toothed Birds, 2346.
Topaz a, 1784.
Totanus, 2262.
Tragopan, 2185.
Treron, 2132.
Treronidce, 2130.
Tribonyx, 2216.
Trichoglossus, 1862.
Tringa, 2265.
Trochilidce, 1784*
Trocftilus, 1793-
Trogon, 1778, 1780.
Trogonidce, 1778.
Trogons, 1778.

African, 1781.

Indian, 1782.

Long-Tailed, 1778.

Narina, 1781.

True, 1780.
Tropic Birds, 2051.
Trumpeter Hornbills, 1827.
Trumpeters, 2230.
Tube-Nosed Birds, 2289.
Tubinares, 2289.
Turacanas, 2139.
Turacus, 1776.
Turkeys, 2202.
Turnicidce, 2212.
Turnix, 2212.
Turnstones, 2265.
Turquoisine, 1898.
Turtur, 2143.
Tympanistria, 2149.
Tympanuchus, 2170.

Upupa, 1821.

epops, 1821.

indica, 1821.
Upupidce, 1821.
£/™Vz, 2305.
Uroaetus, 1995.
Urobitinga, 1997.
Urospizias, 2001.

Vancllus, 2250.

2356

INDEX

Vinago, 2131.
Vultur, 2016.
Vultures, 2013.

Abyssinian, 2023.

American, 2028.

American Black, 2034.

Black, 2016.

Californian, 2037.

Cinereous, 2017.

Condor, 2028.

Eared, 2021.

Egyptian, 2023.

Griffon, 2019

Vultures — continued.

King, 2033.

Pileated, 2025.

Pondicherry, 2022.

Secretary, 2025.

Turkey, 2035.

White-Backed, 2021.
ViilturidcE, 2013.
Vulturine Sea Eagle, 19^6.

Water Hens, 2216.
Water Pheasants, 2274.
Whale-Headed Stork, 2067.

Whimbrels, 2259.
Whip-Poor-Will, 1807.
Windhover, 1951.
Wigeon, 2116.
Woodcock, 2267, 2268.
Wood Hoopoes, 1X23.

Xema, 2281.
Xenorhynchus, 2074.

Zenaida, 2142.
Zenaidura, 2142.

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