bales * % U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 161, $B B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. || .M2Cr3 A NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. BY . G. N. COLLINS, Assistant Boranist-— Isscep DECEMBER 9, 1909. Te WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOR. 1909. Gass ss S YF) Book Nis aM legs +s =¢ fi a a bi a ¥ a» + ae =i re .- Sul ; F Bul. 161, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. CHINESE MAIZE: FRONT AND BACK VIEW OF THE SAME PLANT. B.-o; DEFARIMENE OF AGRICULTURE BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY—BULLETIN NO. 161. B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau. A NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA, G. N. COLLINS, Assistant Boranist. IssueD DecemBer 9, 1909. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, 190.9% a5 BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. Chief of Bureau, BEVERLY T. GALLOWAY. Assistant Chief of Bureau, ALBERT F. Woops. Editor, J. E. ROCKWELL. Chief Clerk, JAMES E. JONEs. BIONOMIC INVESTIGATIONS OF TROPICAL AND SUBTROPICAL PLANTS. SCIENTIFIC STAFF. O. F. Cook, Bionomist in Charge. G. N. Collins and F. L. Lewton, Assistant Botanists. H. Pittier, J. H. Kinsler, and A. McLachlan, PRET AUAE: R. M. Meade, Scientific Assistant. 161 DEC 8 1909 B. GF B. iy pats ser LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BurEAvu or Puiant I[NpustTrRY, OFFICE OF THE CHIEF, Washington, D. C., August 12, 1909. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a paper entitled ‘“‘A New Type of Indian Corn from China,” by Mr. G. N. Collins, Assistant Botanist of this Bureau, and recommend its publication as Bulletin No. 161 of the Bureau series. Respectfully, B. T. GaLLoway, Chief of Bureau. Hon. JAMEs WItLson, Secretary of Agriculture. 161 3 , i a ad COUN NaS: inode CLOW Se cchee at notch moe aac cert pe eer eaten, Cree Cees ati eget PEC SeEEMOLNOD VARICES /aios (aston oh aoe teehee es omens oe eee Lee Beeman cre maractet. cin eee ed ote heat, Als No ey ie fies 2 tS) Rae Een eI OA = eer tee Let. eee ean a mals eee ee ah Monostichous arrangement of leaf blades: .< .......22.2.2.. ..o2c05-2- 08. Development of silks by ears while still inclosed in the leaf sheaths. ..... Ph eae OM OAMOTN: 2. 3o eed R esol as shrek Sonat ge AP Biue oes as eal xc eerie ETRY, WHTLUR™ cit en! Ve akira ee = ate ee Ce Climate of the region where the type was discovered........................- Pere ifaui OL OY ATTY mele re see be Pelee Oe Caen eee elas ae dean ee Smeets Sethe creeane, sere iene ec MRC Ae ane ae te oe Rae ei ET Sito auiel Aiea OMROMnels cts 6, Se abet tc de! See a Se New type of endosperm (waxy endosperm).................-...-..----- PNIGTINGOMETCOLOE A evecare Lee a yt ear aR TE ee eS, ae SE | rie Oeperiar COOH: se ree edge ols 5 = Me tera Sean sabe ee. sane PING ospenthe Lem MLG wer 7 3 eS See ee te el Sal AY Bt DIZCTOMBCC Us See aerate SON ok oie eal enn ae ee ge ee eee eS ILLUSTRATIONS: Page. Pate J. Chinese maize: Front and back view of the same plant..... Frontispiece. — II. Fig. 1.—Part of plant of Chinese maize, showing silks protected by the base of the leaf blade. Fig. 2—Upper part of plant of Chinese maize, showing monostichous arrangement of the leaf blades. . .- - 28 161 6 B. P. I.—506. A NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. INTRODUCTION. In March, 1908, a small sample of shelled corn was received by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction from Rey. J. M. W. Farnham, of the American Presbyterian Mission at Shanghai, China, with the following note: A peculiar kind of corn. There are several colors, but they are said to be all the same variety. The corn is much more glutinous than other varieties, so far as I know, and may be found to be of some use, perhaps as porridge. Plants were grown from this seed in the season of 1908 and proved to be quite unlike any of our cultivated varieties or those known from Tropical America. They possessed a number of unique charac- ters, no indication of which is found in any of the forms of Zea mays thus far recorded. Since this new type of maize thus extends the range of diversity of the species and enhances the possibilities of breeding by providing additional characters and adaptations, it appears desirable to place on record a description of the variety, with an, enumeration of its peculiarities. Several of the unique features combine to enable the plant to resist the drying out of the silks by dry, hot winds at the time of flowering. Although the plants and the ears they produce are so small that the variety would probably find no place in direct competition with our improved varieties, the possession of this adaptation gives the new type an economic interest, particularly in some parts of the semiarid Southwest. In these regions a hot desert wind at the time of flowering will dry the silks before the grains have been pollinated, and often causes a complete failure of the crop, even under condi- tions not otherwise unfavorable. This danger would be greatly reduced if our varieties had some of the habits of this Chinese corn, and the effort is now being made to combine, by hybridizing, the desirable characters of this small variety with those of larger and more productive types. Another noteworthy feature of this corn is the character of the endosperm, which is quite distinct from the horny, starchy, or sweet endosperms of the varieties hitherto known in the United States. In view of the recent development of specialized corn products as human food, this unique type of starch may be of some economic importance. 8427—Bul. 161—09——2 ¥ 8 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. DESCRIPTION OF VARIETY. The seed of this corn as originally received from China was a mix- ture of yellow, white, and red grains, many of the latter being more or less mottled. Separate plantings were made of the yellow, white, and red colors and of the mottled grains. No differences in the behavior of the different plantings were detected, and the following description applies to the whole series. The seed was planted near Washington, D. C., on May 9, 1908, and 53 plants were grown to maturity. The first pollen was shed eighty- two days after planting and the seed was harvested one hundred and thirty-nine days from planting, at which date most of the seed had been mature for some time. As a rule the silks appeared on the individual plants at about the time that the last of the pollen was being shed. One stalk was noted with silks at two ears, while the plant was still producing pollen. Suckers were produced by 40 per cent of the plants. The plants were of small stature, ranging from 34 to 6 feet in height; the average circumference of the stalk at the smallest point of the largest internode was slightly less than 3 inches. The number of nodes above the ground ranged from 11 to 15, with 4 nodes above the ear. The average number of green leaves at the time of tassel- ing was 12. The blade of the fifth leaf from the top averaged 314 inches long by 33 inches wide. The longest leaf sheath averaged 74 inches. The plants produced from 1 to 8 ears, a single ear at a node in every case. The ears were small and slightly tapering, averaging 4 inches long by 44 inches in greatest circumference, with 16 to 18 rows of small grains. Nothing unusual in the size or distribution of the roots could be observed. Except for their short, stocky habit of growth the plants showed no unusual behavior until after the leaves of the last four or five nodes began to appear. These leaves were formed in rapid succession, with very short internodes, and it was then noticed that on a large proportion of the plants the blades of the leaves were all on one side of the main stem. Thus the upper part of the plant, instead of hav- ing the usual distichous or two-rowed arrangement of the leaf blades, might be described as having a one-rowed or monostichous arrange- ment. While in only about 25 per cent of the plants were the upper leaf blades completely monostichous, all of them showed a tendency in this direction. This one-ranked appearance is brought about by a twisting of the leaf sheaths, the actual insertion of the leaves being opposite, as in all grasses. In addition to the unusual position of the leaves the blades of the upper nodes were erect instead of spreading or drooping, as in other varieties. The midrib of the blades did not form an angle with the sheathing base of the leaf, but continued upward in a straight line. 161 DESCRIPTION OF VARIETY. 9 The internodes on the upper part of the plant were also mucn shortened, so that the tassel was not carried up, as in other varie- ties, but was considerably exceeded by the tips of the leaves. The tassel was moderately compact, with from 14 to 30 primary branches, many of which were again branched. The spikelets were arranged in alternate groups of two, after the manner of most of our cultivated varieties. Nothing unusual was observed in the flowers. Pollen was produced in great abundance, and over a period of about five days in individual plants. The following is a tabulation of the measurements of eighteen plants, the seed of which was hand-pollinated either in the production of hybrids or for the study of characters in pedigreed stock: TABLE I.— Measurements and details of growth of eighteen plants of Chinese corn. Length . Length e Designation of plant by apebeaiyres Days to | Green of fifth wh et of longest 7 SHHBEY, number. Fae Bee first silks.| leaves. | leaf from trout f branches Pp bs top. Pp. sheath. in tassel, No. No. No. Cm. Cm. Cm. No. Pee eis sc(ae aise Senin saisiterseelemies ee ccecc|eaieas bce ae 9 63 7 15 14 70 2s el = Ne OOO RC eo (ae eee eee 99 12 74 ite lo See Ee 16 Cs bese Recess aes Une Ieee seamen e 13 67 8.5 ite eae et A epee eee aninm sama s cies | sonemeeeecniesceeccecs 10 85 9 22 20 Dn Soe cs cbme gu g EES Bese SE aeee 81 85 11 81 8 17 16 ee ieee or Say eee scat ose 82 86 13 84 9 19 24 Cini feta SAS GREER SoeOadeoe 86 93 13 88 8.5 22 30 es epee ries Aamo: Sollee Sos eek ML Ss ooze hots 11 85 9 DO) went Bie tie Jl csencnocdon caters deeraebcne jsemcccee mone 94 14 88 9 20 18 DE SS See eae See ee ee ee 105) a eit. oe 10 70 6 20) Se wees 1 freee ae Bee eee eee wee 96 100 13 83 9 18 26 AD ee eee eee se ee seas |eu a atasmiascie| sat sas sacle 12 75 8 diva) tana see | 18) cee So 8 Bee se snc NeGogeeee ced Hoesen eo See Hameceeeres 9 96 7 21 19 ce es Shee oe ee ence ae 92 106 13 88 10 21 20 (i 3 Seen en eae eee LOD: » ikea meee ot 13 83 9.5 19 28 Hees eee 86 89 13 78 9 19 18 Uff. 5 oe 5 Sees 94 98 12 86 9 7) || ret Se a ee No Ses So eee ABs BEES Oe Hee eee aot ieaetes| [ee Sea 12 (fs) 8 17 17 AVOGTAQLO: << =2enesscnle 92.1 94, 4 11.8 80.5 8.4 19.1 20.5 Inter , : ; Length Layers Designation of plant by . Circum- | Inter- nodes Suck- y) az number. Height. ference. | nodes. Ears above eee ers meee Cm Cm. No No. No. Cm No. No SR erator clee Sc cisetars sie siete 117 25 11 1 AA eens 1 oe a 2s See tes Sen ea a ae eee ee 142 Si iecse ences 2 4 il OS a eee: SIRS eh cian Me aera ee ee a 142 7 GN A) eet Ee 4 7 1 5 Ara ee Set ie CEP see ea te 184 if 15 1 4 8 ORM saa es DRE ote eae see eee 120 6.5 11 1 4 LOM ene 7 (Hog? Shee Sean coe eee oe 130 9.5 13 3 4 18 Th 4) | Se a 2 ThictdoS See ter be See oe ee eee 170 9 13 2 4 17 Dig |e Bee eas sent cement Sone alaisecR sek |e eoeceeee€ Eh AI 5 Sores Zeta aee 38 nar || eee eee eee eee lee Soc an ee Sas 176 10 15 2 5 10 2 6 Te Se ee Re Ie Se ereein an Gee eee 6 14 1 5 Be fleosO2 alka Ue eee sccae eee cma e 167 8 14 2 4 8 0 i TE ASS oe 58 Oe ee ee eee 145 8 13 2 D WE Seg. al aon ae |e as es 1B ae Soap O OBE cere: Bee one 180 6 14 1 4 (fe ae eae 6 LE ee 5 eee, ISU ROR Ee ERS Oe 180 9 15 2 6 Sieh ceteee ease Wiese cece andes < ee one 189 8 14 Diet| an eee 16 0 6 Leh: 9 aiais ei ie Sera 162 8 13 2 4 10 0 5 iN a cesoey ACE ae eee sere 160 8.5 1 Wee aes 4 8 1 7 cheth 2 SPE OS Ie oe a ner eae Nae 145 8 13 2 Dake | See nee!| Pore Eee alee eee, 2 PACT ETADG oyna. 22 f'n) c 2 156.8 7.8 13.3 LAT 4.4 10.3 0.8 6.1 161 10 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS. The following are the characters which distinguish this Chinese corn from our United States varieties as well as from any of the forms thus far observed in Tropical America. It should not be over- looked that the plants on which these observations were made were grown in an entirely new environment and that some of the char- acters exhibited may not be normal to the variety. Should this prove to be the case, however, these unique characters still show the possibilities of the species and are scarcely less interesting in the new connection. Erect leaf blades.—The leaf blades of the upper nodes are in most cases erect, the midrib of the blade and the back of the leaf sheath forming a straight line. The leaves on the lower part of the plant are borne at the customary angle, but each succeeding leaf is slightly more erect than the preceding until they become completely erect on the last two or three nodes. Our common varieties exactly reverse this behavior, the blades that are somewhat erect being on the lower part of the plant, each succeeding blade being more nearly horizontal. Our cultivated varieties vary greatly with respect to the angle of the blades, but nothing has been observed that approaches the defi- nitely erect position of the blades in the Chinese variety. What at first appeared to be an approximation was seen in a type of corn from Colombia. A considerable series of varieties from different parts of that country, while not in the least resembling the Chinese corn in other particulars, had very erect leaf blades. The resemblance 1s, however, more apparent than real. The blades that are erect in the Colombian varieties are not those that immediately precede the tassel, but are several nodes lower down. Few of the Colombian _varieties mature in the United States, and the uppermost leaves that are produced, though perhaps 20 feet from the ground, are still sev- eral nodes from the tassel. If the Colombian plants should reach maturity the blades that correspond to the erect blades of the Chinese variety would probably be borne much more nearly horizontal. A much closer approximation to the erect blades of the Chinese variety was found in a single plant of a variety of dent corn secured from Brownsville, Tex. In this specimen the uppermost blade made an angle with the sheath of only 5°, although other plants of the same variety had the leaf blades borne at the customary angle. The plant with the upright leaves was also abnormal in other respects. In observing the range of this character the other extreme was found in drought-resistant varieties from the table-land of Mexico, which have the uppermost leaf blades bent away from the stalk at an angle of over 90°, or below the horizontal. 161 DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS. 11 Monostichous arrangement of leaf blades —The most striking pecu- liarity of this Chinese variety is the one-sided appearance of most of the plants, caused by having the leaf blades on the upper part of the plant all on one side of the stalk. This character is shown in Plate I, figures 1 and 2, which represent opposite sides of the same plant, and in Plate II, figure 2, a more detailed view of the upper part of a plant, showing the bases of the blades in their natural size and posi- tion. This monostichous habit is definitely correlated with the erect posi- tion of the blades and follows almost as a necessary consequence. If the erect blades were arranged in the ordinary manner they would almost entirely inclose the silks and very greatly reduce the chances of pollination. The erect position of the blades, in connection with the monostichous habit, constitutes an almost ideal arrangement for insuring pollination. In the most extreme case the leaves of the fifth or sixth node from the base of the plant begin to show a deviation from the normal alternate arrangement, but in most cases only the last four or five leaves are distinctly on one side. With the exception of the single abnormal plant in the Browns- ville variety already mentioned, little tendency toward this monos- tichous habit was observed in any other variety, and the character seems never to have been recorded. As a consequence of the monostichous habit the top of the plant is curved or scorpoid. The crowding of the leaf blades on one side of the plant necessarily displaces the top, so that it curves toward the open side of the plant. In the most pronounced cases the tip of the plant is curved to such an extent that the last leaves pass the per- pendicular and bend forward over the tassel, with the back of the leaf uppermost. Development of silks by ears while still vnclosed in the leaf sheaths.— A third character associated with the erect blades and monostichous habit is the production of the silks directly at the junction of the leaf blade and sheath. This character, while by no means so rare as the two preceding, does not appear, so far as the writer knows, in any of the varieties of field corn now cultivated in the United States. It is brought about by the development of the silks at an early stage, before the ear stalk has elongated and while the young ear is very small. The silks appear at the base of the leaf, where it joins the sheath before there is any other indication of an ear, except a slight swelling of the leaf sheath. A similar tendency to produce the silks before the young ear emerges from the leaf sheath is also shown by several entirely unrelated types from the American Tropics, but appears to be con- fined to varieties from regions that are subjected to severe drought. 161 12 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. Waxy endosperm.—The most distinctive character possessed by this Chinese variety is the nature of the endosperm, which is entirely unlike that of any of the known varieties of corn. A discussion of this character occurs on page 14, where the characters of the grain are described. RESISTANCE TO DRY WINDS. The combination of the three characters—erect leaf blades, monos- tichous arrangement of leaf blades, and silks borne directly in the angle where the blade joms the sheath—combine to constitute a most beautiful adaptation that prevents the drying out of the silks before pollination. The erect, overlapping blades catch all pollen that is blown against the upper part of the plant and allow it to settle in the channels at the base of the blades, where it accumulates in con- siderable quantities. The receptive silks are then pushed into this accumulation of pollen and can thus become fertilized before they are ever exposed to the air. With our ordinary varieties of Indian corn the ear is usually pushed out a considerable distance, often from 6 inches to a foot above the base of the leaf, before the silks appear. The moist, receptive stigmas are thus fully exposed to the air, and if pollen is at all scarce it may be several days before the majority of the silks are pollinated. The delicate silks are very susceptible to injury from drought, but where pollen is produced over a considerable period no permanent injury may be done, for the silks that are not polli- nated continue to grow and to produce new stigmatic surface for a week or more. In the semiarid district of the Southwest this continued growth of the silks is often of no avail. If the production of pollen is held in check for a few days by cool, moist conditions the dry, hot weather which often follows abruptly brings all the pollen to maturity within a very few days and at a time when the silks are too dry to be pol- linated. Even where the silks are not destroyed by drought, pollination is often imperfect. Though the pollen is produced in great abundance,? it is so thoroughly scattered by the wind that the chances of each silk receiving its grain of pollen are by no means complete. In the Chinese corn, however, the pollen is literally collected and held in readiness so that each silk must come in contact with many grains. This combination of characters, while constituting an effective adaptation against drought at the time of flowering, might have its disadvantages if moist conditions prevailed. The accumulation of @ Individual plants are estimated to produce from 10 to 70 millions of pollen grains. (See Lazenby, W. R., The Blossoming and Pollination of Indian Corn, Proceedings of the Meetings of the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science, vol. 13-16, 1896-1899, p. 127). 161 DESCRIPTION OF GRAIN. 18 pollen in the axils of the blades if kept moist would form an excellent medium for the development of molds, bacteria, and fungi. As the upright blades of the leaves always extend above the tassels it seems that the chances of self-pollination must be greater than usual, especially since in this Chinese variety the tassels do not appear much before the silks. The production of more than one ear on each stalk, which is usual in this variety, would to some extent correct the tendency to self-pollination, for in practically all cases the second ear must be cross-pollinated. In regions where high winds prevail at the time of flowering, the percentage of self-ferti- lized grains would be further reduced. This adaptation would be still more perfect if the plants were oriented so that the open side of the plant was presented to a pre- vailing wind. In our experimental planting the plants appeared to face indifferently in all directions, but the number of plants was small and if any tendency toward a definite orientation existed the wind would doubtless be the exciting cause, while in the absence of a definitely prevailing wind such orientation could hardly be expected.¢ CLIMATE OF THE REGION WHERE THE TYPE WAS DISCOVERED. The climate of the vicinity of Shanghai where Doctor Farnham found this corn is not shown by the available meteorological data to be of the exacting nature which might be expected to call forth a special adaptation against drought. The characters of the plant do not indicate a general resistance to drought, but rather an adapta- tion against dry winds at the time of flowering. These periods of drought might be of such short duration that no indication of them would be given by ordinary meteorological data on rainfall and humidity. Short periods of drought do occur in many regions and have little effect on the total monthly rainfall and average humidity, but are nevertheless an important factor in determining plant growth. It is also not improbable that the variety here described was origi- nally from the northern part of China, where extreme droughts during the summer months are the rule. If this is the case, the cultivation of this variety, even in China, must be somewhat restricted, for Mr. Frank N. Meyer says that nothing resembling this type was seen by him in the northern part of China, where he traveled for nearly three years, making a study of the agriculture of that region.” DESCRIPTION OF GRAIN. Color.—The original seed was very much mixed with respect to color. A majority of the grains had a yellow endosperm and a dull ruby-colored aleurone layer. Few were pure white and a still smaller number a very light lemon-yellow. The color of the aleurone layer was distinct from anything that has been observed in other varieties. It varied greatly in intensity. @ See note on e 25. 161 a 14 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. In rare cases it approached the bluish black of our common “black” varieties, but for the most part varied from a dull ruby to maroon. The color was usually confined to the top of the seed, fading out toward the base and sometimes slightly mottled. The pericarp was in all cases transparent. The location of a red color in the aleurone layer is in itself a rather unusual character. As a rule in red varieties the color is located in the pericarp or outside coat of the seed. The aleurone, or the layer of cells immediately inside the seed coat, if colored, is usually some shade of blue, which may vary from slate color through purple to black. There is one well-known exception, the Voorhees red sweet corn, which has a dark-red aleurone. It is interesting to note that this variety originated by crossing a white variety (colorless aleurone layer) and one which had a blue-black aleurone.? Size and shape of kernels—Most of the seeds are cuneate with rounded tops, straight sides, and pointed bases, though there were many broader seeds with blunt bases. The cross section is circular or indistinctly hexagonal, the transverse diameter being only slightly ereater than the longitudinal. In the form and size of the kernels, as well as in the appearance of the ear, this corn is very similar to a type commonly grown in southern and southeastern Kurope.? In the original seed the size was very variable, due largely to the presence of poorly formed grains. The white seeds were somewhat more uniform and slightly larger than those with red aleurone. The red seeds averaged 7 mm. long and 5.8 mm. in greatest width (50 seeds measured), while the same number of white seeds averaged 7.4 mm. long and 6.1 mm. wide. The average weight of the red seeds was 0.098 and of the white 0.122 gram. New type of endosperm (waxy endosperm).—The texture of the endosperm is one of the unique features of this corn. There isa very small amount of the amylaceous or starchy endosperm, about as it appears in the common varieties of pop corn. The remainder of the endosperm occupying the position of the corneous or horny endosperm of our ordinary varieties is quite distinct in its appear- ance and mechanical characteristics, and must be considered as con- stituting another type of endosperm in addition to the amylaceous or starchy and the corneous or horny endosperm possessed by flint, dent, and soft varieties. This new type of endosperm is undoubtedly more closely related to the corneous endosperm and occupies the same position in the a Halsted and Kelsey. Bulletin 170, New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion. 1904. bMr. J. D. Shanahan, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, states that these varieties with small grains command a special price in England, where they are in demand as a food for pheasants. 161 DESCRIPTION OF GRAIN. 15 It is less Catin erain, but its physical properties are strikingly different. glassy than the corneous endosperm, though nearly as hard. any direction it separates with a sort of cleavage, exposing a dull, smooth surface. Instead of being translucent it is completely opaque, though not in the least approaching the coarse opaque tex- ture of the amylaceous endosperm. The texture suggests that of the hardest waxes, though it is still harder and more crystalline. From this optical resemblance to wax the term cereous or waxy endosperm is suggested. Like the corneous endosperm it is either white or yel- low, while the amylaceous endosperm, so far as observed, is always white. The opaque nature of this cereous endosperm is especially evident when grains with a colored aleurone layer are cut. When colored grains with a corneous endosperm are cut the translucent nature of the endosperm causes it to appear colored like the aleurone layer, while in the Chinese corn the endosperm appears in its true color, white or yellow, unaffected by the color of the aleurone. Composition of seed.—The appearance and physical composition of the seeds of this Chinese corn were so distinct from that of other varieties that the possibility of a difference in chemical composition naturally suggested itself, but analyses did not yield any very unusual results. Analyses of two ears, apparently similar, showed very different percentages of oil and protein, but all within the limits reported from analyses of American varieties. With a view to ascertaining something of the range of composi- tion in different types of corn a series of twenty-one varieties was analyzed and appears in the table below, arranged in order of the percentage of protein. The analyses were made by the Bureau of Chemistry of this Department from samples thoroughly air dried. The oil and protein are calculated on a water-free basis. TaBLE II.—Chemical analyses of twenty-one varieties of Indian corn. No. of | Weight va- Class of corn. Source. Protein. Oil. Water. | of 1,000 riety. seeds Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Grams. Ng OP A so ae a eae PETIA toe ee ae teas ieee! 5. 46 9. 05 122 PS Ober Bees won OSS ele eee Hopi Indians, Arizona. .---. 12. 49 6. 87 9. 48 254 Sites Onan eee SAE ees (Ope Pn OS 56 Be cen me ae 12.10 7. 58 LQI08: beam ae sere AN (10 [ra] ae ee ee eee PAT PCM norte eee a eete See 11. 84 5. 66 8. 95, 241 (eee a GOEG tte ne seat Whodersiand a sesece sane eee 11.80 5. 06 OPSiy ee seane- oe 6 Wax (new Chinesetype) |) Chinas. +.2:.. .-25 322-252. 2<. 11. 80 6. 12 FEST neers ee iia evel 2° | aan ge e aees ee e Colombight 2 seseae cee en 11. 63 4. 23 9. 63 493 SAPD OL s se ten sce Sete he Hopi Indians, Arizona... -.. 11. 00 6. 82 nS i ete oe Py gLD Teh oe See eee eee ere Chiapas, Mexico.........-.-- 10. 61 5. 37 9.34 560 1Ga| Piste eels ee aoe pemer aes iusenters Indians, New 10. 01 5. 80 9. 27 403 ork. : ia eMUin tess. 2 Soe eee cee Salas North Dakota 9. 90 ENG QUOT aun een eees AZ e | DCRG: 52. cecic scene eso +2 pees Sea 9.75 4. 48 OS Sau esas 13 35 lee ae CLO ee eee eee een Oe wae nsetae tac 's sic 9. 65 4. 60 OS 80y Semen ee MAD BOLG (2-2 Mes ec eels Hopi eee Arizona. ....-. 9. 50 6. 20 LEU All ere sree 15 | Chinese hybrid, corne- rat ea phe see Re re 9. 28 4. 49 9. 09 132 ane endosperm. NOB RGD sane oes ee eee JAI. Sane See SUCCES 9.19 5. 98 8.25 121 17 Deni (shoe-peg)_-.----.. Wera Griz te cosas ot Ses 5.2 8.74 6. 39 10. 52 349 MSV SOlbe se ween oan oe ee Chihuahua, Mexico.......-- 8. 46 5. 64 9. 31 336 Ti) W201 0S ae eee wee ee eree A Moluca; Mexico-- 22s. ---=2--- 8.35 6. 36 10. 06 81 20 Wee (new Chinese type) | China...........:.-......-.- 8. 26 4.12 9. 01 Pilall D cio ee ee Chihuahua, Mexico.........- 8.05 4.98 8. 67 190 16 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. Table II shows that the chemical composition of the seeds of corn stands in no direct relation to the type of grain. Similar varieties are widely separated with respect to amount of protein and oil, and such diverse types as the soft corns and the pop corns may show a closely similar chemical composition. Thus one variety of soft corn stands next to the top in percentage of protein and a similar variety is fourth from the last. One variety that must be classed as a pop corn heads the list, with 13.31 per cent of protein, while another variety of pop corn from Mexico is third from the last, with 8.35 per cent. It is further interesting to note that the variety of soft corn grown by the Hopi Indians stands first in percentage of oil, second in percentage of protein, and third in amount of water. It has frequently been noted that the composition of different ears of a uniform strain shows diversities of the same order as that found in a series of varieties. Even the very distinct types included in the above series show only a slightly greater range than that usually found in a similar number of ears of a single uniform variety. Crossing the Chinese corn with other varieties seems to have the effect of increasing the percentages both of oil and of protein in the same season that the cross is made. Seed from an open-pollinated ear that had received foreign pollen, as shown by the corneous nature of the endosperm, showed an increase of 1.02 per cent in oil and 0.37 per cent in protein over the pure seed from the same ear.* XENTA. During the season of 1908 a number of hand-pollinations inside the variety were made, and ten hybrids were also secured between the Chinese corn and other varieties. These ears afford an oppor- tunity for preliminary observations regarding the behavior of hybrid characters that appear in the F, generation; that is, in the same year that the cross is made. ALEURONE COLOR. The red aleurone color appears in general to be prepotent when crossed with white varieties. A cross between two plants both from red seed produced an ear with 398 seeds, 312 showing the red color and 86 without, a ratio of 1:3.6+. Assuming that both plants were heterozygotes (i. e., crosses of red and colorless indi- viduals) the expectation, according to Mendel’s law, would be 1:3 or 298.5 and 99.5+18.4. Another cross between a plant from a red a Scherffius reported no change in the protein content of hybrid seed compared with pure seed of the same ear; based on analyses of white seeds that appeared on open- pollinated ears of Reid yellow dent, Yellow Leaming, and Riley’s Favorite. See Bulletin 122, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, p. 188. 161 XENIA. 17 seed and a white variety of starch corn from Chihuahua, Mexico, produced an ear with 431 seeds, 381 with colored aleurone and 50 without color; the expected ratio would be either all colored if the female were pure, or equal numbers of each if the female were het- erozygote. Deviations from the expected ratio with respect to aleurone colors are common, but they are usually accompanied by gradations in the intensity of the color, while in this case the two classes were very sharply marked. Another cross between plants both from seeds with colored aleurone produced an ear with all the seeds red. In a cross between a plant from a white seed of the Chinese (female) and a variety with black aleurone from Salvador the seeds all showed a mottling in the aleurone layer. None were pure black, though some were nearly pure white. A cross between a starch variety grown by the Hopi Indians of Arizona with blue-black aleurone (female) and a white Chinese variety showed no trace of the white parent. This case is of par- ticular interest, as the aleurone color in this Hopi variety is defi- nitely recessive to colorless aleurone in the same variety. Where plants from white seeds were pollinated among them- selves, the result was in nearly every case a pure white ear. In six hand-pollinated ears among plants from seeds without aleurone color, four produced seeds entirely without aleurone color. The other two ears, while mostly white, produced in the one case 4 and in the other 6 seeds that showed aleurone color. Among the crosses with other varieties, 7 were between Chinese plants from white seed and other varieties without aleurone color; in every case the ears produced were entirely without aleurone color. ENDOSPERM COLOR. No crosses were made between Chinese plants from seeds with yel- low and white endosperm, but from the appearance of the close-pol- linated ears and those that were wind-pollinated it appears that the _ yellow is dominant, though varying in intensity, as with other varie- ties. All crosses between plants from seeds with white endosperm gave practically all white seeds, the exception being one poorly filled ear with 29 seeds, 4 of which had yellow endosperms. Since the same ear also showed seeds with horny endosperm, it seems not improbable that the precautions against foreign pollen were imper- fect. Two crosses between plants from seed with yellow endosperms gave all yellow seeds. ENDOSPERM TEXTURE. The unique nature of the endosperm texture of this Chinese corn affords an interesting opportunity to study the behavior of definitely 161 18 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. contrasted characters. So far as observed every grain of the original seed of the Chinese corn possessed the characteristic waxy endo- sperm, while nothing of this nature has been observed in any Ameri- can variety. Since the waxy endosperm is completely recessive to the horny and starchy endosperm of our common varieties, its appear- ance in all the kernels of the original seed would indicate that the seed was grown in a region in China where there was no admixture with varieties having a horny endosperm. Eight crosses were made between plants from seeds with waxy endosperms, and in practically every case the seeds were all waxy. Six ears produced from crosses between varieties with horny and waxy endosperms produced only horny kernels; two between starchy and waxy varieties had starchy kernels only. SIZE OF SEED. It was apparent from open-pollinated ears of Chinese corn that the size of the seed was influenced by the nature of the pollen. Seeds which showed by their color and texture the effect of foreign pollen were in nearly every case distinctly larger than those showing pure Chinese characteristics. Twenty-one yellow, transparent seeds from the central portion of an open-pollinated ear of white Chinese had an average weight of 0.178 gram, while the white opaque seeds from the same portion of the ear averaged 0.153 gram to the seed. There was some variation in the size of the white seed, but 21 of the ea of these averaged only 0.161 gram. Further experiments are Heated to determine whether this increase in size is due to the inheritance of the size of a large-seeded male par- ent or whether the increase is another instance of the increased size of a hybrid over the average of the parent. The following table summarizes the results of twenty hand-pollina- tions with respect to the characters that appeared in the same season that the crosses were made: 161 2g XENIA. ‘eped AroA AUR] D SEI IROISO2EROQGE IO OC! 3s] SOA tea alee ake Risieewwisio <\nelaleiaisiaiein(a/mimiei=i|(e ain minicom} -risleleis< = S/O QsOr JUGDAGM PRY, |e: 2 ODes ear ORs | \80e) Illi. 1 1 2 Don CUO) Xe DeOLenigg Sige aleioiin wen nee eee eee n[n nee eee ele eee ee eee ele n ene e rete eee e seer er s|seeeseseretessseees--|/-argggid yuao Jed QOL |" "Z9UeseIg |""4 JUeSeTg | OZ8 |" °"°"“poxlul eUIGD X Pexiur vUIYyD *Ax@M 40100 Jod 9°66 |°""" Op" "*|""--"* Opec |Saweee ee: ODstaas ee dO Dice Sil esenacl O Dz a'| Gea eer se (1) OS OES OP peellisueeec OPe sal TOGO: | ere Se eRS tie Sa eS Sales od “£x@M yoo Jed QoT |> Axe |*-~> Axe |*pMoTTOA Jud Jod OOT | “MOTIOA |*“MOTTAA |" JUeSqB YU TOC (Hs eae ae op"*"|""" yuesqy | OOP |-""~- MoOTOA BUIYO XK MOTIOA BUITO TICE CO EIEIO Il ea | ec -quosoid 4u90 Jed egg |*"* quesqy |""{queSselg | Igh |" Gorej{s UvoIXoWW X poxiur vulgD VATIOU MIG OMA |e A ANT ewe a A CULOT |e ree oe ecmoae Gn Gln eos Goes | mun: ture AUOSOBIQUOD ASM (KL liek cckene: vali men nea CZL_ |" pexlur euryO X sed-so0ys UeoIxe -Ayoreys 4 yue0 Jed OoT | Aqoreyg |-- ~~ Axe |°~O7TWA {400 Jed OOT |"*** Op*" "|" "~~ Op*~ "|" peT}jourL 4U89 Jad QO, |" "gueserg |"** gUesSqYy | OST |" HOe[q UepeuoJeNny XK OJIYA VUIGO *Ayorvys ued red OOT |°~"* op" "|" Atoreyg |-- (0) 0) ee “*** op---|"""* op" "|" gueseid 4ued Jed (OT |*- "~*~ op"""|"""Juesolg | OG | °°” oHYyM eulgg X yoerltq doy ‘od SC OP nad || va aie ae OD real te see no poe ODiex a ESO Daas | aaa OD ts | area tee kaa OD “ss "opt *|"* 7s top? **| 00S |” "eu BUIGO X sad-soys UBIIXOW *AYoreys *AYoIeysS pue Auioy 4ue0 od QOT |" -*" op**"|pue Auioy |"""** OD see Rane OD soilinnr 5 (OP open aren BER 6) aoe SOD Oe} pf SCI) oe (ahs fee SOOM hh cay Togan(gy yd cloaks od SRC) aE BCS oe OD POT A O OOM OOM |p tODs cc|ter Oa: 1|| sneemnas SK) os rale aie aes OP yes lee LOD melon alieeaaes oUIYM CUIYO X JUEp UBOIXEWT -£uroy 400 Jed OOT |---* op***|"* > -AusOFT |*“O9TAN JU9O Jod 2°66 |"" OUT |°° OFM J OD eee | aes aes: ODE See EEO D Ean iCOGmle ners: “OUI M BUIGO X JUEpP OFM ea TULL GLU CHT lake sek LD nee tet ACL ONT lhl a ae ake ate me Blo gaceg searitaie os kc cae ee aaa Opsae 3 Sse ODF sale oe saa Danka WSS Gun wee eee oUITM BUND X 931g Idoy *Au10y 4090 Jed OOT |-~*- Op-**|""* -AUIOx |" ~“9}1GAA JuGO Tod OOT |°° "= OP" = "|" "OPT pee ODi25 lace: (DY OF at = OD aul VEs oi | tear ain OvIFM BUIQD X JUEP OJIT AA *£xBM Jueo Jed OOT |---" Op" *"|"""°" "op-""|"" SINTM. IED Jed 9°66 | 2 TOPs ess OPt st OD 5 a eas (0) 0 eel aces ODE 08S. li kas oe Seo aS Raeman od *£xemM 400 Jed 9:96 | ~~" Op" "|"""""“op™"*|"" OTA UG TOW 8578) |= OP tes |euc ODe ocr acumen) ane (0) oy AOS PO SOD Ais, OD al (CS Meal ceca a kann eee an ena od od eaOD eaters WODs FL soes oe aa eee Opies FZ ODS as saesOD aie lie aks RE Ops ptectein QU) mice la eres OD ==> |KO08 > ea oeae Ai oars eames od *£xeM 4000 Jod QOT |°*-* Op***|""*"* “op** "|" "e4TAA 490 Jod OOT |-*"" Op~* "|" -op™"*|"~ quesqe Jueo Jed QOT |-"""""Op™**|"" "7 7” (0) Clanaael AL 01) eae ante Deane Se ITE al CRO od *£xeM 400 Jod 7°66 |-"-" Op"*"|""-"** op-**|" "9yIqM 480 Jed 7°66 |""~* Op"" "|" > *“Op"" "|" guasqe 490 Jed 9°86 |""-- "Op" ""|""""" "Op" ""| O8F | pate aol ete A AG od “Axe yue0 Jad oot |-- Axe |[*77* Axe [°° OPA GUD IEd OOT |"* OFTEN |" OITA |°“JUOSC’B YU90 Jed OOT |" ~* YWesqW |""" JUeSqY | OLF | ~""*" OFAN BUTTO X ouIGM VUlyO P ro) P é 2 ro) ‘molyei0u03 OT “9ju0Ie J ‘TOIYeIOUS OT *s}U0Iv ‘TOI}e1EUEs ©] “‘S}UIe -‘spaas » = jo ‘syueid quored jo sodA, ‘ON -91n} xe} ULIedsopug *Io[oo UlIedsopuy -10[O0 ouOINETY “usoo asaury,) fo sassou hyuang ur bursvaddn suajavunyo vvuay— TT AAV], 161 20 NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF MAIZE IN CHINA.«a The discovery in China of a variety of maize with characters not known in American varieties of the species is not without interest from the historical point of view. Whether maize was known in the Eastern Hemisphere before the discovery of America was a warmly disputed question some decades ago, but since De Candolle’s studies and his definitely negative conclusions were published, most writers have accepted his view.’ The finding of this unique variety of maize in China suggested a reexamination of the data on which De Candolle’s conclusions were based. It now appears that important considerations have been over- looked and that the question is far from being settled. The issues have been confused by the failure to distinguish between two radically different points of view, the origin of the species in Asia and the pos- sibility of its introduction into that continent in pre-Columbian times. Regarding the first question there can be but one opinion. Maize is of American origin. To many writers the mass of evidence that showed the widespread use and importance of corn in America at the time of the discovery seemed to preclude the idea that it could have existed at the same time in Asia. The other cultivated plants that are now known to have been extended on both sides of the Pacific show that the presence of maize in China would in no way conflict with the generally accepted fact that the maize plant is a native of America. The possibility that maize might have been introduced into China before the discovery of America by Europeans is to be considered quite alone on the basis of historical evidence. The most significant evidence to the effect that maize was known in China before the discovery of America is not, as De Candolle states, the mention of maize in the medieval ‘‘Charter of Incisa,”’ now held to be a forged document, but the descriptions of maize that occur in Chinese literature. Very little information exists in Europe or America regarding the scientific writings of the Chinese, but enough is at present available to show that De Candolle’s con- clusions may need to be modified. The first serious attempt to canvass this class of information is found in an article by Hance and Mayers.° At the request of Mr. a The writer is indebted to Mr. Walter T. Swingle for assistance with the literature concerning maize in China. b See De Candolle, A. C., Geographie botanique raisonnée, 1855, vol. 2, p. 942, and Origin of Cultivated Plants (International Scientific Series), 1886, p. 387. c¢ Hance, H. F., and Mayers, W. F. Introduction of Maize into China, Pharma- ceutical Journal, ser. 3, vol. 1, December 31, 1870, pp. 522-525. Dr. H. F. Hance, one of the foremost authorities on Chinese botany, went to China from England in 1844 and remained in that country until his death in 1886. Mr. W. F. Mayers, a recognized authority on the Chinese language, lived in China from 1856 to 1878. See Bretschneider, E., History of European Botanical Discoveries in China, pp. 632-695. 161 HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF MAIZE IN CHINA. 21 Mayers a memorandum on the history of maize in China was pre- pared by Mei K’i-chao, the intendant of the grain revenue for the province of Kwangtung. This memorandum includes a list of the common names of maize and their derivations. All references to the introduction of the plant are vague, except for the repeated and definite statement that it came to China from the west, more particularly from ‘‘Si-fan,” a name formerly applied to a region to the west of China, including parts of Tibet and possibly Turkestan. Mei K’i-chao adds that there is a tradition in the provinces of Yunnan and Kweichow that maize was introduced there by Ma Fu-po from Cochin China. Mayers adds in a footnote that Ma Fu-po was known to have headed an expedition against the Si-fan tribes to the west in A. D. 36, and that he may have brought maize from there rather than from the south. In conclusion Mei K’i-chao says: It is further noted that this grain was heretofore presented as tribute, but again no date is assigned. It is evident that its introduction must have taken place at a very early period; as, at the time when these works were compiled [1552 to 1632], no infor- mation could be procured. In the article just mentioned Mr. Mayers gives translations of references to maize in early Chinese works. The most important of these is taken from the Pen ts’ao kang mu, a Chinese herbal or materia medica. The author, Li Shi-chen, was born in the early part of the sixteenth century and began this work in 1552. It was completed in 1578, having been rewritten three times by the author, and after his death was laid before the Emperor by the author’s son and pub- lished the same year, about 1596.% The figures of maize reproduced in Mr. Mayers’s article are well known and have frequently been copied, but the translation seems to have passed unnoticed. De Candolle refers to the article, but ad- mits not having seen it. Mr. Mayers’s translation of the paragraph of the Pen ts’ao kang mu that refers to corn is given below with very slight corrections.° The seed of the Yii-shi-shti came from the lands on the West, and it is cultivated by but few. Its stalk and leaf both resemble the Shi-shi [sorghum ¢], but are more fleshy and shorter. They also resemble the [7-7] Coix lachryma; the stalk grows to a height of 3 or 4 feet; it flowers in the sixth or seventh month, producing an ear like that of the Pi-mé. From the heart of the stalk there issues a sheath in shape like the 7'swnq fish, from which a white waving beard grows out. After a time the sheath opens and the @ Bretschneider, E. Botanicon Sinicum. Journal of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, n. s., vol. 16, p. 55. Shanghai, 1892. b Book 28, p. 23 r°, edition of 1646, a copy of which is in the Library of Congress. ¢ Wu Ki-stin. Chi wu ming shi t’u k’ao (original part), book 1, p. 44, gives under this name an excellent picture of a compact-headed sorghum similar to the durras of northern Africa and western Asia. 161 Sp NEW TYPE OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. grain comes forth. The grains are clustered together, each one as large as a Tsung seed [a palm, probably Trachycarpus excelsa], and yellow and white in color; they may be eaten baked or roasted. When roasted, they burst into a white flour-like mass, similar in appearance to that produced when rice of the glutinous kind is roasted. The two figures given by Mayers from two different editions of the Pen ts’ao kang mu are crude and might be taken to represent any large-leaved, erect grass with a large terminal inflorescence. The text, on the contrary, leaves no room for doubt that the plant referred to is in reality maize. The height of 3 or 4 feet of course refers to Chinese feet of about 14 English inches. The ‘‘ white wav- ing beard” accurately describes the silks and would not apply to any other grass; this feature is shown in all the illustrations, even though the artist places the ear at the top of the plant. The opening of the sheath or husks can be understood, since the tip of the ear is com- monly exposed in small varieties of maize. Another contemporaneous reference to maize in China is given by Mendoza, an Augustine monk, who compiled the reports of the early Portuguese and Spanish missionaries in China, in a book published in 1585.% The first part, which contains the references to maize, was based on the accounts of Martin de Herrada and Geronimo Mar- in, who visited China in 1575. Herrada was a scholar familiar with the Chinese language, while Marin is described as ‘‘a native of Mex- ico, a man equally distinguished for his piety and learning.”® Toa native of Mexico the positive identification of maize would be certain, especially as the reference is made in the following specific manner: On their high grounds, that are not good to be sowne, there is great store of pine trees, which yeelde fruite very sauorie: chestnuts greater, and of better tast, then com- monly you shall finde in Spaine: and yet betwixt these trees they do sow maiz, which is the ordinarie foode of the Indians of Mexico and Peru. The possibility of maize being a recent introduction would seem to be precluded by a second reference where this grain is referred to as one of the commodities paid as tribute to the King of China at a time - that was considered ancient in 1575. The rent which remaineth vunto the king ordinarily is this that followeth, and is taken with great regard out of the booke of his exchecker. Yet the Chinos do say that it is much lesse then that they do pay at this time; for that this is of old antiquitie, when as the tributes were lesse: ; The reference to maize as a tribute is as follows: Of wheat called Mayz, twentie millions two hundred and fiftie thousand hanegs [about 30 million bushels]. @Mendoza, Juan Gonzales de. The History of the Great and Mighty Kingdom of China. (Parke translation, 1588.) Hakluyt Society reprint 1853, pp. 15 and 84. b Mendoza, loc. cit., p. Ixix. 161 HISTORICAL ACCOUNTS OF MAIZE IN CHINA. 23 Another reference to the use of maize as tribute appears in the fol- lowing extract from Mr. Mayers’s article: Apart from the Pun Ts’ao, notices upon the present subject have also been sought in the ‘‘ Ké Chih King-yiian,”’ or ‘‘Mirror of Classified Research,” a vast cyclopeedia of information in all departments of physical study practiced by the Chinese, with ref- erences under each heading to antecedent works. This collection, in twenty-four volumes, was published in 1735 by Chén Yiian-lung. It contains no reference to maize under the name of Yiu Shi-shu; but describes the plant as Yii-mé (imperial wheat), in the following terms: ‘‘ Yii-mé, or imperial wheat, originated in the Si-fan territory (the lands beyond the western frontier of China proper), and its ancient name was Fan-mé, or ‘wheat of the foreign lands of the West.’ Having been offered among tribute, it has received the name of imperial wheat. In its stem and leaf it is the congener of the 7's’i, or panicled millet, and, in its flower, of rice. The sheath inclosing the ear is like a closed fist, but longer. The beard resembles red threads. The seed is like the grain of the Tz plant, but large, lustrous, and white. The flower blooms at the top of the plant, and the seed (ear?) grows out from the joints.’”’ (Loc. cit., p. 525.) 4 If maize existed in China in very early times it may be expected that conclusive proof of the fact will be found in the pre-Columbian Chinese literature. Bibliographies of Chinese literature cite a num- ber of cyclopedias and other large works, published before the dis- covery of America, that treat, at least in part, of agricultural sub- jects, but it does not appear that these have been scrutinized for references to maize. A study of this medieval Chinese literature would doubtless go far toward settling this interesting question. No very great significance can be attached to the absence of refer- ences to maize in the accounts of early European travelers in China. The only really detailed account of China before the discovery of America is that of Marco Polo, who traveled extensively in China during the thirteenth century. That even this account is far from complete, however, is shown by the omission of any reference to tea, a plant of much more importance than corn, and which is known to have been cultivated in China since 2000 B. C, a This paragraph is without doubt identical with one occurring in the Liu ch’ing ji cha of Tien I-heng, discovered by Berthold Laufer (The Introduction of Maize into Eastern Asia, in Congrés International des Américanistes, Quebec, 1907, vol. 1, p. 232), who makes the case even stronger by using the word ‘‘formerly ” in his trans- lation of the second sentence of the paragraph, which he gives as follows: ‘‘Since it was formerly brought as tribute to the court, it has received for this reason the name ‘imperial wheat’ (yii mai).’’ The Liu ch’ing ji cha is not cited in any European bibliography of Chinese literature, but since the passage in question was embodied in a work of Wang Shih-mou, who died in 1591, Professor Laufer infers that Tien I-heng wrote ‘‘say, about the middle of the sixteenth century.’ It thus becomes of impor- tance to find the exact date of this publication, apparently the earliest known Chinese reference to maize. Professor Laufer’s paper is full of valuable information on the history of maize in Asia, but unfortunately came into the writer’s hands too late for full utilization in the present paper. 161 24 NEW TYPE ‘OF INDIAN CORN FROM CHINA. De Candolle’s negative conclusion would seem to be fairly offset, at least, by the affirmative opinion stated by Doctor Hance as follows: In my judgment, the remote date assigned by Chinese records to its introduction and the circumstance that the introducer is unknown are irreconcilable with the sup- position that it was brought to this country by the Portuguese, their first arrival here, under Fernand Perez d’Andrada, being, I believe, in 1517, and the earliest notice of maize in European literature dating later than 1530. To those, finally, who urge the conflicting and erroneous opinions of the earlier European writers as to the country whence maize found its way to the West as a ground for regarding Chinese statements with equal distrust, I would answer that it is not logical to apply the same canons of criticism to Western and Chinese literature, the latter being, at the period in question, in a very different and comparatively far more advanced state of development. (Loc. eit.; p. 523.) At the same time it must be admitted that the present facts can not be said to exclude the possibility that maize might have reached China after the discovery of America. Contacts between America and the Orient occurred very soon after the discovery of America, and in some cases at least were very direct. One expedition under Cabral left Portugal in March, 1500, and reached Brazil on May 1 of that year. It remained in Brazil twenty-two days, and then proceeded direct to India.* Opportunity was thus afforded for the carrying of maize from America directly to the East Indies instead of by way of Europe. It is very difficult, however, to believe that maize could have become established as a cultivated crop and spread into China in seventy- five years, evén if a definite introduction had been undertaken promptly by the Portuguese. If varieties of corn similar to the Chinese are found in Brazil, the fact may have bearing on the histori- cal question. CONCLUSIONS. The variety of Indian corn here described was introduced from Shanghai, China, and appears to be distinct from all hitherto known types. The plants possess the following unique characters: (1) Erect leaf blades.—The leaf blades on the upper part of the plant stand erect instead of being borne in a more or less horizontal posi- tion, as in the ordinary varieties. (2) Monostichous arrangement of leaf blades—In addition to the erect position of the blades, those on the upper part of the plant are in many cases all on one side of the stem. (3) Silks developed while still inside the leaf sheath.—Instead of the ear pushing out before the silks appear, the silks are produced directly at the base of the leaf blades, before the young ears emerge. (4) New type of endosperm.—The texture of the endosperm is unique, and can not be referred to either the starchy or horny types a Fiske, John. Discovery of America, vol. 2, p. 96. 161 CONCLUSIONS. 25 common in our cultivated varieties. It resembles the horny endo- sperm in location and hardness, but differs in texture and optical properties. The early development of silks and erect leaf blades combine to produce an adaptation which insures pollination and prevents the silks drying out. The pollen is blown against the erect leaf blades and accumulates in their bases. The silks are pushed into these accumulations of pollen and become pollinated before they are exposed to the air. Xenia characters in hybrids appear for the most part to follow Mendel’s laws. Colored aleurone is dominant to transparent aleu- rone; yellow endosperm is dominant to white endosperm, and horny endosperm is dominant to waxy endosperm. The discovery in China of a distinct type of maize has bearing upon the historical question whether maize was known in the Orient before the discovery of America. Though maize undoubtedly origi- nated in America, the nature of the historical evidence regarding the extensive cultivation of maize in China in the latter part of the six- teenth century seems to preclude the idea of very recent introduction, leaving open the possibility that this specialized type of corn has developed in China. The generally accepted view to the contrary is further thrown in doubt by references to its widespread use and introduction from the west that occur in Chinese literature published during the sixteenth century. Norre.—After the foregoing paper was in type a letter dated August 24, 1909, was received from Rey. J. M. W. Farnham, Mokansan, China. This letter confirms in a very gratifying way the ideas advanced regarding the adaptive significance of the peculiar characteristics of the variety of maize described in this bulletin. With respect to the climatic conditions that prevail in the region where this variety of corn is grown, Mr. Farnham states, ‘‘There is usually a long dry spell at the time of flowering,’’ and as an example of the effect of this dry weather on ordinary varieties he writes, ‘‘I have a good illustration of pollination failing in a dry time in a case of a small patch of ‘Late Mammoth’ from which we are now eating. In gathering corn for the table to-day I found that probably half the ears, though large and well formed, had not a kernel of corn on them. Also many of the others had but a few kernels. There was protracted dry weather when this patch of corn was pollenizing.”’ Mr. Farnham also confirms the suggestion regarding the orientation of the plants with reference to a prevailing wind. ‘‘About 30 per cent of the plants have their leaves this way [on one side of the plant] and where there is this arrangement they face south. As I have said, the wind blows from the south pretty steadily all summer.”’ Mr. Farnham further states that there is a considerable area of this corn grown about Lieu-oo, twenty miles southwest of Shanghai, but it is not considered the principal crop. It is usually planted between the rows of cotton and is left to occupy the field after the cotton has been picked. A similar variety is grown at Taitsong, near Soo- chow, and on the island of Ch’ungming at the mouth of the Yangtze. The type is believed to be of local origin, and has been known personally to Mr. Farnham for thirty or forty years. 161 DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. PuaTE I. (Frontispiece.) Chinese maize: Front and back view of the same plant. It will be noted that the leaf blades on the upper part of the plant are all on one side of the stalk and that they are erect and exceed the tassel. PuatE II. Fig. 1.—Chinese maize, showing silks protected by the base of the leaf blade. The photograph here reproduced was taken some time after pollination and the enlargement of the ear has forced the sheath away from the stalk. Fig. 2.—Upper part of a Chinese maize plant, showing the monostichous arrange- ment of the leaf blades. The base of the tassel appears in the upper part of the picture. 161 28 Bul. 161, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE JI. Fic. 1.—PART OF PLANT OF Fig. 2.—UPPER PART OF PLANT OF CHINESE MAIZE, CHINESE MAIZE, SHOWING SHOWING MONOSTICHOUS ARRANGEMENT OF THE SILKS PROTECTED BY THE LEAF BLADES. BASE OF THE LEAF BLADE. : : (Natural size.) (Natural size. ) INDEX. Page mecurone, Chinese com, new type, color... 7.2.0 2.20. 250s see 14, 16, 24 Analyses, grain of twenty-one varieties of corn. ...............-------2+----- 15 Blades, leaf, erect form in new type of Chinese corn...............----- 8, 10, 12, 24 monostichous arrangement in new type of Chinese corn....... 8, 11, 24 bre mcnmetder--t-4 reterencetOwoOrk. cave to aay en eee ee ee 2 peat expedition to. brazil and‘ Tndig 225-2 )4!. 225 oa es eee ect Shc wee 24 China, climate of region where new type of corn was discovered..........--.-- 13 mIAIZE: SMIStOricalt ac COUNUKt 32052 2a-. oe eee So eae eee ee eee 20-24, 25 Chinese corn. See Corn, Chinese. Climate, Chinese, adapted to growth of new type of Chinese corn...........-- 13 Color of seed, effects of cross-pollination...... - fe Ee rete Pct ema REE StS pater 16-17, 24 peculiarities, new type of Chinese corn....................--- 13-15 PomrranenenOn ities: se) at. 3 FSS Se hg ek okters Cove PL 32 he 8 22 ee 24-25 Corn, Chinese, new type, aleurone layer, color. ....-...........-.....---- 14, 16, 24 blades leat erect forme 25.555 ae a et ee, a) tap monostichous arrangement..-......-.-. 8, 11, 24 characters; .qustineti veces soon. ase eee 10-13 climate of region where discovered.....-..-.-------- 13 details: of Orowhik. 25 eo5 te moe te eae 8-9, 24 endosperm, color and texture..-.........- 14-15, 17-18, 24 hand-pollinated, hybrid characters. ...-....-- 16-19, 24-25 iInirodiewor inte Amerntacss), 22. 22/5) hoofs. ee fl renie1 sae C CSCUP LION se 2 eee ee he ee ee 13-16 pollen) abundantGs- Osa... os Stee dar ook 9 retention by erect blades an aid to pollina- (HKG) c Wiper aetetes eects Eee et SeaMeset foxes Ml 2 5g I 12 MOMS LALTCOUDONGLIEN, GWT Se oar ca tes eee ee ee 12-13 Beets UO ESER DO CLOINS fod ae Feeble a ears aot eee 8, 18 size as affected by cross-pollination .....--.-- 18 (STE 5) SaaCc FETC allo 22 Yee ey ee A ray TBE Se ae 9 iolnmbisn. Conipared with Chinese: .- =. 2.22. soe ca ose ace eee oe 10 erain of twenty-one varieties, analyses........--.------.------------- 15 polluunation, prevention by dry winds 22% 24/5222. 220222 oo. eases 12 errieniesd