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A NEW THEORY

OEGANIC EVOLUTION

A NEW THEOKY

OF

OBGANIC EVOLUTION

BY

JAMES W. BARCLAY

(OF GLENBUCHAT)

WILLIAM BLACKWOOD AND SONS

EDINBUKGH AND LONDON

MCMIII

All Eights reserved

PREFATOKY.

HUXLEY tells us, in his Monograph on the
Crayfish, that " Common - sense is science
exactly in so far as it fulfils the ideal of
common-sense ; that is, sees facts as they
are, or at any rate without the distortion
of prejudice, and reasons from them in ac-
cordance with the dictates of sound judg-
ment. And science is simply common-sense
at its best, that is rigidly accurate in observ-
ation and merciless to fallacy in logic."

We propose to test by the common-sense
that Huxley says is science, whether the
Darwinian doctrine, that the evolution of
life on our planet was brought about by nat-
ural selection and other secondary causes,

VI PREFATORY.

accords with ascertained facts, or satisfac-
torily accounts for the natural phenomena
it professes to explain, and, also, to submit
a new theory that will explain satisfactorily
the admitted facts of evolution.

GLENBUCHAT, Sept. 1903.

CONTENTS.

PREFATORY

PAGE

V

PART I.

CHAP.

I. ORGANIC EVOLUTION 5

II. LIFE ....... 8

III. DEVELOPMENT AND ITS RESULTS ... 13

IV. CROSS-BREEDING AND ITS RESULTS . . 18
V. PURITY OF RACE ..... 22

VI. THE HUMAN RACE ..... 26

VII. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPORTANCE OF

A TRUE THEORY OF EVOLUTION . . 30

VIII. ANALOGIES ...... 34

THE ART OF WEAVING .... 34

THE STEAM-ENGINE .... 37

IX. THEORY OF EVOLUTION .... 42

X. PHASES OF THE EMBRYO AND FRAGMENTARY

ORGANS 47

XI. ENIGMAS AND THEIR SOLUTION ... 51

XII. ARGUMENTATIVE 61

XIII. INFERENTIAL 65

A

2 CONTENTS.

PART II.

I. THE DARWINIAN THEORY OF ORGANIC EVOLU-
TION . .... 71

II. RACE 74

III. SIMILARITY OF SUCCESSIVE TYPES ... 81
IV. THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AND NATURAL

SELECTION 85

V. THE ACCUMULATION OF BENEFICIAL DIFFER-
ENCES ....... 92

VI. THE TIME ELEMENT ..... 98

VII. RETROGRESSION 102

VIII. VARIATION ...... 107

VARIETY OF EXPRESSION . . . 108

ACCIDENTAL (1 SPONTANEOUS) VARIATION 110
SPECIFIC VARIATION . . . .113

ix. DARWIN'S EXAMPLES OF SPECIFIC VARIATION . 123

X. USE OR DISUSE OF PARTS AND ADAPTATIONS

OF ORGANS ...... 129

XI. EXTERNAL INFLUENCES .... 135

XII. INSTINCT AND HABIT 143

XIII. DOMESTIC ANIMALS 150

XIV. NATURAL SELECTION OF SPECIES . . . 160

XV. GENERAL SUMMARY ..... 165
XVI. CONCLUSION . . . . .170

PART I.

CHAPTER I.

ORGANIC EVOLUTION.

THE geological record of our planet informs
us that life first appeared on the earth
in simple forms ; that these simple forms
were, in the course of ages, succeeded by
numberless varieties of plants and animals,
whose organisation, as new types success-
ively appeared, became, as a general rule,
more and more highly specialised, until at
last Man appeared upon the scene.

Embryology seems to tell a similar story.
The embryo of every mammal, including
man, presents in its growth from the
germ - cell to maturity, phases similar to
those in the embryos of other organisms
less highly specialised ; in other words,
the foetus of each succeeding type re-
sembles, in at least the earlier stages of
its growth, that of its antecessor, and only
as maturity approaches does it assume its
own special characteristics.

6 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

These facts are summed up in ORGANIC
EVOLUTION ; and, according to Darwin,
NATURAL SELECTION was the means by
which evolution was brought about. Evol-
ution is thus quite distinct from natural
selection.

Evolution is an accepted fact, but it is
denied that evolution was brought about
by natural selection. The succession of
different types, and the fundamental simi-
larity in organisation between any race and
its antecessor in the same line of evolu-
tion, are established facts confirmed by the
continuous discoveries of science, and it is
Darwin's glory that he made them familiar
to the public mind ; but evidence of evol-
ution does not prove that evolution was
brought about by natural selection ; neither
does it establish the truth of natural selec-
tion to show that the Mosaic cosmogony is
not in accordance with the facts of geology.

Until the middle of last century the Mosaic
account of the creation of animals and plants
was generally accepted and stoutly upheld
by dogmatic theology; but in 1859 Darwin
made public his theory of the evolution of
species from the first simple forms of life by
natural causes, and this theory, after much
controversy, became, and is still, widely ac-

ORGANIC EVOLUTION. 7

cepted as the explanation of the phenomena
in the evolution of life on our globe.

Darwin did not formulate his theory, but
after setting forth at great length the facts
and considerations on which his conclusions
were based, declared himself to be thoroughly
convinced that all animals and plants were
descended from a few progenitors (whose
existence he assumed), modified by second-
ary causes, through a long course of descent,
and by " spontaneous variation."

To facilitate comparison of the two theories
we propose, first, to submit our theory of
evolution, and then to discuss the operation
of Darwin's secondary causes, and his inter-
pretations of the phenomena on which his
theory is based.

CHAPTER II.

LIFE.

WE know and can know nothing of life in
the abstract — that is, apart from its mani-
festations ; but that does not preclude us
from endeavouring to discover its laws by
the study of its phenomena, or the process
of its evolution by tracing its progress in
the races of plants and animals that suc-
cessively appeared on the earth.

We know nothing in the abstract of the
force called gravitation, but we conclude
from its phenomena that there is a specific
force that operates according to certain un-
varying laws, and from these laws we can
predicate how matter will be affected by
gravitation under all known conditions.

Nothing is known of ether, and we have
even no direct evidence of its existence, but
scientific authorities assume that there must
be a something which they name ether to

LIFE. y

account for certain phenomena otherwise in-
explicable.

Pursuing a similar line of inquiry, the
phenomena of life presented during the
growth of an organism from its germ-cell
to maturity indicate that an organism is
the product of three principal factors:—
The matter or food that goes to build up

the organism ;
The external conditions necessary for its

growth ; and

A combination of forces that actuates the
general mechanism of the organism,
selects and assimilates suitable food,
and builds up a specific type.
Further, we may infer that the co-oper-
ating forces are of two kinds : a General
force, common to all life ; and a Specific
force, peculiar to each race, that selects and
assimilates suitable food, and builds up a
specific type of that race.

It may be that the food assimilated rein-
forces the general life-force, but we cannot

O '

see how food or conditions of existence can
provide the Specific life-force that forms the
specific type.

We therefore infer that the Specific life-
force of the organism comes from its germ-cell,
and, as the germ-cell is the joint product of

10 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

the progenitors, that Specific life -force is
transmitted by the progenitors and inherited
by the progeny.

Now we know that the same physical
force, acting under like conditions on the
same kind of matter, is invariably attended
by the same result, and if the same law
extends to life -force, a Specific life -force,
acting under like conditions in conjunction
with the same kinds of matter, will invari-
ably evolve an organism of the same type ;
and therefore, assuming that Specific life-
force is transmitted from parent to offspring,
heredity is a necessary outcome of reproduc-
tion : like will produce like.

On the same principle, any difference in
the potency of the General or of the Specific
life-forces transmitted, or in the respective
potencies of the two progenitors, will be
attended by corresponding differences in the
organism they produce.

It is common observation that individuals
of the same race differ in inherited vitality
or life-force, and we know that rarely do two
individuals grow to maturity under the same
conditions in respect of quality or quantity -
of food or external influences, and it there-
fore necessarily follows that there will be
differences in what we call " expression of

LIFE. 11

type " arising from differences in the qualities
inherited and in the conditions of develop-
ment of the organism.

All individuals of the same type will not
be identical like castings of the same metal
from the same mould, but must vary from each
other with any variation in the respective
influences of the several factors to which
they owe their existence and development.

On the preceding facts and observations
we base the following working hypothesis,
which we propose to use as a key to further
discoveries, and to test by the explanation
it offers of various phenomena of life.

Hypothesis.

Life is a combination of forces that, in
conjunction with specific kinds of matter,
evolves, under favourable conditions, and
according to constant definite laws, animals
and plants.

Every organism is evolved by a General
life-force in combination with a Specific life-
force.

The General life -force is common to all \
life, but the Specific life-force is peculiar to
each race, and builds up its specific type.

The Specific life - force determines the

12 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

type, but the expression of the type is the
outcome partly of heredity and partly of
the conditions of development.

The respective potencies, in modifying ex-
pression of type, of the General life-force, of
the Specific life-force, and of the other factors
of development, vary in different races and
also among individuals of the same* race or
family.

Deductions.

From the preceding hypothesis come the
following deductions :—

Expression of type is affected by the
quality or energy of the General and Specific
life-forces, and by the conditions of develop-
ment.

The development of a type cannot ex-
ceed a full expression of the energy of its
life- forces.

Without modification of a Specific life-
force there can be no specific variation in
type.1

1 " Every variation of a living form, however minute, how-
ever apparently accidental, is inconceivable except as the
expression of the operation of molecular forces or ' powers '
resident within the organism. And as these forces certainly
operate according to definite laws, their general result is,
doubtless, in accordance with some general law which sub-
sumes them all." — Huxley, Darwiniana, p. 182.

13

CHAPTER III.

DEVELOPMENT AND ITS RESULTS.

WE now proceed to enquire whether the
abstract conclusions of the last chapter are
confirmed by the results of practical ex-
perience.

Evidence of this description, to be of value,
must not be based on a few cases of doubtful
authenticity, or on phenomena whose signif-
icance is imperfectly understood, but on
results so clear, general, and uniform as to
justify the conclusion that they are the ex-
pression of all-pervading natural laws.

The weight and quality of such evidence
are fully recognised by Mr Herbert Spencer
in his ' Principles of Biology,' where (No. X.
p. 242) he says :—

" Excluding those inductions that have
been so fully verified as to rank with exact
science, there are no inductions so trust-
worthy as those which have undergone the
mercantile test. When we have thousands

14 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

of men whose profit or loss depends on the
truth of the inferences they draw from simple
and repeated observations ; and when we
find that the inferences arrived at, and
handed down from generation to genera-
tion of those deeply interested observers,
have become an unshakable conviction, we
may accept it without hesitation."

Now, evidence of this character is pro-
vided by the uniform experience of skilful
breeders of all domestic animals ; but we
shall deal only with the breeding of cattle,
because the various races are closely allied,
their habits and appearance are generally
known, their mating is closely controlled,
their pedigrees are well authenticated, and
numerous families or herds are bred under
different conditions throughout the country.
Cattle-breeding, in short, provides wider and
more trustworthy results than can be had of
any other domestic race.

Theoretically the object of selective breed-
ing is to develop the fullest expression of
the type of the race, and its practice consists
in carefully selecting for breeding purposes
animals that, in the breeder's judgment,
possess the best expression of the type ; and
so again with their progeny.

The animals selected are carefully pro-

DEVELOPMENT AND ITS RESULTS. 15

tected from any struggle for existence —
that is, they are kept in comfort and fully
supplied with suitable food, but otherwise
under natural conditions. By such system-
atic breeding any cross-blood in the herd
is practically eliminated in a few genera-
tions ; and by selecting the most vigorous
animals and developing their progeny under
the most favourable conditions, a full expres-
sion of type is evolved.

So treated, the herd of the successful
breeder will in a few generations approxi-
mate, perhaps as closely as it ever will, to a
full expression of the type. There were as
good specimens of our pedigreed breeds of
cattle fifty years ago as there are to-day.

Selective breeding has been steadily pros-
ecuted for three-quarters of a century, and
has brought about a higher average ex-
pression of type among cattle generally than
formerly obtained, but there has been no
tendency to specific variation in type. On
the contrary, the invariable experience has
been that the longer selective breeding is
pursued, the more firmly established becomes
the family expression of a herd, and the more
forcibly do the parents stamp the family like-
ness on their progeny.

But with improved expression of type the

16 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

breeder finds himself in the presence of un-
expected obstacles to further development,
and they prove insurmountable. If the
young stock go unmated to the age when
cattle not highly bred reach puberty, the
animals, whether male or female, will prob-
ably prove infertile, and that without any
obvious cause.

The breeder also finds that development
has so stimulated precocity that cases have
been known where a female only eleven
months old has produced a calf; and such
cases at thirteen months are not uncommon.

The dam of eleven months had conceived
when a calf only two months old, instead of
at fifteen to eighteen months — the usual age
of puberty among animals not highly bred.

In these circumstances the breeder seeks
to avoid sterility in the mature animals by
breeding from his young stock when barely
half grown. But as the immature dam can-

o

not be fully protected in the struggle between
her own growth and that of her unborn
calf, both suffer, and both fail to equal their
progenitors in development. Practically, a
full expression of the type has been reached,
and, to maintain the existence of the herd,
its standard of excellence must be lowered
by immature mating.

DEVELOPMENT AND ITS RESULTS. 17

Development by selection and protection
from the struggle for existence is thus
limited by sterility or precocity.

The results of experience, therefore, con-
firm our abstract deductions —

That the development of a type cannot
exceed a full expression of the energy
of its life-forces ; and
That without modification of a Specific
life-force there can be no specific varia-
tion.

18

CHAPTER IV.

CROSS-BREEDING AND ITS RESULTS.

ANY two breeds of cattle are fertile
together, and, as a general rule, first
crosses — hybrids — combine the best char-
acteristics of both breeds, and for the
grazier's purpose are usually superior to
either parent.

But the progeny of hybrids with hybrids,
which we call mongrels, are almost invariably
inferior in form, weak in constitution, and
frequently infertile.

Without an admixture of pure blood mon-
grels certainly fail, for one reason or another,
to perpetuate their type beyond two or
three generations, even although parents and
progeny are carefully protected from any
struggle for their existence.

Darwin was fully aware of the infertil-
ity of hybrids, both of animals and plants,
but does not seem to have fully realised
its significance in evolution.

CROSS-BREEDING AND ITS RESULTS. 19

" The embryo of hybrids," he says, " fre-
quently dies prematurely, and if born, seems
to be defective in vitality." 1

He also refers to experiments with eggs
of cross-bred fowls, where nearly all the
few chickens that emerged from the shell
died soon after " without any cause, appar-
ently from mere inability to live."1

The sterility of some hybrids was not to
be anticipated, for if the life-forces of two
races are so closely allied that they can
combine to produce a hybrid, might it not
be expected that the life-forces of the hy-
brids, inferentially still more closely allied,
would prove more fertile ?

But uniform experience emphatically nega-
tives the inference, even in the case of
races so closely allied as our breeds of
domestic cattle.

In this elimination of mongrel stock may
we not recognise Nature's hostility to a
new type ?

Attempts have been made, with more or
less success, to vary expression of type
by intermixture, to a limited extent, of
the blood of another breed.

If a hybrid is bred into the race of
either parent, and the progeny again into

1 Origin of Species, Ed. vi., p. 249.

20 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

the race selected, fertility may be main-
tained, and individuals apparently pure will
ultimately be produced ; but even after
several generations a calf will occasionally
appear with distinct characteristics of the
discarded breed.

Such cases of atavism seem to indicate
a reluctance in Nature to lose a type, and
also a tendency in the event of an acci-
dental deviation — a monstrosity, for ex-
ample— to revert to the original form.

Crossing between two races occurs but
rarely in a state of nature. The brown
and the mountain hare, although similar,
do not mate, even when they live together
on the same mountain - side ; neither do
grouse and ptarmigan ; and it may be
doubtful whether cattle of different breeds
would mate together if free to choose.

We certainly know that a strong feel-
ing of aversion exists between many races
of mankind1 — probably more or less among
all.

It is remarkable that of white races this
aversion is strongest in Gipsies and Jews,
who, living amongst other nations, might be
expected to have the strongest temptations
to intermarry with another race.

1 Witness the lynchings in the United States.

CROSS-BREEDING AND ITS RESULTS. 21

If the purpose of this feeling of aversion
is not to maintain purity of race, it cer-
tainly exercises a powerful, if unconscious,
influence in that direction.

22

CHAPTER V.

PURITY OF RACE.

WE have hitherto dealt with the Specific
life-force of each race as an unity, but it is
actually dual — male and female — at least in
the higher organisms.

It cannot with confidence be affirmed
that either sex has a preponderating influ-
ence in reproduction, or, excepting the
sexual organisation, in forming any par-
ticular organs or in determining character
or disposition in the progeny ; for some-
times the progeny take after the male,
sometimes after the female, and again, like-
ness to an ancestor more or less remote
may predominate.

Further, the progeny may in physique
resemble the one parent, and in character
and disposition the other. Physique and
character are thus not indissolubly com-
bined in Specific life- force.

These variations in the respective influ-

PURITY OF RACE. 23

ences of the parents on their progeny are
readily observable in the hybrids of two
highly contrasted " varieties," and especially
where there are several young at a birth.
In a litter of hybrid dogs, some may at
maturity resemble the male and others the
female, while some may be intermediate.
These variations, in the respective potencies
of the sexes in reproduction, can hardly
be more clearly demonstrated than by the
photographs of white and black oat plants
and their hybrids, grown for the purpose
of determining whether oats are naturally
cross-fertilised (see plates, pp. 24, 25), by
Mr Thomas Jamieson, F.I.C., Director of
the Aberdeenshire Agricultural Research
Association.

These very interesting and instructive
examples of variations in the respective
reproductive potency of the sexes suggest
a wide field for speculation on the pro-
cesses of reproduction ; but it is sufficient
for our present purpose that they, as well
as hybrid puppies, justify the inference that
individual characteristics of two parents are
not equally divided — not always at least —
in their offspring, and also the assumption
that where likeness to one parent pre-
ponderates, that individual has in similar

24 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

proportion more of the blood of the parent
it resembles than of the other, from which
it differs in expression of type.

This feature of heredity discloses one of
Nature's methods — perhaps the most im-
portant after race hatred — for maintain-
ing purity of race, and it is the guide to
success in selective breeding.

As we have seen, the stock of hybrids,
without intermixture of pure or nearly pure
blood, disappears ; but if the hybrid and
its progeny are bred into the pure stock
of either parent, the descendants have in
two or three generations all the appearance
of that race.

This result will evidently be accelerated
if such of the progeny as take after the
race of one parent are bred into that race.
And that is the practice in selective
breeding.

If a calf shows any strain of alien blood
or inferiority in expression of type, it is
destined to the butcher ; and only if a bull-
calf promises to become a higher expres-
sion of the type of its race than either
parent, is it selected for improvement of
the herd.

Selective breeding thus co-operates with
Nature, and thereby attains more promptly

EXPERIMENTS ON THE NATURAL

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PURITY OF RACE.

25

than Nature unaided, their common object
— purity of race.

It was no doubt by acting, it may be
unconsciously, on this — Nature's method of
selection— that the pedigreed herds of this
country were established.

26

CHAPTER VI.

THE HUMAN RACE.

IN view of the homology throughout Nature,
it may be assumed that the experience in
breeding cattle would, under corresponding
conditions, be repeated in the human race,
and in that case it would follow-
That the species Homo sapiens is not de-
scended from a single pair of ancestors,
but is composed of many distinct races ;
and

That intermarriage between two races will
not, without the intermixture of pure
blood, produce a permanent stock.
We may thus understand why there are
no mongrel descendants beyond the first
or second generation of Eurasians in India,
or of mulattoes in the United States. If
mulattoes married whites, they might ulti-
mately become absorbed in the white popu-
lation, but this is doubtful.

It has been stated that octoroons die at an

THE HUMAN RACE. 27

early age, and it may be that where the
difference between two races is so great as
between the white and the negro, the lower
race will not be elevated to the higher, and
that the crossed descendants die out.

We have heard of cases where a limited
number of Europeans have settled among a
civilised dusky population and married native
women, but instead of the Europeans being
absorbed in the native population, the progeny
have retained the European type, although
they have deteriorated in mental qualities.

If there are such cases, it might be sur-
mised that the European life-force was so
prepotent that, although in smaller propor-
tion than the native, it maintained its
ascendancy in the hybrid, while on the
other hand the mental characteristics of the
native prevailed.

A close study of such cases, if such there
are, would doubtless throw much light on
the phenomena of cross-breeding, but in the
absence of full information we are reduced
to mere speculation ; and it ought to be kept
in view that at least a hundred years must
elapse before the materials for a definite
conclusion could be provided.

It may be objected to our conclusions that
the people of Great Britain are largely com*

28 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

posed of mixed races, and that neither their
fertility nor vitality is impaired. But as we
have seen in the cross-breeding of cattle,
Nature has her own effectual automatic
methods of maintaining purity of race.

The history of the offspring of mixed
marriages would, we believe, show that un-
less they married into a pure race the stock
soon became extinct. We know of no stat-
istics on this deeply interesting question, but
examples will probably occur to the reader.

The inscrutable feeling of aversion between
human races (race-hatred) must tend, perhaps
unconsciously, to prevent mixed marriages,
and so to maintain purity of race. May
not this purpose account for the existence
of this mysterious feeling not only in the
human race, but also among lower animals ?

A race that lives in an alien country, like
the Jews or Gipsies, and intermarries only
with its own people, remains pure ; but
usually a minority becomes absorbed in the
majority, or otherwise disappears, although
examples of atavism will occur even after
several generations.

Notable examples of the Saxon type may
still be seen in Tipperary, where a colony
of Cromwell's Ironsides settled nearly three
centuries ago.

THE HUMAN RACE. 29

Character.

We are at present dealing with the physi-
cal aspect of evolution, but our reasoning
applies with equal force to mental qualities
and disposition (character).

Every race of man has its own individual-
ity, but the characters of most civilised
nations merge into each other so gradually,
that only outstanding characteristics can be
clearly denned or recognised.

There is, however, no difficulty in recog-
nising the distinctive characters of the Celt,
the Gipsy, and the Jew, and the persistence
of their characters through extended periods
of history, and varying conditions of exist-
ence, strongly supports the contention that
mental and physical characteristics are
equally immutable, although among indi-
viduals of the same race, character, like
physique, varies in expression.

30

CHAPTER VII.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS, AND IMPORTANCE OF
A TRUE THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

ON our hypothesis and interpretation of the
facts and experience set forth in the pre-
ceding pages are based the following
conclusions : —

Distinct races are far more numerous than

species, so called.

Only the stock of a pure race is per-
manent.

Continuous fertility and persistence of
stock is the true test of a distinct
race.

The first ancestors of every race were
of the same specific type as their ex-
isting; descendants.

o

Type, although variable in expression, is

immutable.
A modification of type by crossing two

races — that is, an intermediate type
—is not persistent.

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 31

Hybrids may in certain cases be bred
into the type of either parent, but
characteristics of the discarded race
occasionally appear, even in remote
descendants.

Every race has an instinctive aversion to
mate with any other race.

The development of a race in physique,
character, or mental qualities cannot go
beyond a full expression of the capacity
of its life -force.

Every race differs specifically from any
other race, not only in physical type
but also in character ; and individuals
of the same race differ from each other
in expression of the same type.

Development in physical type, or in
character, is limited to a full ex-
pression of the life - force with which
each race or individual was originally
endowed.

The physique and intellectual qualities
of a parent may be dissociated from
each other in the offspring.

32 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

Importance of a true Theory of Evolution.

Theories of evolution may at first sight
seem of small practical importance in the
affairs of life, but on reflection we cannot
fail to recognise the great value of a true
solution of the problem of evolution to all
concerned in the government or management
of mankind, as well as to breeders of animals.
If the preceding conclusions are well
founded we can see the causes of phen-
omena otherwise inexplicable.

We can understand, for example-
Why Copts and Arabs, who have lived
together on the banks of the Nile for
more than a thousand years, have not
amalgamated. l

o

Why in Asia Minor Turks and fragments
of several races, although they live in the
same or adjacent villages, remain apart, each
retaining its own distinctive characteristics
and habits mental and physical.2

Why the Chinese and other ancient
civilisations, after having developed a full
expression of their Specific life -force, failed
to make further progress.

1 See Mrs Duff Gordon's ' Letters from Egypt.'

2 See ' Impressions of Turkey,' by Prof. Ramsay, D.C.L.,
LL.D,

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. 33

Why eminent men in all ages, after ex-
hibiting great proficiency or skill, either
declined or failed to advance. If some men
of transcendent genius seem exceptions, they
are so few that the exceptions tend to prove
the rule.

Why Negroes, Kaffirs, or other inferior
races cannot raise themselves, or be raised,
to the level of the white races.

Why a negroid hybrid of dark colour may
possess the intellectual faculties of a white
race ; or,

The futility of attempting to educate
a brain above the capacity with which it
has been endowed.

34

CHAPTER VIII.

ANALOGIES.

ANALOGIES are not proofs, but they facilitate
the explanation of abstract ideas and theo-
retical processes, and with this object we
gladly avail ourselves of the developments
of the loom and of the steam-engine to illus-
trate our theory of the evolution of life.

The Art of Weaving.

The Jacquard loom may be described as
a mechanism that, when set in motion and
supplied with suitable material, will go on
weaving cloth of identically the same texture
and pattern, so long as the speed of the
machine, the material, and the conditions
remain unchanged.

The forces 'of the loom are of two kinds :
one a " general " force — the motive power ;
and the other — a force specific to every web
of different pattern — produces the particular

ANALOGIES. 35

pattern of the web, as the General and
Specific life-forces in the germ-cell combine
to develop an organism of a specific type.

The speed of the loom, the quality of the
yarn, and the conditions of manufacture
may vary, and any variation will so affect
the web that the skilled eye can detect a
corresponding difference in the cloth, just
as the breeder can recognise different ex-
pressions of the same type among the
animals he breeds, arising from analogous
causes.

The art of weaving was developed from
the simple to the complex by successive steps
or stages ; so also the evolution of life.

The method of weaving varies, but the
underlying principle — the interlacing of
filaments — is the same throughout ; as in
life, all growth is by the multiplication of
cells.

Plants and animals may be classified to
illustrate the successive steps in evolution.
In like manner products of the loom may
be arranged to show clearly the successive
stages in the development of weaving, and
the several fabrics will have so much in
common that the complex might seem to
have grown out of the simple, — as in a sense
it did. But no intelligent observer would

36 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

conclude that the brocade of the Duchess
was evolved from the mat of the savage
by selection, or by environment, or by
" spontaneous " variation.

We know that for every new fabric and
every new pattern of the web, the ingenuity
of man had to devise a new combination of
force, or to prepare a different design.

Again, as the foetus of the mammal ex-
hibits in its growth successive phases in
the evolution of life, so successive steps in
the evolution of the loom may be recognised
in the weaving of complicated fabrics. For
example, in manufacturing a damask table-
cloth, having a plain border surrounding a
twilled square with a pattern of flowers in
the centre, the loom weaves first the border
on the simple plan of crossed threads — the
method of the primitive loom ; a develop-
ment is indicated in the weaving of the
outer portion of the square — the threads
are crossed in a new fashion to throw up
a simple pattern — and then a further stage
is exhibited in the centrepiece of flowers.
To change the centre pattern from flowers
to, say, shells, the same combinations that
wove the first and second stages of the
tablecloth with flowers, weave also the
same stages of that with the shell centre.

ANALOGIES. 3 7

A new combination is necessary only to
differentiate the centre patterns ; the forces
that wove the first cloth are used for the
second, so far as they will subserve the
new design.

And so in the evolution of life, the Specific
life-force of the antecessor was utilised in
evolving its successor, so far as it would
subserve that purpose.

The Steam-engine.

The steam-engines of the present day,
Parson's turbine excepted, have been evolved
from the Cornish pumping-engine of a cen-
tury past. The evolution has been by
numberless steps — some insignificant, others
might be called gigantic ; but, small or large,
each was the result of an application of man's
intelligence and skill to the improvement of
an existing machine ; and each successive step
may be discovered by a comparative study of
the engines successively constructed.

Steam-engines vary greatly in character
and appearance, but as the naturalist
classifies animals, so an expert engineer
could classify steam-engines into families,
genera, species, and varieties ; each as
clearly defined to the professional eye as

38 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

animals, by their classification, to the natur-
alist. The expert could also explain each
successive step in development, and point
out the changes in the structure, just as the
morphologist can specify the higher, or in
some cases the lower specialisation of the dif-
ferent organisms that succeeded each other.

Taking a wide, tall, spreading tree as an
illustration, the expert might show how
the piston and cylinder, like the stem of
the tree, have developed in size and char-
acter ; how the cylinder got its power first
from atmospheric pressure only, then from
air and steam combined, and later from
steam only ; while at the same time the
stem threw off branches on all sides-
represented by the condenser, the super-
heater, the fly-wheel, governor, and other
improvements, that again on their part
developed in character and efficiency.

The expert might then invite attention
to the manner in which the changes were
effected : how the first engines were simplest
in construction ; how the design of an exist-
ing type of engine was utilised, so far as
it would serve, for the new ; how some
organ of the old engine was transformed
into something different in the new ; and
how occasionally a fragment of some member

ANALOGIES. 39

essential to the earlier machine might, al-
though useless, be found in the new, pro-
vided it did not interfere with efficiency.

Then he may also point out that the
development was not invariably towards
higher specialisation, for, as in the case of
the steam-hammer, the new machine was
sometimes less highly specialised than its
antecessor.

All these features in the development of
the steam-engine have parallels in the evolu-
tion of life.

Like the first steam-engine, the earliest
forms of life were the simplest. Embry-
ology tells us that, so far as the organisa-
tions were alike, every new type of life was
based on its antecessor, and that some organs
of an antecessor became transformed in its
successor ; while occasionally the fragments
of an organ, essential in the old type, are
to be found, although apparently useless, in
the new.

Again, the expert might dwell on the wide
gap in some cases between an old type of
engine and a new, in whose structure in-
termediate developments had been entirely
superseded by new inventions.

Similarly, and possibly for similar reasons,
wide gaps in the evolution of life some-

40 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

times occur between a new type and its
immediate (known) antecessor.

Comparing engines of the same variety,
the expert might observe that no two engines
are absolutely identical, but differ in re-
spect of quality of materials or of work-
manship, or in efficiency, just as from anal-
ogous causes two animals of the same race
differ in expression of type or in energy.

Reviewing the development as a whole,
the expert might explain how some of the
earlier types of engine have, like certain
types of organisms, survived, while others,
intermediate between them and the engine
of to-day, have disappeared.

The development of the steam-engine pro-
gressed in accordance with man's necessities.
Many of our present engines would have
been useless until the necessity for them
arose or conditions necessary for their use
were provided, and if the scheme of evolu-
tion were fully disclosed, we should prob-
ably understand the reason for the suc-
cessive developments of life — why some types
persist through ages unchanged, and why
others disappeared, or became more or less
highly specialised.

Are all these parallels between the evolu-

ANALOGIES. 41

tion of life and of the works of man mere
coincidences ?

Do they not indicate that the intelligence !|
and power manifested in the development
of the steam-engine are, though infinitely
lower in degree, akin to those that evolved
successive forms of life, and do they not
justify the presumption, that there is a
certain analogy between man's method of
developing his works and the evolution of
life?

If, then, we are to inquire into Nature's
methods, should we not advance most surely
by comparison, based on our observation
and experience, of the processes of Nature
and of man ?

The homology throughout Nature sug-
gests that the laws of the forces which we
call life are analogous to those of the forces
that pervade inanimate Nature, and are
we not bound to assume that in the evol-
ution of life there was no effect without
a corresponding Cause, nothing spontaneous
or accidental ?

42

CHAPTER IX.

THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

WE now proceed to formulate our Theory
of Evolution, recognising fully that it shall
be subject to Huxley's test, that " Every
hypothesis is bound to explain, or at any-
rate not be inconsistent with, the whole
of the facts which it professes to account
for, and if there is a single one of these
facts which can be shown to be inconsist-
ent with (I do not merely mean inexplic-
able by, but contrary to) the hypothesis,
the hypothesis falls to the ground — it is
worth nothing." 1

The evolution of life was by successive
steps — each step a distinct new type.

The first forms of life (which all theories
assume) consisted of a simple cell, that by
inherent force (which we call " life-force ")
multiplied by producing other similar cells.

1 Darwiniana, p. 463.

THEORY OF EVOLUTION. 43

Thereafter more complex life-forces, owing
existence to the same constructive Power
as the first, successively evolved new org-
anisms, widely diversified in form, and, as
a rule, more and more highly specialised,
until the evolution culminated in Man.

In the process of evolution the Specific
life -force of an existing organism was
utilised in evolving a new type, so far as
the old and the new were alike : in other
words, the new structure was built on old
foundations.

Evolution was not invariably towards
higher specialisation, nor was it restricted
to one line of development. Like a lofty,
wide -spreading tree, the main stem of
evolution put forth branches in all direc-
tions, some more or less divergent from the
upright trunk, others horizontal, and not a
few downwards ; but the evolution through-
out was on the same principles — develop-
ment by utilising, as far as serviceable,
the Specific life -force of an existing type
to evolve a new, and, growth by accretion
of cells.

The differentiation between successive
types was effected by modifying, or add-
ing to, an existing Specific life-force.

Thus not only every species, but every

44 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

race, arose by a special intervention that
modified a Specific life - force already in
existence.

Speculative.

Conception is the incarnation of life, and
we may surmise that the modification of
an existing Specific life-force to produce a
new type was effected at conception by
the same Power that first incarnated life.

It may be that, in the higher organisms,
the fecundated ovum of an existing type
was in some unknown manner ag-ain fecun-

o

dated with a new force, and the old and
new forces thus incorporated evolved the
new type. Further, if the womb of the
antecessor was utilised to foster the embryo,
a new race was evolved by a single direct
intervention of the same Power that called
the first simple forms of life into existence.
Was not the mammal evolved from the fish
through the amphibia ?

The first evidence of a new life is the
growth of the germ -plasm. We cannot
penetrate deeper in our search for the
origin of life, but yet the question will
suggest itself, Whence comes the inexhaust-
ible supply of force to animate the count-

THEORY OF EVOLUTION. 45

less millions of beings that every hour
come into existence ?

Judging by our experience of force in
inanimate nature, a definite quantity of
Specific life-force cannot, within itself, mul-
tiply or increase, and if Specific life -force
comes from the progenitors, the first parents
must have been endowed, not only with a
sufficiency of vitality for themselves, but also
for all their descendants.

But this would be at variance with
Nature's parsimony in the use of means.

Again, if the Specific life - force of the
individual is only sufficient for its own
existence, whence comes the Specific life-
force of its successor ?

We know nothing of the forces that
cause conception, or bring the embryo from
the germ-cell, or develop the mature animal
from the foetus.

The ignorance of the untutored savage
in a great factory, where machines, driven
by invisible electric energy, automatically
produce cunning designs, is not more pro-
found than that of the most highly gifted
of our race in Nature's workshop.

But may not the great factory with its
invisible motive force suggest, that the
world of life is continuously sustained and

46 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

renewed by invisible but all - pervading
energy, from a source that is inexhaustible,
and that every individual life, to all seem-
ing independent, is in reality but a motor,
actuated invisibly to discharge its appointed
functions, until the connection with the vital-
ising energy is sundered ?

It may not be unnecessary to observe, that
our theory deals only with the life which is
common to all animals.

CHAPTEE X.

PHASES OF THE EMBRYO AND FRAG-
MENTARY ORGANS.

LET us now test our theory by its explana-
tion of, perhaps, the most mysterious and
at the same time most significant pheno-
mena in evolution — the similarity of an
embryo to that of an antecessor more or
less remote, and the presence in many
races of what we call fragmentary (not
rudimentary) organs.

The embryo of every mammal presents in
its growth phases similar to what may be
seen in that of its antecessor, and there
may, in some cases, be observed the trans-
formation of certain partially formed organs
of the antecessor into others, different in
appearance, but performing similar func-
tions, in the successor.

Again, in the bodies of many mammals
are found fragments of organs once perfect
in the antecessor, but now apparently super-
fluous to their present owner.

48 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

These footprints of evolution seem to
present a clue to the method of its prog-
ress ; and to explain these phenomena
satisfactorily, is an important test of any
theory of evolution.

According to our theory, the phases in
the growth of an embryo should resemble
the corresponding phases in the embryo of
its antecessor, up to the stage when the
Specific life-force of the successor begins to
differentiate the new type. When the
differentiation between the old type and
the new is slight, as in the case of what
are called varieties of the same species, the
modification of the pre-existing Specific life-
force is slight, and the embryos are con-
sequently similar up to an advanced stage
in their growth.

In cases where the differentiation between
two types arises only after birth, the mature
fostus of the one is not distinguishable from

o

that of the other. But when the differen-
tiation is important and extends to several
organs, the co-operation of the old and the
new Specific life -forces becomes more com-
plicated. The sequence of the growth in the
embryo of the organs of the old type and of
the new is not always the same, and in such
cases two forces seem for a time to be in

EMBRYO AND FRAGMENTARY ORGANS. 49

action, and to act independently of each
other — the old force in fashioning an organ
on the old plan, and the new force in forming
some other organ according to the new type.
Thus at a certain stage the foetus rep-
resents in part the old type and in part
the new.

When, in such cases, the new Specific
life-force seems to wholly supersede that of
the antecessor, a partly fashioned, incon-
gruous organ is dealt with, either —

By being re-formed into an organ of the

new type ; or,
By being wholly or partially absorbed ;

or,

By its growth being simply arrested.
The re- formation of gill-clefts and visceral
i arches, visible at an early stage in the

embryo of mammals, is an example of
the first process ;

The incipient teeth, discernible at one time
in the embryo of the Greenland whale,
and afterwards wholly absorbed and
replaced by whalebone, illustrates the
second method ; and

The third is represented by the rudimen-
tary upper incisor teeth in the foetus of
the calf, arrested in growth and covered
with a hard pad ; or, again, by the frag-
D

50 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

ments of hind -limbs found inside the
body of the Greenland whale.

According to this explanation fragmentary
organs are parts of organs once perfect in
an antecessor, and not the rudiments of
organs that become perfect in a successor.

This explanation of the origin of frag-
mentary organs also explains why stages
of evolution that, according to Darwinism,
should be continuous in the embryo, do
not appear in the embryonic development
of some animals ; for example, why the
embryo of some snakes shows the gill-clefts
of a fish, but no trace of the fore-limbs of
an antecessor less remote.

Sometimes the differentiation, towards a
higher or a lower specialisation, between an
antecessor and an immediate successor, is so
great that some organs of the immediate
antecessor are altogether wanting in the
successor. In such cases the differentiation
in the new Specific life - force takes effect
before the absent organs would begin to
be formed in the embryo of the successor,
and therefore the phases of the successor's
embryo show no trace of them.

51

CHAPTER XL

ENIGMAS AND THEIR SOLUTION.

LET us now analyse the processes in the
marvellous transformations of the embryo
during its growth, and endeavour to discover
their significance and bearing on the general
question of evolution.

We see that the embryo of a mammal
develops, during at least the earlier phases
of its growth, in the type of its antecessor,
and that at a certain stage, which varies in
different genera but is uniform in every race,
what seems a new force intervenes and begins
to evolve some organ in the type of the
successor, which is not that of the antecessor,
while some other organ is being formed in
the type of the antecessor, which is not that
of the successor. Thus there seem to be
two forces of growth developing the embryo
in different types, and in consequence the
embryo in this stage is neither wholly in the
type of the antecessor nor of the successor.

52 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

But presently the specific life-force of the
successor seems to prevail, that of the ante-
cessor is wholly superseded, and the foetus
is completed in the new type. The Green-
land whale, for example, has no teeth, and
yet its embryo at an early stage develops
incipient teeth that afterwards disappear, and
are replaced by whalebone. (See page 49.)

These facts seem to disclose two anomalies
— two forces at work in the development
of an embryo, and at one stage apparently
in conflict ; and again, the toothless whale
begets an embryo that, contrary to the law
of heredity as generally understood, develops
incipient teeth, and is in this respect unlike
its progenitors.

How are these seeming anomalies to be
explained ?

The apparent anomaly in the embryo of
the whale arises from imperfect apprehension
of the operation of heredity.

There are three distinct phases in the
existence of a mammal — the germ-cell, the
foetus, and the animal. Now, the law of
heredity prescribes that a mature mammal
shall reproduce its race, not by begetting a
miniature of itself, but a germ -plasm the
same as that from which itself was evolved ;
further, that this germ-plasm shall develop

ENIGMAS AND THEIR SOLUTION. 53

into a foetus, and the foetus into a mature
animal, each in the respective types of the
progenitor in the corresponding phases of its
existence. The progenitor thus begets a
germ-plasm like that from which it came,
the germ-plasm evolves a foetus, and the
foetus an animal of the same type, that will
in its turn beget a germ- plasm like that from
which it came ; and from this germ-plasm will,
in the appointed course, be evolved a successor
in the likeness of its progenitor. And thus
continuity of race and identity of type are
maintained through successive generations.

If, then, our interpretation of the law of
Heredity is correct, and if we assume that
the law has been in operation from the
origin of any particular race, — which there
seems no reason to doubt, — it follows :

That the embryo of the first ancestor of
a race presented in its growth the same
phases that are to be seen in the embryo
of its latest descendant ; and that the germ-
plasm and embryo of any existing mammal
are specifically identical with those of the
first ancestor of the race.

That the specific variation that consti-
tuted a new race was complete in the womb
of its first progenitor.

That neither the germ - plasm nor the

54 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

embryo of the mammal of to-day has been
specifically affected by environment, or by
the varying conditions of life to which the
progenitors have been subjected.

That in the growth of the embryo of an
existing mammal we witness the processes
of Specific Variation that evolved the first
of its type.

Type is therefore specifically immutable.

These conclusions are exemplified in the
life-history of the whale; for, notwithstand-
ing the numberless generations of whales
procreated since their first appearance, and
the vast differences in the conditions of life
of the whale in water and of its antecessor
on land, the embryo of the whale still pre-
sents traces, and the mature animal frag-
ments of organs, that were fully developed
in its four-footed antecessor.

We have traced the Specific Variation of
mammals backwards to the womb of the first
progenitor of a race ; but we know no more
of the cause of the variation, or of how it
was effected, than we do of the origin of life,
— of which indeed Specific Variation was but
a new and higher manifestation — presumably
by the same Cause. But having regard to
Nature's parsimony in the use of means, we
may imagine that a new type was evolved by

ENIGMAS AND THEIR SOLUTION. 55

modification of the germ-plasm of the im-
mediate antecessor; and, that the new Specific
Life-force evolved the new type in the womb
of the antecessor.

The successive phases of the embryo and
foetus of any mammal thus represent the
successive steps in the specialisation of its
type, and they at the same time disclose
the open secret of Nature's method in the
evolution of Organic Life.

But what of two forces and their apparent
conflict in the development of the embryo ?

We shall most readily explain this seeming
anomaly, and at the same time the processes
of specific variation in the embryo, by the
analogy between the loom of life and the
Jacquard loom, of which we previously availed
ourselves. (See chap, viii.)

The Jacquard loom, by means of two
distinct combinations of force, manufactures
automatically webs of very diversified and
elaborate patterns. One combination of
force, representing the General life-force of
our theory, provides the motive-power and
throws the shuttle — does, in short, the work
of the ordinary loom ; the other combina-
tion, representing the Specific life-force, is
embodied in a mechanism (attached to what

56 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

is an ordinary loom), that, by means of per-
forated pasteboard cards affixed to the face
of a cylinder (so called), automatically guides
the threads of the warp to throw up a
designed pattern. The cylinder revolving,
presents successively to the mechanism a
series of cards, perforated to produce a cer-
tain design, and by means of the perfora-
tions the mechanism is guided to throw up
the pattern they represent. To change the
pattern, it is necessary to replace only such
cards as would conflict with the new design,
by others suitably perforated ; the other
arrangements of the loom may remain un-
changed.

Thus if a Jacquard loom has been weaving
damask tablecloths having a plain border,
surrounding a twilled square, with a flower
pattern within a disc in the centre, and the
loom is required to manufacture a similar
tablecloth, but with a pattern of shells in
the disc instead of flowers, it would only
be necessary to substitute fresh cards, per-
forated to produce shells instead of flowers,
for the cards whose perforations would con-
flict with the new pattern. The loom, with
the new cards adjusted on the cylinder,
would begin to weave the border of this
new tablecloth like the old, and also the

ENIGMAS AND THEIR SOLUTION. 57

twilled square, to the point where the disc
pattern begins ; the new cards would then
begin to throw up the new pattern, while
the loom would go on weaving as before
the twilled square on each side of the disc,
until the cards of the shell pattern suc-
cessively intervened : if the disc extended
wholly across the square, the cards that
form the square would gradually be wholly
superseded. It is to be noted that the cards
that produce the pattern on the disc do not
simultaneously supersede those that weave
the square, nor does the change in texture
run in a straight line across the web, but
gradually as the cloths differ.

If a new tablecloth is to have a different
kind of square, the specific variation between
it and the first would be greater, and the
new adjustment of the loom would supersede
the old at an earlier stage — when the border
was completed.

If a simpler tablecloth — i.e., less specialised
than the first — is wanted, either the centre
pattern or the twilled square, or both, may
be dispensed with, and the correspond-
ing arrangements of the loom would be
omitted.

The appearance and the quality of the web
— what might be called its "expression" —

58 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

will depend on the energy and steadiness of
the mechanism of the loom, and also on the
material used, as well as sometimes on the
state of the atmosphere.

The processes in the loom of life are closely
analogous.

The same Specific life - force invariably
evolves the same type; but, as in the web,
its expression among individuals of the same
race will vary with any differences in the
energy of the life - forces, or in food, or in
environment during its growth to maturity.
To evolve a new race, either more or less
highly specialised, the Specific life-force alone
is modified, and that only so far as necessary
to produce the new type. The greater the
specific difference between successive types,
the earlier does the Specific life - force of
the successor intervene to differentiate the
embryos ; and the less the specific difference,
the longer does the similarity between the
embryos continue until, in the case of some
so-called varieties of a species, no difference
can be observed between them at birth.

The analogy between the loom of life and
the Jacquard loom is, however, not complete
in one particular. No loom, as far as we
know, has yet been devised that will unweave
part of a web and replace it with a different

ENIGMAS AND THEIR SOLUTION. 59

pattern, as the loom of life eliminates in-
cipient teeth in the embryo of the whale
and substitutes whalebone ; but, looking to
what has been already achieved, who will
venture to say that this feat may not also be
within the compass of man's ingenuity ?

We now see that in the growth of the
embryo there is no anomaly, no two distinct ,
forces, and no conflict. The Specific life-force |
of the race (in conjunction with General
life - force) evolves the embryo in the ap-
pointed type, just as the two combinations
of force in the Jacquard loom weave the web,
and throw up the appointed pattern.

We cannot see the process of adjusting
the new combination (the Specific life -force)
to produce the new type, or the forces that
evolve the successive phases in the embryo,
but we can see that there must be forces
to bring them about, just as surely as we
see the force of gravitation in the fall of
the apple.

Our theory has now explained — intellig-
ibly, as we think — the existence of frag-
mentary organs, and the significance of the
phases of the embryo, as completely as Huxley
demands of a hypothesis. We believe it
will also explain the other admitted facts

60 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

of evolution ; but if there is a single fact
which, in the words of Huxley, " can be
shown to be inconsistent with (not merely
inexplicable by, but contrary to) the hypo-
thesis," we freely admit that our theory
" falls to the ground — it is worth nothing." l

1 Darwiniana, p. 463.

61

CHAPTER XII.

ARGUMENTATIVE.

WE do not propose to anticipate arguments
against this new theory of evolution, but we
may examine two obvious objections.

This, it will be said, is merely the old
theory of successive creations, according to
which every new species was evolved by a
" miracle" or by a direct intervention of
" Supernatural Power."

Our theory does not assume, in the evolu-
tion of new species, any intervention of
Supernatural Power different in principle
from that which brought into existence the
simplest forms of life.

If it is held that life was evolved by
forces that previously existed in matter,
then matter must have been endowed with
properties that produced life. We cannot
escape from a First Cause.

But what is a " miracle " ?

A phenomenon, apparently at variance
with some law of Nature we think we

62 A NEW THEOJRY OF EVOLUTION.

understand, or something inexplicable by
any law of Nature of which we have any
knowledge, is, we presume, a " miracle."

Huxley says, " A phenomenon is explained
when it is shown to be a case of some
general law of Nature." 1

Is, then, a phenomenon we cannot explain
a miracle so long as it is inexplicable, and
does it become " a case of some general law of
Nature " when it can be explained ? Was it
a " miracle " that water should rise above its
level into a vacuum before Torricelli explained
the nature of a vacuum, and afterwards only
a case of some general law of Nature ?

Again, is an inexplicable phenomenon that
constantly occurs not a " miracle " but only
"a case of some general law of Nature"
because of its frequent recurrence ? We
do not understand why a grain of seed
germinates and grows into a plant, but we
do not call germination a miracle, but " a
case of some general law of Nature."

Why, then, should it be a "miracle" and
not some "general law of Nature," that
specific variation arose in the germ-plasm,
seeing that we can witness the processes of
variation in the embryo of every mammal,
as we can those of germination in the growth
of every seed ?

1 Darwiniana, p. 57.

ARGUMENTATIVE. 63

We cannot see the force that causes vari- j
ation in the embryo, but neither can we see the
force that causes the grain of seed to germin-
ate, or that brings the apple to the ground.

But it may be argued, that as it is an
admitted fact that types more or less highly
specialised succeeded each other, the Super-
natural Power that caused the variation
must have intervened after the simpler forms
of life came into existence, and for that
reason the intervention was miraculous.

But although Evolution, so far as we know,
ceased when man, the most highly specialised
organism, appeared — is there any ground for
assuming, that the Power that brought into
existence simple forms of life, did not also
evoke the more highly specialised types that
succeeded them, or that organisms when
called into being were not, and are not still,
sustained during life and reproduced by the
Power that evoked them ?

Whence or how comes the inexhaustible
supply of force that sustains and renews all
animated Nature ?

The Darwinian problem — Given the exist-
ence of simple forms of life, how were com-
plex forms evolved from them? — assumes that
there was a fundamental difference between
the coming into existence of simple and of
complex organisms, and that life exists

64 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

independent of its Author ; but for these
assumptions there is no warrant in Nature.

Again it is objected, that to assume that
beings were created imperfect is derogatory
to the highest conception of an all- wise and
omnipotent Creator.

If this objection were well founded it would
follow that man — if he is the highest possible
specialisation — would be the earth's only in-
habitant.

But the objection is based on a confusion of
• ideas. If a clockmaker purposes to construct
a perfect clock to register minutes only, and
if he should succeed, is not the clock perfect
although it does not register seconds, and
has not the clockmaker accomplished his
purpose ?

And so, if the purpose of the First Cause
was a world of life that individually should
maintain existence for a space, and repro-
duce successors, has not the purpose been
accomplished ?

But who knows the purpose of the First
Cause ?

The world, and what it comprises, is the
expression of His purpose, and what it is
we can hope to know, only when we fully
comprehend the manifestation.

65

CHAPTER XIII.

INFERENTIAL.

GUIDED by the clue presented in the phases
of the embryo and in fragmentary organs,
we have learned to decipher the open secret
of evolution, but these phenomena seem to
have a wider and far higher significance
than merely to disclose its path.

Consider for a moment the transforma-
tions and adaptations of organs that take
place in evolving the organisation of a new
type from that of its antecessor, as revealed,
for example, in the embryos of the calf and
of the whale. The upper incisor teeth of
the antecessor begin to be developed in the
embryo of the calf, but as teeth are not
suitable for the conditions of its life, their
growth is arrested ; the incipient teeth will,
however, form a satisfactory base for the
hard pad, suitable for cropping grass, that
is to cover them, and they are utilised in
the new structure.

E

66 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

But the incipient teeth, similarly developed
in the embryo of the whale, would interfere
with the growth of whalebone, necessary to
collect the food of the successor, and they
are absorbed, and leave no trace in the
mature animal that they ever existed.
Then the bones and integuments of the
fore-legs of the antecessor are transformed
into fins, and a powerful tail is substituted
for hind-limbs. Thus the organisation of the
antecessor, that lived on land, is modified to
adapt the successor for a life in water. Ob-
serve, however, that fragments of thigh-bones,
six to nine inches long, in an animal whose
length may be sixty to eighty feet, are
found imbedded in its flesh disconnected
from the skeleton. These fragments of the
antecessor's organs were developed in the
embryo of the successor, before the differen-
tiation between the old type and the new
was wholly completed, and they remain,
apparently useless to the animal, — possibly
for the purpose we are presently to suggest.

Common-sense, basing her conclusions on
observation and experience, has no hesitation
in accepting these marvellous modifications
as evidence — we had almost said conclusive
evidence — that adaptations so cunning were
devised by Intelligence that foresaw the new

INFERENTIAL. 6*7

conditions of the successor's life, and were
effected by Power that could command the
forces that evolved them.

But why are incipient teeth formed in the
embryo of the calf and adapted to a different
purpose ? why, in the embryo of the whale,
do incipient teeth appear merely to dis-
appear? and why are fragments of thigh-
bones, apparently useless, left in its body ?
It is not to be conceived, that the Power
that transformed the organs of the ante-
cessor could not have so adjusted the new
Specific life - forces that no trace of teeth
should have appeared in the embryos, and
no fragments of hind-legs in the body of
the whale ? In that case the transformation
would have been more complete, — humanly
speaking, a better finished job, — and no
trace would have been found in the successor
of the modifications that show whence it
came.

What, then, is the purpose or what the
object of these imperfections or flaws, if we
may so call them ? Do not these singular
phases, cognisable in the embryo to the
eye of science, and fragments of organs,
patent in the corpus to the unaided senses,
suggest the idea that their purpose is, like
footprints in sand or straws dropped in a

68 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

{' maze, to demonstrate the existence of a
• First Cause as well as to disclose the pro-
; cesses of creation ?

Elusive Nature, with purpose inscrutable,
leaves in her operations no direct evidence
of external intervention : cause and effect
seem to follow each other automatically, but
here and there are hieroglyphs inscribed
on Nature's works that, rightly interpreted,
reveal an omniscient and omnipotent Creator.

PART II.

CHAPTER I.

THE DARWINIAN THEORY OF ORGANIC
EVOLUTION.

NOTWITHSTANDING the dissent of many emi-
nent authorities, the theory of the Evolu-
tion of species by natural selection, made
public by Darwin in 1859, still holds the
field, and as a comparison of his theory
with that in the preceding pages will tend
to disclose their respective values, we now
proceed to set forth Darwin's views as we
gather them from his works, and to examine
impartially, if possible, the evidence and
arguments adduced in their support.

It would be beyond the scope of this
work to examine exhaustively all Darwin's
writings on evolution, and we shall there-
fore deal only with the more important
phenomena referred to by him, and his in-
terpretation of their meaning.

Darwin nowhere offers any views respect-
ing the origin of life, nor does he formulate

72 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

his theory, but, assuming the existence of
life in its simplest forms, sets forth at great
length the facts and arguments, which he
says have thoroughly convinced him —
That all animals and plants have been
evolved from a few progenitors, and
possibly from one prototype only.
That new species have been evolved
principally by natural selection, acting
through the struggle for existence ;
aided (a) to an important extent by the
inherited effect of the use and disuse
of parts, and (b) to an unimportant
extent by the direct action of the ex-
ternal conditions of life.
That small beneficial differences appeared
from time to time in some members
of a species, and, being accumulated
by heredity through numberless suc-
cessive generations, during vastly ex-
tended periods of time, ultimately be-
came specific variations, and thus new
species arose.1

The principal phenomena adduced in sup-
port of these conclusions are—

The similarity in structure and organisa-
tion of successive types.

1 See 'Origin of Species,' Ed. vi., p. 421.

DARWINIAN ORGANIC EVOLUTION. 73

The differences among animals of admit-
tedly the same race.

The known effects of (a) selective breed-
ing, (b) the use or disuse of parts, and
(c) the direct action of external condi-
tions of existence.

We propose first to define what we mean
by a " race," and then to examine in detail
the real meaning and significance of the
phenomena to which Darwin appeals, and
also the value of the arguments based on his
interpretation of these phenomena.

CHAPTER II.

RACE.

THE term "species" is unsatisfactory, es-
pecially in discussing the problems of
evolution.

" Species" is a purely artificial distinction,
and has no definite significance. It has
been said by some authorities that species
is determined by practical experience and
common-sense.

While, therefore, species may serve for pur-
poses of classification, its meaning in discuss-
ing the origin of species is too indefinite.

According to Quatrefages, a species in-
cludes all more or less similar individuals
which descend, or can be supposed to de-
scend, from a single ancestral pair in un-
broken succession. But many species include
varieties that permanently differ from each
other, but not, in the opinion of naturalists,
sufficiently to constitute a distinct species.
The difference necessary to constitute a

RACE.

distinct species is thus a matter of opinion,
and authorities occasionally disagree in their
classification.

But in questions of evolution, it is of
cardinal importance to determine whether a
variety is merely an unusually wide diverg-
ence in expression of type, or a distinct
type, or, as Darwin holds, a new species in
the course of formation.

We must therefore seek to find some
characteristic or test, that shall determine
whether two closely allied groups are dis-
tinct races, or merely varieties of the same
race, that may, with opportunity or altered
conditions of existence, merge into one.

The test we propose of a distinct type or
race is, that its members shall not only be
alike in appearance and fertile among them-
selves, but that their progeny shall continue
fertile and the type persistent.

If the members of a variety (so called) are
fertile together and their stock persistent, it
is a distinct type or race. But if the mem-
bers of a variety, although fertile among them-
selves, cannot maintain their type for at least
three generations, it is an intermediary be-
tween two races, and not a distinct type or
race.

We believe that unless at least one parent

76 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

is of pure or nearly pure blood, the stock
will not be permanent.

A herd of hybrids, for example, cannot,
within themselves, perpetuate a stock inter-
mediate between the two pure races from
which they came.

The proposed test is quite practicable in
the case of domestic animals, and with
them its value may be ascertained in a few
years.

We do not know that experiments of the
kind suggested have been made purposely,
but our propositions are based on the uni-
form experience of breeders.

Cross-breeding of domestic animals has
been diligently pursued during the last
century, and yet there has not been pro-
duced a permanent stock intermediate be-
tween two pure breeds. Every cross-bred
stock has died out, unless bred into a pure
race, by continuous mating with pure blood.

Several breeds of cattle are very closely
allied to each other, and a new breed in-
termediate between some of them would
certainly have been produced if Nature did
not prohibit persistent intermediaries. The
profit that would arise from an inter-
mediate breed of cattle, that combined the
excellences of two races — e.g., high capacity

RACE. 7*7

for producing both milk and meat, or high
quality of meat with early maturity — has
induced numberless efforts to establish in-
termediate breeds, but all have failed.

Shorthorn cattle are specially valued for
early maturity, and polled Aberdeenshire
for high quality of beef, but they are longer
in coming to maturity than Shorthorns. A
cross between the two usually combines the
advantages of both — early maturity and
excellence in quality of meat — and is thus
more profitable to the grazier than either of
the parent breeds. Farmers have in con-
sequence anxiously endeavoured to establish
an intermediate breed that would combine
the two qualities, and if their efforts had
been successful — that is, if the intermediate
type had proved persistent — a new breed or
race would have been established. But all
attempts in this direction have signally
failed. The mongrels from the hybrids in-
variably proved degenerate specimens — in-
ferior to their pure ancestors in expression
of type and also weak in constitution — and
so they disappeared, either through sterility
or debility. Darwin cites, as already men-
tioned, experiments with eggs of cross-bred
fowls, where nearly all the few chickens
that emerged from the shell died soon after,

78 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

"without any cause" or "apparently from
mere inability to live." The same results
follow the cross-breeding of dogs. The
lurcher is a cross between the greyhound
and the collie, and combines in high degree
the swiftness and keenness of vision of the
greyhound and the intelligence and scent-
ing faculty of the collie ; but no breeder
thinks of breeding lurchers from lurchers,
because the degeneracy of their mongrel
progeny is well known.

It is not easy to see how varieties of the
same species can exist in the same locality.
According to the common standard of fertility,
all are fertile together, and if so, all would
by heredity become blended together in ex-
pression, and variety would cease. In our
opinion, varieties in the same locality are
distinct races, kept pure by that aversion
between races that we know exists without
any satisfactory explanation — unless to pre-
serve purity of race — between different races
of mankind, and very notably between some
species of lower animals.

But it may be asked how the distinct
breeds of pure cattle, now registered in their
respective herd-books, have appeared within
the last century? Are they not examples
of new varieties ?

RACE. 79

There is no doubt that all the different
breeds of cattle or of sheep that now exist,
existed in herds more or less pure before selec-
tive breeding was practised. Then as now,
the animals varied among each other in size,
shape, and quality, and the history of any
pedigreed breed tells us that the breeder,
by continuously selecting the best animals
in his herd for breeding purposes, and by
protecting them in their struggle for exist-
ence, developed the breed and established
its reputation, by demonstrating what could
be done by careful selection and generous
treatment. No breeder ever created or made
a breed — the breed existed from all time ;
he," simply by following, probably uncon-
sciously, Nature's method of maintaining
purity of race, as explained in a preceding
chapter, purged his herd of any strain of
impurity, and by generous treatment secured
a full expression of the type. There is no
specific difference between pedigreed animals
and those of the same breed, whose ancestors
never appeared in the herd-book.

If then, as experience shows, it is im-
practicable, either by cross or by selective
breeding, to establish a new variety between
two closely allied races, or within a pure
race, does it not follow that every group

80 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

of animals that perpetuates its stock has
always been a distinct type, and that any
differences among individuals of the same
race are merely different expressions of
its type ?

81

CHAPTER III.

SIMILARITY OF SUCCESSIVE TYPES.

ONE of the strongest arguments in favour
of the Darwinian theory is based on the
similarity in structure of successive types.

In many cases the skeleton and general
organisation of the antecessor and of the suc-
cessor are all but identical, and in every case
the embryo of a successor presents, during its
growth, phases similar to what may be ob-
served in that of its antecessor. Indeed, in
some instances — some breeds of dogs, for
example — the young of the successor and of
the antecessor cannot at birth be distinguished
from each other, and the specific character-
istics of the successor are only developed
between birth and maturity.

Seeing that the differentiation, between
an antecessor and a successor, begins invari-
ably at the same stage in the growth of their
embryos, may we not naturally infer that the
differentiation is due to new forces in the

¥

82 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

successor that come into action at that stage
and differentiate the types ? And the ques-
tion is, How or whence come those differen-
tiating forces?

Darwin says the differentiation is caused
by changes in external conditions of life, or
by the accumulation of beneficial differences
that " spontaneously " arise.

But we cannot see how external in-
fluences, sometimes destructive, can become
constructive and evolve higher specialisa-
tion, and before any argument can be based
on " spontaneous " variation there must be
evidence of such variation. But Darwin
offers no evidence of persistent specific
variation.

Specific variation between a successor and
its immediate known antecessor is sometimes
great, and the similarity between phases of
their foetus is only observable in the early
stages of growth. In such cases the mature
animals are very dissimilar : the foundations,
so to speak, are alike, but the superstructures
are very different. The difficulties of evolu-
tion, by secondary causes, are more obvious in
such cases, but they are not really increased
by the width of the gap between antecessor
and successor. The difference is in kind,
not in degree.

SIMILARITY OF SUCCESSIVE TYPES. 83

Darwin attributes these gaps to the imper-
fection of the geological record, and believes
they will be filled up by future discoveries.
But even then the difficulty would not be
removed, because, as we have seen, the
same objection applies in principle in the
case of the smallest gap — for example, where
variation arises only after birth.

Further, the argument based on the sim-
ilarity of successive types is negatived by
the facts of retrogression — that is, where the
successor is less highly specialised than its
antecessor. But we discuss retrogression in
another chapter.

The generally higher specialisation of suc-
cessive types, and the position of their re-
spective fossil remains in successive geological
strata, we accept as conclusive evidence of a
process of evolution, and their similarity
suggests the idea that there is something in
common between them ; but similarity does
not prove that the one was evolved from the
other by secondary causes. To infer that the
steam-engine of to-day was evolved from the
first machine of the kind, without human in-
tervention, would be an absurdity unworthy
of notice, and the difference between a mam-
mal and a fish, to go no lower, is far greater
than between any steam-engines.

84 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

We know that the materials of the first
engine did not of themselves combine or take
thought to become an engine, and we know
that every successive improvement or step in
its evolution was effected by the active inter-
vention of the intelligence and power that
fashioned the first. May we not then con-
clude, at least until we have some evidence to
the contrary weightier than mere inference,
that the process of evolution was in many
respects analogous to the development of the
steam - engine, and was not brought about
by secondary causes or by " spontaneous "
variation ?

If we are to speculate on the matter, it
seems to us in accordance with common-sense,
and what we know of Nature, to believe that
the Creative Power that first brought life
into being, continued to intervene in evolv-
ing, with purposes we may try to imagine
but can never know, a scheme of evolution,
whereof part was the production of new
types more or less highly specialised, by a
method that utilises, as man, unconsciously
following the example, utilises, a realised
conception in evolving a new.

85

CHAPTER IV.

THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE AND
NATURAL SELECTION.

LIFE, under favourable conditions, is not a
struggle, but the harmonious development of
an organism. When, however, development
is obstructed or impaired by unfavourable
conditions, life does become a struggle, and as
every species of animal (civilised man per-
haps excepted) and plant tends to increase
faster than the food available for subsistence,
the conditions of life become unfavourable,
and the struggle for existence all-pervading,
save where man intervenes. The survivors
in the conflict thus inevitable, will have
proved themselves fitter to exist than those
that perished, presumably because they
possessed some advantage over their less
fortunate fellows : when the struggle was
nearly balanced, that advantage may have
been of a trifling character, but, according
to Darwin, minute differences are accumu-

86 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

lated by the effects of the struggle and by
heredity, and thus ultimately a new species
is evolved.

But although the animals that survive
have evidently proved themselves fitter than
those that succumbed, that does not prove
that they are fitter than if there had been no
struggle, or that they themselves are as fit
as when the struggle began.

Let us suppose a colony of fifty rabbits
on an island capable of sustaining not more
than a hundred without a struggle for food.
While grass is abundant, arid the conditions
of life are in every respect favourable, the
rabbits multiply, and in a few generations
the highest expression of their type will
probably be developed. But when the colony
exceeds a hundred, the struggle for existence
will begin and go on continuously.

What will be the result of the struggle
after six months have passed ? The rabbits
that possessed the greatest vitality, and
were able to live on the smallest quantity
of food, will have proved themselves fitter
than those less highly endowed, and will
survive ; whilst the feeblest, when the
struggle began, will have been starved out
of existence. But have the surviving rab-
bits come out of the struggle unscathed ?

THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 87

Have they become fitter to continue the
struggle than the rabbits that were fittest
when the struggle began ? Or, should the
struggle develop into a conflict between in-
dividuals, will the half- starved rabbit be as
fit to fight as when he was well fed ? Were
that the case, it would follow that scarcity of
food is more favourable to life and vigour than
abundance ; but that is absurd, for we know
that insufficiency of food impairs constitution
and vitality and stunts growth. The differ-
ences between wild and domestic animals,
assuming both to be of the same species,
or between the same plant growing wild
and under cultivation, are obviously not the
effects of the struggle for existence, but of
protection from its effects.

In the case of animals that live by preying
on other species, it may be argued that,
when food ceases to be abundant, increased
use would develop in exceptional individuals
increased speed of foot or wing, or keenness
of vision, as the case may be ; but the habits
of beasts or birds of prey do not support this
conclusion. The beast or bird of prey gorges
itself when it has the opportunity, and does
not again hunt its prey until impelled by
hunger. Habitual necessities thus provide
sufficient exercise for the full development of

88 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

the muscles. If the prey become less abund-
ant, more exertion must be expended on its
capture. There will be more exercise to
develop the muscles, but there will be no
more food to sustain them ; and if endurance
be developed, it will be at the expense of
some other part of the animal economy.
Should the struggle for food become intense,
the vigour of the strongest must become im-
paired, and the weakest perish. And so the
experienced hunter of big game knows that
where food is scarce he will get little sport
and no fine specimens.

But there is no need to rest our conclusions
on hypothetical illustrations. A struggle for
existence, on a great scale, has been going on
in Australia for the last five years, and forty
millions of sheep, it is officially reported,
have succumbed in their struggle for food and
water. Five years ago there was no struggle
for existence on Darling Downs — grass and
water were there in plenty, and the flocks
were as fine as any of their breed. And now
the wretched creatures, dying by the way, or
selling at a shilling a-head, are the remnants
that have survived in the terrible struggle.
And how do the fittest of them compare with
the flock of five years ago ? Has any bene-
ficial variation appeared during the prolonged

THE STRUGGLE FOE EXISTENCE. 89

struggle among the many millions exposed to
its effects ? The question, in presence of the
sheep, would be ludicrous, and common-sense
asks, How could beneficial variation be ex-
pected from depletion and exhaustion, to
which the struggle for existence invariably
tends? The flock-master will tell you that the
fittest of the survivors is not equal, in any re-
spect, to the unfittest in the flock five years ago,
and that the sheep born during the struggle
will never equal the old flock ; for bitter ex-
perience has taught him that an animal that
has suffered from unfavourable conditions in
its youth will never, however carefully pro-
tected afterwards, become a fine specimen of
its breed. The finest animals are produced
only by continuous careful protection from
their birth upwards.

If beneficial variation did in some
mysterious manner arise, its possessor would
no doubt, in the struggle for existence,
probably outlive its fellows. But there must
first be the beneficial variation, and of such
there is no evidence. Mr Bateson in his work
* On Materials for Variation ' does not record
among deviations from a normal type — what
we call accidents in the loom of life, or mon-
strosities— a single example of beneficial
variation ; and, considering the exhaustive

90 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

character of his work, it may be fairly
assumed that no example of the kind is
known.

It may be argued that the Australian
struggle is a very extreme case, but, if the
struggle for existence is a stimulus to bene-
ficial variation, it might be expected that the
more severe the struggle the greater the
stimulus would be, or that at least some
evidence of a tendency thereto would be
disclosed. The magnitude of the result in
Australia only makes more conspicuous the
absurdity of the contention, that any bene-
ficial variation can come from the struggle
for existence.

We can now clearly recognise that the real
function of the struggle for existence is to
eliminate the unfit, and thereby to limit de-
gradation of type, as, on the other hand,
sterility and precocity limit development.

Natural selection — the name given by
Darwin to the outcome of the struggle for
existence — does not select in the ordinary
acceptation of the term. If it does select, it
selects for death and not for life, and although
survivors in the struggle may benefit by the
competition for food becoming less severe,

THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. 91

would not the benefit be greater if there
was no competition — no struggle ?

The idea that the struggle for existence —
that is, unfavourable conditions of life — has a
developing influence on animal physique, has
probably been suggested by the great develop-
ment of the moral strength of man under
his struggle with adversity; but there is no
analogy between the effects of unfavourable
conditions of life on animal physique and of
adverse circumstances on the moral nature
of man.

92

CHAPTER V.

THE ACCUMULATION OF BENEFICIAL
DIFFERENCES.

WE fully recognise differences among in-
dividuals of the same race, and also that
such differences are specially noticeable
amongst domestic animals under selective
breeding. Some individuals, compared with
their fellows, develop what we consider bene-
ficial differences ; and the assumption by
Darwin that these beneficial differences ac-
cumulate indefinitely, become specific varia-
tions, and give rise to new species, is a main
prop of his theory.

The hypothesis seems at first sight plaus-
ible enough, and, had evolution been brought
about by secondary causes, it is possible that
the accumulation of beneficial differences
might have been an effectual means of de-
veloping new species.

But, unfortunately for Darwin's hypothesis,
the beneficial differences that arise under

ACCUMULATION OF DIFFERENCES. 93

selective breeding do not tend to specific
variation, neither does their accumulation
go on indefinitely, for experience tells us
that the maximum accumulation of bene-
ficial differences may be attained within
three generations, and that retrogression
then takes place — either the beneficial dif-
ferences disappear, or sterility bars further
accumulation.

Galton, in his work on Hereditary Genius,
seems to have proved, by carefully collected
statistics, that eminent intellectual and also
great physical ability run in families, and
are therefore more or less hereditary ; but
we do not think his statistics present any ex-
ample of a father, son, and grandson possess-
ing abilities above the average of the family,
and in every case the eminence subsequently
disappears.

"Ability," says Galton (p. 76), "in the
long-run does not suddenly start into exist-
ence and disappear with equal abruptness,
but rather it rises in gradual and regular
curve, out of the ordinary level of family
life. The statistics show that there is a
regular average increase of ability in the
generations that precede its culmination,
and as regular decrease in those that succeed
it. After three successive dilutions of blood.

94 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

the descendants of the judges appear to be
incapable of any eminence."

And his statistics of the families of great
wrestlers and oarsmen show, that fathers
may have distinguished brothers or sons, but
no grandsons above the average.

We do not think that Galton's statistics
prove " a regular average increase of ability
in the generations that precede its culmina-
tion." Sometimes pre-eminent ability sud-
denly appears in a single individual or gen-
eration (amongst brothers and sisters), and
disappears with the individual or generation.
Pre-eminence seems to be attained within two
generations, and declines in the third ; but
if either the son or grandson was not pre-
eminent, the fourth generation may still be
above the average.

There is 110 clue to the origin or cause of
pre-eminence ; it springs up in wholly unex-
pected quarters, and if it most frequently
appears in gifted families, it also sometimes
arises in families otherwise unknown to
fame.

The case is similar among cattle and horses.
Neither selection nor protection from the
struggle for existence will ensure pre-eminent
excellence, although protection is necessary
for its full development.

ACCUMULATION OF DIFFERENCES. 95

We have no statistics of cattle or horses,
but it is well known that many exceptionally
fine animals left no immediate descendants
equally good, and it is well established that
there were as fine cattle and horses ten gen-
erations back as there are to-day ; proving \
perhaps as fully as such questions can be
proved, that the accumulation of beneficial
differences is strictly limited.

Development cannot, as we have said,
exceed a full expression of the life-force of
the race.

Galton seems to have been struck by the
rapid extinction of the peerages gained by
eminent lawyers, and thinks it was because
the peers married heiresses — as it appears
from their family histories the most of them
did. The mere possession of fortune could
not affect fertility, but it may be inferred
that a great heiress was the last of a high-
bred family, or the daughter of a man of pre-
eminent ability in some direction, and that
high breeding, or the pre-eminence of the
father or of the judge himself, not the for-
tune, was the reason why the peerage be-
came extinct.

The statistics collected by Galton go to
prove that there is a cycle of development
retrogression, that the development above

96 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

the average does not exceed three consecu-
tive generations, and that their descendants
—if they have any — sink below it. These
conclusions point to a natural law, that dif-
ferences among individuals of the same race
or family oscillate round an average type of
that race or family, and that the oscillation
above the average is complete in three gen-
erations.

The average of a type may be raised by
improving the conditions of life of the mass
of its members, but the average only ap-
proaches nearer to the maximum — the maxi-
mum itself cannot be raised.

In all this we cannot find any support to
the hypothesis, that beneficial differences are
accumulated indefinitely, and become specific
variations. On the contrary, all statistics
confirm our previous conclusions, that the
accumulation of beneficial differences does
not go on indefinitely — that the maximum
is reached within three generations, and that
retrogression then follows.

When we try to imagine the results to
mankind, if intellect or physical strength
accumulated in a family — if, for example,
the genius of a Napoleon, or the strength of
a Sandow, accumulated in their descendants

ACCUMULATION OF DIFFERENCES. 97

— we clearly recognise that a bouleverse-
ment of society would quickly follow ac-
cumulation, and that, as between the two
methods, development, followed by retro-
gression, and not accumulation, is Nature's
law in heredity.

G

98

CHAPTEE VI.

THE TIME ELEMENT.

THE vastly extended period of time that
has elapsed since life first appeared on our
globe, is a principal factor in the theory of
natural selection.

Beneficial differences, originally small,
accumulating through numberless genera-
tions, became specific variations, and thus
new species arose, — so Darwin argues
plausibly enough, — and we must examine
the bases on which the argument rests.

In the first place, time effects nothing.
Time merely gives opportunity for dormant
forces to come into action, or for forces in
action to develop results. Lapse of time
could not therefore, of itself, aid natural
selection.

In the second place, there can be no ac-
cumulation if there is nothing to accumulate.

Darwin appeals to the differences between
animals of admittedly the same race, and

THE TIME ELEMENT.

99

argues, Why should not these differences
accumulate indefinitely by heredity, and in
the course of numberless successive genera-
tions give rise to new species ?
But we have shown —
That these differences are not differences
in type, but merely in expression of
type, and are only such as must neces-
sarily arise from inherited differences in
vital force, and in conditions of exist-
ence, including food ;

That these differences are strictly limited,
on the one hand by sterility or preco-
city, and on the other by death in the
struggle for existence. They cannot,
therefore, increase indefinitely ;
That these differences may attain their
maximum within two or three genera-
tions, and an extended period of time
is therefore not necessary for their full
development ; and

That the maximum of these differences dis-
closes no tendency to specific variation.
The differences among individuals of the
same race represent only a more or less full
expression of the Specific life-force of that
race.

Palaeontology, while it demonstrates that
evolution proceeded by successive steps, gives

100 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

no support to the hypothesis, that the suc-
cessive steps resulted from accumulation of
beneficial differences, or were caused by some
force within the organism, or by external
influences.

Fossils of various organisms, found in
primary formations, are in appearance the
same as species that still exist ; and as they
lived unchanged through more than one
geological epoch, during which they were
subjected to great variations in the con-
ditions of their existence, we conclude that,
if variation were a principle inherent in life,
or if specific variation could be brought about
by external conditions, these persistent races
should present some evidence of the effects of
the great changes through which they passed.
But as they remain unchanged, we are en-
titled to conclude that type is persistent in
organisms generally, and cannot be specifically
modified by external conditions ; or that some
organisms are modified by changes in the
conditions under which they live, and that
others are not. But this alternative would
be at variance with the homology that per-
vades Nature.

Again, if we consult historical evidence,
we find that the representations of animals
in the Egyptian tombs 5000 years old also

THE TIME ELEMENT. 101

represent existing species. These figures show
no specific variation or any tendency thereto,
although more than 200 generations of men,
and 2000 of most of the other animals rep-
resented, have passed since they were de-
picted. No doubt 5000 years is but a small
fraction of the existence of life on our
globe, but we have a far longer experience.
According to Darwin, new species did not
arise per saltum, but were slowly evolved
by the accumulation of small beneficial
differences that from time to time appeared,
aided by secondary causes. Specific varia-
tion has thus been in progress since the
beginning of the present geological epoch,
and, we may infer, in many species, if not
in all. There ought, therefore, to be many
examples of new species in various stages
of development. But neither naturalists
nor biologists have discovered any trans-
itionary forms such as the Darwinian theory
demands.

So far, therefore, as there is evidence, it is
against the hypothesis that specific variation
has arisen during vastly extended periods of
time.

102

CHAPTER VII.

RETROGRESSION.

THE geological record tells us that, as a rule,
the evolution of life proceeded from simple
forms to more complex — from less to more
highly specialised organisms ; but to this
order of progression there are numerous
exceptions.

Of these exceptions we propose to deal
with two only, but they fully exemplify the
problems involved in retrogression.

An antecessor of the snake was the lizard,
an animal provided with four legs for loco
motion : the snake has no legs and crawls
on its belly. It is thus much less highly
specialised than its antecessor. Externally
the snake has no trace of limbs, but some
species have humeral bones still attached to
the skeleton, in others the limb-bones have
wholly disappeared.

On the other hand, the number of the
snake's vertebrae has increased.

RETROGRESSION.

103

Evidently the snake did not come from »
the lizard by accumulation of beneficial
differences, and common-sense will not enter-
tain the idea that the limbs and even their
bones wholly disappeared by disuse, or that
the additional vertebrae came by excessive
use, or that these transformations were
brought about by changes in conditions of
existence.

An antecessor of the whale was a four-
legged land animal — a mammal, and the
whale remains a mammal ; but its fore-
limbs have become converted into fins, and
the hind are replaced by a huge tail. The
whale is thus well adapted for a life in
the sea instead of on land, but his organs f
of locomotion are less highly specialised than
those of the four-legged antecessor.

Is it possible to conceive that transforma-
tions so great — one pair of legs into fins
and the other pair into a tail — could have
been brought about by natural selection,
accumulation of beneficial differences, use or
disuse, or changed conditions of existence ?

How, then, does Darwin's theory explain
these changes?

So far as we can find, neither he nor
Huxley attempts any explanation, or indeed
refers to the very remarkable retrogression in

104 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

the structure of the snake or of the whale.
Darwin does attempt to explain by disuse
the sightless eyes of some fishes found in
caves, but on the much more signal degra-
dation of the snake and the whale he is
silent.

Huxley indirectly suggests a solution l by
extending the doctrine of the struggle for
existence to the molecules in the germ-cell.

"It is a probable hypothesis," he says,
" that what the world is to organisms in
general, each organism is to the molecules
of which it is composed. Multitudes of
these, having diverse tendencies, are com-
peting with one another for opportunity
to exist and multiply, and the organism
as a whole is as much the product of the
molecules which are victorious as the fauna
or flora of a country is the product of the
victorious organic beings in it. On this
hypothesis hereditary transmission is the
result of the victory of particular molecules
contained in the impregnated germ."

Expression of type may possibly be the re-
sult of the victory of the Specific life-force of
either parent in a competition for the control
of the molecules that determine expression,
but that, if we are disposed to consider such

1 Darwiniana, p. 115.

RETROGRESSION. 105

speculations, is very different from a conflict
between the molecules themselves ; for in
this case we might expect the frequent ap-
pearance of animals with diminished organs,
and others with theirs enlarged.

The hypothesis is developed by Professor
Weissman in his ' Germinal,' where he re-
cognises that neither natural selection nor
varying external conditions of existence will
wholly account for degradation.

" Germ-plasm," he says, " must be altered
—the whole vital particles of which it is
composed " ; and again, " Neither natural
selection nor varying differences of life will
wholly account for variation, which is com-
pleted by profound processes of selection
in the germ-plasm."

This he calls " Germinal Selection."

The necessary modification is brought
about by what Professor Weissman calls
" determinants," " that appropriate nourish-
ment in the germ-plasm for the particular
organs they produce — each battles stoutly
for its food, the stronger appropriates part
of the share of the weaker neighbours, who
ultimately disappear, and with them the
part of the organism they represent."

Applying this doctrine to the case of the
snake, the " determinants " of the organs of

106 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

locomotion in the germ-plasm of the ante-
cessor were not sufficiently powerful to
appropriate their share of nourishment in
the germ- plasm, and so the organs of loco-
motion ultimately disappeared, and if we
assume that the " determinants " of the
backbone were the robbers, the increased
number of the vertebrae would be accounted
for. But this extraordinary hypothesis, for
which Darwin is not responsible, does not
explain how the fore-legs of the whale were
converted into fins, nor how the hind-legs
came to be replaced by a tail.

Huxley says : 1 " Every hypothesis is
bound to explain, or at any rate not be
inconsistent with, the whole of the facts
it professes to account for ; and if there is
a single one of these facts which can be
shown to be inconsistent with (I do not
merely mean inexplicable by, but contrary
to) the hypothesis, the hypothesis falls to
the ground — it is worth nothing."

Common-sense reviewing the facts of re-
trogression must, we venture to assert, come
to the conclusion that the Darwinian theory
not only does not satisfactorily explain, but
is at variance with, the phenomena.

1 Darwiniana, p. 463.

107

CHAPTER VIII.

VARIATION.

FROM our observations of animals we may
safely conclude that no two are absolutely
identical.

The differences are of three distinct
kinds : —

The difference among animals of admit-
tedly the same race. This we call
" Variation in expression of type " ;
Deviation (also among animals of the
same race) in one or more parts from
the normal type. This occurs but
rarely, usually in a single individual,
and is not hereditary. This difference
may be called "accidental" (? spontane-
ous) variation ; and
Persistent hereditary differences between

two races — viz., specific variation.
As usual in Nature, no hard line can be
drawn between these different classes, and
in some cases it may be difficult to determine

108 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

the category to which a difference belongs.
In the human species, for example, it is
sometimes impracticable to distinguish be-
tween variety of expression and the specific
variation that indicates a distinct race.

Variety of Expression.

We are all familiar with the infinite var-
iety of expression, both in face and figure,
among individuals of the same human race,
and we all recognise that a particular ex-
pression may be more or less hereditary in
a family. We also know that a family ex-
pression may be more or less affected by the
conditions of existence of the individual.
But common-sense tells us that these differ-
ences of expression do not indicate any ten-
dency towards specific variation. Careful
observers may also detect similar differences
of expression in the same breed of domestic
animals, and even of wild species. But, as
Darwin points out, the differences among
domestic animals of the same race, and espe-
cially those that arise under what is called
" selective breeding," are much greater than
among wild species.

When, however, the differences between
the best and worst specimens of any domestic

VARIATION. 109

breed are analysed, they resolve themselves
into differences in respect of size, quality, or
shape of certain muscles or bones. The two
animals remain the same, or at least similar,
in form, and no difference of a specific char-
acter between their skeletons or organs can
be detected ; but, on the contrary, the longer
selective breeding is pursued, the more firmly
established becomes even the family expres-
sion of a herd. The differences from the
average type, induced by selective breeding,
are only such as might be expected in the
progeny of selected animals, provided with
abundance of food and healthy comfortable
conditions of existence. Again, as might be
expected, wild beasts neither carefully se-
lected for breeding, nor reared under excep-
tionally favourable conditions, show less
divergence from an average type than pro-
tected domestic animals.

The greater differences among domestic
than among wild animals probably arise, in
part, because the former were endowed with
an organisation of greater elasticity and
flexibility, and in consequence respond freely
to the influence of man.

It is assumed by Darwin and other natur-
alists that all domestic animals came from
the closely allied wild species, but of this

110 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

there is no evidence. There is no record,
ancient or modern, or even traditional, of
the domestication of any wild species, and
the origin of our domestic animals is en-
veloped in mystery. For this and other
reasons Domesticity demands a separate
chapter.

Accidental (? Spontaneous) Variation.

Individuals sometimes appear so different,
in one or more organs, from their fellows of.
the same race, that they might fairly be
claimed as specific variations from estab-
lished types.

Such cases are, proportionately, extremely
few, and deviation from a standard type is,
with only — so far as we know — one excep-
tion, not hereditary.

Children have been born with abnormal
hands or feet, and polydactylism, it is ad-
mitted, is more or less hereditary. These
abnormalities are not confined to the human
species, but occur also among cats, dogs, &c.

The loom of life is exposed to external
interference that may involve complete fail-
ure, or some confusion in elaborating the de-
tails of a very complex web, and it may be
that the Specific life-force has accidentally

VARIATION.

Ill

suffered some trifling modification in the
germ -plasm, or in the earlier stages of the
embryo's growth, sufficient to produce poly-
dactylism, which has thus become hereditary,
or as much so as might be expected where
one parent is normal and the other abnormal.
But having regard to the marvellous com-
plexity of the mechanism, and the delicacy
of the forces that automatically build up the
minute details of the organism, and to the
accidents that beset the foetus in its growth,
it is surprising that deviations — "monstros-
ities" — are not more common than they

are.

1 Since writing the preceding a very interesting case of
polydactylism has occurred.

On January 7, 1903, an inquest was held by Dr W. West-
cott, coroner for Shoreditch, respecting the death of Charles
Nicholls, aged three days, son of William Nicholls, packer,
residing at 24 Styman Street, City Eoad, London. The
father stated that five or six months ago his wife was fright-
ened by a fowl flying across her face, and fainted, but sub-
sequently did not appear to have suffered from the fright.
When, however, the child was born it had six fingers on each
hand and six toes on the right foot, which had the appear-
ance of a duck's. On the previous Friday the child was
seized with convulsions and died before a doctor could be
had.

Dr James Trevor Williams, who made an autopsy by
instruction of the coroner, said that in addition to the ex-
ternal malformation, the internal viscera were imperfectly
formed, due, in his opinion, to the fright of the mother.

Dr Williams, at my request, made further inquiries of the
parents, and reported that they knew there had been no

112 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

But even if polydactylism be a specific
variation and hereditary, it would not sup-
port the theory that new species arise by
the accumulation of small beneficial differ-
ences ; for neither polydactylism nor any
other recorded deviation from a normal type
arises by accumulation, or is of a beneficial
character, or of any advantage to its possessor
in the struggle for existence.

Mr Bateson, in his exhaustive work ' Ma-
terials for the Study of Evolution/ has cata-
logued many deviations from normal types ;
but after examining the illustrations, we
cannot help coming to the conclusion that
the deviations are all of the nature of
accidents in the growth of the foetus, —
monstrosities that arise and disappear with
the individual.

Deviations are therefore no evidence of

polydactylism in the father's family for four, nor in the
mother's for three, generations. In his opinion they were
truthful, and did not seem to have any motive to be other-
wise.

We have here, it may be assumed, the origin of a case of
polydactylism, and may infer that it was caused by some
accident to the foetus when two or three months old — the
mother was not certain about the exact date.

This case seems to suggest the possibility of modifying
type by an operation on the germ-plasm, and as polydactylism
is hereditary, it is possible that if a germ-plasm could be
modified, the resulting specific variation might be hereditary,
— J. W. B.

VARIATION. 113

specific variation or of any tendency thereto.
The Siamese Twins were a specific variation,
but common- sense cannot accept such mon-
strosities as evidence of the evolution of a
new species.

There was recently to be seen in Bristol a
mare born minus a foreleg and shoulder ; she
was nevertheless reared, and, as certified, had
produced three foals, two of them winners of
prizes for fast trotting, demonstrating in the
most conclusive manner that her deviation
from the normal type neither was trans-
mitted to her progeny, nor indicated any
tendency to specific variation.

Specific Variation.

We have now to consider those differences
in structure and organisation that are the dis-
tinguishing characteristics of distinct races,
and constitute " specific variation."

According to Darwin, specific variation
originated in slight beneficial differences
among members of the same race ; and
these differences accumulating, chiefly by
the effects of the struggle for existence,
during numberless successive generations,
ultimately formed new species. Speaking
metaphorically, evolution advanced along

H

114 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

an inclined plane, and not by distinct steps
or stages.

In this view successive types in the chain
of evolution would be so much alike, that
only the closest scrutiny could determine
the differences between them or the order
of their succession, and the geological
record should show a continuous gradual
development in specialisation. Further, the
struggle for existence should, according to
Darwin, have wholly eliminated the lowest
types, as well as those intermediate between
them and the highest.

Darwin himself admits the force of these
conclusions. " Geology," he says, " assuredly
does not reveal any such finely graduated
change " as his theory involves ; and again,
" One [objection] — namely, distinctness of
specific forms, and their not being blended
together by innumerable transitional links —
is a very obvious difficulty." 1

Another difficulty he admits is the sudden
manner in which several kinds of species have
appeared in European formations.

These difficulties Darwin seeks to meet by
supposing, that new varieties continually
supplant and take the place of their parent
type, which thus disappears, and by the ac-

1 Origin of Species, Ed. vi,, p. 264-

VARIATION. 115

knowledged imperfections of the geological
record ; and expresses his belief that the gaps
between different fossil types, which enable
naturalists to classify animals into distinct
genera and species, would be filled up by
new discoveries.

It is remarkable, however, as Darwin him-
self points out, that no example of the gradual
transformation of a single species into another
has been preserved, even in deep strata
whose formation must have involved enormous
lapses of time, and also, that the less special-
ised animals, presumably not so well equipped
as the higher species, should survive and
exist at the same time as their more highly
equipped successors.

The inconsistencies between his theory and
admitted facts Darwin endeavours to recon-
cile — ineffectually, as we think ; but his
explanations are too long for quotation, and
we must refer the reader to the ' Origin of
Species' (chap, x.)

But leaving the dead past, we have, in an
existing family of insects, a living record of
the process of evolution far more instructive
than could possibly be presented by fossil
remains, however complete, because we can
observe the specific differences not only in
physique but also in the habits and instincts

116 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

of the different races, and these are more
characteristic than differences in their organ-
isation.

The family of the Bee comprises over 4500
distinct races, and as each represents a stage
in development, the chain of evolution from
the primitive to the hive-bee is composed of
over 4500 links. It may therefore be ac-
cepted as practically complete. Now, every
link in this chain is so different from its
fellows that, as we see, naturalists are able
to describe and classify each link. The races,
therefore, do not blend into each other by
imperceptible gradations, as would be the
case if they were the outcome of small differ-
ences gradually accumulated ; neither are
there wide gaps in the chain, as there should
be if the struggle for existence eliminated the
less fully equipped intermediaries. Moreover,
some of the specific variations clearly demon-
strate that they do not come by an accumu-
lative process ; for some new genera have
characteristics that are not found in the
main line of evolution, either before or
after these new genera appeared. These
variations were, therefore, neither inherited
from the primitive bee nor transmitted to
the hive-bee.

This instructive feature in the evolution of

VARIATION. 117

the bee is well illustrated by the instincts
and habits of the Sphex of Languedoc.1

This race, resembling in appearance an
attenuated wasp, neither constructs combs
nor stores honey, but digs a hole in the
ground and nourishes its offspring on fresh
animal food, which the parent provides by
capturing and semi-paralysing an insect much
larger than itself, the Eppiphiger. Seizing
its victim, the Sphex darts its sting into
the thorax, where the poison reaches and
paralyses the nerve centres of locomotion.
The Eppiphiger, thus unable to offer any
effectual resistance, is dragged to the bottom
of a burrow hastily made by the Sphex, which
then deposits its egg on a particular spot on
the breast of the victim, closes the burrow,
and departs. The egg hatches in two or
three days, and the larva fattens on its semi-
paralysed but living food, thus kept fresh,
until, in ten or fourteen days, it is ready to
spin a cocoon — a very complex structure — in
which it passes the winter.

Complex instincts, Darwin says, are the
results of the accumulation of numerous slight
beneficial differences, whilst others are ac-
quired habits, accumulated through many
generations. But feeding its young on

1 See ' Insect Life,3 by Fabre.

118 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

animal food instead of honey, paralysing
without killing its victim, and spinning a
cocoon are habits antagonistic to those of
the primitive bee, and therefore could not
have been inherited, but must have come
from some mysterious source — from what
we call a modification of its Specific life-
force.

Other genera allied to the Sphex display
singular modifications of its wonderful in-
stincts.

Thus the Ammophila, after digging a hole,
covers the entrance with a small flat stone
until it captures and returns with a paralysed
caterpillar ; it then removes the stone and
drags its victim into its cell. Small cater-
pillars are paralysed sufficiently by a single
thrust in the middle of the body, but the
larger — sometimes fifteen times the size of
the assailant — are stabbed in every segment
before they are quiescent enough to do the
larva no injury. Like the Sphex, the Am-
mophila, after depositing its egg, closes its
burrow, and leaves never to return ; but
another variety, the Bembex, does not para-
lyse the food of its larva, and must in conse-
quence return frequently to provide it with
fresh meat. The cell is constructed in a slope
of loose sand, and, when the insect leaves its

VARIATION.

119

cell the loose sand rolls down and skilfully
covers the entrance as with a curtain.
Through this curtain the mother readily
pushes her head on returning with food,
which at first consists of small insects, no
larger than the larva can wholly consume
before they become high ; then as the larva
grows, larger insects are brought to meet
its increased appetite. The loose sand
covers the entrance of the burrow so skil-
fully that the human eye cannot detect the
spot, although the mother has just left ;
but she has no difficulty in finding the en-
trance on her return with food. After a
day's absence she will return to the entrance
with the utmost precision, and push her head
at once through the curtain. So wonderful
has Monsieur Fabre found, by various experi-
ments, the homing faculty of these hymenop-
tera, that he ascribes to them a sense of
which man knows nothing.

Again, the Mason-bee does not dig holes,
but constructs on detached stones or under
eaves cells of calcareous dust made into mor-
tar with saliva, and feeds its larva on honey
and pollen mixed into a paste, with its man-
dible for a spoon. With this paste the cell
is stored ; an egg is then laid on the top, and
the cell sealed up.

120 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

One variety of the Mason-bee is solitary,
and builds its cell of small angular stones
laid in courses and cemented together with
mortar. Six to ten cells are built together
and then covered with a dome as protection
from the weather.

Another variety is to some extent sociable.
The cells are built, sometimes in thousands,
in an irregular group, without any plan, each
mother occupying herself only about her own
cells. When, however, all the eggs are laid
the colony unites to build a dome that covers
the whole group.

Such are a few of the singular habits of
these insects ; but there are many others,
with instincts equally wonderful and dis-
tinct, for which we must refer the reader
to Monsieur Fabre's charming book, ' Insect
Life.'

The comb of the hive-bee was, according
to Darwin, evolved from the somewhat ir-
regular cells of the Melipona domestica (a
Mexican species intermediate in structure
between the humble-bee and the hive-bee),
which constructs nearly cylindrical cells for
its larva.

According to Darwin, this structure was
ultimately developed by the accumulation
of small improvements into the comb of

VARIATION.

121

the hive-bee, and, " so far as we can see,
absolutely perfect in economising labour
and work." This perfect structure did not,
therefore, arise either per saltum, or by
design, or by inventive faculty of the bee,
but by the fortuitous accumulations of slight
improvements.

The progress from the irregular to the per-
fect cell must have been gradual, and many
steps in the process ought to be in evidence
among the various honey -gathering bees,
" but," says Darwin, " the intermediaries dis-
appeared in the struggle for existence."

If they did, why does the more imperfect
structure of the melipona still survive ?

The fact is that, so far as we know, there
is no evidence, direct or indirect, that the
comb of the first hive was not precisely the
same as it is now. The honeycomb as de-
picted 5000 years ago in Egyptian tombs is
the honeycomb of the present day.

There is nothing in the character of these
various instincts, habits, or structures of the
different races of the Bee family to support
Darwin's hypothesis, that complex instincts
and perfect structures came by accumulation
of beneficial variations, or to justify his ex-
pectation that a complete fossil record of

122 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

evolution would uphold his theory. On the
contrary, the contrast between the habits of
different races, the new instincts in many
genera that are neither inherited nor trans-
mitted, and from their nature could not have
been acquired, and the difference between
their methods of reproduction and the ab-
sence of gradation between the structures
they build, seem in combination to prove
conclusively that the evolution of the Bee
family could not have been by the accumu-
lation of beneficial variations.

123

CHAPTER IX.
DARWIN'S EXAMPLES OP SPECIFIC VARIATION.

DARWIN'S arguments in favour of the specific
variation of species are largely based on the
differences between domestic animals and the
allied wild species from which he holds they
came, and especially among the numerous
breeds of domestic pigeons, which, he asserts,
are all descended from the rock-pigeon.

" I am fully convinced," he says, " that
the common opinion of naturalists is correct
— namely, that all [breeds of the pigeon] are
descended from the rock-pigeon." l And
again, " We have conclusive evidence that
the breeds of the pigeon are descended from
a single wild species." 2

Breeds of domestic pigeons differ not only
externally in beak, wattles, colour, arrange-
ment of feathers, &c., but also in skeleton,
as in the number of ribs, vertebrae, &c. So
great is the variation, says Darwin, that

1 Origin of Species, Ed. vi., p. 17. 2 Ibid., p. 392.

124 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

several breeds would, if found wild, be
classed as distinct species and even genera.
If it could be established on satisfactory
evidence that all the different breeds of
pigeons are descended from the rock-pigeon,
these specific variations in the skeleton of
the Pigeon family would be a strong argu-
ment in favour of Darwin's theory, and we
therefore seek with interest the evidence on
which the statement of common ancestry
is based. The result is disappointing, for
, we have been unable to find in any of
Darwin's writings, or indeed elsewhere, any
evidence, properly so called, of the common
ancestry of the Pigeon family, or even that
the rock-pigeon has ever been domesticated,
or that a new variety of pigeon, whose stock
was persistent, has ever been produced.

The nearest approach to evidence that
the rock-pigeon is the common ancestor, is
the experience of Darwin himself in cross-
ing distinct breeds of domestic pigeons.
" I crossed," he says, " some white fantails,
which bred very true, with some black
barbs, — and it so happens that blue
varieties of barbs are so rare that I never
heard of an instance in England, — and the
mongrels were black, brown, and mottled.
I also crossed a barb with a spot, which is

DARWIN'S SPECIFIC VARIATION. 125

a white barb with a red tail and a red
spot on the forehead, and which notori-
ously breeds very true : the mongrels were
dusky and mottled. I then crossed one of
the mongrel barb-fantails with a mongrel
barb- spot, and they produced a bird of as
beautiful a blue colour, with the white
loins, double black wing-bar between, and
barred and white-edged between tail feathers,
as any wild rock-pigeon. We can under-
stand these facts on a well-known principle
of reversion to ancestral characters, if all
the domestic breeds are descended from the
rock-pigeon." 1

Here a curious anomaly strikes us. Iff
birds that bred very true came from the
rock-pigeon, it is singular that uniformity or
fixity of type should come through variation.

That the barb-spots of Darwin's experi-
ment bred very true to their various peculiar
markings indicates that this hereditary re-
production must be wrought out by some
potent if delicate organisation, and it is
at least mysterious how a delicate organisa-
tion so stable could be the outcome of long-
continued variation. If Darwin had told us
whether other characteristics . of the breeds
were reproduced in these hybrids, we should

1 Origin of Species, Ed. vi., p. 18.

216 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

have seen how far the so-called reversion
extended.

But accepting Darwin's theory of re-
version, we do not see how it explains the
circumstances. There is no appearance of
reversion to a wild ancestor among mongrel
puppies.

The colour of hair, wool, or feathers — semi-
vitalised structures — is in many races notori-
ously unstable. We sometimes see white
tufts on a human head of hair of a different
colour. As early as the time of Jacob it was
believed that the colour of hair was not
necessarily hereditary, but might be changed
through the eyesight ; and at the present
day breeders carefully protect their breeding
females from seeing conspicuous colours dif-
ferent from their own. A mere change in the
colour of hair or feathers can therefore hardly
give much support to a great theory.

Accepting, however, Darwin's experience,
may not the result of his experiments be
otherwise explained ?

We know that the mixing of two colours
of paint may produce another colour different
from either. May not something analogous
take place when birds of different colours
are crossed ? and if it is assumed that the
rock -pigeon was the antecessor (not the

DARWIN'S SPECIFIC VARIATION. 127

ancestor) of all domestic breeds of pigeons,
the change in colour arising from crossing
two breeds may become intelligible.

The Specific life-force of almost any two
breeds of pigeons must be very similar,
and to produce a change in colour from
that of an antecessor, would involve merely
a slight modification of that portion of the
organisation that determines the colour of
the feathers. If now, in crossing birds of
different colours, these colour forces blend,
the result, as in the mixing of two paints,
may be a colour different from either of the
parents ; or if the forces do not blend, may
they not neutralise each other, and allow
the colour of the remote antecessor to assert
itself?

In discussing the question whether dom-
estic breeds of pigeons are descended from
one or from several wild species, Darwin
says he has been greatly struck by the fact,
that every breeder of cattle is firmly con-
vinced that the breed he has cultivated is
descended from a distinct aboriginal species,
and the explanation of this delusion he thinks
simple. "From long -continued study," he
says, " they are strongly impressed with the
difference between the several races, and they
well know that each race varies slightly, and

128 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

they win their prizes, over selecting slight
differences, yet they ignore all general argu-
ments and refuse to sum up in their minds
slight differences accumulated during many
successive generations." l

To us the breeder's conclusion is justified
by his experience, that the more he en-
deavours to develop the animals he breeds,
the more closely do the progeny conform to
the family type, and the less do the differ-
ences in expression become.

The breeder's explanation, of what he
would probably consider the delusion of the
theorist, might be, that long-continued efforts
to explain phenomena in accordance with a
favourite theory, blinds him to the signific-
ance of facts that contradict his hypothesis.

Dogs and other Domestic Animals.

Observations similar to the preceding are
applicable to Darwin's examples of varia-
tion in dogs and other animals, and need
not be repeated.

It may, however, be observed that, as in
cattle and in pigeons, no new race of dogs
has been recorded, although crosses are some-
times passed off as a new breed.

1 Origin of Species, Ed. vi., p. 21.

129

CHAPTER X.

USE OR DISUSE OF PARTS AND ADAPTATIONS
OF ORGANS.

ACCORDING to Darwin, the use and disuse
of parts, and the habits due thereto, with
their consequences, are transmitted by
parents to their offspring, and thus what
were at first slight differences accumulated
from generation to generation until they
ultimately become specific variations ; and
conversely, by disuse organs once perfect
degenerate, and come to be represented in
some cases only by fragmentary remains.

It is not questioned that differences in
expression of type, limited in extent, do
arise from various causes. Every organ
has its allotted share of the life -force of
an animal, and with normal use develops
normally. Experience teaches that an organ
may be developed abnormally by excessive
use — apparently by transfer to it of part of
the life-force of some other part of the or-

i

130 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

ganism ; for while the organ thus reinforced
develops abnormal size, strength, keenness,
or sensibility, as the case may be, the organs
despoiled fail to attain normal development.

The energy of every life-force is limited,
and if one organ benefits by appropriating
a portion of the energy properly belonging
to another, the advantage is not a clear
gain to the animal, but merely a trans-
ference of energy from one organ to
another. Athletes sometimes break down
under excessive training : they have by ex-
cessive use exhausted their strength or the
elasticity of the muscles excessively used.

When only certain parts of the body are
developed by excessive use, other parts are
abnormally weak. The senses of touch and
hearing become highly developed in the
blind, by transference of vital energy from
the disused organs to those called into ex-
cessive use. If a cow yields milk largely,
she will not put on flesh, and hence, as a
rule, good milch cows are thin. On the
other hand, the arm of the Indian fakir
becomes withered by persistent disuse.

But all such modifications are differences
only in degree, and do not disclose any
tendency towards the specific variation that
constitutes a new species. Moreover, the

USE OR DISUSE OF ORGANS. 131

means adopted to bring about these differ-
ences are only applicable to man, or to
animals under his control.

No specific modification arises in the
organs of wild animals, when brought under
what seem to be more favourable conditions
of existence, and such trifling modifications
in expression of type as do arise, come within
a limited space of time. When an animal
is first exposed to an adverse climate, its
protection from the weather will develop ;
but the development will probably be as
much in the first season as it ever will be :
it is not indefinite, and there is no tendency
to specific variation.

Darwin attempts to prove the existence
of a general law of Nature, that use and
disuse of parts are attended by modifica-
tions that lead to specific variation ; but
although use and disuse do produce slight
differences in man, and in animals under
his influence, the cases among wild animals
where use has not caused development, nor
disuse degeneration, are sufficiently numerous
to prove that there is no general law of
Nature such as he seeks to establish.

Certain fishes found in caves are blind,
and in some cases have only fragments of
eyes ; but then reptiles, and even rats, living

132 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

in the same caves, have fully developed eyes
that can see after becoming accustomed to

light.

According to Darwin, the inability of the
domestic duck to fly is the result of disuse
through domestication ; but then the logger-
headed wild duck of South America does
not fly. It can only flap its wings along
the surface of the water.

A large proportion of the beetles in
Madeira have no wings, and Darwin argues
that the reason is because beetles of indolent
habits or with imperfect wings flew least, and
therefore were not so often carried to sea as
those of more active habits : thus partly by
disuse and partly by selection many genera
of beetles in Madeira became wingless.

" But," Darwin continues, " the wings of
beetles that must use them to live are not
reduced but even enlarged, and this is com-
patible with natural selection." l

Those beetles that continued to battle
with the wind had, it would appear, their
wings enlarged, and survived, although this
seems at variance with the preceding argu-
ment, and with the practice of the sailor,
who takes in a reef when the wind becomes
too strong for the safety of his craft.

1 Origin of Species, Ed. vi., p. 109.

USE OR DISUSE OF ORGANS. 133

Upland geese, that do not frequent water,
have webbed feet although they never swim.
The water - hen lives habitually in water,
but has not developed webbed feet like the
duck, neither has the water-ousel, although
it gets its food by diving. The ostrich
frequently uses its wings, but has not
developed the faculty of flight, and Darwin
explains the failure in these words : "A
moment's reflection will show what an
enormous supply of food would be necessary
to give this huge bird of the desert force
to move its huge body through the air " ;
that is to say, in this case use did not
develop — cause failed of its normal effect —
because of the consequence. But this is an
argument in favour of design and against
Darwin's theory.

These examples of use and disuse to bring
about modifications of structure conclusively
prove that there is no general law that use
or disuse of parts develops specific variation.

Acquired Habits.

Darwin does not give any examples of
animals acquiring habits.

He assumes that certain habits have been

134 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

acquired ; but some animals do not acquire
even simple habits, although they would
apparently prove of great advantage. Sir
Herbert Maxwell tells us of ducks that
feed only on the surface of the water.
They have not acquired the habit of diving
to reach their food, although they may be
seen feeding on the floating debris brought
to the surface by closely allied breeds that
seek their food under water.

135

CHAPTER XL

EXTEBNAL INFLUENCES.

THE three principal factors in producing an
organism — life-force, matter, and environ-
ment— vary in their respective potencies in
different races, and among individuals of the
same race under different conditions.

The prepotency of Specific life-force — the
force that moulds the type — is greater the
more complex the organisation, while, as we
descend in specialisation, the influence of one
or of both the other factors becomes more
evident ; that is, lower organisms are more
affected by external conditions, food, climate,
&c., and display greater differences in ex-
pression of type, than those more highly
specialised.

The differences in the respective potencies
are readily observable in plants ; their size,
flowers, and fruit may be greatly varied by
more or less favourable conditions of growth.
If heat is inadequate, the plant (if it live)

136 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

will be stunted ; if kept in the dark, its
colour will be affected ; and insufficiency of
moisture will be evident in the foliage. A
plant grown in a valley may change
greatly in appearance on a mountain ; and
some trees when transported to a colder
climate, although they live, may fail to
blossom or to mature seed.

Man can, however, do comparatively little
to alter the form, size, or appearance of seed
—the part of the plant that may be taken
to represent the life-force. When the fruit
that envelops some seed is greatly developed
by high cultivation, both the quantity and
fertility of the seed are usually greatly dim-
inished, but the appearance of the seed itself
is only slightly modified, if at all. On the
other hand, the vitality of seed, matured
under even highly unfavourable conditions,
does not seem to be seriously impaired, for
the young plants from such seed readily
respond to generous treatment, and may at
maturity approach the normal size. It is
also remarkable that reproduction is stimu-
lated by unfavourable conditions of life :
trees growing under adverse conditions yield
the largest quantity of seed, and animals
in like circumstances are most fertile.
Statistics show that the population of Ire-

EXTERNAL INFLUENCES. 137

land never increased so rapidly as at the
time of the great famine, and similar experi-
ence attends the periodical famines in India.
By the same natural law the birth-rate in
London is much higher in the poorest
parishes than in the wealthiest.

The last efforts of life seem to be
devoted to the perpetuation of the race
rather than to the preservation of the
individual life. From this we may infer
Nature's reluctance to lose a type.

These phenomena, whether they arise from
external or internal conditions, give no
indication of a tendency towards specific
variation.

Environment.

Darwin calls attention to the correlation
between the colour of animals and that of
the country they inhabit, and to the changes
in the colour of some animals during certain
seasons. This correlation he attributes to
natural selection and the struggle for exist-
ence.

There is, undoubtedly, frequently a corre-
spondence between the colour of animals and
that of their habitat, and some insects
exactly resemble the leaves or twigs of the

138 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

trees where they are to be found. But the
exceptions to this correlation are numerous
enough to show that correlation is not due
to environment.

The blackcock differs much in colour from
his grey mate ; the mountain-hare, bluish
grey in summer, becomes white in winter,
but the fox, living on the same mountain,
retains his colour unchanged. Grouse and
ptarmigan live in almost the same localities,
and in summer are similar in colour ; but as
winter approaches the grouse becomes a
darker brown, the ptarmigan white, and the
change begins long before the advent of snow.

Some butterflies are attractively and bril-
liantly coloured, whilst others in the same
locality can hardly be distinguished from the
leaves and twigs on which they rest.

Most animals in the arctic regions are
white, but the sable and the musk-sheep
are conspicuously brown, and other animals
are of different hues.

Mr Alexander Wallace, in explanation of
these inconsistencies, says : " Whenever we
find arctic animals which, from whatever
cause, do not require protection by their
white colour, then neither the snow nor the
glare have any effect upon their colouration/'

But this explanation seems really an argu-

EXTERNAL INFLUENCES. 139

ment in favour of design ; for either the
cold and snow -glare fail in their normal
effect in the case of animals that do not
require the protection of white colour, or
the fur of such animals was in some way
modified so as not to be susceptible to the
influence that cold and snow -glare are
alleged to have.

It may be presumed that the colour of
animals was adjusted to maintain the balance
of life among different races. The colour of
some animals aids them to capture their
food, and of others to escape from becoming
food. Again, in some cases colour may be
a danger-signal to possible victims, and in
others may add to the perils of its possessor,
who, it may be assumed, has a compensating
advantage in some other direction.

How can common-sense accept this mar- '
vellously delicate and intricate adjustment
of the balance of life, partly by colouring
and partly by faculties, as the self-evolved
outcome of conflicting forces, or of what is
called Chance ?

The Shetland Pony.

The diminutive size of the Shetland pony
has been attributed to adverse conditions of

140 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

existence for many generations, but recent
experience in breeding the pony in England
negatives this assumption.

A stud of Shetland ponies was established
in 1882 at Holinside Old Hall Farm, near
Chester-le-Street, and its manager, writing
in 1898, reports that the "tendency [in
height] is downwards, in fact of recent years
decidedly downwards," and the herd-book of
the breed confirms this statement.

The experience in breeding the pony under
changed and more favourable conditions
throws some light on the limits of develop-
ment, and approximately on the amount of
oscillation round the average type.

Before the pony attracted attention by its
diminutive size, the Shetland farmers bred
with an eye to increase the height, to make
the animal more serviceable as a beast of
burden ; but when the pony came to be
used in the Durham collieries, the breeders
sought to dimmish the height and selected
the smallest sires. By this selective breed-
ing the average height of the pony, as the
herd -book shows, has been reduced about
three inches — say seven per cent. The
decrease in height must be due solely to
selection, for better food and greater comfort
in their southern quarters than in their

EXTERNAL INFLUENCES. 141

Shetland homes should have tended to in-
crease their size.

There is no history or tradition of the
origin of the Shetland pony. So far as
known, it has always been an inhabitant of
the Shetland Islands, and its characteristics
have never changed. The ponies are remark-
able for good temper, freedom from vice, and
docility even when not handled for years,
and their intelligence contrasts very favour-
ably with that of Iceland ponies, and indeed
with that of any other breed of horses.
Their mature crop of hair does not come
until they are three or four years old, their
previous coat being more like wool than
hair. These characteristics both in physique
and character, coupled with the breeding
experience, justify, in the absence of evi-
dence to the contrary, the conclusion that
the Shetland pony is a distinct race, and
that its small size was not brought about by
unfavourable external conditions of life.

Physiological.

The genesis of an organism clearly indi-
cates that external influences cannot produce
specific variation.

The embryo is the product of special forces

142 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

in the germ-cell, and the embryo develops
into a foetus that in due time evolves an adult
of the type that produced the germ -cell.
This outcome, except for accident, is invari-
able, and we conclude that before there can
be any specific variation in a type there
must be some change within the germ-cell
of that type. But how can external influ-
ences affect the germ-plasm ? A seed may,
as we have seen, be stunted by climatic or
other unfavourable influences ; but if it do
grow, it invariably produces an organism of
its parental type.

143

CHAPTEE XII.

INSTINCT AND HABIT.

DARWIN deals with the development of in-
stinct on the same lines as the evolution of
life. He assumes the existence of instinct in
a simple form, and holds that complex in-
stincts are the results of the accumulation of
numerous successive slight modifications of
simpler instincts. He, however, admits that
certain instincts of bees and ants could not
have been acquired. These have come by
" spontaneous variation " : others are the
result of acquired habits inherited through
many generations ; these he calls " domestic
habits." But beyond general statements
Darwin gives no example of the appearance
of a new instinct, or of an acquired habit
becoming hereditary.

There is no evidence of any variation in the
nature of an instinct, although, like other
characteristics, it varies in degree in different
members of the same race, and may to some

144 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

extent be cultivated or developed by man's
influence. As Monsieur Fabre proved by
numerous careful experiments, the operations
of instinct are purely automatic, — successive
repetitions of the same series of actions, — and
when their sequence is altered, the animal is
as devoid of intelligence to attain its object
as a " penny -in -the -slot" machine in like
case.

There is a certain selective faculty in in-
stinct, just as there is in the involuntary
processes of digestion and assimilation, which
indeed are of the same nature as instinct.
A bird may construct its nest of different
kinds of mud or fibre, and the bee may
make its comb from wax provided for it, but
the nest and the comb are fashioned the
same, as far as the difference in the materials
will permit.

Instinct in Dogs.

Darwin explains the faculty of pointing in
sporting dogs as follows : " When the first
tendency to point was once displayed, method-
ical selection and the inherent effects of com-
pulsory training in each successive generation
would soon complete the work." 1

1 Origin of Species, Ed. vi., p. 210.

INSTINCT AND HABIT.

145

Again (p. 211) : " Hence we may conclude
that under domestication instincts have been
acquired and natural instincts have been lost,
partly by habit and partly by man selecting
and accumulating during successive genera-
tions peculiar mental habits and actions,
which at first appeared from what we must,
in our ignorance, call an accident."

Let us examine in detail the scenting
faculty of sporting and other dogs, and con-
sider whether they are explicable on Darwin's
hypothesis, which, it may be observed, as- |
sumes a tendency to point at game, or the
appearance by " accident " of some peculiar
habit.

The Pointer and the Setter differ from
each other in physique, but both seek for,
and when they come within a short distance
point the muzzle in the direction of, game.
The body suddenly becomes rigid — semi-
cataleptic — and remains so until the game
is flushed or found absent — recently flown.
Neither gives tongue on approaching game ;
but when game is scented, the tail begins to
wag vigorously, and, when within pointing
distance, it and the rest of the body become
suddenly rigid — the neck possibly in a rigid
curve if the bird has suddenly moved to one
side.

146 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

But there is a difference between the
Pointer and the Setter when on point —
the Pointer stands erect, and the Setter
crouches cat-like. The Setter is harder to
train than the Pointer, and more apt to
forget : he wants some training every
season. But he is the more graceful dog,
and this probably accounts for his con-
tinuing to be used. Both are somewhat
distant in their relations with man.

The Spaniel seeks and flushes his game
without giving tongue, but does not point,
and cannot be trained to do so ; his only
teaching is to keep within range. As com-
pared with the Pointer or the Setter, his
nose is carried closer to the ground than
either, his tail never ceases its movements,
and he is also more familiar with man.

The Retriever hunts game like the Spaniel,
but carries his head high, seeking the scent
in the air until he locates the game or
its track, and then it is lowered to the
ground like the Spaniel. He fetches natur-
ally without teaching, and carries the game
lightly without worrying it.

It is doubtful whether any of these sport-
ing dogs have any special fondness for the
flesh of the birds they hunt.

Foxhounds differ from sporting dogs in

INSTINCT AND HABIT.

147

giving tongue on a hot scent, — or in view, —
and when they catch the fox they eat him.

The Greyhound is remarkable for speed
and keenness of sight, and is of little use
except for hunting hares.

The Collie is very intelligent and sus-
ceptible of education, and principally affects
sheep. His nose is also good, and many
hunt on their own account, eating the
hares they catch.

The Lurcher is a first cross between the
Greyhound and the Collie, and combines
in high degree the special faculties of both
races — the speed and sight of the Grey-
hound and the intelligence and nose of the
Collie. But, like other crosses, the first is
the best, and no one thinks of breeding
Lurchers from Lurchers.

The Otter-hound affects otters only, and is
good for nothing except hunting them. In
type he is specially adapted for his work,
having short legs and great bodily strength.

We might greatly extend the list, but these
examples are sufficient to show-
That the physique of each breed is well
adapted for its special method of hunt-
ing, and for giving advantage over the
animals pursued.

That the method of hunting and capturing,

148 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

or of aiding man in capturing, is peculiar
to each breed, except that the Pointer
and Setter hunt alike.
That although the methods of the Pointer
and Setter are the same, they differ in
physique.

Now, according to Darwin's idea, the
hunter who domesticated the Pointer taught
him also his special method of seeking game,
and also to get himself into a semi-cataleptic
state when close to it.

The Retriever was taught to seek and

c?

fetch game, the Greyhound to look for,
pursue, and capture hares, and the Otter-
hound to hunt otters only. Each hunter
must have either had sufficient insight to
discern the method of hunting for which his
dog was best adapted, or the physique of
the dog became adapted to his method of
hunting.

But the Pointer and the Setter differ in
physique, although their methods in hunting
are the same.

If uncivilised man was able to accomplish
such feats, why is it found impracticable to
teach any sporting dog of pure breed to adopt
a different method of hunting, or a non-
sporting dog to hunt in a particular fashion ?

There is no record of the domestication of

INSTINCT AND HABIT. 149

the dog among civilised nations, and no re-
port that savages or semi-savages have ever
domesticated the allied wild species around
them.

Sir Harry Johnston, in his ' Uganda,' ex-
presses his surprise that the most intelligent
negro tribes seem never to have thought of
domesticating any wild animals until the
advent of Europeans.

The Australian aborigines, instead of try-
ing to domesticate the dingo — their wild dog
— eat him.

There is undoubtedly all over the world a
general similarity in physique between do-
mestic dogs and their wild allies in the same
locality, and this at first sight seems to sup-
port the hypothesis that domestic dogs are
descended from allied wild species ; but
according to our theory, the wild dog was
not the ancestor but the antecessor of the
domestic dog, and the last step in his evolu-
tion was more a modification in character,
disposition, and habits than in physical type.
These differences in character are so great,
and in some respects so antagonistic, that
they separate the domestic dog from allied
wild species as certainly as specific variations
in physical type.

150

CHAPTER XIII.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

IT is assumed by Darwin and other natural-
ists that all domestic animals come from the
allied wild species ; but although their simi-
larity in appearance points at first sight to
this conclusion, differences between them in
temperament and disposition, as persistent
as differences in physique, prove them to
be distinct races.

The origin of the domesticity of all
domestic animals is shrouded in mystery.
We learn from the most ancient records of
the human race, as well as from bones
found in the debris of the lake -dwellings
of the Neolithic age, that domestic animals
have been associated with man from the
earliest times, and, so far as we know,
domestication has always been their natural
condition.1

1 Neolithic man had already domesticated the dog, horse,
goat, and sheep (Page and Lapworth's Geology, p. 287).

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

151

There is nothing, either in history or
legendary lore, to support the assertion
that any wild race has ever been domesti-
cated, although a feat which conferred such
benefits on mankind would certainly have
been deemed heroic. No new race has been
added to our domestic animals in historical
times.

Was domestication only possible in the
days when the world was young and man
an uncivilised savage ?

But then Sir Harry Johnston tells us that
the natives of Central Africa never thought
of domesticating wild animals.

Many species of animals have been more
or less tamed, but there is no authentic
record of the domestication of the wild cat,
ass, or boar among quadrupeds ; or of the
common fowl, turkey, or duck among birds ;
and it adds to the mystery that it is very
doubtful whether the horse, the dog, or the
camel is to be found in a wild state, except
where it is known that they, or their prede-
cessors, have come from domestic animals.1

The difference between wild and domestic
animals of allied breeds lies more in their
disposition and character than in their

1 Homer's " horse-tamers " would now be called " horse-
breakers."

152 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

physique. An ordinary observer would fail
to distinguish any specific difference be-
tween the wild cattle in Chillingham Park
and the domestic shorthorn, with which they
are fertile ; but although these cattle have
for hundreds of years been kept in this
park, and habituated to man, they are
no nearer domestication than they were
a hundred years ago. " One remarkable
feature must not go unnoticed," says Lord
Tankerville in reporting the results of breed-
ing the Chillingham cattle with domestic
shorthorns, " and that is, however possible
it may be to alter the general appearance
and weight of the animal, little or no in-
fluence has yet been produced in its tempera-
ment— that is, by crossing with shorthorns."

This experience indicates that character-
istics of temperament are more persistent
than those of physique.

The domestic reindeer of Lapland differs
from the wild, and although there are
wild reindeer in North America, none are
domestic.

Writing on the domestication of wild
animals, Mr David Wilson, judge in Moul-
mein, says : " There are wild cattle in Bur-
mah — saing so called — whose skulls I have
compared with skulls of the domestic breed.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 153

The skulls of the wild kinds are stronger
and thicker in the frontal ridge between
the horns, and there is a slight difference
in shape. Experienced hunters tell me
that the wild cattle are uniform in colour
and shape of horns, and the bull bigger
than the domestic (Burman or Indian) bull.
The domestic cattle of Burmah differ from
the Indian domestic cattle, and are more
like the native wild cattle, but, except their
general similarity, there is no reason to
suppose that they are the same animals
domesticated. Jungle-fowl are not unlike
the ordinary domestic fowl here, except
that the cock is much bigger ; the hens are
much the same. My wife has often bought
two dozen chickens in a lot, and afterwards
found that half a dozen jungle -fowls had
been passed off amongst them unobserved.
Mr Murray, Deputy Conservator of Forests,
assures me he tried in vain to domesticate
them and failed, although he collected their
eggs and hatched them at home.

" The wild cattle, or saing, are, I read
in books, slightly domesticated by some hill
tribes (Chins). The tamed saing are said
to live in the forests in a condition very
similar to their wild state. But the case of
the elephant seems the strongest argument

154 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

against the possibility of domestication.
Alexander the Great found in India tamed
elephants that were used in battle, and yet
to this day they very rarely breed in
domestication. I know they are still caught
wild in India and then tamed. In Burmah
some hill folks half domesticate them. They
are kept tamed under wild conditions — that
is, given little work and allowed to gather
their own food in the forests : under these
circumstances the elephant does breed."

Both among civilised and uncivilised
people females of domestic breeds are some-
times mated with wild males of the allied
races, for the purpose not so much of im-
proving the physique as of increasing courage
or ferocity of disposition.

In connection with domestication, the
evolution of the Horse is extremely inter-
esting. Palaeontologists tell us that the
Horse as we see him is the outcome of
evolution through several epochs, and that
as we know him he first appeared in the
Pleistocene age, probably about the same
time as man. In that age the formerly
marshy surface of the earth had become
hard and the herbage denser, and the
changes in structure in his last transforma-
tion were principally in the feet and jaws,

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

155

adapting him more closely to the new con-
ditions in which he was to live. The three
toes he possessed in the preceding age were
consolidated into one — the hoof; the teeth
became at the same time better adapted for
grinding hard food, and a new substance-
cement — appeared on the crown of the tooth.
Further, the diastema (the toothless gap in
the jaw) lengthened. The changes in the
feet and teeth were advantageous to the
animal itself, and at the same time rendered
him more serviceable for the use of man ; but
the benefit of the diastema to the Horse
himself is not apparent. Its advantage to
man is, however, great ; for if the diastema
did not provide a recess for the bit of the
bridle, it would be extremely difficult to
control him.1

Now these modifications, from their
nature, could not have arisen either from
the accumulation of slight beneficial varia-
tions or from use or disuse, and it is signif-
icant that these modifications, necessary
for the existence of the Horse in his new
conditions of life, occurred at the same time
in organs so distinct from each other as
the jaws and the feet. Whatever the

1 Hence the metaphor describing the action of a head-
strong man, "He has got the bit between his teeth."

156 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

< cause, it is remarkable that the new modi-
fications unquestionably adapted the Horse
more fully for the service of man, and that
both first appeared in the same geological
period.

The mystery of domestication is not con-
fined to animals. Neither wheat, barley,
oats, nor rice is found anywhere growing
wild, and neither seed that will produce the
cultivated sugar-cane nor seed of the culti-
vated banana has yet been discovered.

Sir Harry Johnston, evidently a believer
in Darwin, feels himself unable to explain,
by his theory, the peculiar characteristics
of the banana, a fruit on which the natives
of Uganda largely subsist.

In his extremely interesting work on
Uganda the question is discussed at some
length, and we cannot do better than quote
his remarks.

" The cultivated banana," he says, " is
possibly not native to Africa in its origin.
I believe botanists consider that it first
diverged from wild forms of Musa in Eastern
Asia, and, like all the other food products
cultivated by the negro, travelled to trop-
ical Africa from India at some prehistoric
period. I too held this opinion once, but I
cannot endorse it so heartily now on reflection.

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

157

" I believe there is no record of the
banana having been known to the ancient
Egyptians. Its scientific name, ' Musa/ is
of course only a latinising of the Egyptian
Arabic word mus, and Muhammadan Egypt
only knew the fruit in the middle ages.

" Therefore it is not very likely that the
cultivated banana reached tropical Africa
from Asia by way of Egypt, since its intro-
duction to Negroland would be at most too
recent to explain its long connection with
negro life as testified by linguistic evidence ;
neither is it easy under present climatic
conditions to conceive of the plant having
been cultivated from Western India through
Southern Persia and right across it into
Arabia.

" Was it by any possibility brought by
some navigating people like the Phoenicians
or Sabeans across the Indian Ocean, and
started as an introduced plant on the east
coast of Africa, thence to spread right across
the continent to the Atlantic Ocean ?

" Could it be possible that the emigrants
of Malay races speaking languages allied to
the Polynesian stock, who at unknown and
distant periods drifted across the Indian
Ocean from Sumatra and Java to Mada-
gascar, brought with them clumps of banana-

158 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

roots ? This does seem extremely improb-
able.

" The cultivated banana produces, it must
be remembered, no seed, and therefore can
only be propagated by dividing the roots.
Each year the banana, which in the botani-
cal system is not far off the Orchid group,
sends up, like an orchid, a fresh stem from
a new root, while the old one, after flower-
ing and fruiting, dies. Did the Arabs in-
troduce the cultivated banana from Eastern
Asia into Eastern Africa as they did into
Egypt ?

" If so, they could only have done this —
even if they did it before the Islamic period
— as far back as about 2000 years ago.

" If this was the means of its introduc-
tion into tropical Africa, then in that rela-
tively short period it has spread over all
the tropical regions of the continent as a
cultivated plant.

" Of course I am fully aware that several
wild species of Musa are indigenous to Africa,
as others are to Madagascar. Is it quite
impossible that none of the indigenous
species of Musa could have originated the
cultivated form of the African banana ?
The fruit of all these wild species differ
from the cultivated fruit very markedly

DOMESTIC ANIMALS.

159

in developing large black seeds, which are
embedded in a pulp that not even an an-
thropoid ape could eat with any pleasure.

"Is it possible that the slightly bitter,
dry, tasteless, white pith surrounding these
large inedible seeds could have been any
attraction to primitive man in Africa, so
that he protected and fostered one of these
species of Musa until it developed into the
cultivated banana, exactly like the cultivated
banana separately developed in Eastern Asia?

" It would be difficult in any case to make
a Nuganda of to-day believe that his beloved
food substance which provides him with a
mass of nourishing vegetable pulp, with a
dessert fruit, with sweet beer and heady
spirit, with soap, plates, dishes, napkins,
and materials for foot - bridges, was not
always indigenous to the land he dwells
in, and of which it has become the dis-
tinguishing feature."

160

CHAPTER XIV.

NATURAL SELECTION OF SPECIES.

THE outcome of the struggle for existence is,
as we have seen, the elimination of the less
fit ; but the selection of races is determined
more by conditions of existence than by direct
conflict between competing species — more by
quality of soil and climate than by a direct
struggle between individuals of different
races.

We believe that by natural law every
locality tends to produce the most highly
organised race of animal or plant that its
soil, climate, and other conditions can ade-
quately support. In other words, Nature
automatically selects the race that makes
the greatest demands on resources she can
supply, and thus determines the predomin-
ance of a particular species of animal or
plant in a locality.

In civilised countries the distribution of
the larger mammalia is due to man's inter-

NATURAL SELECTION OF SPECIES. 161

vention, and therefore examples of Nature's
method of selecting races are few ; but we
know that the size and quality of domestic
animals depend on the quality of their
food and conditions of life. Graziers, for
example, can tell by the appearance of cattle
or sheep the character of the pasture on
which they have been reared. The superior
quality of Lochleven trout, so well known to
the angler and the epicure, is due to the
character of the bed of the lake. Its fertile
mud is covered with highly nutritious aquatic
plants, on which molluscs and other forms
of life find abundance of food ; these, again,
provide generous nutrition for fishes, and
they respond both in number and quality.
Trout in streams or lakes on mountains com-
posed principally of granitic rocks also ex-
emplify the law, but in the opposite direc-
tion. Neither the soil nor the water in
such localities contains much nutrition for
plants or the lower forms of life ; food
is in consequence scanty and innutritious,
and the trout small in size and poor in
quality.

It is, however, in the vegetable world that
Nature's law of selection can be most easily
studied. Among the Rothamstead agricul-
tural experiments one of the most interest-

L

162 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

ing and instructive is a series of plots
showing the effects of different manures on
pastures of mixed grasses.

The plots were differently manured for
many years, the same manure being con-
tinuously applied to each, but they were
neither cultivated nor artificially seeded, yet
in the course of years the proportions of the
various grasses in the several plots have
greatly changed. Where manure, chiefly of
a stimulating character, had been applied,
the coarse, rank, innutritions grasses have
largely increased ; and where another kind
enriched the soil principally with mineral
food, the fine, highly nutritive grasses have
prevailed and ousted the coarser and ranker
varieties, although the latter are in appear-
ance more robust.

Success in farming is largely based on this
principle of natural selection, and its opera-
tion is very noticeable in bringing an ex-
hausted farm, overrun by weeds, into a high
condition of fertility.

So long as the farm remains poor in con-
dition the weeds cannot be eradicated,
because the land does not contain subsist-
ence for anything better. But when the
resources of the soil are sufficiently rein-
forced to produce a good crop of cereals,

NATURAL SELECTION OF SPECIES. 163

the weeds, without being directly attacked,
disappear, not because there are no seeds
in the soil — seeds there are in abundance
— but because its fertility can now meet
the demands of more highly organised
plants, and the conditions are in con-
sequence unfavourable to lower forms of
vegetation.

The gardener knows that every plant
prefers a certain quality and texture of
soil, and that it is as impracticable to grow
some in rich soil as others in poor.

In virgin countries beautiful grassy glades
may sometimes be seen in a primeval forest,
or groups of trees adorning grassy slopes,
as in an English park.

In one locality the soil could provide
the sustenance necessary for the more
highly organised grass, and it prevailed
against forest trees : where the resources
were inadequate for grass Nature selected
trees.

When an old forest dies, the trees that
naturally replace it are usually of a different
species from their predecessors, and some-
times new in the locality. The climatic
conditions may have remained unchanged,
but the timber of the old forest had appro-
priated so much of some of the mineral

164 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

constituents of plant food that a sufficient
supply was not left to retain the ascendancy
for the same kind of tree, and Nature auto-
matically selected another variety that re-
quired less of the elements exhausted by
the former crop, and whose seeds were no
doubt lying dormant in the soil.

It thus appears that Nature's method
of evolution is, when available resources
become more abundant, not to develop an
existing animal or plant into a new species,
but to supplant it by another more highly
organised.

165

CHAPTER XV.

GENERAL SUMMARY.

THE admitted facts of evolution are : —

Life first appeared on the earth in simple
forms, and its evolution, as a rule, developed
upwards — that is, new types as they suc-
cessively appeared were more and more fully
specialised.

But to this general rule there are excep-
tions, in which a succeeding type was, to a
more or less important extent, less highly
specialised than its antecessor — that is, retro-
gressive.

Evolution proceeded in a main line that
ultimately culminated in man, but in its
progress many branches sprang from the
main stem, and developed until their special-
isation also culminated.

Successive types are in structure and
organisation more or less similar to each
other.

Assuming the existence of life in its

166 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

simplest forms, Darwinism professes to ex-
plain the process of evolution and the pre-
ceding facts by the theory —

That new species were evolved from
their predecessors by secondary causes,
of which natural selection was the
principal ;

That natural selection — the outcome of
the struggle for existence — selected for
survival animals that had, as compared
with their fellows, some beneficial dif-
ference ;

That beneficial differences did appear, and
when accumulated by heredity became
specific variations, and gave rise to
new species ; and

That this process was aided by the use,
disuse, or adaptation of organs, and by
changes in the conditions of existence.

Darwin's principal arguments in support
of these conclusions are based on—

The similarity in structure and organisa-
tion between successive types in the
same line of evolution.

The differences among domestic animals
of the same race.

The (alleged) beneficial differences that
arise in greater or less degree among
all animals.

GENERAL SUMMARY. 167

The (assumed) indefinite accumulation of
beneficial differences.

The modifications that arise from changed
conditions of life and from use, disuse,
or adaptation of organs.

But in the preceding chapters we have
submitted facts and arguments to prove —

That the inference from the similarity of
successive types, that a new race was
evolved from its predecessor by second-
ary causes, is negatived by the geological
record and by the facts of retrogression.

That the differences between animals of
the same species do not indicate any
tendency to specific variation, but are
merely variations in expression of type
arising from differences in conditions of
life or selective breeding.

That development of type under selective
breeding is limited by sterility or
precocity.

That the accumulation of beneficial differ-
ences (development) does not go on
indefinitely, but may attain its maxi-
mum in three generations.

That no new type has been evolved by
selective or by cross breeding, and that,
so far as known, no new persistent type
has ever appeared.

168 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

That the struggle for existence does not
tend to produce beneficial differences,
and that its function is to maintain,
by eliminating the least fit, an average
1 type.

That natural selection not only fails to
account for the phenomena of evolution,
but is at variance with its facts.
That external conditions, although they
may modify to a limited extent ex-
pression of type, do not tend to bring
about specific variation.
Finally, that the embryo of every mammal
< presents in its growth the same phases
that appeared in the embryo of its first
ancestor, and therefore that the germ-
plasm of a mammal is not altered by
modifications of its corpus.
If these conclusions are established, it
follows—

That the Darwinian theory not only fails
to account for, but is contrary to the
facts of, evolution, and, according to
Huxley's test of a hypothesis, " it falls
to the ground — it is worth nothing."
We fully recognise that our theory, even
if established, does not advance our know-
ledge of the causes of evolution or of the
means by which it was effected ; it professes

GENERAL SUMMARY. 169

to explain only the method in which evolu-
tion progressed.

Of the mystery of evolution — of the pur-
pose of the higher or lower specialisation
of successive types, or the means by which
their differentiation was effected — we know
and can know nothing, any more than we
can fathom the mystery of life or of its
origin.

->;."•';( t •,•*••'•,•,••,. •»
: ' *>>4^v.; v
*-•>»••

170

CHAPTER XVI.

CONCLUSION.

IF the Darwinian theory is based on inference
unsupported by substantial evidence — the
conclusion at which we have arrived in the
preceding chapters — it may well be asked
why it was so readily accepted by men of
science.

Some explanation of the anomaly may be
found in the predisposition among educated
men, at the time when the theory was first
announced, to accept a theory such as
Darwin advanced.

The then recent demonstration by geol-
ogists that the world, as we see it, had
been gradually evolved in the course of
ages, had convinced all unprejudiced minds
that the Mosaic cosmogony, as interpreted,
was not in accordance with the facts ; and
this triumph of science over theological dog-
matism naturally predisposed the scientific
world to believe that Darwin had done for

CONCLUSION. 171

the world of life what the geologists had
done for the world of matter. As geologists
had demonstrated that our world had been
evolved from chaos by natural forces, in the
course of millions of years, so Darwin, it was
thought, had shown how its present inhabit-
ants had been evolved from simple forms by
natural forces, operating through very ex-
tended periods of time. The evidence might
not as yet be complete, but further research
would doubtless fully establish the new hypo-
thesis.

But this expectation has not been fulfilled.

The generation that has passed away since
Darwin's death has added little to his facts or
arguments, and now a critical examination of
the theory must lead to the conclusion that
it is wholly based on inference, and is not
supported by substantial evidence.

The intellectual anomaly involved in the
ready acceptance of Darwin's hypothesis by
men who had criticised and discredited the
Mosaic narrative, is not without precedent.
In times past some of the best intellects of
their day were beguiled from the direct path
to knowledge by vain disputations on the
properties of angels, or by profitless search
for the philosopher's stone, or by the hope of
squaring the circle, and it is not improbable

172 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

that the efforts during the last half century
to discover the means whereby evolution was
effected will in their turn be regarded with
feelings akin to those we experience, when
we think of the talents largely wasted by
the wise men of old in their quest of the
unattainable.

Biologists have exhibited almost super-
human patience, acumen, and perseverance
in seeking to discover the first processes of
]ife and the genesis of organisms, but we
venture to suggest that such investigations
are neither the fittest to discover the general
plan of life, nor the meaning of its phen-
omena. A landscape cannot be viewed
through a microscope, nor the design of an
edifice apprehended by scrutiny of the bricks
of which it is composed or of the manner
in which they are cemented together.

Although we had no knowledge of the origin
of a cathedral, we should without hesitation
conclude that an architect to design and a
master-builder to direct construction were as
indispensable to bring such an edifice into
existence, as the materials of which it is built
or the hands that carried out the master-
builder's instructions. And if we should
be told, that after the foundations were laid
this symmetrical building that commands our

CONCLUSION.

admiration was the outcome of a hundred
masons working without design, instructions,
or concert, common-sense would regard the
statement as an insult to the understanding.

But Darwin asks us to believe that organ-
isms, far more elaborate and complicated than
any work of man's hands, are the outcome of
an analogous process.

Common-sense will prefer to believe, that
as the great works of man had their
architect, master - builder, and artificers, so
also had the infinitely more wonderful works
of Nature their Architect and Master-builder,
whose artificers we call the forces of Nature.

According to the Darwinian conception,
Nature failed at first to produce perfect or
at least highly organised animals, and their
perfection or higher specialisation came by
secondary causes, each working independ-
ently and fortuitously, without design
control or definite object. We could as
easily believe that a box full of miniature
bricks persistently shaken through a geol-
ogical epoch would form themselves into a
miniature cathedral.

To Darwin's mind " it accords better with
what we know of the laws impressed on
matter by the Creator, that the production
and the extinction of the past and present

174 A NEW THEORY OF EVOLUTION.

inhabitants of the world should have been
due to secondary causes like those determin-
ing the birth and death of the individual." l

Others, who believe that they also study
Nature with a single eye to truth, arrive at
a very different conclusion. In their opinion
the phenomena of organic evolution, the
homology throughout Nature, the law and
order that everywhere prevail, and the
adaptation of organisms to the conditions
under which they were to live, all but con-
clusively demonstrate that the diversified
forms of life that successively appeared on
our globe, instead of being the fortuitous
outcome of secondary causes, were succes-
sively called into existence on a preconceived
plan, and continue to be reproduced and sus-
tained by Infinite Intelligence and Almighty
Power.

1 Origin of Species, Ed. vi., p. 428.

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