A. > HSggfeU;£83riSSS« TYPICAL BUTTERFLIES. A. Orange Scallop Wine, Cethosia **'*/« (male). B. Royal Swallowtail, Tinopalpus imperialis (male) C Black tinned Sulphur, Dercas verhuelli. D. Swinhoe's Tortoiseshell, Junonia swinhoei. E. Common Blue, Lyccena 'alexis (male! F. Mango Admiral, Euthalia lubentina. G. Silver-studded Skipper, Hesperia comma. H. Sooty-veined Porcelain thyodamas. I. Duke of Burgundy, Nemeobius lucina. J. Harris's Snowflake, Euplcea harrisii (female) THE NEW NATURAL HISTORY By RICHARD LYDEKKER, B.A., F.G.S., RZ.S. and R. BOWDLER SHARPE, H. A. JVUcPHERSON, F. O. PICKARD-CAM- BRIDGE, W. R. OGILVIE GRANT, C. J. GAHAN, F. A. BATHER, EDGAR A. SMITH, R. I. POCOCK, M. BERNARD, H. BERNARD AND R. KIRKPATRICK. With Introductions by ERNEST SETON-THOMPSON NATURALIST AND ARTIST, AUTHOR OF " WILD ANIMALS I HAVE KNOWN," ETC, JOEL A. ALLEN CURATOR OF AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY Illustrated with SEVENTY-TWO COLORED PLATES AND TWENTY-ONE HUNDRED ENGRAVINGS VOLUME VL NEW YORK MERRILL & BAKER PUBLISHERS L COPYRIGHT, 1901, BY THE SAALFIELD PUBLISHING COMPANY CONTENTS INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS CHAPTER I. — THE JOINTED ANIMALS, — Subkingdom A rthropoda; THE INSECTS, — Class Insecta; ANTS, BEES, WASPS, etc., — Order Hymenoptera. PAC DISTINCTION BETWEEN VERTEBRATES AND INVERTEBRATES — Special Characteristics of Arthropods — Distinctive Characteristics of Insects — Geological Age of Insects — Other Features — Mimicry — Characteristics of Hymenoptera — Development — Classification — The Sawfly Group (Suborder Sessiliventres) — Stem Sawflies ( Cephidce} — Tailed Wasps (Siricidce) — True Sawfiies ( Tenthredinidcz} — Typical Group (Suborder Petiolata) — Gall Wasps (Cynipidce} — Proctotrypidce — Chalcid- idce — Ichneumon Wasps (Ichneumon idee} — Braconidce — Other Families — The Ants (Formicidcz) — Mutillidce, etc. — Bembicidce — Pompilidce — Sphegidaz — Crabronid. . . 3496 Section through a Coral Reef, . . 3497 Diagram Explaining Theory of Subsi- dence, ..... 3499 Outline of the Island of Aiva, . . 3499 Mouths of Madrepore, . . . 3500 Bread-Crumb Sponge, Showing Currents, 3501 Flagellated Chambers of Sponges, . 3502 Sponges Growing on Seaweed, . . 3503 Carpenter's Glass-Sponge, . . 3505 Structure of Venus's Flower Basket, . 3507 An Ascon Sponge, . . . 3507 Structure of Toilet Sponge, . . 3508 Calcareous Ascon Sponge (Leucosolenia), 3509 A Calcareous Leucon Sponge (Leucan- dra), . . . . 35io Development of Sycon raphanus, . 3511 Siliceous Sponge Spicules, . 3512 Siliceous Spicules of Anchor Sponges, . 3515 Sea Kidney Leather Sponge (Chon- drosia), . . . .3516 XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE A Single- Rayed Sponge (Axinclla), , 3517 Siliceous Spicules of Monaxonid Sponges, . . . 3517 Esperiopsis challengeri, . . .3518 Limestone Bored by Sponge, . . 3519 Embryo of Fresh-Water Sponge, . 3520 Section of Common Bath Sponge, . 3521 Ascetta primordialis, . . . 3522 Proteus Animalcule, . . . 3525 Proteus Animalcule (highly magnified), 3526 Orange-Colored Protomyxa, . . 3528 Young Capsuled Animalcule (Arcella), 3528 Egg-Shaped Gromia, . . . 3529 Hyperammina and Asfror/n'za, . . 3530 Peneroplis pertusus, . .' . 3531 Structure of Orbitolites, . . . 3531 Polymorphina, .... 3532 PAGE Shells of Globigerina, . . . 3532 Polystomella, .... 3533 Sarcode Body of Polystomella, . . 3534 Green Sun Animalcule (A canthocystis), . 3535 Lattice Animalcule, . . . 3536 Mail-Goated Flagellata, . . . 3538 Phosphorescent Animalcule, (Nocti- luca), ... . 3539 Pyrocystis, ... . 3539 Mussel Animalcule (Stylonyckia), . 3339 Bell Animalcule ( Vorticella), . . 3540 Nodding Bell Animalcule (Epistylis), . 3540 RosePs Trumpet Animalcule (Stentor), 3541 Marine Animalcule (Acineta), . . 3542 Bud-Bearing Animalcule (Hemiophrya), 3543 Spiral-Mouthed Animalcule (Spirosto- mum), ..... 3544 VOL VI INVERTEBRATE ANIMALS CHAPTER I THE JOINTED ANIMALS— Subkingdom ARTHROPODA THE INSECTS — Class Insecta ANTS, WASPS, BEES, ETC. — Order HYMENOPTERA Distinction *N THE early days of zoological science, when the value in classifi- between cation of the structural and embryological characteristics of living Vertebrates beings was but little understood, the animal kingdom was divided and Invert- into two subkingdoms called Vertebrata and Invertebrata; the former embracing those forms provided with a vertebral column, or backbone, and the latter those that were not so provided. With the addition of some few classes, whose organization has only recently been fully comprehended, the Chor- data of to-day are coextensive with the Vertebrata of half a century ago. But the term Invetebrata, as denoting a natural assemblage of animals, has long ceased to be used by every competent zoologist, and is nowadays merely applied as a con- (2963) 2964 THE JOINTED ANIMALS veniently vague title for all the animals that have not acquired the characteristics of the Chordata. This change of opinion has been brought about by the attain- ment of a far more intimate acquaintance with the structure and development of the lower animals than our predecessors, with their less refined methods of investigation, could possibly possess; and it has resulted in the splitting up of the so-called in- vertebrates into a number of subkingdoms, each of which is equivalent to the entire group of Chordata. It must not, however, be supposed that no advance has been made of late years in chordate morphology, and that the conception of the essential characteristics of the group is the same as it was in the earlier part of the century. So far indeed is this from being the case, that the zoologists of those days would certainly be greatly puzzled to understand the reasons for the present wide extension of the group to embrace such forms as the sea squirts and the worm -like Balanoglossiis, which have no vertebral column, and do not even present the outward semblance of any of the classes of the true Vertebrata. Strictly speaking, therefore, they are not Vertebrates at all; yet their claim to be ranked in the same great category of animals as the lancelet, which also has no backbone, and the fishes is now gen- erally accepted, and is based in the main upon their possession, in common with all the true Vertebrates, of three characteristics not found in any other group of the animal kingdom. These are, firstly, the presence of slits in the lateral walls of the pharynx, by means of which the anterior part of the alimentary canal is put into communication either with the body cavity or directly with the outer world; secondly, the existence, either as a temporary or permanent structure, of a cartila- ginous rod, the notochord, lying lengthwise in the upper part of the body; and thirdly, the position of the principal nervous tract, also in the upper part of the body, but above the notochord. The fate of the notochord in the different classes of Chordates is somewhat varied. In some of the sea squirts, for instance, it persists only in the tail, which may entirely disappear when the animal settles down to its sedentary life. Hence these creatures are sometimes called the Urochordata, or rod tailed. In the lancelet, however, this structure remains throughout life, and extends from the end of the tail to the extremity of the head. Hence the section containing this little fish-like creature is called Cephalochordata, or rod headed. In all the higher members of the assem- blage, however, that is to say, in fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mam- mals, the notochord falls short of the front end of the head, terminating just behind a point which in the floor of the skull eventually becomes the pituitary fossa. Moreover, in all the forms that acquire a bony skeleton, this rod is to a greater or less extent replaced by the bodies, or centra of the vertebrae, or segments composing the backbone; these centra supporting the bony arches developed for the protection of the dorsal nerve chord. No less varied is the fate of the pharyngeal slits, or visceral clefts. Whereas in the lower Vertebrata, such as fishes, these remain as the branchial slits, in the adults of the more highly organized forms, like mammals, they practically disappear, one only remaining as the eustachian tube, by means of which the back of the mouth communicates with the inner chamber of the ear. THE INSECTS 2965 With this briet resume of the fundamental features of Chordate morphology, we may turn to the remaining groups of animals, the so-called Invertebrata, which, as a whole, may be distinguished from Chordates merely by negative characteristics, there being no pharyngeal slits, no notochord, and no central nervous system run- ning along the back. Nevertheless, some of the higher groups of invertebrated animals — such as the Arthropods and Mollusks — resemble each other, and differ from the Vertebrates in the arrangement of some of the principal organs of the body. For instance, although as in chordates the front end of the nervous chord is lodged in the head above the mouth, and constitutes the brain, the rest of it runs along the ventral or lower surface of the body beneath and not above the alimentary canal, which thus, in its anterior or oesophageal part, passes right through a ring or collar of the nervous system. Again, the chief centre of the circulation, the heart, is lodged in the back and not in the lower part of the body, so that the arrangement of these two structures is exactly the opposite of that which obtains in the Chor- data. If, for example, a transverse section be cut through a fish a little behind the head, the nerve chord, the alimentary canal, and the heart will be found to occupy the following positions — the first named being in the back, the second in the mid- dle, and the third below; while, on the contrary, a section of the same kind, taken in substantially the same place in a centipede, will show that the heart is above, and the nerve chord below the alimentary canal. This arrangement of the organs in question does not, however, exist in all invertebrated animals. In some the nervous system is absent; in others it consists of two strands, one running along each side of the body, and neither above nor below the alimentary canal. In others, again, there is no circulatory system, and in others no alimentary canal. There is consequently an extreme divergence in anatomical structure between various kinds of Invertebrates, and zoologists have attempted to express these differences, as explained above, by referring these various creatures to distinct subkingdoms. Eight of such subkingdoms are provisionally recognized in the present work, and are arranged as follows: — (i) Arthropoda, or Invertebrate animals with jointed legs, such as insects, spiders and crustaceans; (2) Kchinodermata, or star- fish, sea urchins, stone lilies, etc.; (3) Mollusca, or soft-bodied, unsegmented ani- mals, often with a shell, but without legs, like cuttlefish, whelks, and oysters; (4) Molluscoidea, including the lamp shells and corralines; (5) Vermes, or worms and their kindred; (6) Coelenterata, or jellyfish, seaanemones, and corals; (7) Porifera, or sponges; and (8) Protozoa, or single-celled animals, like the microscopic foramin- ifera. As the special characteristics of each of these subkingdoms are pointed out in the chapters devoted to them, no further reference is necessary in this place. . The term Arthropoda is applied to the classes of animals composing acteristics *^s subkmgdom in allusion to the fact that the limbs are divided by of Arthro- joints into a series of movable segments. The title, however, is not pods in all respects satisfactory, seeing that members of other groups, mam- mals and birds for instance, also have jointed legs, and in one import- ant though not typical class of Arthropoda, namely, the Prototracheata, containing; the aberrant family Peripatidce, the appendages are short and undivided. The 2966 THE JOINTED ANIMALS name is consequently often superseded by the later but more appropriate term Gnathopoda, meaning foot jawed, which refers to a characteristic that is perfectly distinctive of all the species included under the heading. This is the transforma- tion into jaws, or gnathites, as they are sometimes called, of one or more pairs of the appendages that lie at the sides of the mouth, or just behind it. The number of pairs involved in the formation of jaws varies from one to six, the smallest being found in Peripatus, and the largest in crabs and their allies, while between these two extremes we meet with two pairs in the Millipedes, three in the Insects and four in the Centipedes. The appendicular nature of the jaws, then, is the most distinctive feature of the animals now under discussion. But if two members of the Arthropoda, say for instance a lobster and a centipede, be compared together, they will be found to possess many other structural characteristics in common. Thus the body is bilater- ally symmetrical, that is to say, if it be cut exactly in half lengthwise, the right and left portions will be precisely alike. It is, moreover, divided into a series of segments, placed one behind the other in a long series; each segment bearing a pair of limbs, which in the centipede are all alike, but in the lobster vary consider- ably in size and structure in different regions of the body. In both types, more- over, some of the segments at the front end of the body are modified by fusion, and in other ways, to form a head, which is furnished with eyes, and bears, in addition to the jaws, appendages that have been transformed into long, many-jointed feel- ers, called antennae. In the lobster, however, there are two pairs of these organs, while in the centipede there is but one. These external resemblances are correlated with others connected with the internal anatomy. The alimentary canal, for instance, traverses the body from end to end; and the nerve chord lying beneath it consists of two adjacent strands united in the separate segments, the points of union being marked by swellings called ganglia, from which nerve threads radiate to the neighboring parts. Above the alimentary canal comes the heart, and this organ, although superficially very different in the two types, is yet constructed upon the same general plan. In the centipede it is long, tubular, and composed of many distinct segmeutally-arranged chambers, and furnished with arteries for the distribution of blood to the tissues, and with slits or ostia by which the fluid again makes its way back to that organ. In the lobster, on the contrary, the heart is short, thick, and consists of a single chamber, but is nevertheless provided with the arteries and slits as in the case of the centipede. The dissection of these two creatures would, however, reveal one fundamental difference between them. In the centipede it would be noticed that the body is supplied internally with a rich system of branching tubes which open on the exte- rior by means of apertures placed in the sides of the segments. These tubes are known as trachea, and their apertures as stigmata. They, or similar structures, are found in nearly all Arthropods that live upon the land and breathe the oxygen in the air. They are, in fact, the breathing organs, and analogous to the lungs. The lobster has no such system of tubes; for living in the water, and breathing the oxygen dissolved therein, this crustacean has need of a different type of respiratory THE INSECTS 2967 organ analogous to the gills of fishes. These it possesses in the form of delicate plumes attached to the bases of the walking-legs and the sides of the body just above them; and although concealed from view and protected from injury by a large plate, these gills are yet freely exposed to the water in which the animal spends its existence. Gills resembling those of the lobster in function, and also substantially in structure, are found in almost all Arthropods that live in the sea. The characteristics that have been here briefly alluded to in the description of the anatomy of the centipede and lobster will be found to be equally discernible, if other prominent types of Arthropoda be examined. Differences of course will be found to exist; but, on the whole, the plan of structure that has been sketched is true for all the classes. For instance, in all of them, except the Centipedes and Millipedes, there is a tendency in the more specialized members toward an increase in size of the limbs in the front half of the body, accompanied by a corresponding dwindling of those in the hinder part. Thus a crab and a spider walk upon four pairs of legs placed just behind the head, and an insect upon three; and in the case of the insect the legs of the hinder region have entirely disappeared, while the larger number of them have similarly vanished in the spider and the crab. There is also a tendency in the higher members of each class for the ganglia of the nervous chord to lose their segmental arrangement, and to become concentrated together in one large mass, placed near the seat of the greatest muscular activity. Neverthe- less, underlying all the modifications of structure — however extensive these may be — there is a common plan of organization which may be regarded as typical of the Arthropoda. This may be briefly sketched as follows: The long bilaterally- symmetrical body is divided into a series of approximately similar segments, each bearing a pair of similar and segmented limbs. These limbs are the organs of loco- motion; but some of those at the front end of the body, where comes the mouth and the organs of vision, take on the function of jaws, and are used for seizing and mas- ticating food instead of for progression. The nervous system consists of a double ventral chord with ganglionic enlargements .in each segment, and the first ganglia of this ventral chain are connected by means of a chord on each side of the oesopha- gus with the brain, which is lodged in the head. The heart, lying above the ali- mentary canal — which runs from one end of the body to. the other — consists of a series of chambers, one for each segment of the body, and is provided with arteries for the distribution of the blood, and with slits or ostia for receiving it back again. The Arthropoda are divided into the following classes, the chief characteristics of which are described further on — (i) Insects (Insecta, or Hexapoda); (2) Cen- tipedes (Chilopoda); (3) Millipedes (Diplopoda); (4) Spiders, Scorpions, Ticks, etc. (Arachnida); (5) King crabs (Gigantostraca); (6) Crustaceans (Crustacea); (7) Prototracheata (Peripatus). It is possible, however, to group these into larger divisions. The insects, cen- tipedes, and millipedes, for example, may be placed together as Tracheata, charac- terized by the possession of tracheae and of a single pair of antennas. The Crustacea stand alone in having two pairs of antennae and in breathing with gills. By means, however, of the extinct class of the Trilobites, they are connected with the king crabs; and these in possessing only six pairs of well-developed anterior 2968 THE JOINTED ANIMALS limbs, and in having no antennae, strikingly resemble the Arachnida. Peripatus is very peculiar, but shows signs of distant relationship with the centipedes, although in many anatomical features it is not very far removed from the worms. The term insect, although originally and, according to the meaning of the word, correctly employed in a wide sense to embrace all those teristics animals in which the body is externally divided into a number of seg- of Insects ments, including, of course, butterflies, beetles, bugs, spiders, scor- pions, centipedes, millipedes, not to mention crabs and shrimps, is now, by common consent, used in a much more restricted sense to apply solely to such members of the Arthropoda as have only six walking legs. In allusion to this feature the class is nowadays often called the Hexapoda, the term being much more precise and applicable than that of Insecta. In addition, however, to the pos- session of six legs, insects are characterized by certain other well-marked features, serving to distinguish them from all other arthropods. The body is divided into three distinct regions, arranged in a longitudinal series, and named respectively, from before backwards, the head, thorax, and abdomen. The head, which varies much in size and shape in different groups, bears the eyes, the antennae, and the jaws. The eyes are of two kinds, simple and compound. The latter, of which there is a single pair, situated one on each side of the head, and often so large as to occupy the greater part of its right and left half, consists externally of a multitude of lenses, often exceeding many thousands in number. The simple eyes, or ocelli, on the other hand, are fewer in number — usually only two or three — and placed upon the fore part of the head. The antennae are mova- bly articulated by means of a special socket to the front of the head, usually below or near the inner edge of the compound eyes. They vary much in structure and length, being sometimes long and pliable, and composed of a large number of seg- ments, as in the cockroach, and at other times short, like those of the house fly, and consisting of a few segments only. There is no doubt that the antennae con- tain highly important organs of sense, the bristles with which they are studded being probably tactile, and some of the other organs possibly olfactory in function. The front edge of the head, or its lower edge when carried vertically, is often movably jointed to the rest of it, and constitutes an upper lip, or labrum. In the formation of the jaws, which are attached to the lower surface of the head, three pairs of appendages, respectively named the mandibles, the maxillae, and the labium, are involved. But these parts are susceptible of an extreme amount of variation in structure and function, being sometimes formed for mastication, as in the mandi- bulate forms, such as the cockroaches and beetles, and sometimes for piercing or suck- ing, or both combined, as in the so-called sucking forms like the flies, butterflies, and bugs. There is no doubt that the mandibulate type of mouth in which the gnat- hites, or jaws, are more foot-like in structure, is the most primitive of all. In this case the mandibles usually consist of a stout pair of one-jointed skeletal pieces, the inner edge of which is furnished with biting teeth. Sometimes',1 as in the males of stag beetles, the mandibles are enormously large, and simulate horns. The maxillae are much more complicated in structure; each consists of a basal piece, composed of two segments — the cardo and stipes — from which spring two THE INSECTS 2969 branches, an outer or palp, which has the appearance of a dwarfed limb, and an inner, which is in its turn double, the inner blade being called the lacinia, and the outer the galea. The jaws of the third pair, constituting the so-called labium, or lower lip, are constructed upon the same principle as the maxillae, but the parts usually considered to correspond to the cardo are united to form a plate — the men- turn — which is articulated by its hinder part to a sternal plate of the head, called the submentum. In front of the mentum there are externally the jointed palpi, re- sembling those of the maxillae, and between these there is a median, sometimes bilobed, piece, called the ligula, and a pair of pieces termed the paraglossae. The 1 2 3 10 n MOUTH ORGANS OF INSECTS. i. Head of honeybee, from the front; 2. Head of humblebee, from below; 3. Maxillae and labrum of a bee (Andrena); 4. Maxillae and labium of sawfly (Cimbex}; 5. I , , • ,. r , . to a more or less detailed description of certain species and their pecu- liar characteristics of structure and of habit, the subjoined outline of classification of the various families of the order will give a general idea of the different groups, which are more obviously separated by certain broad distinguishing characteristics. Order HYMENOPTERA Suborder SESSILIVENTRES. 1 . Family TENTHREDINID^ — Sawflies. 2. " SIRICID^ — Wood Borers. Suborder PETIOLATA. Section PARASITICA. 1 . Family CYNIPID^ — Gall Wasps. 2. " PROCTOTRYPID^; — Egg Wasps. 3. ' ' CHALCIDID^ — Parasitic Gall Wasps. 4. ' ' ICHNEUMONID^E — I/arge Larvae Wasps. 5. " BRACONID^; — Small Larvae Wasps. 6. " EvANiiDyE — Hymenoptera Parasites. 7. " CHRYSIDIDJE — Burnished Wasps. Section ACULEATA. 1. Family FORMICID^ — Social Ants. 2. " MUTILUD^ — Parasitic Ants. 3. " 4. " 5. " SAPYGID^- 6. " BEMBICID^— 7. " POMPILID^ — Spider Wasps. 8. " SPHEGID^; — Locust Wasps. 9. ' ' 10. " 11. " CRABRONID^; — Fly and Aphid Wasps. 12. " PmLANTHiDvE — Audrena Parasites. 13. " MASARID^E — Solitary Wasps. 14. " EUMENID^; — Mud Wasps. 15. " VESPID^B — Paper Wasps. 1 6. " ANDRENID^ — Solitary Bees. 17. " APID^; — Honeybees and Humblebees. THE SAWFLY GROUP 297; THE SAWFLY GROUP — SUBORDER Sessiliventres This group contains the various species of sawflies, and may be subdivided into the sawflies proper (Tenthredinidtz} and the wood borers, or tailed wasps {Siritida), although it also comprises the little pith-boring Cephida and the rare and little- known species of Oryssidce. The food of the larvae of these insects consists entirely of vegetable matter. In the case of the first-named family, the leaves of trees and shrubs; in that of the second, the solid wood of various trees; and in the case of the third, the tender pith of the stalks of rye and also the shoots of pear and other trees. Such grubs as are internal feeders are either limbless, or have at most six more or less rudimental thoracic legs. Those, on the other hand, which live a free life and feed on foliage, are very similar in general appearance to lepidopterous larvae, from 1. Sirex juvencu s, female larva, pupa (all of natural size); 2. CORN SAWFLY and larvae in the rye stalks; 3. Pachymerus calcitralor, a wasp parasitic on the above; 4. Larva and pupa of Cephus (enlarged). which they may be distinguished by the greater number of their legs; these varying from twenty to twenty-two, whereas those of the Lepidoptera have but sixteen at most. They also differ by the shining and almost naked skin, and the curious habit possessed by many of curling in the posterior segments, raising them at the same time and depressing them with a rhythmic movement. This action, which may be for the purpose of frightening away foes, coupled with the melancholy-looking eyes, gives them a grotesque appearance, not observable in the caterpillars of the Lepidoptera, save in a few instances. When full grown, the majority of the larvae leave the food plant and spin in or on the surface of the ground, or under dry leaves and moss, a barrel-shaped cocoon in which they pass the winter, turning to a chrysalis only a short time before the perfect insect emerges. At least a thousand species are known, though this is probably but a small moiety of those that exist. 187 2978 THE JOINTED ANIMALS STEM SAWFLIES — Family The larvae of these slender, delicate, armored insects pass their lives in the stems of plants or young shoots of trees; and the adults are characterized by the saw of the female being partially concealed by two integumental flaps. As an example of the typical genus, we may take the corn sawfly ( Cephus pygmczus) , of which the perfect insect flies actively in the sunshine, flitting from blossom to blos- som among buttercups in May, and thence onward through the summer. The larvae cause serious damage on the Continent to rye crops, and more rarely in wheat fields, where they crawl up and down within the stems, feeding on the delicate tissues. When full fed, they construct a transparent cocoon in which to pass the winter, becoming pupae, and a little later in May emerging as full-grown sawflies. The parasitic insect (Pachymerus calcitrator) figured in the illustration on p. 2977 is one of the Petiolate Hymenoptera which seems to be exclusively parasitic on the present species. TAILED WASPS — Family SlRICID^E In this family the female is furnished with a long, boring ovipositor for piercing the bark of trees; the eggs being laid in the orifice thus formed, and the larvae feeding on the wood. In the accompanying illus- tration of the boring apparatus of one species c, c, a, shows the whole of the muscular structure with which the boring is carried out. The perfect insects .are usually of large size and conspicuously colored. Among the typical forms the common tailed wasp (Sirex juvencus) is a very rare species in England, although more plentiful on the Conti- nent. The females, which are sometimes surprised in the act of depositing their eggs on pine trees, may be easily caught, as the ovipositor can only be withdrawn with con- siderable difficulty. Indeed, the abdomen breaks in half, if the insect be roughly grasped. The much larger giant-tailed wasp (S. gigas) is far commoner among pine trees, and is distinguished by its bands of black and yellow. Although it does considerable damage, it does not attack a perfectly healthy tree, unless recently felled. How long the larvae may live in the interior of the tree, and how long it is before the perfect insect appears, is not known, but cases are often quoted of this insect appearing in houses soon after their completion, having evidently emerged from the wood of the joists and beams. Another genus is well repre- sented by the broad-bodied sawfly (Lyda campestris). In this species the grubs feed on the young shoots of the Scotch fir, in which the eggs are laid. When hatched, the larvae spin a slight web in which they remain concealed, protruding the fore part of the body BORING APPARATUS OF GIANT-TAILED WASP. (Much enlarged.) TRUE SAWFLIES 2979 when feeding on the pine needles. When all the needles in the neighborhood have been devoured, the web is extended, so that a great number of young shoots may be embraced and destroyed. The perfect insect is shining blue black, with some of the abdominal segments reddish yellow. TRUE SAWFLIES — Family TENTHREDINIDJE In this exceedingly numerous and widely-distributed group, a well-known ex- ample is the pine sawfly (Lophyrus pint}, of which the larvae are sometimes found in such numbers in pine woods, where they feed upon the needles, that the trunks are often colored yellow and the branches weighed down. Toward the end of July, the perfect insect emerges by gnawing off the cap of the barrel-shaped pupa case. The eggs are laid in incisions made in the needles, these wounds being subsequently closed with a viscid secretion which protects the eggs. As many as twenty eggs may thus be deposited in a single needle. When young, and also just before turn- ing into pupae, the grubs are very susceptible to sudden cold or heavy rain, which will kill off thousands. In addition to these destructive agencies, nearly forty dif- ferent kinds of parasites infest the grubs, while mice devour numbers of the pupae. FEMALE AND MALE OF GIANT-TAILED WASP. (Natural size.) The illustration below shows all the stages of development, one of the grubs being drawn in the act of endeavoring to ward off the attacks of a parasite by the ejection from its mouth of an offensive fluid. To the same family belongs the turnip saw- fly (Athalia spinarum}, which is one of the most destructive species. The perfect insect appears in May from larvae which have passed the winter in their pupae cases, and lays its eggs upon the leaves of rape and turnips; as many as two hundred or three hundred eggs being often deposited by a single female; and in September and October the ravages of the green and black larvae become only too evident. The grub is full grown in October, when it descends to the surface of the earth, and 2980 THE JOINTED ANIMALS forms a cell of earth grains, in which it passes the winter. The majority of the members of the family belong to the typical genus Tenthredo, and are elegant, ac- tive insects, which alone of all the sawflies exhibit a carnivorous habit. It is not i. PINE SAWFLY, larvae ou pine needles, and also papse cases shut and open ; 2. BROAD-BOUIED SAWFLY, with larvae and nest. (All natural size.) easy to distinguish the males from the females, though the difference in the color is of some assistance. It has been noticed, for instance, that. in cases where the ab- i. TURNIP SAWFLY AND LARV.S: ; 2. ROSE SAWFLY, male: 3 SAWFLY, female, and with larvae. (Natural size.) domen of the female is entirely black, that of the male is black and red. Of the green sawfly (T. scalaris}, the larva is common on the willow, and is pale green TYPICAL GROUP— GALL WASPS 2981 with black spots on the back, sometimes blending to form a central band. The pretty brush-horned rose sawfly {Hylotoma ros&), which in size and color closely resembles the turnip sawfly, extends throughout Europe, where it is common wherever rose trees occur; the larva being found from July to October on both the wild and cultivated roses. When turning to a pupa, it spins an outer meshed envelope, and a more densely woven inner one; early larvae pupating at once, and emerging as perfect insects early in August. The later broods, however, pass the winter in the pupa case, and appear in the following spring. The female makes an incision on the twigs of rose bushes, in which she lays her eggs, after which the twig withers away. TYPICAL GROUP — SUBORDER Petiolata The insects belonging to this second subdivision of the order are distinguishable from the last by the petiole, or short stalk joining the abdomen to the thorax. Some- times this stalk is so short that the abdomen and thorax are closely united, while in others it is longer, and thus these characteristics form a fairly natural subdivision of the Petiolata into the pseudosessile and pedicellate forms. For general purposes they may, however, be divided into Parasitica, or those in which the females are fur- nished with an ovipositor, and Aculeata, or those in which the ovipositor has be- come modified into a retractile sting. GALL WASPS— Family CTNIPID^E Of the former, or parasitic section of the suborder, our first representatives are the gall wasps (Cynipidce} , all of which are small and inconspicuous insects, vary- ing in color from black to brown and brownish red. The wings are furnished with GREEN SAWFLY, Tenthredo scalaris. (Natural size.) few nervures, and the dark stigma on the anterior margin is absent; while in some species the females have the wings either rudimentary or altogether wanting. Of the galls so common on the foliage of trees and other plants, some are produced by 2982 THE JOINTED ANIMALS beetles, aphides, flies (gall midges), and others by the members of the present family and some of the Tenthredinidce. In the gall wasps each species selects some I. COMMON OAK GALL WASP; 2. Torymus regius, a parasite on the same; 3. Gall of Cynips gemmcz; 4. Larval cham- ber, shut and open; 5. The same enlarged, above on the left is figured the purple hairstreak and its larva; 6. The same enlarged; 7. A gall cut through, showing the grub. 5 37 a 64 I. THE SPONGE GALL WASP, with an old sponge gall; beneath is a new gall, whence the wasps have not yet made their exit; 2. OAK ROOT GALL WASP, with its gall; 3. BRAMBLE GALL WASP (Diastrophus rubi), with its gall; 4. A gall of the same slit in half; 5. Synergus facialis; 6. Figites scutellaris, parasites; 7. Ibalia cultellator, parasitic on Sirex juvencus. (All the galls and Fig. 7 natural size; Fig. 6 enlarged.) GALL WASPS 2983 special portion of the plant for its attack, which it pierces with its ovipositor, and lays an egg in the wound. As to what exactly gives rise to the resultant gall, which follows sooner or later upon the wounded plant, is not known with any cer- tainty. It has hitherto been supposed that the fly injects an irritating fluid into the wound, but recent researches tend to show that this serves rather as an adhesive security to retain the egg on the selected spot. It is probable that the different stimulative irritants offered, first by the inflicted woand, next by the presence of the eggs, and thirdly by the movements of the larva after it is hatched, together with the action of a fluid exuded by the grub itself, all tend to produce the strange modifications of cell structure which manifest themselves in the forms of the various kinds of galls. The larvae of the Cynipidce almost entirely feed internally upon galls produced on oak leaves and the oak blos- soms. These galls are entirely closed, and the grub dwells within a hard cell, called the larval chamber. In some cases there may be several such chambers, as, for instance, in the Bedeguar gall on the wild rose tree formed by Rhodites ros. ily are the flower bees (Anthophora) , of which three species are shown in the following illustration. In general appearance these insects closely approximate to humblebees. They build their nests in bur- 3008 THE JOINTED ANIMALS rows in the ground, in holes of trees, or clefts and cracks in walls; the cells being separated by partitions, and made of the ruins of the burrow or cleft. Generally the whole nest has the form of a twisted tube. Like their allies, these bees are solitary, and, like humblebees, are much infested by parasites. Finally, we have 3 6 I, 2. HAIRY-LEGGED FLOWER BEE (A nthophora hirsuta), female and male ; 3, 4. TUFTED FLOWER BEE (A. female and male; 5. WALL-NESTING FLOWER BEE (A. parietina), female ; 6,7. LONG-HORNED BEE longicornis), female and male. (All of natural size.) retusa), ( Eucera the long-horned bees, of which one species {Eucera longicornis} is shown in the illustration. These bees construct smooth tunnels in the earth, divided as usual into sections, each of which contains one egg, together with a supply of pollen and honey for the future larva. TRUE BEES — Family In this group are included not only the various kinds of honeybees, but like- wise their more clumsy cousins the humblebees. Such a well-known insect as the common honeybee {Apis melificd}, of which the habits have been already referred to, requires no special notice; but it is important to observe that the honeybees of the equatorial zone differ somewhat from those inhabiting more temperate regions, in consequence of which they are assigned to distinct genera, such as Melipoma, Trigona, and Tetrasoma. All these are rather small and stingless bees, making up for the absence of a special weapon of offense by a free use of their jaws. Their brood cells and combs resemble those of the common wasp, each forming but a sin- gle layer; and clay and resinous substances being chiefly used for closing the en- trance of the cavities in which the nests are placed. The characteristic transitional features in the shape of the cells, intermediate between the simple cylindrical and the perfect hexagonal forms, have already been noticed in the short introductory remarks. Melipoma and its allies form the connecting link between the solitary and the hive bees. As in the wasps, each family in the humblebees owes its origin to TRUE BEES 3009 a single female which has hibernated — usually in some hole in the ground which it excavates for the purpose. The hive bees, on the contrary, swarm, that is, they send off a full-grown population under a queen ready to enter upon the organized life of an industrial community at once. The different forms of humblebees are much the same as those of the hive bees, namely, large females; workers or undeveloped females; small females which are similar to the large (or queens) in structure; and males. One very strange habit has been recorded and confirmed by subsequent ob- servations. A small female is set apart for the duty of awakening the nest every I. COMMON BUMBLEBEE WITH NEST; 2. STONE BUMBLEBEE. (Natural size.) morning with her piercing note, and has been called the "trumpeter." It seems that only those nests which are large and have plenty of spare hands can afford this luxury. Humblebees, both as regards appearance and habits, are too well known to need description. Of the two species figured in the annexed illustration, the common humblebee {Bombus terrestris) forms small rounded nests of carded moss. On the other hand, the stone humblebee (B. lapidarius) makes its habitation in cavities among stones, where it forms an oval nest, of which only the sides are cov- ered with moss and grass. CHAPTER II JOINTED ANIMALS — continued INSECTS — continued THE FLIES AND FLEAS— Order DIPTERA As IMPLIED by their scientific name, the typical members of the order now claiming attention are distinguished from all other insects by the possession of but a single pair of wings. In this case one pair of these organs has disappeared, and examination will reveal the fact that it is the front pair that is retained in full functional importance, while the hinder pair has become reduced to a couple of short slender club-like organs, known as halteres or balancers. From their small size it might be supposed that these balancers were organs of but little physiological im- portance, but the experiment of removing them will show that this is not the case; for an insect thus mutilated is thereby entirely deprived of the power of maintaining its equilibrium and of directing its course in the air. Hence the name balancers that has been assigned to these rudimentary wings. The mouth parts, instead of being of the primitive mandibulate type, are formed for purposes of piercing or sucking. In the former kind of structure, as represented for instance in Pangonia longirostris, one of the horseflies (Tabanidtz'), these organs are composed of seven pieces, which have been interpreted by Mr. Waterhouse as follows: The uppermost is a long pointed instrument, the labrutn. Immediately below this, and more or less con- cealed by it, is an almost equally long and slender piece, which is probably the hypopharynx. The mandibles are modified into a pair of sharp lancets, and below them are two extremely slender instruments, which from the presence of palpi, are recognizable as parts of the maxilla. All these pieces lie concealed in the basal half of the proboscis, which, for part of its length, is gutter shaped, but afterward as- sumes the form of a tube, and is believed to be comparable to the labium In the gnats the mouth is formed upon the same plan, but the lancets are all more slender. In piercing the skin the lancets only are used, the labium or proboscis serving merely as a guide. In the flies that use the mouth for sucking — as for instance in the blowflies and drone flies — the jaws are still more modified, so that the identity of the separate pieces is difficult to establish. The most prominent part is the pro- boscis, the expanding terminal lobes of which are the paraglossa of the labium. The maxillae are represented by two scales or short stylets closely adherent to the sides of the proboscis, and of two club-like palpi; but the mandibles seem to have disappeared. The only characteristic that need be specially noticed in the wings is that they are usually naked, — being but rarely furnished with short hairs, — and that the veins are almost all longitudinal, that is, they run from the base or point of attachment (3010) FLIES AND FLEAS 3011 cf the wing to its free margin. These veins are represented in the accompanying figures by the letters a, b, c, d, e,fy g. The transverse veins x, y, on the contrary, are always few in number. The shape and size of the spaces (indicated by the numbers i, 2, 3, etc.) circumscribed by these veins form valuable systematic char- acteristics for distinguishing the species and genera of this order. The balancers may be entirely exposed, as in the common daddy longlegs, but are sometimes con- cealed by a scale-like membrane as in the bluebottle fly. In connection with the wings may be noticed the buzzing of flies. This appears to be the result of two dis- tinct sounds, one produced by the rapid vibration of the wings, and the other by the vibration of the thorax. The latter movement is the more rapid of the two, and gives rise to the shrill note heard the moment a blowfly is seized; while the former is the ordinary buzzing produced when the insect is in flight. According to recent calculations, the thoracic vibrations in the case of one of the bumblebee flies ( Volucella) amounted to thirteen hundred per second, while those of the wings were just one-half this number, namely six hundred and fifty per second. The legs pos- sess the normal five segments; the tarsi or feet, which are also divided into five seg- WING OF DADDY LONGLEGS AND OF BLOWFLY. ments, being armed with two claws, and in addition, often supplied with adhesive pads, by means of which the insects are enabled to ascend perfectly smooth surfaces. These pads are composed of a multitude of funnel-shaped hairs, each supposed to act as a minute sucker. Some authors assert, however, that they secrete a sticky fluid, and that the insect maintains its hold by this means. The antennae vary con- siderably in structure. In their least modified form, as presented by the gnats and their allies, they are simple and thread-like organs, consisting of a series of subequal segments, often modified by the presence of long symmetrically-arranged bristles, which impart to them a feather-like aspect. In most of the members of the order the antennae are, however, curiously constructed. The three basal segments are stout, the third being especially large and produced into a great lobe-like plate, sometimes projecting as far as the extremity of the terminal part of the organ, which frequently has the form of a plume-like whip, the flagellum, although sometimes re- duced to a bristle. Not unfrequently the antennae differ greatly in structure- according to sex. In the males of gnats, for example, they are large and feathery,, while in the females they are only furnished with short hairs. The males and fe- males of most of the common flies, on the contrary, may be recognized by the development of the compound eyes. In the former sex these organs are almost in contact on the summit of the head, while in the latter there is a widish space be- tween them. Rarely the sexual characteristics are much more pronounced, as for 3oi2 . THE JOINTED ANIMALS instance in the stag-horned flies, in which the head of the male is furnished with large branching processes, and the stalk-eyed flies, in which the eyes in this sex are supported upon long, horizontal, immovable stalks. Like the other higher orders of insects, flies, in the course of their develop- ment, go through a complete metamorphosis; the larvae — of which perhaps the •commonest are maggots and cheese hoppers — being worm-like, and passing into a partially or wholly quiescent pupal stage before attaining maturity. These larvae differ much in structure in some of the families; those of the gnats having a well- developed head, with the antennae, mandibles, maxillae, and labium always recog- nizable; whereas in the maggots of the blowfly the head is narrow and pointed, without antennas, and with the mouth parts' reduced to a pair of retractile hooks, the opposite extremity of the body being broad and square cut. It must not be supposed, however, that the larvae of all the members of this order are of one or other of these two types. On the contrary, the structure varies according to habi- tat, and almost every gradation is found linking the two together. Some species live in fresh-water ponds and streams, others in the earth among roots of grass, others again in rotting animal or vegetable matter, and others, like the maggots of the warble fly, in the stomachs of the hosts they infest. Thus the nature of their food and surroundings is extremely varied, and that the larvae are likewise so, may be seen by a glance at the figures in the following pages. Upon reaching its full size the larva passes into the pupal stage. The pupa, however, exists under two conditions. In one case, as in the gnats, it emerges from the skin of the larva and leads an independent life of longer or shorter duration, until the attainment of maturity; in the others, as in the fly called Stratiomys, it remains within the larval skin, which becomes thickened and constitutes a protect- ive covering for it. Again, the rupture of the larval skin for setting free the pupa is effected in one of two ways. In the first case the opening is T-shaped, consist- ing of a longitudinal split on the back behind the head, or rarely of a transverse split between the seventh and eighth segments of the body; in the second case a circular split occurs behind the head, which is pushed off like a kind of cap. These two methods of splitting of the larval skin have been used as characteristics for -dividing the Diptera into two suborders, those in which the pupa escapes in the former way being termed straight-seamed flies, or Orthorrhapha, and those in which the pupa escapes in the latter way circular-seamed flys or Cyclorrhapha. For the rup- ture of the larval skin, the pupae of the Cyclorrhapha are furnished with a bladder- shaped excrescence on the front of the head. In the vast majority of flies the young make their first appearance in the form of eggs. In some few cases, how- ever, as in the genera Sarcophaga and Mesembrina, belonging to the family Muscidce, the young are born as active maggots; while in the forest flies and their allies only one matures at a time, and this is retained by the mother and nourished at her expense until it has passed into the pupal stage. The most anomalous method of reproduction occurs in one of the gall midges, where the larvae them- selves produce other grubs by a process of internal budding. That flies were abundant in early Tertiary times, when they were not very * different from those that now exist, is shown by the abundance of their remains THE STRAIGHT-SEAMED FLIES 3013 preserved in the amber beds of the Baltic. Strata of the same age at Florissant, Colorado, have also yielded fossil flies. A few have been obtained from Secondary rocks. Mosquitoes and Gnats THE STRAIGHT-SEAMED FLIES — SUBORDER Orthorrhapha The first section of this suborder contains the gnats and mosquitoes {Culicidee), daddy longlegs {Tipulidce} , true midges (Chironomidce) , and fungus midges (Myce- tophilida). These families are sometimes spoken of collectively as the Nematocera, or flies with thread-like antennae, on account of the length and thinness of those organs, which usually consist of as many as ten or more segments. The maxillary palpi also are elongate, and the body and limbs present, as a rule, the type with which we are familiar in the gnats and daddy longlegs. The mosquitoes and gnats (Culiddce}, although often regarded as distinct, are in reality identical. They abound in all lands, and may be met with in cold barren countries like Iceland and Lapland as well as in the dense forests of tropical climes, everywhere being the plague of travelers on account of their insatiable thirst for blood and the intense irritation caused by their bite. It is, however, only the females that bite and suck blood, and in this connection it may be pointed out that no members of the Diptera sting in the sense in which the word is used with regard to ants and wasps; that is to say, the wound, although giving rise to a sharp stinging sensation, is inflicted by jaws, and not, as in the case of the ants, by an organ especially designed for the purpose placed at the hinder extremity of the abdomen. The annexed figure representing the banded gnat (Culex annulatus), a species sometimes found in houses, and noticeable for being the largest British form, is selected to illustrate the mode of life characteristic of the members of this family. The long slender eggs, amounting to some three hundred or more, laid by the mother in batches on the surface of a pond or ditch, give rise to worm- like larvae furnished with a distinct head, a large somewhat squared thorax, and a tapering jointed abdomen. Along each side of the body there is a row of bristle tufts, one for each segment, and the last segment is in addition produced into a couple of tubular tails, at the extremity of which open the tracheae or breathing tubes. Thus equipped, the young gnat hangs suspended in the water, its heavy head directed downward, and the tip of its forked tail just projecting above the surface, so that the apertures of its breathing apparatus are in communication with the air. Occasionally when the surface of the water is disturbed, or from any other reason causing alarm, the larva wriggles to the bottom of the pond, soon, BANDED GNAT. a. Female; b. I * r . (Natural size.) Judging from the account of a resident, horseflies are a terrible plague in Florida. "Cows, horses, and mules have a wretched time in the summer, when they are eaten alive, and come home with the blood running down them. When driving, we used to spend all our time killing these soft, fat-bodied insects, which die at the least touch — in fact, the commonest kind never seem in any case to live more than twenty-four hours, and those which come into the houses are always dead the next morning. Their sting is really painful. I remember one day, when walking through the flat woods, suddenly feeling something like a pin running into my arm, and, on looking down, found it to be an extra big horsefly. The arm was most tender for days after, feeling as though badly bruised, and was so much swollen as to make it quite a difficult matter drawing any sleeve over it. The 'coachman fly' [doubtless one of the family Asilidce] is said to feed on the horseflies; and will sit through a whole drive on the collar, or some other part of the harness, or even on the steed itself, in order to pounce on the insects as they settle. The curious thing is that the horses seem to know the difference, for directly a horsefly comes, even if it 3022 THE JOINTED ANIMALS does not sting, they become restless, tossing their heads, and lashing with their tails, but the ' coachman ' may rest on any part of them for any length of time, and never be interfered with, or driven off. ' ' The flies of the family Asilidce are generally of a somewhat es> slender build, the body being long and parallel sided, while the legs and wings are long and strong. All are provided with a short, power- ful, piercing proboscis, and prey upon insects of various kinds, often seizing and carrying off butterflies, much larger than themselves. The general form of the members of this family is shown in Fig. i of the annexed illustration, representing Diodria oelandica, a species from the island of Oeland, off the coast of Sweden, with a shining black body, and wings of the same color. Many species of the genus Asilus are found in Britain, but the largest and handsomest of all is the hornet robber fly {A. crabroniformis) , measuring upward of an inch in length, and of a yellowish color variegated with black, there being four stripes of the latter color upon the thorax, and a broad transverse band across the base of the abdomen. Some of the tropical members of the family are far larger, those belonging to the genus My das from South America, being scarcely surpassed in dimensions by any member of the order. The fly represented in Fig. 2 of the illustration is the tessellated empis {Empis tessellata) , belonging to the family Empidce, the species of which are predaceous like the Asilidce, and resemble them in form, but differ in certain structural details which need not be dwelt upon. The tessellated empis — the largest member of the group found in Britain — is ashy gray in color, and has its abdomen ornamented with a chessboard pattern. As Dallas expressed it, " when paired, the females of this and of many other of the larger species of the family are always found to be busily engaged in sucking out the juices of some other insect. It seems probable that the male seizes the opportunity of his intended partner being thus occupied to make his advances; if her mouth were free he would in all likelihood himself fall a sacrifice to her voracity." The families of short-horned, straight-seamed flies hitherto consid- ered resemble each other in the fact that the larvae live in the earth, and feed upon the roots of grass or other vegetable matter, while the adults prey upon other animals, whose blood they suck. But in the bee flies (Bomby Hides} — so called from the likeness in hairiness and shape they present to bumblebees — the larvae, so far as known, live parasitically on other insects, attacking grasshop- pers, caterpillars, etc., while the adults suck the juices of flowers. The genus Bombylius is represented in England by a small number of species, although in the tropics there are large numbers of forms. In all the thick, fat body is covered with long yellow hairs. The wings are powerful; and the head is furnished with a long ROBBER FLIES. I. Dioctria oelandica; 2. Empis tessellata. (Natural size.) Bee Flies THE STRAIGHT-SEAMED FLIES 3023 BLACK AND WHITE BEE FLY, WITH PUPA SKIN PROTRUDING FROM COCOON OF BEE. proboscis, which is thrust into blossoms while the insect (No. 8 on p. 3028) stays poised in mid-air, like a hawk moth when similarly occupied. The black and white bee fly (Anthrax semiatra) is mostly of a black tint, and clothed with hair of the same color; but the hairs on the front part of the thorax and abdomen take a yel- lowish tinge, the wings, as shown in the illustration, being black in the basal half but clear elsewhere. These insects may be seen on the wing in dry, sunny spots, stopping from time to time to suck a flower, or rest upon a stone, and seeking for the cells of solitary bees wherein to deposit their eggs. The left-hand figure shows the cocoon of one of these bees, with the pupa case, from which the fly on the right has just emerged, protruding from it. For the last family of this section (jStratiomyidcc) the common Stratiomys chamceleon may be taken as the type. This is a rather large insect, with a short broad abdomen, variegated at the sides with pale spots; the sides of the face and the posterior part of the upper surface of the thorax being also yellow. The antennae are longish, and the hinder part of the' thorax is armed with a pair of spines. The females, which may be seen on the wing in the neighborhood of marshes, ponds, and ditches, lay their eggs on the leaves of water plants, and the larvae spend their time wriggling about in a helpless way. In these larvae the body consists of twelve segments, is somewhat depressed, pointed at each end — though more so toward the tail than the head — and covered with a tough blackish-brown skin. The head is small and pointed, and the retractile tail segments are furnished at the tip with a breathing orifice surrounded by a circlet of barbed hairs. By means of these the larva is enabled to suspend itself from the surface of the water, hanging vertically downward with the orifice just above the water's level, and is also able by the folding in of the hairs to take a bubble of air below the surface when it sinks to the bottom. The larvae feed on such particles of matter as they find in the water; and when ready to pass into the pupal stage creep to the land, and take refuge beneath a stone, or in some other place of safety. The development of the pupa and perfect insect takes place only in the front part of the larval skin. A curious choice of habitat for her young on the part of some flies belonging to this family has been recorded from Wyoming. These larvae were found in a cup-shaped depression at the top of a cone about twenty inches high situated a few feet from a large sulphur mound, under which the boiling water could be heard. Through small apertures in the bottom the hot water rose and filled the cup. It was" in this that the larvae were found; and it is estimated that the temperature of the water was only twenty or thirty degrees below boiling point. FEMALE OF Stratiomys chamceleon. 3024 THE JOINTED ANIMALS Hover Flies CIRCULAR-SEAMED FLIES — SUBORDER Cyciorrhapha This suborder, which is characterized by the circumstance that the pupa es- capes from the larval skin through a circular aperture formed by the pushing off of the head end, contains the majority of ordinary flies. It is divisible into two sec- tions, the first of which includes those that present the normal method of develop- ment, the young being hatched from eggs laid by the mother, although very rarely the eggs hatch immediately before being laid. The second embraces those in which the young are retained within the parent's body, and nourished at its expense until the pupa stage is reached. The flies of the last category are for this reason gener- ally called Pupipara. The family Syrphidce includes a number of species which, al- though differing considerably in external form, may be distinguished from other members of the suborder by the presence of the so-called spurious vein in the wing — a vein lying between the third and fourth longitudinal veins, and crossing the short transverse vein (marked in the figure on p. 3011) which unites them. They also bear considerable superficial resemblance, both in color and shape, to various bees and wasps. The best-known types are the hover flies (Syrphus), drone flies (Eristalis), and humblebee flies ( Volucella). The hover flies of the genus Syrphus, which with their black and yellow bands mimic wasps, are so named on account of their habit of hovering in flower gardens in summer, darting from blossom to blossom, and often sustaining themselves poised in mid-air, after the manner of a hawk. The fe- males lay their eggs singly on leaves and stems infested with plant lice; and the larvae devour numbers of these pests, seizing them in a most voracious manner, sucking them dry, and reject- ing the empty skins. Like the hover flies, drone Drone Flies a. s *? • * f \ * n flies {hnstahs) frequent flower gardens, where they may be seen in numbers on various blossoms. As their name indicates, these flies resemble honeybees, the likeness being so close that it is difficult to persuade an uninitiated person that they may be handled with impunity. The resemblance, which is enhanced by the ceaseless twitching of the abdomen, appears indeed to be more deeply seated than might at first be supposed, for spiders, which recognize HOVER FLY (Syrphus seleniticus). 1. Fly; 2. Fly hovering; 3. I,arvse devouring plant lice on leaf; 4. Larva; 5, 6, Differ- ent views of pupa. (4, 5, 6, enlarged; the rest natural size.) CIRCULAR-SEAMED FLIES 3025 their prey by touch and not by sight, treat the drone flies with caution. Thus a bluebottle fly placed in a web of the field spider was immediately and without hesi- tation seized and devoured, although a bumblebee was avoided by the spider, which — evidently fearing to come to close quarters — let out a thread, and rushing round and round its victim at a distance, succeeded in winding it up, and then approach- ing, inflicted a bite which soon put an end to the insect's struggles. When a drone fly was thrown into the web, the spider darted at it as before, but as soon as it touched the fly with its fore-legs, recoiled, as if in alarm, then returning to the attack dealt with the harmless victim just as it had previously acted with the hum- blebee. The larvae of the drone flies live mainly in ditches and feed upon decaying organic matter, and are commonly known as rat-tailed maggots, on account of the long tail-like appendages at the hinder end of the body. With this flexible and telescopic tail, traversed by tracheal tubes opening at its tip, the maggot is able to breathe while below the water, by keeping the tip of its tail above the surface, where it is supported by the rosette of hairs round the extremity. The eggs of drone flies are also laid in dead carcasses and other refuse, and it is now believed that the legend of the ox-born bees of the ancients is traceable to this habit of the fly, in conjunction with its striking resemblance to the honeybee. The belief that honeybees are produced by spontaneous generation from carcasses of dead animals has prevailed for more than two thousand years, but according to Osten Sacken, <( the original cause of this delusion lies in the fact that a drone fly (Eristalis tenax) lays its eggs upon the carcasses of animals, that its larvae develop within the putre- scent mass, and finally change into a sw7arm of flies, which in their shape, hairy clothing, and color look exactly like bees, although they belong to a totally different order of insects." Scarcely less interesting than the drone flies are the species of Volucella. These large flies (p. 3028, No. 9) mimic bumblebees in color and form, and it was long supposed that the females were thus enabled with impunity to enter the nests of bumblebees and lay their eggs among those of the proper owners. But although it is true that the eggs of the Volucella are laid and the larvae reared inside the nests of various Hymenoptera, it has been ascertained that the species which resemble bumblebees visit for the same purpose the nests of wasps, to which the flies bear no particular resemblance. And it is hardly credible that the wasps give access to the flies under the delusion that they are members of the community, as was conceivable in the case of the bees. We are compelled therefore to conclude that the flies are allowed by the bees and wasps to come and go without interfer- ence for some reason apart from the resemblance that exists between the two sets of insects. It is, of course, possible that the similarity offered by the flies to bees and wasps is more deeply seated than was supposed, and affects such senses as touch or smell, or some other unknown sense, but there seems no evidence to justify this supposition; and if the maggots of the flies feed on the larvae of the bees or wasps, we are not yet in a position to offer an explanation of the phenomenon. If they play the part of scavengers, clearing the hive of waste matter, the reason for the admittance of the flies becomes clear. Closely resembling many of the Syrphidce in their banded coloration, which imparts to them a wasp-like aspect, the members of the family Conspidce may be 190 3026 THE JOINTED ANIMALS recognized by the absence of the spurious vein in the wings, and also by their broad heads, of which the fore part is produced into a conspicuous prominence bearing the long antennae. L,ike the horseflies, the Conopidce in the adult stage frequent flowers, but they lay their eggs in the bodies of various Hymenoptera, like bees and wasps, and also in crickets and other Orthoptera. Here the eggs hatch and the larvae feed upon the living tissues of their prey, and here they undergo their metamorphosis, although they do not invariably quit the place of their development upon the death of the victimized host. Taschenberg, for example, found the pupa of Conops vittatus emerging from the abdomen of a humblebee which had been for six mouths in his collection. The Conopidce are widely distributed, and especially abundant in the Tropics. Bates gives an account of the habits of a species which he noticed hovering over the armies of foraging ants. These ants, he says, ' ' are accompanied by small swarms of a kind of two-winged fly, the females of which have a very long ovipositor, and which belongs to the genus Stylogaster. These swarms hover with rapidly vibrating wings, at a height of a foot or less from the soil over which the ants are moving, and occasionally one of the flies darts with great quickness toward the ground. I found that they were not occupied in transfixing ants . . . but most probably in depositing their eggs in the soft bodies of insects which the ants were driving away from their hiding places. These eggs would hatch after the ants had placed their booty in their hive as food for their young. ' ' The family Muscidce embraces a large and varied assortment of species, of which house flies and blowflies are well-known examples. The characteristic structure of the wings may be seen by referring to the figure on p. 3011. The proboscis is adapted for sucking, and usually ends with two fleshy lobes. The flagellum of the antennas is generally plumed with hairs on both sides, though sometimes, as in the tsetse, the hairs are restricted to one side, while in the spiny flies it may be naked. The relative size of the three basal segments of the antennae varies in different genera, but usually, as in the blowflies, the house flies, and the tsetse, the third segment is at least three times the length of the second (see b in figure on p. 3030, and 10 in that on p. 3028). It may also be mentioned that the upper surface of the thorax is marked with a transverse suture, and that the feet are furnished with a pair of adhesive pads (n in the figure on p. 3028). The family is divided into several subfamilies, and these may be grouped in two sections, based upon the presence or absence behind the wings of a membranous scale which, when present, covers the halteres or balancers. The subfamilies that possess this scale are termed the calypterate Muscidce; while those that are without it are in contrast called the acalypterate Muscidce. Taking the calypterate Muscidce, we begin with the subfamily Muscince, of which the house fly (Musca domestica) is the typical representative. This species may be found during summer in numbers in every house, crawling up the windowpanes, flying in companies about the middle of the room, or creeping about the table in search of food. It is the unwelcome companion of man in every country, following him in his travels, taking up its residence with him wherever he may choose to settle, and resisting equally well the cold of northern latitudes and the heat of tropical climes. For the most part, the eggs are laid and the larvae undergo their development in excrement; CIRCULAR-SEAMED FLIES 3027 but the choice of the female does not seem to be always restricted to matter of this sort, since she sometimes selects meal, bread, or fruit, for the purpose. These flies are liable to the attacks of a parasitic fungus {Empusa muscce) which causes their death, and in autumn it is not uncommon to find their bodies killed by this means, with the abdomen much distended, and showing the soft membrane between the segments. The common bluebottle or blowfly {Calliphora erythrocephala) is too well known to need description. One of the most noteworthy features connected with this fly is the extraordinary keenness of the sense — perhaps smell, which enables it to discover the whereabouts of carcasses, however small, or of particles of meat. In these it hastens to lay its eggs; and in a longer or shorter time, according to temperature, the eggs hatch, and the larvae, feeding upon the meat, rapidly grow until they reach maturity and pass into the pupa stage. Many persons believe that bluebottles are full-grown examples of the house fly, and when in- formed that such is not the case, and that these insects after reaching the winged stage are incapable of growth, point out that bluebottles vary greatly in size, and ask what may be the explanation of the difference. The answer is, that the size of the bluebottle in its final stage depends upon the size of the maggot before pupating, and the size of the maggot upon the amount of nourishment it is able to obtain before its supply of food was exhausted. In any given case, when the sup- ply is limited, the maggots that are the first to hatch will get more food than those that appear later, and in consequence, when the whole of it is exhausted, will have attained a greater length and fatness than the others, and thus become con- verted into larger flies. Or, again, if three or four hundred eggs be laid in a dead mouse and the same number in- a dead rabbit, it is clear that in the former case the supply of food will be smaller for each larva, and will sooner come to an end than in the latter. The gray flesh fly (Sarcophaga carnaria) is a handsome species, measuring in the female half an inch in length. Seldom entering houses, it is not uncommon in the open country, where it may be seen basking in the hot sun upon stones or walls. Its prevailing color is pale slate gray, variegated on the thorax with black bands, and the abdomen with square black spots, set corner to corner like the squares of a chessboard. A noteworthy fact connected with this species is that the eggs hatch within the parent before being laid, so that the young are born alive; they feed upon decaying animal and vegetable matter. The blowflies belonging to the genera Calliphora and Lucilia, respectively known as the bluebottle and greenbottle flies, as a general rule deposit their eggs upon dead animal matter. This, however, is by no means always the case, there being many instances on record of the laying and hatching of the eggs upon living animals. Thus it is by no means uncommon for sheep to be attacked in this way by a greenbottle fly (L. silvarum}. On this subject, Mr. Reeks writes that "these flies deposit their eggs in the wool of sheep, generally about the root of the tail or behind the shoulders, anywhere, in fact, where the wool is most greasy. The larvae of these flies are most troublesome to shepherds in the latter part of May and June, until the sheep are sheared, and much later in the summer with lambs, when they should be dipped in a preparation of arsenic and soft soap. ' ' Toads and frogs also seem to be fre- INSECT LIFE IN SUMMER. 1. Common Wasp; 2. 3, Honeybees; 4. Hairy-legged Bee (Dasypoda); 5. Wasp (Pompilus}; 6. Stone Humble- bee; 7. Common Humblebee ; 8. Bee fly (Bombylius}\ 9. Humblebee Fly (Volucella}; 10. Spiny Fly (Tachina); ii. Noctuid Moth (Anarta); 12.13, Field Tiger Beetle, crawling and flying ; 14. Wood Tiger beetle ; 15. Rose Beetle (Cetonia)\ 16. Dung Beetle ( Typhceus) ; 17. Field Cricket ; 18. Grasshopper (Stenobothrus). (3028) CIRCULAR-SEAMED FLIES 3029 quently selected as objects of attack on the part of these flies. In one case the eggs of a greenbottle fly were laid on a toad's back, and the larvae upon hatching migrated into its eyes. In other cases the laying of the eggs and migration of the larvae have not been actually observed, but toads have been found with their nostrils infested with maggots; and it is possible that the latter may have effected an entry from the outside, as described above. Mr. Guthrie, who noticed the occurrence of the larvae of a bluebottle {Calliphora} in the nostrils of toads, writes that "it is probable that the number of toads is largely kept under by those means. In 1872 toads were remarkably plentiful in the neighborhood of Tenby, South Wales, and I noticed that the disease was very prevalent among them. In the following year scarcely any could be found, and I saw none diseased." Cases are also on record of the death of lizards from maggots of blowflies, which testify to the extraordinary vitality of the latter. In one instance a gecko fed on bluebottles was found to have GROUP OK FL.IES AND THEIR GRUBS. i. Blowfly; 2. Eggs; 3. I,arvse; 4. Pupa; 5. Newly-born larva of gray flesh fly; 6, Gray flesh fly; 7. Adult larva of the same; 8. House fly and larva; 9. Sharp-mouthed fly; 10. Head of house fly; u. Foot of gray flesh fly; 12. Carcass of house fly killed by fungus growth, do, n, enlarged; the other natural size.) the whole abdominal region greatly distended. It soon afterward died, and on dissection its intestines, lungs, and liver were found to be almost entirely destroyed by maggots, whose presence was naturally attributed to eggs from gravid female bluebottles, which had been swallowed as food. In another case, some lizards fed on the living maggots of the bluebottle died in consequence of the attacks on their internal organs by their intended food. Far more important are the cases of infec- tion of human beings; the resulting sickness, which often entails great suffering^ and may end in death, being known as myiasis. The sharp-mouthed fly (Stomoxys calcitrans}, represented in' 9 of the figure orr. p. 3028, closely resembles the house fly in size, shape, and coloring, but may be? recognized by its sharp, horizontally projecting proboscis, and also by the flagellumi of the antennae being hairy upon one side only. It is less often seen in houses- than the house fly, although occasionally paying them a visit, especially if there be 3030 THE JOINTED ANIMALS stables in the vicinity. By means of its proboscis this fly pierces the skin of cattle and horses, or even of man, and gorges itself on the blood. Its eggs are laid in the excrement of the cattle on which it feeds. Resembling Stomoxys in habits and in the structure of its antennae and mouth parts, the tsetse fly ( Glossina morsitans) of Equatorial Africa, although barely equaling a blowfly in size, is one of the greatest pests to domestic cattle, as the following accounts amply testify. As shown in the annexed illustration, the proboscis of this fly is long and prominent, and the antennas (b) are peculiar in that the third segment is very long and produced almost as far as the apex of the flagellum, which is furnished with barbed hair along its outer surface only. Writing of the tsetse, Livingstone says that "we had come through another tsetse district by night, and at once passed our cattle over to the northern bank, which, though only fifty yards distant, was entirely free from the pests. This was the more singular that we often saw natives carrying over raw meat with many tsetse upon it. This insect is not much larger than the common house fly, and is nearly of the same brown color as the honeybee. The after part of the body TSETSE FLY (enlarged). a. Side view of head ; b. Antenna. has three or four yellow bars across it. It is remarkably alert, and evades dexter- ously all attempts to capture it with the hand at common temperatures. In the cool of the mornings and evenings it is less agile. Its peculiar buzz when once heard can never be forgotten by the travelers whose means of locomotion are domes- tic animals, for its bite is death to the ox, horse, and dog. In this journey, though we watched the animals carefully, and believe that not a score of flies were ever upon them, they destroyed forty-three fine oxen. A most remarkable feature is the perfect harmlessness of the bite to man and wild animals, and even calves so long as they continue to suck the cows, though it is no protection to the dog to feed him on milk. The poison does not seem to be injected by a sting, or by ova placed beneath the skin, for, when the insect is allowed to feed freely on the hand, it inserts the middle prong of the three portions into which the proboscis divides some- what deeply into the true skin. It then draws the prong out a little way, and it assumes a crimson color as the mandibles come into brisk operation. The previously shrunken belly swells out, and, if left undisturbed, the fly quietly departs when it is full. A slight itching irritation follows the bite. In the ox the immediate effects CIRCULAR-SEAMED FLIES 3031 are no greater than in man; but a few days afterward the eyes and nose begin to run, the coat stares, a swelling appears under the jaw, and sometimes at the navel; and though the poor creature continues to graze, emaciation commences, accom- panied with a peculiar flaccidity of the muscles. This proceeds unchecked until, perhaps months afterward, purging comes on, and the victim dies in a state of extreme exhaustion. The animals which are in good condition often perish soon after the bite is inflicted with staggering and blindness, as if the brain were affected. Sudden changes of temperature produced by falls of rain seem to hasten the pro- gress of the complaint, but, in general, the wasting goes on for months. When the carcass is opened, the cellular tissue beneath the skin is found injected with air, as if a quantity of soap bubbles were scattered over it. The blood is small in quantity, and scarcely stains the hands in dissection. The fat is of a greenish-yellow color, and of an oily consistence. All the muscles are flabby, and the heart is often so soft that the fingers may be made to meet through it. The lungs and liver partake of the disease. The stomach and bowels are pale and empty, and the gall bladder is distended with bile. These symptoms seem to indicate poison in the blood, the germ of which enters when the proboscis is inserted. The mule, ass, and goat enjoy the same immunity from the tsetse as man and the game. Many large tribes on the Zambezi can keep no domestic animals except the goat, in consequence of the scourge existing in their country. Our children were frequently bitten, yet suffered no harm; and we saw around us numbers of zebras, buffaloes, pigs, palas, and other antelopes feeding quietly in the very habitat of the fly. There is not so much dif- ference in the natures of the horse and zebra, the buffalo and ox, the sheep and the antelope, as to afford any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon." With the gradual spread of civilization, it might be supposed that the ravages of this pest would become lessened; but this does not appear by any means to be the case. Writing in 1881, Mr. Selous remarks that " nowhere does this virulent insect exist in such numbers as to the westward of the Victoria Falls, along the southern bank of the Zambezi and Chobe. It is usually found in great numbers near the rivers, becoming scarcer and scarcer as one advances inland, till at a distance of a few miles it disappears, except in some particular patches of forest. Along the water's edge they are an incredible pest, attacking one in a perfect swarm from daylight till sunset; and without a buffalo or giraffe tail to swish him off, life would be unen- durable. . . . About one in every ten bites (that perhaps touches a nerve) closely resembles the sting of a wasp or bee, as it will cause one, when seated to spring up as if pricked with a needle. ... I think that this plague of the tsetse flies along the Chobe and Zambezi is due to the enormous numbers of buffaloes that frequent their banks, as they always seem very partial to these animals. The bite of this remarkable insect, as is well known, though fatal to all kinds of domestic animals, is innocuous to every species of game and to man. A general belief exists that among domestic animals, the donkey, dog, and goat are exceptions to this rule; but this is a mistake, for I have seen all three die from the effect of its bites." The genus to which the common tsetse belongs is represented in South Africa by several species, all of which seem to be similar in habits. It ranges from Somaliland in the east and the Congo in the west, southward as far as the 3032 THE JOINTED ANIMALS Limpopo. Fortunately, it is not universally distributed throughout the country, being somewhat local in its distribution, and inhabiting definite tracts of land, corresponding with the beds of rivers, from which it does not appear to spread to any great distance. Another group of flies constitutes the subfamily Tachinince, of which the best- known examples are the spiny flies (Tac/rina*), so called on account of the thickness of the bristles with which their bodies are clothed. Of stout and robust build, these flies present a great resemblance to blowflies and their allies, but have the bristles of the antennae naked, or feathery only at the base, and the scales covering the bal- ancers of larger size. The larvae, like those of the Conopidae, live parasitically upon other insects, such as beetles, grasshoppers, and caterpillars. The great spiny fly {Echinomyia grossa) , rather a local species, is the largest representative of the fam- ily found in Britain. It is about two-thirds of an inch long, with a short, broad, oval abdomen; the shining black of its body being relieved by the reddish-yellow color of the head and the base of the wings. The allied species (E. ferox} repre- sented in the illustration is brownish, with the abdomen tinted with red at the sides. I Belonging to the same subfamily is the Australian fly, Rutilia, remarkable among the order for being ornamented with bright metallic-green spots. By reason of their ex- ternal form and general coloring the flies of the subfamily Anthomyince appear to the casual observer to be nothing but ordinary house flies; but they may be distinguished from the latter by the absence of the apical transverse vein on the wing (marked d on the figure of the fly's wing on p. 3011). The scales, moreover, which cover the halteres are very small, and lead up to the condition found in those flies in which they are absent. The larvae, which differ from those of the house flies and blowflies in being covered with spines, live on plants of various kinds, those that have attracted the most attention being the species that attack cultivated vegetables, such as onions, cabbages, lettuces, radishes, and the like. Those members of the family having no scales covering the balancers and assigned to the subfamily Trypetince are generally of small size, many being very obnoxious on account of the damage inflicted by their larvae on various marketable vegetables. Of the numerous species it is only possible to notice a few. The first is the painted- winged asparagus fly (Platyparea p when, quitting their host, they e. Pupa. (All enlarged.) fall to the ground, bury themselves, and in the course of a month or six weeks emerge from the pupa stage as fully-developed flies. The species most commonly met with in England is not H. boms but H. lineatum. It can be easily under- stood from the fact a 5 that since no fewer than four hundred maggots, each grow- ing to an inch in length, have been known to infest a single beast, the loss occasioned by the at- tacks of this fly is con- siderable. It has been estimated, indeed, by Stratton, that in the United Kingdom alone a loss of something OX WARBI.E FI GIANT SWIFT MOTH. THE CASE WEAVERS 3065 with a narrow black border. The species, which is abundant in certain parts of England, as well as on the Continent, is shown in various stages of development in the illustration on p. 3074. THE CASE WEAVERS — Family PSTCHIDJE An interesting group of moths, although not noticeable either for size or color- ation, is that of the case weavers. Their chief claim to notice is from the curious habits of the larvae, which form from vegetable debris, twigs, chips, etc., a case in which they dwell, pro- truding merely the thoracic segments, with the three pairs of legs belonging to them. Some other moths, as for instance the genus Coleophora, also construct a tough case of a somewhat similar nature but manu- factured entirely of silk. Among other insects the same habit of the larvae is found among the caddice flies, which creep on river beds protected by a case of incrusted shells, pebbles, twigs, etc. In the moths of the present family the males alone possess well-devel- oped wings, the females being wormlike, and often without antennae, legs, or wings. The phenomenon known as parthenogenesis has been observed among members of this family. The moths are mostly dull brown insects, and the various species are better dis- tinguished by a comparison of the larval cases than of the insects themselves. Of the many species embraced in this family, one only can be described, and this but briefly. This species (Psyche unicolor} is a dull brown little moth, common in Central and Eastern Europe, but not found in England. The larva of the male moth makes a larger and more conspicuous case, than does the grub which will produce the wingless female. The larvae hibernate securely inclosed in their cases, which are spun on a tree trunk or other convenient object. In the spring the silken attachments are severed, and the larva continues to feed until the time of pupation has arrived, when it again spins up the mouth of the case to a tree or post, and changes within it to the pupa. The male then emerges as a perfect moth, but the female, which is devoid of eyes, ovi- positor, or any appendages worthy of being styled antennae or legs, remains in the larval case even after it has emerged from the pupa. The organs for the produc- tion of eggs are, however, complete, and parthenogenesis must, as in many other cases, be looked upon as exceptional. PSYCHE MOTH. Male; b. Female, larva in case; c. Female pupa; d. Female moth; e. Male, larva in case; f. Male pupa. (All of natural size.) Family The moths belonging to this family, like those of several others, do not possess any proboscis; the antennae being pectinate in both sexes. The larvae are smooth, 3066 THE JOINTED ANIMALS and feed sometimes for several years before pupating in the centre of tree trunks of various kinds; a cocoon being formed of chips of wood within which the pupa awaits its final development. The family is typified by the goat moth (Cossus ligniperda), in which the front wings are of a rich brown, streaked and mottled with darker tints, while the hind pair are dull brown. The larva — often known as the auger worm — is exceedingly destructive to forest trees, the holes which it bores in its ravages being often half an inch, and even more, across. Its odor recalls that of a goat, hence the name given to the moth. A large, long, flat, broad larva, flesh colored, with short hairs scattered over the body, it is seldom met with, though it sometimes may be found as it crosses a road or footpath when seeking for a suitable place in which to spin its cocoon. It lives for over three years in the larval state, and makes a very tough cocoon from wood chips, glued together with a gum which it secretes. It is a native of Europe and Western Asia, generally appearing in June and July. It is figured on p. 3063. ALLIED FAMILIES The next family (Arbelidtz} must be dismissed without further remark. The Hepialidce include the insects known as ghost moths, one of which, the largest British species (Hepialus lupuUnus) has the wings white above and brown below, so that when it flies in the dusk of the evening it appears and disappears in rapid sequence owing to the practical invisibility of the dull color of the under side, in sharp con- trast to the vivid white of the upper side. A near ally of the ghost moth, likewise referable to the family Hepialidcz, is the splendid giant-swift moth (Zelotypia stacyi) of Australia, which has been selected for illustration in our colored plate, as being one of the finest of all moths. As the coloration and characteristics of this magnifi- cent insect are sufficiently indicated in the illustration, it will only be necessary to give some account of its habits. Originally described from imperfect specimens found at the Manning river and in the neighborhood of Newcastle, this moth was subsequently obtained in some numbers by the miners of the latter district. Mr. A. S. Oliff writes that "as the insect is rarely found in the perfect, or imago condition, the larva has to be sought for and reared, — a matter of no little difficulty, as it lives, like those of the allied genus Charagia, in cylindrical burrows, which it makes in the interior of the stems or branches of trees, sometimes near the surface of the ground, and sometimes at a height of fifty or a hundred feet. By searching for these burrows, and rearing the larvae, or pupae, when found, a considerable number of specimens have been obtained by the miners; but I am informed that the supply is by no means equal to the demand." The caterpillar is long, cylindrical, and fleshy. Above, its general color is pale yellow, with the divisions between the segments inclining to reddish brown. The first three segments are rather bright red; and the following segments, with the exception of the last two, are marked with three pale spots in the middle, and two on each side. The finely rugose head is black, as are the claws of the short legs. In the long and cylindrical pupa each of the abdominal segments beyond ALLIED FAMILIES 3067 the extremities of the wing covers is provided with a transverse serrated horny ridge near the front margin; the seventh to the tenth segments bearing similar but less prominent ridges; while the hinder extremity is armed with small sharp spines. Usually the caterpillar makes its burrows in the wood of the gray gum tree; but there is some doubt as to whether it does not occasionally resort to another species of gum. Regarding the habits of the larva and pupa, Mr. Froggart writes that the former ' ' changes into the chrysalis in December, after having eaten off the web in front of the bore, and placed a thick felty wad, or button, just inside the opening of the bore; but as soon as the chrysalis skin has become hard and firm, it pushes the wad away, and moves freely up and down the bore, which varies in depth from ten to twelve inches. It can move up and down the passage very rapidly, the curious file-like rings on the lower edge of the abdominal segments being evidently adapted to helping its locomotion. When nearly mature it has the habit, particularly in the afternoons, of resting in the bore, with the top of its head just level with the floor of the cross bore, and plainly visible from the outside. The moths appear early in March. It has been found that the}7 never come out after three o'clock in the afternoon; and chrysalids under observation, if not out at that hour, can be safely left until the next day." The next family (Callidulidtz') must also be omitted; while the Drepanulidce may be referred to as containing the British species Cilix spinula, and the common hook tip (Drepana falcataria} , and allied forms. Of the Thyrididcz there is but one European genus ( Thyris) and no British species of this; while the next family (the Limacodidcz) is not of sufficient impor- tance to detain us. Family LASIOCAMPID^E The lappets, drinkers, and eggars, are well-known species included in this large family. These moths are large, for the most part, two inches to two and one- half across the expanded fore-wings, others being smaller, about one inch only in expanse of wing, with stout hairy bodies and strong wings. They fly rapidly in broad daylight or at night. The larvae are clothed with soft hair, that on the sides being often directed downward in a tufted form. To the genus Gastropacha belong the lappet (G. quercifolia) and the oak eggar (G. quercus}; the common drinker per- taining to another genus {Odonestis}, with the specific name potatoria. As exam- ples of the former genus we select for description the pine lappet and the procession moth, both abundant on the Continent, but not occurring in England. The larvae of both these moths spin silken cocoons. Having the front wings gray, tinted with different shades of brown, the pine lappet (Gastropacha pint) is a large moth measur- ing about two and one-half inches across the wings. The larvae are ashen gray, with a dorsal row of dark blotches, a lateral brown stripe, and a pair of blue transverse bands on the third and fourth segments. This handsome larva is often very destructive to the pine forests, where it feeds upon the needles of the trees, and sometimes appears in overwhelming numbers. In coping with the enormous quan- 3o68 THE JOINTED ANIMALS tity of caterpillars of this moth which devastate the district on these occasions, man is materially assisted by other creatures. Thus, a tree frog ascends and feeds upon the larvae; ichneumons of different species sting, and thus destroy, thousands; UFE HISTORY OF PINE I.APPET MOTH. a. Male ; *. Female ; c. Eggs ; d. I^arva ; e. Cocoon ; / A beetle (Calosoma] attacking larva ; g. :t,arva of Calosoma,- h. An ichneumon laying its eggs in the'pupa; i. Small parasites emerging from their cocoons on the remains of the larva which they have devoured. an internal fungus establishes itself in the caterpillar, with the same result; and, lastly, a beetle and its larvae, which are represented in the illustration, render no small assistance in clearing off the pest. The caterpillars are hatched in the autumn. 3069 and hibernate, remaining throughout the winter in the moss at the foot of the trees. In this state, coiled round in a spiral form, they may be frozen quite stiff, yet on the return of spring they regain vitality, and climb the trees in search of their usual provender. The red-brown cocoon is spun sometimes between the needles of the tree, as represented in the illustration, or else beneath some semidetached piece of bark. In the procession moth (Gastropacha processioned} the fore-wings are yellow gray, with a glossy sheen, and dark indistinct oblique transverse bars. The larvre are hairy with a blue-black back, pale sides, and red or gray warts on each PROCESSION MOTH (Gdstropdchd processioned). 1. Male ; 2. Single hair of the larva ; 3. Segment of larva ; 4. The pupa ; 5. The cocoons of several larvae spun up together. (Nos. 2 and 3 enlarged.) (The main illustration represents the migration of the larvae in orderly procession.) segment. At night the caterpillars march out to feed in a regular orderly proces- sion, as represented in the illlustration. One, the leader, marches at the head, followed by two, three, and so on, forming a wedge-shaped column. They ascend the oak trees and return again in the same manner to their resting place. They also spin their cocoons together as in Fig. 5 of the illustration. The species is common throughout Central and Southern Europe in August and September. As our last representative of the family we take the lackey moth (Clisiocampa neustria), which is common in England and all through Europe and North and Western Asia 3070 THE JOINTED ANIMALS V during July and August. The fore-wings are dull ochre brown, with two oblique transverse brown bars. The eggs are laid by the female in the late summer in a firmly attached ring round some small twigs as shown in the illustration. The larvae hatch in the spring following, and are brown with blue, white, red, and yellow longitudinal stripes; all feed on the leaves of the pear and other fruit trees, and spin a long sulphurous yellow cocoon among the leaves. Family L TMA N TRIIDsE, LACKEY MOTH. Perfect insect, eggs, larvae, and cocoon. This group includes a number of moths in which the males have the antennas strongly pectinated, while in the case of the genus Orgyia the female is wingless. None possess a proboscis. The larvae are hairy, and clothed with long thick tufts, springing in some places from wart-like prominences. The hairs of the larvae are woven into the cocoon, and if they come in contact with the skin cause great irritation. In this family are included some well-known British moths, such as the vaporer (Orgyia antiqua), the pale tussock (Dasychira pudibunda} , the black arches (Lymantria monacka), the gold tail and brown tail, the satin moth, and many others. In the gypsy moth ( Ocneria dispar) the wings of the male are smoky black, while those of the female are gray; the appearance of the two sexes being very different indeed. The larvae feed on various trees, and though very rare in England are sometimes so abundant on the Continent as to prove very destructive to all kinds of trees and herbage; stripping even maize and millet fields, orchard, and vegetable produce. HERMAPHRODITE OYPSY MOTH. The cocoon is formed in a few folded leaves spun together with silk or in a crevice in the bark. The single figure represents an hermaphrodite specimen of this insect. Its wings, antennae, and the dark half of the thorax and abdomen on the left side are of the coloring and form peculiar to the male, while those on the right resemble the form peculiar to the female. The illustration on p. 3071 illustrates the stages in the development of the black arches moth, which is not altogether abundant in England but much more commonly met ALLIED FAMILIES 3071 DEVELOPMENT OF GYPSY MOTH, i. Male ; 2. Female ; 3. Pupa ; 4. Larvae in different stages. (Natural size.) 7 4 •. 1 2 8 BLACK ARCHES MOTH. 1 and 2. Males ; 3, 4, and 5. Females ; 6. Young larvae ; 7. Full grown larvae ; 8. Pupa. (Natural size.) 3072 THE JOINTED ANIMALS with on the Continent. Indeed, so abundant is it at times that it causes great injury to forest trees. In Prussia, Lithuania, and Poland, the havoc has PALE TUSSOCK MOTH, WITH ITS CATERPILLAR AND PUPA. (Natural size.) been particularly severe. In 1863 the moth appeared in countless thousands, driven up as a regular insect storm by the south wind. Within a few hours the moths spread over the whole country side, buildings were completely covered BROWN-TAIL MOTH. 1. Male; 2. Female laying eggs ; 3. Larvse ; 4. Pupa; 5. Antennae of male ; 6. Wing scales 7. GOLD-TAIL MOTH (Porthesia auriflua) larvae ; 8. Separate plumose hairs ; 9. Segments of larvae. (5, 6, 8, 9, enlarged. ) by them, and the very surf of the lake assumed a more snowy whiteness, due to the color of the hosts of moths drowned in the waters. The woods seemed as though visited by a violent snowstorm, so thickly were the insects massed in the ALLIED FAMILIES 3073 foliage. In 1852 whole forests were felled, in order if possible to be rid of the pest. The trunks were searched for eggs, and every tree trunk in an area of fourteen thousand acres was examined. Often an ounce of eggs would be taken from a single tree, and, at the computation of thirty thousand to the ounce, we get, at one hundred trees per acre, upward of thirty hundred million larvae at work upon the trees in that area when the eggs hatched. Spotted woodpeckers, finches of all kinds, the larva of a longicorn beetle, Clerus, all assisted in the work of destruction. Yet, in spite of all this, it needed a hundred laborers with twenty foremen to carry out the destruction of the young larvae hatched from eggs which were overlooked in a single acre of forest. The ground too, after the season was over, was white with the cocoons of countless thousands of Ichneumonidtz , so that millions of the larvae can never, from the attacks of these alone, have reached maturity. The pale tussock moth {Dasychira pudibunda) derives its trivial name from the tufts or tussocks of hair so noticeable a feature in the hairy clothing of the larvse. The fore-wings are gray with a smoky transverse bar. The larva is green with a transverse bar of velvet SATIN MOTH WITH LARV* AND PUPA. An ichneumon is depositing its eggs in one of the larvae, while another is just emerging from the pupa. black between the segments from five to eight. Each of these segments bears a thick squarely truncated tuft of upright yel- low hairs, and the last carries a long tail or brush of hair. The species is abundant in England and all Europe. In the brown-tail moth {Porthesia chrysorrhcea) the wings are snowy white, while the body is white with a brown tufted tail in the male, which in the female is much larger. The hairs of the tuft are deposited upon the eggs as a covering when laid by the female. The larva is short, thick, and black, with four rows of spiny tubercles along the sides. It is common in Great Britain and also on the Continent. Very similar to the last is the gold tail (Porthesia auriflua}, but the front wings are dotted with three or more black spots, while the tuft at the extremity of the abdomen is formed of golden hairs instead of brown. The larva has rows of tubercles along the sides, whence issue numerous hair-like bristles. Each of the tubercles of the second row bears tufts of white hair. The third row is bright red. A bright vermilion double stripe runs along the back, while between the tenth and eleventh segments is a cup-like scarlet protuberance. The satin moth (Porthesia salicis} is another well-known mem- ber of the family, taking its name from the white satiny wings; the antennae and thorax being also white, and the body black, clothed with white hairs. The larva feeds on the poplar, and is abundant in England and throughout Europe. 193 THE JOINTED ANIMALS THE TIGER MOTHS — Family ARCTIID^E Two families, including many tropical species, come between the Lymantriida and the Ardiidcz, namely, the Pterothysanidce and the Hypsidce. The forms included under the name Arctiidce, embracing a number of beautiful moths, such as the tigers, ermines, etc., are usually divided into four subfamilies, the Arctiinaz, repre- sented by the tigers, properly so called, the Lithosiince including the footmen, the Nolince, and the Nycteolina. Of the first subfamily, the most familiar member is the common tiger moth (Arctia caja), which in summer comes freely to light. The fore-wings are rich chocolate brown with cream-colored markings; and the hind- wings crimson with black blotches. Two very beautiful varieties of this exceed- 1. COMMON TIGER MOTH ; 2 and 3. Varieties of same ; 4. Larva of same; 5. SIX-SPOT BURNET ; 6. Its larva; 7. THE SPANGLED WHITE. (Natural size.) ingly variable moth are figured in the accompanying illustration. The larva is the well-known woolly bear, a large swiftly moving caterpillar, clothed with long bristling black hairs, red at their base, which spins a loose web, thickly covered with the hairs with which it is clothed, and turns to a naked pupa. THE OWL MOTHS— Family Passing over the family Agaristidce, we reach the true night-flying moths, now included in the family Noctuidce. This enormous group has been subdivided into no less than ten subfamilies. Of the first subfamily ( Trifeiruz} the rustic shoulder THE OWL MOTHS 3075 knot (Hadena basilinea} is a well-known example. In this moth the fore- wings are gray brown, with a central transverse darker band, and a distinct dark streak at the base of the wing. The larva is gray brown, with three white lines along the back. It feeds on various kinds of grass, and often on the ears of wheat devouring the corn grains. As its scientific name implies, the pine moth ( Trachea piniperdd) is in the larval state very destructive to pine trees in seasons favorable to a great increase in their number. When young, they spin together the needles of the pines, and often drop themselves by a thread to various points, whither they may feel inclined to descend. The pupa may be found in plenty among the moss which so often carpets the ground in pine woods. The moth itself is cinnamon fed, with white blotches and spots. It is common in England and on the Continent. A figure of the moth and the larva is given on p. 3068. Themerveil du jour {Dipthera orion}, figured in the accompanying illustration, indicates another subfamily (Acon- tince} . It has the fore- wings of a pale green, with longitudinal white stripes, and three 1. MERVEIL DU JOUR, WITH LARVA ; 2. RUSTIC SHOULDER KNOT, WITH LARVA ; 3. FIGURE-OP-EIGHT MOTH, WITH LARVA. broken transverse black bars, the fringe being spotted with black and white. The egg is described as resembling a sea urchin, having twenty sinuous ribs. The larva is black, with large primrose yellow spots on the back of the third, fifth, and eighth segments. It feeds in September upon the oak and birch, and the pupa is inclosed in a cocoon of bark chips, or fragments of decayed wood. This insect is very rare in England, but common on the Continent. In the same group, the caterpillar of the white-spotted pinion (Cosmia diffinis}, as well as that of the closely-allied C. trapezina, are remarkable for their habit of preying upon their fellow caterpillars if confined together, otherwise their food consists of the leaves of various trees. The moth of the species figured in the illustration is very beautiful, being of a satiny chestnut, suffused with reddish gray, and having two somewhat transverse slashes'from the margin of the wing. Not uncommon in England, it is even more abundant on the Continent. The crimson underwings (Catocala) , which indicate another subfamily (GTtadrifince] , and are known in the New Forest as the crimsons, 3076 THE JOINTED ANIMALS are rich chocolate brown of various hues, with deep crimson under wings, marked with a pair of transverse black bands. They come to sugar freely in July, and are common in some parts of England. The finest and rarest of these beautiful insects is the Clifden nonpareil (Catocala fraxini] , very rare in England, but more abun- I. WHITE-SPOTTED PINION MOTH, WITH LARVA ; 2. PINE MOTH, WITH LARVA. (Natural size.) dant on the Continent. Scarcely less striking is the red underwing (C. nupta), in which the gray wings are mottled with darker shades, rendering it difficult to detect when resting on the gray bark of some forest tree. The hind-wings are pale crim- son, with a central curving transverse black bar, and another broad black band RED UNDERWING, WITH L,ARVA. (Natural size.) along the margin. The caterpillar is gray, with darker brown markings, bearing a pale yellow prominence on the ninth segment. It feeds on a species of willow, Salixfragilis, and the adult appears on the wing in August and September; being not uncommon in England, but found more abundantly on the Continent. In the THE LOOPERS 3077 angle shades (Brotolontia meticulosa), which is one of the most beautiful, as it is one of the commonest of British moths, the larva is delicate green, smooth, and velvety, thickly speckled with minute white spots. It feeds on groundsel. The perfect in- sect, which appears on the wing in May and June, and a second brood in September, is common throughout Europe. In the prettily-marked species known as the feathered gothic (Neuronia popularis} the fore- wings are dark brown, with white nervures. The orbicular and vermiform spots are of the same color. The antennae are pectinate in the males, and simple in the female; while the hind-wings are dull- white, with darker margin. The larva is brown, streaked and spotted with black and rosy brown, with a pale stripe along the sides, and four others, more inter- rupted, along the back. It feeds on the various kinds of grasses in April and May, while the perfect insect appears on the wing in the early part of September. Fig- ures of this European species are given below. The next form for notice is the so- called antler moth (Charceas graminis), which is probably one of the most destructive I. THE FEATHERED GOTHIC, WITH LARVA; 2. ANGLE SHADES; 3. THE ANTLER MOTH. species in Britain, when, under the influence of a favorable season, the larvae appear in very great numbers. The larvae feed upon the roots of grasses, and it is no un- common thing for whole districts of pasture land to become brown and withered, owing to their attacks. The perfect insect appears on the wing in August and September. A figure of this moth is given above. THE LOOPERS — Family The moths belonging to this group resemble in many respects the butterflies, hav- ing large, ample wings, a small head, and a narrow elongate body. The antennae are not, however, clubbed; those of* many of the males being pectinated. The palpi protrude only slightly, the proboscis is present in different degrees of development, while the head bears no ocelli on the top. When at rest, the majority of these moths carry their delicate wings slightly expanded, or closed over their bodies, like the roof of a house, sloping from the centre on either side. They are semi- nocturnal in their habits, appearing at dusk, and lying concealed during the day in bushes, trees, and herbage, whence they may be easily driven by beating the foliage. The larvae differ very decidedly from those of the other families, several pairs of the prolegs being wanting, so that locomotion is possible only by alternately advancing- 3078 THE JOINTED ANIMALS the front and hinder segments, the central portion of the body being thus raised in the form of a loop. The pupae are sometimes, as in the butterflies, encircled with a silken thread, but the majority spin together a few leaves, and change within the receptacle thus formed, or burrow into the earth among dead leaves and moss. Of the first subfamily (Boarmiince} we select as a representative the handsome pepper moth (Biston betularia) which is one of the largest of the European geometers, and re- sembles members of the family Bombycidce in the possession of a stout abdomen. The form of the larva, however, is quite distinct, and closely resembles that of a dead twig. Doubtless such a likeness saves it somewhat from the attacks of birds and ichneumon wasps. When fully extended, and clinging only by its hindmost claspers, the caterpillar assimilates so marvelously with the brown and olive tints of the boughs among which it takes up its station, that it is almost indistinguishable from its surroundings. Another handsome member of the same group is the mottled umber {Hibernia defoliaria), which appears very late in the season, long after the majority of the members of the order have completed the term of their exist- ence. By night the male circles around the trunks of trees in search of his wingless partner. In the former sex the large wings are pale ochre in color, with a darker wavy transverse bar. The female, on the other hand, is variegated black and ochreous yellow, and bears no small resemblance to some species of spider. The larvae feed on the buds of various trees, and descend into the earth to change into the pupa; the latter being dark mahogany, with a sharp spine at the tail. The species is PEPPER MOTH, WITH I.ARVA AND PUPA. not rare in England and on the (Natural size.) Continent. The scarce umber (H. aurantiaria) , which is figured in the same illustration, is less common than the last, but appears at the same season. Nearly allied is the winter moth {Cheimatobia brumata), which in mode of life is somewhat similar to the mottled umber, but, as indicated by its scientific name, flies still later in the year. The larva lives partially secluded among the leaves which it draws together with silk. When occurring in great numbers, these caterpillars do THE LOOPERS 3079 serious damage to forest trees and orchards. The male is of a dusky gray color, with three darker bands across the upper wings; while the female is wingless. In 4 86 5 3 GROUP OF LOOPEKS. l 2 MOTTLED UMBER— 1. Male; 2. Female; 3. Larva. SCARCE UMBER — 4. Male; 5. Female. WINTER MOTH— 6. Male; 7. Female; 8. Larva. (Natural size.) order to prevent the females from ascending the trees and laying their eggs on the foliage, it is the custom in Sweden to ring the trunk with a narrow band of some BORDERED WHITE — i. Male; 2. Female, with larva; 3. ARGENT-AND-SABLE, with larva. (Natural size.) sticky substance. The bordered white (Bupalus piniarius] is another well-known member of the group. In this species the males are very abundant, flying among 3080 THE JOINTED ANIMALS fir plantations in England and on the Continent. The females are no less common f but do not take wing so readily. The larva is pale green, with whitish stripes, and pale yellow spiracles, and feeds during the months of August and September on the spines of the Scotch fir. One of 1 the most familiar of the British loopers is the magpie moth (Abraxas gros- sulariata}, which at times makes its appearance in great numbers. The perfect insect is prettily mottled with white and black, and on this account is called in Germany the harlequin moth. Another species, the scarce or clouded magpie (A. ulmata}, is more abundant in the Midland counties of England than the common magpie, though less so in the south. Of the common MAGPIE MOTH IN ALL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. species the larva feeds on the gooseberry and black currant, doing considerable damage at times. It is one of the most strikingly mar- ked of the geometric larvae, and turns to a yellow-banded pupa within a slightly woven web. The little moth shown in the annexed illustration, and commonly known as the dark spinach (Larentia chenopodiata] , may be taken to represent the subfamily Larentiince. Appearing in July and August, it is a com- mon species on the Continent, and is epecially abundant in gardens and shrubberies, where it may be found resting either on the bark I. PURPLE-BARRED YELLOW; 2. LIME-SPECK. (Natural size.) DARK SPINACH MOTH AND LARVA. (Natural size.) of trees or the walls of buildings. The caterpillar is grayish brown in. color, and feeds on the goosefoot. The group to which this species be- longs are often termed carpet moths. Of another genus, known as pugs (Eupitheda), the lime-speck moth (Eu. signata) may be mentioned. The ground color of the wings is milk white, with gray blotches and specks, and a broad red gray band on the margin. These moths fly commonly at night in England and on the Continent, while the larva, which is very variable in color — bluish green, yellow green, or pinkish SNOUT MOTHS 3081 white — feeds in August and September on various annuals, such as goldenrod, ragwort, etc. Figures of the moth and larva are given on the opposite page. By no means a common species in England, although found occasionally in dis- tricts where birch trees abound, the argent-and-sable (Melanippe hastata) appears in May, flying actively round trees. The larva may be found later in the year among the birch foliage, in a receptacle formed of several leaves drawn together with silken threads. The pupal state is passed in the ground. Figures of this moth and its larva are given on p. 3079. The purple-barred yellow (Lythria purpuraria) , figured on the opposite page, is a not uncommon species on commons, pasture lands, and stubble fields in England and the Continent. The ground color of the wings is pale olive yellow, the upper pair banded with two or three pale vinous-purple bars. The larva, which is brownish yellow with a pale longitudinal dorsal stripe, feeds on sorrel and docks. SNOUT MOTHS — Family The snout moths {Hypena) are intermediate between the Geometridce and Pyralidcz, bearing characteristics which ally them to both families and yet exclude them from either. The common snout (H. proboscidalis) is a pale brownish-yellow moth, transversely marked with rusty brown, and is abundant throughout England and the Continent from June to September. H. obsitalis has only once been taken in England. SUBORDER Microlepidoptera The whole of the remaining members of the order are of minute size, and are hence generally indicated by the above name, although it must be understood that many of them are closely allied to some of the foregoing. They are divided into a large number of families — with their subfamilies and genera — of which only a very few can be even mentioned here. Among these pearls (Pyralidce) are repre- sented by the mother-of-pearl moth {Botys margaritalis} , which in June or July may be seen in Britain hovering over the fields in the dusk of the evening, where the female lays her eggs on the seed pods of the flax and other plants. When the caterpillar emerges it spins a few threads between the pods, and bores through their outer shell in order to feed upon the seeds. The moth itself is of a dull sulphur yellow, with two transverse rusty yel- MOTHER--OF-PEARL MOTH, WITH LARVA. low bands, intersected by a rusty brown stripe running obliquely from the tip of the wing. It is common in June and July on the Continent. To the same family belongs the meal moth (Asopia 3082 THE JOINTED ANIMALS farinalis], found in abundance in summer wherever corn, meal, or grains are stored in quantities. It rests on the rafters and walls in the daytime, flying at nightfall. The larva feeds on corn, meal, grain, bran, etc., and passes its life in concealment in a silken tube, of which the outer side is incrusted with particles of the food stuffs on which the larva feeds. The larval state lasts for nearly two years. A figure of this species is given on p. 3083. The wax moth (Galleria mellonella} may be taken to illustrate another family — the Tortricidcz. This remarkable moth is double brooded, appearing on the wing in the springtime, and again in July and onwards. The larva feeds in the hives of honeybees, and, according to some, in the nests of wild bees as well. The wax, however — not the honey — forms its food stuff, and through the combs it eats long tunnels which it lines with silk as it goes. It does not seem particularly choice in the matter of diet, and has been successfully reared on heather, woolen stuffs, dry leaves, paper, etc. In the case of the wax eaters, the second brood nourishes itself upon the excrement of the first brood, OAK TORTRIX IN VARIOUS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. (Natural size.) i. OAK GALL TORTRIX ; 2. Pupa appearing from the resin gall ; 3. Glypta resinants, ichneumon ; 4. THE LARCH TORTRIX ; 4 and even to as many as fifty (in the Longicorn genus Polyarthron) , or it may be reduced even to so low a number as two (in Platyrhopalus} . When the joints are more or less cylindrical in form, the antennae may be either filiform, if of nearly uniform thick- ness throughout, setaceous if they taper toward the extremity, or moniliform if 194 3090 THE JOINTED ANIMALS each of the joints is short and bead-like. The antennae are said to be clavate when thickened at the extremity, in the form of a knob or club; lamellate when three or more of the terminal joints spread out in broad processes which lie flat upon one another; serrate, when the joints have on one side short angular processes like the teeth of a saw; pectinate or comb-like, when the processes are fairly long and stand out nearly at right angles; or flabellate, if the processes are proportionately very long. These are some of the chief types of antennae met with in the Coleoptera; others of less frequent occurrence will be mentioned when we come to treat of the different families. The sense of smell is undoubtedly very acute in a great many beetles, as anyone acquainted with their habits could easily testify; and it is consid- ered probable that certain minute pits scattered over the surface of the antennae, or crowded together on special areas, are in some way coi»ected with this sense. Though it is not so easy to prove that beetles can hear, it seems hardly open to doubt that in some cases at le'ast the}' possess this faculty. Every one has heard of the deathwatch beetle (Anobium), which lives in old furniture and woodwork of houses, and makes a noise like the ticking of a watch. This little beetle produces the noise by hammering against the wood with its head, and apparently does so for the purpose of attracting its mate, who replies by making a similar tapping sound. It is easy by imitating their sounds to get the beetles to answer back; so that here at least there is some evidence that these insects are endowed with the faculty of hearing. Many other beetles are able to make sounds, which though not nearly so intense as the chirping of the crickets and grasshoppers, and not usually confined to one sex, are produced somewhat after the same manner by the friction of one part of the body over another. In beetles the sound sometimes arises from the rubbing of the hind-legs against the edge of the elytra, but in most cases it results from the rubbing of an edge over an adjacent area which is crossed like a file by a number of fine parallel ridges. This stridulating area is in some beetles placed on the upper side of the back part of the head, or on the gular surface underneath, so that when the head moves in its socket the upper or lower edge of the prothorax, as the case may be, scrapes along the file and thus gives rise to the sound. The prothorax of beetles is, as we have already stated, freely articulated with the mesothorax. Its dorsal arch or pronotum ordinarily covers over the whole of the mesonotum, with the exception of the small piece known as the scutellum; but when the prothorax is bent down, a considerable part of the mesonotum in front of the scutellum comes into view. It is on this part that the stridulating area of most of the longicorns and of some phytophagous beetles (Megalopinee} is situated. These insects make a sort of squeaking noise — which is sometimes fairly loud — by rapidly bending the prothorax up and down, and so causing its hind edge to move backward and for- ward over the ribbed surface of the mesonotum. In other beetles the stridulating area may be either on the upper surface of one of the hinder segments of the ab- domen, or on the sides of one of the anterior segments; the sound being produced in the one case by the friction of the area against the edge of the elytra, in the other by that of the posterior thighs against the sides of the abdomen. Beetles are among the most active of insects when on the ground, and, in accordance with their running powers, we find that their legs, though generally THE BEETLES 3091 slender, are strong and well developed. But in certain groups, where the habits and environment of the insects require it, the legs are adapted to various other pur- poses. Beetles that jump usually owe their leaping powers to the greatly thickened femora and straight and relatively long tibiae of the hind-legs. It would, however, be a mistake to suppose that when a beetle has thickened and strongly developed hind-legs it must consequently be able to jump. Some burrowing species, and others that are not very active in their movements, have very thick hind-legs; though, as a rule, it is the front pair of legs which is thickened and otherwise modified to serve as digging organs in those beetles that burrow underground. In aquatic beetles the swimming legs are disposed like oars, and have all their parts broad and flat, while their breadth is further increased by rows of bristles. Either the hind-legs only, which is the rule, or the middle pair also, as in the whirligig beetles (Gyrinidce), may be thus transformed into swimming organs. The coxae or basal joints of the legs vary much in shape and in the mode in which they are inserted in their sockets on the under side of the thorax. Those of each pair are sometimes close together, sometimes widely separated from another; while a longer or shorter distance may intervene between the coxae of the different pairs of legs, and especially between those of the two hinder pairs. Considerable importance attaches to the number of joints in the tarsi or feet. In classifying beetles this number is one of the first things to be noticed. If a beetle has five joints in each of its tarsi, it is placed in that section of the order which is known as the Pentam- era; if it appears to have only four joints in each foot, it belongs to the Tetram- era; and if but three, to the Trimera. When there are five joints in each of the four anterior feet, and only four in the hind-feet, the beetle may be regarded as one of the Heteromera. To these general rules there are a few exceptions which need not be discussed here; but we must point out that although in the Tetramera the tarsi appear to be four jointed, and in the Trimera three jointed, they are really composed of five joints and four respectively. The fourth joint in the one case, and the third in the other, are, however, usually so small as not to be noticed except upon very close examination. The abdomen is never stalked in beetles, but attached to the thorax by a broad base, which is applied against the posterior coxae; exceptionally, however, as in certain mimicking species, its base may be more or less narrowed. It is generally somewhat flattened in shape; and on the upper side eight segments are usually distinguishable, which, so far as protected by the elytra, have a soft and but slightly horny integument. Five or six segments are generally visible on the ventral side, but in certain cases the number may be reduced. The terminal segments are usually retracted within the abdomen, and completely hid- den from view, but in the females of many species they can be exserted in the form of a tubular ovipositor, which enables the insect to lay its eggs deep in the crevices of bark. Although beetles do not always exhibit differences in external form by which the sexes may be distinguished, such differences frequently exist, and are some- times of the most pronounced character. As a rule, the male is more slenderly built than the female, and has longer and more fully-developed antennae; his eyes also are often larger, and in the length and shape of the legs, and in the width and 3092 THE JOINTED ANIMALS structure of the tarsi, differences in the two sexes are frequently to be noticed. When the male is fully equipped for flying, the female may be without wings, or even, as in the case of the glowworm, without elytra; and whenever there is any decided difference in coloration, it is almost invariably the male which displays the brightest and most conspicuous colors. The great projecting horns and processes on the head or prothorax which give so grotesque an appearance to many beetles, are generally wanting or only feebly developed in the females; and these and other differences are sometimes so strongly marked that it is difficult to recognize in the two sexes individuals of one and the same species. The larvae of beetles do not in outward appearance exhibit anything approach- ing the great diversity seen in the perfect insects. They seldom display conspicu- ous markings, and are mostly of dingy white, brownish, or black colors. The external structure and form vary sufficiently to make it possible to tell to what family of beetles, or division of a family, a larva belongs; but, so far as species are concerned, our knowledge of the larvae is extremely limited, and applies to a relatively very small propor- tion of the whole number of known species of Coleop- tera. In the weevils, and some other beetles, the larvae are soft white grubs with scarcely any trace of legs, but in most of the other larvae the legs are fairly well developed, though not so completely as in the perfect insects. The head is always horny, and furnished with jaws for biting and grinding solid food. Exceptionally, as in the carnivorous larvae of some water beetles, the man- dibles are adapted for sucking up the juices of the animals on which these larvae prey. The antennae are short and few jointed, and in some cases quite inconspic- uous. Byes, when present, are always in the form of ocelli, which are grouped together in varying number on each side of the head. The head is followed by a series of rings or segments, of which the first three — scarcely different in form from the rest — constitute the thorax, and give attachment to the legs. A pair of prolegs is sometimes present on the last segment, but in beetle larvae the interme- diate segments never carry those false legs, which are so often found in the cater- pillars of l,epidoptera and Hymenoptera. The spiracles — which are mostly hidden by the elytra in the perfect insects — are generally quite conspicuous in the larvae, and appear as a row on each side of the body. Their number varies; and in those aquatic larva which breathe by means of tracheal gills they are altogether wanting. When about to pupate some larvse construct cocoons of earth, or, in the case of wood-boring species, they may make a shell out of fine chips and dust glued together with a sticky secretion. The pupae, whether inclosed in a cocoon or not, are inactive, and show all their appendages lying freely against the body, with each appendage wrapped round by its own special covering of integument. The larval existence of beetles varies from five or six weeks in some groups to almost as many years in others; and when conditions arise to interfere with the proper nourishment of the larvae, the period may be unduly prolonged. Some of the wood-boring Zabrus gibbus and its larva. (Natural size.) BEETLES IN A FLOOD. THE BEETLES 3093 larvae seem to live an exceptionally long time. There is at the present time in the Natural History Museum in London a block of wood containing a living longicorn larva, which for the past five or six years has been feeding and burrowing in the wood. The larva was brought to the museum in a boottree, which its owner previously had in constant use for over fourteen years. Other cases are on record in which beetles have been seen to emerge from furniture in houses, after having apparently passed an even more prolonged larval existence. Beetles, whether from the extent of their numbers or the variety of their shapes and instincts, are well qualified to play an important part in the economy of nature. Their chief function is that of universal scavengers. Not only do they dispose of the smaller quantities of dead and decaying animal and vegetable matter passed over by larger animals, but, by their own peculiar methods, they are enabled to attack and clear away even the carcasses of quadrupeds of large size, and the dead trunks of the largest trees. Owing to the compactness of their shape, and the solidity of their outer covering, they are adapted for a much greater diversity in modes of life than is possible for insects of other orders. Besides groups fitted to act as scavengers, we find further series of forms that live in, and prey upon, all kinds of plant life. There are groups again, either of terrestrial, arboreal, or aquatic habits, which seek for, and prey upon living animales of the smaller kinds. Some beetles live within the depths of the darkest caverns; and in such cases, having no use for eyes, they are generally blind. Others are to be found dwelling as "guests" in the homes of the ants and termites. Although the beetles cannot boast of such a long line of ancestry as the cockroaches and other Orthoptera, yet their records go back to an early period in geological history. There is no certain evidence that they existed in Paleozoic times, and their first appearance has not been traced farther back than the beginning of the Secondary epoch. The earliest undoubted fossil remains of Coleoptera occur in the Swiss Trias, and from this period onwards fossil beetles are to be met with in greater or less abundance in rocks of different ages. They are especially well preserved in amber; and from the Tertiary amber beds on the Baltic thousands of specimens have been collected. Of the beetles now existing, quite one hundred and thirty thousand different species have been described, and, considering the rate at which new species are be- ing yearly added, it is probable that before the end of the century the number of named species will fall little short of one hundred and fifty thousand. SECTION PENTAMERA Beetles in which all the tarsi are five jointed. In this section there comes first a great tribe of beetles, which, on account of their carnivorous tastes and predaceous habits, are known as the Adephaga. Their whole organization seems well adapted to enable them to capture and devour their prey, and it is in the modifications di- rected to this end that some of the chief distinguishing characteristics of the tribe are to be found. Their legs are fitted for speedy locomotion, and their jaws for the cutting and tearing operations to which they are usually applied. The mandibles are acutely pointed and have sharp cutting edges; and the inner lobes of the max- 3094 THE JOINTED ANIMALS illse are hard and hooked at the end. The outer lobes of the maxillae are two jointed and slender, and resemble palpi; which explains the fact that these beetles are often described as having three pairs of palpi. The antennae are usually simple, and never clubbed. The tribe is divided into the Geodephaga and Hydradephaga, one subtribe containing terrestrial, the other aquatic forms. The Cidndelidtz consist of about one thousand known species, which are dis- tributed throughout the world, but are much more abundant in tropical than in temperate or cold countries. In Europe only two genera are represented — Tetracha, which comprises nocturnal and twilight-loving species, and Cidndela, whose species are found in the hottest and sunniest places. The tiger beetles are extremely pretty insects of remarkably active habits, and exhibit the predaceous type of structure to perfection. Besides possessing great speed of foot, most of them make ready use of their wings, and they are further characterized by large and prominent eyes, and mouths well adapted for seizing and holding their prey, the mandibles being long and provided with a number of sharp teeth, while the inner lobe of the maxillae is furnished with a movable claw or hook at the tip. The fact that this hook is mov- able and not firmly fixed to the blade of the max- illae, affords a means of distinguishing the tiger beetles from all the other beetles of the tribe Adephaga. More than half of all the known species of the family be- long to the single genus Cidndela, and this is the only genus which is cos- mopolitan. With the ex- ception of a few species of an almost entirely ivory-white color, the CidndeHdte exhibit reenish, bronzy, or darker metallic tints, frequently varied with white or pale yellow spots and bands, which in the case of a great many species run together to form more or less intri- cate and pretty patterns. While their shape is usually such as is shown in our figure of C. hybrida, we get, on the other hand, remarkable exotic forms, in which the body is narrow and elongated, and broadest toward the hinder end. Collyris and other genera of the various Oriental countries — where the species are found pursuing their prey on the trees in the forests — afford examples of this type. From its great resemblance in color and form to Collyris, a rare and curious longicorn beetle, found in the same localities, has been named Collyrodes; and it has been re- marked by Mr. Wallace that beetles of the family Cidndelidce are among those most frequently mimicked by other beetles. TIGER BEETLES. Cidndela hybrida (with larva and pupa slightly enlarged); Collyris longicollis (enlarged). THE BEETLES 3095 In external structure the carnivorous ground beetles {Carabidce) approach the Cicindelidce, from which they may in most cases be distinguished by their general shape, as well as by the fact that they never exhibit the coloration and markings characteristic of that family. Other points of difference may be seen in their less prominent eyes, in the absence of an articulation in the hook of the maxillae, and in the shape of the mandibles, which, though occasionally long, do not exhibit the slender curved form and sharp dentition met with in the tiger beetles. The number of species of Carabidcz at present known can scarcely be less than eleven thousand. This family seems better represented in temperate and colder regions than within the tropics, though species, in more or less abundance, are to be found in every country and island of the world. While the species are almost all predaceous in their habits, we find them under a variety of different forms and with several distinct peculiarities of structure, many of which are to be regarded as special adaptations to the various situations in which the insects hunt for their prey. The Carabidce like all other beetles have their enemies, but we never find in this family any of those mimetic and protective disguises that are so commonly met with in certain other groups; and to escape from their enemies the ground beetles have mostly to rely upon their speed of foot, or the readiness with which they can take to flight or disappear among the herbage. Many species are, how- ever, provided with anal glands that secrete an acrid or stinking liquid which is sometimes ejected with considerable force when the insect is handled. In the ' ' bombardier beetle ' ' {Brachinus crepitans) and others of the same group, the secretion is volatilized on emission, and issues as a little cloud of smoke, which is accompanied at each discharge by a slight sound; and when the insect is irritated it repeats the discharge several times in succession, but each time with diminished force. The "bombardier " is a rusty red species, with dull blue-black elytra, and a narrow head and prothorax, and is pretty common, especially on chalk, in different parts of the south and southeast coasts of England. Among those species of the family that in habits and general appearance most closely resemble the Cicindelidce, are the little beetles of the genus Elaphrus. These love to run about in the rays of the sun, not so much in dry places, as on the muddy banks of rivers, on the sands of the seashore, and in other damp situations. They have large prominent eyes, a narrow prothorax, slender legs, and curiously marked elytra. This genus is con- fined to the Northern Hemisphere. The species which we figure, Elaphrus riparius, like some other beetles of the family, is able to produce a stridulating noise by rubbing the back of its abdomen against a projecting nervure on the under side of the elytra. Those tiny little beetles of a glistening bronzy- black appearance, and with beautifully sculptured elytra, which are to be seen on almost an}' bright day in the spring or summer, running quickly over garden beds or paths, belong to the genus Notiophilus, and are Elaphrus riparius (enlarged.) some of the smallest species in the whole family. The genus Carabus, after which the family is named, contains over three hundred species, and is somewhat remarkable in its distribution; for, with the exception of 3096 THE JOINTED ANIMALS Mormolyce phyllodes (from a small specimen) . a small group of species found in Southern Chili, it is restricted in its range to the north temperate zone. Six or seven species are found in Britain; Carabus violaceus and C. nemoralis are perhaps the two most frequently met with, being abundant in gardens and fields in almost every part of the country. The first is nearly smooth, of a dull blue-black color, with purplish borders to the thorax and elytra, and is of about the same size as C. nemoralis (represented in the figure on p. 3088). The latter has a purplish thorax and bronzy elytra, matked with a few rows of conspicu- ous punctures. Another species which we figure, C. auralus, is very rare in England and doubtfully indigenous, but in France it is common and does much service by destroying the cockchafers and their grubs. The genus Calosoma ap- proaches Carabus in many of its char- acteristics, but may be easily distin- guished by its shorter, broader, and more rounded prothorax, and the greater relative width of its elytra. Calosoma inquisitor, though rare and found only in parts of England, may be regarded as a true British species; but the species figured (C. sycophanta} is only an occasional visitant to this country and cannot be considered in- digenous. The Carabidce as a whole, though sufficiently varied in their external structure, do not exhibit any very un- usual or striking peculiarities of form, and the species already considered, with a few more presently to follow, may be taken as typical of the commoner forms met with throughout the family. In the genus Mormolyce we ha^ve, however, a remarkable exception. The species of this strange genus — three in number, and all very much alike — have been found in Java, Sumatra, and other East Indian islands. They are of a pitchy- brown color, and have the body much flattened, and the head greatly elongated, while their antennae are also very long; but, as will be seen from our figure, the chief peculiarity in the appearance of these ex- traordinary insects is due to the great lateral expansions of the borders of the elytra, and the curious manner in which these expansions are prolonged behind. M. phyllodes, -the best-known species, occurs in Scarites gigas. Java, Borneo, and the Malay Peninsula; and the people of Java, struck (Natural Slze-) no doubt by its peculiar shape, call it "the violin." Some of the largest individuals of the species are nearly three and a half inches long, and measure more than an inch and a half across the broadest part of the elytra. We have alluded, in our in- troduction, to the burrowing habits of some of the Carabidce. The Scaritince are a group that possess such habits, and the accompanying figure of Scarites gigas will give an idea of the general form characteristic of nearly all the species of the group. The genus Scarites comprises a large number of species, all of a uniform black color, and most of them of a moderate size. They make their burrows in the banks of streams, the seashore, or other suitable places, and rarely leave them during the THE BEETLES 3097 day, lying in wait for their victims at the mouth of the holes. The genus Zabrus, which we have next to notice, forms, so far as its habits are concerned, one of those exceptions that go to prove the rule. For, while it is true that almost all the Carabidce are carnivorous and predaceous insects, some at least of the species of Zabrus and a few others are largely, though probably not wholly, addicted to a vegetable diet. The species (Zabrus gibbus] figured on p. 3092 lives in cornfields, and has at different times committed great havoc among crops — wheat, barley, rye, etc. , in various parts of Germany and Italy. The Dytiscidce or carnivorous water beetles resemble the Carabidce in many of their structural features, and differ chiefly in the modifications undergone to fit them to an aquatic mode of life. Thus we find, as in the latter family, the mentum is Dytiscus marginal**— 1. Male; 2. Female; 3. Eggs; 4. Pupa; 5. I,arva attacking a tadpole; 6. Hydrocharis eara- boides; 7. Its larva; 8. Acilius sulcatus, Female. (All natural size.) usually broad and deeply emarginate in front, the outer lobe of the maxillae is two jointed and palpiform, the antennae are moderately long and slender, and the tro- chanters of the hind-legs are prominent. On the other hand, the antennae are al- ways smooth; the head is broad and fits deeply into the prothorax, while the latter is applied by a broad base against the elytra, so that the outline of the body is con- tinuous, and the general shape more or less oval; the hind-legs, which with their tibiae and tarsi flattened and furnished with rows of bristles, are adapted to serve as oars in swimming, are somewhat longer than the other legs, and come off from the body at a considerable distance behind them, while their coxae appear as broad flat plates firmly joined to the metasternum, for parts of which they might at first sight be very readily mistaken. The males may be distinguished from the females by the shape of their fore-tarsi, in which the first three joints are strongly dilated, and 3098 THE JOINTED ANIMALS furnished underneath with sucker-like hairs; while in this sex also the back is gen- erally smooth and glossy, the elytra of the females frequently have a ribbed or cor- rugated surface. The Dytiscidce seem especially fond of stagnant waters, and some of the species are common objects in our ponds and ditches. They come to the sur- face when it is necessary to take in a fresh supply of air beneath the elytra. These organs fit very closely against the sides of the body, and so prevent the air from escaping while the beetle is swimming about under the water; but the air mean- while is being used up in breathing by means of the thoracic and abdominal spira- cles. The beetles fly strongly, and on fine summer evenings may sometimes be seen winging their way to new quarters, a change which is often necessitated by the dry- ing up of the pools in which they had previously been living. Dytiscus marginalis, one of the largest British species, is also one of the commonest and best known. Another common species, Acilius sulcatus, is also represented in our figure. The Gyrinidce or whirligig beetles are a small but very well-defined group, and in many points of structure are sharply distinguished from the other families of the tribe Adephaga. In their oval shapes they resemble the Dytiscidce, though they are usually somewhat flatter below and a little more convex on the upper side. But in the relative proportions of the three pairs of legs they are entirely different. The fore-legs are long and slender, and when stretched out look like arms, whereas the two hinder pairs are short and broad, being modified for use as paddles in swimming. Another very distinctive feature is presented by the eyes, each of which is divided by a ridge on the side of the head into two widely-separated portions, one lying on the COMMON WHIRUGIG upper side of the head and the other underneath. These beetles BEETLE, Gynnus appear> jn consequence, to have four eyes; one pair, as it is said, natator (enlarged.) . , ,t . . . ., r - , . though there i!s no proof of the fact, for espying objects above them, the other for looking at things in the water below. From the Dytiscidce and Carabidce they differ further in having their antennae shorter than the head, and the outer lobe of the maxillae either completely atrophied or else in the form of a slender spine. The Gyrinidce, though widely distributed and represented in almost all parts of the world, include altogether rather less than three hundred known species. The genera are few in number and two only occur in Europe. Some of the British spe- cies, such as Gyrinus natator, are commonly to be seen in ponds and canals or "holes" in reedy sluggish streams, where the shiny little beetles attract atten- tion by the ease and rapidity of their movements as they skim about on the sur- face of the water, performing a variety of intricate evolutions, some sweeping along in graceful curves, others going round in circles or spiral tracks, now all col- lecting together in groups, and then, if startled, suddenly darting off with amazing speed in every direction. The next beetles we have to consider are those which, on account of their ab- breviated wing cases, are known as the Brachy elytra. This tribe to which, how- ever, not all beetles with short elytra belong, contains a single very large family — the Staphylinidce . Owing to the shortness of their elytra, and the usually nar- row and elongated form of their bodies, the rove beetles have an easily recognized THE BEETLES 3099 and characteristic appearance. The head is generally large and flat with a narrow neck behind where it fits into the prothorax. The antennae — composed of eleven, or occasionally twelve joints — are usually filiform, but are often slightly thickened toward the extremity, and in some cases end in a distinct club. Though prominent and conspicuous in a few genera, the eyes are, as a rule, raised but very little above the general surface of the head. It is interesting to note that ocelli, which are of such rare occurrence in adult beetles, are to be found in certain groups of this fam- ily; two ocelli being present in Homalium and its allies, and a single ocellus in the genus Pktceobium. The mandibles vary in form according to the habits of the species; they are usually strong, often sharply curved and pointed at the end, and of a dis- tinctly carnivorous type. Attached to the base and running a little way alongside the inner margin of each mandible, there is to be seen in many species a narrow flexible plate fringed, or not, with hairs at the end. This piece, first made known by Kirby, who called it \hz prostheca, is rarely met with except in the Staphylinidce . BRITISH ROVE BEETLES. 1. The devil's coach-horse (Ocyp^s olens); 2. Staphylinus pubescens; 3. Philonthus eeneus; 4. Oxyperus rufus; 5. Pezderus riparius; 6. Staphylinus ccesareus. (Nos. 3, 4, and 5, slightly enlarged.) The ligula is narrow, and bears distinct paraglossae; and the outer lobe of the max- illae is never palpiform. The rove beetles are for the most part carnivorous, and prey upon all kinds of larvae and other insects, as well as upon slugs, snails, and worms, but they feed largely on carrion, and to some degree on vegetable matter. Several species live in fungi, some in flowers, others under bark and in rotten wood, while in the case of certain genera, such as Lomechusa and Atemeles, the species are to be sought for in or about ants' nests. Some of these latter species are welcome guests, since, like the Aphides, they secrete a liquid which is eagerly swallowed by the ants; others may possibly act as scavengers. Among the species of the genera Spirachtha and Corotaca, which live with the Termites in South America, some are very remarkable from the fact that the females give birth to living young. Many of the British species of beetles belong to this family. Every one has seen the devil's coach-horse, that long, black, ugly-looking but useful insect which is to be found under stones and earth, or roving about in gardens, and which when you attempt to stay its progress, by pointing with a stick or finger, stands with 3ioo THE JOINTED ANIMALS threatening jaws and upturned tail as if ready to accept the challenge. This species which, with a few others, is represented in the figure, is scientifically known as Ocypus olens, and is one of the largest of the rove beetles. Its habit of turning up the tip of the abdomen is not peculiar to it, but is common to nearly all the beetles of the family, which on that account are sometimes called cocktail beetles. We come now to a series of small families, forming the group known as the Clavicornia or Necrophaga. This group, ^however, rests on no true scientific basis, and is more or less artificial in its character. Most of the species included in the group feed upon decaying animal or vegetable matter, hence the name Necrophaga. The antennae exhibit in general a tendency to be thickened toward the tip, and in many cases the last three joints form a distinct club; but in some of the families antennae of quite another shape are to be found. Though usually five jointed, the tarsi display in the number of their joints almost every variation met with in the Coleoptera. The family of Paussidcz includes probably less than two hundred known species, the majority of which have been discovered in the tropics of Asia and Africa, though one species ( Paussus favieri ) occurs in the southwest of Europe. They are mostly reddish-brown insects, of rather small size, oblong form, and in general appearance little attractive, were it not for the extraordinary shapes of their antennae. These organs are generally very broad and flat, in some species resembling a paper knife in shape; the number of joints varies from ten to two, and the last joint frequently has a bulbous or discoidal form. So far as at present known, all the species live in ants' nests, and, unless sought for in these situations, they are rarely seen except at night when they occasionally fly into rooms, attracted by the light from the lamps. The tiny beetles belonging to the Pselaphidcz resemble the Paussida in exhibit- ing certain anomalies in their structure, and their lives are passed in similar obscure situations. But while the Paussidce may possibly be related to the Carabidce, the very short elytra of the Pselaphidce, and the entirely horny nature of the dorsal plates of the abdomen seem to indicate an affinity with the Staphylinidce. In other points of structure, however, these two families are different. In the Pselaphida: the lobes of the maxillae are soft and membranous; and the abdomen, which in one group (the Clavigerince} is composed of five segments, with the basal rings fused together, is quite incapable of the movements so characteristic of the rove beetles. The joints of the antennae vary in number from eleven to six, or even two, and are in most cases clubbed at the end. While in one division of the family the palpi are usually composed of three or four joints, and are long and conspicuous, in the other "they are one jointed and scarcely visible. The tarsi are three jointed, the first and second joints often very short, while the third is long and in many cases bears only a single claw. The Pselaphidce are distributed throughout most parts of the world. They are to be found under stones, moss, dead leaves, and other vegetable refuse, as well as under the bark of trees, and in damp marshy situations; but the most interesting species are those which live in ants' nests. They are all of small size. The genus Claviger, comprising about eighteen European and one or two Asiatic species, has six-jointed antennae, and is further remarkable for the fact that the long THE BEETLES 3101 cylindrical head is entirely devoid of eyes. The best-known species, C. testaceus, is in Britain met with chiefly in the nests of the common yellow ant (Lasius flavus*) , though on the Continent it is found also in the nests of other species. It is about a tenth of an inch long, yellowish brown in color, wingless, with the elytra fused together, and with a deep impression on the base of the abdomen. The relation between the ants and their guests is of a most interesting character. Whenever an ant meets one of these guests in a gallery of the nest, it gently touches and caresses it with its antennae, and while the beetle responds in a similar manner, the ant sucks at the tufts of hair near the end of the beetle's elytra, and then licks the whole anterior surface of the back of its abdomen. The ants feed the beetles in very much the same way as they feed their larvae. When the beetle is hungry it expresses its desire to be fed by licking an ant near the mouth, and occasion- ally stroking the sides of its head with gentle movements of its antennae. During the process of feeding the beetle is passive; the ant moves its head gently to and fro, while the head of the beetle rests almost motionless in its mouth. Claviger testaceus, caressed by ants. (Greatly enlarged.) The attention bestowed by the ants on the beetles is as great as that which they give to their own larvae, and they frequently feed the hungry ones among them, before looking after the wants of their own brood. The orange-banded burying beetles of the genus Necrophorus are probably the best-known members of the Silphidce, though they are not to be considered the most representative, either in habits, size, or general appearance. The many genera of which the family is composed differ greatly in size and outward form, while the burying instinct is almost entirely confined to the genus Necrophorus. In nearly all cases, however, the antennae, consisting usually of eleven joints, are thickened toward the tip or furnished with a distinct club; the prothorax is usually broad and flat, with sharply-defined lateral margins, while the elytra frequently do not reach to the tip of the abdomen; the coxas of the four anterior legs are large, prom- inent, and conical in shape; and the tarsi are usually five jointed, though occasionally with a less number of joints. The carrion beetles are widely distributed, though chiefly characteristic of the colder and temperate zones. In the genus Necrophorus the antennas terminate in an almost globular, four- jointed mass; the body is broadest across the ends of the elytra, which are abruptly truncated, leaving the tip of the abdomen exposed. The species of this genus are black in color, but in most of them the elytra are crossed by two broad orange bands. They feed upon dead animals of all kinds, and their habit of burying the smaller carcasses, such as those of mice, moles, small birds, etc. , has gained for them the 3102 THE JOINTED ANIMALS Silpha atrata and larva. (Rather less than natural size.) name of ' ' sexton " or " burying ' ' beetles. Their mode of operation is to creep underneath and dig the earth away until they have made a hole big enough to receive the dead body; as the latter sinks, the loose soil closes over it and in time completely hides it from view. The females then lay their eggs in the carcass, which subsequently serves as food for the larvae. These insects must have a very acute sense of smell, for in a very short time after a mole has been killed some of them may be seen hovering over the body, although not previously observed anywhere in the vicinity. Out of about a dozen species of Necrophorus occurring in Europe, seven are found in Britain, N. ves- pillo being perhaps the one which is most widely dis- tributed. Most of the species of the genus Silpha — from which the family name is derived — are dark, sombre- looking insects, somewhat ovate in shape, the phothorax being broad and closely ap- plied to the base of the elytra, while the elytra usually ex- tend to the tip of the abdomen. The head is small, and when turned down is hidden under the pronotum. The beetles themselves are generally met with in or about dead animals, but some of the species display a partiality for a vegetable diet; thus in France the adult Silpha reticulata has been found fo attack wheat, while Silpha nigrita devours strawberries in the Alps and Pyrenees. The larvae of most of the species are somewhat like wood lice in shape, with the posterior angles of the abdominal segments sharply produced. Those of S. opaca and 6". atrata are sometimes very destructive to the leaves of sugar beet and mangold wurzel. The Trichopterygidce , or hairy-winged beetles, are exceedingly minute insects, the smallest, in fact, of all the beetles, many of the species being less than the fiftieth part of an inch in length. They are further remark- able on account of the structure of their wings. These organs are very long and narrow, each consisting of a strip of membrane attached to a horny stalk and fringed on each side with long and closely-set hairs. The Histerida form a well- defined family, widely distributed, and numbering considerably more Hister fimetarius and larva. (Natural size.) THE BEETLES 3103 thaii twelve hundred species. In color they offer little variety, being mostly either black, dark blue, or green, the elytra being occasionally spotted with red or yellow. They are compactly oval or oblong oval in form, and nearly always present a highly polished appearance. The antennae are short, with a long basal joint and a very distinct terminal club, and, as a rule, are capable of being turned back into grooves beneath the thorax. The elytra are truncate at the tips, leaving the last two seg- ments of the abdomen exposed; they are generally marked with a series of finely impressed longitudinal lines, the number and disposition of which afford useful characteristics in distinguishing between the different species of a genus. In the division of the family to which Hister belongs, the prosternum is produced in front, forming a prominent "chin-piece" which serves to protect the lower part of the head when the latter is retracted. In Saprinus the " chin-piece ' ' is wanting. The Nitidulidce have some resemblance in exter- nal form to the Histeridce, though they are generally of smaller size, with their integuments less hard, and their colors a little more varied. The elytra are slightly truncate behind, leaving a variable number of the segments of the abdomen exposed. The antennae are eleven jointed or, exceptionally, ten jointed, with the last two or three joints forming a knob; the maxillae have, as a rule, but a single lobe, and the tarsi are five jointed, though in a few genera the males, at least, have only four joints in the posterior tarsi. Many of the species are found feeding and breeding in decaying vegetable or animal substances, such as rotten wood, bark, fungi, and in carcasses or bones; some frequent the exuding sap of trees; while a very large number are to be seen on flowers, among which are the brightly-colored little beetles of the genus Meligethes. The species figured (M. ceneus} is one of the com- monest, and met with chiefly on the flowers or leaves of cruciferous plants. In Germany these little beetles are well known, on account of the depredations they commit in crops of rape. A few days after emerging from their winter sleep, the beetles lay their eggs in the buds; in about a fortnight the larvae are hatched and proceed to feed on the undeveloped or full-blown flowers; while later on they attack the young pods, to which they do more damage than the beetles them- Meligethes ezneus (natural size selves. The small family Byturidce may also be men- and greatly magnified) . tioned here. The genus Byturus contains only four or five known species, which are confined to Europe and North America, and one of which is familiar to gardeners and others as the ' ' raspberry beetle. ' ' This species (B. tomentosus} is somewhat oblong in form, from an eighth to a sixth of an inch in 3104 THE JOINTED ANIMALS length, of a dirty yellowish color, and covered with a yellow down. Though found on flowers of many different kinds, it is especially common on raspberry blos- soms, and the cylindrical brownish larvae sometimes do much damage to the flowers and fruit. The Dermestidce have a special interest, owing to the destructive habits of many of the species. The beetles themselves are small in size, oblong or oval in shape, sometimes nearly round, and usually clothed with fine closely lying hairs or scales, which frequently give rise to grayish or yellowish spots or bands on the elytra. The front of the head, except in the genus Dermestes, bears a single ocellus; the short antennae, consisting usually of eleven joints, are clubbed at the end; the abdomen is entirely covered over above by the elytra; and the tarsi are always five jointed. While certain species are met with only on flowers, the majority live in dried ani- mal matter — furs, skins, and the like, as well as articles of food, such as bacon and cheese. The perfect insects do comparatively little damage, the real depredators being the larvae, including those of many species which in the adult state frequent flowers. The larvae are little hairy creatures of a dark color, looking like small caterpillars, with the hairs sticking out straight and arranged more or less in tufts or bundles. The larvas of Anthrenus musceorum, the so-called museum beetle, have to be carefully guarded against in museums, as they are very destructive to zoolog- ical collections and more especially to those of dried insects. Attagenus pellio is an- other very common species of this family, usually found in houses, and well known on account of the ravages of its larva in natural history collections, furs, hair- stuffed couches, etc. The larva is of a brown or red-brown color above, and covered with long hairs pointing backward; it is broader in front and tapers toward the hinder end, where it carries a tail tuft of very long hairs. In the ffydrophtlida the antennas are short and composed of from six to nine joints, of which the first is relatively long, and the last three or so thickened in the form of a club; the mentum is a large shield-like plate without a notch in front; the lobes of the maxillae are not toothed, and the palpi are long and slender, frequently much longer and more conspicuous than the antennae. These characteristics afford a ready means of distinguishing these herbivorous water beetles from the carnivo- rous water beetles, to which in general shape many of them bear a close resemblance. The great length of the maxillary palpi has given rise to the name Palpicornes by which the family was formerly known. In the perfect state, all the members of the family feed upon vegetable matter; but it is only those of the subfamily Hydro- philince — of which the great water beetle, Hydrophilus piceus, may be taken as the type — that are truly aquatic in their habits; the second subfamily, the Spharidiiruz , though including certain marsh-frequenting species, is composed mainly of land in- sects which are found chiefly in vegetable refuse or in the droppings of herbivorous mammals. Of the Hydrophilince some are found in stagnant, others in running water, but they are nearly all poor swimmers, while a large number progress by simply crawling along the surface film upside down; in their slow movements they present a marked contrast to the active predatory Dytiscidce. Having touched upon the principal families of the Clavicorn series, we pass to the Pectinicornia, a small tribe containing only two families, one of which has no THE BEETLES 3105 European representative, while both are somewhat limited in the number of their species. In the Lucanidce the antennae are ten jointed, with the first joint long and set at an angle with the rest of the antennae, of which from three to seven of the last joints are furnished with rigid tooth-like processes on one side. The outer lobe of the maxillae ends in a pencil of hairs, while the inner lobe has very often the form of a claw; the ligula is membranous or leathery in texture, and is attached to the inner face of the mentum; the elytra cover over the abdomen, which on the ventral side shows five or, in the male, six segments; and the tarsi are five jointed, with a long slender spur projecting between the claws of the terminal joint, and carrying at the end two long bristles. The male insects are remarkable for the massive devel- opment of their jaws, which in many cases are forked and branched. The common 1. Larva. GREAT BLACK WATER BEETLE. (Natural size.) 2. Male. • 3. Female with egg cocoon. stag beetle {Lucanus cervus), one of the largest of European beetles, may, in the case of full-sized males attain a length of over two inches, or, if the mandibles be in- cluded, more than three inches. It is most abundant in the neighborhood of oak woods, and in England is not uncommon in the southern counties, where the males may be often observed on the wing on fine summer evenings, flying with a loud hum. The Passalidce are a small family of about two hundred known species, which are almost entirely restricted to the warmer parts of the world, the greater propor- tion being found in America. In the form of the antennas and in some other respects they show an affinity with the Lucanidce, though easily distinguished by the characteristic of the mouth parts. The ligula is horny, and lies in a deep quad- 3io6 THE JOINTED ANIMALS BURROWING BEETLE, Scarab&us variolosus. ( Natural size. ) rangular emargination in the mentum; the lobes of the maxillae both resemble claws; and the mandibles offer a peculiarity of structure met with in no other fam- ily, each being provided with a movably articulated tooth placed close to the basal molar surface. The Ivamellicornia — compris- ing the burrowing beetles, cock- chafers, and a host of other forms, differing both in habits and external structure — are represented in all parts of the world, though relatively less numerous in Australia than in the other great regions. We have only to mention the goliath beetles of West Africa, and the elephant and hercules' beetles of tropical America, to indicate the great size attained by some of the species; while as regards beauty and brilliancy of coloration no beetles can rival many of those belonging to the two subfamilies Cetoniince and Rutelince. The male stag beetles, as we have just seen, are distinguished by their large heads and monstrous jaws, but in the males of the present family it is, as a rule, the prothorax which is greatly enlarged or otherwise modified in form, and often furnished, like the head, with processes of various kinds, sometimes short, in others taking the shape of huge curved or branching horns. The family admits of two prin- cipal divisions. In the first division the ligula of the lower lip is more or less membranous and distinct from the mentum, and the spiracles of the abdomen are all situated in the con- necting membrane between the dorsal and ventral plates. Among these we may mention the genus Scarabceus, over sixty species of which are known, most of them African, some occurring in Asia, and a few, including sacer, one of the sacred beetles of the Egyptians, found also in South Europe. Among the coprophagous species, met with in Great Britain, those of the genus Aphodius, which represents a second subfamily, are the most numerous. They are somewhat oblong in form, as shown in our figure of Aphodius fossor, one of the largest and best-known species, and are usually shining black, though in many the elytra are of a reddish or yellow color, in some cases spotted with black. A type of another subfamily is found in the genus Geotrupes of which we have in this country several species, including the well-known "dumbledor" or ' ' shardborne " beetle (G. stercorarius) . The species almost all exhibit dark blue or Aphodius fossor , with larva. black colors, and in most cases the sexes differ little in external (Enlarged.) form; but in G. typhceus, the male is distinguished by having three Scarabceus sacer. (Natural size.) THE BEETLES 3107 typhceus. (Natural size. ) horns projecting from the prothorax. The plant-feeding or phytophagous sub- families belong to the second division of the Scarabceidce, In these the ligula is consolidated with the men turn, and the abdominal spiracles are placed, some in the connecting membrane between the dorsal and ventral plates, the others on the sides of the ventral plates. One of our most familiar insects, the common cockchafer, gives a good idea of the general form and style of coloration prevailing in the subfamily Melolonthince , while in habits also it resembles other species of the same group. As examples of some of the other Melolonthince we figure Polyphylla fullo , one of the finest European species, which, though not indigenous to Britain, has occasionally been found on the south coast, and — on p. 3108 — Rhizotrogus solstitialis, a common British insect, commonly known as the summer chafer. The Rutelince have some resemblance in external form to the Melolonthince •, but MALE OF Geotrupes can in generai be easily recognized owing to the difference in length between the two claws of each of their tarsi. The Dynastince are mostly confined to the warmer parts of the world, and chiefly remarkable on account of the great sexual differences exhibited by the species. In the hercules' beetles (Dynastes hercules}, of the West Indies and tropical America, the male is sometimes over five inches long. The elephant beetle is a more massive insect, though, having relatively much shorter horns, its total length is not so great. As compared with other species of the subfamily the European rhinoceros beetle (Oryctes nasicornis), figured on p. 3108, is very modest in its proportions. Our next subfamily, the Cetoniina, stands unrivaled among the Cole- optera for the loveliness of coloration dis- played by many of its species. The goliath beetles belong to this subfamily. In some of the genera, such as Ceratorrhina and Golia- thus, the males may be recognized by the shape of the head, which is often excavated above, and furnished with hooks or horns, as. shown in C. smithi on p. 3109. The Buprestidce, together with the click beetles (JElateridte) ^ and a few smaller fami- lies, constitute the tribe Serricornia. Disting- uished chiefly by their serrated or flabellated antennae, the beetles of this tribe agree also in having the tarsi five jointed, and the prosternum prolonged behind and fitting into a cavity of the mesosternum. They are gen- erally of an elongated form, with the elytra narrowed from the base to the tip and completely covering the abdomen. The Buprestidce have short, serrated antennae, composed of eleven joints, which, with the exception of three or four nearest the base, are covered on special areas with very minute pits supposed to be of an Polyphylla fullo, male. (Natural size.) 3io8 THE JOINTED ANIMALS olfactory nature; these areas may be spread over nearly the whole of each joint, or confined to one side or the end of the joint, and their position affords one of the most important characteristics used in the classification of the family. The family is divided into three principal groups — the Julodince, Chalcophorince \ and Buprestincz. The first group is chiefly restricted to Africa and the East Indies. The Chalcophorince are more widely distributed, and include many of the finest species of the family, such as the Euchroma gigantea of South America, and the species of Catoxantha found in the East Indies. Chalcophora mariana — figured on p. 3109 — oc- curs in many pine forests of the Continent, and is one of the largest European species. The Buprestince are more numerous than the other two groups, and are found in all parts of the world. The click beetles are, as a rule, narrower and more elongated than the Buprestidce , and differ also in having the posterior angles of the pro- notum sharply produced behind, and the pros- ternal process laterally compressed and slightly curved, with its point resting in a deep cavity in the mesosternum. Their antennae — consist- ing of eleven, or rarely twelve, joints — are usually serrate, though in many cases, especially in the males, they are either pectinate or flabel- late. These beetles owe their name of skip- jacks to the power they have, when fallen on the back, of springing into the air and alighting on their legs again. The larvae of some species eat into soft succulent roots and tubers, and in this way prove destruc- tive to many of our cultivated plants. These pests are well known to farmers under the name of wireworms. The larva of Agriotes lineatus is one of the worst, being destructive not only in the fields but also in the kitchen garden. It is of a pale yellowish-brown color, differing little in gen- eral appearance from the larvae of other species, and lives for probably four or five years, passing then into a pupa, which remains concealed in the ground for a few weeks before changing into the perfect insect. Among the exotic members of this family, the most remarkable are the fireflies, found in the West Indies and America. There are several species of these beetles, all belonging to the genus Pyrophorns, one of which, P. noctilucus, is illustrated on SUMMER CHAFER. (Natural size.) RHINOCEROS BEETLE, male. (Natural size.) THE BEETLES 3109 p. 31 10. They have a dark brown or reddish-brown color, obscured by a covering of short gray hairs, and may be easily recognized by the two slightly-raised yellow spots placed near the hind angles of the pro- thorax. In the living insect these spots glow with a rich yellowish -green light. A stronger but more diffused light of a reddish color is given off from the abdomen when the beetles are flying. The remaining families of the section Pen- tamera are included in the tribe Malacodermata. The beetles of this tribe are distinguished by having the elytra less solid and compact, and the body in general softer and more flexible than is usual in other groups. The Lycidcz are deserving of notice, inasmuch as they form one of those groups of insects which are most fre- Ceratorrhina smithi, male. quently mimicked by species of other families. They have a characteristic appearance, owing to the small size of the head and prothorax, as compared with the greatly expanded elytra. To their unusual shapes these beetles generally add a conspicuous coloration; tawny yellow and red, varied in many cases with black spots and bands, being the predomi- nant colors throughout the family. They are found on the flowers and leaves of trees, and are sometimes seen in great abundance; and it is said that they secrete a nauseous liquid, which gives them immunity from the attacks of in sectivorous Chalcophora mariana and larva, animals. The Lampyridce are remarkable on account of (Natural size.) the luminous properties possessed by nearly all the species. In these insects the head is small and, being retracted under the pro- notiim, generally invisible from above; the eyes are large, especially in the males, the mandibles small but sharply pointed, and the antennae come off close together from the front of the head. The *j ./y L_ •* phosphorescent Organs Agnates Kneatus and its larva— the well-known wireworm. (Both much are Situated in the abdo- enlarged, but the larva shown also natural size.) men, their position being shown in most of the species by pale yellowish or whitish areas on the ventral surface of certain of the segments. These beetles are found 3iio THE JOINTED ANIMALS in nearly all parts of the world, though most numerous perhaps in tropical America. In Lampyris and certain other genera the females are frequently apterous. The THE WEST-INDIAN FIRE- FLY, Pyrophorus noc- tilucus. (Natural size.) Telephorus fuscus. (Slightly enlarged.) female of Lampyris noctiluca — our native glowworm — is not only without wings, but has even no trace of elytra, so that in appearance it is not unlike the larva of the same species, though it may be distinguished by its broad semicircular prothorax, its more fully-de- veloped legs, and much greater lumi- nosity. In the genu s L ucicola — which is repre- sented by two or Trichodes apiarius. three species in (Enlarged.) South Europe— both sexes are winged, and the males are even more luninous than the females. The Telephoridce are distinguished from the two preceding families in having the head more ex- posed, the bases of the antennas more widely separated from one another, the pronotum somewhat square in shape, the maxillary palpi ending in a hatchet-shaped joint, and the man- dibles longer and often bifid at the end, or toothed on the inner side. Some of them are among the commonest and most fa- miliar of our insects, — being known to schoolboys as ' ' soldiers " and ' ' sailors, ' ' — and few of our readers can fail to recognize the species figured. This species (Telephones fuscus}, and a - . , , , • , r i THE DEATHWATCH few others of the same genus, — some of which are of an al- BFETrE An bium most entirely yellowish-red color, — are very plentiful on flowers tessellatum. at certain times of the year. (Enlarged.) Clerus formicarius, with larva and pupa. (All enlarged.) THE BEETLES 3111 The Cleridce are generally brightly colored, of cylindrical form, with the prothorax narrower than the elytra, the eyes notched in front, the antennae either serrate, pectinate, or clavate, and the tarsi furnished underneath with mem- branous lobes. Clerus formicarius is very abundant in pine forests, where it plays a useful part in hunting for and devouring wood-boring beetles; while the larva is still more active in following under the bark the larvae of various kinds which are there to be met with. The second species figured ( Trichodes apiarius) hunts for its prey on flowers, especially those of the UmbelUfereet and the larvae are found in beehives, where they devour many of the young brood. The Ptinidce are all small insects, usually of a somewhat cylindrical form, rounded at each end, and with the head retracted under a hood-like covering, formed by the prothorax. They are obscurely colored and chiefly interesting on account of their mischievous propensities. In the larval state Ptinus fur is very destructive in herbaria, and natural history collections generally. The best known of the Ptinidce are the deathwatch beetles of the genus Anobium, to which we have already referred at the beginning of this chapter. These beetles seldom show them- selves openly, so that to most people they are only known by the sounds they pro- duce, or the holes with which the larvae riddle furniture and the woodwork of houses. The holes with which old books are sometimes seen to be perforated are also made by the larvae of a species of Anobium, which for this reason are known as bookworms. SECTION HETEROMERA The Heteromera are those beetles in which the tarsi of the fore- and middle- legs are five jointed, those of the hind-legs being four jointed. The Tenebrionidce exceed in number of species the rest of the Heteromera together. The antennae are inserted under a projecting angle or ridge on each side of the head, and com- posed of eleven or, ex- ceptionally, ten joints, of which the third is gen- erally the longest; the coxae of the front legs are usually rounded, with their sockets separated by a fairly broad prosternal process, and completely closed in behind; and the claws of all the tarsi are simple. Many of the obscurely colored species are without wings, and frequently have the elytra CHURCHYARD BEETLE AND LARVA (natural size). fused together. The churchyard beetles (Blaps} and the meal worm ( Tenebrio) are probably the best- known members of the family. B. mucronata is the commonest species in England; 3H2 THE JOINTED ANIMALS it differs from B, mortisaga, which also occurs, though rarely, in this country, in having shorter points to the elytra. Of the genus Tenebrio two species occur in Britain, one of which ( T. molitor) is almost cosmopolitan in its range, having been carried in flour to nearly every part of the world. The larvse, known as meal worms, are long and narrow, of a light yel- lowish-red color, with the integument hard, and the last seg- ment conical in shape and ending into two slightly-diverging processes, armed each with a small black spine. The Rhipidophoridce are a small but interesting family of beetles in which the wings are always more or less exposed, THE COMMON MEAT, and not folded transversely as in most other groups, while the WORM AND ITS eiytra are either very short (as in the genera Rhipidophorus I.ARVA (enlarged). and Rhipidius), or else triangular in form, meeting only at the base and diverging from one another behind. The Meloidce are chiefly distinguished from the other Heteromera by having the head abruptly constricted behind in the form of a short neck, the coxae of the anterior and middle legs long and prominent, and placed close to one another in the middle line, and the claws of the tarsi accompanied each by a slender hook, so that they appear double. Many of the species possess vesicating or blistering properties, and the family is for this reason sometimes known as the Vesicantia. Oil, BEETLES AND (Natural size.) The larvse are interesting on account of their habits and the changes of form they undergo in the course of their development. These changes are well illustrated in the case of the oil beetles (Meloe). The larvae of these when first hatched from the egg are active little creatures furnished with six legs. They climb on to flowers, and wait in readiness to fasten themselves to the hairs of bees coming to gather the honey. In this way they get carried to the nest, where they devour the eggs of the bee. They now cast their skin, appear as little, maggot-like grubs, with much re- duced legs, and feed on the honey intended by the bee for its own young. After a THE BEETLES time they change to the form of a pupa, from which, instead of the perfect insect, a third form of larva, somewhat similar to the second, emerges, while ka further change is still required before the true pupal stage is reached. Seven species of Meloe occur in Great Britain, but, with the exception of one or two, are very rare. When handled or irritated they exude an oily-looking liquid of a yellow color from certain of their joints. This secretion, to which they owe their name of oil beetles, has a burning, acrid taste. The Stylopidce are remarkable little insects, which live parasitically in the bodies of wasps, bees, and bugs, and present a type of structure distinct from that of all other beetles. The males is a winged insect, with coarsely-faceted prominent eyes, large fan-shaped wings, and extremely small inconspicuous elytra; the first two thoracic rings are very short, while the metathorax is greatly elongated and covers over the base of the abdomen; the hind-legs are placed a long way behind the middle pair, and the tarsi of all the legs are membranous under- neath, and without claws at the end. The female, on the other hand, is a grub-like creature, without legs, wings, or eyes. She never leaves the body of her host, and from her eggs active little six-legged larvae develop, which make their way out and get carried into the nests of bees and wasps, where they bore into the bodies of the grubs. The Stylopidce are very rarely seen, and the number of species known is small. They have been arranged in four or five genera, based upon slight differ- ences in the structure of the males, all of which have the general appearance shown in our figure of Xenos peckii. i. Xenos peckii — male; 2. Female. (Both enlarged.) SECTION TETRAMERA The Curculionidcc or weevils are distinguished from all other beetles by a few well-marked characteristics. The head is al- ways produced in front in the form either of a short muzzle or a more or less elongated and narrow beak, which carries the mouth at its extremity; the prothorax rarely has sharp lateral edges, and the coxal cavities on the under side of that segment are always closed in behind by the extension inward of the epimera to meet in the middle line; and the antennae are elbowed, with the first joint as a rule long, and some of the joints at the end forming a club. Though agreeing in a few es- sential characteristics, the weevils present considerable variety, Sitones lineatus and not only in the form and structure of different parts, but also in allied species. the general shape of the body. They have been arranged THE JOINTED ANIMALS in a number of subfamilies, but it is impossible in a limited space to describe the various modifications of structure on which these divisions are based, and we must content ourselves here with a brief reference to some of the typical and more interesting forms. In the genus Sitones, we have ex- amples of those weevils in which the snout is short and comparatively broad. ,5. lineatus is a well-known species which lives on papilionaceous plants, and frequently does much mischief by devouring the young leaves of peas and beans. It is a little yellowish-gray or drab- colored beetle with three pale lines along the thorax, and a number of rows of punctures along the elytra. Its color is due to a thick covering of scales, some of which, \yhen looked at closely, are seen to have a golden tint. Weevils are, as a rule, most destructive during the larval state, the adult insects doing a comparatively small amount of injury to vegetation; but as regards Hylobius abietis, known as " the large pine weevil," one of the .worst enemies of young conifers, the injury done to the trees is altogether the work of the beetles, while PINE WEEVII,, WITH LARVA the grubs are quite harmless. The genus Apion com- AND PUPA. prises a large number of little, long-snouted weevils, liaving in general the form shown in our figure of A. apricans. Though the British species are numerous and some of them common everywhere .on clover, trefoil, and other leguminous plants, they are seldom noticed owing to their small size. In Apoderus, Attelabus, and Rhynchites we have a group of genera which are interesting on account of the leaf-rolling habits of the females, and remarkable also, in the case of the first genus, for the great length of neck displayed by some of the species. The females deposit a single egg, or in some cases two or even three eggs in each of the little rolled-up leaf packages, which serve afterward both as a shelter and food supply for the larvae. Three or four species of these leaf -rolling weevils are found in Britain. Our figure of A. longicollis, a Javan species, shows what an extraordinary length the neck may attain in the males of some of the tropical representatives of the genus, although in this species it is not nearly so long in proportion as in an allied form (A. tenuissimus} found in the Philippine islands. The nut weevil (Balaninus nucum) affords a strong contrast in the shape of its head to the species just mentioned. It will be noticed that in this weevil the head is very short behind the eyes, whereas the beak is greatly elongated, with the antennae inserted near the middle of its length. The female lays her eggs in hazel nuts while the latter are still in a half- developed condition; she first pierces a hole in the soft shell of the nut, and then Apion apricans. (Natural size and much enlarged.) THE BEETLES depositing an egg in the opening pushes it in with her beak. The grub feeds in- side the nut, remaining in it until autumn, when it bores a round aperture in the shell, and, escaping from the nut, makes its way into the soil, where it sur- rounds itself with a cocoon formed of fragments of earth. The "apple-blossom weevil " {Anthonomus pomorum) is another species which, on account of its in- jurious habits, deserves some notice. It is about a quarter of an inch long, of a LEAF-ROUJNG T. Allelabus curculionoides; 2. Apoderus coryli; 3. Rhynchites betnleti; 4. R. populi; 5. /?. betults. (Natural size.) grayish-brown color, with an oblique white band on the elytra, and three whitish lines on the thorax. The female deposits her eggs in the unopened flower buds of the apple, and the larva by feeding on the stamens and pistil causes the bud to wither and die. In about fifteen days, the larva attains its full size, changing then to a pupa within the bud, and the beetle appears about eight days later and escapes through an opening which it makes in the side. A closely- allied species (A. pyri) proves injurious in the same way to pear blossoms. The cabbage-gall weevil ( Ceuthorrhynchus sulticollis) and certain species of Baridius attack cruciferous plants; the larvae of the former live inside galls which they raise on the roots of cabbages and turnips, while those of Baridius may be found living in the lower part of the stem. The grain weevils, which are most numerous in tropical countries, are represented in Britain by two almost cosmopolitan species, the corn weevil (Sitophilus granarius] and the rice weevil (S. oryzce}, These are both small species, but belong to a subfamily (the Calandrin