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PS] wwe hit “SRN 4 ot 4°. we — Pees wee Mis tes taceestienree: A) Sn Md : a MALLE ely Sey hire Do weee innit Petal yetey wttracs € yy eee h —lUU a v ety BF BA hel bh et | a ebb ts Le bch aus Te «tts werent ieee EE A {tere | 1p OO cee id é ie JVeennerty| savexvelenreatale ha geo hat . ve dt gies im A Be oe Se pet sé ween! rity weer elas <* : =. , gd P da dn nee “1 Raeeiee evefewertounetetel Doe Aon TWH 2 Sen purer Cae: Soave JANI ee Hane Bay ee Oe i ii) oy iBiitn ADP , Oey h ni iit ‘ i Orelaty At any’ i AUR ty ty Pee Bis i nny eet ey Dinh (Ns PARTE RT YH ihe oan i MN AT ii iy TRANS Prior tay ty Ha i! is iN SLE VIOREL wt bby Wi dati te taba Nea a aT Ah Le OAM VE UNh Up es of the State of of New York Nee - MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF ‘SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK ae = See ae BY R. J. COLONY ~ PAGE Ree TM Sane PAGE . & Part 3: The magnetite deposits. . i, a age Part 4: The magnetite mines..... 74 ‘Explanation of plates........+.> eT 7S ee 157 SL ETIP TT, + > TesuED. oe a ALBANY Nee Ag Lee THE UNIVERSITY | OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK oa men ee ens 2 cee EC ae a ESE THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK tee Regents of the University ; With years when terms expire | oe $1926 Puny T. Sexton LU.B., 1D, Conca. | Ementus -— — — = — Soo 1934 CuEsTER S. Lorp M.A., o D,, Coe - Brooklyn — 1924 ApELBERT Moot LL.D., Vice Clovalor —- ~— Buffalo — 1927 ALBERT VANDER VEER M.D. MCA. Ph.D. ELD; Albany 1925 CHARLES B. ALEXANDER M.A., LL.B., oe 1D FF | | ee Litt. Dp. a Keone 1928 WaLTER Gurst KELLoce B. & TD. D.- - - Ogdensburg - 1932 James Byrne B.A., LL.B., ey — — — ~— New York 1929 Hersert L. BripcMan M.A., LL.D. - — - Brooklyn 1931 THomas J. Mancan M.A. - - - -— -— - Binghamto: 1933 WitutaAm J. Watiin M.A. - - = = - — Yonkers © oe 1035 Wi1iam Bonpy M.A., LL. e. Ph.D. - - - New York - 1930 WititaM P. Baker B.L., ate DD. = = = = Oy iacuse President of the University and Commissioner of Educationf _ Frank P. Graves Ph.D., Litt.D., L.H.D., LL.D. Deputy Commissioner and Counsel PRANK B. GILsMRT-B.40, Ei Dy 9 Assistant Commissioner and Director of Professional ‘Education. AUGUSTUS S. Downine M.A.,; Pd.D., L.H.D., LL. D. Accictant Commissioner for Secondary Education JAMES SULLIVAN M.A., Ph.D. Assistant Commissioner for Elementary ‘Education : GEORGE M. Witey M.A., Pd.D., LL.D. . Director of State Library James I. WYER. M. L.8.; Pd. D. Director of Science and State Museum Joun M. CrarkE Ph. Ds, DiSe., LL.D. . Directors of Divisions Ma aiaist tion: Lioyp L. Cueney B.A. Archives and History, ALEXANDER C. Frick M.A., Litt. D., Ph Attendance, James D. SULLIVAN Bxaminations and Inspections, AVERY W. SKINNER B.A. Finance, Clark W. HALiipay ce : Law, Irwin Esmonp Ph.B. LL.B. Library Extension, WiLL1AM R. Watson B S : ‘School Buildings and Grounds, Frank H. Woop M.A. _ School Libraries, SHERMAN WILLIAMS iets AD), Visual Instruction, ALFrep W. Asxams Ph.B. | Vocational and Extension Education, Lewis A. WILson t LF aad t OT eerit i MOND Tt an ha a Ay Gate ANUNGY neh es The University of the State of New York State Museum, September II, 1922 Hon. Frank P. Graves President of the Umwversity SIR: I beg to communicate to you herewith and to recommend for print- ing as a bulletin of the State Museum, the manuscript and necessary illustrations for a report on the Magnetite Iron Deposits of South- eastern New York, which has been prepared at my request by Pro- fessor R. J. Colony of Columbia University. Very respectfully yours Joun M. CLARKE Director Approved for publication President of the University and _ Commissioner of Education [3] Naas) yi} a OT A a CI iy X i 2 Mi i i i ww 7) 3 Nem Hnpete re) tht ‘ oa - £ tise i? bs yrnroC E auiyous.) " Ae ot) ae oe oe i (1) INDEX Lower California mine Upper California Summit Tip-top Whitehead Sterling Lake “ “ “c “ “ “ (2) MAP /0 { Crossway mine “ec Mountain Smith Long Scott Cook Augusta “ Miles Red-back mine Morehead Bering Mombasha O'Neill Forshee Clove “ Key to Index Map (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) } Bull mine Forest of Dean Rattlesnake Wetherby Tower Crawford Brennan “ (15) (16) Steele mine { Raynor “c 4 Standish “ { Parrott ce mine Stewart (Sunk) “ eee (17) 4 Sackett Pratt Denny (18) Canopus (19) Croft “ “ “ (20) Todd mine (21) Mahopac (22) Tilly Foster (23) Brewster (24) Croton Magnetic (25) Clover Hill i > ww ae ae eR pest i - Pa} re ‘< on? 3 . L iN Lower California mine { Crossway mine Upper California “ | Mountain Summit a Smith er s (1) 3 Tip-top ‘s (2) 4 Long ef Whitehead zh Scott Magnetic “ Sterling ‘ Cook ill + Lake ss Augus’ New York State Museum Bulletin Entered as second-class matter November 27, 1915, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under the act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of post- age provided for in section 1103, act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 19, 1918 Published monthly by The University of the State of New York Nos. 249-250 ALBANY, N. Y. SEPTEMBER-OCTOBER, 1921 The University of the State of New York New York State Museum Joun M. CLarKE, Director THE MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK BNP IRS Ig QOILOIN. INTRODUCTION A belt of ancient crystalline rocks, complex in structure, origin and composition, extends in a general northeasterly direction from the Schuylkill river at Reading, Pa., across the northwestern corner of New Jersey and through southeastern New York, crossing the Hudson river diagonally between Fishkill and Peekskill into Putnam and Dutchess counties, New York, and extending from Putnam county eastward into the edge of Fairfield county, Connecticut, and southward across Westchester county to Manhattan island. This belt forms a part of the older Appalachians, and is known in southeastern New York and the contiguous portion of New Jersey,,. as Ihe Highlands. Included within it, in both New York and New Jersey, are bodies of magnetite of considerable commercial importance. It is the purpose of this bulletin to review briefly the history of the geology of the Highlands, to present a short descrip- tion of the general geologic setting of these magnetite bodies in southeastern New York, to speculate on the origin of them, and to describe the ore bodies themselves from a commercial and operative point of view. : | Location of the Ore Bodies Magnetite is a very common accessory mineral in the crystalline rocks which form the Highlands of southeastern New York, but the distribution of this mineral in the form of masses of commer- cially valuable ore is by no means uniform. The minable bodies of [5] 6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM € b) ore are confined to certain “ ore ranges” or belts which are sepa- rated by large areas of barren ground. In these “ore ranges,” or belts, mines have been opened in Orange county: (1) in the vicinity of Sterling Lake, (2) near Monroe, (3) near Warwick, (4) about 6 miles from Fort Montgomery; in Rockland county in the vicinity of Sloatsburg; in Putnam county: (1) seven miles east of Cold Spring, (2) at Travis Corners, (3) in Sprout Brook valley, about 1% miles west of Oscawana Corners, (4) in the vicinity of Brewster, (5) near Lake Mahopac; in Westchester county: (1) one-half of a mile southwest of Croton Falls, (2) 3 miles north of Peekskill. In the four counties mentioned over fifty openings have been made, ranging in size and importance from mere prospect pits to producing mines. Acknowledgments Through the kindness and cooperation of a number of people the progress of this investigation has been greatly facilitated and aid and information freely given. The writer desires to express his appreciation to the officials of the Ramapo Ore Company, and especially to Mr T. M. Williams, consulting engineer of the Sterling group of mines, to Mr Charles Rees, superintendent of the Ramapo Ore Company; and to Mr H. P. Sweeny, now superintendent of the same group, but formerly super- intendent of the Forest of Dean mine. These men have accorded the writer every possible courtesy and he has drawn freely on their knowledge and experience. It was the original intention to make this a joint bulletin by Mr D. H. Newland, formerly assistant state geologist, and the writer. Mr Newland’s retirement from state service placed the burden of the work on the writer, who is, however, grateful for the aid given by Mr Newland, and who has enjoyed his companionship on several occasions in the field. The writer is particularly fortunate in his associates, among whom are Professors James F. Kemp and Charles P. Berkey; he has greatly benefited from discussions and from their advice relative to various phases of the work and the never-failing interest exhibited by them in the various problems of origin and genetic relationship connected with the magnetite and its associated rock. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK Tl PARTI BRIEF HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF HIGHLAND GEOLOGY: AND THE MAGNETITE ORES The geology of the Highlands has been a subject of study and speculation for many years, partly because of the striking character and imposing grandeur of the scenery, partly because of the won- derfully complex nature of the rocks, and in no small degree because of the fascinating possibility of finding useful metals and minerals hidden in its formerly little-known fastnesses. Probably the earliest account of Highland geology was written by Samuel Akerly, who published in 1820 an essay of 69 pages on the geology of the Hudson river, illustrated by a geological cross section of the country from the neighborhood of Sandy Hook, N. J., north- ward through the Highlands in New York, toward the Catskill mountains. This was followed by a paper on the geology of the Highlands, written by Amos Eaton * who was connected with the military aca- demy at West Point. Eaton determined the “ middle portion” of the Highlands, for 5 miles north and south of Buttermilk falls, to be gneiss and granite, which were succeeded in a northerly and southerly direction by “ hornblende rock,” which in turn was suc- ceeded by “ transition argillite.” One of the most illuminating of the early studies is a paper by Vanuxem and Keating,? who describe the rocks associated with the zinc ores at Franklin Furnace, N. J. A correct description is given of the angular unconformity between the “ graywacke” (Hardy- ston quartzite) and the “Sienite” (Pochuck gneiss); the “blue limestone’’ is correctly determined as younger in age than the “ primitive limestone” (Franklin limestone). A cross section show- ing these relations adds interest to the paper. During the same year Pierce * mentioned iron mines that were being worked in the Pompton mountains of New Jersey, and described the rocks of the Highlands as granites and schists. The 1 Eaton, Amos. An Outline of the Geology of the Highlands, on the Hudson River. Am. Jour. Sci., 5 :231-35. 1822. 2 Vanuxem, Lardner, & Keating, W. H. On the Mineralogy of Franklin, in Sussex County, New Jersey. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. of Phila., v. 2, pt 1, p. 277-88. 1822. 3 Pierce, James. Geology, Mineralogy, Scenery etc. of the Highlands of New York and New Jersey. Am. Jour. Sci., 5:26. 1822. 8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM metamorphic minerals and the limestone at Franklin and at Sparta, N. J., were described by Thomas Nutall,* also in 1822. The first substantial contribution to the geology of the Highlands is a report by Mather ° on the geology of the first district, including an appendix by Dr William Horton on the Geology of Orange County, New York. Mather recognized the sarngllex character of the rocks he had to deal with, recording his impressions as follows: “although I have spent twelve years of my life in the midst of the region explored the past season, and although in the habit of spending most of my leisure during that time in unravelling its complicated geological phenomena, I feel that I have but begun to develop these facts that are of high importance, not only in scientific, but in economical geology.” (p. 71) _He discussed the occurrence, uses and local details of granite, gneiss, mica slate, quartz rock, talcose slate, limestone, “ sienite,” serpentine, steatite, augite rock and greenstone at some length, and in his description of the various magnetite bodies and the mines then in operation announced what is probably the earliest recorded opinion as to the origin of the magnetite. Thus, in referring to the “ Phillips vein,’ in Putnam county, he says: “ The phenomena of the mines in many places induce the idea of igneous injection, connected with a powerful upheaving force. The feldspar is often pearly, wrinkled, and with bent laminz. The appearance of hyalite, a mineral usually associated with vol- canic and trap rocks; the apparent injection in their veins among the seams and crevices of the rocks; the appearance of the softening of the gneiss and bending its layers like a flowing slag, seem to point to an igneous origin of this vein.’ (p. 114, footnote) In the appendix to this report Doctor Horton discussed the char- acter and distribution of the “ primitive’ and other rocks in Orange county; a list of the various iron mines in operation is given, and also a very complete statement of all the different minerals observed during his geological studies, and their localities. While Mather’s report contains much of interest and importance, it is somewhat incoherent and disconnected in the treatment of the geology of the Highlands as a whole. The first consecutive and 4 Nutall, Thomas. Observations and Geological Remarks on the Minerals of Paterson and the Valley of Sparta, New Jersey. Am. Jour. Sci., 5: 230. 1822. 5 Mather, W. W. Third Annual Report on the Geology of the First Geological District of the State of New York, 1830. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 9 detailed description of Highland geology appeared in a final report of the geology of New Jersey, by Henry D. Rogers,® who was then state geologist. In that portion of the report dealing with the primary rocks, the gneisses are described as folded and metamorphosed sediments, and the northeast-southwest ridges are judged to be anticlinal folds. He likewise speculated tentatively on the origin of the magnetites, which he conceived to have been derived from igneous sources. “ The several circumstances here spoken of in the structure of these metal- liferous veins, seem strongly to imply that they are real veins of injection, and not true beds, contemporaneous with the adjoining gneiss, as some have supposed.” (p. 22) Rogers further remarks that the gneiss inclosing the magnetite bodies was probably steeply dipping before the “intrusion”’ of the veins: “for it is inconceivable how a forcible injection of fluid ore could enter a series of beds, lying in a horizontal position, without in some cases causing and occupying fissures transverse to the strike of the strata.” (p. 36) He also observed that the ore is confined exclusively to the “ pri- mary’ (Precambrian) rocks and correctly concluded that the for- mation of the magnetite bodies preceded the deposition of the Paleo- zoic strata. In 1843 appeared those classic volumes issued by the State of New York, entitled “ Natural History of New York.” In part I of this series, comprising the “Geology of the First Geological District,” Mather,’ under the head of “ Metamorphic rocks,” described: “ such rocks of the first geological district as have not yet been described, and of which there is demonstrative evidence, or such as renders it highly probable, that they were originally sedimentary rocks but have since been altered in their character, so as to change them into such rocks as have usually been called primary.” (p. 439) He did not include in this class granite, gneiss, hornblendic gneiss, “sienite,” or the plutonic rocks generally; these he discussed in another chapter under the head “ Primitive rocks;” he did include, however, “ talcose slate” of Annsville and Gallows Hill (Hudson river phyllite) ; “granular quartz rock” (Poughquag quartzite), and the crystalline limestones of Putnam, Westchester, New York, Rock- land, and Orange counties, and concluded that the crystalline lime- 6 Rogers, Henry D. Final Report on the Geology of the State of New Jersey, p. 12-43. 1840. 7 Mather, W. W. Geology of the First Geological District, Natural History of New York, 1843. IO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM stones of Dutchess, Putnam, Westchester and New York counties are the metamorphosed equivalents of Cambro-Ordovician lime- stones: “After reviewing all the facts observed by others and myself, I have been led to the conclusion, that the limestones that are frequently crystalline, white and variegated marbles in the west- ern parts of Vermont, Massachusetts and Connecticut, and in the eastern part of New York, from Mount Washington to the “ City of New York . . . ARE METAMORPHIC ROCKS; that they were originally the Mohawk limestone and calciferous sandstone.’ (p. 464; italics are Mather’s.) This statement of Mather’s is probably the first recorded attempt to correlate the unmetamorphosed Cambro-Ordovician limestones (Wappinger) of the area just north of the Highlands with the highly metamorphosed, crystalline limestones of Putnam, Westchester and New York counties; an error in correlation that persists even to the present day. The 12 years succeeding the publication of Mather’s report were barren with respect to literature on the geology of the Highlands. In 1855, however, William Kitchell, who succeeded Rogers as state geologist of New Jersey, published his first annual report * in which the physical geography and the geology of Sussex county, New Jersey, is briefly discussed, and a few of the local occurrences of magnetite are described. He merely mentions the metamorphic rocks, calling them gneiss, hornblende slate and crystalline lime- stone, without further comment, and disposes of the igneous rocks just as briefly. Kitchell’s second report,? however, is much more comprehensive, especially with respect to the occurrence of the magnetite deposits and the description of the mines then in opera- tion. He did not speculate on the origin of the magnetite, but he did state very definitely that: “The geological formation of the highlands . . . is composed of sedimentary rocks e (that is, metamorphosed) which he divided into gneiss, various schists and crystalline limestone. In his third annual report *° Kitchell discussed the different ways in which magnetite ores occur in the district, and concluded that the magnetite ores were metamorphosed sediments, contemporaneous in origin with the rocks in which they occur. An opinion which 8 Kitchell, William. First Annual Report of the Geological Survey of New Jersey for 1854; p. 28-38, New Brunswick, 1855. 9 Kitchell, William. Second Annual Report of the Geological Survey of New Jersey for 1855; New Brunswick, 1856. 10 Kitchell, William. Third Annual Report of the Geological Survey of New Jersey for 1856; New Brunswick, 1857. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK II was very prevalent at that time, and one which has been subscribed to by most geologists who have followed Kitchell. The geological survey of New Jersey was discontinued at the beginning of 1857; from that time until its revival in 1864 geological work was at a standstill in that state. Nor is there any record of activity in Highland geology in the State of New York during that interval, with the exception of a short paper by Credner * which is devoted chiefly to a description of the geology of Manhattan island and vicinity. Credner, however, imagined that the rocks from Manhattan island to Peekskill and beyond were a transitional series, and thought he could trace the gradual changes from the “ gneiss ” (that is, the Manhattan schist) on Manhattan island, to hornblende gneiss, hornblende schist, to syenite, and “ hypersthenite.”’ No such gradations exist, nor was Credner’s work ever taken very seriously by American geologists. The legislature of the state of New Jersey made the necessary appropriations for the continuance of the survey in 1864, and in 1868 the final report of Dr George H. Cook,’ the state geologist, was published. A considerable portion of this report is devoted to a description of the magnetite mines of the state. Doctor Cook drew largely on the previous work of Kitchell and quoted him at length. He agreed with Kitchell that: “ . . . everything in structure, position, and attendant minerals, shows that the ore is in sedimen- tary beds, the same as the gneiss is.” (p. 533) There is, however, in this report, a much better and more sys- tematic discussion of the geology of the “Azoic formation” (Pre- cambrian crystallines) of the Highlands area than had heretofore appeared, and mention is made of folds which affected the ore beds in some of the mines. Most of the succeeding work on the Highlands geology from this time centered on the magnetite deposits. The sedimentary origin of the ore beds was considered fully established by all geologists, so that their efforts were directed principally toward the recognition of some constant relation between the ore bodies and their containing rocks, and to detailed descriptions of the iron mines. The only new observation of moment is recorded in the Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey for 1872'* wherein Smock, the assistant state geologist, referring to prospecting opera- 11 Credner, Herman. Sa Skizze der Umgegend Von New York: Zeitschr. Deuts. Geol. Gesell., 388-08. 1865. 12 Cook, George H. The Gales of New Jersey; Newark, 1868. 13 Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey, 1872. I2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM tions which were being conducted near Hackettstown, says: “ Ore has been uncovered in many places, but in most instances it has been found as a constituent mineral of granitic and syenitic dykes — more rarely in gneissic strata.” (p. 17) Smock thought that while such rock masses might be closely related to ore beds, it was improbable that they would lead to beds or veins of commercial value; the significance of their occurrences totally escaped him, for, in the following year, in the report for 1873," he says: “ The greater portion of the Azoic rock is syenttic gneiss, being composed of crystalline grains of quartz, feldspar and hornblende, like syenite, and being stratified like a true gneiss” p. 17), and as to the origin of the rocks of this formation he says: “The rocks of this (Azoic) formation are now conceded by all geologists to be of sedimentary origin. They were originally de- posited from water as sand, earth, clay, shells, and corals or marls, and oxide of iron.” (p. 19) Very little of additional interest or importance was contributed to the literature on the geology of the Highlands until 1880; and indeed, so far as the Highland area in southeastern New York is concerned, a literary hiatus exists between Mather’s last report in 1843 and the Tenth Census report of 1880.° This report, covering both coal and iron, was issued by the Department of the Interior, and contains the results of “special investigations into the iron resources of the Republic.” B. T. Putnam was the author of that portion of the report dealing with the iron-ore mines of New York. Putnam con- fined himself to a discussion of the operation, production, location, quality of the ore and extent of workings of the mines then operating, with but brief reference to the forms of the ore bodies and the nature of their associated rocks. He did not speculate on the origin of the magnetites and did not discuss the general geology of the area in which they occur, as indeed this phase of the situation was beyond the scope of his paper. While the Tenth Census report bears the date of 1880 it did not see the light of day until 6 years later; in the meantime James D. Dana,*® who had been making a lengthy study of Green Mountain geology, extended his investigations into 14 Annual Report of the State Geologist of New Jersey for 1873. 15 Report on the Mining Industries of the United States. Tenth Census, 1880. The Tenth Census report was not published until 5 or 6 years after the census year, however. 16 Dana, James D. Geological Relations of the Limestone Belts of West- chester County, New York. Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 20: 21-32, 194-220, 450-56, 1880. Idem. 21: 425-43, 1881, and 22: 103-19, 313-15, 327-35, and appendix, 1881. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK T3 Westchester and Putnam counties in southeastern New York, with the idea of determining the limits of the series of rocks associated conformably with the limestone of the Green Mountain region. Since the fossils of the limestone had been found only in Vermont, Dana, in order to extend his conclusions to the rest of the Green Mountain region, thought it necessary to prove that the Vermont limestone must be the same stratigraphically as the limestones of the region to the south. Dana spent over 2 years in the study of this area, nor were his studies confined to the limestones of the region; they embraced the gneisses and schists as well, and included a dis- sertation on the Cortlandt series of basic eruptives near Peekskill. His views are set forth in a series of papers entitled “ The Geological Relations of the Limestone Belts of Westchester County, New York,” appearing in the American Journal of Science during 1880 and 1881 (op. cit.). That so brilliant a geologist as Dana should arrive at such a remarkable conclusion with respect to the origin of the Cortlandt series, namely, “ They appear to sustain fully the following conclusions: “(1) These rocks, although they include soda-granite, noryte, augite-noryte, dioryte, hornblendyte, pyroxenyte, and chrysolitic kinds, are not independent igneous rocks erupted from great depths. “(2) However complete their former state of fusion or plasticity may have in some cases been, they are metamorphic in origin. “(3) The strata that underwent the metamorphism were one in series and conformability with the adjoining schists and limestone, and were part of the Westchester limestone series.” (op. cit., 20, p. 219), may have been due to preconceived conclusions overriding observed field relations. Dana evidently was somewhat doubtful of his own interpretation, however, for in a succeeding paper (op. cit. 22, p. 103-19) he again discussed this same series of igneous rocks and commented on three possible sources of the clastic material which he thought made up the “original beds” (p. 110): “ (1) detritus from the Archean highlands; (2) igneous eruptions, afford- ing volcanic or igneous débris, in addition to ejected liquid rock, and along with more or less Archean detritus; (3) detritus from the Highlands, supplemented by ingredients from the ocean.’ Con- cluding, finally, that after a survey of the facts, the massive structures and crystalline characters of the rocks of the Cortlandt series, and the presence among them of hornblendic and augitic kinds containing soda-lime feldspars, and of even olivine-bearing basic rocks, should not militate against his previous conclusion, IA : NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM namely, that the Cortlandt series of rocks were metamorphosed limestones. Dana *’ subsequently revised his opinion of the origin of some of these rocks, however. New and better exposures in a cut made through the rocks at Stony Point for the West Shore Railroad, then under construction, afforded opportunity for a more critical study. After inspecting the rocks thus exposed, Dana conceded that while the facts proved the hornblende rock and the related augite rock to be eruptive, they threw no new light on the origin of the soda granite. He had in the meantime completed his work on the lime- stones of Westchester county and after taking into consideration all the facts as they appealed to him, and which are so excellentiy pre- sented in the series of papers mentioned, felt justified in making the following statements (op. cit. 20, p. 371.): “ The limestones and adjoining schists of Westchester county: (1) are one in series and system of disturbance (this observation is correct, but his age-corre- lation is incorrect), (2) are probably part of the Green Mountain system, (3) are younger than the Highland Archean, (4) are prob- ably of the age of the Lower Silurian.” In support of the above statements Dana offered as evidence the condition and position of the slightly crystalline limestone and con- tiguous fine sericitic phyllite (Annsville phyllite) at the mouth of, and along Peekskill creek; he remarked that both rocks are like the rocks of Dutchess county (Hudson River slates and Wappinger limestone), and unlike anything else found in the “ Highland Archean,” but he failed to recognize the fact that while the limestone and phyllite at Annsville are in truth Cambro-Ordovician sediments, they represent an infaulted block of these sediments and should not have been connected with the highly metamorphosed crystalline limestone and schists of the Highlands area at all. Dana thus confirmed Mather’s earlier opinion in regard to the age of the crystalline limestones and the schists of the Highlands area in southeastern New York, the weight of his authority inducing other workers in the same field to accept his views ** which were not questioned until Berkey * in 1907 first called attention to the infaulted block of Cambro-Ordovician sediments in the Highlands complex in the vicinity of Peekskill, and suggested that field relations 17 Dana, James D. Note on the Cortlandt and ue Point Hornblendic and Augitic Rock. Am. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 28: 384-86. 1884. 18 See especially New York City Folio 83, WNSWGHS: 19 Berkey. C. P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the Highlands. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107. 1907. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 15 seemed to indicate that the crystalline limestones and schists of the Highlands might be Precambrian in age, and that they were not necessarily the highly metamorphosed equivalents of Cambro- Ordovician rocks at all. During the years 1883 to 1886 the Geological Survey of the State of New Jersey 2° undertock a systematic study of the geology of the Highlands region within the borders of that state. In the annual report for 1883 the facts then known were assembled and summar- ized as an introduction to the more extensive and detailed studies which were made later by F. J. H. Merrill and N. L. Britton. In this report the geographical extent, surface features and rocks of the Highlands of New Jersey are rather briefly described, but the structure is discussed at some length, the authors referring particu- larly to dip, strike, pitch, folds and faults, and mentioning in con- nection with the ore, such structures as pinches, shoots, bottom rock and cap rock. The authors accept a hydroclastic origin for the magnetites, however, as it is stated (p. 35) that “the magnetic iron-ore beds partake with the associated gneissic strata of all the essential and accidental features or elements belonging to stratified rocks. They possess dip, strike and pitch, and are folded, faulted and pinched as other rocks about them. Lamination, cleavage and jointing are also observed, though much more rarely. Hence, when viewed in connection with the associated stratified rocks, the con- clusion is unavoidable that they were deposited as sediments and are of the same age with them.” Britton and Merrill struggled with the complexities of Highlands geology for the succeeding two years without adding much to the knowledge of it. In the report for 1885 they classified all the crystalline rocks of the Highlands area as Archean, but were unable to make any further subdivisions. The ores were regarded as of sedimentary origin and contemporaneous with the inclosing gneisses. In order to explain the presence of hornblende, pyroxene, biotite, epidote, apatite and other like minerals in the ore bodies it was conceived that ‘“ considerable segregation’ accompanied the meta- morphosing processes, with “intense chemical action” during the formation of the magnetite. Doctor Britton continued the work during the following year, and for purposes of classification divided the rocks into (1) a massive group, in which he included those massive types with little ———— 20 Annual Report of the State Geologist for 1883, p. 27-77. Idem 1884, p. 57-60; 1885, p. 36-55; 1886, p. 70-112. 16 : NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM apparent “bedding,” but which showed a “lamination or parallel arrangement of the crystals indicative of some phase of sedimentary origin”; and (2) an iron-bearing group, in which he placed the various types of rock more or less closely associated with the iron- ore; and finally, (3) a gneissic and schistose group, in which he included the rocks with distinctly banded and foliated habits. A detailed discussion of the various groups and of their structure, with notes on the lithology, is included in this report, which is well illustrated with cross sections, maps and diagrams. The magnetite mines of southeastern New York had never been so carefully studied or so well described as those in the Highlands of New Jersey, although several were in successful operation. Wendt’s ?* brief description of the mines of Putnam county, New York drew some attention to the district, and it was about this time also that the Tenth Census report, previously referred to, appeared in print. Wendt ** discussed the general characters of the ores, the methods of mining and the production, and gave outline diagrams of both the Mahopac and Tilly Foster ore bodies, showing the offset in the latter at the 110-foot level produced by faulting,?* but beyond a statement that “ geologically the occurrence of the ore is a counter- part of that of the New Jersey and Lake Champlain magnetites,” no hypothesis as to origin was ventured. Ruttman,”* however, was very much more specific in his statement, for he said, “ The ore- body at Tilly Foster is without doubt a bed, the ore having been deposited, whatever its original state, simultaneously with the strata of gneiss which form a large part of the surface rock of Putnam county” (p. 80), and a mental picture of the processes operating to produce such a deposit was not lacking, for “ This ore-sediment was probably derived from preceding formations and carried in mechanical suspension by streams or torrents, into a basin or depres- sion of the rock-sediment formed just previously, the deposit of ore being then covered by layer on layer of rock-sediment until, by accumulated pressure and heat, the rock-sediment was changed to a 21 Wendt, A. F. The Iron Mines of Putnam County, New York. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., v. 13. 1885. 22 Op. cit. | 23 Major T. B. Brooks first suggested this structure. See Tenth Census Report, 1880, p. 103, footnote. Putnam suggested as an alternative explanation that the ore body of the Tilly Foster might be concentrated along the axis of a compressed and over- turned anticlinal fold pitching northeasterly and possibly faulted on the line Olmtlisnass 24Ruttman, F. S. Notes on the Geology of the Tilly Foster Ore Body, Putnam County, New York. Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., v. 15. 1887. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 17 gneiss, and the ore, through successive stages, to magnetite’ (p. 80). The structure of the ore body is very well described and the paper is well illustrated with diagrams of horizontal and vertical sections of the ore body at different levels of the mine. It was during this period that Williams *° began his now famous petrographic studies of the rocks near Peekskill which were earlier called the Cortlandt series by Dana. Williams proved conclusively the igneous origin of these rocks and in his final paper *° gave a carefully illustrated and convincing account of the contact- metamorphism produced in the adjoining schists and limestones by the intrusion of the massive igneous rocks. During the field work of the New Jersey survey in 1885, Doctor Britton found what appeared to be an extension of the Cortlandt series on the west side of the Hudson river, not far from Stony Point. This was later brought to the attention of J. F. Kemp,” who studied this occurrence and connected the rocks with the eruptives on the east side of the river. Doctor Britton extended his field work into southeastern New York as an aid to a better under- standing of his problem in the New Jersey Highlands. As a result of his studies he concluded that the micaceous schists and crystalline limestones of Westchester county were incorrectly classified by Dana as the metamorphosed equivalents of Cambro- Ordovician sediments, for, in a paper which appeared in the School of Mines Quarterly * this very definite statement appears: ‘‘ There are doubtless some basins of more or less altered Paleozoic rocks in the northern part of the county (Westchester), but by far the greater portion of the rocks are unquestionably Upper Archean.” (p. 38) Merrill, who was associated with Doctor Britton in the study of the rocks of the New Jersey Highlands and in the pre- liminary examination of the Hudson River section, subsequently made a more extended study of the latter, corroborated the general results of Doctor Britton’s work in New Jersey, but took issue with him on the age of the crystalline limestones and schists of Putnam, Westchester and New York counties. While Merrill 2° 25 Williams, G. H. Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser. 31: 26-41, 1886; 33: 135-43, and 191-99, 1887; 35: 438-48, 1888; 36: 254-69. 1888. 76 Op. cit., 36, p. 254-69. 1888 27 Kemp, J. F. On the Rosetown Extension of the Cortlandt Series. Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 36: 247-53. 1888. 28 Britton, N. L. On Recent Field Work in the Archean Areas of Northern New Jersey and Southeastern New York. School of Mines Quar- terly, 9: 33-39. 1887-88. 29 Merrill, F. J. zd On the Metamorphic Strata of Southeastern New York. Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 39: 382-92. 1890. 18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM was not able to contribute any very positive information on this important question he concluded that “All the suggestive evidence, however, favors the view taken by Prof. W. W. Mather and subse- quently elaborated by Prof. J. D. Dana, viz: that the rocks of the Manhattan group (Merrill presumably includes equivalent types in Westchester and Putnam counties) are the metamorphosed equiva- lents of the Paleozoic beds of southern Dutchess county.” (p. 391) Merrill was unable to find an unconformable contact between the rocks of the Manhattan group and the underlying Precambrian crystallines, which was the chief factor of doubt in his conclusions. Later work *° did not cause him to alter his opinion, for he inferred, from the relation of the quartzite, limestone and schist of Westchester county to the underlying gneiss, that the crystalline limestone of Westchester county was equivalent to the limestone of Dutchess county (the Wappinger limestone), the age of which had “been satisfactorily established by the work of Dwight, Dana and others to be calciferous-Trenton.” By analogy the schist and “micaceous gneiss” overlying the crystalline limestones were cor- related with the Hudson River group in New York county, which Merrill had already determined to be the metamorphosed equivalents of the Cambro-Ordovician sediments of Dutchess county. Merrill was convinced of the correctness of his determinations of the age relations of these rocks, and six years later ** described them and mapped them as metamorphosed Cambrian, Cambro-Ordovician and Silurian sediments. This view is still maintained by some geologists at the present time, although Berkey,*? in connection with some of his studies of the geology of the Highlands of southeastern New York, while recognizing the age relations to be a question of great complexity and considerable difference of opinion, concluded that these rocks were not the metamorphosed equivalents of Cambro- Ordovician sediments, but instead were Precambrian in age. The differences of opinion have been due in part to the failure of other workers in this field to recognize the significance of the great structural breaks of the region. In his description of the complex faulting Berkey stated: “The net result is a preservation of representatives of the later group of formations (Cambro-Siluric) 30 Merrill, F. J. H. The Geology of the Crystalline Rocks of South- eastern New York. N. Y. State Mus. Annual Rep’t 50. 1806. 31 Frederick J. H. Merrill on the Metamorphic Crystalline Rock. New Worle (City IROIO 8}, We Ss Co Sod) woo, 82 Berkey, C. P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the Highlands. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107, p. 361-78. 1907. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 19 along this fault line. This is especially successful on the margin of the down-faulted block, so that, in Peekskill Creek valley and the next small valley to the southeast, these formations may be seen. But because of the oversight of this profound structural break, the identification of the formations of this district has been confused with the older group.” Additional valuable contributions to the geology of this region appear in later New York State Museum Bulletins.” The State of New York began to manifest some interest in the iron ore deposits within its borders with the publication of the Tenth Census report, and in the summer of 1888 work was begun on the preparation of a report on the iron mines and iron ore dis- tricts of the State. The report ** was published the following year. But nine pages are devoted to very brief descriptions of the magnetite mines in operation in southeastern New York, while those not in operation are dismissed with a paragraph or two. In 1880 there were twenty-six mines in operation in Orange and Putnam counties, New York, with a total output of 184,187 tons. During the succeeding 8 years all but four of the mines were abandoned so that when Smock’s report appeared the only producing mines in south- eastern New York were those operated by the Sterling Iron and Railway Co., the Forest of Dean Iron Co., the Mahopac Iron Ore Co., and the Tilly Foster Iron mine. Until the papers by Wendt * and by Ruttman,*® already referred to, were published, no adequate description of the magnetite ore bodies of southeastern New York had ever been written; indeed, there is a singular dearth of litera- ture descriptive of the magnetite bodies in this area. Ries *’ described very briefly the magnetic ore deposits in Orange county but offered no comment as to the origin of the ore. His observa- tions on the Highland area of the county are equally brief and “ are to be considered as merely preliminary and in the nature of a reconnaissance.” But little has been added to our knowledge of the magnetite ores of Orange county since that time. Five years later 83 Berkey, C. P. and Marion Rice. The Geology of the West Point Quad- rangle. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 225-226. The Geology of the Newburgh Quadrangle, by Charles P. Berkey and Florrie Holzwasser. (Prepared) 84 Smock, J. C. First Report on the Iron Mines and Iron Ore Districts in the State of New York. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. June 7, 1880. Idem, Review of the Iron Mining Industry of New York for the Past Decade. Trans. A. I. M. E. v. 17. 1888-80. 35 Wendt, A. F. The Iron Mines of Putnam County, New York. Trans. A. I. M. E, v. 13. 1884-85. 36 Ruttman, F. S. Notes on the Geology of the Tilly Foster Ore body, Putnam County, New York. Trans. A. I. M. E. v. 15, 1886-87. 87 Ries, Heinrich. Report on the Geology of Orange County. Report of the State Geologist, New York, p. 395-476. 1805. 20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Landis ** briefly described the methods then employed in operating the Tilly Foster mine, but contributed nothing new to the existing knowledge of the geology of the deposit. Eight years more elapsed before any additional work was done on these ore bodies. Stewart *° then attacked the problem in a different way, making use of petro- graphic methods in an effort to determine the character and origin of the ores. Stewart described two belts of magnetite in Putnam county, one lying along Canopus creek, the other lying along Sprout brook. The Canopus creek group consisted of the Canada, Sunk, Pratt, Sacket, Denny and Nelson mines, and the Sprout brook group consisted of the Croft and the Todd mines. Brief petro- graphic descriptions of the wall rocks of these mines are given, but Stewart was unable to arrive at any satisfactory conclusions as to the origin of either the ores or the associated gneisses. He apparently favored a sedimentary origin for the Canopus Creek group, as he stated (p. 293) that it “has no features that can not be accounted for by considering it a metamorphosed bed of magnetite sand.” And this, notwithstanding the associated coarse feldspathic granite cut by veins of magnetite and marked evidence of syntexis immediately adjacent to and connected with the ore bodies! The Sprout Brook group, according to Stewart, “suggests replacement of a limestone lens, possibly connected with the action of an acid intrusive’ (p. 293), but the uncertainty that he felt with regard to the genesis of these deposits is expressed as follows: “It seems probable that the Precambrian magnetite ores, although resembling each other in shape and having in a large way similar associations, are of various origins. In a complex series of sediments abundantly injected with many kinds of intrusives and afterwards intensely metamorphosed, it is but reasonable to suppose that sedimentation, segregation, chemical precipitation, replacement and contact action have all done, in various places, some work in concentrating so widely distributed a metal as iron.”’ (p. 294) A short paper by Stoltz * descriptive of the equipment and method of operation of the Forest of Dean mine in Orange county, and a very creditable paper by Koeberlin * on the region in the vicinity of 88 Landis, Edward K. The Tilly Foster Mine. The Journal of the Frank- © jin Institute, v. CL, p. 223-26. 1900. 39 Stewart, A. C. The Magnetite Belts of Putnam County, N. Y. The School of Mines Quarterly, 29: 283-94. 1008. 40 Stoltz, G. C. The Forest of Dean Iron Mine, New York. Eng. and Min. Jour. 85: 1091-93. 1908. 41 Koeberlin, F. R. The Brewster Iron-bearing District of New York. Economic Geology, 4: 713-54. 1900. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 2I Brewster, Putnam county, seem to close the record of activity in the study of the magnetite deposits of southeastern New York. Koeberlin first appreciated the significance of the character of the minerals associated with the ore in the Tilly Foster mine, and first recognized the similarity in origin between the Tilly Foster and the Mahopac ore bodies. He correctly described these as deposits formed by the replacement of an original body of interbedded lime- stone: “It seems probable in the light of these facts that the chondrodite-bearing limestone found associated with the ore is what remains of an original body of interbedded limestone. This lime- stone was subjected to contact metamorphic action by the intrusion of an igneous magma, which was probably either granitic or syenitic, as both these rocks outcrop in the neighborhood. . . . The intimate association of these two minerals (chondrodite and spinel) with the magnetite, precludes the possibility of a sedimentary origin.” (p. 749-50) In the contiguous territory of New Jersey the study of the prob- lems involved in the complex geology of the Highlands was actively prosecuted. Until 1889 most geologists of the time were convinced of the sedimentary origin of both the gneisses and the associated iron ores, but Nason ** at this time first threw doubt on the correct- ness of the view that all the rocks of the Highlands are meta- morphosed sediments. He questioned the value of the subdivision of the crystalline rocks into three groups by Britton, and although he suggested a division of these rocks into types dependent on mineralogical and structural features, he found difficulty in classify- ing the Archean rocks in the then existing state of knowledge. Nason suggested that the greater part, if not the whole of the Archean might prove after all to be eruptive, and conceived that the schistose and foliated structures might have been caused by pressure or shear- ing. These views did not receive much support, however, until nearly 15 years later, and they were rejected subsequently by Nason himself. In the meantime the origin of the magnetites received less attention, the geological work trending in other directions. Among the more important papers published during this interval were Correlation Papers, by Van Hise,** in which an excellent summary of New Jersey geology provides a fair estimate of the knowledge of 42 Nason, F. L. Geological Studies of the Archean Rocks. Annual Rep’t State Geol. Geol. Surv. N. J., p. 12-72. 1880. 48 Van Hise, C. R. Correlation Papers. Archean and Algonkian. U. S. G. S. Bul. 86, p. 414-15. 1802. 22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the geology of the Highlands in 1891; a report by Wolff ** on the Archean geology, in which he recorded attempts to unravel the structure and origin of the gneisses at Hibernia by using a horizon | marker sufficiently characteristic to enable him to trace it for con- siderable distances. Wolff used a phase of the gneiss composed of quartz, feldspar, biotite, garnet, magnetite and often graphite, which weathered to a deep red color. He favored “an origin for the series from a previous bedded series by metamorphism and re-crystallization which took place contemporaneously with the folding and without fusion” (p. 369), thus arguing a like origin for the associated magnetites; a paper by Nason *’ in which he described the folded structure of the ore bodies in the Ringwood mines, and, having apparently abandoned his earlier suggestion as to the possible igneous origin of the ores, very definitely stated that “no beds of iron-ore have been observed to cut across the plane of bedding as they would do in case of their secondary origin, either from their being of eruptive origin (an idea now obsolete), or from having been deposited in veins or fissures of fractures.” (p. 508) Belonging to this period also is a paper by Westgate *° who studied the gneisses of Jenny Jump mountain and found them to be massive granitoid rocks with an absence of crumpling and contortion, and with no well-defined schistosity. He found no evidence that these rocks had ever been folded and found it impossible to connect the different belts with one another except by “inventing ’’ synclines or anticlines in order to explain the recurrence of the belts, which he felt was useless, since the observed facts failed to support any such theory. Westgate found no evidence in proof of the detrital origin of the lighter colored feldspathic varieties of the gneiss, but on the con- trary stated that the massive character of the granitoid gneiss suggested an igneous origin. At the northern end of the mountain, however, hornblendic and micaceous gneiss and quartz pyroxene | rock occur associated with the limestone and apparently interbedded with it; he believed these to be metamorphosed sediments. Westgate made a very thorough study of the crystalline lime- stone associated with the gneisses. There was at that time a 44 Wolff, J. E. The Geological Structure in the Vicinity of Hibernia, New Jersey, and Its Relation to the Ore Deposits. Annual Rep’t State Geol. Geol. Surv. N. J., p. 359-69.’ 1893. 45 Nason, F. L. The Geological Structure of the Ringwood Iron Mines, New Jersey. Trans. A. I. M. E. 24: 505-21. 1804. 46 Westgate, L. G. The Geology of the Northern Part of Jenny Jump Mountain, in Warren County, New Jersey. Annual Rep’t State Geol. Geol. Surv. N. J., p. 21-62. 1895. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 23 difference of opinion concerning the age of the crystalline limestones associated with the gneisses in Sussex county. Wanuxem and Keat- ing,*’ Kitchell,**® Cook,*® Britton,°° Dana,” and Williams,’* believed the crystalline limestone to be Precambrian in age and not related to the blue Cambrian limestone of the Kittatinny valley, whereas Rogers °° and Nason “* declared the crystalline limestones of Sussex county to be metamorphosed Cambrian blue limestones. Kemp and Hollick °° described the northward extension of this belt of closely involved blue and white limestone and concluded that the white crystalline limestone of Orange county, New York, and that of Sussex county, N. J., were equivalent and both were metamorphosed blue Cambrian limestone. Westgate,°° however, believed that the crystalline limestone of Jenny Jump Mountain was distinct from and older than the blue Cambrian limestone; his conclusions were substantiated and the age of the white crystalline limestones definitely proved to be Precambrian by the very careful work of Wolff and Brooks *’ who recognized fault-relations and realized that “the white limestone was faulted over and against the blue” (p. 446). A very careful study of the structural features of the gneisses of the Highlands of New Jersey convinced Spencer °° of their igneous origin. Spencer recognized three types of gneisses ; two of these are intrusive into the limestone, and the third, while not found intruding the limestone, was thought to be intrusive into the other two gneisses. Pegmatite was found 47 Vanuxem, Lardner, and Keating, W. H. On the Geology and Minera- logy of Franklin, in Sussex County, N. J. Jour. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., v. 2, pt I, p. 277-88. 1822. 48 Kitchell, William. Second Annual Report of the Geological Survey of New Jersey, for 1855. 49 Cook, G. H. The Geology of New Jersey, Newark, 1868; idem, Annual Rep’t State Geol. N. J., 1873, p. 18-19; idem, Annual Rep’t State Geol. N. J., 18835D. 27-77. 50 Ann. Rep’t State Geol. N. J., 1885, p. 36-55, and 1886, p. 74-112. 51 Dana, James D. Amer. Jour. Sci., 3d ser. 42: 70-72, I8ot. 52 Williams, H. S. Amer. Jour: Sci, 3d ser. 47: 401-2. 1804. 53 Rogers, H. D. A Final Report on the Geology of the State of New Jersey, p. 12-22, 36. 1840 54 Nason, F. iby Aaa Rep’t State Geol. N. J., p. 31, 1889; idem, Annual Rep’t State Geol. N. J., p. 25-50, 18900; idem, Amer. Geol. 14: 163. 1894. 55Kemp, J. F., & Hollick, Arthur. The ‘Granite at Mounts Adam and Eve, Warwick, Orange Co., N. Y. and Its Contact Phenomena. Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci. 7: 638-54. 1892-04. 56 Westgate, L. G. The Geology of the Northern part of Jenny Jump Mountain, in Warren County, New Jersey. Annual Rep’t State Geol., Geol. SAV. ING Joy SDs AO) Llskors, 57 Wolff, i E. & Brooks, A. H. 18th Annual Rept U. S. G. S., pt II, 1896-07 ; Washington, 1898; p. 425-57. 58 Spencer, A. C. Annual Rep't State Geol. N. J. for 10904, p. 161-86, 247-53. Also Mining Magazine, v. 10. 1904. 24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cutting all the other rocks, and magnetite closely associated with it. Spencer thought the streaked and foliated structure of the gneisses to be original, due to flowage while the rocks were not completely consolidated. He concluded the magnetites to be likewise of igneous origin and to be connected with the invasion of the pegmatites. “Instead of being bog ores, or carbonates deposited in sedimentary rocks and later changed to magnetite by metamorphism, as formerly suggested, they have been apparently introduced as products of igneous activity. The process suggested, however, must not be con- fused with magmatic differentiation as commonly understood.” ” Since the pegmatites are generally thought to have been formed by the crystallization of silicate minerals from what must have been essentially an aqueo-igneous solution, and since the magnetites are closely associated with the pegmatites, Spencer conceived that the magnetite ore bodies must likewise be related to end-phase con- solidation processes. ‘‘ The process is not regarded as one of mere separation and bunching of dark silicates and magnetite within masses of crystalline rock originally containing the required elements in the necessary proportion ; but it is conceived that the accretion of certain substances, such as the iron oxide, was brought about by the addition of material dissolved in magmatic waters which permeated and moved through the pasty pegmatites as long as they were in an unconsolidated condition.” (op. cit.) There is thus here recorded a new conception of the origin of the magnetite which seems to be much more in accordance with field relations and occurrences than the older ideas of previous workers in this area. Four years later, W. S. Bayley,°° in his description of the Pre- cambrian geology of the Passaic quadrangle, postulated an igneous origin for the Losee and Byram gneisses, and for part of the Pochuck gneiss (p. 5, op. cit.) ; but while concluding that the magnetite associated with the pegmatites was an essential part of the rock, and hence igneous, Bayley left the origin of the remaining ores in doubt. Thus, in discussing the magnetiferous phases of the Pochuck gneiss he remarks: “If the Pochuck is metamorphosed sedimentary material the masses of ore must also be a metamorphic product. It does not necessarily follow, however, that the iron must have been in the originalsediment!”)” <2) 2) he iron here may have been introduced by hot circulating solutions under conditions of igneous metamorphism. Whatever the origin of the ore, it 59 Mining Magazine, v. 10. 1004. 60 Folio 157, U. S. G. S., 1908. Also Folio 1, Geol. Atlas of N. J. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 25 appears to have been in such a condition that subsequent to its formation it was able to move as a mass and to a moderate extent invade the surrounding rocks in the form of small dikes or veins.” (op. cit., p. 24.). A. C. Spencer," who studied the Precambrian geology of the Franklin Furnace area likewise found it difficult to determine the exact origin of the magnetite, although an igneous origin is favored; in his discussion of the origin of the ore deposits Spencer states: “The ore deposits of the Highlands region offer in themselves no adequate clues for determining their origin, and the best that can be done in this direction is to assign the deposits to the most probable place in the geologic history of the Precambrian rocks. As the history of these old rocks is obscure, the genesis of the ores can be considered only in very general terms. . . . The magnetite ores of the Highlands are believed to have been formed by igneous processes connected with the invasion of the region by the granitoid rocks which are characteristic of the Precambrian area.” (p. 8.) Like Bayley, Spencer believed the Losee and Byram gneisses to be of igneous origin and considered the gneissic foliation to be an original structure in the invading rocks of the Precambrian com- plex. He believed that crystallization-differentiation would not only account for the difference in composition between the Losee, with sodic feldspar, and the Byram gneiss, whose feldspar is dominantly potassic, but would also provide for the production of metamorphism in the Pochuck gneiss and the Franklin limestone. The differentia- tion hypothesis, according to Spencer, also suggests a method by which notable deposits of iron and zinc ore have been segregated. It was about this time that Henry B. Kitimmel, state geologist of New Jersey, requested William S. Bayley to prepare a report cover- ing the entire history of the iron-mining industry in the state. The report,°* issued in 1910 as a volume of 500 pages, contains a review of all the literature pertaining to the subject and complete descriptions of all the ore bodies in the state. It is well illustrated with maps and diagrams, it contains good descriptions of the structural features of the gneisses and of the ore, and it is a valuable contribution to the general and to the economic geology of the Highlands region of New Jersey. With respect to the origin of the New Jersey magnetites Bayley says: “It is quite evident from the character of the different types of ore that they have all had the —_ 61 Folio 161, U. S. G. S., Franklin Furnace Quadrangle. 1908. Folio 2, Geol. Atlas of N. J., 1908. 62 Bayley, W. iS. Iron Mines and Mining in New Jersey, v. 7, of the Final Report Series of the State Geologist. Trenton, 1910. 26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM same origin. . . .In all cases the ores are regarded as being of magmatic origin — that is, the source of their material is thought to have been the deep-seated molten magmas, portions of which, upon being intruded into the overlying rocks, solidified as the various gneisses now constituting the principal rocks of the Highlands ridges. “After partial cooling of the gneisses these were in turn intruded by ferruginous portions of the same magma that gave them birth, and these intrusions were later enriched by iron-bearing solutions or vapors originating in the same subterranean source. In their transit to the surface these solutions or vapors deposited addi- tional magnetite in the intruded ferruginous rocks and made the ore lenses that now comprise the ore bodies.” Thus the time-honored conception of a sedimentary origin for both the gneisses and the magnetite of the Highlands of New Jersey was gradually displaced by theories involving magmatic sources for the ore and its associated rocks. About two years previous to this time Charles P. Berkey encountered two or three occurrences of typical granite on the north- east side of the basic eruptives near Peekskill, known as the Cortlandt series. From their consanguinity, shown by their high soda content, and their field relationship Berkey *’ concluded that this granite, which he called the Peekskill granite, represented the acid differentiate of the basic eruptives, which therefore exhibit a greater varietal range than had formerly been supposed. Rogers °* subsequently restudied this extremely interesting group of igneous rocks °° giving, in a very creditable paper, a general idea of the rocks as a whole and the deposits of economic value con- nected with them. Berkey was engaged at this time in an exhaustive study of the geology of the Highlands and the region both to the south and to the northwest in connection with the exploratory work being conducted by the Board of Water Supply of New York City. Much of this work has not been assembled for publication until recently, but some expressions of it appeared from time to time. He was one of the first geologists to recognize the existence of profound 63 Berkey, C. P. The Acid Extreme of the Cortlandt Series near Peeks- kal ING VG YSewaee, ING Sy Asoe7/s, weeks, 64 Rogers, G. S. Ceolony of the Cortlandt Series and Its Emery Deposits. AnnalsyN. Vo Acad) Sct. 2111 Son rom, 65 William H. Hobbs described the northeastern extensions of this series, in Connecticut; see Festschrift Zum siebzigsten Geburtstage von Heinrich kosenbusch, p. 25, Stuttgart, 1908. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 27 structural breaks in the Precambrian rocks of the Highlands °° and to detect the presence of infaulted blocks of Cambro-Ordovician sediments in the crystallines of the Precambrian. By an agreement effected between the Board of Water Supply of the city of New York and Dr John M. Clarke, the state geologist, the geologic data acquired in the preliminary and final surveys for the aqueduct were intrusted to Doctor Berkey for summation,® the data appearing in a bulletin of the State Museum. Not only is this bulletin a scientific record of very accurate observations, but also an illustration of the application of geology to engineering problems and a manual of great educational value. The unusual difficulties encountered in making the exploratory borings preparatory to constructing the pressure tunnel under the Hudson river from Storm King mountain on the west bank of the river to Breakneck mountain on the east are excellently described by Kemp*? who was associated with Doctor Berkey in the geological work on the aqueduct. The peculiar rock conditions found when the tunnel was finally con- structed (“popping rock,” p. 5) are described, as well as other features of much interest. In a paper presented to the Eleventh International Geological Congress in 1910, Professor Kemp “ discussed the correlation of the belts of crystalline limestone and schist extending from New York City to the Highlands, a distance of over 40 miles, with the Hudson River slates and the Wappinger limestone, regarded by Mather, Dana, and Merrill as the unmetamorphosed equivalents of the south- ern crystallines. Kemp remarks: There is indeed a striking parallelism between the two. Thus on the south of the Highlands, which form a ridge of the oldest rocks of this section and which cross the river from northeast to southwest, we find a very heavy development of mica-schist, resting conformably on a thick stratum of dolo- 66 Berkey, C. P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of Basal Gneisses of the Highlands. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107, 1907; idem, Prominent Struc- ture of the Northern Margin of the Highlands; Abstract, Annals N. Y. AMEBL, SS Ais AiO, iu@uz, 67 Berkey, C. P. Geology of the New York City (Catskill) Aqueduct. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 146. 1011. 68 The problems of special interest involving structural and other condi- tions in various localities in the Highlands are: Pagenstechers gorge and Storm King mountain, ch. VIII; Hudson River Crossing, ch. II-III; rock conditions at Foundry Brook, ch. IX; geology of Sprout Brook, ch. X; and Peekskill Creek valley, ch. XI. 69 Kemp, J. F. The Storm King Crossing of the Hudson River by the New Catskill Aqueduct of New York City. Amer. Jour. Sci. (4), v. 34: 1-11. 1912. 70 Kemp, J. F. Precambrian Formations in the State of New York: Con- gres Géologique Internationale, Comptes Rendus 11, 1910, p. 699-719. Stock- holm, 1912. 28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM mitic marbles. North of the Highlands there is a great thickness of slates, good raw materials from which to produce mica-schists by metamorphism. The slates rest upon a heavy stratum of blue magnesian limestone, the Wap- pinger, well adapted to yield dolomitic marbles under metamorphism. Only a poor representative of the Poughquag quartzite could be found beneath the marbles on the south side, but a quartzitic rock was noted by Doctor Merrill and called the Lowerre, from a suburb of New York City. This interpretation for which there was indeed much reason, was. generally accepted for the Manhattan schist and the Inwood limestone and was used in the New York City folio (Folio 83) of the U. S. Geological Survey. The crucial point arises, however, when we endeavor to trace the belts along the valleys from the south respectively into the Wappinger limestone and Hudson River slates on the north. In applying this test C. P. Berkey found himself not only unable to make out the transition but confronted with undoubted faulted relations of the Paleozoic with Manhattan schist and the Inwood marble on the south. An equivalent of the two sets seemed so improbable that a different view was advanced. The schist and marble were referred to a Precambrian group of sediments, which, however, were of late Precambrian age. This view is further corroborated by the fact that the Poughquag quartzite displays 600 feet of section on the north side of the Highlands whereas 20 miles to the south there is no satisfactory equiva- lent. It is also true that the Manhattan schist is a much more extreme case of metamorphism than is any representative of the Hudson River slates in Massachusetts or Vermont. (p. 705-6) Berkey’s interpretation, which is undoubtedly correct, is so diametrically opposed to the older views that the writer has felt constrained to quote at length from Professor Kemp’s paper. The Precambrian sediments in the contiguous territory of New Jersey were studied by Bayley,” who showed that the Franklin limestone is only one member of a series of Precambrian sediments which consists, in addition to the limestone, of quartzites, con- glomerates, slates and micaceous and graphitic schists, some of which are so thoroughly metamorphosed that their original clastic character is greatly obscured. The recognition of this series, which may tentatively be referred to the Grenville, and the realization that these rocks were highly metamorphosed, folded and strongly foliated before the invasion of the igneous masses called Pochuck, Losee and Byram gneisses by the New Jersey geologists, and the Storm King granite, Cat Hill granite, Canada Hill granite, Reservoir granite and Mahopac granite by Berkey “ was an important step toward the final untangling of the complexities of Highlands geology. 71 Bayley, W. S. The Precambrian Sedimentary Rocks in the Highlands of New Jersey. Congres Géologué Internationale Comptes Rendus 12, 1913, p. 325-34. Ottawa, I914. 72 Berkey, 'C. P. Geology of the New York City Aqueduct, N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 146. ro11. Also Berkey, C. P., & Rice, Marion, Geology of the West Point Quadrangle; State Mus. Bul. 225-226. Berkey earlier (10907) recognized the old series of Precambrian sediments in the Highlands of south- eastern New York. See N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107, Structural and Strati- graphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the Highlands. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 29 Fenner,’* as a result of his study of certain of the gneisses in the Highlands of New Jersey attached much importance to the con- trolling influence exerted by the structures in the Precambrian sedi- ments: “Evidence is given leading to the belief that the structures at this locality (northern New Jersey) can not well be attributed to the squeezing-out of a partly differentiated magma or to the shearing and recrystallization of a solidified rock, but that their origin must be looked for in a process involving the injection of a thinly fluid granitic magma between the layers of an original rock of laminated structure. . . . The observed relations are very similar to those which French geologists have described under the name of Iit-par-lit injection, and the mode of operation is believed to have been essentially the same.” (p. 701-2) But while Bayley, in his discussion of the Precambrian geology of the Raritan, N. J., quadrangle states: ‘The light-colored granitoid gneisses are undoubtedly of igneous origin. . . . Large amounts of preexisting rock material may have been more or less completely dissolved and assimilated by the invading magmas and some of the peculiar phases of the gneisses may be due to this fact. The portions of the Pochuck gneiss older than the other gneisses may be igneous rocks into which the later gneisses were intruded, or they may be old sedimentary rocks entirely recrystallized through the influence of the Losee and Byram magmas”’ (p. 5), no specific statement involving lit-par-lit injection is made, although 6 years earlier Spencer ‘° concluded that in the case of the dark gneisses the “ interlayering ” of the granitoid material was so regular that some structural control must have been necessary. Bayley (in Folio 191) describes the structural features of the Highlands with some care; these structures are illustrated in cross-sections which show the great fault which separates the Precambrian rocks of the Highlands from the later rocks on the southeast side. The main structural features of the area are a series of northeast-southwest folds parallel to the general Appalachian structure, two series of great faults trending in the same direction, and a series of shallow cross-folds, the axes of which trend northwest and southeast. Since 73 Fenner, C. N. The Mode of Formation of Certain Gneisses in the High- lands of New Jersey. Jour. Geol., 22: 594-612, and 604-702. 1014. 74 Folio 191, U. S. G. S. The Raritan Folio, 1914; W. S. Bayley discussed the Precambrian geology. % Folio 161, U. S. G. S. Franklin Furnace Quadrangle, 1908. 30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM these same general structural conditions extend into the Highland area of southeastern New York, they are of interest as affecting that area. This closes the record of special activity in the Highland region and shows the gradually shifting trend of geologic opinion regarding the complex structures and complicated history of the Highland area. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 31 PART 2 GENERAL GEOLOGIC SETTING” This section deals somewhat briefly with the larger and general geologic features of the Highlands as a whole, including a short discussion of structural conditions and the nature of the Precambrian complex. DOPOGRAPHIC PEATURES The Highland region of southeastern New York is a rugged, hilly to mountainous zone, reaching maximum elevations of 1600 feet. It is characterized, especially in the northern and western part, by irregular mountain masses and lofty ridges separated by very narrow valleys, all having a general northeast and southwest trend, but with irregularities of form which have developed in part because of the complex structure of the region, in part because of differences in the resistance of the rocks to erosive action, and in part because of the effects of glacial action. The southern and eastern portions of the Highlands are rolling to hilly, and less rugged. The ridges are interrupted, not continuous, and are en echelon with regard to one another, with abrupt and frequently precipitous cliffs on the southern ends, the northern terminations being generally more gradual. Where, however, the Highlands terminate at their northern and western boundaries, they descend generally precipitously to the smoother rolling lowland of Paleozoic sediments. The contact between the Precambrian rocks of the Highlands and the Paleozoic sediments lying north and west of them is sinuous and interrupted in the extreme. This is due chiefly to the dynamic history of the region; the north- ern and western margins represent in most cases faultline scarps. Here the Precambrian crystallines have been thrust over and upon the Paleozoic rocks, so that in many places, where the contacts can be seen, the relations are clear (fig. 1). The generally abrupt and precipitous northern and western margins of the Highlands are due then in large part to thrust-faulting and to the more rapid erosion of the softer Paleozoic rocks upon which the resistant, harder Pre- 76 A detailed description of the geology of that part of the Highlands included in the West Point quadrangle appears as ‘Bulletin 225, 226 of the New York State Museum, by Charles P. Berkey and Marion Rice. Those inter- ested should refer to this bulletin for an exhaustive discussion of the complex structural features and for the origin of the Precambrian crystallines in this area. 32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cambrian rocks have been thrust. Moreover the isolated hills of Precambrian rocks strung out on the western side of the Highlands and surrounded by Paleozoic sediments are products of the same forces, “stranded fault-blocks”’ * and not “islands in the seas of Hudson River time.”” ; None of the peaks of the Highlands is especially prominent. Both peaks and ridges have a fairly uniform average elevation over wide areas, so that if one imagines all the valleys and depressions filled to the level of the ridges the result would be an approximately plane surface, with a gentle inclination toward the southeast and south- west. The tops of the peaks and ridges represent all that remains of the Cretaceous peneplane in this area, so that the rugged topography of the Highlands is Post-cretaceous in development and has been modified by subsequent glaciation. STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE HIGHLANDS Folds. The general structural habit of the Highlands has com- monly been described as monoclinal because the banded and foliated structure of the gneisses strikes parallel with the trend of the rocks, and dips with apparently few exceptions at high angles to the southeast, thus giving the impression of a universal monoclinal structure. There are exceptions to this general monoclinal habit which seem to indicate the probability of a very definite folded structure which is, however, somewhat obscure and which may be inherited in part from the previously metamorphosed and undoubtedly folded Precambrian sediments of Grenville age into which, and because of their strong structural control, the later igneous matter was introduced, partly by impregnation and partly injected in lit- par-lit fashion, thus forming the basal gneisses of the Precambrian complex; a process and an origin long ago postulated by Berkey ”° and later by Fenner.*® Additional evidence of the existence of folds is offered by the structure of the ore bodies at Franklin Furnace and Sterling Hill, N. J. The great ore body which lies beneath Mine hill, at Franklin Furnace is “ bent upon itself to form a long trough with sides of unequal height. The trough lies with its keel pitching 7 Berkey, C. P., & Holzwasser, Florrie. Geology of the Newburg Quad- rangle. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. (Prepared) 78 Ries, Heinrich. Report on the Geology of Orange County. Rep’t of the State Geologist, N. Y., p. 422. 18095. 79 Berkey, C. P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the Highlands. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107. 10907. 80 Fenner, C. N. The Mode. of Formation of Certain Gneisses in the Highlands of New Jersey. Jour. Geol., 22: 504-612 and 694-702. 1014. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 33 in a northerly direction. . . . The Sterling Hill deposit, like that of Mine Hill, is a layer in the form of a trough. . . . Although there is no direct evidence to show whether the ore layer was first deposited and then bent into its present shape, or whether it was formed along a previously folded stratum or fissure, the latter is regarded as the more lkely.’ ** Forty years previous to this a cross-section of the ore body in the Hurdstown mine was depicted by Doctor Cook *? showing an over- turned asymmetric synclinal fold, or at least a structure which strongly resembles such a fold; Doctor Cook also mentions other oc- currences of like nature. Nason likewise described folded struc- tures in the iron mines at Ringwood, N. J., and other geologists who worked in the New Jersey Highlands have observed similar phenom- ena. The forms of the ore bodies of the Forest of Dean mine (fig. 3) and of the Scott-Cook-Augusta group in southeastern New York are suggestive of inherited folded structures, and the curving strike of the hornblendic gneiss on the east, south and west of Sterling lake (fig. 6) might be interpreted as being due to the intersection of a parabola-shaped, northeastwardly pitching, asymmetric, synclinal fold with an erosion plane, namely, the surface. Moreover, the crystalline limestone of Sprout Brook valley is judged by Berkey ™ to represent an infolded belt of very old Precambrian age, the valley in which it lies being synclinal with a gentle southwestwardly pitch. There seems to be no doubt, therefore, that structures other than mono- clinal are prevalent in the Highlands, ‘but that in most cases these structures are somewhat obscure. Provided the exposures showing the general steep southeast- wardly dip (the so-called “ monoclinal structure”) of the gneisses be regarded as the eroded edges of large folds, then folding is every- where plainly evident, the more obscure features being those already mentioned ; and in addition occasional cross foldings which tend to offset and to produce embayments in the gneiss ridges, to change the courses of streams as they follow the curving strike of the softer rock, and to produce “rolls”? such as those which occur in the vicinity of Sterling lake and which influence the shape of the ore bodies in the Lake and in the Sterling mines. These “rolls”’ were 81U. S.G. S. Folio 161. Franklin Furnace Folio, N. J. 1908, p. 24-and 25. Italics are the writer’s. 82 Cook, G. H. Geology of New Jersey, Newark, p. 58. 1868. 83 Nason, F. L. The Geologic Structure of the Ringwood Iron Mines, New Jersey. Trans. A. I. M. E., 24: 505-21. 1804. 84 Berkey, C. P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the Highlands. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107, p. 370. 1907. 2 34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM first mentioned by Smock *° who, in commenting on the Sterling and the Lake mines observed that the undulating foot walls, or the “rolls,” were remarkable features of the mines. They are not, however, confined to the mines, but are a common structural feature of the area in which the Sterling group of mines is situated, appear- ing as a series of cross-corrugations with short axial trend, spaced from crest to crest only a few yards, and whose axes vary in strike. They are irregular in distribution and are apparently due to cross- folding, as already suggested. Faulting. The Highlands area is complexly faulted, no less than three different periods of faulting being recorded. The earliest and the most obscure faults are Precambrian in age; these are com- pletely healed, and hence do not form zones of weakness or decay and have had but little influence in controlling the present topog- raphy, as they occur not only in the valleys but across the ridges as well. A later series of faults of distinctly Appalachian type may be much more easily observed because of the development of prominent crush zones, slickensides and other weaknesses. These faults follow the general strike of the structure and in some cases exhibit great displacement, especially the series or succession of faults which follows closely the northern and western borders of the Highlands ranges; particularly the one at the northern base of Storm King mountain and Breakneck ridge. ‘This fault is exposed a mile south- west of Cornwall station, where the walls show a fault-plane dipping steeply to the southeast, with the Storm King granite overthrust upon the Hudson River slates; the displacement is estimated as 2000 feet or more.*° The strong overthrust tendency from the southeast, together with later block faulting and subsequent erosion, is like- wise responsible for the production of the isolated hills of gneiss surrounded by Cambro-Ordovician sediments, previously mentioned. Such are Bull hill and its neighbors, a few miles north of Monroe; Snake hill and Cronomer hill near Newburgh, Woodcock hill, and other smaller detached hills along the western margin of the High- lands area in Orange county. A third and still more recent period of deformation is repre- sented by block faults produced during Triassic times. The most prominent of these follows the west side of Peekskill creek to the 85 Smock, J. C. First Report on the Iron Mines and Iron-ore Districts in the State of New York. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 7, p. 16. 1880. 86 Berkey, C. P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the Highlands. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107. 1907. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 35 Hudson river, crosses the river diagonally to Tompkins Cove, and passes southwestwardly through New York and into New Jersey, where the escarpment established by the displacement forms the southern boundary of the Highlands and sharply delimits the Pre- cambrian crystallines from the Triassic sediments. Occasional cross faults of small displacement, striking nearly east-west, are related to this period also. WW. SOS FAG) Velsgqui) 2. -L/ eyrevonb 6 onby bo yy Rs N . S\ : S ab MY S VEER BSS \ ESN: \ \"\ AY N \\ i ay \ a ‘ ‘ * NA \\ Wats ON Fig. 1 Cross-section showing the Precambrian complex of the Highlands overthrust on the Cambro-Ordovician sediments. Northern margin of the Highlands, near Beacon. The isolated hills of gneiss previously mentioned are frequently bounded on the northwest sides by thrust faults of the Appalachian type and on their southeast sides by Triassic gravity faults, thus owing their isolation to these movements and to the erosion fol- lowing; the “stranded fault blocks” of Berkey,*’ previously referred to (p. 32). The failure of earlier geologists to observe that blocks of Cambro-Ordovician sediments were down faulted into the Precambrian crystallines led to the confusion of these younger, infaulted sediments with the older group, and to the conclusion that the crystalline schists and limestones of Precambrian age (particu- larly the Manhattan schist and the Inwood limestone) were the metamorphosed equivalents of the Hudson River slate and Wap- pinger limestone of Cambro-Ordovician time. 87 Berkey, C. P., & Holzwasser, Florrie. Geology of the Newburgh Quad- rangle. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. (Prepared) Ruedemann (N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 133, p. 164-03) classifies such struc- tures as “inliers caused by diastrophism”; he mentions the inliers of gneiss in the neighborhood of Newburgh and along the north side of the Schune- munk mountains and states that “faulting may, to some extent, have influenced the production of some of these inliers.” (p. 181) SE 36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Effect of faulting on the magnetite bodies. The larger ore bodies of southeastern New York have not been seriously affected by the various periods of deformation through which the Pre- cambrian rocks have passed. The ore body in the Forest of Dean mine, a pitching chute of fairly uniform cross section, has been mined to a depth of more than 4500 feet down the pitch without discovering a single fault of any magnitude. The main ore body of the Lake mine has not been affected, but the ore body of the old Crossway and Mountain mines of the Sterling Lake group, nearby, has been slightly offset by fault- ing, and the ore body in the Scott mine, of the same group, has likewise been faulted to a small degree. Wendt * first mentioned the fault which cut the ore body of the Tilly Foster mine, and later Ruttman,*® presented an elaborate dis- cussion of it. The fault was not, however, of great throw and caused no trouble in working the ore. The ore body in the Mahopac mine was likewise cut off by a fault, but no details of the magnitude of it are available. The old “ Phillips vein,’ along which were located the Canada, Sunk, Pratt, Sackett and Denny mines, is slightly offset by an oblique fault which lies between the north end of the Sackett pits and the south end of the Sunk workings; the apparent offset is about 50 feet. Small crush-zones are a common feature in the Highlands, and the magnetite deposits have been more or less affected by the movements which developed the crush-zones. It is difficult to say to what degree faulting has affected some of the deposits, since the old workings were in many cases merely shallow pits, and these are now caved and water-filled. Nature of the Precambrian complex. The gneisses of the Highlands comprise a composite belt of crystalline rocks with some types certainly of igneous origin and others that represent original sediments, now metamorphosed. The igneous members include gneissoid rocks of granitic, syenitic and dioritic composition, and mixed types which may be regarded as syntectics, all associated with and usually accompanied by extensive developments of pegmatite which occurs in small and large dikes, bands, streaks, schlieren and small bosses. Pegmatite is almost invariably encountered in the vicinity of the magnetites, and usually closely associated with them. The gneisses of sedimentary origin are exposed in unmixed 88 Wendt, A. F. The Iron Mines of Putnam County, N. Y. Trans. A. I. M. E., 13: 478-88. 1884-85. 89 Ruttman, F. S. Notes on the Geology of the Tilly Foster Ore Body, Putnam County, N. Y. Trans. A. I. M. E., 15: 79-90. 1886-87. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 37 development in but very few areas, for they are almost invariably interleaved with and extensively injected by magmatic material similar in composition to the greater igneous bodies which consti- tute so large a part of the Highlands complex. The usual habit of these complex gneisses is a banded one with alternating bands of lighter and darker color corresponding to variations in the mineral composition. Some of the bands are com- posed of essentially nearly pure quartz and feldspar, others are largely hornblende or biotite, others mixtures of these with quartz and feldspar, and occasionally bands of feldspar and epidote are encountered. The gneisses of sedimentary origin may possibly include more than one stratigraphic group, but in many places they closely resemble the Fordham gneiss of southern Westchester county classed by Berkey °° as probably equivalent to the Grenville gneiss of the Adirondacks. Small lenses of interbedded crystalline limestone, in some instances highly silicated (sic. not silicified) accompany the gneiss and are to be regarded as an integral part of the same sedi- mentary series. There seems to be some evidence to show that these sediments were not only metamorphosed, but folded as well, before the invasion of the igneous material which now forms so large a part of the Highlands massif. That they exerted strong structural control is strikingly evident. They suffered lit-par-lit injection, and in many places xenolithic blocks, apparently detached, of the older and strongly metamorphosed rocks, swamped in the invading igneous masses, strike not only with the structural trend of the region as a whole, but each strikes in accordance with other, and apparently isolated, blocks. It would seem that a previously folded and metamorphosed series (the Grenville) had been invaded by a magma of exceedingly corrosive and insidious activity, capable of penetrating and assimilating the rocks through and into which it came, to an extreme degree. But the action was not the violent stoping postulated by Daly”; apparently it was instead a slow, quiet, but irresistible affected, attendant injection, and assimilation somewhat irregularly affected, so that here and there roof-pendants of the old gneisses were left, swamped in and surrounded by the invading mass which did not 90 Berkey, C. P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the Highlands. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107. 10907. 91 Daly, R. A. Igneous Rocks and Their Origin; New York, 1914, p. 194- ZOSMENISOP BU TOON WSN GwSstOoO2 ssp) O2=histiyAme;n OUT SGiiiv, 15) and vy. 16, 1903, and v. 26. 1908. 38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM greatly disturb the continuity of strike of the gneiss. In cases of more complete assimilation there was still failure in the uniformity of redistribution of the different matters so that much of the streaked and banded structure may be a sort of preservation of the original structure of the rocks absorbed, and may be called, therefore, an antecedent structure **; a structure crudely preserved after the rock which it represents has been otherwise almost wholly destroyed. Subsequent intrusion by additional igneous matters has complicated the situation, but, while it is probable that more or less deformation occurred during the intrusion of the several igneous masses in Pre- cambrian times, the crystalline rocks of the Highlands as a whole seem to have passed through both the Appalachian and Taconic revolutions without marked folding, and to have been affected only in so far as thrust faulting of the Appalachian type would indicate. The causes of the complexity and variable habit of the crystalline rocks of the Highlands may then be ascribed to: (qa) Original differences in composition of the metamorphosed Grenville sediments which form the basis of the gneisses; (b) original differences in the composition of the several invading magmas; (c) magmatic differ- entiation within these magmas, with movement and development of flow structure; (d) syntexis, both partial and complete; (@) igneous impregnation, as distinguished from mere /it-par-lit injection ; (f) lt-par-lit injection of magmatic material; (g) contact effects; (h) shght deformation during the invasion of the Pochuck magma and subsequent faulting, both Appalachian and Triassic. Berkey °*’ found, during his studies of the Highlands geology, that certain of the magmatic units were exceptionally capable of invading the surrounding country rocks in such an insidious and petvading way as to penetrate all weaknesses, producing lit-par-lit injection effects, and also to assimilate much rock. Both the Pochuck granite (see part 3) and the Canada Hill granite are representatives of this type. Other invading magmas were appar- ently less capable of assimilating, so that xenoliths resulted. The Storm King granite is representative of the latter type. This interpretation makes it possible to recognize several magmatic units separable on the basis of unity of origin, like structural or field relations and petrographic constancy. 82 Berkey, C. P., & Rice, Marion. Geology of the West Point Quadrangle. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 225-26. °3 Personal communication. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 39 For the West Point quadrangle, according to Berkey,* the divisions are as follows: | West Point Quadrangle Northern New Jersey Cambro-Ordovician Hudson River formation | Martinsburg shale (Sedimentary) Wappinger limestone Kittatinny limestone - Poughquag quartzite Hardyston quartzite Great Unconformity (Igneous) Basic dikes (Igneous) Pegmatites Byram gneiss Storm King granite (a mixed product) Pegmatites Reservoir granite Laurentian (?) (a syntectic) Losee gneiss (Igneous) Canada Hill graniteand as- (a mixed product) sociated injection gneiss Pegmatite and magnetite Occasional basic injections} Pochuck gneiss (Igneous) Peekskill diorite gneiss (a mixed product) (an injection type) Post-Grenville Precambrian Later Grenville Manhattan schist Franklin limestone (Sedimentary) Inwood limestone Lowerre quartzite Grenville metamorphics Metamorphic remnants o 5 Mica schists Chiefly variable schists §| Older Grenville Meta quartzites and interbedded lime- <5| (Sedimentary) Meta limestones (Sprout| stones Brook limestone) Para-gneisses (Fordham gneiss) For the purpose of comparison, equivalent formations in northern New Jersey are likewise included. The crystalline rocks of the Highlands west of the Hudson river in Orange county have not yet been studied with the same care and attention as those in New Jersey and those in New York in the area covered by the West Point quadrangle. While most of the field work in connection with the preparation of this report has been necessarily limited to the magnetite bodies and their immediate environments, the writer has, with one exception, encountered no field units which did not readily lend themselves to the classification 94 Berkey, C. P., & Rice, Marion. Geology of the West Point Quadrangle. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 225-26. I921. 40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of Berkey and to that of the geologists who have worked in the contiguous portion of New Jersey. Thus, the hornblendic gneiss generally associated with the ores in the mines of Orange county is essentially the equivalent of the Pochuck gneiss of the New Jersey geologists and the Peekskull diorite gneiss of the West Point quadrangle (but see part 3, p, 48-54) ; and a granite in the vicinity of the O'Neill and Forshee mines, with its associated syntectic not far away, may be correlated with the Canada Hill granite of the West Point area without raising any serious question of accuracy as to the correlation, and the pegmatites are similar in character and relations to those described in the various New Jersey reports (see, however, part 3). The exception is an extremely coarse, highly quartzose, more or less feldspathic, and at times almost pegmatitic, white or light-colored granite grading in places to brownish and pinkish, intimately asso- ciated with the ore, occurring almost invariably next to or in the immediate vicinity of the ore bodies, almost always forming parts of the walls, and so involved with the ore and the pegmatites that the writer believes it to be genetically related to them, and has thus described this rock in part 3, and has called it the “ Pochuck granite.” In other places this same granite is heavily involved with the ‘“ Pochuck-Grenville”’ (see part 3, p. 48-54), and it may have a wider distribution than at first sight would appear. The writer believes that the igneous rocks of the Highlands, not including the Cortlandt series of basic eruptives or the late Pre- cambrian basic dikes, have been derived from one magma; they are related to one another in such a way as to indicate that the intrusion of these igneous bodies into the ancient Grenville series was a con- tinuous process involving the consecutive invasions of magmatic masses of varying compositions due to the gradual differentiation of a single primary magma. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 4I BART 2 THE MAGNETITE DEPOSITS In this section the distribution of the magnetite bodies is briefly discussed; they have been divided into groups which fall into more or less well-defined belts whose extent and location are given. The geologic relations of the ores and the associated rocks are described and an attempt has been made to explain the complex nature of that portion of the Precambrian crystallines to which the magnetite seems most intimately related. The structural features of the ore bodies are described, including a discussion of the forms of the ore bodies, and deformation. The character of the magnetite is considered, and a conception of the processes involved in the formation of the ores is set forth. DISTRIBUTION With a few exceptions the magnetite deposits of southeastern New York are confined to definite belts and zones which are parallel to the general trend of the rock-structure. The broadest belt, in Orange county, forms part of a much larger ore-zone extending into New Jersey on the south and northeastwardly to the Hudson river. Within this broad zone are subsidiary belts along which numerous old pits, open cuts and shafts may be found. Considerable ore has been taken from these old workings in the past. In Putnam county, east of the Hudson river, the magnetite deposits fall into three belts; one, the Phillips “vein,” beginning just north of the Cold Spring (or Carmel) road 7 miles east of Cold Spring, extends southeastwardly along Canopus creek through Dennytown as far as Travis Corners, a distance of about 7 miles. Another and smaller belt begins about 114 miles west of Oscawana Corners in Sprout Brook valley, extending for about 3 miles southwestwardly along Sprout brook, and into Westchester county. A third belt, beginning in the city of Brewster, may be traced south- westwardly for almost 5 miles, passing through Croton Falls, in Westchester county, and ending about three-fourths of a mile south- west of that village. In addition to these belts there are random occurrences of magnetite both in Orange and in Putnam counties which appear to have no special relation to the belts or zones of magnetite just mentioned, and which seem to be isolated deposits. 42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The magnetite belts are not continuous bands of magnetite; they are merely directions, parallel with the structure of the country rock, along which are disconnected bodies of minable magnetite. The deposits may be grouped as follows: (A) The Orange County gone, (B) the Phillips belt, (C) the Sprout Brook belt, (D) the Brewster belt, and Isolated deposits, both in Orange and in Putnam counties. (See plate 1, index map.) A ORANGE COUNTY ZONE This zone may be more conveniently described as consisting of several groups of mines and pits developed along shorter subsidiary belts, together with a number of more or less isolated deposits, some of which appear not to be related to the belts just mentioned. The mines and openings included within this zone are as follows: 1 The Sterling group consists of the Lake, Sterling, Steele, Craw- ford, Upper California, Lower California, Summit, Tip-Top, Brennan and Whitehead mines, lying along a belt that begins near the New Jersey state line and which extends about 5 miles to and beyond Sterling lake. The Steele mine lies on a ridge at an elevation three-fourths of a mile west of Sterling Furnace. The Crawford mine is about three-fourths of a mile northeast of the Steele, in the same line of strike; it is located near the base of the succeeding ridge, in which also lies the Brennan pit, about one-fourth of a mile west of the Crawford. The Upper California and Lower California mines are located about 7000 feet farther north on the south side of the ridge on which the Sterling and Lake deposits outcrop; the Upper California lies at the base of the ridge, whereas the Lower California is situated a few hundred feet southeast, in a swamp near the road. The Summit mine is on the northwest side of the same ridge, a little less than one-half of a mile from the Upper California, and the Tip-Top mine is on the very summit of the ridge, overlooking Sterling Lake. The Lake and Sterling ore bodies outcrop on the north side of the ridge at the foot of Sterling lake, and extend under the lake. The slopes of these two mines are about 500 feet apart on the sur- face. ) The Whitehead mine lies about 2200 feet south of Sterling lake, between the highway and the track of the Sterling Mountain Rail- road. (See fig. 6.) MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 43 2 The Scott group. About 14 miles east of Sterling lake, and approximately 2 miles northeast of the Lake and Sterling mines, a series of workings were opened along two adjacent belts of magnetite 630 feet apart, and slightly converging toward the northeast. Their continuity has been disturbed by faulting, which has affected the original strike of the two bands. The Crossway mine is located at the southern end of the westerly belt, just north of the highway. The Patterson mine lies about 600 feet northeast; it is offset toward the east about 250 feet, and the Mountain mine, which may be considered as an extension of it, lies a few hundred feet farther north along the same belt. The shaft of the Smith mine lies 1310 feet north of the Mountain mine workings in the same general line of strike. No additional openings were ever made on this westerly belt, but if a line be extended from the shaft of the Smith mine northeastwardly in the direction of strike, it will intersect a line projected northwestwardly along the strike of the northernmost pit of the Long mine, lying on the easterly belt. Moreover, dip-needle readings indicate a curving line of strike at this point, so it appears probable that this double belt of magnetite, although disturbed in continuity by faulting, is parabola-shaped with the apex pointing northeast; it is difficult to confirm this because of swampy ground and lack of outcrops at critical places. The easterly belt, which for reasons cited above, is judged by the writer to represent the easterly limb of an inherited pitching fold, and hence structurally obscure, contains at its northernmost limits the Long mine, just mentioned. The strike along the axes of the pits of this mine shifts from about 5° east of north at the southern- most opening to about 30° west of north at the northernmost open- ing, with corresponding changes in dip. The same oblique fault which offsets the Crossway and Mountain mines seems to have off- set, in like manner the Long and the Scott ore bodies. The old shaft of the Scott mine is situated about 2800 feet south and 1400 feet west of the south end of the Long workings. The Cook mine lies directly southwest of the Scott, along the same line of strike; the Cook shaft is 900 feet southwest of the Scott shaft. These two mines have underground connections. The most south- erly mine on this belt is the Augusta, some 1400 feet southwest of the Cook. The Hard and the Middle mines are mere prospect pits. (See fig. 9.) 44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 3 The Red-back belt. About 1% miles south of the Augusta mine, and three-fourths of a mile directly west of the south end of Tuxedo lake is a band of ore more than a mile in length, marked along the outcrop by a reddish color which arises from the oxidation of the iron sulphides that are mixed in small proportion with the magnetite. One mine, called the Red-back, was opened in this belt. 4 Bering and Morehead. Approximately three-fourths of a mile northwest of Sloatsburg, in Rockland county, and about one- fourth of a mile north of the highway, lies the Bering mune. Just over the county line, in Orange county, and three-fourths of a mile northwest of the Bering is the Morehead mine. But little is known of these two old mines; both seem to be isolated occurrences not directly connected with the more specific belts of ore already mentioned. 5 The Greenwood group. This group of old mines occupies state land (park reservation), and is therefore closed to exploitation. The mines were not visited by the writer for that reason. The group consisted of the Hogencamp, Sure-bridge, Pine Swamp, Greenwood, Cunningham and Alice; they lie about 5 miles north of Arden, and were worked as open cuts. They have been closed many years, the Hogencamp being the only one in operation between 1870 and 1880. 6 The Forest of Dean group. The chief member of this group is the Forest of Dean mine, one of the oldest in the Highlands. It lies about 5 miles west of Fort Montgomery, just east of the state road, and approximately 16 miles northeast of Sterling lake. The Forest of Dean mine, and the Lake and the Scott, of the Sterling-Scott group, are the only mines now operative in south- eastern New York. The other members of the group are the Tower, Wetherby and “ Rattlesnake”; of these, the Tower is the only one of importance. It lies about 2 miles northeast of the Forest of Dean mine and 1 mile southeast of Long pond. The Wetherby is an old opening in the gneiss about 114 miles south, and slightly to the west, of Forest of Dean, at an elevation of about tooo feet on the western slope of the ridge which bounds Deep Hollow on its eastern side. The “ Rattlesnake” is an old hole in the gneiss about one- fourth of a mile southeast of Mine lake, near Forest of Dean. 7 The Warwick group. One of the smaller subsidiary belts of the Orange county zone lies along the ridge of gneiss locally known as Warwick mountain, of which Rocky hill forms a part. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK a5 The old openings known as the Standish, Parrott and Raynor mines are situated on either side of the east fork of the highway which runs southerly from Warwick. They are about 2 miles south of Warwick, on the summit of the ridge and about one-fourth of a mile from the road. The Standish openings are north of the road, the Raynor, and the Parrott lying south of the road. 8 Isolated occurrences in Orange county. Bull mine. On the summit of an isolated hill of gneiss locally known as Bull hill, 1% miles northeast of Oxford Depot, lies the Bull mine. Bull hill is one of the most westerly of the detached hills of gneiss which are surrounded on all sides by Cambro-Ordovician sediments. It owes its position to faulting. A “wedge inlier,” according to Charles P, Berkey and Miss Holzwasser,” or an “inlier caused by diastrophism ” according to Ruedemann.**® About 144 miles south- west of Monroe and one-half of a mile southeast of the east shore of Round pond lies the Clove mine, at an elevation of about 740 feet. The old openings were sunk through the drift to rock in a low, drift-covered hill of gneiss. Three miles south of Monroe and about 134 miles southeast of the Clove mine, occur the old open cuts known as the O’Neill (or Nail) and Forshee mines. The open cut of the O'Neill mine is just a few hundred feet southwest of a recently constructed road which forks southeastwardly from the highway leading to Lake Mom- basha, about 144 miles northeast of the lake. The Forshee mine is situated on the southeast side of the hill directly southwest of the O’Neill mine, about one-half of a mile of it. These old openings may lie along the same belt of ore, but the belt is short and the magnetite bodies are separated by a considerable interval. One mile west and slightly north of the Forshee mine, about one- fourth of a mile west of the north end of Lake Mombasha, is a small opening known as the Mombasha mine. There are, in addi- tion, a number of other openings in various places in the county, none of which are of any consequence as possible sources of iron- ore, and most of which are mere prospect pits. Belts in Putnam and Westchester counties 13 Ase, EAS NOL Ib AMES) IBISIL AD The northernmost group of workings situated on this very per- sistent belt of magnetite is the Canada Mines group. The old 95 Berkey, C. P., & Holzwasser, Florrie. Geology of the Newburg Quad- rangle. Prepared. 96 Ruedemann, Rudolph. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 133. p. 164-93. 46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM workings comprising this group lie chiefly south of the Carmel, or Cold Spring, road, about 7 miles east of Cold Spring. They con- sist of cuts and pits opened along the outcrop, about a mile in length. The ore pinches out at the southern end of the workings, low swampy ground intervening between the Canada pits and the con- tinuation of the ore belt to the southwest. After an apparently barren interval of about a mile the ore con- tinues in the same direction; it was quite extensively mined at this point, the workings being known as the Sunk or Stewert mines. The ore was worked nearly 1ooo feet along the strike, and to a depth of 300 feet. The further exploration of the belt to the southwest resulted in the opening of the Sackett, Pratt and Denny mines, situated along the belt in the order named. The Pratt and Sackett mines are offset from the Sunk mine by a transverse fault of small throw. The openings are just north of the road leading from Dennytown to Canopus creek; they consist chiefly of a series of open cuts extend- ing for 300 feet or more; the Sackett workings are just north of the road, the Pratt pits lying south of it. About one-fourth of a mile southwest of the Pratt workings, and on the crest of the hill, lie the Denny pits; the workings seem to indicate a greater irregularity in the mode of occurrence of the mag- netite than is the case in the other mines in this belt. (See fig. 11.) The Canopus mine. About 3 miles to the southwest of the Denny workings but in the same line of strike, an occurrence of magnetite at Travis Corners forms what may be considered the extreme southern end of the Phillips belt. The property was prospected many years ago, being known at one time as the Nelson mine, but called, by the company last operating it, the Canopus mine. No further extension of the Phillips belt to the southwest has been discovered. G VWs, SIPROWAL IROOM 1yaiLAL There are two old mines located along this “ belt’? of ore. They might possibly be more correctly placed in the group of isolated occurrences, were it not for the fact that they lie in the same gen- eral line of strike and have certain features in common. Provided these mines be considered as lying at the extremities of the belt, and to delimit it, then the Sprout Brook belt represents a direction some 3 miles in length, at each end of which is located a mine from which more or less magnetite has been taken in the past. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 47 The Croft mine occupies the northern end of the belt. It is situ- ated about 114 miles west of Oscawana Corners, on the eastern flank of the ridge overlooking Sprout brook, on the western side of the valley. The Todd mine is at the southern end of the belt, in Westchester county, a little less than 3 miles directly north of Peekskill, and 3 miles southwest of the Croft mine. It likewise is on the eastern flank of a hill overlooking Sprout brook. DU MEE BREN STE RUB EET The northern end of the Brewster belt begins essentially in the city of Brewster, where two mines were formerly operated. One was opened in the base of the hill directly west of the railroad sta- tion, the other was located just back of the Brewster House. All traces of the workings have been removed, and nothing now remains to suggest that these mines ever existed. The Croton magnetic iron-ore mines comprise the combined work- ing of the Theall and the McCollum mines, which are located on the opposite sides of a ridge, on what is presumably the same ore body. The Theall mine lies about 214 miles southwest of Brewster along the Harlem division of the New York Central Railroad, about three- eighths of a mile directly west of the track. The mines are on the opposite sides of a hill with a connecting tunnel between them, the northern opening representing the Theall mine, the McCollum mine being on the other side of the hill about one-half of a mile south- west. Along the same line of strike, at the southern end of the Brewster belt, about three-fourths of a mile southwest of the village of Croton Falls in Westchester county, is an opening called the Clover Hill mine, from which more or less ore has been extracted in the past. The mine is situated on the east slope of a hill, about one-fourth of a mile west of the highway, on the Butler property. E ISOLATED OCCURRENCES IN PUTNAM COUNTY Aside from a number of prospect pits and holes not sufficiently important to mention, there are two ore bodies in Putnam county which do not seem to be connected with the well-defined ore-belts just mentioned. One of these is the T7lly Foster ore body, the other is the Mahopac. The Tilly Foster mine is situated about 2 miles northwest of the city of Brewster on a promontory which projects into the lake at 48 } NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the north end of Middle Branch reservoir. Nothing is visible of this famous old mine but a small pond and the surrounding dump, which is now more or less overgrown with vegetation. The Mahopac mine, equally noncommittal as to surface appear- ances, is situated near the highway leading to Kent Cliffs, about three-eighths of a mile to the north, and the same distance to the west, of Kirk lake. It is about 134 miles north of Mahopac falls, and 7 or 8 miles west of Brewster. The underground workings were of considerable extent, but the mine caved near the entrance, and water has filled the depression, forming a small pond, which is all that is visible of the mine today. (Seeiig.) 12.) Geologic relations of the ores. The associated rocks. The magnetite bodies of the Highlands are so intimately related to the rocks associated with them that a thorough understanding of their origin, habit, history and character is possible only provided the complex geology of the region is itself comprehended. This has been somewhat briefly mentioned in the discussion of the general geologic setting (pages 31-40), but it seems best to enlarge upon the discussion a little, even at the risk of repetition, not only because of the extreme importance of the relationships between the ore and its associated rocks, but also in order to estab- lish rock names which will serve to identify the various units and mixed types most intimately connected with the magnetite, so that the descriptions of the various mines may be more intelligently followed. The Grenville. The oldest formation of the region is a series of intensely metamorphosed, strongly folded rocks largely of fragmental origin; these consisted originally of a succession of lime- stones, sandstones, argillaceous, silicious and calcareous shales and smaller interbedded lenses of limestone of varying degrees of purity. The extent and thickness of these sediments is not definitely known. It is important to emphasize, however, that according to such field evidence as the writer has been able to gather, these rocks suffered regional deformation, resulting in profound metamorphism and folding, before the intrusion of the various magmatic units which laier invaded them; this series may be correlated tentatively with the Grenville. As previously mentioned, the rocks of this series are seldom found in unmixed development in the Highlands of south- eastern New York because they have been so thoroughly impreg- MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 49 nated and injected by magmatic material. Xenolithic masses and roof-pendants maintaining the regional strike, swamped in the invading igneous units, are commonly all that remain of the meta- morphosed Grenville sediments in the area under discussion. In some places, however, interbedded limestones and limestone beds, now highly metamorphosed crystalline dolomites, seemed more resistant to lit-par-lit injection than the associated schists, and accordingly were less affected and better preserved. Such, for example, as the Sprout Brook limestone in Putnam county, the interbedded crystalline limestone just west of the Forest of Dean mine in Orange county which pitches under Lake Popolopen, and other occurrences of crystalline dolomite in the same region. In general, however, the Grenville is represented by detached masses swamped in later igneous intrusives. The most striking and most important thing in connection with the Grenville is the evidence of strong structural control which this metamorphosed series of ancient sediments exerted on the later magmatic units which invaded it; for not only were the banded gneisses produced by the soaking and Jit-par-lit injection of the Grenville schists, but the shapes and structures of the ore bodies themselves were in large part inherited from the rock which, by magmatic processes, was replaced by magnetite. The term “ Grenville,” therefore, is used in this discussion to designate the highly metamorphosed, folded series of schists, quartz- ites, crystalline dolomites, interbedded crystalline dolomites and amphibolites of “Archaeozic’’ time, only remnants of which, in unmodified exposures, now exist. POST-GRENVILLE, EARLY PRECAMBRIAN IGNEOUS INTRUSIVES The Pochuck. The earliest of the magmatic units to intrude the Grenville series was a basic igneous magma which is now repre- sented in its simplest form by material with the general composition of pyroxenite, although it varies slightly from place to place and is very limited in extent and distribution. Part of the footwall of an open cut leading into the slope of the Clove mine *’ is hornblende pyroxenite, the hanging wall being in part hornblendite (plate 1). The footwall of the Red-back mine is in part pyroxenite and pyroxenite may be found on the dumps of the Upper California, 97 The mine itself is full of water and inaccessible. The same condition prevails in all the old mines, and in most of the open cuts. 50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Crossway, Parrott, and O’Neill mines. Intimately connected with the basic phase and probably derived from it by differentiation 1s an extensive series of pegmatites whose compositional range varies from dioritic to syenitic, with which is associated the magnetite. The pegmatites occur in all textural gradations from coarse, highly feldspathic, typical pegmatites of dioritic, monzonitic and syenitic compositions, to granitoid rocks which are essentially diorites and syenites, but which grade erratically into coarser and more typical pegmatitic facies in places. These are always most intimately asso- ciated with one another and with the magnetite, and are therefore especially prominent in and around the mines, forming in every instance parts of the wall of the ore bodies (see plates 2 and 3). The dioritic facies of the Pochuck is characterized by a brilliant green pleochroic pyroxene, plagioclase feldspar ranging from oligo- clase to andesine, magnetite in end-phase consolidation relationship, with occasionally antiperthite and quartz as minor components. The syenitic facies of the Pochuck in many cases might well be regarded as a more acid varietal phase of the dioritic facies. The feldspars are chiefly, and in some cases wholly, acid plagioclase ranging from albite to albite-oligoclase; if perthite appears it is usually antiperthite. Quartz not infrequently is present as an acces- sory mineral, and titanite as a rather prominent accessory is common to both the syenitic and dioritic phases of the Pochuck. Provided these two types are classified on the basis of dominant plagioclase, regardless of its composition, then both these varietal facies of the Pochuck may properly be called diorites; if on the other hand a division is made on the basis of dominant alkali feld- spar (albite) as contrasted with dominant calci-alkalic feldspar (oligoclase-andesine), then the albite-rich variety may properly be considered a soda-syenite; these are the distinctions made by the writer. By the term “ Pochuck,” therefore, is meant the unmixed igneous phase of the earliest basic intrusive into the Grenville series. As used by the writer the term includes pyroxenite, hornblendite, peridotite, diorite, soda-syenite, the associated extensively developed pegmatites with their co-related magnetites, and a peculiar coarse “oranite,” later described. The “ Pochuck-Grenville.” The most extensive development of the “ Pochuck” is not simple, unmixed igneous rock, but a mixed Grenville-Pochuck type which owes its character in part to (a) the powerfully penetrating and “soaking” ability of the dioritic and MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 51 syenitic facies of the Pochuck proper, which invaded, soaked, pene- trated, and thoroughly impregnated the previously folded and meta- morphosed Grenville sediments; and in part to (0) the strong struc- tural control exerted by the folded and metamorphosed sediments on the invading igneous magma, so that the original foliated habit of the Grenville, and in large part even the folded structures, were retained, or inherited, by the mixed resultant of the intrusion. The dark, coarse, strongly foliated and streaked, strongly biotitic and hornblendic rocks arising from this process have been called “ horn- blendic gneiss” by the older geologists, and “ Pochuck Gneiss ” °° by the geologists working in the adjacent Highlands area in New Jersey. The writer believes both field and petrographic evidence indicates that the impregnation and “soaking” of the Grenville was the earliest expression of magmatic invasion by the Pochuck; that the unmixed exposures of igneous origin already mentioned, with the associated pegmatites, represent the closing stages of such invasion, and in that sense later; that the pegmatites and the associated mag- netite are differentiation products concentrated in essentially aqueo- igneous solution and as an elimination residuum produced through the action of selective crystallization; and that the extreme, ultimate end product of this action was quartz with more or less soda-feld- spar, which in the immediate vicinity of the ore bodies is found in a purer form as a very coarse quartz-feldspar granite (Pochuck granite), but which is rather widely distributed involved with Pochuck-Grenville. (Plates 2, 3 and 4 illustrate the types.) Modified Pochuck-Grenville. In many places the mixed, strongly foliated, highly biotitic or hornblendic Pochuck-Grenville has been further modified by lit-par-lit injections of lighter colored feldspathic or granitic matters, combined in some cases with epidote, with the consequent production of banded injection- gneisses, epidote gneisses and granitized products; these modified, injected and banded rocks are highly complex in structure, history and origin, but nevertheless perfectly understandable provided one follows their development step by step as resulting through the SNVoliinnauieancc brooks Aa Hew Toth Annals mept) We Sy GaSe) pt lil 1896-97; Washington, 1808; p. 440. The name “ Pochuck” was first used by these writers in describing the rocks of Pochuck mountain. See also, Bayley, W. S., Iron Mines and Mining in New Jersey, v. 7 of the final report series of the Staté Geologist, 1910; Geologic Folios, U. S. G. S. 157, 161, 191, and Folios 1 and 2, Geol. Atlas of N. J. 52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM operations of the processes outlined above. The many different types of banded, injected gneisses encountered are due in large part to the originally variable habit and composition of the previously metamorphosed Grenville sediments subjected to these processes. The term “ Modified Pochuck-Grenville”’ includes, therefore, (a) pegmatized Pochuck-Grenville, (b) epidotized Pochuck-Grenville, (c) granitized Pochuck-Grenville, and all banded and injection modifications in general. (See plate 4, and plate 6, figure 4.) DAE GRANIDES Pochuck Granite. Almost invariably extremely coarse, white or light-colored, highly quartzitic and more or less feldspathic rocks are associated with the ore bodies, not infrequently forming parts of the walls, and commonly outcropping in the immediate vicinity of, and lying along the trend of the ore. Such, for example, as the light-colored, coarse granite adjacent to the footwall of the Forest of Dean mine, forming a part of the little hill just west of the shaft house; and the same type of granite in the immediate vicinities of the Clove, O’Neill, Bering, Denny, Lake and other mines, usually found close to or along the walls of the open cuts, or the walls of the ore bodies, or in their vicinity. Farther removed from the immediate vicinity of the magnetite bodies the same type of granite may be observed, always much more involved, however, with the Pochuck-Grenville, and more exten- sively distributed than has commonly been supposed. The writer first tried to correlate these coarse granites with the Canada Hill granite of Berkey and Rice,”® but a critical examination of their modes of occurrence, distribution and petrographic habit, and a comparison of them with the established types of the Canada Hill, seemed to prove the nonrelationship of the two. Because of the constant and intimate association of these coarse granites in their purer form with the ore bodies, and because of — certain peculiar petrographic characters, it is judged that they are genetically related to the magnetite, and are a product of the ulti- mate extreme end-phase selective crystallization (elimination resi- duum) of the Pochuck magma. That is, they are the ultimate product, in part, of extreme differentiation, representing the highly quartzitic, more or less feldspathic, last remaining mother liquor. It is conceivable, also, that some of the quartz might have been derived —— 99 Berkey, C. P., & Rice, Marion. Geology of the West Point Quadrangle. N. Y¥. State Mus. Bul. 225-226. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 53 from the rock (Pochuck-Grenville) which the magnetite, by mag- matic processes, replaced; some of the feldspar and the ferromag- nesians have certainly been so derived. The evidence for this 1s based on the distribution, mode of occurrence and association of these rocks, and on the fact that petrographic study shows them to contain a vast amount of quartz in extremely coarse grains of uni- form optical orientation, which acts as a matrix for corroded and sericitized fragments and bunched aggregates of feldspar (chiefly plagioclase), corroded and altered ferromagnesians, and corroded and altered complex fragments, whose distribution and whose mar- ginal relations to the quartz are not such as to suggest consecutive crystallization from the same parent magma, but which behave as xenolithic fragments more or less affected by the aqueo-igneous solutions which gave rise to the quartz. This granite, closely related to the magnetites and an end-phase of them, involved to a greater or less degree with the Pochuck- Grenville, judged to be the very ultimate differentiation product of the Pochuck magma; corrosive, insidious and pervasive in character, and much more extensively distributed than commonly supposed, has been called by the writer the “Pochuck granite.’ Plate 2, figure 4, plate 3, figure 2, plate 4, figure 4 and plate 5, figure 4 illustrate some of the characteristics of this granite. Much of the feldspar, and essentially all of the ferromagnesian minerals, are simply swamped, sericitized, epidotized, uralitized and carbonated remnants of the rock through and into which the final mother liquor found its way. The rocks associated with the ore bodies exhibit all gradations from unmodified Pochuck-Grenville, to granitized, highly grani- tized, and intensely granitized products and finally granite. Canada Hill granite. There are other granite masses, not re- lated to the magnetite at all, of sufficient extent to be considered individual units, which cut the Pochuck and its various modifica- tions and which are therefore very distinctly later. From the field occurrences, extent and lithologic similarity these granites may be tentatively correlated with the Canada Hill granite*°° of the West Point quadrangle. A granite of this character of considerable extent occurs about one-half of a mile north of the O’Neill mine, well exposed along the highway leading to Lake Mombasha; its associated syntectic may be found at Round pond about 1%4 miles 100 Berkey, Charles P., & Rice, Marion. Geology of the West Point Quad- rangle. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 225-226. 54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM northwest of the exposure mentioned. Neither in field relations nor lithologically does it resemble the coarse granites associated with the ore (see plate 5, figs. 2 and 3), and otherwise distributed in less pure form, involved with the Pochuck-Grenville. The Storm King granite. The latest of the granite intrusives (the Storm King granite), while recognizable and more or less easily differentiated by its lithologic character from the rest of the mem- bers of the Highlands complex, is not connected with the origin of the ores and is therefore of no importance so far as the magnetites are concerned. From the foregoing it will be seen that the rocks most intimately connected with the ore are those included in the Pochuck and its various modifications,’** and that they owe their origin and complex character to the extensive differentiation of a basic magma and to the invasion and impregnation of an ancient series of metamor- phosed and folded sediments by that magma and its differentiates, supplemented by later granitic intrusions of the Canada Hill and the Storm King types. ( I The Pochuck (igneous) Pyroxenites, hornblendites (rare) Diorites, with pegmatitic facies Syenites with pegmatitic facies The magnetites and associated products The Pochuck granite saa ove The Pochuck Il The Pochuck—Grenville Gneiss Previously folded and metamorphosed Grenville sediments so extensively impregnated with the dioritic and syenitic facies of the Pochuck that their original character is obscure. III Modified Pochuck—Grenville Pochuck-—Grenville of II pegmatized and granitized both by impregnation and Jit-par-lit injection. (Injection gnetss). — 1 Pochuck granite Intensely granitized Pochuck—Grenville The 2 Canaza Hill granite (a magmatic unit) Granites 3 Storm King granite (a magmatic unit) Later Precambrian basic dikes 101 The writer believes that the ‘“ Losee gneiss” of the New Jersey High- lands may be merely a differentiation product of the Pochuck. Exposures of types equivalent in extent and character to the Losee and Byram gneisses of the adjacent Highlands area in New Jersey have not been recognized in southeastern New York in the territory covered by the writer. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 55 STRUCTURAL FEATURES OF THE MAGNETITE Form of the ore bodies. It has been generally stated that the magnetite ore bodies in the Highlands of the Hudson, in the Adiron- dacks, and in other localities where magnetite occurs as minable bodies in the Precambrian crystalline rocks, are pod-shaped lenses or shoots with the longitudinal planes of the pods dipping parallel to the dip of the “layers” of the inclosing gneisses; and with the longer axes of the “pods” or “lenses” pitching with the pitch of the rock structure.*°? In some cases several “pods” or “shoots” lie in the same plane, edgewise one above another, separated by com- paratively barren rock. These features are illustrated diagrammatically in figure 2, which is a slightly modified copy of the one shown on page 24, folio 157, U.S. G. S. The rock immediately overlying the crest of a pod is called the “cap rock,’ and that underlying the pod, along the keel, is known as the “bottom rock.” Where two pods or shoots lie one above the other in the same “ vein,” the cap rock of the lower is essentially the bottom rock of the upper; this relatively barren rock, between two such lenses or pods of ore is also known as a “ pinch.” Pinches, however, are never absolutely barren; the ore body in some cases merely narrows, reducing the width to a few inches, or a few feet, but usually the intervening rock, or pinch, is traversed by many narrow stringers of magnetite which connect the lenses or pods with one another. The pinches may be any of the various modifications of the Pochuck, previously enumerated. The forms of the magnetite ore bodies in the Highlands of south- eastern New York are by no means so simple, however, and most of them do not conform to the podlike or lenticular-shaped deposits described above, except in very general details. The surface ex- posures of these ore bodies give absolutely no clue to the form of the mass of magnetite, so that the exact shapes can be determined only after sufficient development, or actual mining, has been done to outline the cross section and reveal the dimensions. While many of the ore bodies are essentially tabular, they are extremely irregular; some are warped and corrugated, like the ore bodies in the Lake and Sterling mines; some split and fork, divided, or partly divided, by blocks and horses of the country rock, which may be extraordinarily persistent, as in the Forest of Dean 102 Folios 157 and 161, U. S. G. S. 1908; Geol. Atlas N. J. 1 and 2, 1908; N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 119, 1908. Iron Mines and Mining in N. J., v. VII. Final Report Series, 1910. Folio 191, U. S. G. S. 1914. Bul. 450, U. S. G. S. 56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM —<—_——o~ -—_— awe SS Fig. 2 Slightly modified from diagrams shown in U. S. G. S. Folio 157. Plan and cross sections of ideal “pods” or “lenses” of magnetite. The cross sections are taken in the plane of foliation, parallel to the strike of the ore body, and at right angles to it, in an attempt to illustrate the terms, ILC aN GID, i imepinchesimlnicaphalandiin bottom) aanookmaned hanging and footwall. Few of the magnetite bodies in southeast New York have this ideal form. (a) represents plan; (b) is a cross section along BB in (a), and (c) is a cross section transverse to the strike. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 57 mine (figure 3). Other ore bodies are merely mixtures of ore alter- nating with country rock, of such a character that the unmixed, solid ore may not be more than a few feet in thickness, although the ore zone may be one hundred or more feet wide. In some cases there is more than one “vein” or “ bed,” which may be worked through a single shaft, as in the Mahopac mine (fig. 13); others are irregular, shapeless masses, only approaching a lenticular or pod- like form, as was the Tilly Foster ore body.*” Moreover, the ore does not always accord strictly with the struc- ture of the inclosing country rock, as has so frequently been stated ; in many cases the ore cuts the rock structure in tongues and in nar- row dikes, so that an abrupt, clean separation between ore and ore- free wall rock does not always exist (figure 4). Where there is more than one “shoot” of ore, the separate bodies at times merge into one another at different levels, as was the case in the Mahopac mine) lin short, the! forms) ‘of jthe /ore bodies are purely adventitious and are dependent, according to the writer’s belief, on (a) preexisting structures in the Grenville, which were inherited in part by the Pochuck, and which determined the course of replace- ment to a large degree, and (0) the composition of the Grenville; where highly calcareous, or where actual interbedded limestone lenses happened to lie in channels of activity, there the character of the deposits closely approached contact-metamorphic types with the production of garnet, chondrodite, spinel, tourmaline, and other typical contact minerals, mixed with the ore, as at the Tilly Foster, Mahopac, Croft, Todd, O'Neill, Forshee, and to a less degree the Red-back, and other mines. The shapes in these cases were deter- mined by the structures in the calcareous lenses replaced, the intensity of the mineralizing processes and the quality of the Gren- ville or Pochuck-Grenville which was invaded. Folds. No field evidence has been found to substantiate the belief that the iron ores and their containing rocks have ever been intensely folded since the formation ore bodies. There is sufficient evidence, however, to show that the Grenville rocks were intensely metamorphosed and strongly folded before the invasion of the igneous masses which so profoundly changed the Grenville strata and which were responsible for the deposition of the magnetite. 103 Wendt, A. F. The Iron Mines of Putnam County, N. Y. Trans. A. I. M. E. v. XIII, p. 478-88. 1884-85. Ruttman, F. S. Notes on the Geology of the Tilly Foster Ore-body, Put- nam County, N. Y. Trans. A. I. M. E. v. XV, p. 79-90. 1886-87. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM { : [eM SUIsUeYy 94} OJUL SuluUNI pue 910 94} SurI}jND yoo je SSCL Ie[Nqe} SyL[oYIP IY} SWIOF ISIMOyI] YOIYM ‘OpeUIsed opJOIp e st jared J9YIO DY} ‘o[[IAUOID-YONYyIOgG si YyIyYM Jo j1ed 9UO “YDOI JO VsIOY oY} SUIMOYS “SUT[IUT 94} UMOP “Jsvoyj1OU suU{OO] “Apoq 910 Ueo(] JO JsoIO FO UOT}IES SsoIn € -SIq Q/6/ YY xf Pu? 5 © ANY APH sf Uf SCMG/ EMOXS ge). apouuxosdd y : MOSS YEN IW nS A rr Cl 4/0 PAYEL SYS AEN: oYWie ojo, Aesiysy (EE YESS) ° Ne 1 hs . a pista Stoo, CaS [242] 84 UO 420 pruiL/ 4 v/a) Za C) Ve \ \ 3 O/tAlt a9 ~L27430, 2 eA NR = (= [tale YD honM reed x ‘a 2 . SOHIOf BWps101G Zi Na ae Ul iS Y 2yyoubyy "204204 NAG Sea ace puebay a A\ \ S f SUOYIZS -$8OLD yousxesdely 7X il=sr J Mee ISU NR coll cg BUS TVS Dy a LPO Fee ee SOR K \ , Gh Hoel ye LOS ye Ae = ‘i A ’ eK ‘ \® } Nf; bh ir 2 ES BOL ARAL UNAS Rt PX GREE MAN ON SC NOW Soo 7 /-{ / BNE et U0 ee Pierce = ~ he" gh a T lel /,] Say Vee SY = So0AfIOA ANS 07-149] LQ RRS KD Z 2 — ae &, 4 MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 59 Any structures suggestive of folding, either in the rocks as now exposed, or in the magnetite bodies themselves, must have been inherited in large part from the Grenville, provided the foregoing conception is correct; these structures have already been spoken of. Geologists who have studied the problems of the Precambrian rocks in the Adirondacks generally agree that these rocks present evidence of compression and metamorphism.*°* Similarly most of those who have studied the complex geology of the Highlands of New York and New Jersey, believe that the remnants of the Grenville found in these areas exhibit evi- dence of folding.’°’ On the other hand, a few of the geologists who have worked in this region are inclined to be noncommital in their expressions of opinion with respect to folded structures in the Grenville; they assign an igneous origin to the gneisses and explain the foliation by movement in the still pasty or semimolten igneous mass, but make a distinction between “ structural foliation” and “textural foliation.” *°° “ Structural foliation” is explained as the “interlayering of different varieties of rock,’ and the “ orientation of component mineral grains”; “textural foliation ” is explained as the development of a sort of parallel structure during consolidation under flowage conditions. Miller *°’ later reversed his opinion as 104 Kemp, J. F. Annual Rep’t State Geol. 1803-95-97; also N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 14-21-1109, 138. Also forthcoming bulletins now in press. Newland, D. H. Annual Rep’t State Geol. 1897; also N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 119, and Econ. Geol. v. 2, 1907. Cushing, H. P. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 95, 115, 145, 160. SmiythewCy EageN. Yeu State! Mus! (Bull 145: Ogilvie, I. H. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 06. IMleeem, Jo (Cy ING Ms Stieie Wiles Ibi aes, Alling, H. L. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 199, also Am. Jour. Sci. (4) 48, 1919. Buddington, A. F. Rep’t of the Director of the State Mus. 1917. MaillermWi i NEO Yn State Misys Bali 170: 105 Rogers, H. D. Final Rep’t Geol. N. J., 1840. Mather, W. W. Geol. First Geol. District, 1843. Ann. Rep’t Geol. N. Is 1854-55-56. Cook, G. H. Geol. J., 1868. Ries, Heinrich. Gr Orange Co., N. Y., Rep’t State Geol. 1895. Nason, F. L. Annual Rep’t State Geol. GNESI nacsomalsommiransa eAwaln M. E., 24, 1804. Wolff, J. E. Annual Rep’t State Geol. N. J., 1803. Berkey, C. P. WN. Y. State Mus. Bul. 107, 146. Also abstract, Annals, N. Y. Acad. Sci., 23, 1914, and N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 225-226. 106 Bayley, W. S., in folio ney, We So Ee Se! Ws Ay UOMO WOM. , Bs AVEO Iron Mines and Mining in New Jersey; v. VII, 1910. Final Report Series of the State Geologist. Bayley is a little more definite here, as he states . . Cases where folding has been proven are extremely rare.’ (Go Okey Spencer, AMES) ine folio 161, Wer Sa Gy Sei pn: 107 Miller, W. J. Origin ‘of Foliation in the Precambrian rocks of North- ern New York, Jour. Geol. 24, 1916, p. 587-610. 60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fig. 4 Sketch near bottom of the Lake mine, showing ore and pegmatite cutting wall rock, and fading away in it. The intimate relation between the ore and the pegmatite is likewise shown. if Hi, A vA LS Vij Fig.5 Sketch at north end of drift on 2800 foot level, Lake mine, show- ing the roll structure and its control of the form of the magnetite. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK OI to the folded condition of the Grenville in the Adirondacks, because he thought insufficient evidence had been accumulated to prove the existence of such structures. Thus he says: “none of the published Adirondack maps or available data afford any reasons to believe that the Grenville strata were ever profoundly folded or com- pressed.” (p. 592) In summarizing, he adds “ there is no known evidence within the Adirondack region that the Grenville strata have ever been highly folded. . . .” (p. 596) He accounts for the foliation as follows: “the Grenville foliation was developed during the crystallization of essentially horizontal strata under heavy load of overlying material.” (p. 597) Whatever the character of the structure may be in the Adirondacks and in the Highlands of New Jersey, there seems to be sufficient structural evidence in the High- lands of southeastern New York to show that: a The Grenville strata were intensely metamorphosed and strongly folded before the invasion of the igneous masses which so pro- foundly modified them, as previously stated; and b No folding of any magnitude has affected either the invaded complex or the ore bodies, since the ores were deposited. c Whatever the structures shown by the ore bodies, they were inherited from former structures 1n the rock replaced, in most cases. Where folds are simulated, as in the Forest of Dean mine (see figure 3), these are judged to represent structures inherited from the Pochuck-Grenville, or the Grenville, and its modifications. The proof of the first statement lies in the following field relations: 1 Where the Grenville still exists in unmixed exposures folded structures are in most cases visible. 2 Xenolithic blocks of Grenville schists swamped in granite, exhibit folded structures, but the inclosing granite shows no evi- dence of ever having been folded. 3 The existence of roof-pendants of Grenville schist isolated from one another, all maintaining the same regional strike and the same steep dip; they are highly metamorphosed coarse micaceous schists, obviously parts of a large mass having the same characteristics in common with the remnants left, and whose structure was antecedent to the invasion of the granite. 4 Changes in dip and strike in the modified Pochuck-Grenville in the vicinity of some of the ore bodies; indicating pitching folded structures, inherited. Notably, on the west, south and east sides of Sterling lake (see fig. 6), in the vicinity of the Scott group of mines “+. Q), in the vicinity of the Mahopac mine, and elsewhere. 62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 5 The evidence of lit-par-t injection and the strong structural control of such injections by sediments which, in order to have exerted such control, must have been previously strongly schistose and therefore highly metamorphosed, and whose foliation planes were inclined. Lit-par-lit injections, soaking and impregnation are most easily effected along planes of structural weakness, that is, foliation planes; it would seem therefore as though such processes must operate most effectually on strongly foliated, highly schistose and steeply dipping strata. 6 Gneissoid structures in invading magmatic units, which repre- sent in part, assimilation, partial or complete, of blocks of Grenville, but whose products of assimilation have been very incompletely distributed.*°* | The proof of the second statement lies in the structural characters of the rocks associated with the iron ores. Thus, granites, both geneissoid and massive, dioritic phases of the Pochuck, and massive granites and pegmatites associated with the ore show no signs of ever having been subjected to compressive stresses productive of folding. Some of the pegmatitic facies of the Pochuck were contem- poraneous with the ore, and at times were overlapping so that these phases appear both as dikes, cutting the ore, and as interfingering stringers in the ore. Not infrequently these dikes are of considerable size, and may be traced on the surface for some distances. They cut the rock struc- tures in various directions, but in not a single instance have they ever been affected by folding. Moreover, the latest of the Pre- cambrian intrusives, basic dikes cutting the modified Pochuck-Gren- ville, the ore, the pegmatites, and all other Precambrian magmatic units, varying in thickness from a few inches to a maximum of a few feet, show no signs of folding. From this evidence, therefore, it is judged that neither Taconic nor Appalachian folding have affected the Precambrian crystallines or the magnetite ore bodies to any degree, nor have the ore and its associated rocks been subjected to any such process since the ore was made. It follows, therefore, that the third statement must be reasonably correct. Rolls. One of the curious structural features in some of the mines of the Sterling group is the undulating character of the walls of the ore bodies, generally more pronounced in the footwalls, and especially prominent in the Lake and the Sterling mines. The same 108 Berkey, C. P. & Rice, Marion. Geology of the West Point Quadrangle, N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 225-26. Also private communications. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 63 structure occurs in the Red-back mine, and along the line of pits known as the Steele mine. The roll structure is not confined to the mines, however, but is a more or less constant structural feature in the area which includes the Sterling group, the Scott group, the Red-back belt, and the Bering and Morehead mines. The strikes of the axes of the rolls are variable, but in general at greater or less angles to the regional strike of the rock. They resemble small folds with very short axial directions and extremely steeply dipping limbs, spaced but a short distance apart from crest to crest; they appear to be corrugations produced by minor cross- folding in a previously folded series of strata. They are confined to the Pochuck-Grenville, and may be explained as localized cross- corrugations produced during the injection and impregnation of the folded Grenville strata by the earliest basic intrusive, the Pochuck. They are believed to antedate the pegmatitic differentiates of the Pochuck magma, and the ore. The form of the ore bodies is in part controlled by the rolls where they are especially prominent (see figure 5), and the reason why they are such striking structural features in the Lake and Sterling mines 1s probably because those ore bodies lie in the spoon-shaped end of a pitching syncline, where cross-folding would be especially effective in producing a series of corrugations with diverse axial directions. Faults. The complex faulting of the Highlands region has been discussed in part 1. Notwithstanding the numerous faults of both Appalachian and Triassic types, the main ore bodies are surprisingly little affected. The faults cutting the magnetite deposits are chiefly normal faults of Triassic age, whose horizontal displacements are generally toward the hanging wall side (or toward the right, when facing northeast). Both vertical displacement, or throw, and lateral displacement, or heave, are usually small in amount; the fault-planes generally dip very steeply, and the faults usually cross the ore bodies at high angles to the strike of the ore. The Forest of Dean ore body is unaffected by faulting, as is the main body of the Lake mine, pro- vided the zone judged by the writer to be a healed, Precambrian, preore fault zone, is excepted. This is described in part 4, in the description of the Lake mine, as the “ slip-zone.” The extreme southerly tip of the Sterling ore body seems to have been cut by a normal fault which strikes approximately north 60° east. The west- erly extension of this fault appears to be responsible for the offset of the lower ore-horizon along which lie the Summit, Upper California, 64 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Lower California, and Whitehead mines, and a series of prospect pits. These mines are situated along the course of the ore in a sweep- ing parabola, with strikes and dips shifting in a manner which accords with a synclinal structure pitching northeastwardly. The Tip-top mine may possibly represent the cut-off southerly end of the Lake ore body; this mine is judged to have been opened on the upper horizon of magnetite. The northeastward extension of the same fault, or possibly a branch of it, offsets the houghly-paralleled ore-belt in which lie the Crossway, Mountain, Long, Scott, Cook and Augusta mines. The horizontal displacement is approximately about 200 feet, but it is not possible to estimate the vertical displacement. Minor cross-faults have affected the same belt, also. Thus the northern end of the Scott ore body is cut by a small fault striking a few degrees west of north and dipping very steeply, which has caused a lateral displacement of about 45 feet; the Cook mine is similarly affected, the lateral displacement being equally small. (See fig. 9) The Crawford ore body shows a small lateral displacement, and the Canopus ore body has likewise been faulted, but to an unknown degree. The difficulty of determining the extent of faulting is due to the fact that most of the mines so affected are either mere open-cuts, all more or less filled and caved, or else they are inaccessible because they have become filled with water. In the case of the Canopus and the Bull mines, deformation due to faulting is reflected in the thin sections, which show all stages of strain and crush effects. (See plate 8) The Bull mine exhibits these features to a marked degree, as would be expected, since it is located in one of the “stranded” or “floating”? fault blocks previously mentioned, and the ore body has therefore been affected both by the Appalachian thrust movement which carried the whole block up and over on the Paleozoic rocks, and the Triassic gravity-faults which subsequently isolated the block and which bound it on the northern, eastern and southern sides. The Standish mine of the Warwick group is cut by a fault of unknown magnitude at the northeast end, beyond which the ore is not again in evidence. The Phillips belt of magnetite, in Putnam county, is similarly disturbed, but the transverse faults are of small displacement and nowhere produce an offset of more than 50 feet. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 65 The fault which cut the ore body of the Tilly Foster mine has been described in detail by Wendt*°? and Ruttman‘*®; the fault crossed the ore body diagonally, striking nearly north and south, and dipping eastward about 72°. According to Ruttman, the part of the ore body east of the fault was displaced in a direction 20° east of south and at an angle of 45° with the horizon, about 130 feet. The horizontal movement was about go feet. (See fig. 12; after Wendt and Ruttman.) The Mahopac ore body was cut off by a fault of such magnitude as to cause the ultimate abandonment of the mine. The trend of the fault is not definitely known, as there is no evidence on the surface to show in what direction the fault may strike and with the exception of the plans and vertical sections of the ore body, redrawn from reproductions of old maps kindly loaned by the Ramapo Ore Com- pany (fig. 13) no exact information could be obtained with regard to the trend and magnitude of the fault. The throw is probably not less than 150 or 200 feet, toward the east or southeast. There is some evidence to indicate that the Brewster belt of magnetite has been similarly affected, more particularly the Clover Hill mine, which lies at the southern end of the belt; but here like- wise there are no faults of any great magnitude. It seems evident that in but very few instances have the magnetite bodies been seriously affected by deformation resulting from fault- ing ; even in the questionable cases such as, for example, the Mahopac ore body, it is the belief of the writer that properly directed exploratory work would locate the faulted-off portion of the ore, since none of the transverse faults has very great throw. It is only when both Appalachian and Triassic faulting have affected the ore bodies that a very serious situation arises, and these cases are rare. Character of the magnetite. The magnetite bodies of south- eastern New York are in general massive, hard, crystalline ores invariably mixed with mineral remnants, sometimes altered, of the rocks they have replaced; or, in the case of those deposits resulting from the magmatic replacement of interbedded crystalline limestone, the ore is mixed with typical contact minerals, some of which may have been produced by magmatic action during the replacement ; such as tremolite, chondrodite, garnet, scapolite, coccolite, spinel and others of similar origin. Other minerals co-related in origin to the 109 Wendt, A. F. The Iron Mines of Putnam County, N. Y. Trans. A. I. IMG Ty, SOM Ae Waste, 110 Ruttman, F. S. Notes on the Geology of the Tilly Foster Ore body, Putnam County, N. Y. Trans. A. I. M. E., v. XV, p. 79-00. 1886-87. 3 66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM magnetite itself, and contemporaneous with it, such as apatite, tour- maline, calcite, quartz, pyrite, pyrrhotite, and occasionally chalcopy- rite, are likewise mixed with the ore. Of these apatite is the com- monest and most abundant. In the few deposits where apatite is sparingly distributed it is usual to find the sulphides increased in quantity, so that the amount of sulphur in these magnetites appears to vary inversely as the phosphorus increases. The more or less altered minerals, remnants of still unreplaced rock, which are invariably mixed with all the magnetites except those which have replaced crystalline limestones by magmatic processes,” are quartz and feldspar, both frequently sericitized; hornblende, pyroxene and mica, all generally more or less altered by sericitiza- tion, chloritization and epidotization; magnesian-bearing pyroxenes, which are especially subject to alteration, with fine, flaky tale and serpentine as the products, and occasionally leucoxenized titanite. Seer plates, ©) 72010" tii.) Although the ore is, as stated, in general massive, compact and hard, it sometimes occurs as less coherent, granular aggregates more or less friable, known as “ shot ore,” and in rarer instances it is found crystallized in octahedra and in cubes. Sometimes the ore is massive, blocky, coarse and jointed, with planes of easy parting, so that it breaks out in straight-sided pieces; in zones affected by faulting the magnetite is crushed and more or less friable. When small pieces of the hard, compact, massive ores are ground to a plane surface and polished, it will be seen that they are com- posed of grains varying in diameter from i or 2 millimeters, in the dense, finely crystalline ores, up to more than I centimeter, in the coarser magnetites. Each grain is itself composed of an aggregate of minute crystals which have the same orientation in the individual grains, but each crystal aggregate will differ in orientation from the ageregates of adjacent grains, so that by holding the polished slab of ore in certain positions, light reflected from its surface will reveal the grain-size and varying orientations of the minute crystals com- posing the grains, whereas in other positions the surface looks structureless and uniform. This is especially true of the finely crystalline ores; the coarser ones have rather a prominent grain- difference, especially where sulphides are distributed interstitially 111 The Tilly Foster, The Mahopac, the Croft, the Todd, the O’Neill, The Forshee, the Red-back (in part), are representatives of this type. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 67 between the magnetite grains, and in the rare cases where the ores are sufficiently titaniferous to show intergrowths of magnetite and ilmenite. (Plate 11, figure 3) The presence of corroded, more or less altered remnants of various minerals (unreplaced remnants) and of minerals co-related in origin to the magnetite, such as apatite, interrupts the continuity of the magnetite to such a degree that all polished surfaces of the ore appear strongly pitted and irregular as to the distribution of the magnetite itself. This is shown in plate 11, figures 1 to 5. These photomicrographs were taken in direct reflected light from polished plates of the ore. The magnetite appears in white scattered areas, pitted and patchy because of the included matters mentioned. The irregular, corroded, smooth grayish patches are remnants of unre- placed silicate minerals. Figure 3, in the same group, is an etched slab of ore from the Canopus mine showing the distribution of platelike ilmenite intergrown with the magnetite. The chemical composition of the ores accords perfectly with the general make-up and habit of the magnetite as shown by the micro- scope. The writer has been unable to have chemical analyses made; some of the analyses that have been made in the past appear in the roth Census Report, and a few incomplete analyses may be found in other reports. From these data, and from a petrographic study of the ores, it appears that there are three general types of ore: (1) a high phosphorus, low sulphur, non-Bessemer magnetite; (2) low phosphorus, high sulphur ore, and (3) an intermediate type carrying moderate quantities of both sulphur and phosphorus, but not of Bessemer grade. An additional and rare type was derived from the Mahopac and Tilly Foster mines, low in phosphorus, low to moderate in sulphur, but carrying silica, lime and magnesia, as lime- magnesia silicates (see plate 9, figure 1, plate 14, figures 3 and 4) in such proportions and in such quantities as to make the ores “ self- fluxing.” The general composition of these four types is as fol- lowest. 4 2 Tenth Census Report (1880); published in 1886. 68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Zo % Zo %o 7% Zo % 1 High phosphorus, P Fe S) SiO, CaO | MgO | AIO; low sulphur en | ee ee | meena | en |e | ee | SS | Ss | sf | 2 Low phosphorus, 0.OI AACR WED AZO. CH I Weis (cell ny pe nell tame tna high sulphur to to ROSA AiH Wes mR NMRA SORT RM IMT A Gr he —_————— | | | | | — | OPAUA Sims een KONO Gis Unrate enue MORIN NCAR 1, 3 Intermediate to to COML TRA Gk. Oa: ar: 4 WARM DER LY RLS OFZ SATEG 757i OMA OAta nee reainrtn | Eee ae EROS Gita ianebaicodt 2 OSZOLO)| |) BONS) MOL OLA | (TO LST Te LOM nt 725 O87.0 4 “ Self-fluxing ”’ to to to to to to to (rare) a COM vl] KOLO). |] Ode, Ged I) 20d atl) I] Ba MO IP UOSSe) py weea The phosphorus is derived from the apatite included in, and co-related in origin to the magnetite; some of it is removed during magnetic concentration. The sulphur is present as pyrite and pyrrhotite, and is likewise of the same origin as the magnetite. Mines producing high sulphur ore in the past were equipped with roasting furnaces which apparently disposed of the sulphur in a satisfactory manner. Unreplaced remnants of rock universally present in the ores (plates 7, 10, 11), consisting of quartz, sericitized and unsericitized feldspars, pyroxene and hornblende more or less altered, titanite grains, and occasionally mica, sometimes chloritized, will add small quantities of silica, potash and soda, alumina, lime and magnesia, manganese and titanium to the general composition of the magnetites ; but these elements, with the possible exception of silica and titanium, have never been reported. With the exception of a few complete analyses of the Tilly Foster ore, made by the chemists of the 10th Census, no complete analyses of the magnetites of south- eastern New York have ever been published. THE ORIGIN OF THE MAGNETITE All the evidence, both field and petrographic, points to an igneous source for the magnetite. This is entirely in accord with the ideas of those geologists who have studied similar deposits in the Adirondack region and in the adjacent Highlands area in New Jersey, during the past 10 or 12 years. The writer, however, has MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 69 a slightly different conception of the processes which were responsible for the deposition of the magnetite. As early as 1897, J. F. Kemp*” concluded that some of the Adirondack magnetites were of igneous origin; he described the magnetite deposits at Port Henry, N. Y., as “ contact deposits formed by the influence and stimulus of the gabbro intrusion. Attendant on their (1.e., the gabbros) cooling and crystallization, the emission of highly heated solutions of iron and other compounds transpired, presumably with vapors in some degree, and these circulating along the various contacts gave rise to the ore bodies. They must have replaced in large part the wall rocks and have made a place for the iron oxide in this way.” This is an exceedingly shrewd observation, the significance of which has been overlooked or neglected by those who have made later studies of the Adirondack magnetites, and similar deposits elsewhere. Kemp and Newland *™ 11 years later, and with additional study, still remained convinced that these ore bodies were derived from igneous sources. Miller “° likewise ascribes an igneous origin to the magnetites (of Clinton county), but his conception of the source of the magnetite seems to be at variance with the evidence presented by a study of the deposits in southeastern New York. According to Miller (op. cit.), the magnetite of Clinton county is a product of the transforma- tion of the hornblende and hypersthene of the older gabbro and metagabbro, into diallage, of lower iron content, through the action of the invading pegmatites. The slight loss in iron which the hornblende and hypersthene would suffer by such paramorphic change postulates the assimilation of inconcetvably enormous amounts of gabbro in the invading granite in order to account for the great deposits of magnetite which are known to exist. There is no evidence, in the Highlands of southeastern New York, that any such process was ever opera- tive; so far as the Adirondack deposits are concerned, Newland’s *° criticism of Miller’s conception seems justified. The New Jersey magnetites are likewise igneous in origin, accord- 3 Kemp, J. F. Geology of the Magnetites near Port Henry, N. Y. Ideas, AN I, IMI By) a7e 146-203. 1897. 114 Kemp, J. F.. & Newland, D. H. Geology of the Adirondack Magnetic Iron Ores. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 119. 1908. 115 Miller, W. J. Magnetic Iron Ores of Clinton County, N. Y. Econ. Geol., v. XIV, Pp. 500-35. I9I9. S103 Discussion of Miller’s paper by D. H. Newland. Econ. Geol., 15, p. 177- . 1920. 7O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ing to W. S. Bayley *’ and A. C. Spencer™*®, who have made the latest and most exhaustive studies of those deposits. The magnetites of the Brewster district, in Putnam county, New York, and the ore in the Forest of Dean mine, in Orange county, have been judged to be of magmatic origin also by Koeberlin**? and Ames.**° The consensus of opinion, therefore, of the students of these deposits, is for an igneous source. The processes operative in the formation of the magnetic iron ores of Putnam and Orange counties, New York, appear to have been: 1 Long-continued magmatic differentiation of a basic magma of great extent, with the concentration of extremely mobile end-phase products rich in those elements which ultimately formed the pegmatites; rich in magnetite, rich in quartz and gaseous concentra- tion products, all in aqueo-igneous solution. 2 Subdifferentiation of the concentrate itself, into pegmatite-rich and magnetite-rich fractions, and 3 Transportation, in aqueo-igneous solution, of such fractions through the operation of stresses concomitant with batholithic intrusion, along directions of least resistance. 4 The magmatic replacement, by the magnetite-rich fraction, of more or less calcareous phases, and in a few cases of interbedded limestone lenses, of the Pochuck-Grenville; the whole process sub- ject to the structural control of the Pochuck-Grenville. 5 Forming magmatic- menlonenient deposits, or replacement deposits of deuteric origin. The feature which the writer wishes to emphasize is the power- fully mineralizing capacity of magmatic end-stage emanation prod- ucts rich in magnetite, forced ultimately to penetrate a part of their own parent body which had already impregnated and injected a previously folded and metamorphosed series of sediments; and of directions of travel structurally controlled, and loci of deposition dependent on the quality of the rock replaced. The term “ dewteric”’ was first used by Sederholm’” to indicate 117 Bayley, W. S. Annual Rep’t State Geol. N. J. 1904. Min. Mag., v. Io, 1904. Iron Mines and Mining in N. J., v. VII, final report series, State Geol. ONO) [ROK USA IW Se (EA Siyy iealss 8 hovel) Iskolbioy ion Whi Sy Cay Se) uoOUZ. 118 Spencer, A. C. Folio 161, U. S. G. S. 1008. 119 Koeberlin, F. R. The Brewster Iron- bearing District of New York. Econ. 'Geol., v. IV, p. 713-54. 1900. 120 Ames, Edward W. Notes on the Geology of the Forest of Dean Mine. Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts, in the Faculty of Applied Science, Columbia University, 1918. 121 Sederholm, J. J. Synantetic Minerals and Related Phenomena; Bull. de la Comm. geologique de Finlande, 48: 141-42. 1916. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 71 changes taking place in direct continuation of the consolidation of the magma by reason of the action of magmatic end-stage emanation products on already crystallized mineral grains. As used by Seder- holm, the term was confined to microscopic intergrowths along the margins of two grains at their contacts. “ Deuteric’’ is here extended to cover mineralization and other end processes of magmatic origin, involving the actual magmatic replacement or change of rock matter by the ultimate end-stage concentration products of magmatic differentiation. Graton and McLaughlin??? evolved the terms “ orthotectic,’ for ore deposits of strictly magmatic origin concentrated by crystalliza- tion in the ordinary course of cooling of an igneous magma; and “ pneumotectic”’ for products of magmatic consolidation which were modified by and controlled by gaseous constituents or “ mineralizers ”’ which accumulated by elimination, from the preceding orthotectic stage. The term “ orthotectic”’ is not properly applied to the magnetite ; nor does the term “ pueumotectic”’ exactly fit the case, since the word involves rather vague ideas with respect to control by “ gases ”’ and “ mineralizers,’”’ especially gases. Hence the term “deuteric,’ implying changes produced by or mineralization caused by the action of the ultimate magmatic end- stage consolidation products, essentially in aqueo-igneous solution, is used as descriptive of the processes involved in the deposition of the magnetite. Figures 2 and 3, plate 6, are in a small measure illustra- tive of some of the “deuteric”’ effects. Evidence for magmatic origin. The evidence for the mag- matic origin of the magnetite may be stated briefly as follows: 1 The magnetite is always intimately associated with typical peg- matites of unquestionable igneous source. It occurs intergrown with the pegmatites (simultaneous crystallization), both cuts them and is cut by them, and is distributed interstitially as an end product in them (contemporaneous, with overlapping stages). One or both of the pegmatites invariably form part of the walls of the ore bodies and they are so involved with and so intimately related to the ore as to be undoubtedly from the same source. 2 The magnetite contains within it minerals of co-related origin, such as apatite, pyrite, pyrrhotite and end-stage quartz. These are of igneous character and habit. B) 122 Graton, L. C., & McLaughlin, D. H. Further Remarks on the Ores of Engels, California. Econ. Geol. 13: 81-99. 1918. 72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 3 The magnetite does not conform strictly to the structure of the “ gneisses,” as is commonly stated. On the contrary the ore grades into country rock in many cases from “ solid” ore, through dissemi- nated magnetite (“lean ore”) into magnetiferous rock and finally rock almost free from magnetite. Moreover, the magnetite fre- quently cuts the rock structure in stringers and “ veins,” and not infrequently occurs in little “ dikes” in the Pochuck granite, which is regarded as a manifestation of the very extreme end-stage matter, with magnetite very slightly overlapping. Evidence for replacement. 1 Petrographic study of both thin sections and polished plates proves the magnetite to contain embayed, corroded and partially replaced silicate minerals, native to the Pochuck-Grenville; these in many cases are affected by sericitization, chloritization, epidotization, serpentinization, and by conversion to talc; in such a manner and to such a degree as to suggest that replacement was connected with the changes mentioned. (See plates’ 6;'7, 10, ‘I1.) 2 Field studies show that the forms of the ore bodies were apparently controlled in large part both by preexisting structures in the rocks replaced, and by the quality of the replaced material. The activity of the deuteric processes was so great, however, that pre- existing structures were only partially preserved in some cases. Thus, the form of the ore body of the Forest of Dean mine, which resembles a synclinal asymmetric fold, is thought to represent an inherited (preserved) structure; the forms of the ore bodies in the Lake, Scott, Cook, Augusta, Mahopac and Tilly Foster mines are likewise suggestive of inherited structures, partially preserved; or modified, in some instances, more especially in the Mahopac and Tilly Foster mines. Evidence for magmatic control of replacement. 1 The inti- mate relationship between the magnetite and the pegmatites, the latter undoubtedly derived from igneous sources, suggests a similar source for the magnetite, and hence magmatic control of replace- ment. 2 In the few cases where interbedded crystalline limestone layers or lenses were replaced, the minerals found with the magnetite are characteristic contact types usually found where limestones have been profoundly affected by the intrusion of igneous bodies (see plate 9, figure 1 and plate 14, figures I, 3, 4). 3 The apatite found in the magnetite is from igneous sources and MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK ye is not native to the Pochuck-Grenville. The pyrrhotite found in some of the deposits is likewise undoubtedly of magmatic origin. 4 Sericite and related products are judged to be due to the action of the magmatic end-stage emanation concentrates on the minerals of the rock replaced, and hence to indicate magmatic control (see plate 6, figures 1, 3 and plate 7). 74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM PART 4 THE MAGNETITE MINES This section is devoted to descriptions of the individual mines, including equipment, extent of workings, chemical character of the ores, character of the walls, tonnage of ore produced, special struct- ural features, and all other items of interest which it has been possible to obtain. Many of these properties have been closed down for al- most half a century and information with regard to them is difficult to gather. The magnetite deposits in southeastern New York mined up to the present time have furnished shipping ores carrying from 50 to 60 per cent iron. Although these are not yet exhausted the main supply for future mining consists of leaner ores carrying a minimum of 25 per cent iron, which can be worked on a very extensive scale and which will lend themselves readily to magnetic concentration. The richer magnetites, with some few exceptions like the Forest of Dean ore body, occur in irregular tabular masses 10 to 25 feet thick at most, and consequently the limit of exploitation of these deposits was reached at comparatively shallow depths under the conditions of mining that formerly obtained in the district. The aggregate output of shipping ore has been approximately 10,000,000 tons. The only mines now in operation are the Lake, the Scott and Cook of the Sterling group, and the Forest of Dean mine. The Tilly Foster, Mahopac, and Croton magnetic mines ceased operation in the nineties ; the others closed down in 1880 and have never been in operation since with the exception of the small mine at Travis Corners, formerly called the Nelson, later the Canopus. Attempts have been made from time to time to operate this mine, without much success. None of these mines has ever been bottomed, although some of them have been in more or less continual operation since 1750; in most cases the supplies of ore have not been seriously drawn upon, and provided the mines now inoperative have ore bodies as persist- ent in depth as those now in operation, it seems reasonable to con- clude that the magnetite ore bodies in this area form an ore-reserve of very considerable tonnage and value. estos) na SUIMAT PINE er egeMOsh TNA 30 AWS g AS a/ lie a 4/0 SATS - 4% Se i ye 2 aw + 3 ee ~ y a \ York ¥ e 4 iY ej : a, 3 we He " Ss ih pi . A, ry ; 4 ‘| 4 * 2 - F 5 Rie 4 de i Ovoghars edt Yoqermes tists” ag gailretaysdTis: itech ieee ewe opti t HY! ieee!) cerreren © quer ey a | 2 Ret a BRT ah ne SN Ca Ge ne OPEC kod pe Ce ee en en ee, ee eee ; SUIT = MINE LINE OF PITS ALONG’ oO : ae Sp ¥, STRIKE OF LOWER -ORE\BORY<, wre 8 a < a A 7 UPPER,“ CALIFORNIA MINE Le oO EGR ° C) (Ss EN 3 LOWER CALIFORNIA MINE ° nN % WHITEHEAD SO MINE Ria en a 45° Te MAP OF THE STERLING GROUP SSeS ie T co} 4000 €000 Fig. 6 The Sterne pious, after a map by the Ramapo Ore Company, modified by the writer. Showing the Tip-top, Lake and Sterling ore-bodies, on the upper ore horizon, and the Summit, Upper and Lower California mines, and the itehead mine on the lower ore horizon. The approximate location of the “slip” zone is likewise shown as well as dips and strikes which suggest inherited structural conditions mentioned in the text. \ id ‘G “se i : 2 ; ati oe : ae 2 ae Jeeta ¥ 7. is a + -) SSS = “S508 = Soe WINDE FINITE e upper ore horizon, and the Summit, Upper and Lower California mines, which suggest inherited structural conditions mentioned in the text. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 7 DHE STPEREPING GROW E The Sterling group, in Orange county, consists of the Lake, Sterling, Steele, Crawford, Upper California, Lower California, Summit, Tip-top, Brennan and Whitehead mines. These are con- trolled by the Ramapo Ore Company. Of the group of mines men- tioned, the Lake, Scott and Cook have been dewatered and are now being operated. A large amount of development work has been done, many improvements have been made, considerable exploratory work has been undertaken and the mines have been equipped with modern machinery; the prospects are excellent for the production of a considerable tonnage of ore in the near future. The other mines of this group have not been reopened, nor have the Cross- way, Mountain, Smith, Long, Augusta, Red-back, Bering or More- head mines, likewise under lease by the Ramapo Ore Company, been reopened. The Lake and Sterling mines. At the south end of Sterling lake, and occupying what seems to be the parabola-shaped end of an emerging syncline pitching to the northeast, are two separate and distinct ore-horizons, Along the lower of these were opened the Summit, Upper California, Lower California and Whitehead mines, lying in the order named from west to east. A number of prospect pits were opened in rock along this same line, so that the changing directions of dip and strike may be easily followed. Reference to the map, fig. 6, will make clear the general situation; structures are indicated where measurements were made. On the upper ore-horizon were opened the Tip-top, Lake and Sterling mines. The Sterling mine. A large outcrop of magnetite, on the north slope of the hill lying at the south end of Sterling lake was dis- covered in 1750, and a mine was opened on this outcrop. The mine was named the Sterling after Lord Sterling, who was the proprietor of the land. He sold the property, and a blast furnace was imme- diately erected and put into operation, producing the first iron ever manufactured in the State of New York. This spot is of historic interest not only for this reason, but also because the great chain, which was extended across the Hudson river at West Point in order to impede the progress of the British warships up the river during the Revolution, was made at Sterling furnace in 1788 by Peter Townsend. The iron of this chain was made from equal parts of ore from the Sterling and the Long mines. The weight of each link was 140 to 150 pounds and the whole chain weighed 186 tons; 76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM it was made and delivered in 6 weeks.*?* The Daughters of the Revolution have erected a tablet on this historic spot to commemo- rate the ruins of Sterling furnace. (See plate 13.) The ore in the Sterling mine was stripped from the surface, and followed under Sterling lake at an approximate angle of 28° meas- ured on the average inclination of the slope. The mine, which was closed about 1902, is now inaccessible; it has been stated that the slope (inclined shaft) of this mine was down 1000 feet, a figure which is probably approximately correct judging from a map kindly furnished by the Ramapo Ore Company (see fig. 6). From this map it would appear as though the two mines, Lake and Sterling, were separated by an interval of 250 to 400 feet. This interval has been called a “ pinch,” but this should not be understood to imply an actual squeezing apart of a single ore body by dynamic forces. According to Putnam ’*™ the ore varies in thickness from 10 to 30 feet, owing to the rolls in the walls. The character and origin of the rolls have already been discussed (see plate 12). Putnam (op. cit.) states that the ore is a granular magnetite carry- ing more or less apatite, and gives the following analysis of a sample taken from a pile of 250 tons: 1S aerate ERNE lr, EPRI Ar ROIS SLM NR A 61.01 SLUICE NARRATE A ARL, SHemi ai NaunVarrae aS, oer, Baltealnat era O275 PG EH ie co TIVES, OPAL RI EL Ae RE SE A DN 0.284 It is certain that the same general conditions as to the character of the walls, the rolls, and the general geologic relations prevail in the Sterling mine as in the Lake mine and that a discussion of the latter will apply as well to the former. The Lake mine. This mine is equipped with an electric hoist, a Ball-Norton magnetic concentrating mill with a capacity of 50 tons an hour, and dryers. The mine is nearly dry, although it lies wholly under Sterling lake; the little water that enters is taken care of by three pumps; one at the bottom of the mine of 7.5 horse power, a larger one on the 1600-foot level of 35 horse power, and another of 15 horse power, at the surface. The ore body, about 500 feet in width, lies on the gently dipping western limb of what appears to be an asymmetric syncline (see fig. 6); it is a long, relatively narrow and thin, corrugated and 123 Appendix to the Third Annual Report of the First Geological District, 1839. The report of Doctor Horton to W. W. Mather on the Geology of Orange County. 124 Tenth Census Report, 1880, p. 91. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK Hil obscurely lenticular mass of magnetite, gently pitching with the rock structure to the northeast. The strike of the rock structure at or near the entrance to the mine is about north 78° west, and the dip is 16° a little east of north. Both strike and dip change, how- ever, from the entrance to the bottom of the mine, because of the situation of the ore body in the emerging end of an asymmetric syn- cline. According to the belief of the writer the corrugations are an inherited structure, caused by slight cross-folding during the intrusion of the basic Pochuck magma into previously folded Gren- ville strata; the ore, slightly later, adjusted itself to and followed the structures thus produced. Advantage has been taken of the roll- structure in mining, pillars of ore having been left as roof-supports at the crests of some of the rolls where the ore is thinnest. The mine is worked through an inclined shaft, or “slope,” sunk at an angle varying from 12° to 25° in places, following the length of the ore body and diverging from a straight line as much as 30° toward the bottom of the mine (see fig. 6). Drifts have been driven in either direction from the slope at various levels, the dis- tance across some of the levels being approximately 1000 feet. The slope has been sunk 3800 feet on the incline, which places the bottom of the mine well out under the lake and roughly between 1000 and 1100 vertical feet below the level of the lake on the basis of an average inclination of 16°. The thickness of the ore body is somewhat difficult to estimate because of variations caused by the rolls; it will probably average somewhere in the neighborhood of 10 feet. Although the mine has been worked since very early times and much ore has been hoisted, it is not yet exhausted, nor have the limits of the ore body been determined. Exploratory work carried on by the present operating company has outlined a large tonnage of ore. The Walls of the ore body. For a distance of 2300 feet the hanging wall of the Lake Slope is in part granite;1”> the granite is probably the Pochuck granite, although no petrographic studies have been made of it. The same granite appears at the surface at nearby points with included blocks and roof pendants of Pochuck- Grenville swamped in it. At 2300 feet the granite hanging wall in the slope gives way to granitized Pochuck-Grenville, which is heavily pegmatized in places. On the 2500-foot level the wall rock is slightly granitized Pochuck-Grenville carrying hornblende, biotite, a colorless monoclinic pyroxene, antiperthite, plagioclase of andesine 125 Personal communication from D. H. Newland. 2 ie) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM composition, very little quartz, which occurs interstitially and in poikilitic fashion in the hornblende, and a little magnetite. Pochuck-Grenville, more or less modified by granitization and pegmatization, forms both walls for the remainder of the distance to the bottom of the mine. At the east end of a drift on the 2800- foot level the hanging wall is very heavily pegmatized, carrying a green, slightly pleochroic monoclinic pyroxene, bluish green horn- blende, quartz, strongly sericitized plagioclase of about andesine composition, fresh orthoclase which has margins of albite; epidote, disseminated magnetite which cuts and encroaches upon the silicate minerals, and considerable apatite. The drift at this point is in or very close to the “ slip-zone ” described further on. Footwall samples taken from the main slope at the 3100 and 3200- foot levels are strongly foliated in structure and contain a very light-colored pink to slightly greenish, pleochroic and monoclinic pyroxene (“ clino-hypersthene ’’), a light-green non-pleochroic mono- clinic pyroxene (coccolite), much biotite with meta-poikilitic habit, andesine, quartz and a little magnetite (see plate 9; figure 3). It is essentially slightly granitized Pochuck-Grenville with an inherited structure. It will thus be seen that the wall rock of the Lake mine, and probably of the Sterling as well, is in part granitized Pochuck-Gren- ville, in part pegmatized Pochuck-Grenville, and in part Pochuck granite, all involved with streaks and stringers of pegmatite. The strongly inequigranular habit, the mode of aggregation, association and marginal relations of the minerals, the great range in the com- positions of the feldspars, the strongly foliated structure, the evi- dence of injection, and the manner in which the magnetite encroaches upon and cuts the other minerals indicate some other and much more complex origin than a simple igneous one, for these rocks. The “slip-zone.” A zone of mixed rock and disseminated ore, approximately 150 feet in width and striking a few degrees from direct north-south, cuts the northeast edge of the Lake ore body and presumably cuts the east edge of the Sterling ore body also, as at present defined and shown on the map of the Sterling group (fig. 6). This zone has been called the “slip-zone” by Mr Charles Rees, superintendent of the Ramapo Ore Company; its location is only approximately shown on the map, since the exact trend and width have not yet been determined. The general direction shown is prob- ably but a few degrees in error however, and the estimated width is MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 79 not far from correct. Its extension northerly has not been deter- mined, but there are surface evidences of its emergence at the south end of the lake. The slip-zone destroys the rolls, but does not apparently offset the ore so far as can be determined from the present stage of development work. The extension of the main slope has carried it through this zone on the lower levels of the mine, and massive ore was encountered on the eastern edge of the mixed rock-and-ore zone, as well as a renewal of the rolls, the axes of which at this point strike about north 78° east (estimated by the writer) as con- trasted with an almost due east-west strike in other portions of the mine, and a strike of north 78° west at the base of the hill just south of the lake (see fig. 6). The character of the rock in the slip-zone suggests that this zone may have been a channel of distribution for the intensely active, magmatic end-stage mineralizing aqueo-igneous solutions judged to have been responsible for the deposition of the magnetie. Coarse pegmatite, and large crystals of pyroxene, feldspar, garnet, epidote, quartz, occasionally tourmaline, and other characteristic minerals usually found in pegmatites, are derived from this zone, especially in shrinkage cavities or vug's, all intermingled with rock of the quality of Pochuck-Grenville the whole mixed with sufficient disseminated magnetite to make concentration a possibility. A critical study of some of the material shows that it has been fractured and faulted, but that it is now tightly healed by the products of magmatic end-stage emanations; that is, by epidote, soda-feldspars, carbonate and the like. It is probable that the period of deformation was very closely related to, and slightly overlapped the healing period, for fractures in the feldspar are in places healed with feldspar; and micro-crush zones in epidote crystals exhibit crushed epidote healed with epidote itself, so that a sort of selective action obtained during the process. It would appear, therefore, that whatever deformation occurred must have been an accompaniment of the invasion of the Pochuck magma; that the “slip-zone” is a Precambrian crush-zone, pro- duced slightly later than the cross-corrugations called “the rolls,” since these are destroyed within the zone, but a product of the same set of forces. And possibly serving as a channel for the magmatic end-stage products, related also to the same general period. (See plate 9, figures 2 and 4.) The ore. The ore in the Lake mine is in general a compact, fine- 8O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM grained massive magnetite, which contains, in common with all the magnetite ore bodies, remnants of still unreplaced minerals, and minerals of similar origin to the ore itself, such as apatite. In the “slip-zone” there are occasional occurrences of coarsely crystalline magnetite, but these are rare. Closely associated with the ore and forming parts of the walls is a coarse red hornblendic and pyroxenic pegmatite; the dioritic phase of the Pochuck pegmatite. Sometimes included within the ore, rim- med with coarse biotite at the contact, sometimes lying between the ore and the wall rock, sometimes cutting the ore, this pegmatite and the ore are very closely associated and essentially contemporaneous in origin. The ore does not uniformly follow the structure in the rock, as stringers of ore cut across the rock structure in places, and fre- quently split and divide, the stringers of ore in such cases commonly pinching out and fading into rock, in a manner shown in figure 4 sketched in the main slope toward the bottom of the mine. In other places the ore follows more or less regularly the secondary corruga- tions called “ rolls,’ as shown in figure 5, sketched at the north end of no. 6 drift on the 2800-foot level. According to figures obtained at the mine, first-class shipping ore will carry 61.34 per cent iron, 0.60 per cent phosphorus and 5.20 per cent silica; this is probably a little better than the general average composition of the ore. Putnam, in the Tenth Census Report, gives, as an average of 50 tons, 57.25 per cent iron, 1.205 per cent phos- phorus and 0.088 per cent sulphur. The output from the Lake mine up to and including the year 1917 was 1,254,283 tons of mag- netite. The Tip-top mine. From a small opening on the summit of the hill immediately south of the Lake and Sterling mines, and distant from them less than 1000 feet, a little ore has beeen taken in the past. This mine, called the Clarke or Tip-top mine,’?® ceased oper- ations some time between 1880 and 1889. From structural relations shown in the field it is judged that this small body of magnetite, much of which has been mined out, is a small portion of the Lake ore body, displaced by a fault of small throw. In the Tenth Census Report, Putnam states that the ore carried 54.03 per cent iron, 0.173 per cent sulphur, and 1.751 per cent phosphorus; quite similar in composition to the ore from the main body of the Lake mine. The 126 Putnam, in the Tenth Census Report, apparently confused this mine with another opening on the lower horizon of ore, called the Summit mine. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK SI mine was worked by an open cut, from which a short inclined tun- nel was driven into the hanging wall. Cross-folding is exhibited in the rocks exposed in this cut. The lower ore-horizon. Swinging around the base of the hill at the foot of Sterling lake, on the southwest, south and southeast sides, with strikes and dips shifting in accordance (see fig. 6), lies the lower ore-horizon; this has been offset by the same fault which affected the Tip-top mine, of the upper ore-horizon. The Summit mine. Beginning at a point about 1500 feet west of the boiler house of the Lake mine is an opening on the west side of a narrow little gulch lying between two hills. An inclined shaft fol- lows the dip of the rock, or ore, easterly, terminating at an unknown depth. This is the slope leading into the old Summit mine, now filled with water. The rock structure strikes north 5° east and dips 30° a little to the south of east. There are numerous old prospect pits in the vicinity but it is impossible to judge from the surface conditions how extensive the workings may be, or the size of the ore body. Crossing the strike of the rocks, from the Summit mine to the Lake and Sterling mines, the same general direction of dip is main- tained without reversal, so that the slope of the Summit mine, if extended at the same inclination, would pass about 200 feet under the Lake and Sterling mines (see figure 7). No mention is made of this mine in the old reports, and no information is at hand with regard to the extent or character of the ore. The country rock in the vicinity does not differ from that connected with the Lake ore body. The Upper California mine. About 1500 feet south of the Tip- top mine, and at the base of the hill, the slope of the Upper Calli- fornia mine taps the lower ore-horizon at an angle of 30°. The slope was sunk to a depth of 350 feet on the incline before opera- tions ceased. The mine is now full of water and inaccessible. On the dump were found fragments of Pochuck-Grenville, Pochuck granite, dioritic and syenitic pegmatites, and massive and coarsely crystalline magnetite. Petrographic study of some of the material collected from the dump shows: a Magnetite; with remnants of quartz, feldspar and pyroxene, corroded, embayed and replaced by the magnetite, the feldspars all having strongly sericitized borders where in contact with the mag- netite. b Syenitic phases of the Pochuck, carrying colorless pyroxene, antiperthite, plagioclase, and magnetite in end-stage relations. “ “SOUIUE SUI[I0]G PUR Bye] 94} Ul Solpog-e10 oY} JepuN sessed UOoZIIOY JOMOT 943 JO a0 dy} JO UOrT}Iofoid ve VY} MoOYs 0} JIOYo ue SI SIYT, “AueduIOD 919 odeueY 94} Aq SSUIMeIP WO “UozZII0Yy 910 joddn ‘sour SuljiojS pue oye] VY} Ssotoe ‘UOZIIOY 210 JaMO] UO ‘oUTUT YUNG JO HUIS Wo} UOTDeS puke URTq / ‘Sly co? oor C) 238f CHEE oop oe wes ef amo osm saa oe = ofl ATF MUSEUM YORK STATE oe ee ecoy NEW a Ht OF i FM LIWMWAS ' 82 MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 83 c Syenite-soaked and diorite-soaked Grenville, granitized and in- jected. d Extensively modified Pochuck-Grenville carrying clino-hypers- thene, granular green pyroxene (coccolite), hornblende, biotite, per- thite, plagioclase, quartz and apatite, cut by veinlets of magnetite and showing magnetite in end-stage relations. The few specimens studied, taken at random from the dump, seem to indicate the same sort of history outlined for the Lake ore body. No data were available as to the quantity of ore hoisted or as to the probable extent of the ore; it is stated that the ore body is 1 to 3 feet in thickness. Judging from the samples of ore taken from the dump, the quality of the magnetite is fully equal to that taken from the Lake and other mines. The Lower California mine. About 800 feet southeast of the Upper California mine, just west of the highway, is situated an old opening called the Lower California mine. The mine lies in a swamp, and at the time of the writer’s visit nothing whatever was visible; the workings are completely drowned. The mine was de- watered by the Sterling Iron Mountain Railway Company, but proved so extremely wet by reason of its situation that further oper- ations were abandoned and it soon again filled with water. The ore body lies along the same line as the others of this horizon; the ore is of excellent quality, but it is only from 1 to 2 feet thick. About 300 feet from the shaft of this mine, along the highway, a garnetiferous, strongly biotitic and modified phase of the Pochuck- Grenville strikes approximately north 52° east, and dips 30° toward the northwest, thus showing the manner in which the structure accords with the postulated piching synclinal fold. The character of the modified Pochuck-Grenville at this point is especially expressive of its former origin, sedimentary in part. The Whitehead mine. One thousand feet northeast of the Lower California mine lies the Whitehead, the most easterly of the openings along the lower ore-horizon. This mine is also drowned and inaccessible. It is situated between the highway and the tracks of the Sterling Mountain Railroad. The mine was worked by an open cut, and through a shaft of unknown depth. The ore body is stated to be about 8 feet thick; it strikes north 47° east, and dips toward the northwest about 45°. No additional information is available. 84 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Other members of the Sterling group. About 5 miles south of the Lake and Sterling mines a subsidiary belt of magnetite begins near the state line, trending in a northeasterly direction. On the southern end of this belt the Steele mine was opened, and on the northern end, the Crawford. About one-fourth of a mile west of the Crawford the Brennan pits were sunk in order to pros- pect what seems to be another body of magnetite. In addition to these mines, and under lease to the same operating company, another subsidiary belt of magnetite lies less than a mile west of Tuxedo lake; on the southern end of this belt is the Red- back mine. Two isolated occurrences, the Morehead and the Bering, complete the group. The Steele mine. Outcropping on a ridge about 800 feet A. T., a band or belt of magnetite was opened primarily by a few pits at the southern end. Later the Ramapo Ore Company, operating all the mines of the Sterling, Scott and Red-back groups, trenched the ore-band at intervals across the strike and prospected it along its outcrop northeastward to the adjoining valley. All these pits and trenches are very shallow and narrow, and not in all cases is ore exposed ; in many places the direction of the ore-band may be deter- mined only with the dip-needle. In the southernmost pit the strike of the rock is north 50° east, the dip varying from 28° to 32° southeast; the ore body pitches 27° northeasterly. The width (or thickness) of the ore in this pit is about 6 feet, but the ore is not solid magnetite. It is a streaked mixture of rock and ore, with stringers of ore cutting the structure of the rock and fading away, similar to the structures seen in places in the Lake mine (figure 4). The rock is modified Pochuck- Grenville, and associated with the ore is a pinkish granite which may be Pochuck granite; no petrographic study was made of it. The next pit to the north, a trench cut across the strike, reveals a narrow crush-zone due to a transverse fault of small throw striking north 2omiiweste The fault has offset the ore body a trifle and has broken the ore considerably. In the next pits to the north the strike is north 30° east; here pronounced roll structures are shown, the axes of the rolls striking at a small angle to the direction of the dip of the rock-structure, so that a series of minor, closely spaced and second- ary anticlinal and synclinal rolls appear from pit to pit along the strike. There is no ore exposed in these pits. One of the interesting features of the geology of this band of ore MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 85 may be seen in one of the trenches, which crosses the strike of the ore body at an angle, where the magnetite distinctly cuts across the regional structure of the rock. Although in places dip-needle readings show a band of ore 75 feet wide, this is simply a zone of disseminated magnetite. The ore is lean and streaky. Petrographic study of samples of the ore taken from various pits proves the material to be modified Pochuck-Grenville, carrying con- siderable granular pyroxene, andesine, antiperthite, quartz and magnetite. The magnetite, associated with and related to the quartz, cuts, corrodes and replaces the silicate minerals and occurs in a banded fashion suggestive of a sort of lit-par-lit arrangement, although the bands or streaks of magnetite, with quartz, are not the result of simple injection. It is possible that a very considerable tonnage of lean ore suitable for concentration might be furnished by the exploitation of this “ mine,” The Crawford mine. This mine was located in 1792 on what is commonly thought to be the northern extension of the same sub- sidiary belt of ore in which the Steel mine was subsequently opened. The writer is inclined to question this generally accepted relation because the form and habit of the ore bodies are not similar, their petrographic characters are unlike, and because the valley trenched in the ridge in which the two deposits lie, and which separates them, is established on a line of weakness of sufficient prominence to exert structural control of erosion, so that a valley was developed across an otherwise continuous ridge of hard rock. Moreover, the ore body in the Brennan pit (see fig. 8) is abruptly cut off, by reason, probably, of a fault along the valley, in conjunction with a smaller fault which offsets the Crawford ore body also to a small degree. It may be, therefore, that the Steele and the Crawford mines, while apparently opened along the same body of ore, are in reality in two different ore-bands lying approximately in the same line, but sepa- rated by the fault postulated. Not sufficient field work has been done to prove this, however. In 1880, 2240 tons of ore were hoisted from the mine, averaging 57.06 per cent iron, 2.004 per cent phosphorus and 0.178 per cent sulphur.’** The mime was first worked by means of a pit, which now leads into an underground drift, following the pitch of the ore 128 Putnam, B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM for some 500 feet on the strike. Massive granite of probable Pochuck type forms part of the hanging wall and caps the ore body on the north end; the foot wall is granitized Pochuck-Grenville. Much coarse Pochuck dioritic pegmatite, and actinolite rock, may be found on the dumps. The ore occurs in an almost ideal lenslike form, judging from the shape of the walls of that portion which has been mined out; it is 35 feet thick at the center, 125 feet wide (or high) in the plane of the lens along the strike, dips 80° southeast, strikes north 25° east, and pitches northeast. A small transverse fault cuts the ore body almost it its very beginning, offsetting the ore about 15 feet.” The lens of ore is split by a horse of country rock, but whether this is continuous or not it is impossible to determine. The mine has not been operated for many years. Thin sections of the ore exhibit the usual magmatic-replacement phenomena, the magnetite replacing very light-colored actinolite, which is very faintly pleo- chroic, and which grades into an almost colorless variety, essentially tremolite; a colorless pyroxene, less prominent, and quartz. Around each irregular corroded quartz grain, between them and the magne- tite, are replacement-aureoles of brownish green chlorite. The pres- ence of actinolite, much of which is essentially slightly ferruginous tremolite, as replacement-remnants in the ore, and the abundance of actinolitic rock on the dump, suggests that the Pochuck-Grenville rock replaced may have approached the character of an interbedded limestone, or at least that it was strongly calcareous in make-up. The size of the ore body and the general geological relations jus- tifies the belief that proper additional exploratory work might prove the existence of a body of magnetite in very considerable quantity. The Brennan mine. About 1600 feet west of the Crawford mine a shaft was sunk 20 feet through ore nearly vertical in dip and about 10 feet in thickness, in order to prospect this body of magnetite, which is apparently one of the isolated occurrences. Twenty feet southwest of the first prospect pit and in the same line of strike, another hole was driven which discovered nothing but drift, nor did the dip-needle indicate the presence of ore. The fault which cuts the southern end of the Crawford ore body, would if extended cut likewise the ore in the Brennan pit. It is believed that the abrupt termination of the ore in the Brennan pit is in part due 129 The ore has been mined out at this point, but the former shape is pre- served by the walls, and the offset may be readily seen. 1 mney eon = 2 * — - “ > 7 7 - 4 + . ; 5 ; : : 5 4 = : $ + 2 3 - 7 ‘ 3 5 « wat ; s 3 <= : : :. t | ; n . 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Ald 4 r P ‘ ne = - q 5 : : : 4 i $: : : h : H z , ry i ; x _ : + 3 i 4 ; ; : : Re { : * ¥ oe — = a anal — ae ocguenemarmnnrimneseas stein 4 — scxpstpce sen ep CID TEI LIAISE ALLIS LINEN GEE I nana: ene enn: Cua : 4 - = SSeS 5 5 = Z ee S5e. aS : 2 eS z oo er eee. - pas ; 3 a 7 aT C 4 i s ry - - y i : : : Z : . 3 ; 3 = H Se, 4 4 ‘ + 5 cs .: 2 2 \ i . 1 ¢ ¢ . 3 x : 4 - a. ; : ‘ 5 4 a: I ‘ - > : 7 - : : » = 2 - : : a = : * i] : 3 — : , - ‘ ; z 2 5 - 2 4 = s - : £ t ; ° ce = 4 . : i 5 + 4 :.. . i ae 3 g 2 : i 7 — 3. = - : . : ~— So r; - - - 4 Ce == - 3 ; i 4 5 : i 7 t cis. er = a naan: Seas cer A A, CEA ELE DO LT tg mre ee eee Rae Pen PSI SALI ae. amare see nee ie 3 2 7 - s i ¢ Se ie SI es = ~ Sage eee eg ee eet eee Po, jo eas. oS =e oa en : a 4 == - : 8 § j 3 > a a 3 Hi 4 . ; 3 a J ¥ i 2 ; ‘ 3 ¥ ee : : i : Pe 4 Fase : i : i : : : - at 5 : ¢ . $ < ? 3 : : ¥ ¥ =, . - 3 ; i : i. : : » 2 | - nd Py | ; > = 4 . 5 er ; 3 i : : - a = : 7 H : < 3 .- 5 : é : ‘ 4 - % ie F) ; ? 3 : - 4 . : 7: 4 7 : Mi . . E = 5 - : 5 : 4 a | ; 2 : “ % come i ® Meee: . ———— an ann ae einen Senne A TL DIT LS LT EN ae wre nie oO oer man a = ee ion 5 3 a= = - ¢ rt < roms Nae Ray en oo tae ra Ae AO 5 . Et ray row wam EP © i tr = | K ® N $ i) S N Bren. 921, Fits 5) Te Pine tg go Oo ome, \ 0 . 0% Slee/e| Aire D + a is oe Figure 8 Map showing two subsidiary ore-belts in the Orange County zone. After maps by the Ramapo Ore Company. The Steele and the Crawford mines appear to lie along one belt, the Morehead and Morehead extension pits along another. The Bering mine seems to be an isolated occurrence. 0 Morchead Exjensior lis g 92 8 Q 8 8 0o ~) a y WV 3 2 ——————Eo I Scale in feet: °0 5 nl fi hI i ' 7 Ur On , foi” ie at va ‘ NY i i i i i . it i J MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 87 to an extension of this fault, and in part due to a second fault which is responsible for the development of the small valley between the ridge on which the Steele mine lies to the south, and the ridge in which the Crawford and Brennan mines were opened. The fault which offsets the Crawford ore body and which trends a little to the south of west is not of sufficient magnitude to cut off the ore body in the Brennan pit entirely, but in conjunction with the larger fault, striking approximately north 50° west, and along which the valley mentioned has developed, thus showing this direc- tion to be one of greater weakness, it is reasonable to expect the ore to be entirely faulted out as seems to be the case (see fig. 8). There are no further data available on this particular body of ore. The Red-back belt. Less than a mile west of Tuxedo lake, a more or less regular, straight band of ore extends for over 5000 feet, striking north 10° east, dipping from 43° to 46° in a south- easterly direction and pitching toward the northeast about 10°, although this may be variable. The ore-band may be traced along the surface by the rusty red- dish outcrop, due to the oxidation of pyrite and pyrrhotite, the color of the outcrop giving the mine its name. The Red-back mine was opened on the south end of this ore-belt, which was discovered in 1780 by J. Stuperfell’*®. The ore is not over 10 or 12 feet thick in most places, and it carries a very appreciable quantity of sulphur in the form of pyrite and pyrrhotite. According to Putnam’ the average composition is as follows: 52.93 per cent iron, 0.028 per cent phosphorus, and 3.603 per cent sulphur. In 1880, 3638 tons of ore were mined, but the mine was soon thereafter abandoned. It was worked through openings along the strike for 500 feet, and the ore was followed down the dip by an inclined shaft, stated to be about 300 feet deep, now inaccessible because of water. Ruins of the old skipway still remain and parts of the rails may be seen in the slope; an old circular roaster, rusty and dismantled, stands near the incline, so that the ore was evidently roasted on the ground. Roll structures are prominent in the footwall of the mine, judg- ing from the evidence presented on the surface. Both walls are modified Pochuck-Grenville at the entrance to the slope, heavily injected with coarse, biotitic and hornblendic pegmatite (dioritic facies of Pochuck), more especially prominent in the footwall at this point. Here also the footwall contains so much sulphide that 130 Appendix to 3d Annual Geologic Report of the First Geological District. Doctor Horton’s report to W. W. Mather, 18309. 131 Putnam, B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM it weathers rusty-red, and in places secondary green iron-sulphate is common as an incrustation (melanterite). A short distance north of the entrance to the inclined shaft the character of the footwall changes from modified Pochuck-Grenville to a basic, dark, coarsely granitoid igneous rock made up of color- less pyroxene (diopside), olivine, an extremely light-colored mag- nesian mica, probably phlogopite, and magnetite and pyrrhotite, both clearly end-stage products. The rock is essentially an olivine pyrox- enite, and is one of the relatively rare exposures of the most basic phase of the Pochuck magma. Much rock of this character may be found on the dumps of this old mine; occasionally some of it carries such an abundance of oli- vine as to be related to the peridotites. A sample of what probably constituted a leaner phase of the ore is essentially a magnetite-rich peridotite, with much olivine, which is somewhat serpentinized. Where serpentinization has affected the olivine, the iron in it has been converted to granular magnetite, so that magnetite from two sources occurs; that derived from the serpentinization of the olivine, insignificant in quantity, and that formed during magnatic end-stage consolidation. | In addition to material of this character, the dumps furnish samples of tremolite rock in considerable quantity. The specimen collected by the writer was made up wholly of tremolite and diop- side, the tremolite crystals ranging from 0.5 to I centimeter in length. Although the ore is rather thin, there is no doubt but that this subsidiary short belt contains a large quantity of magnetite; the chief objection is the high sulphur content, largely pyrrhotite, which is difficult to remove. The presence of tremolite rock is suggestive of the nature of the material replaced by the magnetite, so that this deposit approaches the contact-replacement type, of which the Mahopac and Tilly Foster are the best examples. The Bering and the Morehead mines. These two old mines have not been worked in many years and little is known as to their extent or as to the character of the ores. Neither Putnam **’ nor Smock **? mentions the Morehead mine, and the only reference made by Putnam to the Bering mine is the statement that during the census year (1880) it produced 2688 tons of ore. The Bering mine is in Rockland county about three-fourths of a mile northwest of 132 Putnam, B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 133 Smock, John C. N. Y. State. Mus. Bul. 7. 1880. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 89 Sloatsburg ; the Morehead mine lies about the same distance north- west of the Bering, just over the county line, in Orange county. The regional strike in the vicinity of the Bering pits is north 31° east, the rocks dipping from 85° to go° to the southeast. The mine was worked through a series of cuts, some excavated through drift and now badly caved; and a shaft of unknown depth, now drowned. In the same direction of strike a few additional exploratory pits were stink beyond the swamp at the northern end of the workings and these are said to have found an extension of the ore body. Judging from surface conditions and the size of the open cuts the ore body occurs in a series of more or less tabular, irregular and roughly lenslike masses with a maximum thickness of about 15 feet. Ore may still be found on the walls of some of the cuts. Samples taken from such places are massive, somewhat coarsely crystalline, blocky magnetite, frequently associated with very coarse bictite, which is plentiful among the rocks found on the dump and evidently a characteristic feature of this mine. The hanging wall is in part dioritic pegmatite (Pochuck), whose feldspars are more or less sericitized, with few ferromagnesian minerals, now wholly changed to epidote and chlorite, and a little magnetite containing titanite or ilmenitic inclusions now leucoxenized. Fractures traverse the rock, healed with chlorite and epidote. Cutting _ this pegmatite is an extremely quartzose, coarse granite (Pochuck granite), also part of the hanging wall, containing swamped and corroded remnants of the same feldspar which occurs in the pegmatite. The footwall is typical Pochuck-Grenville, containing streaks and bands of the coarse biotite mentioned as being found associated with the ore. It is made up chiefly of colorless to faintly pleochroic pinkish pyroxene (clinohypersthene), hornblende, biotite, plagioclase ranging from oligoclase to andesine and a little magnetite. The ore itself carries remnants of the same minerals found in the footwall, the feldspar remnants being sericitized and some of the included pyroxene having been converted to fine flaky talc. Associated with the magnetite in this ore is a little green spinel in minute grains. The ore, here as elsewhere, has replaced certain horizons in the Pochuck-Grenville by magmatic end-stage, or deuteric, processes. There are no additional data available with respect to the mine. The Morehead mine was worked by means of an open cut and two shafts, one at each end of the mine. The ore body is from 8 to 10 feet thick, striking north 31° east at the most southerly opening and go NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM dipping from 65° to 70° southeast. The strike of the ore body shifts toward the north as the workings are followed northeast- wardly, as though an obscure fold might be a part of the structural features. The wall rock is similar to that of the Bering mine, the footwall being Pochuck-Grenville carrying streaks of coarse biotite, which is likewise associated with the ore. The ore, judging from the sample taken along the cut, is a strongly jointed, massive, blocky and rather fine-grained magnetite. | Petrographic study of the ore reveals numerous feldspathic rem- nants, sericitized and corroded, and many remnants of pyroxene partly altered to tale and chlorite, and in places serpentinized. A little pyrrhotite is associated with the magnetite and related to it in origin. On the dump are numerous large angular fragments of camptonite which probably cut the ore at some point as a dike. No exposures could be found in the vicinity of the mine to show just what the relations may be. Both the Bering and the Morehead mines deserve additional investigation and careful exploratory work on these properties would be justified. (MEU, SCO GROWL? The Crossway (sometimes called Causeway), The Fletcher, Patterson, Mountain, Smith, Long, Scott, Cook and Augusta mines. » and two prospect pits called the Hard and Middle mines, comprise this group. These mines lie east of Sterling lake, about 2 miles north- east of the Lake and Sterling mines. The deposits lie along two bands or belts of ore, less than 700 feet apart, both striking north- eastwardly, but slightly converging, and more or less disturbed by transverse faults. The Fletcher, Crossway, Patterson, Mountain and Smith mines were opened on the westerly belt of ore, and the Augusta, Cook and Scott mines were opened on the easterly belt, which curves sharply to the northwest and apparently joins the westerly belt in a parabola-shaped curve; the structure is suggestive of an eroded anticlinal fold pitching northeast, whose limbs are disturbed in continuity by transverse faults which have likewise disturbed and offset the ore bodies which occupy either limbs of the fold. The fact that such structures are inherited and that the ore bodies have not been folded since they were deposited should again be emphasized (see fig. 9). A swamp north of the Mountain mine, and Jack of exposures here and in other critical places prevent accurate observations of the structure, which is obscure at best. , An extension of the ore was discovered in 1831 and a mine, called the Patterson, was opened, from which 7000 tons of ore were taken between 1831 and 1839. The Patterson and the Mountain mines may be regarded as a single unit; the workings running together in a series of cuts and pits extending over 1000 feet along the surface. The strike of the ore body is north 20° east, the dip 83° southeast and the pitch is to the northeast at an indeterminable angle. The mine was worked by a series of open cuts along the strike of the ore, which was followed down the dip and under the hanging wall for a depth unknown, possibly determined by the capacity of the pumps used to remove the water which subsequently drowned the underground workings. Nothing can be seen at the present time but an open cut, caved more or less, overgrown with brush, containing water in some places and half full of fallen rock elsewhere. At the north end of the property a vertical shaft was sunk. The Ramapo Ore Company dewatered this shaft during the course of their preliminary exploratory work, and found it to be about I00 feet in depth; a body of good ore 7 feet in thickness was encountered at the bottom of the shaft. Both the Mountain mine and the Smith mine workings are offset 135 Appendix to 3d Annual Report, Dr William Horton’s Report to W. W. Mather, 18309. ——= —— MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 95 from the Crossway by the major fault previously mentioned (see fig. 9). According to Ries**® the ore body consists of several long, parallel narrow beds; this can not be verified from surface examina- tion at the present time. It was observed, however, that the country rock is heavily pegmatized, and it is possible that stringers of pegmatite or horses of heavily pegmatized rock split the ore body. The walls of the ore body as seen in the cuts are modified Pochuck- Grenville, heavily injected in places with pegmatite; the footwall is in part coarse Pochuck granite containing bunches and stringers of magnetite. The hanging wall is in large part typical Pochuck-Gren- ville with more or less disseminated magnetite, and syenite soaked. It is made up of a colorless monoclinic pyroxene, a monoclinic faintly pink and pleochroic clinohypersthene, plagioclase ranging from oligoclase to andesine, a little hornblende, alkalic feldspar related to the “soaking” period, and very little associated quartz. The quartz occurs chiefly in myrmekitic 1°’ intergrowths; marginal intergrowths of alkali-feldspar and plagioclase (symplectite; Seder- holm, op. cit.) are likewise in evidence, both types being related to the “soaking” period. The footwall is similar except where pegmatized and where invaded by granite. The ore, 8 feet thick, is massive, rather fine-grained magnetite, in places rather closely jointed and blocky. It carries remnants of precisely the same minerals contained in the walls (Pochuck-Gren- ville remnants), and is clearly of magmatic end-phase replacement origin. ws Two dikes of pegmatite about 15 feet thick cut the ore body. It is stated that the ore in the Patterson (southerly extension of the Mountain mine) was about 20 feet thick as mined. No further data as to these old mines are available. The Crossway (or Causeway) mine. With the exception of a small cut about 50 feet long, 4 feet wide and 20 feet deep, situated 1000 feet southwest of the Crossway workings, called the Fletcher, the Causeway (or Crossway) mine is the southernmost working of importance on the westerly belt of the Scott group. Ore was dis- covered herein 1793 by John Ball***. A 14-foot ore body was uncovered, and between 1793 and 1809 some 28,000 tons of ore bb) ate Ries, Heinrich. Geology of Orange County, N. Y., Rep’t State Geologist, YU TSOS. 137 Sederholm, J. J. Synantetic Minerals and Related Phenomena; Bull. de la Comm. Geologique de Finlands No. 48. 138 Appendix to 3d Annual Rep’t, Dr William Horton’s Report to W. W. Mather, 1830. g6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM were hoisted from this mine. Operations were then suspended. A continuation of this ore body was operated under the name of the Antone mine, from which 50,000 tons of ore were removed, the ore body having a thickness of from 5 to 8 feet. The old workings lie nearly opposite to and not more than 800 feet west of the Cook and Scott mines, on the westerly belt. The major fault crosses the ore line in a diagonal direction and offsets it from the Mountain and Smith mines (see fig. 9). The strike of the open cut is approximately north 20° east, and the dip of the ore is apparently about 85° southeast. The cuts were sunk through a drift cover; they are more or less filled with débris, in places with water, and all are brush-grown. In nearly all these old workings a little ore still may be seen on the walls, in many cases this being the only source of the specimens collected. From what evidence is presented by these traces of ore left, it is judged that the ore here is massive, rather coarsely crystalline, blocky and strongly jointed, breaking out in straight sided blocks, and retaining many remnants of still unreplaced rock. The magnetite, as seen in the walls, cuts the structure of the wall rock (Pochuck-Grenville) in stringers, and fades away in wedgelike streaks. Associated with the ore is a coarse pegmatite, which badly . cuts up the ore in places and probably exists in dikelike form else- where. It should be remarked that this pegmatite, which cuts the ore in all these workings, may very possibly disappear in depth in the same way that the large pegmatite dike which cuts the Scott ore body wedges out downward and vanishes on the 400-foot level. It will thus be seen that in this restricted area twenty-two mines and prospect pits are situated on several subsidiary belts of mag- netite. All these have been operated in the past, and all of them are now leased and some of them operated by the Ramapo Ore Company. This company has dewatered three of the mines, the Lake, Scott and Cook, and installed a magnetic concentrator, electric hoists, dryers and other improvements preparatory to active production. The remaining mines have not produced ore in many years, some having closed down half a century ago, and at least one has not been in operation for over a hundred years. Not one of them has been bottomed ; considering the general geological relations, the reputed thickness of some of the ore bodies and the behavior of the ore in those mines inspected underground, it seems reasonable to conclude that taken altogether these properties constitute an ore reserve of considerable magnitude and value. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK Q7 THE GREENWOOD GROUP This group includes the Hogencamp, Surebridge, Pineswamp, Greenwood, Cunningham, Bradley and Alice mines. They lie about 5 miles north of old Greenwood furnace, and north of Arden. Since these properties are now included in New York State Park reserva- tions, and therefore unavailable, they were not visited by the writer. None of them has been active for very many years, most of them having ceased operations before 1870. The Hogencamp was the only member of the group producing ore between 1870 and 1880. According to Putnam’**® this mine was worked by means of an open cut 250 feet long and 60 feet deep, the ore body having a thickness of from 12 to 15 feet, with very irregular walls. The ore carries both pyrite and pyrrhotite; an analysis given by Putnam (op. cit.) shows the following: iron 52.93 per cent, sulphur 2.399 per cent, and phosphorus 0.033 per cent. The writer has no personal observations to offer. THE WARWICK GROUP A subsidiary belt of magnetite lies along the summit of Warwick mountain, about 2 or 2% miles south of Warwick. Several old mines, operated many years ago by the Parrott Iron Company and by the Warwick Iron Company, are situated in this belt of ore. The Standish mine. This mine lies one-fourth of a mile north of the east fork of the highway leading south from Warwick, on Warwick mountain. A thin body of ore, not over 2 to 8 feet thick, may be traced for over one-half of a mile; along this cuts were made and shafts of unknown depth were sunk. The strike of the ore body is N. 30° east, and the dip is essentially vertical. A fault cuts off the ore on the northeast end, beyond which the ore is not again in evidence. There are other signs of old workings and one old shaft on the southeast slope of the same ridge. The property has not been in operation since 1880, and shafts and cuts all have water in them and are inaccessible. From what could be seen on the ground, the walls of the ore body are typical Pochuck-Grenville, heavily injected in places with dioritic pegmatite (pegmatitic facies of Pochuck). In other places a coarse granite, probably Pochuck eranite, forms part of the walls. Much coarse, feldspathic, dioritic pegmatite, containing end-stage interstitial magnetite, may be found on the dumps, together with coarse granitic rock, essentially Pochuck granite. 139 Putnam, B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 4 98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM A sample of ore taken from a dump at one of the shafts consists of brilliant, coarsely crystalline magnetite, mixed with pyrite. A petrographic study of this ore reveals the usual altered remnants of unreplaced rock; in this case epidote, calcite and colorless garnet (see plate 10, figure 2), with zoisite, actinolite and tremolite, all derived from some former original evidently more or less calcareous in composition. Remnants of pleochroic green pyroxene likewise are contained in the magnetite. Another sample of ore from a dump near a second shaft con- tained remnants of green pyroxene, and considerable scapolite; therefore the magnetite in this mine is judged to have replaced an especially calcareous phase of the Pochuck-Grenville, so that garnet, tremolite, actinolite and scapolite have formed as a partial result of the magmatic end-stage replacement processes. The Raynor and Taylor mines. These mines lie south of the highway and about one-half of a mile from the Standish. They were opened on the same ore body, widest toward the northeast where a shaft of unknown depth, now full of water, was sunk. Open cuts along the course of the ore show an ore body from 6 to Io feet wide, dipping 90°. Toward the southwest the ore forks and becomes two roughly parallel bands, divided by a horse of rock which reaches a width of almost 30 feet. Along the trend of the ore there are numerous openings, some only a few feet in width, some wider; they are 20 to 4o feet in depth, they all contain water and they extend to a drift or tunnel at the south end, now drowned. At the extreme south end of the workings a vertical shaft was sunk in rock, depth indeterminable, into which a narrow, deep cut opened; shaft and cut are both full of water. The footwall at the south end of one of the larger cuts is a syenite- soaked Pochuck-Grenville, which grades into typical modified Pochuck-Grenville a few feet from the cut, more or less invaded by the syenitic facies of the Pochuck, traversed by stringers of quartz and by veins and stringers of pegmatite. On the dumps may be found typical Pochuck-Grenville, heavily epidotized rock in quantity, and chloritized, carbonated and serpen- tinized rock of various sorts, as well as a curious calcite breccia. Petrographic study of epidotized material collected from the dump prove it to be strongly epidotized, carbonated and chloritized Pochuck-Grenville. The magmatic end-stage emanations at this particular point seemed to have been unusually rich in those elements which were capable, MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 99 by interaction with the rock invaded, of producing epidote, chlorite, serpentine, carbonate and quartz, with more or less pyrite, which in this instance is an associate of and related to the epidote and co- related products. According to Putnam ™*° the mines just described were called the Taylor, Ferro Hill and Warwick. The Warwick of Putnam is pre- sumably identical with the mine called the Standish by the writer, and the Ferro Hill is probably the Raynor. All these properties were in operation previous to 1880, the total output amounting to 57,271 tons. The average composition of the ore from the Standish (Warwick) mine is given by Putnam (op. cit.) as 52.35 per cent iron, 0.092 per cent phosphorus and 2.748 per cent sulphur. Specimens collected by the writer show many features of great petrographic interest, but this phase of the situation can not be included in this bulletin. The group of mines lying along this belt of ore are probably capable of producing a considerable quantity of magnetite provided they are properly exploited, but the ore is high in sulphur and less desirable for that reason. THE FOREST OF DEAN GROUP Included within this group are the Forest of Dean mine, the Wetherby, Tower and “ Rattlesnake” mines. Of these, the only one of importance is the Forest of Dean mine. The Forest of Dean mine. This is one of the oldest productive mines in the Highlands. It has been in operation since 1756, although not continuously, and during that time it has produced almost 2,000,000 tons of ore. The mine is located about 5 miles west of Fort Montgomery and just east of the state road, in the valley of Popolopen creek. Dur- ing the period between 1865 and 1894 the mine was owned and operated by the Forest of Dean Iron Ore Company. The production amounted to over 500,000 tons of ore **. Operations were apparently suspended about that time and were not actively resumed until 1905, when the Hudson Iron Company began dewatering the mine; shipping was resumed the following summer. The present operat- ing company is the Fort Montgomery Iron Corporation, which succeeded the Hudson Iron Company. The average annual 140 Putnam, B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 141 Newland, D. H. The Mining and Quarry Industry of New York State. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 112, p. 36. 1907. LOO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM production during the years 1914 to 1918 was 88,o00 tons. One of the remarkable features of the mine is the form of the ore body and the manner in which the form and size persist in depth. The chief points of interest connected with this ore body are: a The ore apparently occupies the trough of a synclinal fold, overturned to the northwest, and pitching toward, the northeast. b The great horse of rock which, when the mine was first opened, appeared on the surface in such a way as to give the impression that the ore existed in two parallel bands separated by barren rock. This horse now projects from the roof of the mine downward, divid- ing the mass of ore in its upper part into two lobes, so that a . cross section of the ore body is roughly heart-shaped (see figure 3). c The rock-pendant which hangs from the roof of the east lobe, much like another and very small horse. d The dikelike rock varying from 1 to 12 feet in thickness which runs from the east side of the horse into the hanging wall, and which serves, and is used, as a floor in working the ore between the horse and the hanging wall, in the east lobe. This has followed the ore down the pitch for 3300 feet. e Late Precambrian basic dikes of the general composition of Camptonites, cutting the ore in almost vertical positions. One of these cut the ore at such a small angle to the strike that notwith- standing the fact that the dike was not more than 3 to 6 feet in thick- ness, it was necessary to drive the slope 300 feet through dike rock before ore was again encountered on the other side’. The age of these dikes and their undisturbed condition are particularly signifi- cant in the interpretation of the dynamic history of the region and of the ore bodies. f Included blocks of rock in and surrounded by the ore; the ‘unsupported structures ” of Irving ***, some of which present every evidence of ‘being unreplaced remnants or country rock; and finally, g The persistence with which the form, cross section and size of the mass of ore are maintained. These features are of such importance to an understanding of the deposit that the writer is constrained to discuss them, briefly, in their sequence; especially since the observations presented aid in the interpretation of the geology and origin of the magnetite in general. 14aKempi jibe Amer, Jours Sciai(3) G35) pal ssleimccoun Stoltz Guyaie: The Forest of Dean Iron Mine, N. Y. Eng. and Min. Jour. 85: 1091-093. 1908. 143 Irving, J. D. Replacement Ore bodies and the Criteria for their Recog- nition. Econ. Geol. 6: 527-61, 619-69. IQII. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK IOI a The form. The peculiar heart-shaped or “fold-shaped”’ form of the ore in the Forest of Dean mine is familiar to all who have had occasion to study the magnetite deposits of the State of New York. By most of those who have offered any explanation, it was thought to be due to folding. Thus, Stolz** remarks “The ore body and high micaceous inclosing gneisses . . . probably lay originally in a horizontal plane, the syncline being developed during a period of folding and pressure.’ And likewise Ames **’ remarks “ Dynamic stress caused flexing of the original rock, which already had a strong gneissic or gneissotd structure, and igneous intrusion took place at the same time, along the lines of weakness developed by this deformation.” It is not possible that this ore body has been affected by either Taconic or Appalachian folding, since the late Precambrian basic dikes, thin, tabular and standing almost erect, cut the ore and are not themselves disturbed at all. The ore is conceded to be of magmatic origin and related to the igneous intrusives. These show no signs of ever having been folded since their emplacement; moreover, had severe folding occurred during the formation of the magnetite such dynamic condi- tions would have disturbed the thin tabular mass of rock running from the horse into the hanging wall, cutting the ore, but intimately related to it in time of formation. (See figure 3.) There is no structural evidence in the ore body and its intimately associated pegmatite to indicate that folding occurred during or after the deposition of the ore. On the other hand, the inclosing rocks are indubitably folded; hence the contention of the writer that the forms of the ore bodies are due to the replacement of previously folded rock, and that the structures seen are inherited, seems justified. b The horse. The mass of rock which splits the ore body, and which remains constant in its relations with depth, and which in part gives the ore its peculiar heart-shaped form (see figure 3), is typical Pochuck-Grenville (plate 4, figure 1), cut by dioritic pegmatite which likewise forms the thin tabular dikelike mass cutting the ore and extending from the horse into the hanging wall (plate 2, figure 3) The horse is simply country rock, similar to the 14 Stoltz, Guy C. The Forest of Dean Iron Mine, N. Y. Eng. and Min. Jour. 85: 1091-93. 1908. 145 Ames, Edward W. Notes on the Geology of the Forest of Dean Mine. Unpublished thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of master of arts, in the Faculty of Applied Science, Columbia University (1918). 102 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM walls, into which the dioritic, pegmatitic facies of the Pochuck has been intruded. c The rock-pendant. The rock which hangs from the roof of the east lobe is essentially the same material as that comprising the horse, but it has been soaked with the syenitic facies of the Pochuck, and modified to that extent; a modified Pochuck-Grenville, injected likewise with dioritic pegmatite, not greatly different from the horse in general make-up. This rock has been in part replaced by mag- netite (see plate 7, figure 4). ad The tabular dikelike rock running from the horse, through the ore into the hanging wall, is Pochuck pegmatite of dioritic com- position, co-related in origin to the magnetite and slightly over- lapping it. In places, such as this, it cuts the magnetite, but again may be cut by the magnetite itself; the magnetite may also in other instances occur interstitially in end-stage relations. This thin, tabular, dikelike mass remains constant in position and general relations, and varies but little in thickness, as the ore is followed down the pitch. It does not seem possible that such a structure could exist in the form and position it has if the ore body had ever been folded. e The late Precambrian basic dikes, first described by J. F. Kemp,’ cutting the ore body. These are essentially camptonites, and since they are found in many places in the Highlands, cutting all the various units, they are without much question regarded as late Precambrian in age. Any later compressive stresses productive of folding should be recorded on such erect, thin, tabular bodies, especially since many of them stand almost broadside to the direc- tions of thrust in Taconic and Appalachian times ; they show no trace whatever of Appalachian movement and accompanying folding, although they are sometimes crushed and faulted by the block faulting of Triassic times. It follows from the foregoing that most of the folded structures of the Highlands may indeed be, and probably are, inherited from the highly metamorphosed, previously folded Grenville strata, as postulated by the writer, and that the orogenic processes of Taconic and Appalachian times were productive only of crush-zones and thrust faults in these rocks. f Rock included in the ore. Blocks of rock included in and 146 Kemp, J. F. Amer. Jour. Sci. (3) (35) p. 331. 1888. It should be noted that Ries and Bowen regard similar dikes at Franklin Furnace as Post-ordovician. Econ. Geol., v. 17, 1922. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 103 surrounded by the ore are frequently encountered. Newland **’ states, in discussing the ore of the Forest of Dean mine: “ Some sorting is necessary on account of admixture with granite which is found in stringers and small bodies within the deposit, and is of the same character as the granite that divides the two wings.” The rock thus found is not granite; it is Pochuck-Grenville, which is at times highly pegmatized, and always more or less profoundly affected by the end-stage emanation processes that gave rise to the magnetite. A sample of rock included in the ore on the sixth level carries pyroxene, now wholly altered to either sericite or fine flaky talc, and fine dusty carbonate, feldspars more or less sericitized, biotite, quartz with replacement aureoles of sericite surrounding it, and much magnetite (see plate 7, figure 3; plate 10, figure 3 and plate 11, figure 1). Sometimes the included rock is a streak or bunch of pegmatite, occupying a sort of pocket in the magnetite. Here are found masses of coarse pink calcite mixed with anhydrite, feldspar, generally plagioclase, coarsely crystalline magnetite in large grains, green pyroxene and apatite, the whole related to the pegmatite and a part of it, the magnetite always existing in end- stage relations. These features seem to support not only the postulated close rela- tionship between the pegmatite and magnetite, but also the assumed magmatic end-stage emanation origin of the magnetite, and magmatic end-stage deuteric replacement. g Persistence of form and cross-section. This is indeed a remark- able thing; not because the magnetite persists in depth, for that may well be expected in a deposit of magmatic origin, but because of the retention of shape and cross-section which is difficult to explain; the slope has now been sunk 4500 feet, without any indication of change in the form or in the quantity of the ore. If one can imagine this body of magnetite as restored to place, and then pulled out of the ground as one would pull out a stake which had been thrust into the earth, and if one then imagines this long cylinder of ore set end-up on the surface like a pillar, an imposing column of magnetite almost a mile high and 80 feet or more in diameter would make a land- mark for the surrounding country. The walls. Both walls are Pochuck-Grenville, but in most places it is granitized. The footwall is the more highly granitized, for very coarse Pochuck granite appears at the surface in the little hill 147 Unpublished and incomplete manuscript on the iron mines of New York, placed at the writer’s disposal by D. H. Newland. 104 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM west of the headframe. Traveling away from the ore body to westward there is an increasing intensity in granitization of the Pochuck-Grenville until actual Pochuck granite is encountered (see plate 4). The foctwall dips about 20° southeast; the hanging wall, much steeper, dips from 85° to 90° in the same direction. There is no sharp contact between the ore and the walls, since in both occur bands of magnetite interlaminated with biotite, so that in places the contact between ore and walls is indefinite and streaky. The ore. A granular magnetite, sometimes friable, but generally massive and firm, with included matters already mentioned. The height of the ore in the hanging wall side is from 100 to 120 feet; cn the footwall side it is about 80 feet, and the diameter or thickness, wall to wall, is about 60 feet at the center. The length of the horse from roof to tip is about 65 feet on the hanging wall side, and the width or thickness approximately 50 feet. ! The ore body pitches northeasterly at an average angle of 18° to 19°, but the pitch varies from 12° to 36° in places. The inclined shaft, or slope, follows the footwall down the pitch, the lower corner of the slope always being kept in the footwall, as a guide to direction. The slope has been sunk 4500 feet on the incline up to the present time, with the ore constant in behavior. Owing to the large size and height of the ore body it is not possible to remove all of it. Every 60 feet pillars of ore, from 50 to 60 feet long, are left to support the roof. Nor is all the ore cleaned away from the hanging wall in the upper lobe; some of it is left to support the wall, and some ore is left to support the roofs of both lobes or wings, so the actual structure in the roofs of the lobes is not known. It is probable that 30 or 40 per cent of the ore is left in the mine to serve as supports. The ore is hoisted in 2-ton end-dumping skips whose doors are mechanically tripped at the headframe, where it is taken care of by the usual arrangement of crushers, conveyors and storage bins. A steam tramroad 3 miles long carries the ore from the mine to its terminus; thence the ore is loaded into the buckets of an aerial conveyor 6300 feet long, which carries it to the dock at Fort Montgomery, on the Hudson river, where there is a storage bin of 1000 tons capacity. The ore is shipped to Perryville, Pa., and other Lehigh furnaces. Under the old management water power was used in operating the plant, and such power, derived from the mine pond, is still used for running an old Cornish pump situated at the head of a vertical MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 105 shaft 250 feet deep, leading to a sump. The mine is nearly dry, however, and not much pumping is necessary. Two electrically driven and five air-operated pumps, all in tandem, are used in addition to the old Cornish pump. There is no water below 1788 feet. The skips are hoisted by steam power. Owing to the depth of the slope (4500 feet), the present hoisting plant has about reached the limit of its power, so that it is con- templated erecting an underground station, from which a supple- mentary hoist, possibly electrically driven, will permit the ore to be raised to the surface in two steps. The ore is a compact, fine-textured, rich magnetite, except in places already referred to, where it may locally be more or less friable, and sometimes coarse; it is moderately high in phosphorus, low in sulphur, and non-Bessemer in quality. Smock *™*® gives the only analysis the writer was able to obtain covering elements other than iron and phosphorus. This is as follows: Mronmosctdern Ges Oy) eisreys see ny austere sre a eleie eal 83.56 SUM OS KO) 3) A MMs dU sy a a A a i a 5.00 hosphore) anhydride ”(@e20:) ie eee ee ie seis: 2.30 A\skapeawhingy (NAO) S) ih eae Re ee EN et ee re ae trace Mancanousmoxideu Vir @)) ea hey cyan Henna gn ela 0.63 Aeimey (Ca@) yout bescieny Mauls dha sheer Opell beg 5.51 Miaerrestagn MeO rian tinder sa aiians aaa iat s yal gs 1.19 Carhontdioxtden(EO>) see en ee eects CAM 1.05 Waters GeO) pra olealy. cecreheni loeb heya ata wale, Ls lise: 0.20 Additional and later results obtained at the mine show that the ore averages from 60.0 to 61.0 per cent iron, and ranges from 0.594 to 0.68 per cent phosphorus, so that the ore is remarkably constant in quality and composition. Neither “ pinches nor swells ” interrupt the continuity of it, nor is there any indication that the end of the ore body is in sight. The Tower mine. This mine, on the F. L. Hastings property, is situated at the head of a beautiful glacial cirque, 2 miles north- east of the Forest of Dean mine in a direct line, and about 1 mile east of Long pond and the state road. The mine had been abandoned for a long period, but in the summer of 1919 work was in progress at the bottom of the incline which was then 95 feet deep on the slope. The slope followed the ore down the pitch at an angle of 30°, the dimensions being about 6 by 6 feet. There was ore in the bottom, in both walls and in the roof of the slope, but at the bottom of the mine the footwall rock is exposed. The dip is very steep, 80° to 148 Smock, J. C. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 7. 1880. 106 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 85° southeast. Directly over the inclined shaft, or slope, an old drift was driven into rock for about 65 feet, but no ore is visible in it. The walls as seen at the surface and in the old cut are Pochuck-Grenville, but so heavily intruded with pegmatite as to consist in part of pegmatite itself in places. The pegmatite is both dioritic, where seen in the hanging wall of the open cut, and syenitic, where it occurs in the footwall. Both pegmatites are facies of the Pochuck and are intimately related to the ore. At the bottom of the mine the footwall in direct contact with the ore is typical Pochuck- Grenville. The ore is coarsely crystalline, with considerable admixed rock, and probably occurs in bands and streaks interlaminated with the country rock. The magnetite occurs in end-stage relations replacing Pochuck-Grenville, and carrying a little pyrite. Work was aban- doned some time after the summer of 1919, and has not since been resumed. ‘The slope is now full of water (see plate 2, figure 1 and plate 10, figure 1). The Wetherby and “Rattlesnake’’ mines. These are old openings south of the Forest of Dean mine. The Wetherby lies on the west slope of the hill facing Deep Hollow, about 11% miles south of the Forest of Dean mine, and at an elevation of 900 or \1000 feet. The structure here strikes north 40° east and dips from 80° to 85° southeast. An old shaft, of unknown depth and water-filled, exposed about 4 feet of streaky, irregular, mixed magnetite and rock. The footwall is Pochuck-Grenville, the hanging wall syenite-soaked and heavily granitized Pochuck-Grenville. A narrow crush-zone, not over a foot wide, runs through the property, which would indicate some probable displacement. There are no available data as to the character or extent of the ore. The “ Rattlesnake” mine is situated only a few hundred feet southeast of the mine pond. There is an old shaft, of unknown depth, and a cut through drift, now more or less filled by caving, on the property. No ore was visible and no information could be secured as to the extent of the workings or the quality and character of the ore. (SOLAR ED PDE @ Silas IN ORANGE COUNTY The Bull mine. A little over a mile north of Oxford and 3 miles north of Monroe in one of the detached hills of gneiss referred to in earlier pages of this bulletin as “stranded fault blocks” (see page 32), and locally known as Bull hill, an old opening called the Bull mine is located. The cuts and shafts are on the top of MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK _ 107 the hill, which is overthrust to the northwest on the Hudson River slates, and which is bounded on the other three sides by Triassic block-faults. A vertical shaft of unknown depth, sunk in rock, is now drowned. In addition, the ore was apparently followed down the dip in places, but these openings likewise contain water and are of unknown depth. At the base of the hill on the east side a tunnel was at one time driven, possibly connecting with the shaft mentioned above. This is now caved and inaccessible. The mine was formerly operated by the Parrott Iron Company, but it has been idle since 1880. According to Putnam,™”° the mine was said to have been worked to a depth of 1000 feet, but this is doubtful. During 1880, 2579 tons of ore were mined, taken chiefly from an old pillar within 100 feet of the surface; even at that time the deeper part of the mine was full of water. Putnam gives the average analysis of a sample of ore taken from a pile of 100 tons as follows: DISRLO KAT ys Ses REN yt cap RST UN A Re 51.30 I NOSPHORUSHe sea Gh ateA: EEO, TTL OU TI TT Ley 0.390 SELDEN AS 8 O's iat eee s nN UL el Ae en 0.404 it is estimated that the total production of the mine was 52,000 tons. The walls of the cuts and openings are extremely variable, the variability being in large part due to injection and impregnation. The hanging wall in one of the smaller pits is badly shattered and crushed Pochuck-Grenville (see plate 8, figure 1) which exhibits deformation in a marked degree. In the same pit, and forming also part of the hanging wall, occurs a crushed and shattered syenitic facies of the Pochuck (see plate 8, figure 2), which is closely related to the ore in this mine, and which grades so imperceptibly into it that the ore seems to replace in part the invaded Pochuck-Grenville and in part its associated rock (see plate 10, figure 4). Connected with these rocks and forming also parts of the walls is coarse pinkish-gray Pochuck granite. The feature of special petrographic interest connected with this mine is the evidence of deformation, reflected in the thin sections and illustrated in plate 8. It is highly probable that the ore body itself is limited in extent and considerably affected by the same set of forces. The Clove mine. This old mine, which seems to have been aban- 149 Putnam, B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 108 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM doned prior to 1880 (although according to Putnam *’® 15 tons of ore were hoisted from the mine in April 1880) is situated about one- half of a mile southeast of the east shore of Round pond and about 1% miles south of Monroe. All the openings were made through a thin cover of drift which veneers a low hill of gneiss. There are numerous shallow pits, partly filled with caved-in drift and in some cases containing water, a large open cut about 4oo feet long and possibly 200 feet wide, full of water, and a narrow cut about 150 feet long which widens out at the end and leads into an inclined shaft or tunnel of unknown depth, which is also water-filled, so that the old workings are inaccessible and of unknown extent. The rocks seen along the walls of the narrow cut leading into the drowned slope are massive igneous types without well-defined structure, except where they are cut by a small crush-zone, not more than a foot wide; here they are badly crushed and decayed. On the southeast wall of the cut (hanging wall?) appears a very coarse, massive hornblendite, while on the opposite wall (the foot- wall?) the rock is a massive pyroxenite (see plate 1, figure 1) associated with highly quartzose granite (see plate 2, figure 4), all facies of the Pochuck. The ore (see plate 11, figure 4) is a massive, rather coarse magnetite with considerable interstitial pyrite and pyrrhotite. There is a great variety of different sorts of very coarse-textured, massive, basic rock on the dumps; the magnetite appears to be associated with the coarse, dark biotite masses. During the replace- ment process the ferromagnesian minerals of these rocks were changed by deuteric action to fine flaky talc, chlorite and secondary magnetite (see plate 1, figure 2), all late magmatic end-stage prod- ucts and possibly just preceding the ultimate replacement by the magnetite. There are no available data descriptive of the extent, character, form or size of the ore body, except the comment of Horton,’ who in his report to Mather states that the mine had then (1839) been “open many years,’ and that the ore was a “compact and granular shot-ore,’ with more or less disseminated pyrite. It is also stated that the ore alternates with rock, occurring in streaks and bands from a few inches to a maximum of 4 feet in thickness. It apparently was necessary to mine considerable lean ore and rock in order to 150 Putnam B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 151 Appendix, 3d Annual Rep’t Geol. Surv., N. Y. 1830. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 109 obtain sorted ore rich enough to smelt. The high sulphur content made roasting necessary, but modern methods of concentration would remove much of the sulphur existing as pyrite provided the pyrite was not too intimately mixed with the magnetite; pyrrhotite is more difficult to handle by magnetic methods. There are no additional data obtainable with respect to this property. The O’Neill (or Nail) and the Forshee mines. These two old workings lie about 3 miles south of Monroe; the Forshee mine is one-half of a mile southwest of the O'Neill. Both mines have been inoperative since 188o. They were operated by the open-cut method; the openings on the O'Neill ore-band along the strike of the ore cover a distance of nearly 1500 feet, and in places are fully too feet or more in depth, and from 100 to 200 feet wide. They are now brush-grown and more or less filled with fallen blocks. Judging from the size of the rock dump, and the extent of the workings, it was necessary to mine much mixed rock and ore in order to obtain picked material of furnace grade. The deposit was probably lean and streaky. Accord- ing to Putnam’*”’, who seems to have regarded the O’Neill and Forshee as one mine, the ore alternates with rock in “ layers,” and carries 40.33 per cent iron, 0.02 per cent phosphorus and 0.453 per cent sulphur. The Forshee mine, separated from the O’Neill by an area of low ground, was worked through an open cut some 4oo feet long. Here may be seen beautiful examples of swamped blocks of Grenville in all stages of assimilation; in places may be found partly assimilated fragments surrounded by reaction rims of hornblende, some of it very coarse, which in turn is surrounded with coarse hornblendic pegmatite, the dioritic facies of the Pochuck. On the dumps of both mines, but more especially the O’Neill, specimens may be secured carrying characteristic contact minerals, such as chondrodite, garnet, spinel, coccolite, tremolite, glaucophane, epidote, serpentine, actinolite, and the like (see plate 14, figure 1) ; almost pure glaucophane rock forms part of the northwest wall of the cut at the O’Neill mine, which shows replacement in part by magnetite (see plate 14, figure 2). In addition, coarse Pochuck granite, and in places coarse Pochuck pegmatite occur in the walls, and occasionally partially assimilated Grenville in the form of more or less completely absorbed blocks having finer texture and carry- 162 Putnam B, T, Tenth Census Report, 1880, Ilo NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ing biotite and garnet. A camptonite dike cuts the ore body in the O’Neill**; this may still be seen on the west side of the cut, resembling the remains of a half-ruined wall; but it is gradually being destroyed by weathering. Although neither limestone nor unmixed Grenville can be found in the vicinity, there is no doubt that contact action, or “ contact- assimilation ”’ processes, conditioned the locus and character of these two ore bodies, the ore having replaced, by magmatic end-stage (deuteric) processes, interbedded limestone layers in otherwise more or less modified Pochuck-Grenville. This is a well-known mineral locality, many specimens having been secured from the dumps of these old mines in past years; the mines were at one time fairly productive. There is no record of either mine having been bottomed, and it is possible that considerable ore of good quality could be obtained by proper methods of mining and concentration. The Mombasha mine. At the northwest end of Lake Mom- basha occurs a small cut not more than 4 or 5 feet wide, which seems to have been opened on a band of lean disseminated ore, carry- ine sulphides. | Probably this represents a mere prospect pit, as no ore apparently was ever actually mined. The walls of the cut are Pochuck-Gren- ville. On the south side of the creek not far from this cut is another small prospect pit, with Pochuck-Grenville on one wall of the cut; coarse, massive Pochuck-Granite forming the other wall. It is possible that these pits may have prospected a series of pockets, strung out along the strike of the rock. There is nothing to indicate an extensive deposit or any serious attempts at mining. MINES IN PUTNAM AND WESTCHESTER COUNTIES The Phillips belt. This is probably the most persistent High- lands belt of magnetite east of the Hudson river. Along the northern end of the belt is situated the Canada Mines group, and on the southern extension of it is situated the Canopus mine; the belt is approximately 7 miles long, but this does not of course mean 7 miles of uninterrupted magnetite. The northern end of the belt is the tnore important and, although the magnetite bodies along the belt are not thick, they display such a remarkable continuity and regularity of outcrop in view of the moderate thickness that persistence likewise 153 An excellent photograph of this dike and the cut appears in the Report on the Geology of Orange County, by Heinrich Ries, 1895. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK III in depth is a reasonable assumption, although this has not yet been tested by actual exploration; the old workings, with the exception of the Sunk mine, being shallow and little more than prospect pits and trenches. THE CANADA MINES GROUP The Canada mines group consists of the Canada, Sunk (or Stewart), Sackett, Pratt, and Denny mines, lying in the order named, from north to south along Canopus creek (see fig. 11). The Canada mine. The Canada workings are a series of shal- low cuts and trenches along the strike of the ore, north 40° east, involving a total distance of nearly 2 miles. The dip of the ore body is steep to the southeast, but in places, more particularly toward the south end of the workings, it varies to 60° as a minimum. Where the ore is exposed it shows thicknesses varying from 3 to 15 feet, the middle portion being solid ore, which grades toward the walls into stringers and bands mixed with rock; sharp contacts do not exist. The walls are gneissoid in structure, and petrographically prove to be in part quartz-bearing syenites, judged to be related to the Pochuck, since farther south along the ore-belt this also appears in more typical facies, and because here and there pegmatite is developed, always closely associated with the ore and related to the rock. A specimen from the footwall consists of acid plagioclase with strongly crenulated margins, in places granulated; a very small quantity of interstitial and granular quartz, a little uralitized pyroxene, and epidote and tourmaline in interstitial distribution and related to the closing stages of crystallization. The granulation, bent twinning and strain effects are primary; these are protoclastic struc- tures, due to slight movement during the closing stages of consolida- tion of the rock. Uralitization of the pyroxene, interstitial epidote and (rarely) tourmaline, marginal granulation of the feldspars, and strain, are all of very late magmatic stage; the ore itself, related to this period, petrographically exhibits replacement relations to its parent rock. The Stewart (or Sunk) mine. This mine was the most exten- sively developed of the group. The outcrop extends along the east- ern flank of a steep hill facing Canopus creek and the workings fol- low the magnetite for about 1500 feet along the strike. Between the south end of the Canada mine and the north end of the Sunk there is an interval of a mile or more in which no openings appear. Active I12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM minilig was at one time in progress, the developments consisting of five shafts, some from 250 to 300 feet deep, a series of cross adits driven at intervals from the base of the ridge in which the shafts were sunk, and about 1200 feet of drifts, which opened up a band of magnetite about 12 feet in width, dipping very steeply to the north- west. Not more than 6 or 7 feet of the ore was of shipping quality, the rest being leaner admixtures of ore and rock, which, however, is capable of concentration. At No. 5 shaft there are at the present time about 500 tons (estimated) of sorted ore on the dump. At the southwest end the ore body is cut by a pegmatite dike of consider- able thickness, since it was necessary to drift for 50 feet through the dike in order to reach the ore again on the opposite side of it’; but little ore was taken from this part of the mine, as it was soon thereafter closed down. The composition of the ore as given by Putnam (op. cit.) is, iron, 57.23 per cent and phosphorus, 0.359 er Ceiae, The ore and associated rock contain many features of petrographic interest, but a detailed discussion of these features is not here advis- able. In brief, the syenitic facies of the Pochuck seems to have invaded and thoroughly soaked the Pochuck-Grenville, and to have been in sufficient quantity to furnish a mass of its own. During the closing stages of consolidation and during, and slightly over- lapping the replacement period, slight movement resulted in primary granulation, strain, and in the production of a eneissoid structure in the Pochuck syenite, which in places is almost dioritic in its feldspar content. The ore itself, more or less affected by this movement, has replaced by pneumotectic*° or deuteric *° (magmatic end-stage) processes the associated rock; and slight fractures in the ore are healed with the ultimate product, quartz, which with feldspar, has, as pegmatite, cut the ore in places. The Sackett workings. These are immediately southwest of the Sunk mine, but the ore body is offset 50 or 75 feet by a transverse fault. The Pratt mine is essentially an extension of the Sackett. Each consists of open cuts extending along the strike of the ore for a distance of about 200 feet in the Sackett workings, north of the highway, and 300 feet in the Pratt workings, south of the highway. Both mines in addition were worked through vertical shafts, which 154 Putnam, B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 155 Graton, L. C., & McLaughlin, D. H. Further Remarks on the Ores of Engels, California; Econ. Geol. 13: 81-89. 1918. 156 Sederholm, J. J. Synantetic Minerals and Related Phenomena; Bull. de la Com, Geologique de Finlande No, 48, p. 141-42, | ee oa | MAP OF THE \DING IRON’ COMPANYS | WEST POINT RON ORE LANDS IN PUTNAM COUNTY, N.Y. se ULI 3 ! IRVEYED IN 1886 BY PRISTON = MILLER apo Ore Company. Wicxopee \¥ AU OFS ids ,_ READING IRON’ COMPANYS WEST POINT TRON ORE LANDS IN PUTNAM COUNTY, N.Y. SS rer) MILES ° & U SURVEYED IN 1886 BY PRISTON=- MILLER Figure 11 Map of the Canada Mines group, Phillips belt. After a map made in 1886 by Priston Miller, loaned by the Ramapo Ore Company. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 113 are about 700 feet apart. The Sackett shaft is said to be 75 feet in depth, but both shafts contain water and are now inaccessible, and in many places the cuts are partly filled by caving. (See plate 15, figure 1.) Putnam*”’ states that the ore body in the Sackett mine was reported to be 5 feet in width, and in the Pratt mine from 2 to 4 feet wide. A sample taken from a pile of 175 tons of ore carried 57.23 per cent iron and 0.663 per cent phosphorus (Putnam, op. cit.). The dip of the rock structure is almost vertical, varying between 85° and 90° to the southeast; the strike is about north 40° east, and the gneissic structure of the rocks in the walls of the cuts pitches steeply (45°) to the northeast. There are two cuts along the Pratt workings, each about 150 feet long. The northernmost cut shows Pochuck granite in the hanging wall, in places; the rock immediately in the vicinity of the workings is Pochuck-Grenville, heavily intruded with the Pochuck granite; the walls are in part syenite-soaked Pochuck-Grenville. The ore is banded in part, and in part disseminated, grading into the walls, and is associated with the dioritic phase of the Pochuck. The Denny mine. This mine is the extreme southwest member of the Canada Mines group. The openings were apparently made along two or three “pods” or “lenses”’ of ore, for greater irregu- larity is shown than at the other mines (see plate 15, figure 2). These occurrences were about 20 feet wide in the widest part and possibly two or three times as long. Here there is much Pochuck granite cutting Pochuck-Grenville (see plate 3, figure 2), and in places little “dikes” or “ veins” of magnetite are associated with, and cut the extremely acid Pochuck granite itself, representing overlapping stages of the magmatic end- stage period. Very little ore was taken from this mine, and no exploratory work has ever been done excepting the openings just described. The extent of this and of the related ore bodies is not known, but judg- ing from the data that are available, the persistence of the belt, and the general geologic relations, it seems probable that these old mines are capable of furnishing a large amount of ore provided proper methods of mining and concentration be used. None of the mines has been in operation since 188o. About three-fourths of a mile southwest of the Denny workings, along the same belt, there is a small group of shallow pits which 17 Putnam, B, T, Tenth Census Report, 1880, IIl4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM were opened on the strike of a small body of magnetite many years ago. The pits extend for one-half of a mile and are of no great importance except in so far as the ore serves as a connecting link between the Canada Mines group, and the Canopus mine to the southwest. — : The Canopus mine. This mine, formerly called the Nelson mine, is situated at the extreme southwest end of the Phillips belt, at Travis Corners. Many years ago the property was prospected by the Kingston Iron Ore Company, and in 1912 it was further explored by the Mount Summit Ore Corporation, who equipped it with a shaft and small mill; little ore was actually shipped and operations were discontinued in 1913. The mine was later opened again and in 1919 was operated for a short time by the Canopus Iron Corporation. It is not now in operation (1921). The Canopus Iron Corporation held the mineral rights on 140 acres of land surrounding the mine, and owned 40 acres in fee, on which the mine is situated. According to dip-needle readings the magnetite may be traced along the strike for 3200 feet; it varies in thickness from 4 feet to 10 feet, strikes north 27° east, and dips 54° southeast at the surface. The dip steepens with depth, so that at the bottom of the incline, down 175 feet on the slope, the dip reaches 60° to 65°. The hanging wall is highly modified, strongly granitized Pochuck-Grenvile, heavily injected with pegmatite; a short distance from the ore body, outside the zone of intense granitization and pegmatization, the rock is a beautifully banded epidote gneiss; Pochuck-Grenville, granitized, modified and injected, but to a less degree than immediately adjacent to the ore body, where the rock is so heavily injected that the walls are in part granite and in part pegmatite. (Plate 6, figure 4). The deposit differs from the Canada Mines group in two respects: a Deformation has severely affected the ore, so that there seems to be more than a strong probability that this will prove a serious factor in the more extensive exploitation of the ore body. This is reflected in thin sections by crush-zones and strain-effects (plate 8, figure 3), and in the mine by a badly sheared camptonite dike, or the remnants of such a dike, in the ore; and by displacement, crush-zones and related phenomena. b The ore carries ilmenite, intergrown with the magnetite, (see plate 11, figure 3) instead of the usual titanite, in which form most of MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK II5 the titanium exists in all of the ore bodies described. The quantity of titanium oxide in a sample of ore selected at random, at the mine, was determined by Prof. H. T. Beans of Columbia University, who found in the sample of ore submitted, 1.01 per cent Ti02?. The ore, a coarsely crystalline magnetite, carries remnants of still unreplaced rock, with sericitization as a just preceding and accom- panying feature of the magmatic end-stage replacement process (mineralization by deuteric process). ‘These features are illustrated in plate 6, figures 2 and 3, which exhibit both deuterization of the feldspar, sericitization and replacement, and in plate 7, figure 2. The ore grades into the wall rock, passing from solid magnetite, through lean ore, to essentially magnetite-free wall rock (Pochuck- Grenville). The evidences of deformation are so pronounced that very care- ful exploratory work should be undertaken in order to locate the existing faults and prove the presence of a sufficiently large body of magnetite to be profitably mined. The Sprout Brook belt. Sprout Brook valley is a narrow, long, moderately deep trench cut into a belt of crystalline limestone; the limestone may be regarded as one of the few examples of unmixed Grenville exposed in the area under discussion. Sprout brook is essentially an extension of Canopus creek, which lies to the north- east, and which flows into Sprout brook. On the eastward-facing slopes of the ridge of gneiss which forms the western margin of the valley, are located the Croft and the Todd mines; one, the Croft, is on the northern end of the belt, the other, the Todd, is on the scuthern end in Westchester county, on the estate of Mr Stuyvesant Fish. The two mines are approximately 3 miles apart. Both mines were rather extensively worked some 30 or 40 years ago; a very good description of them during their active operation is contained in Putnam’s*’* report, which is illustrated with maps and diagrams. The Todd mine was owned and operated by the Fallkill Iron Com- pany, which shipped the ore to Peekskill on a narrow-gauge rail- | road, and thence by boat to Poughkeepsie where its furnaces were located. During the census year (1880), 4032 tons of ore were, mined. According to Putnam (op. cit.) the east wall of the main pit was composed of crystalline limestone, and the ore body was from 3 to 4 feet wide. Whe ore carried 44.34 per cent iron and 0.033 per cent phosphorus, with admixed calcite and pyrrhotite, 158 Putnam, B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 116 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM But little evidence of the workings now remains; a new road, built by Mr Fish, runs across the old dump, which is almost wholly obliterated. The old slope is water-filled, and about all that can be seen is the brush-grown entrance to it. Nothing is now visible of the limestone wall in the pit mentioned by Putnam (op. cit.) ; the hanging wall is an extensively modified Pochuck-Grenville. On what little remains of the old dump 1s considerable actinolitic rock, carrying actinolite, epidote, pyrite, carbonate and granular magne- tite; essentially an amphibolite, developed from a highly calcareous phase of the Grenville, or possibly from the crystalline limestone itself, by contact action. The few odd pieces of ore that still remain in the vicinity of the old slope are composed of magnetite, which seems to have replaced an amphibolite, since the remnants of silicate minerals are chiefly actinolite and epidote, with pyrite, related to the magnetite. The deposit seems undoubtedly to have had a contact- replacement origin; that is, Grenville limestone, or interbedded lime- stone, 1s believed to have been replaced by magmatic end-stage emanation products, chiefly magnetite. The Croft mine was even more extensively worked than the Todd. For 5 or 6 years prior to 1880 it was inactive, but during 1880 the mine was reopened and worked until 1881. Since that time the mine has been idle. The period of greatest activity was before 1875, for the mine is one of the oldest in Putnam county. The ore body averages about 3 feet in thickness, with local varia- tions ; the old workings consist of a series of pits along the strike of the ore, and an open cut about 200 feet long, now badly caved, the total length of cuts and pits being about 700 feet. Part way up the side of the ridge a shaft, of unknown depth, was sunk, and a few hundred feet west of this shaft is an old incline, whose depth is also unknown. The ore was apparently followed down the dip at this point. At the base of the ridge, and about 100 feet below the out- crop, a tunnel was driven, presumably to tap the ore body at a lower level and allow the easier handling of the ore, which was shipped to the dock in Peekskill on a narrow-gauge railroad. According to analyses given in the Tenth Census Report, the ore carries from 54 to 64 per cent iron, from 0.005 to .o12 per cent phos- phorus, and from 1.047 to 2.018 per cent sulphur. On the dump at the tunnel level are immense quantities of actino- litic rock, and rock with alternating bands of magnetite and dark- green amphibole; curious quartz-feldspar pegmatite, whose feldspars contain so much epidote in micropoikilitic intergrowth as to appear MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 117 yellowish green in the hand specimen, and amphibolite and chlorite rock, all more or less abnormal products of contact type. The hanging wall of the slope referred to above is essentially a product of contact action. It consists in places of slightly pinkish garnet in small grains, a granular green pyroxene colorless in thin section, resembling coccolite; wernerite, full of characteristic inclu- sions, epidote, zoisite and quartz, all typical contact products, and evidently the result of the complete silication of a lens or layer of interbedded limestone, since the ore deposit occurs in the gneiss and not in the crystalline limestone in the valley (see plate 14, figure 4). Moreover, this phase of the hanging wall is badly swamped in and intruded by a white, moderately fine textured syenitic aplite which is judged to be related to the syenitic facies of the Pochuck; the feldspar is moderately acid plagioclase. The footwall of the slope is strongly foliated, hornblendic and granitized Pochuck-Grenville. It seems probable that the ore body in this mine originated by the magmatic end-stage replacement of an interbedded limestone lens or highly calcareous layer in the original Grenville, and hence this bedy likewise belongs to the “ contact-replacement ”’ type. There is no record of the exhaustion of the mine, and it is reason- able to assume that considerable ore may be still left untouched ; especially in view of the geologic relations briefly outlined above. The chief objection to the ore is the high sulphur content, but in the past this seems not to have prevented the manufacture of iron from it. The Brewster belt. Beginning in the city of Brewster a belt extends in a southwesterly direction for a distance of about 5 miles, along which several mines were opened many years ago. ‘Two of these mines were at one time in active operation and from them a very considerable tonnage of magnetite has been shipped. The northernmost mines on this belt lie under the city of Brew- ster itself, one just back of the hotel formerly known as the Brewster House, the other at the base of the hill immediately west of the railroad station, both connected and essentially the same mine. These mines, called the Brewster Mines, have been abandoned over 40 years and no traces remain of them. They were opened in 1810 and abandoned in 1820 after some 50,000 tons of ore had been > hoisted. Operations were resumed in 1845 and the mines were sporadically worked until 1875, when they were again abandoned.’*® 19 Koeberlin, F. R. The Brewster Iron-bearing District of New York. Econ. Geol, v. iv, p. 713-54. 1900. 118 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Early in February 1880, the mines were again reopened, and oper- ated until the end of August of the same year, as the Cheever and Durant Iron mines. During this short period of operation 1344 tons of ore were hoisted, chiefly from a pocket discovered by a drift from the third level *®. No more ore was found and the mines were abandoned. ‘They have not been operated since that time. According to Mather ** the “ vein” was traced to the southwest for a distance of more than 1% miles, and it is thought to continue and to form the deposit on which the “ Croton Magnetic Iron Ore mines’? were opened. These were formerly known as the Theall and McCollum mines; the Theall opening lies on the northeast side of the ridge, the McCollum on the southwest side. The two open- ings are about 2500 feet apart, and are now connected by a tunnel. The mines were first opened about 1880, and were in active operation for a number of years. In 1883 concentrating was attempted, and in 1889 experiments in magnetic concentration were under way. At that time the lower level of the Theall mine, at the northeast end of the hill, was 160 feet below the main adit tunnel, and the McCol- lum, at the southwest end, had been worked through a large open cut and a 60-foot shaft *”’; the stopes vary in width from 50 to 100 feet. Magnetic concentrators were ultimately erected,*°* but the process was not well developed at that time and difficulties were encountered with the pyrrhotite ; moreover, such great masses of sul- phide were subsequently encountered as to cause the abandonment of the project. In 1912 plans were considered for reopening the mine; it was proposed to erect a mill of 1500 tons daily capacity using the wet magnetic method of concentration. Experimental tests indicated a product could be made averaging 64 per cent iron, with a phosphorus content of .03 per cent and with a minimum sulphur content of 0.30 per cent. Although foundations were laid for the mill the plant was never completed. According to analyses given in the Tenth Census Report the iron in the ore ranges from 43.22 to 59.83 per cent, and the phosphorus from 0.035 to 0.260 per cent. The sulphur content is not given, but it is of course high owing to the presence of both pyrrhotite and - pyrite. 160 Putnam, B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 161 Mather, W. W. 3d Annual Geol. Rep’t of the First Geological District of the State of New York, 18309. 162 Smock, J. C. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 7. 1880. 163 Hoffman, W. H. Practical Results in the Magnetic Concentration of TronvOreransap Anyone 20 OO2 NT Soe MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK IIQ The ore-zone is at least 100 feet wide, striking north 30° east and dipping almost vertically. The deposit is banded and disseminated ; grading from almost solid magnetite, mixed with pyrite and pyrrho- tite, in the center, to lean ore toward the walls, and finally into light- colored, syenitic rocks, quartz-bearing in places, and highly pegma- titic in an irregular manner in other places. The lean ore is essentially a magnetite-rich syenite, with a proto- clastic structure (see plate 8, figure 4) involving granulation of the margins of the feldspar grains, bending of grains, wedge twin- ning and strain effects; all primary deformation phenomena due to movement before complete solidification was effected. The mag- netite in the lean ore is interstitially distributed, cutting and in part replacing the ferromagnesian minerals and the feldspars, and is clearly of very late magmatic stage. Koeberlin*** recognized the general relationships and correctly assigned the magnetite to the very closing stages of crystallization. The ore has been described in a report by John Birkinbine and W. B. Kunhardt*®’ as consisting of compact, moderately fine grained magnetite, in a gangue composed mainly of quartz, horn- blende, feldspar, apatite and mica, and more or less pyrite and pyrrhotite. Hoffman (op. cit.) stated that exploratory work had blocked out at least $,c00,000 tons of ore, while a fair examination of the prop- erty showed “ not less than three times that amount in the mines.” According to N. S. Shaler *°° the deposit is 4000 feet in length, 75 feet in width, and 1500 feet in depth. On this basis Shaler esti- mated 50,000,000 tons of ore, 75 per cent of which is minable! Almost as optimistic is the estimate of F. W. Gordon *® who stated “extensive workings and explorations show the deposit of ore to be one of the greatest in magnitude that has ever been developed in America . . . and warrant an estimate of the quantity of ore in easy reach to be not less than 30,000,000 tons.” These estimates are undoubtedly far in excess of the truth, as the really workable ore is not over 10 or 15 feet wide; some of the leaner ore could now be recovered by modern methods of magnetic concentration, but the optimistic estimates of Hoffman, Shaler and Gordon will undoubtedly never be realized. 164 Koeberlin, F. R. The Brewster Iron-bearing District of New York; Econ. Geol., v. iv, D. 713-54. 1900. 165 Cited by W. H. Hoffman, Trans. A. I. M. E., 20: 602. 18601. 166 Cited by W. H. Hoffman, op. cit. 167 Cited by W. H. Hoffman, op. cit. 120 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The deposit is of petrographic interest as it differs from the others already described in certain details; the magnetite is, in com- mon with all the deposits, of very late magmatic stage, but instead of replacing Pochuck-Grenville the magnetite of this particular belt is closely related to its allied igneous member, the Pochuck syenite, and occurs as an end-emanation product in it and actually in part replaces some of the minerals of that rock; the “ pneumotectic” pro- cess of Graton and McLaughlin,*®® but a process which the writer prefers to think of as deuteric.**? The properties have not been worked to any great depth, and there is no doubt but that much magnetite remains in the mines which might yield good ore to modern magnetic concentrating methods. The Clover Hill mine. This mine is situated on the extreme southwestern end of what is presumably an extension of the Brew- ster belt, a little southwest of the village of Croton Falls in West- chester county, on the Butler property. There is said to have been a magnetic concentrator in operation on this property at one time, but the writer has no definite knowledge of it. The workings con- sist of open cuts; the ruins of a tramway lead to an old foundation (on which a dwelling has been erected), originally a foundation for one of the mine houses. The cut, which had been sunk through a cover of drift, was full of water at the time of the writer’s visit. In the vicinity of the cut a zone of strong magnetic attraction nearly 100 feet wide may be traced by means of a dip needle across the strike of the ore body; since the ore lies in the same line of strike as the Croton magnetic mines, and since it shows the same general petrographic behavior and association, it is probable that it properly belongs to the same belt, and that it has the same origin. The walls of the cut are essentially granite, however, rather than syenite ; the rock consists of oligoclase, microcline, orthoclase, quartz, with both pyrite and pyrrhotite. The walls have a decided gneissoid structure, the streaky habit being in part due to bands of magnetite ; the ore apparently grades into the wall rock in a manner precisely similar to the ore in the Croton magnetic mines. Considerable shearing is in evidence, and a crush-zone dipping at a low angle cuts the rock at the south end of the pit, so it is certain that the ore body has been more or less disturbed by deformation. 168 Graton, L. C. & McLaughlin, D. H. Further Remarks on the Ores of Engels, California. Econ. Geol. 13: 81-99. 1918. 169 Sederholm, J. J. Synantetic Minerals and Related Phenomena; Bull. de la Comm. geologique de Finlande No. 48, p. 141-42. MAGNETITE IRON DEPOSITS OF SOUTHEASTERN NEW YORK 121 The deposit is quite similar to that of the Croton magnetic mines in origin, habit, distribution of the magnetite, association and com- position. It is probable, however, that undesirable structural con- ditions may more or less seriously affect the ore body. Isolated Deposits in Putnam County The Tilly Foster mine. All that remains of this famous old mine is an extremely large brush-grown dump and a pond almost 600 feet long and about 400 feet wide, which occupies the open cut, stated to be more than 600 feet deep. This mine once held a leading place among the magnetite mines of southeastern New York, contributing about 700,000 tons of ore from 1864 to 1897. The maximum monthly production was reached in 1879, at 7000 tons a month. The mine was first operated through a shaft and underground drifts; later the cover was removed and the mine was operated as an open pit excavation. So many serious acci- dents and fatalities occurred through rock falls that operation was discontinued in 1897; at that time a depth of 600 feet was reached. Mather **’ mentioned this occurrence in his report of 1839, but it was not until the publication of Wendt’s*” paper in 1884 that an adequate description of the mine appeared, although Breiden- baugh*” first described the rare and unusual minerals associated with the ore, which were called to his attention by Prof. O. D. Allen, of the Sheffield Scientific School, the year previous. Wendt (op. cit.) did not speculate on the origin of the ore, though he stated that the Tilly Foster and the Mahopac mines “are quite exceptional in their nature. In fact they are the only ones of their kind in the Appalachian range, if not in the world.” He described the fault which cut the Tilly Foster ore body diagonally, and which displaced it about 90 feet (see fig. 12 reproduced from Wendt’s paper), and he remarked on the similarity of the Tilly Foster and the Mahopac deposits, and the wholly dissimilar character of the Croton magnetic mines as compared with the two former. Two years later Ruttman’’* presented a very careful and pains- taking study of the structural features of the deposit; his paper is M0 Mather, W. W. 3d Annual Rep’t on the Geology of the First Geo- logical District, N. Y., 1830. 171 Wendt, A. F. The Iron Mines of Putnam County, N. Y. Trans. A. I. M. E. 13:478-88. 1884-85. 172 Breidenbaugh, E. S. On the Minerals Found at the Tilly Foster Mine, N. Y. Amer. Jour. Sci. 3d ser. 16:207-13. 1873. 13 Ruttman, F. S. Notes on the Geology of the Tilly Foster Ore-body, Putnam County, N. Y. Trans. A. I. M. E. 15: 79-90. 1886-87. 122 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM illustrated with many diagrams (one of which is reproduced in fig. 12) showing the manner in which the ore body was affected on different levels by the fault. Ruttman believed the ore to be of sedimentary origin and thought its form to be due to the original contour of the “ basin” in which the “ ore-sediment ” was deposited. Putnam *™ described the condition of the mine and the method of working the deposit which obtained prior to 1880, and included in his report a diagram showing plan and elevation of the workings. He likewise gave rather complete analyses of the ore which are of sufficient interest to reproduce. Sample no. 738 was taken from the 300-foot level; no. 743 was taken from the cars, representing ore from the 110-foot level. These are as follows: Oe ass. SSS ee No. 738 No. 743 Tromp Ie: NEE SOOROT POT TEOMA SERIE ORIE UIE EA 48.91 49.66 Sl Hur peu tah Seuss ae rs iM relied ay OR RN bar he a i 0.548 0.538 NOS TOOTS i erenc ke OOS ysis ahetbe asus CAPE RaCies ROMs Gea a 0.015 0.007 SUIS PLO OE CE eee ERE MEA ESAS tol Up 12.18 10. 81 YaUbbagihol=ha ih ee Mem Rae shu tac Y ele teeta Tt TIN Tre COMM ean ae 0.79 Tied MEAT SAN OUS ORIG Ce epics coat cc a pe Run a eet eA 0.10 0.04 Damen eO ee. AREAL VASO ORE URS TS RR TIA AOL DT NSO Cy 3.10 1.19 Wiese sian s Uciabinl de ne well sia hia paul i. MU ARN Ae ie Talo 16.33 Car boniGiroxra en CU MOMMA a anM setae: e mnU icy ents ee eee Ie es 0.40 0.28 The striking feature in these analyses is of course the high per- centage of magnesia, and the lime, as contrasted with the lower per- centage of silica; the combination being of such a nature as to make a “self-fluxing” ore which was regarded as especially valuable. Owing to the dangerous condition of the roof of the mine it was decided to uncover it, and this work was begun in 18877. When finally uncovered, the mine, as stated previously, was worked as an open pit until it was abandoned in 1897. Landis 1° described the methods employed in operating the mine after the cover had been removed, but none of the earlier students of this deposit seemed to attach any importance to the unusual minerals in the ore, such as 174 Putnam, B. T. Tenth Census Report, 1880. 175 Smock, J. C. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 7. 1889. See also McDowell, F. H. Trans. A. I. M. E. v. 17, 1889, and Eng. and Min. Jour. Sept. 7, 1880. 176 Tandis, EF. K. The Tilly Foster Mine Jour. Frank. Inst. v..CL, p. 223- 26. 1900. GNEISS FROCK of THE Inzy Fosrer re -~Booies | Pur TMAN le -Feer LJ 700 goo ore. ans. A. I. M. E. v. 13, 1884-85. the Geology of the Tilly Foster Ore-body, Putnam 5s - Tne UM ae — - —= 7 (SE, tine oomES ah; - al ee - Gent ar % 7 =" = PORTION OF ROCH WHICH / “HAS BEEN DISLOCATED / GNEISS FROCK y S g GNEISS FROCH UNMOVED Georocy of THe Inuy Fosrer Ore - Bovies Arrer Frourrran Scate - eer Figure 12 Plan and cross-section of the Tilly Foster ore-body, showing fault, and dislocation of the ore. ___ The plan is reproduced from a paper entitled “The Iron Mines of Putnam County, New York” by A. F. Wendt, in Trans. A. I. M. E. v. 13, 1884-85. The cross section is reproduced from a paper by Ferdinand S. Ruttman, which appeared in Trans. A. I. M. E. v. 15, 1886-87, entitled “ Notes on the Geology of the Tilly Foster Ore-body, Putnam County, New York. Ai 2 rhb, Nearer ee o Serre ee t= AREAS ALLTEL Ae MVS RIOR aR QRRSRREANY SSSVERKES EERERS EES ae HEE CERCA REE Leet eE Bee j ARES IE LOL SESSLER SERRE SRS RSS” Ae RAR RSS ATA SERS RHS AES REESE Se RS Misaki RARE SS cSusceaaeceee ae aa _ eases ASSSUEGEREGReaeeSu SET ER ERS am pol aie oo Se it Sagush eeeegas TSTTU er et =sa." mt Tan a= S58Ge8 Gu." ms toed FI we SEuaanenenn aaa ia % : aaaseseanes SuaeGs Seana | | gare, a Skee Gea ASSESS Ne ee Ee. se as PROCES TRIRSERESSCRRH SR Be PRL. . Bag Bevin = of Lyonsdale, it ib . | + Lewis County, N.Y. NELSON See md near. oe fom Indi ee = CDALT, «5 eh ater a aoe I 630. ~ Note by~ The Stratigraphy Of the Chem ck. Van TUNE Gist ro “45 / ung Group in Western New eS er Devonian Forest — ~ York. GzorckeH. CHapwicx... a inte va Eastern New ee ‘The Disappearance of the Last Glacial Ice Sheet from Eastern VIuseum Bulletin — “ALBANY, NV oP March 1924 STEENTH 3 ee OF . THE DIRECTOR OF New York. Joun H. CooK. I 58 List of Publications. . LET : Wndex 3. PAINE Cooma rey ca igi. “ne Clack _A Scientific Survey of Turners = ie New York Silurian _ Lake—Isle-au-Haut, Maine. es. JOHN M. CLARKE... 119. Made by SHERMAN C. Bisnor » 11 Devonian Glass - yands NO AE 1), CLARKE. Pa SEN M. CLARKE. . Her ab Ue page.. AUN ces ak LQQ | Ree ALBANY | 3 ; “THE ‘UNIVERSITY. OF THE STATE OF 1 NEW YORK 1924 oe ae tel te poem ge ar , ae ane late ee A eee Be AG ne f aie i foe as “THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE re es lee: P anos: "Regents of the University tee cae Be RNs . With years when terms oreo es as Ns arr doe 8 cae SNe ac Sector LL. B, a: By Chancellor ess ss Emeritus - - ee ar 1934 CHESTER S. LORD M ne LL. D., Chancellor = sy Brookdly: cea 1924 ApE.Bert Moot LL.D., Vice Chancellor - -— — Buffalo a Pee 1927 ALBERT VANDER VEER M.D., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. Albany — x Weer oto s CHARLES B. ALEXANDER ae LL, - LED eo ee ith. = ee ee es 1928 WALTER | Guew KELLOGG B ae LL.D. - - = oa 1932 JAMES Byrne B.A., LL.B., LL.D. - - - — 1929 HERBERT L. Bripeman M.A., LL.D. - - - moat DnoMss |, Mancan MAS 92 = on 933. Witiiam J. Watuin M.A.- - - - - - - ‘Yonkers : oS ’ 2 1935 WILLIAM Bonny MA LLB PhD = = ; Le 1930 Wiram PeBAKER le Litt: a Ries President of the University and Commissioner of Education i . Franx P. Graves Ph.D., Litt.D., Ib SOR, IEE IDS» Deputy Commissioner and Counsel . oe y. .* Frank B. Girpern B.A., LL.D: Assistant Commissioner and Director of Professional Education Aucustus S. DowNnING M.A., Pd. D., L. Hepes Ei: D.. Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education - 3 JAMES SULLIVAN Mi ac, eh Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education -Georce M. Witey M.A., Pd.D., ee ets tee a Director of State Library Os ee James I. Wer M.LS., Pd.D. “g = : : : Dy Director of Science and State Museum — e She ae ms tee Tae M. Crarke Ph.D., D.Sc., LL. De oe ee es Directors of Divisions — | e "Administration, Brovp ib. CHeney BA. 2 =. fe Archives and History, ALEXANDER GC. Frick M. AS, Litt. D. Ph. Attendance, James D. SuLLIVAN ata he ‘Examinations and Inspections, AVERY W. SKINNER BA n ‘Finance, Crark W. Ha.uipay : Be PET aw, IRwin EsMonp Ph.B., LL.B. ey a ‘Library Extension, WitiiaM R. Watson B. S. School Buildings and Grounds, Frank H. Woop M.A. ws ah. Visual Instruction, ALFRED W. ABRAMS Ph. B. : | Vocational and, Extension Education, ‘Lewis A. Wirson | / fee PCS SRR Le oe Sa fe \ esis) he Pay Hat i ‘i fons va ait 1 Asi ) fi Hata «| We Vea) The University of the State of New York The State Museum, January 16, 1923 The Honorable Frank P. Graves President of the University S1R: I transmit to you herewith my report as Director for the year 1922. Very respectfully Joun M. CLARKE Director LOLS bo Ad ¢ olay! “Ss vy . allt wo. be et ko 7 eat ‘ A ner a ay rr cad ; ; 4 rg af : ee UNISNYY 9FLJS IY} UL UOpoysey, SoOyOD oY} JO UOTe10}Say Bi New York State Museum Bulletin Entered as second-class matter November 27, 1915, at the Post Office at Albany, N. Y., under the act of August 24,1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in section 1103, act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 19, 1918 Published bimonthly by The University of the State of New York No. 251 . ALBANY, N. Y. March 1924 The University of the State of New York New York State Museum Joon M. Crarxe, Director EIGHTEENTH REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE DEPARTMENT INCLUDING THE SEVENTY-FIFTH REPORT OF THE STATE MUSEUM, THE FORTY-FIRST REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST AND THE REPORT OF THE STATE PALEONTOLOGIST FOR 1922 INTRODUCTION In the 2% years that have passed since the issuance of the “ Wild Flowers of New York” with its 264 color plates, nearly four and one-half million of these imprints have been distributed without cost to the tax-supported educational agencies of the State — the schools. In the longer interval since the publication of the “ Birds of New York” carrying 106 color plates, somewhat more than five million imprints of these bird pictures have been similarly disseminated to the state schools. The reaction from these efforts to instil and encourage a knowledge and appreciation of these natural resources among the youth of this State, is apparent. Clubs and societies for the study of birds have multiplied, bird sanctuaries on private, municipal and state ground have come into being and the boys and girls of this generation know, and know how to protect, the birds as their parents never did. Ina less but still notable degree (perhaps because the flower books are of more recent creation) there has been a similar response in the increase of interest in the flora of the State; a response which has added impulse to the wild flower preservation movement and to the activities of botanical societies and the develop- ment of formal gardening. These two instances are cited as indications of the educative effect of the efforts made to summarize and in a certain sense popularize [5} 6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM knowledge of our natural resources. It would be easy to cite other evidences of this procedure among other departments of science. We have taken the most obvious, because the publications referred to are the most impressive. But the series of bulletins issued by this department, though of necessity dealing largely with special and technical problems, have this year included one bearing the title “Archeological History of New York” which has made a very wide appeal. Indeed in a State so great, with such a varied population, with men and women of variant professional and amateur tastes, there is a demand for knowledge of every sort that we can produce and the more technical it is, with so much the more right do the people look to the State to produce it and make it available. By such measures the parties of first interest, the citizens of the State, acquaint themselves not only with their rightful knowledge as to the possibilities of increased comfort and happiness which their natural resources may have for them, but through them also they come to apprehend in some measure the underlying laws of nature which are essential to and interpretative of the very purposes of life. SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH Anyone detected in the act of looking up a word in the dictionary is, in present parlance, engaged in “research.” Thus a variety of “research” artists have sprung into view all along the line from statistical accounting even to the writing of anthologies. Research in its virgin meaning implies unremitting and critical inquiry after the truth, and the source of all truth is in the field of Nature which is the outward and visible expression of the Most High. The Gilboa Devonian Forest. The continuation of operations at Gilboa, Schoharie county, by the New York Catskill Aqueduct Commission, particularly the active quarrying of the heavy sand- stones, have brought to light many more stumps of the great trees which have been referred to in preceding reports. Some magnificent specimens have come to the Museum during the year, two truckloads having arrived in the month of November and the series, now pass- ing 30 individuals, is sufficiently extensive to justify a better attempt to portray this most remarkable occurrence in a museum exhibit. This is a problem presenting some difficulties of execution partly because of the great weight of the bodies to be supported. These remnants of Devonian forests are arranged in practically horizontal layers of rock, at three levels in the rock series. The lowest of these levels is the present quarry which has produced more stumps than the others, probably for the sole reason that it has been more thor- oughly exploited. This level is at 960 feet above tide. ‘poeAOUlot Useq oAvY Jey} Sduinjs JO UOTDoTJOO B ST dsnOY oULsUS oY} Jopun do} 9Y4} VW ‘poeq yv[eYs 9Y4} UO podjso4 SyUNI} oy} otoyM Arsenb sty} JO oseq oy} Je Sol[ [OA] 901} JOOJ-096: YT, “vod, Je AaenG) opissoaARy oy A stump being removed from the Riverside Quarry. The two-foot rule on the rock indicates the size. “s ie - : Tr rn. DAAL ro Swap apa TH he Beg TU REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 7 ~The second horizon is the original locality from which specimens were washed out in the flood of 1865. ‘This is at 1020 feet A. T., that is, 60 feet above the former and is 2300 feet away in a direct line. The third level is at the foot of the Manorkill falls 6400 feet away and 100 feet above the last level. This is at 1120 A. T. The intervening rock is gray sandstone in heavy beds, some intercalated sandy shale between. A noteworthy fact indicating that these trees grew in place is the presence of a dark root shale beneath each — a fact which seems to preclude a possibility of the transportation of the stumps to their present place. Lower horizon Old loc ality Manorkilt > — This is an ideal north-south rock section showing the three levels of the fossil forests. The biological characters of these remarkable plants have never been elucidated, though when they were first found Sir William Dawson, the leading paleobotanist of his time, expressed some views regarding them and applied names which today have no particular meaning. The present report contains an account of the structure ‘and probable relations of these primitive plants prepared by Wini- fred Goldring. The restoration of the Mastodon. An adventure to portray the American mastodon as he stood in the flesh, has this year been brought to completion and the restoration made is installed in the Museum. The attempt to bring back into the semblance of life this great and recently extinct member of our fauna was justified by the abundance of the remains which have been uncovered in the State and by the rather extensive knowledge of the structure of the beast which has resulted from long study of it. The Cohoes mastodon —~ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM aA / whose skeleton has stood in the Museum for more than 50 years, was taken as the subject and basis of the restoration, largely because of general public acquaintance with it and also because the Cohoes animal was not full grown and hence a restoration of it, impressive though it might be, was certain not to have excessive magnitude. The work was well carried out and the method of its procedure is described elsewhere in this report by Noah T. Clarke who did it. Problems of pose, dimensions. and hairy skin were among those which required solution and as no one ever saw a mastodon, the solution has depended on careful reasoning as well as. skilful mechanical work. What may be said on behalf of the success of this restoration is this; that the best judges of its probable accuracy, those who have closely studied this group of animals, admit that it is as correct a production as can be made with present knowledge. In the process of the work one fact became evident, namely, that the body in the form of the flesh before the addition of the hair, was a finely moulded expression of the gross external anatomy, resulting directly from the procedure of construction. The coating of hair has in large part, unfortunately but necessarily, concealed this expression. The pathologic jaw of the Cohoes mastodon. The abnormal den- tition of the Cohoes mastodon was brought out at the time of its discovery. Osteological irregularities are not infrequent in these great skeletons but this one is obviously pathological. The second or back molar on the right ramus of the mandible failed to develop. A section of the jaw has shown that the cause of failure in the tooth to erupt was that no tooth was ever formed. In consequence the mandible shrank to a narrow dental surface in this field. -The single molar that did erupt on this side, is set at an angle to. the dental ridge, and it seems that this angle indicates a displacement due to the heavy impact of the upper molars in imperfect opposition to the lower. This brought on a lateral osseous swelling of the ramus, threw the anterior symphysis out of place and produced an obvious distortion of the entire face. Suspecting a diseased bone condition here I asked Dr Minor J. Terry, secretary of the State Board of Dental Examiners, to inspect the jaw and he has been satisfied that the deep sulcus in the bone tissue about the distorted molar indicated a pyorrhoeal condition accompanied by bone necrosis. Difficulty of opposition of the upper and lower teeth throughout the dentition is shown by the comparatively unworn cusps, except at the distal or anterior ends of the other teeth. YUOIT OU} WOT, MoTA 2nib- “UC 12 * J} ou} } MorlA S1oJIeNnb-so1y} ‘UOpOyseyy S9OYOD) OY} JO UOIWV10{SOY LRA LLL LLL EEE TE DHL LE Lee HH ojdwio yp oy “MOIA Opis “UOpOyse|y [[tH 2Jdwoey, oy 7, > eat Ate - Cc from the re VIEW Temple Hill Mastodon, three-quarters aaa arak ”) <= MOA SS SSS The Mastodons in the State Museum. C ics a th He he ae s Filed = REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, I922 9 The Temple Hill Mastodon. The splendid skeleton has now been set up in the Museum. Some account of its discovery near Temple Hill, 4 miles west of Newburgh, was given in the last report of the Director. The skeleton has proved to be that of a large male nearly as large as the Warren mastodon, which still bears the palm for size and completeness; though in fact in certain measurements the Temple Hill skeleton as mounted carries some larger dimensions. There are features of special interest in this skeleton: (1) The presence of one of the styloid processes of the temporal bone, extending into the throat and connecting with the hyoid arch, which has been observed but once before; (2) the presence of the milk teeth which have been retained after the full development of the adult molars, thus giving the animal a set of twelve molars instead of the normal adult number of eight; (3) the circling tusks which overlap in front on beveled planes of wear and show the extreme overspecialization of these parts. The Museum acknowledges again the help of the late Emerson McMillin in meeting the cost of acquiring this skeleton, which is to be known as the McMillin or Temple Hill mastodon. The skeleton has been skilfully mounted by -Ward’s Natural Science Establishment of Rochester, N. Y. The Postglacial mammals of New York. There is in press a special bulletin on the mammalian remains which have been found in the surface deposits of Postglacial age and this include all occur- rences of the mastodon and mammoth and their distribution. This important record, compiled from all available sources in literature and museums, gives an interesting panorama of the higher fauna which occupied the State in comparatively recent times but most of whose members are now extinct.* Other paleontological work. The monograph of the strati- graphy and paleontology of the Upper Ordovician rocks of New York, comprising the Utica, Frankfort and Loraine formations, on which Doctor Ruedemann, Assistant State Paleontologist, has been engaged for several years, has been finished and the first part, the Stratigraphy of the Upper Ordovician rocks of New York, is ready for printing as a bulletin. The more important second part, dealing with the fossils of these rocks, requires considerable illustration and is held until the pressure of printing other accumulated reports is somewhat relieved. The principal results of this work have been mentioned in former reports. * This record has now been issued as a bulletin of the Museum under date of 1922 and entitled “The Mastodons, Mammoths and Other Pleistocene Mammals of New York State” by C. A. Hartnagel and Sherman C. Bishop. 10 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Continued collecting in the Silurian rocks of western New York the Bertie waterlime and Lockport limestone, mainly by E. Reinhard, has furnished to the State Museum a large amount of striking fossils hitherto unknown. Most important among them are the graptolites, Dictyonema colonies over a foot in diameter, and varied types of the Inocaulis group. The latter with their fingerlike, thick-sheathed anchors and Medusalike crowns composed of a multitude of branch- ing tubes, belong to the most picturesque graptolites yet found any- where. Equally interesting are the cephalopods and among them a new genus closely related to Hexameroceras, in which the sides of the slit leading to the hyponomic sinus are provided with interlocking teeth, serving for protection as in the case of the narrow slitlike aperture of Cypraea and other gastropods. | An account of these fossils is in preparation. The remarkable graptolite fauna will be described in greater detail in a work on the graptolites of North America. The latter investigation is being undertaken by the writer because the graptolites belong undoubtedly to the best horizon-markers or guide-fossils over very large areas and their closer study will therefore be very helpful in the correla- tion of the rocks of New York State with those of other parts of the continent. ey Among the more striking new exhibits in the Museum is a case devoted to the display of a single species of fossil sponge from the remarkable Silurians of Black Cape, P. Q. A few of the upper strata of these rocks standing almost at right angles to the sea, expose these sponges in every grade of size from that of a chestnut to the size of a half bushel. They stand on the rock surfaces just as they grew in place on the sea bottom. Their preservation is fine and most suitable for intimate study. From a large number brought in by the State Geologist the present exhibit has been arranged by Winifred Goldring to show both their exterior and interior struc- tures. This sponge belongs or is closely allied to the genus Aulo- copium, and is termed provisionally Aulocopium hart- nageli, the specific name given in recognition of the fact that the first specimens were brought in by C. A. Hartnagel. FIELD OPERATIONS Iron region of Southeastern New York. In the studies pre- paratory to the ‘“ Mineral Resources of New York,” printed as a Museum Bulletin (No. 223-24) in 1921, it was found that too little was understood of the amounts and mode of accumulation of the ode) 3OR[q JO SyoO1 UeTANTIS d4} UL SOSSPUL ISUSTUWE Ul Sand00 YIIYM ‘TIToaseuyIeY Wnidodrso;,n VY asuUOds dy} SUIMOYS IIGIyxe WSe) "MOIA JUOIF “TToOseuIeYy WHnidoso0[Ny jo ose) IISA L on, PONT Seca; REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 II iron ores in the Orange county and nearby regions, even though this field was the earliest to be opened in the history of iron mining in the State and in which production has proceeded discontinuously from colonial days. A resurvey which was begun a year ago by R. J. Colony, has been brought to a successful conclusion and has succeeded in determining quantities and indicating procedures which can not fail to be helpful to the iron-producing industry. This report is now on the press. | The Schunnemunk region. There is perhaps no part of the State where dislocation, upheaval and breaking down of the rock beds is so extreme as in the region of the Schunnemunk hills west of the Hudson river, south of Newburgh and east of Goshen. Dur- ing the past season Mr Colony has made a special study of this region for the purpose of elucidating its greatly involved geological structure. The Newburgh quadrangle. The survey of this region which lies directly north of the Schunnemunk quadrangle, was begun two years ago and has been completed, with the preparation of a geolog- ical map. The work has been skilfully done by F. Holzwasser, under the direct supervision of Charles P. Berkey. Geological map of the Capital District. The capital district comprises the Schenectady, Cohoes, Albany and Troy quadrangles. This large central district affords a comprehensive view of the New York geological formations ranging from Lower Cambrian in the eastern hills to Middle Devonian in the Helderberg section of the Albany sheet. Some of its tectonic problems are difficult, for the reason that the eastern part is intensely folded and overthrust and the western part practically undisturbed, the transitional zone pass- ing through the middle of the capitol district and there forming a belt of complex stratigraphic and tectonic relations which it is hoped to solve by this survey now in charge of Doctor Ruedemann. Adirondack geology. The survey of this difficult field and the resolution of its complicated problems have proceeded now without interruption for 30 years. Because of the involved character of its structure the work of mapping the area on the scale of one mile to the inch and with intimate examination of regions difficult of access must move slowly. The Adirondack region, expressed in terms of the territory north of the latitude of the Mohawk river is covered by ninety-one topographic quadrangles, seven of which are still unsurveyed. Thirty-nine of these quadrangles have now been geo- logically mapped and expounded. During the past year the area of 12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the Gloversville quadrangle was covered by Dr W. J. Miller and the report awaits publication. Interpretation of the Chemung formation. The Chemung for- mation is a member of the series of New York geological formations as defined in the original geological survey of the State and it has entered generally into the nomenclature of geology in America. It is a heavy mass of sediments terminating the succession of Devonian marine deposits, and while its lithological variations are notable there has never been a successful attempt of the many that have been made, to find a basis for its subdivision into the component elements of its records, sedimentary and biological. The problem has been attacked anew and it will gratify students of geology interested in the integrity and detailed history of the New York formations to understand the construction of this term as elucidated by Prof. George H. Chadwick in a paper printed elsewhere in this report. Drainage problems of the southern tier. The causes and development of the present natural drainage of the southern counties, the origin of its rivers and their relation to the outflow of Postglacial waters, and in a general way the emergence of the pres- ent topography of the extensive Allegany plateau of southern New York, have been subjects of study and field survey for two years. The practical bearing of this investigation lies in affording an intelli- gent appreciation of natural control of present waterways which must govern their future development for industrial purposes. Essential Importance of Understanding the Geological History of Rivers and Streams as a Basis for the Successful Development of Water Ways. It is extremely difficult to convince public and private interests enlisted in water power and river-canal development projects, that the history and mode of evolution of a river, especially a very ancient waterway like the Hudson or the St Lawrence, has an “ heredity ” which is an effective factor in its behavior, in precisely the same sense that heredity controls human behavior. Too often to an engineer the development of a project for storage, power production or canalization is purely the handling of factors in sight and readily estimable. Such prodigious propositions as the canalization of the Hudson in its upper reaches and directly through its natural bars at the “ Overslaughs,” or of the upper St Lawrence through its younger rock-paved, incompleted channel, and its lower tidal reaches, seem thus far to have ignored the governance of these rivers, their flow, erosion, transportation, the control of their contributaries and an REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 13 array of such factors, to which the illimitable ages and changes of their history have subjected them. Such problems can not be endur- ingly solved without the consent of these contributing factors.’ The proposal to create a deep ship channel in the rejuvenated and rocky beds of the Hudson river between Albany and Poughkeepsie, has excited the imagination of riparian communities which have dreamed gilded visions of stately seagoing craft bringing to their doors the wealth of other lands. Mayors, common councils, cham- bers of commerce, boards of trade and less formal citizens’ organi- zations have joined in enthusiastic coalition with countrywide deep waterway organizations in pressing their hopes to a fruition, but at no time, amid these forecastings, have the historical and geological controls of the river been made a matter of serious consideration. The river flows today as it did 10 years ago and 10,000 years ago. Governor Miller, protesting most effectively the proposal to con- struct a ship channel through the St Lawrence river, meeting with convincing argument every claim set forward by the promulgators of the project, industrial, financial, civic, national and fraternal, quite failed to take account of the geological control of that vast and venerable artery of the continent. Such procedures emphasize the importance, as a matter of intellectual economy and brain salvage, of determining first of all whether such extensive projects are possible of solution where a maintenance is involved which is in itself hostile to the established habitudes of these rivers. Buried forest at Lyons. In the month of August 1922 a heavy downpour caused a flood in the waters of Canandaigua outlet and where this stream enters the village of Lyons the waters left their channel and cut across the flats from Forgham street north into the Barge canal, discharging so much silt into the canal as to seriously interfere with traffic. The new channel was about 200 yards long, excavated to a minimum depth of 12 feet and in places it was as much as 50 feet wide. This washout exposed, at a depth from the surface of from 3 to 6 feet, a buried forest. The surface here is a level plain, 400 feet above tide. It stands in correct correlation with the level of the bottom of Lake Iroquois which here formed a western projecting arm of the main body of water extending from the Rome district west to central Wayne county, thence trending northwest and west along the beach known as the Ridge road. Most of the trees were found beneath 6 feet of clay evidently deposited 1See Clarke, “A propos de la canalization du St Laurent.” Bul. de la Soc. de Géogr. de Quebec. p. 154. 10922. I4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in standing water. This loose clay contains many snail shells obviously of existing species. ‘The trees were all prone but not flattened. For the most part the trunks were lying in somewhat parallel directions. These trunks varied much in size, one having a length of 30 feet and several had a diameter of 12 to 18 inches. As none of the trunks were found upright and no stumps were exposed it is believed that the material was washed or flooded into a body of standing water. The wood had undergone comparatively little decomposition, though heavily waterlogged and leaves were preserved in great quantities. From them principally it has been possible to determine broadly that the species are of maple, birch, beech, alder, elm, and though there is no evidence of there being among them any strangers to the present tree flora, a closer study of leaves and wood will be required to determine this point. There can be no doubt that this is evidence of a forest of great age. The deposits in which it occurs belong, in the judgment of Mr Hartnagel, to glacial Lake Iroquois.. Prof. H. L. Fairchild is of the opinion that the trees were laid down in standing water during an early stage of that lake. The occurrence at Lyons is not without precedent in western New York. During the excavation of the Barge canal a number of layers of leaves were uncovered at Lock 26, near Clyde, and below, at 22 feet, the tooth of a mammoth was found. Occasional logs buried deep in the soil are of frequent occurrence but we have no record of such an extensive accumulation of buried forest wood in deposits whose geological age can be approximately determined. Survey of the oil fields. Last year the State Legislature granted a small appropriation for the survey of the oil fields of the State. As the amount given was but one-fifth of the sum deemed necessary for the work, only a portion of the field has been covered. The results, however, have been so important that the survey should be carried out as originally planned. The geological work that this department has carried on in the region of southwestern New York has been of much interest not only to the petroleum geologist but to the oil-producing companies. The region under consideration is the only one in the United States where “flooding” or the “ water drive ”’ is being successfully employed in the winning of petroleum. A United States Geological Survey report of 1922 makes the follow- ing statement: “In only one region are the geologic conditions so well known and the experience with improved methods on a com- mercial basis so extensive and so long continued as to justify the formulation of estimates based on the results obtained. This is the REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 15 region in northwestern Pennsylvania and southwestern New York where the ‘ water drive’ is now employed to obtain oil from the Bradford sand, which was supposed to be largely exhausted. Under the peculiar conditions there the use of this method will result in the recovery of a large quantity of oil that can not be recovered by ordi- nary methods of production.” The purpose of the survey has been to determine the best scientific methods for the employment of the flood for the recovery of oil. This practice of obtaining oil by flooding or restored pressure is still in its infancy and has its possi- bilities of good as well as danger. It is important that a scientific study of the process be continued in order that the greatest per- centage of recoverable oil can be obtained. An important item in obtaining the petroleum from the oil sands is the cost of drilling the wells which must be closely spaced when flooding is employed. At the present time there are over 14,000 producing wells in the south- western New York field and it is estimated that ten to fifteen times this number will have to be drilled before the fields can all be flooded. By means of a flood the life of the oil field will be extended at least 50 years and perhaps longer, depending on the rate at which opera- tions are carried on. The area that can be flooded comprises some 60,000 acres and as the floods travel only at the rate of between 50 and 200 feet a year, the flooding will take a long period unless many floods are started in many parts of the field. The location and the number of floods which should be used in the oil region is a problem to which attention should be given. The oil leases are in the hands of very many persons and companies and only by cooperation can the best results be obtained as floods will pass from one lease bound- ary to another and as a result of this the owner of a lease must be familiar with activities of adjoining leases. : | What “ flooding” is. When the pressure of the gas in an oil well becomes so low that ‘ Sail no longer force a sufficient amount of oil into the bottom of the well to make pumping profitable, the method of flooding is employed. Flooding is really a process of restoring pressure and, in an indirect way, takes the place of the exhausted natural gas in forcing oil from the sands to the wells so that the oil can be pumped. When it is desired to start a flood, water is intro- duced into an oil well, and as a result of the hydrostatic pressure thus established the oil is slowly forced away from the bottom of the oil well. The oil well into which water has been introduced no longer produces any oil but serves only as a flood or pressure well. The oil which is forced away from the pressure or flood well and in 16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM advance of the water, is called flood oil and is obtained by drilling wells in advance of the oil flood. These oil wells continue to produce oil until the oil flood has passed and they are reached by the water flood after which, unless they are subjected to cross and reversed flooding, they serve only as additional pressure wells forcing the oil beyond into an ever increasing area where new wells are drilled to obtain the flood oil. The number of floods which now exist in southwestern New York is not known with a certainty. Perhaps as much as 5 or 10 per cent of the sand has been flooded out. This percentage, however, does not apply to the acreage which is somewhat less, since many of the floods have been in areas where the sand is the thickest. During the field season of 1922, eighteen floods were studied and mapped. The floods mapped include some of the old and largest as well as the more recent ones which are, of course, smaller. Most of the floods mapped started from a single flood well and as some of the adjacent wells went to water these were changed to pressure wells thus grad- ually enlarging the area that is watered out, and at the same time increasing the area of flood oil into which new wells are drilled. The shape of many of the flooded areas is roughly a circle, but on account of loose streaks in the oil sand and other influencing factors, the shape often becomes irregularly oval. Instead of using a sin le water well in starting a flood, the present tendency is to start by using two or three wells along a straight line as original flood wells, thus producing what is termed a line flood. Floods of this type are more easily controlled and the progress of the flood more easily determined. | | The construction of flood maps gives a reliable basis for estimat- ing the percentage of the field that has been flooded out, especially the area of the flooded parts, the velocity of the flood and erratic movement of the water. The maps are also an aid in determining what the effect of cross flooding will be. One of the largest floods mapped covers an area of about 150 acres of which about one-third was actually flooded out and two-thirds affected by the flood. The flood maps also show that the velocity of the flood water varies in the same pool and even in what is considered the same sand. This is due to changes in the character, thickness, depth of the rock and perhaps other factors. Failure to allow for the factors involved, sometimes leads to unsuccessful results at flooding. It is necessary for the producer to study carefully the sands on his own lease, determining as much as he can from his well logs the various changes REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 7 in character at the different depths, and to notice the direction and rate at which the flood is moving away from his water wells. Methods used in one pool where the sand is loose and deep may fail altogether in another pool where the sand is of a different character, especially where the sand is tight and shallow. The velocity of the flood depends to a large extent upon the porosity and especially the size of the grains of the sandstone. Both of these are likely to vary considerably from well to well, causing the flood to travel faster in some directions than in others. As a rule the velocity of the flood is greatest in the northeast-southwest direction. The cause of this is not clearly understood although it is believed that it is due to variations in the sand rather than to joints in the rock to which the ereater velocity in that direction is generally attributed. What rela- tion the actual structure of the oil sands bears to the velocity of the flood has not been definitely determined. — Cross flooding is a method used to obtain additional oil which is left in the sands after tne first flood has passed. It consists in changing the original flood wells to producing oil wells by reversing or changing the direction of the flood. The process consists in putting water pressure against the older flood which forces the oil toward the original well which is then again pumped. In this stage of flooding the pump is usually placed at a higher level than in the original well. Results from cross flooding are far from uniform. On some leases this method has produced excellent results, others are reported to have met with no success at all. Considerable study of reasons for the failures and successes of cross flooding should be carried on to determine the methods used where the best results have been obtained and to determine, if possible, the cause of the failures in cross flooding. It may be that the failures have been due to some extent to the structure of the sand rather than to the method used, but at least the reason for the failure to get results should be determined. | ~ The control of the water in a flood well is of utmost importance. To obtain the best results the water must be applied directly to the sand which contains the oil and care must be exercised that the water does not escape through loose streaks of sand, above the oil sand proper, and pass to adjoining wells which are intended to receive the flood oil. These loose streaks of sand may be consider- ably above the oil-producing sand or directly above it and in either case these higher sands may contain natural gas. Sometimes loose streaks of sand are found within the oil-bearing sand through which 1s NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the water will pass more rapidly than through the remaining parts of the sand. When this is the case only a partial recovery of oil can be expected but efforts to remedy this condition have met with par- tial success and it is hoped that further experience with sands of this character will develop a successful method of obtaining a larger percentage of oil. The use of packers in water wells for shutting off the water from loose streaks of sand has been very successful. In many wells it is not necessary to use them at all, but it is always best to test a well for loose streaks of sand to determine whether or not packers can be dispensed with. In depth most of the wells of the New York oil fields vary from around 800 feet to over 2000 feet, the deeper wells for the most part being located on the higher elevations of the hills. The deeper wells of course have the greatest hydrostatic pressure and theoretically at least will drive the water faster and farther than under similar conditions in a shallow well. Practical results indicate that the theory is sound and the adding of more pressure to the shallow wells is advocated. One advantage of adding more pressure is that fewer wells need to be drilled, the saving in the drilling being more than the cost of producing the additional pressure. Further consideration of the relative merits and costs of obtaining sufficient pressure, which will give the best practical results, is under way and has already been given some attention by several of the oil producers. The amount of oil that remains in the oil sand after flooding is completed has not yet been satisfactorily determined. The many fac- tors which enter into this problem make its solution difficult. A study of drill cores would give some valuable information and sev- eral of the operators are contemplating putting in a core-drilling machine for the purpose of obtaining cores. A study of samples of the sand from wells that have been completely flooded out is also desirable as well as sands that have been cross flooded. It is hoped that some interesting facts can be obtained from a study of the samples of sands from the various flood wells. Most of the important oil sands of southwestern New York do not contain water. Most of the water that has been reported is found on the borders of the field. Owing to the absence of water, the oil is found in the lower parts of the sand. Such structures as anticlines or synclines are rather difficult to determine on account of the low dip, but oil is sometimes found in synclines. The structure has been made out in only a few instances and it would appear that while the dip is large enough to affect accumulation, it does not seem to have effect on direction of flooding. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 19 In order that the best possible results may be obtained in the sur- _ vey of the oil fields, a structure map should be made of the main oil pools. Such a map would be based largely on the logs of the numerous wells already drilled. Unfortunately few bench markings have been determined so that in addition to the well logs the elevation of the various wells should be obtained. Such a map would indi- cate the depth necessary to drill in order to reach a certain sand. . Whenever possible, the logs of the wild cat wells should be obtained. In many cases these wells were abandoned before the producing sand was reached and it is believed that certain areas which have been regarded as nonproductive, may yield oil upon deeper drilling. Although special studies are being made of water for the use of restored pressure, other agents which can create the necessary driv- ing force are being given attention. These include the use of natural gas and air, as well as several new methods. However desir- able the use of methods other than water may appear from the point of conservation, it seems likely that the water drive having become so well established will not easily be displaced by other methods unless some greatly improved method is discovered. It is to be hoped that before the field is committed entirely to the water drive, a number of deep tests be made in order to determine the possibility of producing oil or gas-bearing sand below the sands that are to be watered out. If this is done, it will save considerable costs in casing off the watered-out sand should at any future time a supply of oil or gas be found at a depth greater than the present producing sands. C. A. HArRTNAGEL Museum expansion. The last report of the Director gave some account of plans and designs for a State Museum building which would not only relieve the present congested condition of the scien- tific museum but give opportunity to develop the scope of the general museum as outlined in the statute of the State, but for which the State has never made financial provision. Reference was therein made to the fact that the proposition for such new State Museum building had received favorable consideration by the State Roosevelt Memorial Commission. The published report of that commission of which the chairman is Prof. Henry Fairfield Osborn, president of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, inti- mates a purpose to commemorate the outdoor aspects of Colonel Roosevelt’s career, his love of nature, of wild life, his enthusiastic espousal of, and deliverances upon the themes of natural science, 20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and in view thereof the trustees of the American Museum of Natural History through their president, Professor Osborn, have presented a project to combine such state funds as may be appro- priated for this memorial, with such municipal funds as the city of New York may similarly provide and thus erect a joint memorial in the form of an addition to the buildings of the American Museum in New York City. The proposal of the State Museum in its great need of adequate room, is that if a building is to be constructed as a New York State Memorial to Colonel Roosevelt, it might with emi- nent propriety be an exclusively state building located at the capital of the State. MUSEUM NOTES For 6 years past the Museum has given freely to the public courses of lectures on a variety of scientific and related themes. These have been untechnical and of a character to appeal to general audiences which have usually filled the small lecture room of the Museum to its capacity. In large part these lectures, which still continue, are given by the members of the Museum staff. As a matter of record and suggestion the titles of these informal illustrated discourses are here given: The State Museum: Hiow to Use It Diamonds The Forests of New York Lake Albany — Our Present Abode Man and Insects How Minerals are Formed Mastodons and Elephants of New York The Empire State of Indian Days Harmonies and Cross Purposes in the Insect World Earthquakes of New York Nature Monuments Life of the Ancient Seas The Cat—A Public Menace Spiders and Cobwebs Nature’s Mathematics The Supreme Fight of the Red Man Why We Protect the Birds Geological History of Lake Champlain A Doctor’s Garden The State and the Tree Where the Weather Comes From The State and the Fisherman The Land of the Trembling Earth What is an Indian? Paspebiac — A Fish Story Our New York State Parks Two Months Underground in the Helderberg Mountains Our Struggle for Life Against the Insects Later French Settlements in New York State Excavations of a Seneca Village Destroyed by DeNonville, 1687 New York Under Four Flags REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 2I The Appeal of the Wild Flowers When the Great Glacier Broke Up in the Mohawk Valley Wood borers and Their Ways Keeping Our Treaties with the Iroquois The Wonderful Spider Wild Life of Canadian Forests and Streams Origin of Color and Odor in Flowers Albany’s Part in the Development of the Airplane The Oyster and the State John Boyd Thacher Park — A Geological Paradise The Great Fishing Banks of the North Atlantic Hunting History with a Spade By Land from Albany to Scotland Adaptations Among Insects of the Field and Forests The Great Flint Mines of the Algonquins at West Coxsackie Where Do We Get Our Climate The Natural Life and Beauty of Mount Marcy The Cultural Value of the Sciences Animals and Plants from the Water at the Albany Filtration Plant Gems and Their Lore Water Plants and Fish Food Trials and Tribulations of An Entomologist The United States as a Melting Pot of the Nations The Pleasures of Butterfly Hunting The Face of the Earth A Naturalist in the Adirondacks Indian Medicine and Medicine Men Origin and Evolution of the Insects Are We Still Living in the Glacial Period Where are We From What the Salamanders Do The Story of Petroleum in New York Insects and Wireless The Great Devonian Forest Mastodons and Mammoths The Background of New York History Wild Flowers and Their Protection To Greenland With Peary Those who have taken part in these lecture courses are, of the Museum staff: Doctor Clarke, Doctor Felt, Doctor House, Doctor Ruedemann, Mr Bishop, Mr Hartnagel, Mr Parker, Mr Whitlock, Mr Newland, Mr Cabeen, Mr Cook, Doctor Stroller, Miss Hartman, Miss Goldring; Llewellyn Legge, chief game protector; Clifford R. Pettis, superintendent of forests; Warwick S. Carpenter, Dr Emmeline Moore, Dr William Wirth Wells, of the Conservation Commission ; George H. Hudson, Plattsburg Normal School; George T. Todd, U. S. Meteorologist; Dr Spencer L. Dawes, State Hospital Commission; Dr James I. Wyer, Director of the State Library; Dr James Sullivan, State Historian; Alfred W. Abrams, Director of the Visual Instruction Division; Prof. James W. Mavor, Union College; Ernest A. Norris, Rev. Ure Mitchell, Rev. George W. Walker, C. H. Wilson, Langdon Gibson. 22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM On various occasions, before the legal “ emancipation” of woman became effective and associations of women were clamorous for their “ rights,” the writer urged the fact that essential difference of physiology in man and woman must institute differences in mentality and intellectual function and that in consequence no man is com- petent to comprehend a woman nor a woman a man. ‘The thought was never very acceptable to women who coveted only the sup- posed “ rights ” or civic privileges of man. Ina presidential address given before the last meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, Sir Charles Sherrington, speaking on the human mechanism, states that the sex essential extends to and modi- fies every cell in the animal anatomy, that is, in every constituent part of the human system there are immanent sex differences. Of necessity, therefore, as the body is the physical basis of mentality, there are inherent differences in the mentality of sex. The functions of the civic state can be perfected only by taking full account of these distinctions. The celebrated chicken’s heart which Dr Alexis Carrel has kept alive since 1912, illustrates most effectively the fact of the independ- ent life of the cell which is the ultimate organic component of animal tissue. Each cell lives for and of itself. Sir Charles Sherrington emphasizes the same fact in bringing forward the conception that man or any animal is essentially a “ colony ” of individual cells, each living its own life and discharging its own function in very much the same sense as the “colony” of such elementary animals as the sponge and its allies among the compound protozoa. The most competent authorities on petroleum consumption have made a forecast that the American productive supply, at present rate of consumption, will last 16 to 20 years. This statement has no reference to imports or new production. The annual production in the New York field is about 900,000 barrels. Our present estimate of the petroleum reserve still in the New York rocks is approxi- mately 90,000,000 barrels. On the basis of these computations New York wells may be expected to produce oil for a hundred years yet. The petroleum of the New York field, though limited in quantity, is of very superior quality, especially for lubricating purposes. No other region of the country produces an oil which commands so high a market price. The great flint quarries of the Algonquins situated a few miles below West Coxsackie, Greene county, discovered and described by REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, I922 23 the archeologist, Arthur C. Parker, are the property of the New York Central Railroad. The hill which is made up of these flint ledges and the debris of the arrow-maker was acquired by the West Shore Railroad at the time of construction, in the expectation that it would be a source of ballast. It proved unavailable for the pur- pose, and as it stands far from the right-of-way of the railroad it has apparently never served any useful purpose to the road. It was thought that under these conditions the New York Central would be willing to donate this stony and valueless land to the State Museum as a state archeological reservation. The president of the road has declined to do this except on payment of a purchase price which is not as yet within the possibility of the Museum to meet. Isle-au-Haut is an island in East Penobscot Bay, Me., about 25 miles southwest of Mount Desert. It is a glaciated mass of highly folded granites of Precambrian age. Between its north-south folds or faults lies a little lake 21%4 miles long and one-fourth of a mile wide. This tongue of fresh water is on the east side of the island, separated from the sea by a narrow barrier of rock, only a few rods wide. Its bottom lies 50 feet below sea level and its surface only 10 feet above it. Its water is largely supplied by bottom springs ; its out- let to the sea is narrow and disappears between the rocks into the shingle of the beach. The mineral composition of the water is very peculiar; the animal life of the lake is very scanty; its plant life curious. From the bottom of the center of the lake, where it is anchored by its roots, projects the vertical trunk of an arbor vitae tree to a height of 5 feet above the water. These singular features intimate such an unusual history for the lake, that private arrange- ments were made this past season to get together the data which may help to throw light upon its origin. Sherman C. Bishop and Noah T. Clarke, of the Museum staff, spent some weeks in making obser- vations and collections at this station and a report upon these is attached to this bulletin. The automobile is an essential factor in our modern life for pleas- use and for good, but it is also a greater factor in the rapid destruction of wild flowers by those thoughtless persons who can not be satisfied with seeing wild flowers in their home ground amid incomparable surroundings, but needs must uproot, break down and gather them by the armful. Thus they gain a few brief hours of doubtful pleas- ure which the flowers may yield from bowls and vases. Then the faded flowers go to join the despised contents of the garbage can. Where they-formerly grew in the woods, their beauty will not again Zt NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM delight the passerby for many years, perhaps never in that spot. By methods like this many of our byways and woodlands, formerly so attractive with their wealth of true Americans, have become the abiding place of burdock, thistle, mustard, ragweed, and numerous other obnoxious aliens. Even more regrettable is the fact that the disturbance does not end with the mere change of plant life. The insects, animals and bird life also suffer a marked change, adding nothing to the attractiveness of such byways and woodlands. Geology is an essential, fundamental science. It comprehends the composition of the earth, the mode of its making, the history of the life upon it. It is the basis of agriculture and mining, meteorology and hydrology, and in a historical sense of all the biological sciences. It is the foundation of archeology and the history of man. Astron- omy is the complementary science; of the whole, of which the earth is a part; of the universe, of which our planet is a unit. It deals in immensitudes of space as does the earth in immensitudes of time; it is the mother of supreme conceptions. Neither geology nor astronomy is taught in the public schools of this State. Both have disappeared from the high school curriculum. The high school graduate who goes through college without electing either of these sciences, comes out ignorant of the fundamental phi- losophy and controlling facts of his existence and environment. School graduates of today in New York State are less acquainted with these essential departments of knowledge than were the acad- emy students of 50 years ago. The effect of this inadequacy of education is making itself clearly evident in the present generation of men, in an incompetent under- standing of the factors in human living. While interest in the works of nature has vastly grown, love for the objects of field and wood- land and mountains, of sky and sea, has become more keen and vital and widespread, yet this acquaintance does not often lead to an understanding of the laws governing the interpretation of these objects. The interest is in the objects themselves, as a lover of books may address himself to first editions. The same laws which have controlled the development of life from the beginning still con- trol and there is little help for the State till they are recognized in the construction of the statutes. And still the State instructs its future citizens in all laws except the basic and fundamental law. The Finley-Champlain memorials. When Dr John H. Finley was exchange lecturer at the Sorbonne, shortly before assuming his duties as President of the University and State Commissioner of REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 25 Education, he visited the little, now almost extinct village of Brouage, the native place of Champlain, founder of Canada. Inspired with the enthusiasm of piety, he brought home from that spot of Canadian nativity, two rather impressive and ponderable reliques of the days when Champlain was a boy and his village an active and prosperous port on the Biscayan shore. One of these consisted of the heavy stones which inclosed a small arched gateway through a masonry wall into the garden of what is locally accredited as the site of Champlain’s home; the other the heavy curbs of Caen- stone which capped a well in the garden of the Recollet monastery, contemporary with the times of Champlain. Coming to Albany, Doctor Finley brought these ponderous reliques with him and after the enthusiasm of conscious possession had somewhat passed, it seemed well to place these souvenirs in communities where they would be most effectively preserved and appreciated. So the Cham- plain archway is now installed in one of the rooms of the Chateau de Ramezay, Montreal, the home of the Numismatic and Antiquarian Society of Canada, having been put in its present place early in 1914. The curbstones have had a varying fortune. Offered to, and accepted by the Recollet church at Limoilou, Quebec, they were sent thither, only to be returned as not large enough, though their sev- eral hundred weight made transportation costs sufficiently so. Finally, during the past year, they have been enthusiastically received by the fathers of the Recollet monastery at Ristigouche, Province of Quebec. There could be no more appropriate place for them, as this institution preserves memorials of the old monastery at Brouage which have enabled Father Pacifique to reset the stones as they origi- nally stood, and reconstruct the canopy or well-house over them. Thus, under the direction of the saintly and learned Father Pacifique the erection was carried out, the memorial marked with inscribed marble tablets, and a day set (St Ann’s Day, July 26th, 1922) for the public celebration of the installation. This event was of notable, if minor, historical interest and it attracted wide public attention throughout French Canada because of its associations and the linking together of such eminent Catholic and Presbyterian personages. Ristigouche stands on the shore of the broad waters of the Risti- gouche river which is the fluid boundary line between French Canada and Scotch New Brunswick. The living waters bathe both shores and the passage over it is but the slender effort of a few moments. Thus once more John Calvin reached out his hand to St Peter. The historic celebration was made the occasion of the publication by 26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM | Father Pacifique of a very interesting story of the early life and the influence of Champlain which is a record of special note as it brings into the foreground some details of his career which have not before had their proper emphasis. In a fair sense this occasion was closely and directly related to the State Museum, as the Director’s personal acquaintance was utilized in the appropriate disposition of these reliques. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, I922 27 BOTANY Scientific investigations. The investigative work of the State Botanist during 1922 has been directed chiefly toward the completion of an annotated list of the plants of the State, which has involved much bibliographic work as well as study of the plants in the state herbarium. Collections and field studies have been carried on in the vicinity of Newcomb, Essex county; Watertown, and the east shore of Lake Ontario, in Jefferson county; and the vicinity of Oneida lake in the central part of the State. Collections of plants from these and other localities which are of scientific value have been incorporated into the herbarium. The ferns and flowering plants of peculiar interest are reported under “ Local Flora Notes,” and the fungi under “ Notes on Fungi.” A large number of fungi, both parasitic and saprophytic, chiefly of recent collection, have been studied in colaboration with Dr John Dearness, and reported upon under the heading ‘“ New and Interesting Species of Fungi.” Contributions to the state herbarium. The additions to the state herbarium during the past year in the form of contributions and exchanges are presented in the following list of contributors, which also indicates the number of specimens received from each. Wen Clokeyan Denviert Coly(exchanee) a aioe ee eee eee 254 J. 12 Noro, leleycuchiallle, SS. (Cy (Gxelaennyae)), oolo5 oc onodcboobuoouounc 152 Dr P. O. Schallert, Winston-Salem, N. C. (exchange)............ 116 Welandweourslatentn Coxsackremay. Shi eee oe. Lhe enh ike ale 60 Douslaswm MER hitewNOCheStenyatn see otbieheld a sete Habs jo meek 43 Dre ae Davis sa MadisonnINVGS io cc wesc ct Ve vcPeon «code a teotscin ets 32 Oye eaciarnen OTEMte mci ere ee ek lke Mone Lilie bieae b wule ec culee tes 17 Ws So IDeio Or Averniclieite, Weichert ID, Cpodgausoocsssauosuce 15 Georreom It) IDoe,. Inlomnesteival, IEG fos. Yat nduccboucdocueehooudenos 10 WalliarmipeGumlierosony erlempsteades sam sealeiaec cero. Stent anne 9 Wee Come itiensc hier tplthacaleu 8 a2 lr aavps he ceed ote ATA Ue MISS Annabels lartines>roadal binge meee ane ances omens Batic Wiis, ILiomom, IDtIEAG|) d.clbodssiodsdosooosovobonbooH oe Wii earchanni peeSynacusetew) ay sett as eR LT. SOUL Tab ed hE CHEATS VitG dleEOwitltuct ee ot GUE RS PEO DM odo, 58 Braseriubert Se (BOnaAVENtUne. ne Te te Metta ky TATED LOR Ee MOR LAE le Brom onngy Dearinesswn Wo md or Ort eee geen a iie os Re ena te, ea Charlesy Gilberts selioneoye oie ke ee wd IE ak ID \Willbexen IMiemonelal, ANIDEIIEy co obiovcob éocedoocousosooooMobOdoS Branker Dobbins eS insite ete ee EM a Ee ATE DCE Me ithe’ Was Shoemakerwatnliitccen yee ami SM MTT CETL ON cots: ks Mrsmie ra jolleyar Berkchinen Vth vos itek i. als he, Renee INE MERTEN Dram ee Nellis SA Dame rieclae Cite Sele ST AM LTT A ALLY A He HH HHH DYDD WD OO TRO oo oats ORS ARs iit ore Alta A th a Dac a a ad eR RR a LL aL 733 Additions to the herbarium. The number of specimens which have been added to the herbarium from all sources during 1922 is 1243. Of these, 733 were received in exchange or as contributions, 28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM while 220 specimens were collected by the botanist in the counties of Albany, Bronx, Essex, Jefferson, Lewis, Madison, Nassau, Oneida, Oswego, Rensselaer and Warren. In addition to these, 290 speci- mens of mosses, lichens and fungi have been collected and added to the herbarium, making the total number of additions 1243. A large number of other specimens were taken, some of them duplicates of those mounted for the herbarium, to be used for the purpose of exchange with other institutions and botanists. Identifications. The State Botanist’s office has been called upon to identify 753 specimens of plants including many edible and poisonous mushrooms during 1922. These identifications were requested by 194 different persons, mostly by mail, some of them however, by personal visit to the office. The summary of this work by months shows that during the late summer and autumn this serv- ice is in greatest demand. By months the number of identifications made is as follows: anianyew eres oe cutee ee BNL teens Mocucc ce tan mentee eee 46 RE DFUAL YALALUA sedans othe aioe tte 7 vapAntoasts “th? 8 Gate ares st 172 Mia Chgapinyath tere ON tons umeus 4 ;. Septemberiay se ke eee 179 FANG ON Gah Lipa a Asante Rs Se RAIS tia Fes Ai” \OCtober 7c ore ee 154 Mirai ye tie ereP tL ROLTTEN NY, 30). 2k 230 November ee 44 Ue ees. ane ert aoa A5,).4 December a. ae eee 33 The identifications made during the past season represents very nearly a 200 per cent increase over 1921, and close to a 300 per cent increase Over 1920. Visitors. The extensive collections of the state herbarium, especially rich in valuable type specimens of fungi, is frequently consulted by specialists in various lines of botanical research. The following botanists have registered in the herbarium for study of material during the past year: Dr L. O. Overholts, Pennsylvania State College Dr A. Gershoy, Columbia University Dr W. A. Murrihill, New York Botanical Garden Dr K. M. Wiegand, Cornell University Dr W. C. Coker, University of North Carolina Dr H. M. Fitzpatrick, Cornell University Dr C. C. Plitt, University of Maryland Dr J. R. Weir, United States Department of Agriculture Dr G. R. Bisby, Manitoba Agriculture College J. Andrew Drushel, Harns Teacher’s College, St Louis Lawrence Stetson, Johnstown, N. Y. Lectures. The State Botanist has delivered nine lectures before various organizations upon the subject of wild flowers and wild flowers needing protection. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 29 ENTOMOLOGY The State Entomologist reports that the season of 1922 has not been particularly remarkable in seasonal developments, except that the month of June was noteworthy in local annals because of the unusual precipitation, the rainfall exceeded that for any previous June since systematic records have been kept and as a result of this and the somewhat low temperatures of that month, the foliage of most plants was comparatively free from insects until into July. The past winter was about normal and differed widely from the extremely early and mild spring of the preceding year. The Entomologist and his staff have been very fully occupied with matters relating to insect life, some of the more important of which are detailed below. The Europeon corn borer (Pyrausta nubilalis Hubn.) The situation has been watched very closely in the infested areas outside of New York State as well as within our boundaries, since experience has indicated the great difficulty of forecasting developments in relation to this insect and has shown also that exceedingly valuable information may be obtained by study- ing conditions in other sections. There was in 1921 a somewhat marked increase in the degree of infestation of our western area and this taken in connection with the very serious depredations in the Canadian section centering upon St Thomas, Ontario, justified considerable apprehension as to developments the past season. A variety of conditions, possibly largely seasonal, resulted in no very marked increase in the infestation in either of the New York areas and such also appears to be the case in the Ontario section, though conditions in portions of the latter appear to have been very materi- ally improved by the general adoption of repressive measures. On the other hand, there was extremely severe injury by this insect in the two brooded area near Boston, part of this probably being due to the unrestricted multiplication of the pest in the large weedy areas of that suburban section. The investigations of the past season showed a material extension of the infested area, particularly in the western part of the State. This appears to have been brought about by the drifting of the moths eastward with the wind but in none of the new territory has it resulted in serious injuries to corn. Con- ditions in both the eastern and western areas support our earlier findings, namely, the very early and moderately late planted varieties are largely free from infestation. This is decidedly encouraging in the event of more serious injury developing. Investigations have 30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM also shown the continued practical immunity from infestation of any plants except corn in this State, thus justifying the restriction of quarantine in the single brooded areas to corn, broom corn, sorghum and Sudan grass and the releasing from such restrictions of the numerous plants coming within the provisions of the quaran- tine as enforced in the two brooded Massachusetts area. This modi- fication in New York State has not reduced the protection given to uninfested territory through quarantine and at the same time it has greatly lessened the expense of administration and removed many vexatious restrictions upon farm produce. The probability of this insect spreading to the warmer areas of the State, particularly the lower Hudson valley and Long Island and the possibility of its developing two generations and causing serious injuries in that terri- tory as in eastern Massachusetts, amply justifies the maintenance of the quarantine for the time being, not to mention the probability of troublesome complications with other States, if all restrictions were removed. The gipsy moth (Porthetria dispar Linn.). This pest has in the past few months spread to such an extent as to seriously menace a considerable proportion of New York State. The Ento- mologist has devoted considerable time to a study of the situation and through conferences with representatives of the United States Department of Agriculture, the New England States and New Jersey and various officials of this State, material progress has been made in working out a practicable and constructive policy for pre- venting the spread of this insect over large portions of New York State and the great expense incident thereto — that is the cost of control, the latter usually not entirely satisfactory, and the very material loss resulting from widespread depredations. The history of this insect shows a gradual spread from the point of original infestation at Medford, Mass. in 1868 until the infested area includes a considerable proportion of the New England States and touches the eastern border of New York State for a distance of some 75 miles. This has occurred in spite of systematic efforts to restrict spread and although experience, throughout much of this period, has shown the practicability of exterminating isolated infestations and preventing spread, this gradual dissemination has resulted from a well intentioned, though parsimonious policy of delayed or insuffi- cient appropriations, frequently both. The infested adjacent New England area is a rough, thickly wooded territory and it is therefore proposed to prevent spread as well as may be along the present * REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 31 border and as the insect issues from this rough, densely wooded area into the more open sections of the Hudson valley, there to establish a line beyond which the insect shall not be allowed to maintain itself, the precise location of this barrier zone to be determined by a care- ful examination of the wooded and cultivated areas of the Hudson and Champlain valleys and the northern boundary of New York State westward to Lake Ontario for the purpose of establishing a zone where the insect can be held most economically and success- fully. The establishment of a barrier zone would be a gradual process extending through a series of years and determined in large measure by the westward spread of the moth. The entire line extending from some point on Long Island Sound northward and westward to Lake Ontario, would be shorter than the present boundary of the infested area, along all of which repressive work is being conducted. The maintenance of a successful barrier zone would mean immunity from gipsy moth ravages for all of our terri- tory west of that area, not to mention the protection given to other States, provided isolated infestations, which presumably will be found from time to time beyond this line, are exterminated. The cost of maintaining such a zone would be much less than attempts to control the gipsy moth over a considerable proportion of New York State, if it became infested, as is to be expected, unless some such plan is put into practice and there would be in addition to the cost of controlling the infestation, the enormous and widespread losses resulting from severe injuries to forest and shade trees throughout the infested area. There is every reason for believing that the Fed- eral Government, in view of the national aspects of the problem, would cooperate in a very substantial way in maintaining this barrier zone, and it is gratifying to state that most of the experts thoroughly cognizant with the situation agree as to the wisdom of testing possi- bilities in this direction. The apple and thorn skeletonizer (Hemerophila parianaClerck). This European insect found well established in Westchester county in 1917 and remaining in that area with com- paratively little spread in this State until the past season, has greatly extended its range north in the Hudson valley as shown by our investigations. It is now well established on both sides of the Hud- son river northward to and including the southern portions of both Albany and Rensselaer counties and in these latter areas, it was so extremely numerous in unsprayed orchards, as to practically defoli- ate the trees toward the end of the summer. This stripping, as 32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM shown by available data, not only causes the loss of the crop the present season but the blasting of that for the following year, since the trees are so weakened in most instances that blossom buds will not develop next spring. This recent introduction would ordinarily not cause serious injury in orchards which are well sprayed for codling moth and other pests. It does, however, threaten serious loss and perhaps death to many trees in the infested area, which for some reason or other are not or can not be sprayed. Some of the more important or more interesting species coming to attention during the past year are briefly noticed below. The grape leaf hopper, Typhlocyba comes Say, appears to have been somewhat unusually abundant, since it was taken in numbers upon rose bushes and small apples and pears were injured presumably by this insect in Columbia and Dutchess counties. The large and brilliantly colored Say’s blister beetle Pom pho- poea sayi Lec. was reported from a number of localities, a con- firmation of earlier data relating to its periodic appearances. The grape leaf hopper, Ty phlocyba comes Say, was some- what abundant in portions of the Chautauqua grape belt and in parts of the Hudson valley, considerable numbers of wingless hoppers being observed in southern Columbia county the last of June. Galls of the grape Phylloxera, Phylloxera vitifoliae Fitch, have been unusually prevalent on grapevine in different parts of the State and judging from specimens received, the same con- ditions prevailed in the middle states. A new strawberry pest, Heterostomus pulicarius Linn., a small, black beetle about three-sixteenths of an inch long, was found working in recently opened strawberry blossoms in southern Columbia county and investigations disclosed the somewhat general occurrence of the insect from that point northward into Saratoga county and in portions of Albany county. This appears to be a recent European introduction. The strawberry weevil, Anthonomus signatus Say, was unusually abundant in Albany, Columbia and Saratoga counties. In some cases the loss in the crop ranged from 10 to, in a few cases, 50 per cent, due to weevils cutting the blossom stems. The corn ear worm, Heliothis obsoleta Fabr., situation shows a marked contrast to the conditions in 1921. Last year this insect caused general and in many cases serious injury in practically all of the counties of the State and there was much concern respect- ing the prospects for the past season. The weight of evidence REHPORDS OR. Diy DIRE eRhORS LO22 33 favored the belief that the caterpillars, although extremely numerous in the fall of 1921, would be unable to survive throughout most of the State and this is substantiated by the practical absence the past season of the ear worm, except in the vicinity of New York City and on Long Island where it probably hibernates successfully. The lined corn borer, Hadena fractilinea Grote, a rela: tively new pest, brought to notice repeatedly in 1918 and 1919 was not reported during the past season. The grubs of the green June beetle, Allorhina nitida Linn., and probably those of other June beetles have caused considerable injury to lawns on Long Island and in the vicinity of New York City. Somewhat extensive patches of dead lawn were noted in New Rochelle. A large series of samples of wheat collected in different parts of the State were sent through the courtesy of Prof. C. R. Crosby of Cornell University and an examination of these showed a very scat- tering infestation by wheat midge, Thecodiplosis mosel- lana Gehin, a condition very different from that obtaining in 1918. The: birch’ leaf skeletonizer, Bucculatrix canaden- sisella Chamb., which attracted some attention in 1921, has been somewhat generally prevalent in the northeasten part of the State, many of the birches being so badly affected that most of the leaves turned brown and dropped in early fall. The white pine weevil, Pissodes strobi Peck, continues co be abundant and injurious in young plantings of white pine, the trouble being most serious in areas where the native pines are somewhat badly deformed due to earlier work by this insect. This was particularly noticeable in the northern part of the Hudscn valley and on the edges of the Adirondacks. Another European insect, Ocnerostoma piniariella Zeller, was brought to our notice through correspondence with Dr J. S. Boyce of Oregon. The general character of its work is sug- gestive of our native pine leaf miner, Paralechia pinifoli- ella Chambers. The interesting maple case bearer, Paraclemensia aceri- foliella Fitch, was locally abundant and somewhat injurious to sugar maples in both St Lawrence and Warren counties. Canker worms, probably spring canker worms mostly, Palea- cerita vernata Peck, defoliated a number of unsprayed orchards in Orleans and Genesee counties. They were also reported as injurious to elms in southern Westchester county. 2 34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The sugar maple borer, Plagionotus speciosus Say, con- tinues to be a serious pest in the State and owing to the fact that the injuries develop slowly, the true cause of the difficulty is rarely understood. This insect is generally prevalent in the western part of the State, particularly in the vicinity of Buffalo and, in some vil- lages has brought about a very unfortunate condition, most of the sugar maples being badly deformed and in some instances half dead. Imported willow leaf: beetle, Plagiodera versicolora Laich., has become generally established on Long Island and in the vicinity of New York City, reproducing in great numbers and prac- tically destroying the foliage of willows in midsummer. It is par- ticularly injurious to the black willow, golden willow and weeping willow. The elm case bearer, Coleophora limosipennella Dup., continues to be a somewhat serious local pest on Long Island and in the vicinity of New York City. It displays a marked prefer- ence for the English and Scotch elms and in certain favored locali- ties may practically destroy the foliage in midsummer. ithe elm leaf beetles Galeru cella Inte ola Mulley’ hassbeen somewhat abundant and destructive in the vicinity of New York City, here and there in the Hudson valley, notably in Albany and Saratoga counties and is becoming established in new areas in the city of Rochester. The bronze birch borer, Agrilus anxius Gory, continues to be destructive to ornamental birches in different parts of the State and it is not unusual to see the tops in a dead or dying condition, even in residential areas. Mae basiyonm, WinwiriGd@ODireryx CHOMeEMeETACKORMIS Haw., has been unusually abundant and injurious in the southern part of the State. The spruce cone gall, Chermes abietis Linn. The galls of this insect are frequently received from different parts of the State. This insect and the frequently associated and very obscure spruce bud scale). Physokermes piceae Schr., are responsible for considerable damage to Norway spruce. The box leaf miner, Monarthropalpus buxi Lab., con- tinues to be a serious pest here and there on Long Island or in the vicinity of New York City and magnificent growths of box may have a very considerable proportion of the leaves disfigured by the mines of this insect. A. distinctly unusual injury was brought to notice through the reception of a solitary bee, Halictus v‘rescens Fabr., in REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 35 early July accompanied by the statement that they were so numerous upon a lawn in Greene county as to practically destroy it by their burrowing operations. Technical studies. The Entomologist’s work upon gall midges has been continued as opportunity offered and has resulted in a num- ber of most interesting collections from various parts of North America and the Old World, especially India, being submitted for identification. The numerous types of new genera and species erected have been deposited in the state collections, making them invaluable for all subsequent students of the group. A summary of these studies, with special reference to our own fauna, is awaiting publication. Publications. There have been no Museum publications relat- ing to entomology issued during the period covered by this report. The marked peculiarities in the behavior of the European corn borer in this State as compared with conditions in eastern Massachusetts led to a revision of the Entomologist’s account of this insect issued as Cornell Extension Bulletin 31. This appeared in March and con- tains a digest of the important findings in the investigations of the last few years. A popular discussion of ‘The Possibilities of Exterminating Insects’ appeared in Scientific Monthly and attracted considerable favorable comment. An earlier prepared paper on “Some of the Broader Aspects of Insect Control” appeared during the year in the 51st Report of the Entomological Society of Ontario. An unusual development was the delivery of a brief talk on “ Bugs and Antennae” at the broadcasting station of the General Electric Company, Schenectady. This, on account of its historical interest, was published in Science. A number of brief, popular accounts relating to the more injurious pests have been prepared as heretofore and widely circulated through the agricultural press. There have been, as in earlier years, a num- ber of minor technical papers, which have appeared in scientific journals. Lectures. The Entomologist has delivered a number of lec- tures or participated in discussions and conferences on insects, mostly economic species, before various agricultural and horticul- tural gatherings, some of these being held in cooperation with farmers’ institutes or county farm bureaus. A number of confer- ences related to the European corn borer and the gipsy moth, both briefly discussed above. 36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Cooperative work. The Entomologist has continued to co- operate with the Federal Bureau of Entomology as a collaborator in European corn borer work to the mutual advantage of both inter- ested agencies. He has also cooperated with the insect pest survey, United States Department of Agriculture. This latter covers the entire United States and since it relates to all insects of economic importance, it is broader in scope than most undertakings of this character. It places at the disposal of all official reporters early information respecting recent developments and thus frequently pro- vides warnings of probable outbreaks in addition to the dissemina- tion of much valuable data. Collections. A number of desirable additions to the state col- lections have been made. Some of the best material has been reared in connection with studies of various outbreaks or secured as a result of requests for information concerning comparatively unknown forms, such as the deer bot fly, Cephenomyia abdominalis Aldr., received through the kindness of Asa Law- rence of Wilmington and previously unrepresented in the collection. Special attention has been paid to the acquisition and preservation of immature stages, since these are difficult to obtain. An interesting collection of insects was received in exchange from Mr C. Garret of Cranbrook, B. C., a series of minute parasites from R. M. Fouts, a Washington authority, and an exceptional series of gall wasps belonging to the genus Rhodites and their galls was con- tributed to the state collection by Prof. A. C. Kinsey, Indiana Uni- versity, Bloomington, Ind. | A unique and rare contribution was received in early March from L. J. W. Jones, Bainbridge. It consisted of several pairs of the snow-born Boreus, Boreus nivoriundus Fitch, a species very rarely coming to the attention of naturalists. With a limited staff, it has been impossible to do much needed work on the collections, aside from a certain amount of labeling and rearranging necessitated by current developments. Office matters. The correspondence has been along the same general lines as before, though the European corn borer and the gipsy moth on account of their outstanding importance, have occu- pied a somewhat prominent place. The general routine work has made unusually heavy demands upon the Entomologist and his assistant, the latter being in charge of the office and responsible for the correspondence and other matters dur- ing the absence of the entomologist. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 37 The lack of a second assistant has seriously restricted the work of the office and it has been necessary to defer matters which could be put to one side. This has resulted in very little systematic work being done upon the collections. These latter should be kept in the best possible condition and the numerous specimens identified, since they are most important aids to speedy identification and the deter- mination of the economic status of an insect. At present much of the material is simply labeled and put away in the hope that some time it may be properly classified. There is in addition considerable accumulations of earlier years which should be treated in the same way, if due regard be had for the development of the state collections and the maintenance through a considerable series of years of satis- factory records along all lines. Horticultural inspection. The nursery inspection work of the bureau of plant industry, Department of Farms and Markets, has resulted as in former years in a number of specimens representing various stages of developments, some in very poor condition, being submitted to this office for identification. The satisfactory deter- mination of specimens originating from various parts of the world requires an intimate and wide knowledge of the literature and insects in both this and other countries and illustrates in a concrete manner the need in entomological work of both training and experience. This type of work also emphasizes the importance of a thoroughly classified collection mentioned above. The general work of the office has been materially aided as in past years by the identification of a number of insects through the cour- tesy of Dr L. O. Howard, chief of the bureau of entomology, United State Department of Agriculture, and his associates. The Entomolo- gist in turn has been able to render some assistance to Doctor Howard and his professional associates in various states and other parts of the world through the identifications in the group in which he is recognized as a specialist. There has been very effective and close cooperation with the State Department of Farms and Markets, particularly the bureau of plant industry, the State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, the State Experiment Station at Geneva, the State Conservation Com- mission, the State Department of Health, the county farm bureaus and various public welfare organizations, A number of correspond- ents have donated material and rendered valuable service by trans- mutting local data respecting various insects and assisting in other ways. There has been, as in the past, most helpful cooperation on the part of all interested in the work of the office. 38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ZOOLOGY The Zoologist has continued the investigation of reptile and amphibian life histories and the study of the very extensive spider fauna of the State, the latter project having been inaugurated sev- eral years ago as a joint undertaking with Prof. C. R. Crosby of Cornell University. Field work carried on in the regions about Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks, near Stamford in Delaware county and in the Helder- berg mountains, Albany county, has resulted in the collection of valuable data and materials relating to the particular problems under investigation. In January 1922, 10 days were spent at Ithaca study- ing the extensive spider collection of the department of entomology at Cornell University. Two new bird groups designed to show the nesting habits of the rose-breasted grosbeak and the scarlet tanager were prepared by Joseph A. Santens of Buffalo and installed in Zoology Hall and the collection of mounted fishes further supplemented by the addition of about twenty specimens not heretofore represented in the exhibit series. Several of the older groups, including those of the wolf and mink, were completely dismantled and remodeled along more effec- tive lines. The amount of available space left in the Zoology Hall for addi- tional exhibits is very limited. Much floor room is taken up by capacious habitat groups and it has been necessary to resort to special and very shallow wall cases in order to take advantage of utilizable space. Under existing limitations it 1s hopeless for this division of the Museum to attempt any more large habitat groups of birds and mammals. It may be remarked, however, that such groups are to be found in all museums; that they are in many ways of the con- ventional museum type of exhibit and it would seem to be a better policy for this division to undertake the production of small groups of the lesser and more inconspicuous members of our fauna, such as the small mammals, reptiles, batrachians, etc. These are animals which are seldom to be found on exhibition and in which there is none the less a widespread interest. INR ClaliOIOXGAC /AINID IB MEUNOILOG AL The principal line of research of this division is to discover and to record all the facts concerning the archeology and ethnology of the New York aborigines resulting from field and museum activities. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 39 Through the fortunate fact that descendents of the Iroquois, the latest of the aboriginal inhabitants of New York, live within our borders, still in tribal relation, it is possible to obtain many interest- ing and valuable facts concerning the ethnology of these people. Many of the Seneca and the Onondaga people still continue their native ceremonies and rites, and not a few of the members of the other nations remember their folk tales and music. There is thus a rich field for the student of aboriginal things. Information is sought from this office by high school and college students, for essay material, by artists, playwrights, sculptors, musicians, writers, by historians, ethnologists, archeologists and museum men, by various experts, as lawyers, department men and sociologists, and by a large body of citizens requiring certain specific information. Donations. The Museum has been fortunate in receiving a number of interesting and valuable donations in archeology this year. Among the donors and specimens are the following: George G. Champlin, of the State Library, a terra cotta pipe hav- ing an animal head effigy of the bowl, from Ontario county; Dr R. W. Orr, director of the Provincial Museum of Ontario, parts of a skeleton and skull stained with red iron oxide, from an ossuary near Dunnsville, Ontario; Pheobe P. Smith, of Jewett, Indian mor- tar found at Ashland, N. Y.; Mrs Hattie Janson Vosburg of Cox- sackie, stone mortar from Mine Hill, through Dr. Andrew Webster Van Slyke; James A. Clark of Middletown, 2 grooved axes, 2 ban- nerstones, 2 argillite cache blades and 6 finely chipped points from the vicinity of Horse Island; Mary Meredith of Euclid, N. Y., col- lection of flints and polished stone articles from the Seneca River region, in memory of her brother William Meredith; Otis Mason Bigelow, of Baldwinsville, platform pipe with a buzzard effigy on the bowl, from Three River Point; Dr Luzerne Coville, of Ithaca, carved stone amulet of lozenge shape; the Rev. W. R. Blackie of Williams- bridge, collection of prehistoric implements, splinters, slips and frag- ments of animal bone from the caves of Madeleine, France; Jeffer- son D. Ray of West Coxsackie, a fine series of chipped articles from Four Mile Point and from Old Orchard Point. Excavations at Vine Valley. For a number of years the State Museum has been receiving specimens from a certain site situated on the McCombs farm in Vine Valley, Yates county. These speci- mens, sent for examination by the McComb family, were of such unusual interest that the Museum acquired all that came in from AO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM there. The material was found during the excavation of the sand and gravel pit on the south slope of Bare hill, and for more than 30 years the owners had steadfastly refused to permit excavations by any private parties and even by museums, until this year, when the State Museum secured the right to make excavations. The site lies along the south slope of Bare hill on its westernmost side and on the ridge just above the valley of Vine Valley creek and extends from the lake to a point just east of the Strum farm, a dis- tance of about 1250 feet. The village site is on the flats but extends upland on the north side of the creek and covers a portion of the Robson farm. To the south of the creek it seems to begin along the landing road and run south in the level area back from the lake to the beginning of the steeper rise of South hill or Genundewa. Here are occasional ash pits and surface indications. Arrowheads and now and then polished stone implements have been found here. The location is reputed to be an early Seneca haunt, and there are traditions of an ancient Seneca fortification on the top of Bare hill. Historic sites are known on both sides of the lake and the Senecas up to the Civil War period wandered about the lake, as if it were hard to abandon this region so sacred to their forefathers. As a matter of fact, however, Jroquoian artifacts in any abundance are not to be found in the vicinity of Bare hill and the evidences of a eenuine artificial fortification on the top of the hill are too feeble to admit of plausibility. All the evidences of occupation on the east slone of the hill and in the valley below are Algonkian. Jroquois evidences occur opposite Bare hill at such places as Seneca Point, and south of the lake at such points as Naples. Bare hill itself shows no cvidence of having been occupied at any time by any branch of the Iroquoian people. Owing to the intensive farming of the village area of the old occu- pation we were unable to make more than a superficial examination, but this was sufficient to determine the culture and its approximate period. The site that was examined and excavated was the sand pit and the slope just to the south. But a small portion of the pit area, the small plat to the east and up-hill could be excavated. Here nothing of any importance was discovered. Our attention, therefore, was eiven to the steep slope, graded into grape terraces. Here great piles of earth had, been scraped from the top of the hill and graded into the terraces, where 40 years ago vineyards were planted. In ('~ “ne back to widen the terraces skeletons were sometimes found. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 4I It was under such conditions that the work of excavating was undertaken. | After a month’s work in the intense heat, interspersed with ter- rific rains and wind storms, thirty-eight burials were uncovered all on the side hill and ranging from within 4 feet of the top to a dis- tance of 30 feet down. Thirty burials were from previous tree or scaffold mortuary dis- posals ; that is, the bodies had been wrapped in skins and furs until skeletonized, when they were removed and buried. The scattered and displaced bones in these burials were evidence of this. With such burials there were only a few shell beads. In most cases a deg had been sacrificed in such graves and buried either over or just to one side of the bundled bones. Some of the bundle burials were of infants but most were original interments and with these were sometimes two dogs. Four of the adult burials were original inter- ments, and in each of these the skeleton was flexed in the usual aboriginal method. Except in one instance there were artifacts with ‘each original adult burial. Scattered through the grave area were fire or feast pits, some of them just above the graves and others a little to one side, as if there had been watch fires into which the remnants of the death feast or grave watch had been thrown. There was little in these pits except fragments of animal bones — deer, raccoon, turtle, bear and beaver — and an occasional hickory nut or acorn. There was one exception to this —a pit containing several quarts of charred hickory nuts. Artifacts were rare in bundle burial graves, but in the flexed burials there was always at least a bead or two, save in the case of a female interment. In pit 22-23, found July 13th, within 12 inches of the surface was found a broken skeleton apparently lying on its face with its knees drawn up under it, and its hands before its face. This burial was near the top of the terrace and directly under the stopping place of the auto trucks which were loaded with sand. This probably accounts for the crushed condition of the skelton. The side hill in which the skeleton lay was “ pocketed” and at the bottom of the grave more than a dozen grooved sinkers were found, the grooves being the long way of the oval pebbles. The skeleton was of an adult male of perhaps 50 years. The lower jawbone alone of any part of the skull remained intact. On the back of the head was a bone bar amulet and just below it and resting between the shoulders was a broken two holed gorget of gypsum. In the right eye socket was a notched arrowhead. 42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM To the east of this pit and adjoining it were two other pits (given the number 23). One contained a dog burial and the other an infant burial. The infant’s skull was missing and the dog had two beads of shell (disk wampum) at its neck. In pits 9 and 10 which adjoined but were of different depths were interesting objects. Grave 9 was found 3 feet down in the upper terrace. It was of a large child, probably female, and of about 11 years, judging by the skull and dentition. Each joint of the limbs lifted from the diaphysis, appearing as a distinct bone, having a sepa- rate surface or suture between it and the shaft. At 5% feet down, or 2 feet lower than grave 10, another large grave was found. Upon baring the bones and brushing them off, so as not to disturb their relation, we found parts of four skeletons — two infants, a headless adult, and a flexed skeleton of an adult male. With the headless skeleton was a crude clay pipe with a flattened stem, and resting under the sternum of the complete skeleton was a steatite pipe. Implements found in other graves are: shell beads of the discoid type, broken tubes, a flattened metate, three broken bell pestles, a pendant gorget of the thick type, bone awls, notched arrow points, a copper pin about an inch long and two perforated joints. Other implements found by the McComb family are described in the Director’s report for 1913. New York State Indian Commission. The work of this com- mission, of which the Archeologist was secretary, by appointment of the Governor, terminated with the adjournment of the Legisla- ture in 1922. The object of the commission was to confer with the committees of Congress on Indian affairs, relative to the status of the New York State Indians and their reservations. This necessity grew out of the apparent conflicts in jurisdiction between the federal and state governments, in the matter of enforcing state laws on reservations, particularly those relating to health, quarantine, edu- cation and truancy. By an opinion of the Attorney-General, it appeared that state laws did not apply to reservations and since the Federal Government attempted to enforce its jurisdiction only in the matter of the seven major crimes, it was felt by welfare workers that there were many beneficial efforts that were weakened through the lack of laws capable of enforcement. The several members of the Legislature and of the state departments who were members of the Indian Commission were to see what Congress was willing to do in this situation. A preliminary hearing was held with certain mem- bers of the congressional committees, but for 3 years the commis- REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 43 sion failed to function, largely it appears because the chairman did not call general sessions of the commission for the purpose of dis- cussing the several subjects upon which a report could be based. His meetings with the Indians were personally called and the report rendered by him a personal report in which other members of the commission had no part in discussing or formulating, willing and ready as some of the commissioners were to ‘so participate. The legal tangle of the New York Indians, therefore, remains as it was before the commission was formed. In a measure it may be said to have been complicated even further by the idea that the New York Indians have a vast land claim against the State based upon the Fort Stanwix treaty, which was superseded by the Canandaigua treaty of 1795, and which the authorized chiefs and head men of the Iroquois signed in good faith. It is said, however, that the Senate of the United States never ratified the Canandaigua treaty and that it is therefore not a functioning agreement, and that for this reason the Fort Stanwix treaty still holds, in which case all western New York west of a line drawn south from Oswego must still belong to the Six Nations. This is an interesting assertion, but it remains with Congress and with the Supreme Court to assert its validity, and not the several Indian commissioners of the State. New York State Archeological Association. This association is in a flourishing condition and during the year last past has held its scheduled meetings and lectures in Rochester. One publication has been issued during 1922, “The Archeology of the Genesee Valley,” by Frederick Houghton. At a meeting of the trustees of the association, a petition was made to the Regents of The Univer- sity of the State of New York for a-charter. After due considera- tion a provisional charter was granted by the Regents and placed in the hands of President Alvin H. Dewey of Rochester. The trus- tees of the association are Mr Dewey, chairman, Harrison C. Fol- lett, Walter Cassebeer, John M. Clarke and Arthur C. Parker. New York Indian Welfare Society. This society, which a year ago met in Buffalo, convened in its 1922 annual session in the rooms of the Albany Institute and Historical and Art Society, through the courtesy of the society and its president. Its sessions were produc- tive of much good and matters of education, health, public nurses, sanitation, agriculture, better schools, care of the indigent, the work of the Indian Commission and other matters were fully discussed. The society refused to consider the matter of claiming that the Indians held legal title to more than 60,000 acres of western New 4A NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM York land valued at more than two billion dollars, believing it better to consider things of immediate welfare. This determination caused some dissatisfaction on the part of nonmembers who voiced their opinions. The society, which is seeking to cooperate with the state departments and with voluntary relief agencies, reelected its officers and reappointed its committees. Horton G. Elm, an Oneida, is president, and Louis Bruce, a Mohawk, secretary. The Archeologist of the Museum has assisted this society to the extent of furnishing information and helping its officers, it being thought within the scope of this office to encourage the Iroquois who remain with us as the survivors of the aboriginal “ Empire State ” to adjust themselves to the requirements of modern civilization. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 45 STATE MUSEUM ACQUIRES ORIGINAL CONTRACT OF FIRST PURCHASE OF LAND NEAR ALBANY FROM INDIANS IN 1630 Note by ARNOLD J. F. VAN Larr, Archivist By gift from Mrs John Boyd Thacher of Albany, the New York State Museum has come into possession of a valuable document on parchment which may be described as the oldest official instrument issued under the hands and seal of the director general and council of New Netherlands, now known to be extant. The document, which lacks the seal, but which is otherwise in an excellent state of preservation, relates to the first purchase from the Indians of land in the vicinity of Albany, in what was later known as the colony or manor of Rensselaerswyck, and is one of the two instruments con- cerning that purchase which were secured by General James Grant Wilson at Amsterdam in 1889, and which had been preserved in that city for more than 250 years in possession of the Holland branch of the Van Rensselaer family. Facsimiles and translations of the two documents were published by General Wilson in 1892 in the first volume of “ The Memorial History of the City of New York,” in which this document is called a “* contract,’ while the other is desig- nated as a “deed.” Both documents contain formal and almost identical declarations by the director and council that certain Indians appeared before them and upon receipt of certain quantities of mer- chandise conveyed to them, for and on behalf of Kiliaen van Rens- selaer, residing in Holland, various tracts of land situated in the neighborhood of Fort Orange. It is to be noted, however, that the “ contract,’ which is not dated, gives the date of the transaction as August 6, 1630, whereas in the “ deed,” which is likewise undated, but which in an acknowledgment attached by Vice Secretary Lenaert Cole is stated to have been executed in his presence on August 13, 1630, the transaction is said to have taken place on that date. Aside from this variation, which does not necessarily imply any real dis- crepancy, or that the Indians appeared before the director and council at two different times, the main difference between the two documents consists in the fact that the “contract ” contains a long preamble in which certain statements are made in regard to the former unwillingness on the part of the Indians to sell their land and the subsequent agreement which was made with them by Gillis Housset. It is these statements, which do not occur in the shorter 46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and more formal “deed,” that give to the “contract” a greater value as an historical document, since they throw an interesting light on the pressure which at that time was being exercised against the Mohicans by the Mohawk Indians who compelled the former to abandon their lands along the Hudson River and made them willing to sell. An interesting feature in connection with the description of the land conveyed is the fact that it seems to cover large tracts south and north of Fort Orange and a small tract on the east side of the river, opposite the fort, but does not appear to include the land on which the fort itself stood. Kiliaen van Rensselaer afterwards claimed that his purchase included the site of the fort, but the Dutch West India Company denied this, on the ground that the fort was built long before the purchase for van Rensselaer was made. No document, however, has ever been produced to show that the com- pany bought the land on which the fort stood and it is possible that this land was held merely by sufferance, although the language of the “contract” seems to favor the other view. It will be noticed that the property is described as extending up the river a distance of fully 3 Dutch or about 14 statute miles, but that nothing is said in regard to the width of the land, it being understood that the vari- ous tracts that are named included all that was owned by the Mohi- can Indians, whose territory extended inland from the river a dis- tance of about 2 days’ journey. As to the form of the document, it is to be noted that the “ con- tract’ is signed, not by the Indian proprietors, but by the director and council, before whom the conveyance took place. This feature, which is in accord with the contemporary Dutch practice in the case of transfers of land that were made before the court, has had the fortunate result of preserving for us one of the very few known signatures of Peter Minuit, the director of New Netherlands, whose name is identified with the purchase of Manhattan Island from the Indians in 1626. The other signatures, of members of the council, are those of Pieter Bylveltt, the lessee of one of the company’s bouweries on Manhattan Island; Jan Lampo, the sheriff, and Reyner Harmensen and Jan Jansen Meyns, both of whom seem to have been master ship carpenters. It is finally to be pointed out that a copy of the “contract,” with- out the signatures, occurs on page 4 of the first book of Dutch Patents, from which a translation, made by Mr Berthold Fernow, under the title “Indian Deed to Kilian van Rensselaer for a REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 47 tract of land on the North river (Manor of Rensselaerwyck), is printed on the first page of volume 14 of the “Documents Relat- ing to the Colonial History of New York.” Unfortunately, neither the translation published by General Wilson, nor that made by Mr Fernow, is entirely satisfactory, the first giving the date of the transaction as August 8, 1630, instead of the 6th, and the second representing the possible sale referred to at the beginning of the document as having actually taken place, so that for the correct understanding.of the document a new translation seems desirable and is presented herewith. CONTRACTOR SALE TOR WEANDVALONG THE HUDSON RIVER FROM THE MOHICAN INDIANS TO KILAEN VAN RENS- SIBILAUBIK, MMOGUSIP @, UOT, Whereas Bastiaen Janssen Crol, Commissary at Fort Orange, stated here at the Manhatas to the Honorable Council of this place, that the land situated near the aforesaid fort could not be bought this present year from the owners thereof and that, even though it were acquired afterwards, it would be understood by the Virginians to be sold only for so long as he, Crol, should continue to reside at the fort; and whereas likewise, when Wolffert Gerritsz, having orders from his Hon. Masters to inform thew Honors of the situa- tion there, expressly inquired of lum, Crol, what and what sort of information he should send to their Honors aforesaid, he, Crol, did thereupon reply that there was this year no chance or means of acquiring any land, repeating the same several times, according to the deposition thereof made by the aforesad Wolffert Gerritsz, it happened afterwards that Gillis Hosset, having on the 27th of July, 1630, in sailing up the river, come to the place where Jan Jansz Meyns was camping with hs men to cut round timber for the new ship, there also came by chance to this spot Kotiamak, Nawanemitt, Abantzenee, Sagiskwa and Kanamoak, owners and proprietors of their respective parcels of land extending up the river, south and north of said fort, to a little south of Moeneminne’s Castle, belong- img jointly and collectively to the owners aforesaid, together with the land called Semesseeck, situated on the east shore, from opposite Castle Island to the aforesaid fort, belonging to the said Nawanemit ‘Tn the record of this contract, in Dutch Patents, GG. page 4, this date is given by mistake as the 27th of July, 1631. Partly owing to this mistake his- torians have mentioned the present purchase as made subsequent to that for land between Beeren island and Smacks island, of May 1631, whereas in reality it was the first purchase of land in the Vicinity of Fort Orange. See Van Rensselaer Bowier Mss., p. 166-68, 181-82. 48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM in particular; also from Petanock, the Mill Kill, northward to Negagonse, extending fully about three (Dutch) miles; and the aforesaid Gillis Hosset, having entered into negotiations with the owners of the aforesaid ‘land to sell, cede and surrender the sad respective parcels of land, the same persons declared m presence of and before Jan Jansz Meyns, Wolffert Gerritss and Jan Tyssen, trumpeter, that they were satisfied :to sell, transfer, cede and sur- render the said respective parcels of land, as they thereafter, on the sixth of August following, before us, the Director and Council of New Netherland, residing on the island Manhats and Fort Amster- dam, under the jurisdiction of their High Mightinesses, the Lords States General of the United Netherlands, and the Chartered West India Company, Chamber of Amsterdam, voluntarily and deliber- ately did for and in consideration of certain quantities of merchan- dise, the receipt whereof into their hands and power they acknowl- edged before the execution of these presents, and as they hereby, by virtue and title of sale, do-transfer, cede and convey the same to and for the benefit of the Hon. Kiliaen van Rensselaer, being absent and for whom we, ex officio, accept the same with proper stipulations, camely:the respective parcels of land hereinbefore specified, with the forests, appurtenances and dependencies thereof, together wth all the right, title and interest therem belonging jointly and severally to the grantors aforesaid who hereby constitute and substitute the above mentioned Hon. Mr. Rensselaer in their stead, state, right, real and actual possession thereof, at the same tune giving lim full, absolute and irrevocable power, authority and special order, tanquam actor et procurator in rem suam et«propriam, to enter upon the sud land, the same to be possessed in peace, cultivated, occupied and used by the aforesaid Mr. Rensselaer, or those who may hereafter acquire lus right; also to do and act therewnth and dispose thereof as his Honor or others would do, or be allowed to do, with their own property and by lawful title acquired lands and domains, with- out any part, right, interest, or authority in the least, whether of ownership, command or jurisciction, being kept, reserved, or re- tained by the grantors aforesaid, who on the contrary in has behalf, as before stated ad infinitum desist therefrom and surrender, relin- quish and renounce the same by these presents. Promising further, not only forever to hold firm, binding and irrevocable and to carry | out and fulfil this their transfer and all that may be done by virtue thereof, but also to guard against eviction from the aforesaid land, | IREPORT COUR PIGS, IDMLIRUEK CAPO) | IO) 2,2) AL®) obligans et nuncians ct.a bone. fide. In witness whereof these pres- ents are confirmed by our usual signatures and the ordinary seai suspended below.” Done on the aforesaid island of Manhatas and at Fort Amsterdam, tlic cay and year above written. Peter Minuit, (Director), PIETER BYLVELTT, Jan LaAmpo, Schout, REYNER HARMENSEN, JAN JANSZ MEYNS. oe * The seal of New Netherland is lacking. 50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM THE UPPER DEVONIAN FOREST OF SEED FERNS IN EASTERN NEW YORK BY WINIFRED GOLDRING The “ Gilboa trees’ have been known to science for over half a century, but only within the last 3 years has it been discovered that New York actually had an extensive and very ancient fossil forest in its eastern domain. This forest remained hidden away in the Upper Devonian (Ithaca) rocks of Schoharie until 1869. In the fall of this year a great freshet swept the upper valley of the Schoharie in the vicinity of the village of Gilboa tearing out bridges, culverts and roadbeds, but greatly benefiting science by exposing in the bedrock standing stumps of trees. The discovery of these trees was described in the Albany Argus of January 30, 1870, and in the 24th Report of the State Museum ;? and was considered of so much importance that it was brought by Hall to the attention of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at the Brighton meeting in 1872.2. Excavations were made during the year 1870 in the beds of sandstone containing these trees and five stumps and a number of fragments were taken out of this ancient forest, all at the same level in the rocks. The greater part of this material was brought to the State Museum where it has for some time constituted a remarkable exhibit of the ancient, extinct flora of the State. The Gilboa collections were submitted to Sir William Dawson of Montreal for examination, and he determined the fossil trunks to be of two species, which he named Psaronius erianus and P. textilis. The trunks were noted as being in an upright position with their bases resting in and upon a soft shaly stratum, representing the bed of clay in which they appeared to have grown; and the facts of their occurrence led to the conclusion that “we had evidence of comparatively dry land on the eastern margin of the Devonian sea.’* It was also inferred “ that this area during the deposition of these beds was undergoing continuous oscillation of level, with a general downward movement.” * This Schoharie, or Gilboa, forest is the earliest recorded forest of the earth. The old locality had long since been covered up and the rocks at the level in which the trees were discovered did not outcrop 1 Hall, James. 24th Rep’t N. Y. State Cab. Nat. Hist., 1872, p. 15, 16. ?Rep’t ‘Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1872, v. 42, Trans., p. 103. * Ref. cit., p. 103. "UOHIPUOS SATIUIId Z1OUL oY} st Jey} se ‘Snorss0UcU aq 0} pauNsse st 991} BY, ‘sevazdojpumasadsoy YO UO0IyeI0}SAY] = cS | oo oS Pe y 4 Plate 1 Restoration of Eospermatopteris. The tree is assumed to be monoecious, as that is the more primitive condition. io aes weak REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 5I again in this area. Nothing more was heard of these fossil stumps until 1897 when Prosser,* then connected with the New York State Survey, reported finding some small specimens, from a higher hort- zon, lying loose at Manorkill falls about a mile south of Gilboa. Occasional attempts since then to rediscover this ancient forest were fruitless until the summer of 1920 when special effort was made to add to the collection of Devonian plant material already in the hands of the Museum. The effort to relocate the Schoharie forest or to find some additional evidence as to its extent led to the discovery of upright tree stumps not in the original locality but at the higher level, along the road in the vicinity of the lower falls of the Manorkill, a tributary of the Schoharie creek. These trees likewise were found with their bases resting in a bed of shale, greenish black in color. This second tree locality is at a level of 1120 feet A. T.; the old local- ity, on the same side of the Schoharie creek, just above the old Gilboa bridge, was at a level of 1020 feet A. T. Since 1920 the city of New York has been doing construction work at Gilboa, preparatory to impounding the waters of the Schoharie creek for the future use of its citizens. The resultant dam will drown the village of Gilboa and its vicinity, including the two above-mentioned fossil tree localities. In the course of quarrying in connection with the work on the dam the old locality, which is directly at the spot where the dam is being built, was uncovered and seven trees were found. In a quarry 2300 feet north (downstream) of the old locality trees were found at the 972-foot (one small specimen) and 960-foot levels. This quarry, known now as “ Riverside quarry,” has yielded the greatest number and also the largest stumps hitherto found. Eighteen specimens were taken from an area 50 feet square, not counting those destroyed in quarrying. One of the largest specimens of this group has a circumference at the base of approximately 11 feet (diameter approximately 3.5 feet), a height of 22 inches and a diameter at that height of 2114 inches; stumps of greater height, but of smaller girth have been obtained. At all three tree horizons the stumps were found with their bases resting in and upon shale and in every case in an upright position with the trunk extending into the coarse sandstone above. The shale beds vary in thickness from 6 inches to 2 feet; at the low- est horizon, in the place in the quarry where the greatest number of stumps was obtained, the shale had a thickness of only 6 inches. “Prosser, Charles S., 17 Annual Rep’t of N. Y. State Geol., for 1897 (1899), p. 211. 52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The small specimen found at the 972-foot level was in an upright position and rested upon a black shale layer, about an inch thick, which disappeared entirely a few feet from the stump. The pres- ence of the black shale layer, in the vicinity of the stump would seem to indicate that it was found in the place of its growth; yet it is possible that it may have drifted in and been buried in the upright position in which it was found. At the middle horizon (the old locality) a stump was found 6 feet above the shale layer on which the other stumps that were found rested; but the specimen in this case did not rest upon a shale layer. The present Catskill mountains during this Upper Devonian period constituted the low shore of a shallow sea, the continental land lying off to the east. The coasts of those times were unstable, and it was along the borders of such a coast line that at least three successive forests of these trees reared themselves to great heights, were submerged, destroyed and buried. With the recent additions to our collection, which we owe to the courtesy of the Commissioners of the New York Board of Water Supply and of Mr J. Waldo Smith, chief engineer, we now have a total of 40 stumps partial or complete, and a number of broken pieces. Taking into connection with these the specimens which have gone to other museums, the weathered stumps discarded, and those destroyed in blasting, the number of stumps taken from these pri- meval forests probably runs into the hundreds; and further quarry- ing is continually bringing more to light. The Riverside quarry will not be included in the area covered by the Gilboa dam, but its value as a fossil tree locality will be greatly lessened as soon as the quarry- ing operations in connection with the dam cease. Now that the rock layers containing the stumps have been located it is quite possible that they can be traced around the hills and found outcropping else- where. In the area known, the tree localities have been found stretching over a distance of something more than 124 miles.* As stated above, these ancient trees were described by Dawson as fern trees belonging to the genus Psaronius and represented by two species erianus and textilis.® In the report of the Geological Survey of Canada, 1871, P. tex tilis is noted as occur- ring at Gilboa and P. erianus in Madison county. In the 24th Report of the State Museum both are described as having been * Notices of these recent occurrences have been mentioned in the later reports of the Director of the Museum, and an illustrated article entitled “ The Oldest of the Forests” by John M,. Clarke was published in the Scientific Monthly, January, 1921, pp. 83-01. 5Geol. Surv. Canada, 1871, p. 58, 50; Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1871, 27:269; 1882, 37:307. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 : 53 found in Schoharie county (Gilboa) ; and both species, in fact, are being obtained today from this area. The name Psaronius was inappropriately used for these trees, and indeed they belong to an entirely different group. The structure of Psaronius has been worked out in a most elaborate manner. This genus contains a large number of species from the Permo-carboniferous strata, all of which agree in having a highly complex polystelic organization, com- parable to that of the most highly differentiated fern stems of the Bresent eGayan el Sali O nis pymtoerenore sy iS) ay thuen) Lenn OF, Pteridophyte. Even when it was definitely known that these trees did not belong with Psaronius, the problem of their relationship still remained, though it was recognized that the cortical structure bore a resem- blance to that of Lyginodendron. The name Lyginodendron’ was first given to a specimen that had nothing to do with the plant usually known as Lyginodendron oldhamium, described by Binney? as Dadoxylon oldhamium and placed in the genus Lyginodendron by Williamson.? This plant later was found to be a Pteridosperm and Potonié in 18991° proposed for it the now accepted name of Lyginopteris oldhamia. Gourlie’s type specimen, Lyginodendron landsburgii, came from the Carboniferous rock of Ayrshire, Scotland and is the cast of a plant having in the outer cortex an irregular, anastomosing mechan- ical system of sclerenchyma plates. Potonié? proposed that the name Lyginodendron would serve a useful purpose for casts of stems similar to Gourlie’s type but which can not be assigned to a definite systematic position. The largest example (100 cm long) of this Lyginodendron structure was noted by Seward’? in a cast from the Upper Carboniferous near Harrogate. Nathorst?® recently figured a similar cast from Spitzbergen, from the Culm, and has also described under the name of Lyginodendron sver- *Corda, Gdoppert, .Stenzel, Solms-Laubach, etc. in Germany; Zeiller, Renault, Pelourde, etc. in France (see Scott, D. H., Studies in Fossil Botany, pt 1, 3d. ed.,; 1920, p. 270-78). Derby, Orville A., Observations on the Stem Structure of Psaronius aaiansiinliiie 1s)11s). Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 4, 1914, 63 :480-97. "Gourlie, W., Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, 1844, I :105. *Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, 1866, 5:113. mahiiedransy Rov, SOC. 1673, 163. :404. ® Lehrbuch der Pflanzenpalaeontologie, Deelzale ™ Ref. cited. ~ Seward, A. C., Fossil Plants, 1917, 3:3 i Nathorst, EN ieh Zur Fossilen Flora ae Polarlander. Teil 1, Nachtrage zur Palaozoischen Flora Spitzbergens, pl. 7, fig. 1. Stockholm 1914. 54. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM drupi‘* impressions of a cortical reticulum from the Upper Devonian of Ellesmere Land. As pointed out by Seward,?® this type of cortex is not confined to a single genus of plants, nor even to a single group, since it is found in Pteridosperms and also occurs in some Paleozoic lyco- podiaceous stems, and therefore can not be considered a safe crite- rion of botanical affinity. The name Lyginodendron is nothing more than a form name, therefore; and can serve only as a convenient catch-all for plants of unknown affinities. Fortunately during the same summer that the Manorkill (1120- foot level) tree horizon was located, while operations were under way for the removal of the new stumps, through the keen observation. of Dr Rudolf Ruedemann who was on the look-out for seeds in Upper Devonian rocks, there was discovered partly buried in the bed of the Schoharie creek, a loose block of shale covered with fructifications. The slab was traced to its source at the south side of the lower falls of the Manorkill about 15 feet above the base of the falls and 100 feet below the tree horizon. At this time a few specimens were obtained. Later in that same season and again in the summer of 1922 that and other localities were worked and reworked until a fair-sized collection has been obtained containing seeds (megasporangia), male fructifications, pieces of foliage and roots. Besides these Gilboa trees, occurring in large numbers, only specimens of a Protolepidodendron have been found, and these not in abundance; also the shale layer in which the fruiting bodies were found is at the same level (1020 feet) as the shale layer in which rested the bases of the stumps of the first-discovered locality. The above facts leave no doubt that the fruiting bodies, foliage and roots, occurring so frequently wherever the shale layers in question can be worked, belong to the Gilboa trees. The presence of seed ferns in the Upper Devonian rocks has long been predicted. Back in 1912 Johnson of the Royal College of Science for Ireland, Dublin, found in the Upper’ Devonian beds at Kiltorcan, County Kilkenny, impressions indicating the presence of the seeds and microsporangia of a Devonian plant, suggesting that heterospory was already well pronounced at this epoch. The speci- mens were reserved for description in the hope that specimens show- ing the parentage of the seed would turn up. With this hope unful- * Die Oberdevonische Flora des Ellesmere-landes. Report 2d Nor- wegian Arctic Exped. “Fram” 1898-1902. No. I, 1904, p. II, 12, pl. 1, fig. 1; pl. 2, figs. 1, 2. * Ref. cited; also 1910, 2:220. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 55 filled, in 1917 he published a short description of this material under the name of Spermolithus devonicus.’® For this country, Mr David White,” paleobotanist of the United States Geological Survey, discovered in 1900 the seeds of Aneimites (Adiantites), whose fern nature had hitherto been unquestioned, in the lower Pottsville (lower Pennsylvanian) of West Virginia; and this occur- rence gave us the hope of finding seeds or forerunners of seeds in our Upper Devonian plant beds in New York. Study of all the Gilboa material collected has shown that this Upper Devonian tree, while of simpler organization, bears a strong resemblance to the Carboniferous Ly ginopteris and, with it, belongs among the seed ferns (Pteridospermophyta ; Cycadofilicales of some). The generic name Eospermatopteris is here pro- posed to include the two species of Gilboa trees. Seed ferns must have had their origin in primitive ferns earlier than the Upper Devonian. The climax of their development eccurred in the Pennsylvanian and early Permian; but, beyond the Paleozoic, none are as yet known. Eospermatopteris gen. nov. Eos-dawn; sperma-seed; pteris-fern. Stumps and trunks. Plates 2, 3, 4 and 7 will give a very good idea of the size and shape of the stumps of these trees, and the lower surface of the bases is well shown in plate 5. In the forty more or less complete stumps which the Museum has obtained there is great variability in size and some variability in shape. The bases are bulbous, as might be expected of trees growing under swampy con- ditions, in some cases more spreading than in others. The height at which the trunks were broken off above the base varies from I foot 4 inches in the case of some of the smaller stumps to about 3 feet and slightly over in the case of the largest stumps. The cir- cumference at the spreading part of the base varies from 3 feet 10 inches in the smallest specimen (height 2 feet) to 11 feet in the largest specimen, which has a diameter of 21% inches at a height of 22 inches. Others of the largest stumps show circumferences between 814 feet and 11 feet and have diameters up to 2 feet at heights varying from 20 inches to 2 feet. One of these large stumps shows very slight spreading at the base. With a base having a cir- cumference of 814 feet (diameter 32 inches) the trunk at the height * Johnson, Thomas, Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. 1917, 15, no. 23:218, 219, pl. 11, figs. 4-6, pl. 12, figs. 1, 2. “White, David, Smith. Misc. Coll., pt. 3, 1904, 47:322-31, pls. 17, 18. 56 i NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of 23 inches still has a diameter of 2 feet. In other cases, the nar- rowing from the bulbous base to the trunk is more rapid and more. striking. One stump standing 3 feet high has a circumference at the base of 1014 feet (diameter 40 inches) and at a height of 2 feet a circumference of 6 feet 3 inches (diameter 23.8 inches) ; another, about 3 feet high has a circumference at the base of 9 feet (diameter 34 inches) ; at the top of 3 feet 1 inch (diameter 11.7 inches). In both these cases the narrowing is gradual. In two of the most recently acquired specimens, in fact the best specimens we have, the narrowing is very strikingly, in one case very abruptly, shown. One has a height of 3 feet and a circumference at the base of 6 feet 3 inches (diameter approximately 23.8 inches), but at a height of 14° inches, a circumference only of 4 feet 3 inches (diameter approxi- mately 16 inches), while at the top the circumference is about 3 feet (see plate 3). Another has a height of 34 inches and a circumfer- ence at the base of 7 feet 6 inches (diameter approximately 25.4 inches); at the height of 14 inches a circumference of 6 feet 5 inches; at the height of 24 inches, a circumference of 4 feet 4 inches; at the height of 34 inches a circumference of 3614 inches (diameter 11.6 inches). This last example (plate 4) shows a case of very gradual narrowing of the trunk; the preceding example shows an abrupt change from the enlarged base to the trunk. Parts of the trunk, above the heights shown in the stumps, have been found infrequently and in a flattened condition. The Museum has two of these specimens, one over 4 feet long and the other over 3 feet long. In the case of the latter, which was taken from the underside of an overhanging ledge, as much again of the trunk had been broken away and lost; and, beyond the section obtained, the trunk continued into the solid rocks with little, if any, diminution in width. Another specimen, too poor to be removed from the rock, shows some 12 feet of slender trunk which must represent a portion near the top of a large trunk or the trunk of a very small tree. Among the Carboniferous seed ferns some were of the “scrambler” type, with long slender stems climbing among other plants; some were herbaceous, and others were tall and stout like the tree ferns. The _ Carboniferous Ly ginopteris belongs to the “ scrambler ” type, but Eospermatopteris of the Upper Devonian belongs to the type with tall, stout trunks. The largest of these trees must have ~eached heights of at least 30 to 4o feet. As yet the Museum has not located any specimens of the trunk showing the attachment of the REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 57 petioles of the frond; but about 1870 or 1871 a Mr Lockwood of Gilboa found the upper part of one of these trunks, with its leaf- scars preserved and petioles attached. This specimen, figure 1, in the collection of Professor J. S. Newberry, was described by Dawson,'* under the name Caulopteris lockwoodi, as probably the a Spee — ‘y S Fig. 1 Portion of trunk of Eospermatopteris (Caulopteris lockwoodi Daw- son) showing attachment of the petioles and the leaf-scars. (Reduced; after Dawson, 1871.) upper part of one or the other of his species of Psaronius found in the same bed. Dawson’s description is as follows: Trunk from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, rugose longitudinally. Leaf-scars broad, rounded above, and radiatingly rugose, with an irregular scar below, arranged spirally in about five ranks; vascular bundles not distinctly preserved. Petioles slender, much expanded at the base, dividing at first in a pinnate manner, and afterwards dichotomously. Ultimate pinnae with remains of numerous, apparently narrow pinnules: The character of the fronds led Dawson to believe that the plant approached in that respect to the cyclopterids of the subgenus Aneimites. Today we know that both Eospermatopteris (Dawson’s Psaronius) and Aneimites are both seed ferns belonging to the important phylum Pteridospermophyta. The outer cortex is the only structure of the stumps and trunks of these trees that is to any extent preserved. The interior structures “ Davveom, Sie. Wi Jour, Geol Socy wey.) eyo 7p KGa sien: Canada, 1871, Fossil Flants, p. 59 (figured only). 58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM have been washed out and the cavity left filled with sand which has helped preserve the shape of the stumps in fossilization. The outer cortex, asin Lyginopteris, consists of interlacing strands of sclerenchyma tissue, forming a network (plate 6) or more or less parallel (plate 7). The cellular tissue which in the living trees occupied the space between the sclerenchyma strands is here replaced by sandstone. In a transverse section of the stem of Ly ginop- teris and the allied genus, Heterangium, the sclerenchyma appears in the form of dark radial bands, but in Eospermatop- teris it appears in the form of dots or short thick irregular lines, irregularly scattered. This zone of the outer cortex varies from an | inch or less to several inches in thickness depending upon the size of the stumps. In the majority of cases, the outside of the outer cortex is missing, but it is very well shown in several cases. The outer surface is marked with shallow ridges and furrows in some cases, giving the effect of a bark; in other cases the outer surface is only irregularly furrowed and wrinkled or even just roughened some of which is undoubtedly due to shrinkage in preservation. But in either case the outer surface appears to be composed of layers of sclerenchyma forming a kind of bark, which in the living tree undoubtedly had a covering of ramentum or fibers. The underside of the base of the stumps is quite strikingly furrowed in a radiate manner (plate 5) and in some specimens a depression is seen at the center. The base as well as the sides has the outer zone or covering of sclerenchyma layers above which is the zone several inches thick, varying according to the size of the stumps, of interlacing scleren- chyma strands. The interior structure of the trunk of Eospermatopteris for the present must remain unknown. There seems to be sufficient reason to believe that it belongs to the Lyginopterideae ; but whether it has a stele occupied entirely by the primary wood, with no pith, as in Heterangium?® or whether it has the large pith which is a constant feature of Ly ginodendron?® can not be determined from the material at hand. A transverse section of one of the smaller trunks shows toward the center an irregular, thin ring of sclerenchyma tissue and within this ring and to some extent out- side are irregularly scattered strands of sclerenchyma tissue. The oe Williamson, W. C., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., 1873, 163:377—408, pls. 22-31. Williamson, W. C. and Scott, D. H., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (B), 1895, 186 :703-779, pls. 18-20. See Seward, A. C., Fossil Plants, 1917, v. 3, ch. 29; see Scott, D. H., Studies in Fossil Botany, Pt. II, 1909, ch. 1o. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 59 scattered sclerenchyma strands may be due entirely to some macera- tion before preservation; but the ring itself appears to be a definite zone, part of the missing central cylinder. Transverse sections of larger trunks were made, but nothing was found. Success in this line, I believe, can only be attained when we find a petiole or rachis of a frond preserved in such a condition that thin sections can be made for study. Roots. Though we have a number of specimens of roots, none of the stumps taken out have any roots attached. For this reason it has been suggested that the stumps perhaps may not have grown in the place in which they were found. There is one trunk now, still in place in the quarry at Gilboa at this time of writing, which shows the roots spreading outward in the shale layer (lowest hori- zon) in which the stumps rest; roots were likewise observed in the shale layer of the highest horizon from which stumps were taken. These observations taken into consideration with the upright position of all the stumps found, the successive tree horizons with the bases of the stumps in each case resting in and upon a shale layer, repre- senting the clay bed in which the trees are believed to have grown, would all seem to indicate that the forest was destroyed and the stumps buried im situ. Eospermatopteris apparently had no large heavy roots. None have been found and there certainly is nothing about the stumps themselves that would suggest that any might be expected. All the roots found, in their flattened condition, measure between one quarter of an inch or less and half an inch across; but they are not preserved in a condition which permits of their being studied strueturally. Numerous long, strap like rootlets, as shown in text figure 2 and plate 8, radiate from the roots, but do not appear to have any regular arrangement. These rootlets, as preserved, measure on the average 1% of an inch or less across and there is little, if any, variation in width. Some of the rootlets measure up to 6 inches in length as far as preserved, and there is no indications that this is anywhere near the tip. With a root system such as this, I think the bases of these trees must have been buried to some height in the sediments to give adequate foothold. Foliage. The fronds of Eospermatopteris are tripin- nate; they were at least 6 feet long, and, judging from the frag- ments of main rachises collected, in the larger specimens they must have been considerably longer. One specimen (figure 3) shows an impression of a main rachis 25 inches long which is apparently at 60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM considerable distance from both the tip and the petiole, probably near the middle of the frond, for two of the primary division measure, the one 15 inches, the other which is not fully preserved 12 inches. The impression of the main rachis, at its widest part, measures three-eights of an inch across, the primary divisions one-eighth to Ay I, ROENN y NeaN SN fill © Hil (I ‘e \ / i) } b \ Vp LA te Wo gp whe —- af wy | Rice af eer ey a ey 5 relies Lay y yyy # f cf oh Lee | fe aaa WH Y é ay Fig. 3. Part of main rachis and lateral branches of the frond of Eosperma- topteris. The slab has a greatest width and length of 2 feet. the impressions of the frond stems show a central groove or depres- sion with a flattened area on each side (plate 10, figure 4) from which branch off the next smaller divisions and, on the ultimate pinnae, the pinnules. This depression is probably the impression left by the central woody strand or bundle. The pinnules are of a simple Sphenopteridium type, reminding one of, but simpler than, the Sphenopteridium 62 ' NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM keilhaui described by Nathorst?° from the Upper Devonian of Bear Island. A stronger resemblance is shown to certain sterile leaf segments from the same locality, correlated by Nathorst with Cephalopteris (Cephalotheca) mirabilis” which will be treated more fully under the discussion of the seeds and microsporangia. The character of the pinnules is shown in i Fig. 4 Part of the frond of Eospermatopteris showing the ultimate pinnae with the pinnules. (Reduced slightly more than one-third) figures I-4 on plate 10. They are twice bilobed with the divisions of the first bifurcation more or less recurved; and they do not nar- row down proximad but join the stem by a broad base. The first bifurcation occurs at about half the length of the pinnule ; the second bifurcations are near the tips which appear to be blunt and rounded. ” Nathorst, A. G., Handl. k. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akad. 1902, 36, no. 3, 13, 14, pl. 2, figs. 3-13. See Arber, E. A. Newell, Devonian Floras, 1921, p. 62, 63. * Ref. cited, p. 15, pl. I, fig. 20. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 63 The fragmentary preservation of the pinnules would seem to indi- cate that they were of a rather delicate nature. There is no evidence of a midrib. The pinnules are set comparatively far apart so that the general effect of the foliage in the case of Eospermatop- teris is much less dense (figure 4) than is the case with Ly gin- opteris, Heterangium and others of the seed ferns. Seeds. The seeds of Eospermatopteris bear a strong external resemblance to those of Lyginopteris oldhamia, called Lagenostoma lomaxi™” before the relation between the two was known, and to other Lyginopterid seeds. The character of the seeds is well shown on plate 10, figures 5-12, plate 11, figures I-5, and in text figure 6. On some of the slabs the seeds are very abundant but on none of the specimens are any sterile laminae found in conection with the seeds, though branches bearing pinnules occur frequently in the same layers. The seeds were probably borne near the tip of the frond or the tips of some of the pinnae, with complete abortion of the sterile laminae; or perhaps there was modification of the bilobed pinnules. At any rate, the seeds are borne in pairs at the ends of forked branchlets. The ultimate division bearing the pair of seeds may be as short as a quarter of an inch, or less, or may be almost an inch long. In a number of cases when the seeds are borne close to the dichotomy, the arrangement of the fruits is rather crowded, and there is an appearance given of more than one seed being borne on a stalk. Sometimes the dichotomies are such a short distance apart as to bring, frequently two, sometimes three, pairs of seeds close together, giving a clustered effect to the seeds. The seeds, as in the case of Lagenostoma, are inclosed in an outer husk or cupule which completely envelops the seed. In some cases the cupule appears to come to a point at the top (plate 1o, figures 9, 10); in a few cases, some of which are figured here on plate 10, figures 7, 8, the cupules appear to be lobed as in Lagen- ostoma lomaxiandL.sinclairi (figure 5). This may, since it is infrequent, be only an accident of preservation; or it may be that the majority of these fruiting bodies are in an immature condi- tion. Some specimens in a very immature condition have been found. A few specimens show the impression of what appears to be a vascular bundle running up through the main branchlet, forking at the dichotomy and continuing up each arm of the dichotomy ” Oliver, F. W. and Scott, D. H., Proc. Roy. Soc., 1903, 71:477-81; Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (B), 1905, 197:193-247, pls. 4-10; Scott, D. H., Studies in ae Botany, pt II, 1900, p. 386-96; Seward, A. C., Fossil Plants, 1917, 3°55—04. 64 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM almost to the seed. Some specimens show fine’ lines on the cupule which may mark the position of fibro-vascular bundles. The seed (plate 10, figures 6, 9, 11, 12; plate 11, figures 1, 2) is broadly oval to round; the impression of it is very distinctly shown in the larger and older fructifications, and can be distinguished even in the 1imma- ture ones (plate 10, figure 5). The meastirements of some of the larger seeds are as follows: 5.3mm x 2.5mm; 5.6mm x 3.1mm; 6.4mm x 3.4mm; 6.3mm x 3.4mm. On several slabs were found groups of small rounded thick bodies, some of them free, others attached to pedicels, plate 11, figures 3-5, which have every appear- ance of being seeds. The largest of these bodies vary from a length and width of 3mm to a length of 3.2mm and a width of 2.7mm. Fig. 5 Lagenostoma sinclairi. Two seeds of Lyginopteris enclosed in lobed cupules, and borne terminally on branches of the rachis, x34. (From Scott, 1909, after Arber) Some specimens are slightly wider than long, but this, I think, is due to distortion in preservation. These bodies are, I believe, the seeds without the integument, the nutlets; their general character and thickness carry out this idea, and in addition portions of what appears to be the integument are sometimes seen along the margins of some of the nutlets. Microsporangia. The sporangia-bearing organs of Kos perma- topteris, as in the case of the seeds, are borne at the tips of forking branchlets. There is one specimen in which these organs are borne close to the dichotomy; and another specimen, plate 11, figure 6, in which these organs are borne some distance from the dicho- tomies, and yet close enough together to give a clustered effect. In both cases, the sporangia-bearing organs are in a young condition. The older specimens in our hands, in all but one case, have become separated from the pedicels. \ Dale Ze My Wi EN AO \ \ WWW Lhe eS pas" NS = A : | Ni? execs ince eae fl The seeds are REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 borne in pairs at the ends of forked branchlets. (x1) Fig. 6 Slab showing groups of seeds of Eospermatopteris. 66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Up until 1905, nothing was known of the male fructifications of the Pteridospermophytes; but during that year Doctor Kidston?* discovered a species of Crossotheca (C. honinghausi, Kidston) in connection with the foliage of Lyginopteris (Sphenopteris honinghausi). The fertile pinnules are oval in form, measure about 2-2.5mm in length and bear six, rarely seven, bilocular sporangia.?* ‘The sporangia which are convergent when young, spread out at maturity assuming a fringelike arrange- ment, which gives to the sorus the form of an epaulet (figure 7). Fig. 7 Crossotheca héninghausi. Fertile pinnae in connection with sterile pinnae of Sphenopteris honinghausi, the leaf of Lyginopteris. (x2) In our specimens no separate sporangia or microspores have been found. The sporangia-bearing organs or modified pinnules are of similar character to that of Crossotheca, but they are consider- ably larger, broadly funnel-shaped or cup-shaped, with the pedicel attached at the center. In general appearance there is a resemblance, in the younger specimens, to the moplike clusters of sporangia found Cd USHHNS trons OF CeMMAalOpisceils wmirAlMilis descmoed by Nathorst?® from the Upper Devonian rocks of Bear Island. Only in the mature specimens is it clearly seen that the sporangia of VOSS plea tlanhOnMte tal SuSE naVemUecenl DOM e mG tine GulyamOmmnune under side of the modified pinnule, while in Cephalopteris the clusters of sporangia are borne on a separate stalk on the lower surface and at the base of the fertile pinnae. In the matter of the sporangia-bearing organ, there is more resemblance between the male iructincations of) Hiosipermatopteris: and Liye inioip- kadston, R., Proc. Royse (Soc. ((B))910054170:355,00,) pi Osmihil ss Mirani: Roy. Soc. (B), 1906, 198:413-45, pls. 25-28. “See Seward, A. Co Fossil) Plants) 1017, 3:5 2a555) SCOtt Dem otiudies in Fossil Botany, Pt. II, 1900, p. 396—401. > Nathorst, A. G., Handl. k. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akad., 1902, 36, no. 3, 15-17, pls. 1, 2. See Seward, A. C., Fossil Plants, 1910, 2:537, fig. 355. REPORT OF DHE DIRECTORY 1922 607 teris; but the sporangia apparently were clustered more as 1s the case with Cephalopteris. An interesting fact here is that there is a great similarity between the sterile foliage referred by Nathorst to C. mirabilis and the sterile foliage of Eosper- matopteris. Nathorst?® compares Cephalopteris with a Belgian species of Upper Devonian age described by Crépin®’ as Rhacophyton condrusorum and by Gilkinet** as Sphenopteris condrusorum; and this, too, shows strik- ing similarity toour Eospermatopteris as to foliage. It is also worthy of note that, while the exact position of Cephalop- teris can not be definitely determined from lack of available data, it is thought probable that it was a seed-bearing Pteridospermophyte and not a true fern.”® There are only about a dozen small slabs containing specimens of the sporangia-bearing organs of Eospermatopteris; but we are exceedingly fortunate in having that many, and in having in this collection both young and mature specimens. From the way in which the sporangia-bearing organs are pre- served, it would seem that in the younger specimens, plate 11, figure 6, this structure is more funnel-shaped, and that it broadens out and becomes more saucer-shaped at maturity, plate 11, figures 7, 8. It may be that sporangia are present in the immature specimens, but their preservation as impressions makes any detection of this condi- tion impossible. The older specimens are preserved also as impres- sions, but flattened out, so that the absence of the sporangia is appar- ent. On the underside, closely clustered around the place of attach- ment of the pedicel and extending out toward the margin, are numer- ous rounded depressions, some of which appear to show a small scar at the bottom. These have been interpreted to mark the place of attachment of the sporangia; and they cease some distance from the margin showing that the clustered sporangia were confined toward the center. In most of the specimens the marginal area is marked with numerous concentric lines or wrinkles; but they would seem to be due to shrinkage or in part to the flattening down of a saucer- shaped structure. When the specimens are so preserved that the impression of the upper surface is shown, lines or wrinkles are seen * peaehorst A. G., Handl. k. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akad., 1902, 36, no. 3, (Dy Oy ™ Crepin, F., Bul. Acad. Roy. Belg., 2d ser., 1874, 38:356; Bul. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg., 1875, 14:214. © Gilkinet, A.. Bul. Acad. Roy. Belg., 2d ser., 1875, 40, no. 8, 139; Mem. Soc. Geol. Belg., 1922, p. 5-10, pls. 1-4. *® Seward, A. C., Ref. cited, p. 537; Zeiller, R., Rev. Gén. Bot., 1908, 20:50; 68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM radiating irregularly from the place of attachment of the pedicel. Very fine, closely-placed radiating lines are visible along the margin itself in some of the specimens, and these do not appear to be due to shrinkage in preservation. The specimens vary in size and, as preserved, are rounded-oval to round in form. The round forms show the following diameters: 8.7mm, 9mm, 9.7mm, 17.4mm, 19mm, 19.5mm; the rounded-oval specimens have the following measurements: IImm x 9.7mm; I1.3mm x 9mm; 11.8mm x 9.7mm. The oval specimens owe their shape to the fact that in preservation they have been squeezed out along one diameter ; but taking this into consideration, they run about the same size as the smaller round forms which represent the average and most frequently represented sizes. As noted in the measure- ments above, three specimens show measurements about twice the average size, only two of which are completely preserved (plate 11, figures 9, 10). One of them shows a wavy margin and the other an almost fluted margin. Whether these three forms represent simply Jarger specimens or more maturely developed forms can not be decided, though the latter seems more probable. Eospermatopteris erianus (Dawson) EKospermatopteris textilis (Dawson) Dawson*® distinguished two species of trees in the Gilboa collec- tions submitted to him. FE. erianus was also noted as coming from Madison county, though there is now in the State Museum no specimen of this species from that section. Dawson’s descriptions are as follows: IP, CwriamuUs. IWirwak compllerehy stmyested writin corralllike aerial roots parallel to each other, and either closely appressed or arranged at regular intervals. Each root consisting of an outer, probably cellular, coat, with an axis of fibers and scalari- form or reticulated vessels. (See plate 7). IP, Wesevilig. ‘Wirwialk wriln wne Oulwer Simm@ce manked write irregular ridges and furrows, produced by tortuous aerial roots, which in the center of the stem are seen to be interlaced with each other. They are less tortuous in what seems to be the upper part of the fragment. (See plates 2-6). Dawson’s species, then, were based upon the arrangement of the sclerenchyma strands of the outer cortex, which he interpreted as aerial roots; and today the species can stand only on those char- ® Dawson, J. W., Canadian Fossil Plants, Canadian Geol. Surv., 1871, p. 58, 505 Elall})J., zath Rept N. Yo State Gaby Nat. Hust) 1877) pias: REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 69 acters upon which they were originally separated, since we have discovered nothing further to add. Only the one kind of foliage has been found; also only the one type of seed and male. fructification. It would appear then that only in the internal structure of the trunks could these two species of trees be distinguished while living; for surely if the two species differed in foliage and fructifications, with all the collections we have made, some evidence of this would have come to light. Stumps belonging to the type of E. textilis have been so far found in numbers greatly in excess of those of the E. erianus type; this might, also, account for the collection of only one kind of foliage and fructification, especially since the locali- ties from which the collection of this material was made were few and of limited extent. Summary In 1869 was made a remarkable discovery of fossil tree stumps in the Upper Devonian (Ithaca) beds of Schoharie county, in the vicinity of the village of Gilboa. In 1897, a few loose trees were reported from a higher horizon at the Manorkill falls a mile above the old locality. Special efforts in 1920 led to the discovery of these stumps in place at the Manorkill locality at the 1120-foot level, 100 feet above the old locality. Since 1920 the city of New York has been doing construction work at Gilboa preparatory to impounding the waters of the Schoharie creek to meet with future demands. In the course of operations, the old locality, at the spot where the dam is being built, was uncovered and several specimens obtained; a new quarry at the 960-foot level was opened up 2300 feet north (down- stream) of the old location and has yielded the greatest number and the largest stumps hitherto found, one of the largest of this group having a circumference at the base of 11 feet. With the recent additions to our collections the Museum now has a total of forty stumps, partial or complete. At all three horizons the stumps were found with their bases resting in and upon black shale representing the original mud in which the trees stood, in an upright position with the trunk extending into the coarser sandstone above. At least, then, three successive forests of these trees reared themselves to great heights along the marshy borders of the unstable coast line of the shallow Devonian sea, were submerged, destroyed and buried. At the same time that the new tree horizons were discovered, a shale bed, in the vicinity of the Manorkill at the 1o20-foot level, yielded specimens of roots, foliage, and, most important of all, seeds 7O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and sporangia-bearing organs; all of which taken together with the character of the stumps and trunks have shown these trees, originally described by Dawson as tree ferns, under the name Psaronius, to be seed ferns (Pteridospermophytes) intermediate between the ferns and higher seed plants. The name Eospermatopteris is proposed for this Devonian seed fern which bears a resemblance to the Carboniferous seed fern, Lyginopteris. The bases of the stumps are bulbous as might be expected of trees growing under swampy conditions, and show a circumference at the base from 3 feet 10 inches up to 11 feet. The roots are small with numerous straplike rootlets. The outer cortex asin Ly gin- opteris consists of interlacing strands of sclerenchyma tissue, forming a network, or more or less parallel; the inner structure is not preserved. Consideration of the size of the stumps and study of the parts of the trunk found indicate that the largest of these trees must have reached heighths of at least 30 to 40 feet. The only specimen in which are preserved the petioles of the fronds attached to the trunks shows that these have a spiral arrange- ment in about five ranks. The fronds must have been at least 6 feet long and were tripinnate with the pinnules bilobed and of the Sphenopteridium type, bearing a resemblance to the sterile pinnulesmietennedstom Cresplnialllosont chipiicmeTinna on DEUlMECm™ \aninonat from the Devonian of Bear Island. The seeds were borne in pairs at the end of forked branchlets and were probably borne near the Hj) Oe UNS weGaGl, AS iim tins Case OF ILASSCMOStOmaA, tne Seed of Lyginopteris, this seed is broadly oval and inclosed in an outer husk or cupule which in some specimens appears to be lobed ag ita IL, M@mdasen enc by Sumelaiien Sepairane mules were found. The sporangia-bearing organs, like the seeds, are borne at the tips of forking branchlets. They are broadly funnel shaped in young specimens to saucer-shaped in mature specimens, in habit qesembling ) thes) male. fructincatton ms Olen nya Onp uiehelis (Crossotheca). No sporangia were found, but the indications are that they were borne on the under side of these structures in clusters resembling the moplike clusters of sporangia seen in Cephalopteris mirabilis, which is believed to be a Pteridospermophyte. _ Two species of these trees were distinguished by Dawson: E. textilis, in which the sclerenchyma strands form a network, and EK. erianus in which these strands are more or less parallel. No further distinguishing characters have been found. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 71 Plate 1 shows a restoration of this Devonian seed fern. The Museum plans to have a restoration of this ancient forest in which the actual fossil stumps will be utilized. Supplementary Note While this paper was in press, new and valuable specimens of stumps throwing light upon the nature of the root system of these trees, were uncovered in “ Riverside quarry.’ These specimens show the underside of the base of the stumps with the impressions in the sandstone of roots radiating out in all directions to consider- able length. One specimen was removed and is in the possession of the Museum. This specimen, with the base of the stump having a diameter of about 12 inches, has root impressions measuring up to an inch or more across. Specimens were uncovered in which the roots were traced for a distance of 6 feet and the tips were not reached then. Unfortunately it was not possible to take the large specimens from the quarry. However, they show that the root systems were considerably larger and more adequate than previously supposed, sufficient, at any rate, to support trees of the height to which these trees must have attained. The finding of the new speci- mens with extensive root systems also answers the criticism that the stumps as found were not in situ, because those so far taken out did not have the roots attached. Bibliography Arber, E. A. Newell. Devonian Floras, 1921, p. 62, 63 Binney, E. W. On Fossil Wood in Calcareous Nodules Found in the Upper Foot Coal Near Oldham. Proc. Lit. Phil. Soc. Manchester, 1866, 5:113 . Clarke, J. M. The Oldest of the Forests. Sci. Monthly, Jan. 1921, p. 83-01. Crépin, F. Description de quelques plantes fossiles de l’étage des Psam- mites de Condroz. Bul. Acad. Roy. Belg., 2d ser., 1874, 38:356 Observations sur quelques plantes fossiles des depots Dévoniens. Bul; Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg, 1875, 14:214 Dawson, J. W. Canadian Fossil Plants. Can. Geol. Surv. 1871, p. 58, 59 On New Tree Ferns and Other Fossils from the Devonian. Owar:, Jour Geol, Soe, iyi, 2726-71 Notes on New Erian (Devonian) Plants. Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc., 1882, 37:307 Derby, Orville A. Observations on the Stem Structure of Psaronius Brasiliensis. Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 4, 1914, 36:480-97 Gilkinet, A. Sur quelques plantes de l’étage du poudingue de Burnot. Bul. Acad. Roy. Belg., 1875, 2d ser., 40, no. 8:130. Flore fossile des Psammites du Condroz (Dévonien supéreur). Mem. Soc. Geol. Belg., 1922, p. 5-10, pls. 1-4 Gourlie, W. Notice of the Fossil Plants in the Glasgow Museum. Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, 1844, 1:105 72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Hall, James. 24th Rep’t N. Y. State Cab. Nat. Hist., 1872, p. 8, 15, 16 On the Occurence of Trunks of Psaronius in an Erect Position, Resting on Their Original Bed, in Rocks of Devonian Age in the State of New York; With Some Inference Regarding the Condition of the Sea Bottom and Shore Line During the Deposition of the Strata. Rep’t Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1872, Trans. 42:103 Johnson, Thomas. Sanat Devonicus, gen. et sp. nov., and Other Pteridosperms from the Upper Devonian Beds at Kiltorcan, County Kolkennyascin, brocy Roya) Dubling SoCs now 23s sOlpmise enone lO laniele MAS, LAOS Dl, iz, MSS, k, 2 Kidston, R. Preliminary Note on the Occurence of Microsporangia in Organic Connection with the Foliage of Lyginodendron. Proc. Roy. Soc. 1905, 76:358-60; pl. 6 On the Microsporangia of the Pteridospermeae, with Remarks on Their Relationship to Existing Groups. Phil Trans. Roy. Soc. (B), 1906, 198:413-45; pls. 25-28 Nathorst, A. G. Zur Oberdevonischen Flora der Baren-Insel. Handl. k. Svenska Vetenskaps-Akad., 1902, 36, no. 3:13-17; pls. 1, 2 Die Oberdevonische Flora des Ellesmerelandes. Report 2nd Norwegian Arctic Exped. Fram, 1898-1902, no. I, 1904, p. II, 12, pl. 1, fig. I; pl. ‘2, figs. 1, 2 Zur Fossilen Flora der Polarlander. Teil 1, Lief. 4, INachtrage zur Palaozoischen Flora Spitzbergens, 1914, pl. 7, fig. I Oliver, F. W. and Scott, D. H. On Lagenostoma Lomaxi, the Seed of ‘Lyginodendron, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1903, 71:477-81 On the Structure of the Palaeozoic Seed Lagenostoma Lomaxi. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (B), 1905, 197:193-247; pls. 4-I0 Potonié, H. Lehrbuch der Pflanzenpalaeontologie, 1899, p. 171 Prosser, Charles S. Classification and Distribution of the Hamilton and Chemung Series of Central and Eastern New York, pt. 2, 17th Ann. Rep’t N. Y. State Geologist for 1897 (1899) p. 211 Scott, D. H. Studies in Fossil Botany, pt 1, 3d. ed., 1920, p. 270-78; pt 2, 1909, P. 355-424 Seward, A. C. Fossil Plants, 1910, 2:220, 537, fig. 355; 1917, 3:35—-85 White, David. The Seeds of Aneimites. Smith. Misc. Coll., 1904, 47, pt BeQ22-Biis Dis, LF, its Williamson, W. C. On the Organization of the Fossil Plants of the Coal- Measures, Pt. IV. Dictyoxylon, Lyginodendron, and Heterangium, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 1873, 163:377-408; pls. 22-31 Williamson, W. C. & Scott, D. H. Further Observations on the Organi- of the Fossil Plants of the Coal-Measures, Pt. III. Lyginodendron and Heterangium, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. (B) 1895, 186:703-79; pls. 18-20 Zeiller, R. Revue des travaux de Paléontologie végétale (1901-06). Rev. Gén, Bot., 1908, 20:59; reprint, p. 20 EXP VANAGION OE REATES PLATE 2 (Plate 1 faces page 50) 73 Eospermatopteris textilis (Dawson) One of the largest stumps found, with a height of 3 feet, a circumference at the base of approximately 9 feet, (dia. 34.3 in.), and a circumference at the top of 3 feet 1 inch (dia. 11.7 in.), Figure about one-ninth natural size. 74 Plate 2 ‘ 4 { i 1 i veel 1 + fees Eospermatopteris textilis (Dawson) Stump showing rapid narrowing above the bulbous base. It has a circumference at the base of 6 feet 3 inches (dia. 23.8 in.); at 14 inches above the base, a circumference of 4 feet 3 inches (dia. approx. 16 in.); at the top, a circumference of 3 feet (dia. 11.4 in.). Figure about one-sixth natural size. 76 Plate 3 4 F a jj “ Nee tits Eospermatopteris textilis (Dawson) Stump showing gradual narrowing above the bulbous base. Circum- ference at the base, 7 feet 6 inches (dia. approx. 25.4 in.); at a height of T4 inches, 6 feet 5 inches; at a height of two feet, 4 feet 4 inches, at the top 36% inches (dia. 11.6 in.). Figure about one-sixth natural size. 78 Plate 4 ee nal ys = ReLity Eospermatopteris textilis (Dawson) Underside of the base of one of the stumps showing the striking fur- rowing in a radiate manner and the central depression. Diameter 25 inches. Figure about one-fifth natural size. 80 Plate 5 PLATE 6 ce Siri Eospermatopteris textilis (Dawson) Portion of outer cortex of one of the stumps, showing the network of interlacing strands of sclerenchyma tissue. Figure approximately one- half natural size. 82 Plate 6 ae os Eospermatopteris erianus (Dawson) Stump showing the more or less parallel strands of sclerenchyma tissue characteristic of this species. It has a height of 38 inches; its greatest diameter (left to right in figure) is 38 inches; the diameter at right angles to this being about 30 inches. Figure approximately one-eighth natural SIZes 84 Plate Wee a te a a Vas tt AL PLATE 8 Eospermatopteris gen. nov. Slab showing the straplike, radiating rootlets. Reduced about one-third. 86 Lease Besos Plate 8 Eospermatopteris gen. nov. Large slab showing the main rachis and branches of fronds. Length at lower edge 3 feet; width 2 feet 1 inch. Figure about one-sixth natural size. 88 - Vt Moa wine etigiqoianrisquad ip) i A « j ter ay we aint Bike be bag 2 eae « eoleiinig i ; Z ih ae A eslunciaied te desiiogiars odd anive eck ciisnety mee asinnrig sit Aatiiw ab wrortibin i satoldoneyd badaot Yo PL ATE 10 Ba be heicbiros DENTS ETEE PRN 4 yi in ow DESAI botitw sites in} 89 bik hae i VB 4 BAC MORS RTT th 7 tive: hi | & St Ayad : 4 yey Hine fini py) 6) rs ; fy q ; PALIT Eospermatopteris gen. nov. Figs. 1-3. Twice bilobed pinnules. Figures 2 and 3 are tips of the ulti- mate divisions of the frond. x I. Fig. 4. Ultimate pinna showing the arrangement of the pinnules, which are in the fragmentary condition in which the pinnules are usually found. 58 ily Figs. 5, 6. Seeds borne in pairs at the ends of forked branchlets. Fig- ure 5 shows the seeds in a more immature condition. x 1. Figs. 7, 8. Outer husk or cupule of the seed which in these two cases is lobed. x 3. Figs. 9, 10. Seeds which show the cupule coming to a point at the top. INKegtbtS @}, bx AG salkeabhas i}, o¢ Gy Figs. 11, 12. Specimens showing the impressions of the seeds within the cupule. Figure 11, x 3; figure 12, x 2. 90 SS Plate 10 1s es ay he A tae NAA tte girsiqossensya0d i | Vi f Vi cabo to ahiolaarngsii ens mntworte | er es A ead, het OFLU R ps ne Canidae, a0 inl aoltnna i buch ee al {te aera i wei vescite 16 wienld wo Bi onl? 38 ood 24H ‘yoilt Adtdw mid OR Oe balanist 8 |x uf) : ee (992 SMO ONS oitied ont 9 "tig Ueto giiised-stgneioge | .O sal yl Hen Jeomia wWsiw .osine sat voy cold es Eospermatopteris gen. nov. Figs. I, 2. Specimens showing the impressions of seeds. Figure 1, 536 QP ivenbhrs A, Se B Figs. 3-5. Groups of nutlets, almost entirely free from the enveloping integuments. x I. Fig. 6. Cluster of immature sporangia-bearing organs, showing the manner in which they are borne at the tips of forking branchlets. x I. Figs 7, 8. Detached sporangia-bearing organs. The clustered depressions at the center, are here seen as casts. xX 2. Fig. 9. Sporangia-bearing organ with wavy margin. x I. Fig. 10. The same, with almost fluted margin. x 2. 92 Plate 11 REPORD OF THE, DIRECTOR, 1922 93 AN ANCESTRAL ACORN BARNACLE By Rupo_tF RUEDEMANN While studying Utica and Lorraine fossils of New York, the writer discovered elliptic bodies attached to shells of Geisonoceras, that are composed of 12 triangular plates, which at once suggested their reference to the acorn barnacles. A brief preliminary paper on “ The Phylogeny of the Acorn Barnacles ” was published in 1918 in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (vol. 4, pp. 382-386, 1918),’ and the suggestion made that the fossils, for which the new generic term Eobalanus is proposed, indicate by the inverted form of the middle lateralia (see text, fig. 1, figs. V & VI) the origin of the two series of 5 lateralia from the two valves of a phyllocarid, such as Rhinocaris, and a progressive devel- opment from Eobalanus through the Devonian Protobalanus and the later Catophragmus into Balanus is suggested as shown in the diagram. It was intended to publish the full account with figures in a mono- graph of the Utica and Lorraine formations of New York. This manuscript, however, has now been ready for the printer for four years and there is no immediate prospect of the paleontologic part being published. Meanwhile the preliminary note has called forth from several students of crustaceans expressions of doubt and requests, both in print and in letters, for the full facts in the case. To satisfy this natural curiosity we publish herewith the chapter on Eobalanus from the manuscript of the monograph. To the species of Eobalanus originally discovered on cephalopods of the Utica shale, meanwhile another has been added that was found on a cephalopod from the Trenton limestone. This also is here described. We have no doubt that careful search of the Ordovician cephalopods in other countries will bring to light still more species of this highly interesting barnacle, and possibly add im- portant facts on the development of the barnacles, the most mysteri- ous of all crustaceans. Genus Eobalanus nov. Shell composed of 12 mural compartments, viz: 10 lateralia, the carina and the rostrum. Of the 2 series of 5 subtriangular lateralia _ Followed by a note by John M. Clarke on the phylogeny of the Lepadidae, in which is pointed out that the Ordovician Lepidocoleus may indicate a simi- lar path of derivation of the Lepadidae from the phyllopods. 04 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM on each side, the middle one is inverted in position, the apex point- ing outward (downward). Carina and rostrum little different in size from each other and from the lateralia. Compartments fused only near the base. Terga and scuta not known. Genotype: Eobalanus informans nov. Eobalanus informans nov. Plate 1 — figs. 1, 2; plate 2, figs. 1, 2 Description. Wall elliptic or oval in outline, the major and minor diameters to each other as 4:3; consisting of 12 free plates (termed compartments): 5 symmetric lateralia, and the asymmetric carina and rostrum. Scuta and terga have not been observed. The lateralia are wedge-shaped but so arranged that they interlock, the outer pairs being broadest at the base (outside), the next pair also narrowing toward the top but with the apex truncated, the middle pair, however, widest at the top, thus forming a sort of keystone in the series of plates. One of the asymmetric plates is somewhat larger than the other, this end of the wall having been apparently -more acute than the other, producing an oval outline. These wall plates were inserted in an elliptic base, the impression of which projects slightly beyond the basal edges of the wall-plates. The surface of the compartments is smooth; save the growth-lines that run parallel to the basal margins. Measurements: The largest specimen observed measures 28 mm in length and 23 mm in width; a smaller complete specimen is 9 mm long and 7 mm wide. Horizon and locality. All specimens observed were attached to the conchs of Geisonoceras, mainly G. amplicameratum, from the Utica shale at Holland Patent. Eobalanus trentonensis nov. Plate 1, fig. 3; plate 2, fig. 3. This species is based on a single imperfect specimen, which rep- resents an extremely rare fossil, for in a thorough search of the large Rust collection of Trenton cephalopods we obtained but this meagre result. It is of great interest as another, still older, repre- sentative of the genus Eobalanus of primitive acorn barnacles. The specimen exhibits the lateralia of only one side distinctly while those of the other side which became fossilized in their original upright position, are more or less foreshortened. The carina and TRIB IONE CONN “GNISU: IDRIS AON | OZ Qg Cy rostrum are partly preserved. A large elliptic subcentral node indi- cates the mud-filling of the aperture. The plates of the right side (in the drawing) show furrows which correspond to those seen on the surface of the lateralia in the Devonian Protobalanus hamiltonensis Whitfield and therefore probably indicate that these plates whose substance is dissolved retain the upper surface, while the smooth surface of the plates on the left would suggest the under surface of the plates. The lack of any substance, except a probably secondary calcareous film on the left side, and especially the absence of any carbonaceous matter, indicate that the originally conchiolinous plates of the phyl- locarid ancestors, were already greatly strengthened by calcareous deposits and consequently much thickened, as is also suggested by the height of the central mud-filling. Compared with E. informans, this form possesses a less elongate outline, the two diameters being subequal (1 == 12.8 mm, w==11.1 mm). The plates were, therefore, more subequal in out- line and size, excepting the elongated carina and rostrum. The most apparent difference rests, however, in the form of the apexes of the lateralia, those of this species being acute while in the genotype they are truncate. Horizon and locality. Trenton limestone, at Trenton Falls, Oneida county, N. Y. Remarks on the phylogeny of the acorn barnacles suggested by Eobalanus. The remarkable crustaceans here described are undoubtedly very primitive barnacles. They at once carry the Balanidae or acorn barnacles, hitherto traced only to the Devonian in Protobalanus hamiltonensis Whitfield back into Ordovician time, and also shed an important light on the origin of the Balanidae. According to Pilsbry’s authoritative view, zoologists “in the absence of paleaeontologic evidence,’ may assume that all acorn barnacles descended from a primitive stock having 8 mural com- partments, for the most generalized genus now existing, Cato- phragmus, has 8 main compartments, with numerous smaller ones outside, the latter representing the upper scales of the peduncle of pedunculate ancestral forms.’ The shell of Balanus consists of *Pilsbry, H. A. The sessile barnacles (Cirripedia) contained in the collection of the U. S. National Museum; including a monograph of the American species. Smiths. Inst., U. S. Nat. "Mus. bull. OR, WON, 0), Gy oe) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM but 6 plates. As a matter of fact paleontology furnishes in Proto- balanus a form with 12 compartments arranged exactly as in Eoba- lanus, viz: in 5 pairs of lateralia and a small rostrum and larger carina. While however in Protobalanus the acutely triangular lateralia are all pointing with their apexes inward or upward, there prevails in Eobalanus the peculiar interlocking arrangement de- scribed above. This, in our view not only constitutes the generic difference between the two genera, but also gives us an ONE clue as to the ancestry of the Balanidae. The effect of the peculiar shape of the lateralia in Eobalanus is that, if they could be matched together like the parts of a picture puzzle, they would give a perfect, snugly-fitting carapace, as shown in diagram V of text-figure 1. Leaving the two terminal plates sepa- rate, we thus obtain the outline of a bivalved carapace, with the rostrum and carina of the barnacle corresponding to the rostral plate of the crustacean in front and the “dorsal plate” behind, exactly as in the Devonian phyllocarids Mesothyra and Rhinocaris. (See diagram of Rhinocaris, text-figure 1.) We have then to picture the derivation of an Eobalanus from a Rhinocaris-like ancestor as illustrated in the set of diagrams. The first diagram shows the carapace of the crustacean just before attachment with the head portion and the dorsal side downward, a rather natural position for phyllopods, which, like Apus, are wont to swim on their backs, while foraging along the bottom ; and presum- ably also for many of their probable descendants, the phyllocarids. The head and back being thus protected by attachment, but the ventral side open to attack, the next step will be the separation of the carapace valves along the hinge line and their movement upward towards the ventral side; and likewise the rostral and dorsal plates will have to move upward to fit in between the valves (stage II of diagrams), thus becoming the rostrum and carina of the barnacles. Following this was the breaking up of the valves into the lateralia, owing to stresses exerted at one end or the other, possibly the anterior one, where the originally chitinous and somewhat flexible valve was attached. It is to be inferred that the compartments were formed by successive splitting off of plates from the original valve, each fissure producing a new pair of lateralia. In this way the peculiar interlocking arrangement of the compartments in Eobalanus would finally have come about and each valve of the cara- pace have been divided up without leaving a useless remainder. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 NS d.m SS Rss SS Wy. T-V. DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES. Y) Co so 8 KE. USGS E N CATORHRAGMUS BALANUS Fig. 1 Diagram of the evolution of Balanus from a phyllocarid EOQBALANUS PROTOBALANUS 98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Let us see now how the other paleontologic and zoologic evidence agrees with this hypothesis. We saw already that in Protobalanus we have a connecting link in which the 5 lateralia of each side have become uniform in shape. ‘This leads to the recent Catophragmus with 3 subequal lateralia on each side, which in the common Balanus have become further reduced (by coalescence!) to 2. Equally convincing is the ontogenetic evidence in recent forms. Since Darwin's fundamental investigation of the barnacles, the Balanidae are currently regarded as derived from the Lepadidae through reduction of the peduncle. The whole order of Cirripedia or barnacles, on account of their ontogeny and especially the bivalved “‘ Cypris-stage ’ through which the larval form passes after the Nauplius-stage, are commonly derived from the ostracods, while Balfour (1880, p. 424), emphasizing both the large bivalve shell and the compound eyes, has urged “the independent derivation of the Cirripedia from some early bivalve Phyllopod-form.” This view is adopted by Korschelt and Heider in their authorita- tive “ Text-book of the Embryology of Invertebrates” (1899, p. 209). They state: “ We must, however, in consequence of the presence of the so-called Cypris-stage (with a bivalve shell) which occurs in their metamorphosis and brings about the transition from the free to the attached life, assume for them a similarly attached ancestral form, which we must seek among the Phyllopoda.” It seems further significant to us that the free-swimming Cypris- stage, which appears after a series of Nauplius-stages, is followed by the attached Cypris-stage (pupa), from which proceeds the adult stage (ibid. p. 209). So also in the ontogeny, as well as in the prob- able phylogeny, it is thus the bivalved stage, which becomes attached and thus marks the turning point in the individual and racial development. It is this latter view that is well borne out by the interpretation we put on our material; or by tracing the acorn barnacles back to Rhinocaris-like phyllocarids with 4 plates. For while the Phyl- locarida Packard (leptostraca Claus), at present represented only by the well-known relict Nebalia geoffroyi, of the Gulf of Trieste, were formerly a part of the Phyllopoda, and have been removed to the Malacostraca on account of their more advanced structure, they still retain in their phyllopodiform legs and other characters the evi- dence of their derivation from the more primitive Phyllopoda s. sr. and are properly considered as connecting the Malacostraca with the less advanced Entomostraca, especially the phyllopods. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 99 All the specimens of Eobalanus informans are so com- pletely flattened that we get a flat projection of the wall only, and we do not know how high the latter was or how the shell looked in the profile view. From the fairly wide interspaces between the com- partments, even after they have been flattened down; and from the lack of overlapping among them, it appears that there existed very wide interspaces occupied by connecting chitinous bands when the plates were raised to any fairly steep angle. It is therefore probable that the wall was not at all rigid as in the recent Balanidae, where only the plates bounding the cavity for the mouth and feet (scuta and terga) are movable; and that the animals of Eobalanus were still enjoying a certain freedom of movement and correspondingly less protection, which may explain their scarcity among the Ordo- vician fossils. | Scuta and terga which form the valvular carapace or operculum of the upper aperture of the later Balanidae and the Lepadidae and which are of great systematic importance, have not been found in Kobalanus and Protobalanus, and in our view did not yet exist, but are a later development designed to close in more completely the _ ventral side. They are not fundamental structures. The compart- ments still being movable along their basal hinge, the creatures could probably close the ventral side by drawing the compartments suffi- ciently far inward. It is a fact worth noting in this place, that all four specimens of Eobalanus, thus far observed, were found on the upper side of the living chamber of cephalopods, three of them rather far forward. We take this to mean, that just as certain recent barnacles are local- ized on the head of the cachelot whales, where they come in contact with the most water and most easily procure food particles, so also the species of Eobalanus may have found it advantageous to attach themselves where they would secure the most food and at the same time be least liable to be covered with mud, when the cephalopod dragged its shell over the bottom of the sea. tat f ) f be { } i Z B 7% i aS, 34 ; i Pea Ny ef: eyi wa f N * | ee 2) ) ¥ ; i re | ihe hed ‘ 1 ‘ a if ii : ; a ' Ony'y pune 4 ay ree, } H ' . 4 I 6 Te) Pee pan ; LY ; ; F ie \ a\4 4 ‘ i : A. . as ‘ x , AD Ww ‘ \ ! Le Wig tt ‘ . i ' F | Wy, . | \ i : ‘ I } tt? mi | | ia 3 ) a? I i ; } j ‘ ' i Pith ead. Ho eer) j ‘ 5) 4 i r \ uf . ‘ c 7 if Wee TONE RE ERB ELY OORT) CEECEE ERIS YS WY SPUR DURE tee Osi Pi. he ae et Uy] at ) f i han 7 ae Ce 180.2 BE CORE Ue Cie A aa ae f ae ; ohh tei at Werte tay en ee es ¥ yar, ) een. meee My OUR RE ea ag AES Nyy Alta: TOT Te ee tae “oh a Uh Pe VR Wy Gn aie ba ; BORE VOY REL) COC EST A (SSE A nS ae yy : ' ‘ehh Boaleat oh 08 119 08 ke Crepe ete ‘ 4 ? ’ y eek * ue heart fl \ we ‘ ' Ts! 2 TPs ba a n } i { ‘ € i F 5 , i é Ty se tt e) ae i’ o i ‘ : ; yi ‘ t } ; j 3 ne i \ ‘ i ts hi 7 4 A f iy a a) , hi x Bi ‘Ae i ' i Ne ay Te i 4 & % | | Explanation of Plates e. Plate 1 | Ter Genus Eobalanus nov. INOS FA, DODALAMUS IMLOTMAMS moOy, Iie, Tt, CoOBVDe Fig 2. Type and cotype. Both natural size. Utica shale. Holland Patent, Oneida county, N. Y. Fig. 3. Eobalanus trentonensis nov. Natural size. Tren- ton limestone. Trenton Falls, Oneida county, N. Y. The original of fig. 1 is in the U. S. National Museum, those of figs. 2 and 3 are in the N. Y. State Museum. I02 sopoeuieg UvIOTAOp.C $ 2 ¢ Pg 3 ; 4 a Ko" de nis $1" Genus Eobalanus nov. Figs.1,2. Eobalanus informans nov. The specimens on the original of fig. 2 of plate 1, enlarged 5 times. Original of fig. r is selected as the type. lg, 2 IZBODAIAMUS LTreMtOMEDSIS moy, x. 304 Ordevician Barnacles 7 gvie me oe ol i t REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 105 THE NEW PETROLOGY BY CHARLES P. BERKEY I suppose that one is not far wrong in saying that petrology 1s the science of rocks; but we have not.made ourselves very clear by say- ing it. To the average student of the subject, who must judge from what he is taught and from what he can find in texts, petrology looks like a very complicated lot of methods of discrimination, coupled with still more complicated schemes of classification, by means of which one sometimes succeeds in finding a sufficiently mystifying name for a very innocent-looking fragment of rock to satisfy a per- fectly natural craving for worthwhileness. But this is not petrology — the real petrology that ought to be — no matter how elaborate it is or however minutely every little detail may be described. It is one kind of rock study, one form of petrol- ogy. The description of rocks is a form that, no doubt, has served a very good purpose in collecting and recording and classifying data; but there are other things to be done. After the first step in a new scientific field is taken, it is not suffi- cient to present simply long lists of names and descriptions and descriptive terms and tabulations of facts and classification schemes. Such data alone do not satisfy the legitimate demands for an explanation of some kind. Such natural grouping of rocks as has been attempted is a first step toward meeting this demand, but it has not gone far enough in petrology. The Field It is easy to assume or to adopt too simple a conception of the term rock. It is clearly in the interest of beginners for them to think of a rock as a mineral aggregate representative of a structural unit of considerable magnitude, and as a very definite and constant and reliable thing. But this is no great advantage to the investigator ; and to insist on its magnitude and constancy may be very misleading indeed. Petrology by rights includes the whole range of natural products of definite mineral makeup — all kinds of mineral aggregates, all kinds of origin, and all sorts of conditions. In actual investigations it is a mistake to be content with the types of material representing only the more apparent large physical units. Some insignificant-looking portion, usually too unimportant-looking 106 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to be regarded as a rock type at all, may carry more readable mean- ing than all the rest of the surrounding material. An ore or a vein matter or a contact product are as suitable material for the petrog- rapher as are the igneous rocks or the sediments. For. this kind of petrology the term rock requires a revised definition. A rock is anatural mineral aggregate of sufficiently definite com- position and character to be representative of some structural unit or of some process or condition, to justify separate consideration in arriving at a working understanding of the life history and meaning of the physical unit to which it belongs. How large these units may be, or how small, depends on the detail of the study and the significance of the material in contributing to the solution of the problem involved. Any petrographer who has tried to make practical use of his petrology and of his own skill in any more systematic or connected way than that of simply naming or classifying separate fragments of rock, knows that it is very easy indeed to overstate the require- ment of constancy of mineral makeup. ‘Two pieces taken from the same physical unit in close proximity, often vary enough to require classification as quite different rocks. In many comparatively sim- ple igneous bodies this variation is, in many cases, still greater and a whole series of different types could be secured. If one is content with classification, such classification as we now have, these condi- tions may easily lead to confusion. There is no indication in the terms usually used of the fact that these varieties are all one geo- logical unit of a very simple history and meaning. Emphasis on these classification differences, therefore, may be very misleading. Many difficulties have arisen where the geologist or the engineer has tried to find in the field as many structural units as the petrog- rapher who described the rocks called for. The fault has been, in the past at least, that the petrographer dealt largely with mechanical distinctions, whereas the field man had to deal with genetic relations. The time has come now, surely, when a real petrographer must also be a field geologist, or he must at least appreciate the point of view of a field investigator. The Object In the past our best petrographers have lent the weight of their influence and the fruits of their labors to the field of tabulated detail and to niceties of discrimination and to schemes of classification, as REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 107 if the chief aim were to divide and subdivide and to discover still more intricate or arbitrary bases of further subdivision. Descrip- tion has been recognized as a more or less necessary accompaniment, but this usually covered chiefly the features useful in the scheme of classification. Otherwise it became a more or less rambling account of everything that could be seen. Thus to be able to describe and classify rocks marked one as an accomplished petrographer and to have discovered a slightly differ- ent or new mineral proportion or a slightly different chemical pro- portion from anything previously described and to be thoughtful enough to give it a new name, marked one as an active contributor to the science. In an effort to reach the last word in this direction of intimate discrimination, some of the foremost petrographers of our own day have gone so far as wholly to destroy the actual rock by a complete chemical analysis before even beginning the task of classification. Sometimes by this method mineral constituents were listed in the recast of this analysis, and taken into serious account, which never occurred at all in the live rock itself, whereas the much more sug- gestive constituents and structures that it did have were largely disregarded. The most serious offender in this respect is the so-called quanti-' tative system of rock classification originated by four eminent American petrographers. In saying these things there is no wish to be understood as attempting to belittle all of this pioneer work. Much of it, doubtless, had to be done to lay the foundation of crit- ical inspection and discrimination and comparison. The quantita- tive principle was a good one to emphasize. The principle itself has come to stay; but a classification as mechanical as the quantitative system can be, at best, only a side issue in the real petrology that is already coming. Much as we must value the contributions that have been made by the systematic petrographer and the chemical petrographer through their nice points of discrimination and their increased appreciation of sound chemistry and their rigid requirements of quantitative thinking, I am quite convinced that the apparent object in view is not a sufficiently high goal for the present stage of development of geologic science. This is not the chief or the most promising aim of rock study. To classify and describe rocks by any system now in use is at best only a first step toward a more rational petrology, just as learning 108 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to distinguish and recognize words is a first step toward reading. There is, to my best belief, no such thing as a rational science of petrology wholly apart from the great science of geology. What- ever of significance attaches to a rock is largely gathered to it from the processes and agents and forces and conditions of its own geo- logic setting and history. Practically all of petrology’s own con- tribution, if these meanings can be read, returns to geology again to enrich the knowledge of that great field —the field of geologic history. In so far as a nice discrimination and a true sense of proportion serve in detecting evidence of former conditions or processes or changes or sources, they contribute directly to the new aim. It is, of course, appreciated that methods of discrimination and classifica- tion may have immense disciplinary and training value in education quite apart from the chief aim of a science itself; but then it should be frankly recognized as an educational objective. For the science itself, discrimination for discriminative sake alone is not enough. Meaning or history are higher aims. Interpretation is the objec- tive of the new school in petrology, just as it is in the general science of geology. The reading of the life listory of a rock 1s a much higher accom- plishment than to classify or describe. It 1s the mam objectwe of the new petrology. The steps in determination of the origin and successive modifica- tions of an ore are as proper a petrographic study as is the life his- tory of an igneous rock or a sediment. Whether or not a rock has been much modified since its original deposition, whether or not some of its present makeup has been added to it since that time, and whether or not it records some pecu- liar reversal in the course of development along which it first started, may be of immensely more importance than its name or its mineral proportions or any amount of minute description, or even a com- plete chemical analysis with all sorts of formal recasts of its elements. Practical work covering many years and touching a very wide range of materials and problems has convinced the writer that the new aim is practicable and that the greatest usefulness of petrology is in some way involved in unraveling the origin and life history of rocks. The principal field of this kind of petrology lies in the read- ing of obscure history. Its chief claim to distinction lies in the REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 10g antiquity of its materials and the reliability of the physical record even down to the minutest detail and the refinement of methods out of which and by means of which their histories are read. Any methods and any criteria and any nomenclature that serve these ends are the legitimate equipment and instruments and media of the petrologist; but he himself is first of all a geologist, helping in his own way to unravel the history of the earth, or else he is not in this class. The petrology of the past has been developed and advanced in considerable part by men who were, first of all, mineralogists; and it is not at all surprising, therefore, that something of the point of view of the mineralogist should have dominated in this intermediate field. Under this leadership, the mineralogy of rocks, comparison of rocks by means of mineral differences, and classifications empha- sizing mineral proportions were perfectly natural growths. Geologic principles thus at first did not make much of an appeal. Other interests of petrology have been brought forward more recently and almost wholly by geologists — applied and economic geologists — rather than by professional petrographers. It has been forced by an attempt to use the methods of petrography as a geologic aid. These attempts are not new, but to regard them as belonging to the true field of petrology is new and no systematic presentation of this kind of petrology has ever been made. Methods and Criteria Every refinement of method that can promise any new insight into the obscure features of rocks must be resorted to, for rock interpretation requires all the skill of discrimination that can be brought to bear. The difference, however, between the new and the older use of them lies in the purpose. The new effort is not only to detect differences, but to see meaning in them in terms of life history or in terms of any other claim that a given, special problem may present. Much attention is given to structure, quite as much as to com- position. Structural features are much more likely to have genetic and historical significance than are mineral proportion § or composition. | As an equipment one must have a sound appreciation of the work- ing of geologic processes, the complex interplay of chemical change under varying physical conditions, and the influence of the forces and agents that make and modify rocks. One must assemble the IIo NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM supposed criteria and learn how to use them. One must discovei, or learn how to apply, new criteria—the criteria that aid in interpretation. How shall I determine that a rock is igneous in origin if I do not know that fact already from some other circumstance or relation : It is not an easy thing to do, yet most petrographic work starts with that as an assumption. How shall I determine that the minerals I now see in the makeup of the rock have been in part introduced long since the rock was first made? It is not an easy thing to do, but it may well be the most important thing about the whole history. How shall I determine that the ore values that I can see in a por- phyry copper ore are primary or secondary? And, if they are mixed, as they well may be, what are the evidences of their distribution ? How shall I determine that a specimen of rock has come from a formation that has been deformed and recrystallized and invaded by igneous material and subsequently mineralized and secondarily enriched until it is a workable ore? This is much more important than its name. How shall I determine that the former constituents have been replaced, that the composition the rock now has is wholly new; and, if I can determine that, how shall I ever find out what the original was? In a historical direction, and for practical and applied purposes, these are some of the things that one must find ways of doing. These and many other questions one will sometimes solve. These and many others one will many times fail to solve. Sometimes, no doubt, the fault or cause of failure is lack of sufficiently critical training in observation; sometimes it is an incomplete command of the principles of geologic processes; sometimes it is little facility in geologic reasoning or too great facility in loose reasoning ; and some- times it is a lack of properly standardized criteria. Perhaps, therefore, a word about these needs would not be out of place. The last of these reasons,— the lack of properly standardized criteria,— is a strictly petrographic question; the others are in large part individual and personal. Difficulties and Needs I suppose that every rock has impressed on it, and to some degree it preserves, traces of its origin and every subsequent stage in its history. The difficulty is in reading these traces and interpreting REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, I922 Iit them. Doubtless many of them are too obscure to be detected by any methods that we know how to use. Doubtless, also, the effects of the later happenings tend to obliterate or obscure those that existed before. It may even be that beyond a certain period everything is lost because of the very violence or completeness of the revolution. Such a case is where a rock suffers igneous fusion; or, again, where there is complete reconstruction, as in some forms of metamorphism. These difficulties and the severe limitations set by the nature of the forces and changes that one has to deal with, however, do not furnish sufficient excuse for avoiding the problem. The same kind of limitations surround all branches of geologic research. The inherent difficulties do not remove the problem, they simply empha- size the peculiar nature of the problems of the science. The great needs are standardized criteria. One must now assem- ble his own; and a little experience in assembling them will soon show how very scattering are the observations and comments that serve as reliable source records, and how much of a task it really is to organize a working scheme along any line of petrographic interpretation. For example, one needs criteria of origin, and criteria for source of original material, and for the order of appearance of the different constituents, for deformation and recrystallization, for introduced mineralization, for hydrothermal influences, for pneumatolitic action, for deep-seated alteration as contrasted with weathering or super- gene changes, for deuteric effects or end-product changes as con- trasted with entirely independent subsequent modifications, for secondary enrichment, for primary as contrasted with secondary constituents, for high-pressure-temperature as contrasted with low-pressure-temperature conditions, for sitlication, for cabona- tion, for replacement or metasomatism, for metamorplusm, or any other geologic process in its effects on rocks or for any quality or condition that might make them more readable and better under- stood. For a good many years the writer and his students and associates have been slowly assembling and trying out such criteria, and have been attempting to interpret rocks. Even the imperfect standards that have been used show beyond doubt that the results are service- able; but there is a long way to go to perfect a reliable working scheme of criteria. II2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Its Service This kind of petrology has already earned a place for itself in studies of ore deposits. It is more readily appreciated in that field than in most others, that origin and subsequent changes and present exact condition of the material are vital matters. On the develop- ment of these factors, dependent as they are on perfectly normal geologic processes, depends also the extent and quality and distribu- tion of the ore, as well as its changes in quality or value in depth or distance. No methods other than those of the new petrology have ever been successful in determining any of these fundamental questions. In that branch of the science of geology where great financial interests are often dependent on correct interpretation of conditions and origin, it is comparatively easy to show the practical value of methods that serve these ends; but, as a matter of fact, wherever a better understanding of the life history and the causes of the present condition of rock material is needed, there the new petrology — the interpretation form of rock study — is of real service. That kind of service is as broad as are the wants of geologic science. It is probable, indeed, that by petrographic methods designed to this end one could pry much further into the obscure secrets of many phases of geologic history than by any other means. It will do for structural history what paleontology does for stratt- graphic history and physiography does for the surficial history of the earth. It would be easy to illustrate some of these forms of service by a variety of practical problems in which such methods have been used. Two or three certainly will suffice. . 1 It appears that a good zinc ore was being worked, and question arose about its-extent and probable distribution as:a basis for future development. ‘The field indications thus far had not been clear and there were several alternative possibilities. The ore was a mixture and occurred in limestone. It might be (a) essentially primary, or (b) simply an altered primary constituent in place, or it might be (c) introduced, or (d) altered introduced material. In the latter case the distribution of the original introduced mineral and its origin would be an important link in the history. It was a strictly practical interpretation problem. One needed only a working knowledge of the criteria of sedimentary and organic rock origin, of metallic mineralization, of replacement, and of mineral alteration. It could be shown then that the ore in question was nearly all secondary; REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 It3 that it had been transformed by supergene (weathering) agencies from a sulphide lead-zinc bearing ore as the original; that this original ore had been itself introduced into the limestone rock sub- sequent to its own formation and deformation; and that the prin- cipal present ore values did not occupy the place of the original sul- phide minerals but, instead, had themselves replaced portions of the limestone, and that there was some selective distribution. The ore was strictly a superficial or near-surface deposit and had no chance of continuing in depth below the oxidized zone. 2 An old silver mine in Mexico, said to have been abandoned after reaching a certain level, not because of any fault with the ore, had been examined by competent mining engineers and sampled. Because, however, of difficult conditions at that time in Mexico, all of their shipped samples had been lost or destroyed, only a handful of small chips remaining, which one of the engineers had with some forethought carried out in his pocket. The question they wished to ask was a very direct one, that 1s, has the mine been worked out, or is there real evidence to show that the ore still continues at the bottom much like that at higher levels, so that additional work might hope to find workable values at still greater depth? It is a perfectly good petrographic problem. The conditions are unusual and discouraging ; but it can be solved by those methods or else it cannot be solved at all. One must have a working knowledge of the origin of ores of that kind, and of the principles of alteration and secondary enrichment with their influence on distribution. One must be told about the relative distribution of these samples taken from the old mine and something of the structural facts; then, if he can read the criteria and interpret the evidence, he can venture an opinion based on real data, even in such an extreme case as this. 3 Several years ago the author published a short description of the “bluestone”? of New York, making the study chiefly one of composition and micro-structural condition. It was not by any means well done in one respect at least, its interpretation. It was noticed that most of the original grains are now made up of aggre- gates, but it was then thought that these aggregates were secondary, resulting from the alteration of original, simple mineral grains. This interpretation is certainly wrong. These grains were originally aggregates and are not at all due to subsequent alteration. It is certain, also, that some of these grains, perhaps nearly all of them, are disintegration products from older formations which were them- selves fine-grained aggregates in makeup, such as slates or argillites. fa} NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Such an interprétation is supported also by the fact that older formations were certainly available to furnish the supply. The bluestone is of Devonian age, and beneath strata of that age and beneath an unconformity lies the so-called Hudson River series, which is made up wholly of slates and graywackes and closely related varieties of sediments. | As far as the Devonian bluestone itself is concerned, the story could end here; but the similarity of the graywackes of Hudson River age to this bluestone of much later origin challenges an exam- ination of it also by the same methods. When this is done it is dis- covered that the older graywacke of the Hudson River series is made up of original aggregate grains also. In other words, it is made up, in like manner, chiefly of complex aggregate grains, most of which must have been derived from a still older fine-grained rock series not very unlike itself. But when one looks below the next unconformity for a corre- sponding rock series, a real difficulty is encountered. Apparently the next underlying series is the ancient crystalline gneisses and schists of the Highlands of the Lower Hudson, and no rocks similar to the grains in the graywacke occur at all. On the south side of the Highlands, however, there is a crystalline series of disputed age, which was originally, before its extensive metamorphism, or in those parts not so completely metamorphosed, very like the required quality of material. If, therefore, this crystal- line series, the so-called Manhattan schist-Inwood limestone-Lowerre quartzite series, is really older than the Hudson River slate-Wap- pinger limestone-Poughquag quartzite series, it could furnish the required material. Nothing else is known that could do it. In so far, therefore, as this line of reasoning goes, it supports the contention that these two series of rocks are really of very dif- ferent age and not one the metamorphosed representative of the other, as sometimes thought. Thus interpretation petrography may throw real light on a problem which is quite outside of the usual field covered by petrographic description. 4 It is usually considered comparatively easy to distinguish between a quartzite and a limestone, yet even this may become a very difficult thing to do. The writer has had occasion to work with material of this kind, in which a microscopic or a chemical deter- mination of the relative amounts of silica would not suffice. The only method left was that of petrographic interpretation on the basis of origin and subsequent modification, including contact metamor- REBORTEOEL DUE DIRECTOR LO2Z2 TT5 phism, replacement, silication, silicification, carbonation, and metal- lic mineralization. Without discovering criteria by which rock material of this history, both original limestones, sandy limestones, and sandstones, could be distinguished one from the other, the deter- minations could not be done at all. With extreme caution such criteria can usually be discovered and used, as was done in this case. Even in samples where a rock that was originally a lime- stone now carries as much free quartz as is usual in a quartzite, it was generally possible to distinguish the original limestone repre- sentative from the quartzite; and, incidentally, help to solve an important, practical stratigraphic and economic problem. Its Discoveries The chief discoveries of the new petrology are: 1 That it is both practicable and very practical ; 2 That it is very much more interesting and attractive as an instruction subject than is the old form; 3 That it yields beautifully to the application and teaching of research methods under simple and controllable circumstances ; 4 That petrographic nomenclature is sadly deficient in descriptive terms and names for this particular kind of rock description. The first two items require no additional comment, but perhaps the last one does. It is the chief direction, in addition to the estab- lishing of reliable criteria, for important contributions. In the new view, genesis and history, or origin and subsequent changes are fundamental factors. In some way they must be kept in the foreground both in description and in classification. Other features need not be neglected but are, for this purpose at least, of secondary rank. The larger groupings must be on these more impor- tant factors where the greater significance lies. i When one tries to apply these revised ideas to his own work it is discovered, in the course of time, that there are very many rock types and rock conditions and process effects for which there are no corresponding petrographic terms at all. Petrology is a branch of science which is thought by many to have too many names and terms now, and with this criticism we may all agree in principle. Many of the terms are too mechanical in their conception and too unpro- ductive in their significance. Yet this can scarcely be counted against new ones if they can demonstrate their usefulness. _. My only purpose is to point out a few discoveries of this kind and venture the opinion that within a very few years suitable terms will 116 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM be in use among petrographers for many more; and that, by and by, a whole new system of nomenclature will be worked out, designed to emphazie these principles. Examples 1 Geologists speak of the residue left by the evaporation of a solution as a precipitate; but there is no name for the product of the reaction between two mixing solutions, such as seems to have pro- duced some of our ores. Toa petrographer or a chemist the latter is the better precipitate, but he would like at least to distinguish between them. The genetic idea is carried better if the product of evaporation were called an evaporate, as Doctor Grabau does in his work on Salt Deposits, and the product of reaction by mixing were called a reactionate. Perhaps one could write them evaporite and reactionite. 2 These are still different from the product of simple reduction of temperature or pressure in an ascending, saturated solution, for which there is noname. Is it to bea saturite? And for the product of reaction between a solution and a rock wall, resulting in precipi- tation from the solution, there is also no name. 3 These are all very different genetically from the product of reaction between solution and rock wall or host when the reaction causes reorganization of portions of the rock itself, taking some thing out of the solution to add to its own constituents. It is a form of reactionite also, but very different indeed from either of the others. There must be a whole family of reactionites differing in various, quite fundamental ways one from another, and altogether producing a most interesting and important lot of petrographic materials encountered in many practical problems. If one has worked little with ores and their relations, these needs would not necessarily have been felt; but if one has followed applied petrology with mining engineers he will have discovered that there is no name for a very great many of his perfectly typical things. One does not need to invade that field, however, to feel this poverty of nomenclature. The fact 1s that geology as related to petrogenesis has outstripped petrography as a separate descriptive branch, and there are now many perfectly clear concepts of processes and prod- ucts for which there are no petrographic terms. 4 Sometimes one substance completely replaces another, or cer- tain ones completely replace others, producing an entirely new com- position. There must be a whole family of these types. I suppose REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, I922 iy we can call them exchangites or replacites or metasomatites ; and 1f we do we shall be easily understood but there are not any such words in petrography. 5 What term shall one use for an ash that has been completely silicified? I know that one form of it has been called novaculite, but not at all because of its origin. And on that very account the term would hardly serve for a rock that had a coarse structure. There simply is not any adequate term. This is not a rare thing. There is much more of this type of rock in the ground than there is of Jacupirangite, or of Luxullianite, or many others that could be named. 6 What constitutes a quartzite? And why should not one dis- tinguish between a quartz rock that is still in its original, unmodified condition and one that has been indurated with silica; and, yet again, one that has been deformed and recrystallized? There are im- mense differences historically, and all types are very abundant indeed. In the field of katamorphism there are whole groups of products of immense importance to the practical or applied petrographer, for which there are no classification terms, although there are geo- logic terms descriptive of the major processes. 7 For example, how shall one designate the average product of simple disintegration? Is it a disintegrationite? 8 What shall one call the products of leaching? Shall we call them all laterites or leachites? Is laterite an extreme condition rep- resented less perfectly by all of the leachites? 9 Or, again, what shall one call the product of simple oxidation? I know that “ gossan ” is an oxidation product from sulphides; but are they all to be called gossans? There ought to be a better name for the whole family of oxidationites. 10 Or how shall one indicate in simple terms or by a suitable name that a rock is a carbonation product, when the original was not a carbonate rock at all? One has had little experience who has not seen such rocks and has wondered how to classify them. 11. Hydration is one of the commonest processes active in the alteration of rocks. Serpentines are of such origin, derived from anhydrous silicate originals; but there is no name for the whole family of hydrationites. 12 A sandstone in which carbonate occurs is usually called a cal- careous sandstone; but there is a great difference in meaning whether the carbonate is original with the rest of the rock or was 118 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM introduced as an induration effect or was traded in a process of replacement for parts of the rock that have disappeared: How shall one designate these conditions? 13 A belief in recrystallization has come to stay. Recrystalliza- tion does not presuppose any particular composition or particular structure. Shall we call the group of such products the recrystalli- zationites? ! ve Fundamentally there are two divisions of this group — the mas- sive ones and the foliated or stretched ones; but we have no clearly recognized names for them. If I call the latter foliates, as Miller does in his reclassification of metamorphic terms, in what way shall we distinguish the ee foliated rocks of both igneous and sedimentary origin? : There is, of course, no object in pressing these questions sie They have been used only to indicate at how many points the termi- nology and classification schemes of petrography fall short of the working conceptions of the applied geologist. If it is true, as it seems to me, that the rightful field of petrology is rock interpreta- tion, and that its greatest service lies in its contribution to geologic history, then, sooner or later, a considerable modification in termi- nology is sure to come in petrography itself. Petrologists of the new school will have to be, first of all, geolo- gists both in fundamental training and in thinking habit, rather than mineralogists, because their subject is an intimate part of the field of geologic history, and their science is but a branch of ' ne pee science of geology. | - Petrogenesis, the life history of rocks — geologic eee hid. m the obscure inner recesses of the rocks themselves — these ove the chief interests of the new petrology and these CMe Si map out its ane service. REPORT OF DHE DIRBETOR, [O22 119 A HEMIASPIDAN CRUSTACEAN FROM THE NEW YORK SILURIAN WATERLIMES BY JOHN M. CLARKE Little by little the Bertie waterlimes of western New York, which make the terminal member of the Silurian series, have revealed the genera of that singular group of crustaceans or arachnidans which have been for the most part originally described from the Silurians of the Island of Oesel in the Baltic; Lanarkshire in Scotland and Ludlow, England, and which have been called, taken together, the Bunodomorpha. They represent ——— Se, Fig. 1 Hemi- aspis stage of embryo Limulus Fig. 2 Hemiaspis? vricnsis +» nov. small creatures of merostome (hence arachnid) structure which could not have been very abundant in the Silurian seas, as species and genera are few in number and individuals. Every new link in this group which helps to tie up the New York formations with those of the Eastern hemisphere is worthy of record. Of the genera (1) Neolimulus, (2) Bunodes, (3) Hemiaspis and (4) Pseudoniscus, all of which were described first from Europe, only Pseudoniscus has been found in the Bertie water- limes (P. roosevelti Clarke). Bunaia (B. woodwardi Clarke, Buffalo) is an adjusted representative of Bunodes, as is 120 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM perhaps true of Bunodella from the Silurian of New Brunswick. Bunaia woodwardi was described three years ago as a variant generic type. The haphazard occurrences of these fossils have brought to ight this year an evident representative of the Hemiaspis-like shrimps; their first appearance in this country. The single specimen found retains only enough of the exo- skeleton to verify the approximate identification. Its condition of preservation is bad but what it has to show is seen on the accompanying figure. That it is a true Hemiaspis as that genus is understood on the basis of the Scottish specimen, is not altogether clear. In fact the abdominal segments, regarded as free in those, are apparently coalesced into a single shield in this. The completion of this record must wait on the acquisition of further and better material. The specimen leaves much to be desired; it is not all there; but for purposes of identification it mav be known as Hemiaspis ( ?) eriensis. It is from the Bertie waterlime quarries at Kast Buffalo. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 T21 A COLOSSAL DEVONIAN GLASS SPONGE BY JOHN M. CLARKE It is a pleasure to record the fact that this evidence of the immense size to which the glass sponges of the Devonian planta- tions in New York grew, was discovered by a venerable lady, when well past her one hundredth year, on her farm near Ripley, Chautauqua county; Mrs H. A. Burton, Prof. Gilbert D. Harris’s aunt. It is to the kindness of Mrs. Burton and the courtesy of Professor Harris of Cornell University, that this specimen is now in the State Museum and this opportunity afforded of public notice of this extraordinary fossil. In a brief oral acount of it I have termed this unique specimen “the Burton Sponge,” but technically it appears to be a repre- sentative of the genus Ceratodictya which is characterized by its long horn shape, covered with concentric rings or annulations. The elevated rings are simple and about equidistant in early growth, but as the sponge grew older and upward these annuli became divided at the top by a low furrow which gradually deepened until it had become nearly as deep as the interannular depressions. Also as growth advanced the rings had a tendency to become less regular, more crowded together, relatively much narrower and on the whole less conspicuous. The specimen is a fragment 14 inches long and 8 inches wide, which presumably represents the final growth of the sponge and shows ephebic conditions in the form of the rings, their irregular subdivision, the terminal ring having divided twice, and in a tendency to become faintly nodose. There is, however, no good reason for disconnecting this expression of growth from that shown in smaller and presumably younger specimens. On the assumption that the present width of the specimen, even though compressed, is approximately the true width of the original and by comparison of its relative proportions with those of younger and larger indi- viduals in the Museum, it seems fairly reasonable to conclude that this specimen attained a length of not less than 10 feet. The restoration of this sponge in its probable original dimen- sions has been erected in the Museum. The specimen is from the Chemung sandstones (upper marine Devonian). I22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM For further observations on these Hexactinellid sponges, see Hall & Clarke. The Paleozoic Reticulate Sponges Constituting the Family Dictyospongidae. State Museum Memoir 2. 1895. Clarke. Devonian Glass Sponges. State Mus. Bul. N. Y. 196. 1918. The Great Glass Sponge Colonies of the Devonian. Journal of Geology. 1920. ane Armstrongia. A New Genus of Devonian Glass Sponges. State Mus. Bul. N. Y. 219-220. 1920. i i | A fragment of the largest known specimen of a Devonian Glass Sponge (“The Burton Sponge”), one-third natural size. = at, ‘@ 7 “The Burton Sponge.” The other side of the specimen. i i | | The Burton Sponge. Full size restoration based upon comparison of the original with other specimens allied to it. This is from the Chemung rocks of Allegany County. REPORT ORY lHEyY DIRECTOR, 1922 123 Tae GEOLOGICAL AGE OF THE BONAVENTURE FORMATION BY JOHN M. CLARKE The determination of this problem has an interesting general bearing on the age of Old Red Sandstone deposits, particularly those represented by the Catskill rocks of New York. Many years of work in the typical region of the Bonaventure series brought the conclusion that while this blanket of red sands and conglomerates in Gaspé was in large part of Carboniferous age, the deposition actually began at the close of the Middle Devonian and continued without interruption into the later period. This Fig. 1 & 3 Sandstone N y ES Conglomerate ae e fa engue® : (N.80°E.) Dip as ep 19° (S 50°E) BRC ra cae OS ~=, Whale Head > Pi. Jaune Cp a a Plateau Ls. es ey dp \ ferte Mal-Bay Surface relations of the rocks inthe Barachots_Point StPeter—long Cove orca. interpretation differed from that by Sir William Logan, the founder and describer, only in the ascription of the lower moiety of the series to Devonian time. In the Catskill series of New York the division of this Old Red sedimentation is of like quality though not the same as to apparent quantity ; here there is more Devonian in proportion to the Carboniferous; there the pro- portion is reversed. It is quite possible that in New York the Carboniferous cap formations of the Catskill are incomplete from erosion or unfinished magical, / I. lneval: felt that. these. conclusions with reference to the. Bonaventure were sufficiently secure. on the basis of the evidence I had set out in a number of publications on Gaspé geology but my confidence in them was somewhat disturbed: by suggestions from Mr R. L, Sherlock of the British 124 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Geological Survey* upon the age of the Foraminifera which I had found in the jasper and chert pebbles of the Bonaventure beds. At my request these fossils were studied and identified by Dr Rufus M. Bagg and his determinations were printed in the Fifteenth Annual Museum Report, 1921. These determinations were necessarily based on thin sections and the author frankly admitted that they could only be approximate. The interest attached thereto was primarily the discovery of Foraminifera in this Gaspé series, which was before unknown to us, and secondarily the apparent evidence that they actually do represent the exist- ence at the early date at which these cherts were formed (prob- Fig. 2 2) mM Point St. Peter 1. Greenish-gray. 35 interbedded with PS. finer green and red beds. 2.Gray to greenish Sia 5S with interbedded red beds Coming wy in toward Red Head (Plants). Eq Conglomerate 3. Reddish ss, 4. Greenish-fray & green ss (Plants). Reddish 35 Comes in. 6,7,8. Reddish. or grayish_ brown ss (Qld Red) a ES Big Sandstone Diagram of shoreline from Point St Peter to Long Cove. e Fig. 3 2) rs Oa a = $3 Oe S ¢ s a Se E : gE 8 ga 7 5 7 5 2 ze 0 oc _9 ; a Z ° 5 < - feo A§ 5 ZUR eli ei Bae ON PLS Petere > PPR Oe COVE Deo a) Gon wa ae a Kom Pen pe son «Se 2 BO ORES © EDTA I, PL, iy SPE YET ML GCA, Wy Zz Gf SE , Vee. 2 Ve MTOR Pt. Jaune Whale Head conglomerate Diagram of shoreline from Point St. Peter to cove SE. of Chien Blanc. @ Sandstone ably Ordovician or Cambrian) of genera, many of which are with difficulty distinguishable from forms now living. Of all the forty-four species identified by Doctor Bagg, it is pointed out by Mr Sherlock that thirty-seven are recorded as still extant. He also emphasizes the fact that eighteen have hitherto been known as found first in the Trias and this large proportion of itself threw out an intimation that the Bonaventure rocks were of Triassic or later age. In view of the known existence and presumable continuity of this red rock deposition further south into the Permian (New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Magdalen Islands) and Triassic (Nove Scotia), this suggestion arrested attention as highly reasonable and worthy of careful * The Stratigraphical Value of Foraminifera. Geological Magazine, May 1922, p. 238. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, I922 examination. I shall not make any further reference to the character of the Foraminifera, as Mr Sherlock has most kindly offered personally to examine the original slides and now has them in his possession. This part of the problem may await his conclusions. The stratigraphic relations of the Bonaventure to the Middle Devonian Gaspé sandstones which must really be determinative of the age of the Foramininifera pebbles, have been passed under careful field review. The critical region for the precise determination of the stratigraphy of the Gaspé sandstones and the incom- ing stages of the Bonaventure forma- HOM, IS Une Sxnrswminy Of) WAS St Peter peninsula which on the north makes the south boundary of Gaspé bay and on the south, the north shore of the Malbay. It is a region rather remote from the line of travel in these railroad days and my own per- sonal acquaintance with it has not been sufficiently intimate for the pre- cise purpose in hand, but my asso- ciate, Winifred Goldring, who has been engaged in Gaspé in the acquisi- tion of paleobotanical material, has made a close and very satisfactory examination of the stratigraphy of the peninsula, coming out with per- fectly conclusive results as to the general accuracy of my previous conclusions to the effect that the Middle Devonian Gaspé sandstone, exposed in the St Peter region only in its upper part, is gradually re- placed by Bonaventure sediments coming in from the south. The EB: t Belle Anse '# F 5. Head o Fig. 4 Barachots PO W. a iS) Sp | ed-3.Con- merate, ;5. Angular conglo j green SS;2 Lowest conglomerate b and green interbedded $s beds at Point St. Peter. p) brown and 5 of (8);4.6.Red Ke the heavy 5 tit ;& Typical conglomerate P) Bridgeville section. 1 Re :probably corresponding to uppermost layer To Bridgeville <— Betle Anse —Barachois- lomeratic beds t,more typical conglomerate ‘Coarse 2 7 126 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ter folding, fault- -Chien Blane area. Relation of the various Kinds of rock a Barachovs (rout St Peter: ith thick, merate w j our heavy beds of Bonaventure conélo ifth and heaviest bed of Bonaventure con¢lomerate;4. Angular Bonaventure con- (2 — (ig) oj _ LL Ow) wn oD) rd ae w ” yn wr Ua lar wo Oa Aw 4 OSS! OD & 12 —_— —n Qo > ais A oO Zo on_& 5S is 6lomerate. RELEORT OH THE) DIRECTOR, 1922 127 accompanying sketch map shows the geographical outline of the Peninsula. To the northwest lie the Gaspé sandstones (Middle Devonian) ; to the north on the opposite side of the bay are the Grande Gréve limestones (Lower Devonian) ; to the south are the successive beds of the Bonaventure. At Chien Blanc, the green-gray Gaspé sandstones disappear terminated in their eastward extension down the bay by a dis- placement of some magnitude. Against them at an angle lte reddish shales. The dip of all is high, 80° in the former, about 70° in the latter against the fault. Thence outward and eastward follow at least four beds of conglomerate separated by broad intervals of red to brown shales, the first of these, of lighter shade than the rest carrying plant remains of the same character as those in the Gaspé sandstone. The entire series on this north shore is terminated at St Peter point by a very heavy bed of coarse conglomerate which is continued under sea outward to Plato island, a half mile from the point. Here, thus, we have the sedimentary evidence of gradual passage from the Gaspé sandstones into the conglomerate series of the Bonaventure, which is also evidence of shoaling marine waters encroached upon by increasing indrainage from an arid continent at the east. Turning St Peter point to the south shore the fault dis- placement is shown quite evidently to extend across the early conglomerate bed as well as the shales beneath and. I give here the construction of the section from Belle Anse westward to Barachois. The strength of the displacement here noted is not equaled by any other fault recorded in this or the adjoining region. Winifred Goldring’s sections are here reproduced together with a block diagram showing the character of the dis- location at the point of this peninsula. Footnote: Since the foregoing was written, Mr Sherlock has made his exam- ination of the sections studied by Doctor Bagg with great pains, and with most generous consideration has undertaken a comparison with the determinations made in the original study. While Mr Sherlock is not in full agreement with Doctor Bagg’s determinations, he recognizes the difficulties confronting specific pnd even generic determinations from sections only and, with this handicap recog- nized, he is convinced of many of the points that Doctor Bagg brought out with reference to the very great range of these species and genera. It is with Mr Sherlock’s conclusions that we are here most intimately concerned, in view of the fact that there is no doubt remaining now as to the Early Carboniferous or Late Devonian age of these Bonaventure deposits which contain the Fora- minifera cherts. Mr Sherlock says: ‘My general impression of the Fora- minifera is that they do not prove the age of the cherts. Had I been handed them without any knowledge of locality and age, my impression would have been that they were probably Mesozoic and more likely Cretaceous than Triassic. There is nothing at all to suggets a Paleozoic age. Stratigraphical evidence must be accepted and we can only infer that Foraminifera have less value for determining age than we imagined.” 128 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ROSETTED TRAILS OF THE PALEOZOIC BY JOHN M. CLARKE There were boring worms of great size in the Silurian sea as indicated by the accompanying illustrations of a specimen from the beds of Mont Joli, Gaspe. The figures are in natural proportions and essentially accurate though somewhat diagram- matic representations of corrugated saucerlike impressions in the mud, preserved in relief in the sandy overlying layer. The great worm that made them, extending part way out of its vertical tube, whipped its protruded body out radially, in one and eventually in all directions, each such protrusion being followed by a broad groove as the worm drew its body back toward or into its hole. It is interesting to note that the laps or throws of the body always. reach the same distance from the central tube, thus producing a very striking rosettelike depression which is emphasized when thrown into relief. We have evidences in plenty of Paleozoic worms which had the habit of looping back their extended bodies into the central tube catching up windrows of sand and making shapes that have frequently been called by the generic names, Taonurus and Spirophyton; and of vertical tubes transecting successive bedding planes. But the flapping ancestral gephy- reans (if such they prove to be) have left few of their traces. This seems an appropriate opportunity to take account of cer- tain rather impressive rosette or chrysanthemumlike tufted casts of which we have brought together a considerable series from the upper-Chemung sand-slabs of southwestern New York. These have been accumulating for many years and have come to be known in the circle that has been interested in them: as fossil daisies. They are bodies in high relief, obviously the moulds of natural depressions on the sea bottom, I to 2 inches in diameter, their cushion-shaped surface divided into two distinct parts, an inner, like the disk of a daisy, usually circular in outline but some- times apparenty four-divided by cross-lines, the outer or peri- pheral part being sharply set off from the rest. The surface of both parts is closely covered by sharp close-set and fine thread- like radial markings not laid regularly but overlapping and cross- ing. ‘There is no continuity in these lines across the two areas of the surface and indeed their arrangement on these relief mounds suggests the lay of the grass in a haycock. There 1s no REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 129 Fig. 1 Rosette-shaped worm burrow; above, theoretical vertical section ; below, surface appearance. One-half natural size. Silurian, Mt. Joli, Percé. 5 I30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM evidence at the center, of a hole or elevation representing such hole. Described in terms of the original depression, we have a double saucer with the form of an ogee champagne shell, covered with sharp threadlike depressions, and without evidence of a ver- tical tube running down into the mud. In two of these speci- mens there seems to be a connection with a stem or shaft lying horizontal on the surface of the slab, straight in direction but showing traces of jointing or segmentation: such as may have been made by a crawling or sliding worm. In some such circular depression, a boring or burrowing sea-urchin may have wallowed ; some many-tentacled annelid may have moved along the surface and stopped to flap its armed head back and forth and about; some Porpita-like thing have died and decayed; perhaps some ascidian have left its trace. At all events some nut dropped here for paleontologists to crack. Many years ago the writer sent drawings of these objects to several competent paleontologists with a request for their interpretation of them. Replies but no answers were received and as the lapse of time has brought no light, more general attention is invited to them in this formal way. Someone somewhere may have the correct solution. These fossils have been found in the Chemung formation at Olean and at Hinsdale, Cattaraugus county, and at Bolivar, Allegany county. lalle, IN, W. NSC hemung Group, Hi G Rosette-shaped worm burrows. a REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 1 S5ul MBLHOD OF RESTORING THE COHOES MASTODON BY NOAH T, CLARKE The task of reconstructing the Cohoes mastodon in life form and on a scientific basis was, from the start, an adventure which entailed all the emotions that might be expected in the explora- tion of a new field. This seemed an opportunity to create something of real scientific value and general interest, something which had never before been attempted and, if a success, well worth the arduous labor it would require. Could it be done successfully or should this museum try it or had we better stand aside and let some~- one else risk failure. After serious consideration it seemed that the opportunity was too favorable not to make the attempt; with the assurance of every available aid; for what was not actually known about a few points in the structure of the American mastodon, could not be intelligently criticized and our best guess would have to serve and satisfy till the contrary was proved. The first procedure was to consult Mr Carl E. Akeley of the American Museum of Natural History in New York, whose work as a big game sculptor-taxidermist is beyond comparison. This institution owes a great deal of the success of the restoration to his interest and advice, for what he could not tell us about the makeup of the recent elephant would not matter. Before starting in on the actual work, many photographs and sketches of living elephants were made at the Bronx zoo and visiting circuses. These gave opportunity for study and a foundation on which to work. Armed with this material operations were started on a model about one-third actual size on which errors could be made and corrected before the full-sized beast was commenced. A lantern slide of the mastodon skeleton was projected to one-third natural size and an outline traced on which all measurements of the skeleton were placed. A framework was built accordingly and covered with galvanized wire netting on which to model. This was carefully done by comparing the mastodon skeleton with that of the elephant and in proportion to the size of the bones of the mastodon with those of the elephant, the manikin of the sketch model gradually took form. This model was made in plaster and when we were satisfied that it was correct and conformed in proper 132 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM relation to the mounted skeleton, an enlarging apparatus was devised by which measurements taken on the small model could be trans- ferred and enlarged to full size. The framework for the large beast was plotted out by means of this enlarging apparatus and each piece was patterned on paper for the carpenter to follow. On the completion of this large frame, galvanized wire screen of one- half inch mesh was used over the frame, as a foundation for the plaster work on which to transfer points taken from the sketch. After locating and fixing some thousands of points by means of nails driven in the plaster work, it was only necessary to build up to the heads of each nail and we thus had a roughly blocked out full sized plaster model. It now became necessary to make a thin shell over the outside of this form which could be removed in sections and taken down to the exhibition hall and reassembled. The first step in this was to lay out certain areas all over the large manikin, which when entirely covered made twenty-seven separate pieces to be made of a thin, strong, hght and durable combination of materials. Each area was covered with paper to prevent the material used from adhering to the manikin, then fine steel wire screen (about the mesh of fly screen) was fitted over one of these areas and was made to take the exact contour of the modeling by stretching and rubbing the screen with a blunt steel tool especially made for this purpose. Here and there, in order to keep the screen snugly in position, a wire brad was driven in place just far enough to hold and then turned over so as to be removed easily when required. “Akeley’s mixture,’ which con- sists of felt paper pulp, whiting, glue and boiled linseed oil was then rubbed into and through this layer of wire screen. ‘This hardened in 24 hours and the brads could be removed without danger of it loosening the form. This process was repeated until three layers of wire screen and this mixture had been applied. With one section complete, the area next adjoining it was made in exactly the same way, without removing the first, and the process continued till the entire manikin was covered and a total of twenty-seven sections or pieces about three-eighths of an inch thick had been made. When removed, the inner side of these pieces was sized and then reinforced with wooden ribs accurately cut from cardboard patterns which had been scribed to conform exactly with the contour of the manikin at the particular point Method used in the modeling of the Cohoes Mastodon. The first model was a miniature of which the second model is an enlargement by mathemati- cal measurement. ee Oe een . , ; ee ; i ; % . : ; > ik ee ; 2 2 i ' . veo / 2 - Fe a £ = : = r ‘ Sha" ’ : . rc = y = = : Ee eds D ; & me P i 5 x E » oF 7M = 1 € : . : < - ‘ ; : e 2 : a : = . c 7 : i pan ee Sa f a ? , | 4 = : ; ; : ce Se NY: ee : : 3 ; "| no =e = ie Are areas a : © } ; : : 4 ~ : ¥ ; E” - ‘ - 7 7 f 4 faut ih a an oe : 3) i P pies 7 . + x ; ee a = ie . . Ta : : ae A i ae: : N - 7 . > ‘ 5 : 4 ‘ , 4 ie : 5 : : ee 4 < > 4 7 te Ee, ANAT ; ; ee ‘ = This picture shows the procedure in building the internal form of the final model and the covering of steel net and plaster upon which the ultimate restoration was based. a Gta es sal Aged RUTIEONY | Os AIST) ADIN IBC WON, WO) 133 at which a rib was required to be placed. These ribs were of seven-eighth inch material and 4 inches wide. While the greater part of the work had now been accomplished it now remained to reassemble the beast and then cover with “hair.” Sisal was chosen as the material which most nearly resembled mastodon hair and after dying it a black and several shades of brown it made a surprisingly close imitation of such hair by mixing and combing through a hetchel. The process of attaching the hair was accomplished by the following method. Strips of cardboard were cut about 2 feet long and 2 inches wide and on one of these strips a layer of sisal was laid at right angles evenly along the length with a couple of inches of it extending over the upper edge and the remainder hanging free over the lower edge of the cardboard. On top of the first strip was fastened another strip by means of wire clips and this held the sisal in place to be easily handled and attached to the beast. With a great many of these made up in this way it was necessary to start at the bottom and work up as one does in shingling a roof. A row was tacked on and where the sisal came in contact with the body, a little of the same Akeley mix- ture was rubbed through it until it was evident that it would be perfectly secure when dry. Each row above was lapped over the preceding one, carefully blended and combed together, leaving no trace of striation after the cardboards were removed. In places where the skin was almost naked great pains were neces- sarily exercised to fade the hair out evenly and it practically meant, in such cases, punching a hole with one hand while the other inserted a hair. All exposed skin areas were modeled in detail with the same mixture over the shell of the body. The tusks, trunk, ears and feet were made separately in this way and then fastened to the main body. 134 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AMsld, HOG WISIUN| (OV ALSCOUNSIDVAIL ID, ILIA NW IES (COMIN TENG, IN, WC BY NELSON C. DALE Introduction Grateful acknowledgements are due Dr John M. Clarke, Direc- tor of the New York State Museum, for the opportunity of investigating this most interesting vein occurrence, also to Dr. C. H. Smyth of Princeton University for his very helpful suggestions and to Messrs G. M. Coram and G. M. Hayes of Utica, N. Y., for their loan of some excellent specimens which have helped to illus- trate this report. Location About a mile from the mouth of Fall brook, a tributary of the Black river in the township of Lyonsdale, N. Y., is an interesting spot known to the inhabitants of that vicinity as the “old silver mine.” As no evidence of the former silver mining can be seen besides what is left of the foundations of the old smelter and some effects of water control and not a trace of the customary mine dump, it is generally concluded that through floodings and the effects of river erosion most of the records of this activity which was concluded in the eighties have been swept away or concealed. | Our interest.at present is centered about the peculiar vein fill- ings uncovered on the north bank of the stream for about 4o feet by the owners of the property, who have been interested in the occurrence of the box structure and of chalcopyrite. The former term, refers to the many and varied hollow pseudocrystal forms of crystalline quartz, an unusual sort of cellular breccia structure. General Description of the Vein The vein in which these peculiar forms, known by the collectors as “boxes,” occur is characterized by a remarkable platy and cellular development, the plates or bands of which consist of crystalline quartz and brownish pink manganiferous calcite. There are parts of the vein where carbonate and quartz bands alternate with each other, typical of the banded structures; other parts where comb structures of crystalline quartz are found com- bined with banded zones and still others in which there is a notice- able cellular structure, but generally these features are found in close association with each other The most noticeable features REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 135 of the vein however are the noncontinuity of the banded parallel structures for any considerable distance and the box devolpment of the cellular structure. General Geology of the Area This locality marks a point along the contact of the syenite and the syenite-Grenville mixed gneisses, all of Precambrian age as can be seen by a study of the associated rocks of the vein; for we find that the country rock of the vein is the Grenville limestone, or what was once a limestone but now converted into various colored fine and coarse-grained marbles through the con- tact metamorphic action of the nearby syenites. Fall Brook Per we PIG EMSS COGS Ze DEE Ly sofeel Trecam brian Box — Ci ] G Ve E d F, Ae Pink “BOK” i d yYenvi ore e ma la] vein Gvenvill€ pmacbhle Gee ed Syen Fig. t Cross section through the “box-”vein and associated rocks, Lyonsdale, N. Y The box vein follows the strike and dip of the major foliation plane of the associated rocks which is for the former N 20° E and for the latter 40° W. Owing to the small amount of excavation in the search for boxes and chalcopyrite, only 40 feet of the vein are in sight along the strike and the width is about 11 feet. As fragments of the vein have been noticed on the south side of Fall brook it doubt- less follows along the strike and could be found there by further excavation. The rocks on the footwall of the vein consist largely of pink granitic syenite gneisses and greenish pyroxene gneisses with syenitic pegmatitic intrusions following the gneissic structures very closely. Of the origin of these rocks there can be little doubt, as we find so much of texture and mineral composition that is typical of igneous nature in them. In the pyroxene gneisses 136 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and pegmatites are found the following minerals; anorthoclase, orthoclase, pyroxene (green), phlogopite, hornblende and titanite, while in the granitic syenites orthclase, quartz and hornblende are found. Generally in the Adirondack area the relationship of the syenite to the Grenville is an intrusive one, as C. H. Smyth (1)* and other Adirondack workers have so clearly shown. Though the contact between the syenite series and the Grenville marble is somewhat obscure, due to the occurrence of a bed of residual material or decomposed Grenville between the two, it is believed that this contact is intrusive because of the exomorphic effects observed in the marble, such as the occurrence of scapolite and the coarse crystallinity. The occurrence of the Grenville marble at this point is difficult to account for unless it is an inclusion incorporated by the intrud- ing syenite magmas. According to W. J. Miller (2); “It has already been stated that the syenite is intrusive into and younger than the Grenville and that the Grenville areas must be regarded as large inclusions. A study of the syenite-Grenville mixed eneisses furnishes convincing evidence of the same kind. Actual inclusions of undoubted Greenville may occasionally be seen in the vicinity of Lyons Falls; one-half of a mile north and 8 miles east of Port Leyden; one and one-half miles above the mouth of Fall brook, etc.” If this is true with respect to this occurrence, namely that it has been torn from some parent mass and later found lodgment in a magma which has long since been hardened and subjected to tremendous mountain-making disturbances, it would be reason- able to ascribe the fissuring of this rock to those movements. But such a fissuring would in all probability be filled with mineral matter more characteristic of the deeper seated rocks and min- erals such as is found in pegmatites of which we find no trace in this vein. Asa matter of fact the only direct evidence of any of the former constituents of this vein consists in the occurrence of some secondary minerals, as kaolin, vermiculite and calcite, the undoubted derivatives of the Grenville marble and its accessory minerals, such as are found in the hanging and footwall rocks. In these rocks we find very abundant phlogopite and some scapo- lite as well as their alteration products. Water-worn fragments of Grenville bear witness, in part, to the former composition of the * Note. Figures refer to notes in Bibliography at end of this paper. Plate 1 “ Box ”-vein with hammer head resting on coarse reddish pink ferruginous marble of the Grenville foot wall. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 137 vein before the main infilling. It is maintained in this paper that the original plates or bands consisted of the Grenville marble or as Doctor Clarke (3) has observed of the “ thin calcareous lining of the fissure which by shearing or other stresses were scaled off as a veneer” and replaced and cemented by manganiferous calcite and quartz carrying several other minerals, as will be seen later on, all forming a most unusual sort of cellular breccia. It is not known whether or not the original break in the marble and its subsequent filling were separated in point of time but if they were approximately contemporaneous, and they might very well be, then these events were produced at a time when these ancient metamorphic rocks were subjected to great mountain- making movements and long periods of denudation. These resulted in the change of position of the rocks from the deeper zone of flow- age to the higher and more surficial zone of katamorphism where fractures and their cementation by the products of silicification and carbonization are among the most important characteristics. As further evidence of the high vertical position of this vein in the earth’s crust what is believed to be a horse of Grenville marble occurs at the north end of the vein and is very much fluted by the action of ground water where the line of demarkation between the vein and horse is a crescentic or cuspidal curve. The position of the horse and its relation to the vein would show that either through the action of ground water or the stresses which produced the fracture and breccia this block may have become worn off from the wall rock or broken off and fell into the fissure, later to become incorporated within the cementing breccia. Structure of the Vein and Its Contents Some of the characteristic structural features of the vein have already been referred to and the same illustrated as in plates 1, 2 and 3. To understand more thoroughly the structure of the vein it will be necessary to study the vein and footwall section as given below: Cie rasen BYRACEL OF [DOES SHS Ssacoaobacanoduc hienteet Gaara. Coarse reddish pink marble.......... .5 feet (il Sao be SilicinedmGrenvallepimanblense sae aa eee .8 feet DE aise Binks imarblemwathmcaleiterns yeene even: .85 feet OSes CoM Gran Werle wal wet, oo beds chee eae 3 feet to aoeoo NM ate eunel joxrmle ie OE 4 big oo ona cd seo 4 feet ieuay, Craveiia ri blem ace bas peice eatin aes coats feet dja...... Decomposed and disintegrated marble Tue et 138 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Syenite and Pegmatite The most interesting parts of this section so far as the struc- ture and origin of the vein and its contents are concerned are those lettered d and e, a combined specimen of which is shown in plate 1. This specimen shows the cellular and platy structure of the vein, the darker plates consisting of a pinkish brown manga- niferous calcite, and the lighter of crystalline quartz alternating with the darker bands and lining the cavities of the cells; but in the com- bined specimen the clear line of contract of the vein and footwall rock can be seen as well as the angular relationship of plates with the footwall. The microscopic study of the thin section taken from this contract shows that, instead of there being an almost knifelike line of demarkation between the vein and the footwall, there is an interfingering of manganiferous calcite plates with those of quartz, the former, where there is an angular relationship with the footwall, appears to be continuous with it but projecting inward with dove- tailed or interfingered plates of crystalline quartz projecting outward toward the footwall. We are led to believe from this observa- tion that the fractures filled now with the darker or carbonate material were filled by solutions flowing in part along the walls of the fissure and that the quartz filled fissures were afterwards filled by silica-bearing solutions coming or flowing from the inner parts of the vein. Positive evidence that the quartz is of later age than the carbonate is seen in many of the specimens where the quartz plates are found cutting and intersecting the carbonate bands at every conceivable angle and developing the box form which will be considered later on in this paper. Though the carbonate bands have apparently close connection with the wall rock indicated above, it is found that the wall rock d of the section given above is of a ferruginous nature, the red- dish pink coloration being due to hematite rather than mang- anese as is found to be the case with the carbonate plates. As the manganiferous calcite is more stable than carbonates con- taining iron, when they are found in the same solution, the fer- rous carbonate is deposited first and the manganese may be carried in solution much farther from the original source (Phillips, 4). It would seem therefore that the manganiferous plates could be a part of a ferruginous wall rock of calcite. Whether, on the one hand the fragments broken or sheared off from the Grenville marble were originally like the footwall or the fine-grained marble of the hanging wall and replaced by Plate 2. Specimens from the “box”-vein showing the collapsed walls and the quartz-lined cavities. ‘SOPAVD JUjouR jJULyYNS. oy} JO SUNTG [ejsvd oy} puv ssuluUl] UloA Posdeyjoo oy} SurMmoys UleA oY} Jo UOL}IS JO MIA VY - € 98Td = RERORD VON SLED DIRE Cl ORT O22 139 solutions containing manganiferous carbonate and later by quartz, or on the other hand the carbonate band was a primary constituent of the original breccia and later replaced and cut by the quartz it is difficult to state positively. Anyway we have definite evidence in the banded and comb structures that the silica was introduced at a later time than the manganiferous carbonate. As we have seen, some residual products of the original Grenville, such as kaolin and vermiculite, have been found in some of the boxes which fact indicates clearly that a part of the original con- stituents of the vein must have consisted of fragments of Gren- ville marble and it is highly probable that the platy structures repre- sent the sheared off calcareous lining of the main fracture or even the fine-grained Grenville itself which was later replaced by manganiferous calcite and quartz. The dark bands or plates of manganiferous calcite have no developed crystals but occur as thin aggregations of carbonate grains which show perfect rhombohedral cleavage and —Y%4 R twinning. Having a hardness less than rhodochrosite but greater than calcite and responding quickly to the acid test this mineral is tentatively classed as a manganiferous calcite. These bands vary in thickness from one-fortieth to three- eighths of an inch, of variable length and have every possible angular relationship with each other. Though many bands are found cutting one another, it is believed that the mineral is all of the same generation. Dendritic markings of the dioxide, pyrolusite, are frequently found in the quartz plates to which the carbonate bands adhere. Interbanded with the manganiferous calcite in the banded structures, or lining the comb structures or the boxes of the cellular structures, is found a crystalline quartz with singly ter- minated pyramidons within the comb and cellular structures. The fringing character of the quartz on the carbonate plates, the intersecting of the carbonate plates and inclusions of the car- bonate in the quartz, all substantiate the conclusion that the quartz was of a later age than the carbonate. As a matter of fact these two minerals, the manganiferous calcite and quartz, may very well have formed so close together in point of time as to have been practically simultaneous. Otherwise there is difficulty in accounting for the formation of the box structure and its mineral contents. Many of the boxes are closed forms as must have been the original carbonate which filled the intersecting fractures which I4o NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM are considered responsible for these forms. lf there had been a great separation in point of time between the formation of the carbonate and the quartz, the boxes would show the effect of another movement in the form of fractures. The most ,notice- able characteristic of the quartz is the faithfulness with which it conforms to the carbonate whether in band, comb or box structure and this would not have been the case had there been a definite secondary set of fractures allowing the silica-bearing solutions to deposit their load at a different time. Many of the quartz plates or bands show a comb structure, as though the quartz had formed in an open space which is the case with the larger and more typical comb structures and boxes. It is difficult to account for the banded structures in the same way that Ransom (5) does with the banded veins of the Silverton district of Colorado; that is by successive openings and fillings because there is no evidence of the movement responsible for such a reopening and if there was, there would have to be a cer- tain uniformity throughout the deposit, evidence for which is strikingly absent. This much is certain, however, the original breccia fragments of the Grenville marble show evidence of hav- ing been replaced by these later minerals, as will be seen when the contents of the vein are discussed. Origin of the Box Structure The so called boxes, as can be seen from plate 4, resemble some crystal form, though lacking certain very necessary crystal requirements. The plates of granular crystalline quartz termi- nate in well developed pyramidons projecting inward, after the manner of geodes, while the exterior surface of the plates is covered with minute crystals or moulds of the same mineral with the c axes parallel with the plane of the plate, resembling drusy quartz. Associated with the interior quartz crystals are the following crystallized primary minerals: calcite, chalcopy- rite and sphalerite, accompanied by the secondary products limonite, malachite, kaolin and vermiculite. Asphalt is also found intimately associated with the quartz. Some of the more typical boxes are shown in plate 4. In shape they are extremely varied as they are in size, though in the former respect the number of faces or plates and the inter- plate angle determine the shape. With the material at hand, forms with as few as seven faces and others with as many as Plate 4 k 1 | { i i | | | E i i i i A series of the “boxes” or cavity fillings from lLyonsdale. REPROD OHe DEED DRE CHO RT TO22 IAI sixteen have been observed, while it ought to be possible to find interfacial angles with nearly every value between 1° and 179°, though, as a matter of fact angles of 20° 30’ and 170° show the extremes that have been found. For purposes of study and collection it has been found that these boxes are most readily separated from the vein where the work of ground water solution has been most active, causing the loss of the carbonate filler, thereby leaving the hollow quartz form easily removable. Because of the polyhedral shape of these boxes, it has been sup- posed that they are pseudomorphs but after measuring and assembling all the interfacial angles of some twenty-two typical examples it was found aside from the facts that they had as few faces as seven and as many as sixteen and a great variety of inter- facial angles, there was no constancy of interfacial angle. Some of the results, as found by the goniometrical measurements of the interfacial angles, are as follows: Interfacial Angle No. of Recurrences 90° SOM ee ee ee ORNS Leite, Lute ars Shoterg 8 162 ARERR ee Ao hs to Wile log it ete aera fetal of (ok sersiemelettcl teh Sirehicl lon aloha oWeuane 5 eo Lo 30" 60000000 F000d0000 Gb DOOD ODOC DO DODD OUD OD dUE oe (0 Il ORR R EM: Se IOS panes OAS SOLE, AEST Se. 128° oN ; beet oraipenielymen) qavapnpaiwn wluurds aily gt 22 interfacial angles from 48° 3204, to RG IE” Oak es a Secale eek a a, AR EAs Ba tC fed 3 33 eth be ia to 1A aN Rate ANA RSs AULD Uibuny bet tcu tM lol sienlstartor Sis) eyopenti acevo us on 2 56 2 OMNES OA LO LOMA PRET HOR een rey OT Ee tL MLO OL EL Toe I Furthermore these boxes appear to lack any degree of sym- metry except where intersecting plates have made right angles, simu- lating isometric, tetragonal or orthorhombic crystals. It would seem, therefore, from a study of these results that the boxes could hardly be pseudomorphous after some former min- eral but must be due the cellular structure formed by quartz- filled fractures and their many and varied angular intersections. Evidence and Kind of Movement In the vein there are apparent three quite distinct structures which show evidence of at least two sorts of movement. In one of these the plates or bands of carbonate and quartz observe a T42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM general parallelism throughout a zone of less than a foot verti- cally, just above the footwall, as can be seen near the center right of plate 1. Furthermore the plates are parallel with the major divisional planes of underlying marble. But this parallel- ism of the plates with the underlying structures or within the vein itself can only be found occupying a few square feet. Such a structure would seem to indicate for a portion of the vein, if not for the entire vein, a shearing frictional movement between the walls of the original Grenville — presumably a fine-grained marble which was not unlike that of the hanging wall. This sort of movement might very well have taken place generally and at first throughout the fracture zone producing a general parallelism of the plates of which this particular spot is all that remains. Farther down the dip, by a few feet, may be seen a sinall anticline of banded or platy structure, as though a compres- sional movement was also in part responsible for a part of the structure but followed that of the shear. The most conspicuous feature of the vein in this regard is the utter lack of parallelism of plates for any considerable distance either vertically or hori- zontally and the dominance of the platy breccia and the cellular structure, as though, after the plates had been sheared, they became separated from the parent rock and fell in a hit or miss fashion into the break where the original fragments and plates of carbonate (marble) eventually became replaced in part by the dark carbonate and quartz, forming the breccia cement. This irregularity in the arrangement of the plates might have been produced by a crushing following the suspension of the shear; but whatever movements were responsible for this mass of inter- secting plates, the result has been to make the fracture and its contents a favorable place for the deposition of mineral matter. Mineralogy of the Box Vein The minerals thus far observed in this vein are quartz, man- ganiferous calcite, pyrolusite (dendrites), chalcopyrite with its alteration products malachite and limonite, sphalerite, smithson- ite, kaolin, vermiculite and asphaltum. Galena has been reported to have been found. Most of these occur either in the boxes or directly associated with other structures. Quartz. This is perhaps the most abundant mineral of the deposit and is usually found in aggregates of well-crystallized singly terminated forms lining the boxes or comb structures. INGIPOI OP AMEN, IDINKIC WOR, OZ 143 The exterior walls of these structures where adjacent to the car- bonate bands, consist of a granular crystalline aggregate repre- senting the truncated crystals which project inward to form the interior lining of the box or comb structures. But scattered through or above these grains, are small crystals whose c axes lie in the plane of these structures presenting a drusy appearance. On some of the plates, especially those that are a part of the banded structures, there is the drusy habit. As this mineral is not unusual in its physical characteristics nothing further need be said about it other than the fact that it rarely contains spherical inclusions of some black substance, presumably of an asphaltic nature. Manganiferous calcite. Special emphasis has been given to: this mineral because of the nature of its occurrence and its rela- tive age. As can be seen from a study of the deposit and the specimens it is almost if not quite as abundant as the quartz and in its occurrence observes a remarkable parallelism whether in the banded, comb or box structures. It is of a pinkish or brown- ish pink color, of medium grain and crystalline but without well- developed crystals. Good cleavage is seen in the banded struc- tures. Its ready response to cold hydrochloric acid makes it a variety of calcite rather of rhodochrosite. So far as its paragenesis is concerned, we find it of earlier age than the quartz, the latter cutting and including it repeatedly. This mineral is the first cementing and replacing one of which there is definite record. Calcite. In less abundance than the two foregoing minerals, calcite is found as crystalline aggregates of either anhedral or euhedral forms, associated with the quartz linings of the cellular structures. The crystals show normal rhombohedra (tofu), scalenohedra (2131) or modifications of both. In some of the boxes and other cellular structures there is a banding of minerals - inward from the quartz shell in which the following arrangement is observed: quartz, pink carbonate or manganiferous calcite and calcite. Calcite seems to have been of later age than the quartz and the manganiferous calcite. Incrusting some of the quartz crystals, is a coating of amorphous lime carbonate, not unlike calcareous tufa in habit, a deposit from lime-charged waters. Chalcopyrite. This mineral is found as isolated sphenoids or as penetration twins. The sphenoids are rarely and exceptionally large; one of them measures seven-eighths of an inch from the I44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM apex to the center of the face or half an inch along a crystallo- graphic axis. Most of the crystals of chalcopyrite are between one-sixteenth and one-eighth of an inch in diameter and are usu- ally found in the cellular structures associated with calcite and quartz. It has also been found in veins, where it appears to have a later age than the quartz because of its position as an inter- stitial ingredient between the box components of the breccia. In other words as a vein, chalcopyrite appears to have followed or conformed to the quartz plates. In the main part of the vein the walls are of crystalline quartz which would be evidence of an earlier age for the quartz. As only one specimen of the vein has been found little can be said about its relationship. Disseminated grains and crystals of chalcopyrite are occasionally seen in the silicified Grenville marble of the footwall series (c) where it is associated mainly with quartz and calcite. In this occurrence the quartz apparently would be its carrier. More recent changes brought about by oxidation and carboniz- ation have altered the chalcopyrite to limonite and malachite; in fact pseudomorphs of the limonite after chalcopyrite are quite common. Sphalerite. This mineral is neither as well crystallized nor as abundant as the others described above. It is usually honey yellow in color, of resinous luster and poorly crystallized but having the same associations as chalcopyrite. In one specimen could be seen what was left of a small crystal of sphalerite, very much corroded and about it a zone of amorphous light colored smithsonite incrusting calcite crystals. The effect of carbonic acid bearing waters upon the suphide was doubtless responsible for the corrosion and the formation of the carbonate as well. Pyrolusite. Dendritic pyrolusite frequently occurs in the banded structures and on the quartz plates where it is found as a result of oxidation of the carbonate which is usually found adhering to the quartz as described above. Kaolin. In some of the cellular structures, particularly the boxes, is found a claylike substance, of greenish gray color for the most part, but occasionally dark or black, associated with a light colored micaceous mineral of pearly luster and angular grains of quartz. The claylike substance is essentially a kaolin, a residual product of the original contents of the breccia in all probability. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 145 Vermiculite. Associated with the clay or kaolin is one of the altered micas, presumably vermiculite, a mineral of yellowish gray color and pearly luster and exhibiting strong exfoliating characteristics. This mineral might very well have been derived from phlogopite or scapolite so common in the country rock and in all likelihood a constituent of the original brecciated zone. Asphalt. The most unusual mineral association occurring in this vein is that of asphalt which is found as brilliant jet black substance coating some of the other mineral contents of the boxes, particularly quartz. It hardly occurs in sufficient quanti- ties for chemical examination but sufficient for blow-pipe tests when it showed a cokelike substance after fusing. Which variety of asphalt this is can only be determined after a thorough chemi- cal examination upon more material but what preliminary solu- bility tests were made would place it either as albertite or gram- hite. It is also found as spherical inclusions in the quartz and some- times coating lumps of kaolin or clay within the other cellular structures. Whether it found its way down into the brecciated zone from the once overlying Ordovician calcareous formations through the agency of circulating silica-bearing waters or from more distant sources can not be answered at this time. The well known similar occurrence in the quartz crystals in the dolomite at Little Falls and Middleville described by the late Professor Cushing (7) may have some bearing on this problem. Manner of Formation of the Mineral Contents of the Boxes The filling of the banded and comb structures as well as the fracture planes forming the sides of the boxes can be accounted for by mineral-depositing solutions causing the formation of manganiferous calcite and quartz either as alternating bands or quartz filling for the comb and box structures, but the filling of the boxes is not so obvious. We find in some of these structures that there is a regular sequence of minerals beginning with the quartz followed by pink calcite and then by crystalline calcite with occasionally sphenoids of chalcopyrite. On other walls, only inward pointing quartz crystals are found with occasional crystals of calcite on the quartz. We have evidence that some of the mineral contents of these structures are the residual prod- ucts of the originally fractured or sheared limestone and their presence in the boxes can be accounted for by the solution 146 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of the Grenville by carbonic acid. Can the same be said for the other minerals such as calcite, chalcopyrite, etc. or were they admitted through the walls of the cellular structures by fissures after the manner of geodes as described by van Tuyl (8) as solu- tions depositing their mineral content in the above order? In the lack of evidence for this latter method for the formation of these minerals it seems very likely that they were due in part to recrystallization from solution of the original Grenville as well as to crystallization from solutions introduced with the silica- bearing waters when the walls and brecciated fragments were being replaced. As a breccia is the most favorable place for the circulation of mineral-bearing waters, it would not be unreason- able to suppose that this was the method of vein filling. Effect of Vein Filling upon the Wall Rocks Underlying the coarse reddish pink marble or d of footwall sec- tion is a bed c of silicified Grenville. The hand specimen shows the constituents to be quartz, pink and colorless calcite, phlogo- pite, irregular and circular areas of light and dark green kaolin and occasional sphenoidal crystals and irregular grains of chal- copyrite. Under the microscope, the calcite and phlogopite prove to be much older than the quartz and to have been replaced by the latter. The irregular or circular areas of dark and light green substances appear to consist of alteration products of phlogopite such as kaolin, tale (?), vermiculite and limonite. As scapolite is quite a common constituent of the marble it is quite possible that some of these may be due to its alteration. This rock has in all probability been transformed into its present condition from one very much like the Grenville marble through the permeation of silica-bearing solutions. This silifi- cation decreases in its effect toward the over and underlying strata of the footwall section, as shown by the increasing dom1- nance of calcite over quartz in the vicinity of both. The presence of drusy quartz veins and replacement phenomena in the pyroxene gneisses and hornblende pegmatites of the hang- ing wall series would indicate not only a later origin for the quartz but also that it doubtless was a part of the same event which effected not only the footwall member but also an after effect or concomitant event with the main silification of the vein breccia. IRIB IO) QUE “IMIS, IDI DC ANOUK, | IOZr2, 147 source of Vein Filling It might be supposed that because of the proximity of this vein to the nearby syenites, gneisses and their pegmatities that the source of the main constituent of this vein could be assigned to igneous action but in as much as silica-bearing solutions, which were in large part responsible for the vein filling as well as for the silicification of the gneisses and pegmatites on the hanging wall side, seem to be of a later date a different source will neces- sarily have to be found. The shallow position of the vein in the earth’s crust, the nature of the fracture as well as its structural and mineral con- tents all bespeak influences at work in the belts of cementation and weathering where solutions were in active circulation. Under these conditions, a well-known source for silica is the decomposition of the silicates of the nearby rocks by carbonic acid, where not only quartz but carbonates are produced simul- taneously (Van Hise), 9). With such conditions, solution silicifi- cation, cementation, replacement, carbonization, oxidation and hydration would be effective for producing the essential minerals of the vein. Age of Vein As has been shown in the foregoing paragraphs both the frac- ture and its contents are evidently of shallow origin and the age of the break is certainly post-Archaeozoic. The most important mountain-making disturbances which have in all likelihood effected the Adirondack region or province were those which occurred at the close of the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic, at least these two orogenic periods were of the fault-making types accord- ing to Cushing (7) and Miller (2b), but the former known as the Appalachian revolution was responsible for the major faulting of the region (2b). Ifthe break occurred during the Appalachian revolution the once overlying Paleozoic would in all probability have been involved, but not so if the post-Cretacic disturbance or elevation were responsible for it because by that time all or most of the Paleozoic cover would have been eroded. Just how soon after the fissuring of this rock the infilling took. place we have no definite knowledge. Possibly a clue to the age of this infilling might be obtained were we to know when such minerals as sphalerite, galena and chalcopyrite were introduced in their several deposits as found in the foothills of the Adiron- dacks and in the region south of the Mohawk. At Martinsburg, 148 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM galena is found in the Trenton limestones in calcite veins, at Rossie and to the south galena, associated with sphalerite and chalcopyrite, occur in a calcite gangue in a country rock of injected gneiss and probably limestone; in the Beekmantown Limestone at Manheim sphalerite has been mined, in the Niagara formation of Clinton, sphalerite and chalcopyrite are found in calcitic geodes and again to the south at Shawangunk, sphalerite associated with galena and chalcopyrite in a gangue of quartz and a country rock of grit (Shawangunk). The fracturing and brecciation at the Shawangunk deposit is doubtless a product of the Appalachian revolution according to Newland (10) but as to whether the origin is due to aqueous or igneous agencies no definite conclusion has been reached. The freshness of the solution marks seen on the horse and its cuspidal contact line with the vein show positively that the filling took place in a region of active ground water circulation but whether it was a product of pre-Mesozoic or of post-Mesozoic times would be difficult to state in the present state of our knowl- edge concerning the subject. In other words it seems very likely that the filling of the vein took place either at the close of the Paleozoic or Mesozoic, the two great periods of mountain-mak- ing disturbances and when the possibilities of mineral deposition were greater than at other times. Bibliography 1 Smyth, C. H. Crystalline Rocks of the Western Adirondack Region, Sist Ann. Rept, N. Y. State Mus. 2:476 2 (a) Miller, W. J. Geology of the Port Leyden Quadrangle, Lewis Co., IND OYES NG RYESS tate Mitch mesa eias Sem auaTes (b) The Geological History of New York State. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 168, p. 73 and 74 3 Clarke, J. M. Written communication 4 Phillips, A. H. Mineralogy. p. 391 5 Ransome, F. L. Economic Geology of the Silverton Quadrangle, Col. “Wi S. Geol. Surv. Bul. 182, p. 69 6 Dana, J. D. The System of Mineralogy. 19014 ~ Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Little Falls Quadrangle. N. Y. State ove Bul. 95, p. 405 8 Van Tuyl, F. M. Geodes of the Keokuk Beds. Am. Jour. Sci. 4th series, v. XILIII, 1916, p. 40 9 Van Hise, GR A Treatise of Mecamorahionn U.S. Geol. Surv. Mon. XLVII p. 64-67 10 Newland, David H. The Mineral Resources of New York. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 223 and 224, p. 304-07 REPORT, Ob DHE DIRECTOR, 1922 T49 ES STRATIGRAPHY OF THE CHEMUNG GROUP IN WESTERN NEW YORK BY GEORGE H. CHADWICK Two summers have been spent in field work on the upper Devonian of western New York, one (1918) for the Dominion Natural Gas Co., by whose liberality full publication is permitted, the other (1922) for the Museum, together with intervening sorties at the writer’s own charge. The results are here briefly summarized. The field is a large one and much remains to be done. The most puzzling questions yet outstanding exist chiefly because of either lack of topographic maps or difficulty in finding outcrops, both of which time will remedy. The problem is everywhere primarily one of geometry, which no amount of paleontologic acumen can over- come, since the fauna varies deceptively with the sediments. The highest Portage member on Lake Erie is the Hanover (formerly Silver Creek) shale,? which has been traced continuously? into the Wiscoy shale* of the Genesee valley. The Chemung group commences with the Dunkirk black shale.t This extends from Van Buren Point, on Lake Erie, by way of Walnut creek ravine,* Ver- sailles, North Collins,* Boston, Colden and Pipe creek glen,’ with constantly augmenting thickness, to Holland,® where it is over 160 feet thick. Two characteristic (and unlike) septarium zones divide it into three members, throughout this distance, the upper of which three divisions was included by Luther’ in his overlying Portland shales. Beyond Holland, past Hunter’s creek to the Java Village ravine,” and above Varysburg,® sandstone layers increase rapidly in number and thickness in the black shale. In the Genesee valley, on Wiscoy creek’® and elsewhere, these sandstones occupy much of the lower half of the Dunkirk and include the fossiliferous "ING WW, Stare Minis, IB Go), ime, 12, jo, mae, ING NE Stee IMEC Tally 1G) (2d ed), p. 76 _ Bul. Geol. Soc. Am. 30, p. 157. *16th Rep’t N. Y. State eet, . BA, iBlaxnclolk, 7S, Do. OB, INo Wo Stee Mus. Bul. 60, p. 1008. N. Y. State Nee Bul. 128, p. 64. *N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 2025 °N. Y. State Mus. Bul. to, ai LXXXIT (name misspelled). “15th Rep’t N. Y. State Geol., p. 321. *N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, fis. a (DL, WOvAS\S thes, 10}, 0, OARS), “Wh, S, Gaol, Swan. IB, 4, je “oaSo, IN We Steltie IWhtig, TB(Glloley is) Gy, 210-08. N.Y. State Mus. Bul. 60) p. 1017. *"N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. tora. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 172, p. 28-30 and map. saN Ye State’ Mus, Bul) 60, p: 1018) N.Y. State Mus. Bul: 118, p. 67-68: 150 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM layer termed Long Beards Riffs sandstone.‘ East of the Genesee, above Dalton and Swains, the increase in sand is so rapid that on Slader creek near Canaseraga only two thin courses of black shale remain in the lower part of 150 feet of heavy arenaceous beds with full Chemung fauna that we propose to call the Canaseraga sand- stone. The massive character of the Canaseraga has led to its con- fusion’ with the Nunda at some points to the east, under the name Highpoint.’* It is believed that the Dunkirk-Canaseraga corresponds in horizon with the Dalmanella danbyi zone™ at the base of the Cayuta shale in the Ithaca region. Above the Dunkirk are the Gowanda beds? (Portland’’ pre- occupied), extending from Barcelona (formerly Portland Harbor),*® on Lake Erie, by the Walnut creek?” and Big Indian ravines to Gowanda (formerly Lodi)** and through the Cattaraugus creek gorges.’° The Gowanda makes the main mass of the hills of south- ern Erie?® and Wyoming’? counties, curving southward through Pike? and Higgins into the Genesee valley at Caneadea gorge.” The limited fauna of Portage type which the Gowanda beds carry on Lake Erie** and at Forestville?® gradually acquires the brachiopod facies of the lower Chemung (Cayuta) shale which it has on Caneadea creek,?? and these beds have been traced from this point through northern Allegany and Steuben counties, by way of Dalton, Bishopville, Bath,?® Savona”? and Bradford,?* into the Cayuta™ of = IN Wo Stee Mibis.. will, Co), dm moo, iN, Ws State Mins, 1Bwll, wes, wo, C8. N. Y. State Mus. Hdbk. 15, p. 94. IN, No Suatwe Wilwis, IBGt Sie, Ds WO (oars). IN, Wo State Whe, Bell, GOR, ~. Fle (Datgt))s * Defined, N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 52, p. 623. N. Y. State Mus. Hdbk. 109 (1st ed). (Ws Sy Geolk Sins FOO. u60, Ds TO, ime © Cuelal eal fo, GO; 7S). "N.Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, fig. 13, p. 1028. (Geol, OF IN, WW Aun IDS, 1 doa, pi Willa, IN, Wo State Mims, Bull, Go, 1028. AINE Yn State Mus eB il 60) ips t025—260, Ne Ys Sita tem Mitiseesiidibikesns. D, OV, (Geol, or IN, W., atin IDigt,, ps, ARS amel wll, XOUL. * Ibid. p. 380, 488, pl. XIII, section 2. onl (Ds Ae. = IllowGl, jo, Zkey2, * 4th Ann. Rep’t (1840), p. 402. IN. Y. State Mus. Bul. 118, p. 67. SAth Ann. IWepit, ppyos-4 Urs. Geoly Surv. Bul. 4p. 00-02. 777 * Geol. of N. Y., 4th Dist., p. 246-47. 16th Rep’t N. Y. State Geol., p. 20 seq. N. Y. State Mus. Mem. 6. .N. Y. State Mus. Hidbk. 15, p. 108. »N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 1026 and preceding footnote. * Geol. of N. Y., 4th Dist., p. 250. .6th Rept N. Y. State Geol.: Hdbk. Sy, (De oy aN, WY, Seb wie IMitis, Bail, wor, p, 82, = WinniGl, Dy SO: REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 I51 the Watkins quadrangle at Kendall. The Gowanda everywhere directly overlies the Dunkirk or its Canaseraga equivalent. From a maximum of over 500 feet on the Cattaraugus creek around Gowanda, the formation thins to scarcely half this amount on Lake Erie, while black shales (‘“‘Huron”)?? come to predominate. In this area it contains several recognizable horizons*®® that have not yet been satisfactorily followed east of the Cattaraugus. The Laona sandstone* succeeds the Gowanda beds. Rising from Lake Erie at Barcelona,’® this passes west through Brocton*® and south of Lamberton to Laona,*? thence above Forestville®* to Smith’s Mills Station and eastward, curving south into the Cattaraugus valley east of Perrysburg to near Dayton, where its continuity is lost under drift. In the Cattaraugus gorges its identity is still some- what uncertain, but it reappears in Erie county, on the north, in the highest exposures on Rice’s Hill west of Boston. A similar sand- stone in apparently the same horizon has been quarried south of Arcade,** and northwest of Elton*® with probable intervening exposures north?® and south of Springville and northwest of Delavan. The Laona must occupy other hilltops in southern Erie” and Wyoming”! counties and is likely to correspond to some one of the sandstones in the upper part of the Caneadea section,?* and thus to beds near the base of the Wellsburg sandstone** south of Elmira. As the Laona is usually petroliferous** to some degree it is doubtless an important oil-sand underground. For the beds between the Laona and Shumla sandstones*® the name Westfield shale may be used. Lithologically indistinguishable from the Gowanda beds, they contain like those, at the west, a per- sistent Portage cephalopod element in their fauna,*® yielding east- ward wholly to Chemung brachiopods. The thickness increases from about 120 feet on Lake Erie to 160 feet at Laona and perhaps 200 feet near Perrysburg. East of the Cattaraugus these beds appear to maintain their identity as far as Elton,*® beyond which it is gradually merged in the Wellsburg member.*” OlM® GS, alan Sere, Boil, 73, 3, Bizh Sig. *N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 1025-26, fig. 13, p. 1028. “2d Ann. Rep’t (1838), p. 46. 5th Ann. Rep’t (1841), p. 177. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 1026. 2 N.Y. S. Mus. Bul. 69, p. 1027. * Ibid. p. 1026-27. = Ur Sy Geol) Surv. Bull 41, pit52=55) ~ 4th Ann. Rep’t (1840), p. 412, 470. » ibid. p. 166. Geol. of IN. Y., 4th Dist. p. 474. “U.S. Geol. Surv. Folio 169, p. 10, fig. 6 (field ed. p. 30, 76). * 5th Ann. Rep’t (1841), p. 177-78. Geol. of N. Y., 4th Dist., p. 407-98. *" N. Y. State. Mus. Bul. 60, p. 1027. 152 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The Shumla sandstone* is not clearly distinct from the overlying mass, of which it is the initial or basal member. It is, in fact, some- what erratic and discontinuous* as a sandstone. This rock is known from Lake Erie near the state line** to west of Perrysburg, being seen at Westfield,*t south of Brocton and Lamberton, at Shumla,*” thence around the hill slope to above Forestville*® and again around to northwest of Nashville, where it passes under drift except for a gutter outcrop west of Perrysburg. Its identity eastward is still in doubt ; it may well be some of the higher sandstones in the Caneadea section,?* comprised in the Wellsburg member.*’ The thickness of the Shumla on Chautauqua creek is taken at 22 feet but the limits are uncertain; on the Little Canadaway and at Shumla it is 40 feet and thence eastward maintains a good thickness to Perrysburg. The Shumla initiates over 400 feet of beds in no wise different from the Gowanda and the Westfield as they enter the State. These the “ Portage flags” of I. C. White,** here renamed the North- east shale, from the township in Erie county, Pennsylvania. The Northeast beds are fully exposed in Chautauqua creek gulf,** with thickness of about 415 feet, and on the Canadaway* (Arkwright Falls) above Shumla. Here they are nearly barren*® except for burrows, but eastward they assume a fossiliferous character with an easily recognized fauna best exhibited in the Pierce quarry west of Machias. The Machias fauna is already present in the road hill south of Persia turnout and at least as far west as south of Wango. It is fully developed in the railway cut at Cattaraugus. In all these localities it involves the Northeast beds from top downwards and the change is lithologic as well as faunal. Apparently the North- east (Machias) embraces those beds which on the Genesee river intervene between the heavy sandstones of Caneadea and the Cuba sandstone*? and which become the main mass of the Wellsburg sandstone®™ farther east. Next to the Dunkirk black shale the most important horizon marker in this area is the Cuba sandstone,* signifying a westward doi On Whe PLO Spirirver GisyjwMmerus wane, Wee “Compare Geol. of N. Y., 4th Dist., pl... VIb and p. 407. “Ibid. and N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 1028. — cthyAnns Kept) (18a) ps! L774 Geolmot INE aa thimDis tampa 4O7 se eNanys State Mus. Bul. p. 60, p. 1027. “ee, acl (GuSe Neots OV, fob IMO 20), Gre, = Geolsvot, NE WY.) 4th Dist. ip. 2acr248) © Tbid. p. 238. *N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 1028-29. “J, S, Geol. Surv. Bul, 41, p. 22, 63. N. Y. State Mus, Bul. 60, p. 968-69. REPORT OB We EE Ww DURE CRORlO22 153 Cuba sandstone is easily traced up Ischua creek to near Machias,** _ where the name Ischua sandstone*® was early appropriated to it by Horsford, and so goes above the Machias-Northeast series. It extends down Great Valley creek by way of Devereux and Ellicott- _ville®° into the north edge of the Salamanca quadrangle,’* and on the hills above West Valley and north of East Otto to the vicinity of Maples, thence west by Jersey Hollow to the quarries at Cattaraugus, New Albion®® and Leon.*° Its position above the Machias fauna is well seen at Cattaraugus and Jersey Hollow. West of Leon it appears to fade into thin barren sandstones on the Canada- way and then to “ fine’ into shales. Eastward from Cuba, the Cuba horizon rises to over 1700 feet A. T. on the hill southwest of Belmont and evidently passes on east at such an elevation as to place it not lower than the conglomerates at top of the Wellsburg standstone.°? The Cuba sandstone marks the upper limit of Delthyris mesacostalis in New York Statens In Pennsylvania the Girard shale** overlies the Northeast beds, for a thickness of 225 feet. On approaching the New York line, the upper portion of the Girard becomes increasingly fossiliferous from the top down, carrying specially Camarotoechia dupli- cata, and changing to a green sandy shale. On Chautauqua creek®® the normal Girard shale is still about 140 feet thick succeeded by about a hundred feet of the green fossiliferous shale, east of Volusia. On the Canadaway this Volusia shale is about 180 feet and the normal Girard 1f present can not exceed 40 feet. The Volusia shale evidently passes eastward above the Cuba and corresponds with the interval (zone 11)°’ between the Cuba and the “ quarry sandstones ” on the Olean area. Whether the soft shale®* beneath the Cuba at the east can be regarded as any remnant of the Girard shale remains to be seen. It is inferred that the Volusia must be either highest Wellsburg or else “ Catskill” in the Elmira region.®® (Geol, OF WN, Wo, Ada IDNSte, jo, cio: “ath Ann. Rep’t (1840), p. 466, 460. WosiGl, (De ZizAlle = N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 960. *U. S. Geol. Surv. Folio 160, p. Io, fig. 6 (field ed. p. 309, 78). SN. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 992. U.-S. Geol. Surv. Bul. 41, p. 28. meeaeduGowkepit) OA py 11S 300-1. ~ Pal. of N. Y. 4, p. 350;'8 (pt 2), p. 102. * Geol. of N. Y., 4th Dist., p. 253. *N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 52, p. 528. N. Y. State Bul. 60, p. 990, 902. * U.S. Geol. Surv. Bul. 41, p. 63, 64, 71. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 968. ®U.S. Geol. Sury. Folio 160, p. 11, fig. 6 (field ed., p. 39, 82). 154 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Near Cuba® and at Wellsville® this zone contains thin bands of red iron ore suggestive of its “ Catskill ” affinities.® . The highly fossiliferous “Chemung” beds®* of Erie county, Pennsylvania, there carrying Leiorhynchus newberryi,™ cross the southern half of Chautauqua county in a broad belt and with increasing thickness. They succeed the Volusia shale in the Chautauqua gulf section west of Mayville,®*° and on Chautauqua lake they include some shales of a distinctly reddish or chocolate color. From the exceptional exposure in the shale-brick quarries at Dexterville®® (Jamestown) on the Chadakoin river the name Chadakoin beds is proposed for this division. These beds pass southward and eastward into the upper “ Chemung” of the Warren folio®’ and Olean region,®* characterized by such chocolate shales. In the Elmira area®® they must lie wholly above the true Chemung, in the “ Catskill,” there also distinctly chocolate®® rather than red. The “ quarry sandstone ’’® has been recognized as the base of these beds westward as far as northwest of Little Valley toward New Albion, but much work remains to be done on these strata. This completes the list of elements assigned for investigation, but the problem impels some consideration of the superjacent terranes, once called Chemung, now assigned to the Bradford group.” The upper limit of the Chadakoin formation is presumably at base of the Panama conglomerate,” or of the equivalent LeBoeuf sandstone’? of Pennsylvania. Some uncertainty still prevails as to the true correlative of the Panama in the Warren and Olean sec- tions.“* The latest opinion’ seems to be that the Panama lies at or near the horizon of the Wolf Creek conglomerate™ which (or in its ° U.S. Geol. Surv. Bul. 41, p. 67, 69. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 970-71. “(Geol GF IN, 4, Ada IDs, io. aso, W.S, Geol, Stray, iBall, an, p. 72, * Compare Geol. of N. Y., 4th Dist., p. 280 et ante. = Pa. 2d G.S) Rept O4) p. 117=18. “Ibid. p. 208. “aGeol. ot N.Y, 4th Dist, p. 238) 250) 404. “Ibid. p. 250, 261, 404. TJ. S. Geol. Surv. Folio 172, B, inter, (), eo = State Mus. Bul. 60, p. fee 71, 990-93. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bul.. 41 Dp. © TU, S Geol. Surv. Folio 160, p. 10 (field ed., p. 82). CINE Yeustate: ViarserB nly Oomp soo mMOoo: ead GioulNepytelll lic Np mens tatenVinsemtdlcinlkemnom 2dmeds perc, MGeolwoieNe Yo 4th Dist) py 200-Ol 4054 bad Grsuelvepatelelslemonesy, * Pa. 2d G.S. Rep’t O4, p. 104-6, 112-13. “Ibid. and 'N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 0987. 1, Ss Goole Sitny, Oe) 1/2, 0,4, IN Wo Stahwe IMitis., Ielclloke, ie) (@al @al,))., p. 88, 106 Sp GEol, Stiaw, IBwG “ars ip, SO, IN, Ws Staue Mitts, Iswill, ©, Ds, O71. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 155 absence the succeeding Cattaraugus red shales)“ follows the “ Chemung ” (Chadakoin) in the Olean hills. If the Panama is the higher Salamanca’® lentil, then some of the beds beneath it must be of Bradford age, but as Spirifer disjunctus and eight of its “Chemung ” associates continue’? above the Wolf Creek while a much larger number of “Chemung” species®® accompanies Spirifer disjunctus above the Panama-LeBoeuf base into the Venango group of Pennsylvania and this dominance of lower forms is still more marked across the Ohio line*! as the Venango merges in the (upper) Chagrin,*? the faunal evidence would not preclude such a reference. Time was lacking to review this ques- tion in the field. The bright red Cattaraugus beds™ of the Olean region are shown by continuity of the included Salamanca conglomerate‘* to fade into the Conewango beds* of the Warren folio, assuming more and more the full marine facies that characterizes them farther west in the “Venango group’** and Riceville shale® of Pennsylvania. The faunal and lithic expression of the Venango-Riceville is such that early workers*® looked upon this series also as undoubted Chemung, milled! aS it 1S tO ne VERY tOD 7 @ Sioiviriweir dis]juUmerus fauna. Of even more typcial Chemung aspect is the equivalent upper Chagrin®™ of Ohio, whereas the lower Chagrin (Girard-Chada- koin) has subsided into nearly barren®’ beds of decided Portage facies, though it is likely that every bit of this Chagrin is later than the highest true Chemung of the Elmira region. Thus at many a stratigraphic level we find barren Catskill red beds at the east grading westward into fossiliferous olive or brown “Chemung ” beds with a brachiopod fauna, augmenting as the silica gives way.to lime,** then falling off rapidly as green shales increase and fading through a Leiorhynchus facies into barren “ Portage” or pelecypod-cephalopod fauna and finally “ Huron” black shales. ™N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 60, p. 971-78. ibid mO74e ™ Ibid. p. 993-04. “Pe, 261 GS. Rept Oa, wd. TIO, @7, ce, Olmi@ GAS. avila ser, IBwil, ws, ip. ARS—I'77., Swe, =(Olm@© GaSe. Zila Ser, Bull, WE, wo. aR, GC. = TlonGl,. 1D. usa, Cle, “1, S, Geol, Stray Polio 172, j, 4. * Pa. AGL (GrSs INEM? Ol, jo, CO. Sl bidenpaLOy. ~ IioiGl, , CO, Wito, TZ Pall or IN, WA, p. WR, Avo) asin, Wh. S, Geol Stuar Bell, aut, wp, Wow), “Ola GS, aia ser, Bull 75, wp. 6, 182. “(Conapare Pail, or IN, Wo 4, . 2RO=87, 1560 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Many interfingerings®® of these phases naturally occur, but on the whole these faunal and lithic zones shift progressively westward giving a westerly overlap. The “ Portake-Chemung-Catskill ”’ suc- cession is thus a homotaxial one, assuming different time values on every meridian and of steadily later date as to the lower and upper “Chemung” limits in going westward. The relations are best grasped by aid of the following diagram : It will be seen that this is merely carrying toward conclusion the concepts advanced years ago®® by Dr John M. Clarke. The tracing of the beds is complicated by low and sometimes irregular anticlinals, whose unraveling will eventually be of import in locating supplies of oil and gas. “UW, Su Geol Sary. IBitil, Bi, p. Ad=27. IN Le) 1922 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, eiueaA[Asuuag pue yYIOK MIN UsojsoM JO Spoq uPIUOAIZG Joddq 94} Ul suoneies ,, AP] 1dAO jeune] ,, Suljiqiyxe WeISeIP UOHeIIO) I “Sly - = = = ae OL | e —_—— U 7 7 SSS ————————————————————————— ee ee EEE EEE SS eee by pbouaspung = —— yasyung—P> as a = ft 24nho9 —<— —— DPUloMog — ~~ Yas 9 INIWIH >) — SE ae | t9 = PIP1S+S3M | bANGS/IM ara auozepuns bjuinyoD — - a | | De = oi DUOZSPUOS DGD Mies NVIONVYLINVHS |NVYDINIS | Ih as ef) fin ‘ aa 1OOPOY4 = bunuays — g | Hh Ws eee HAYA U j69 Duouay SS 4na0g a7 li/ 4604) tD a nbhnosof jo 9~ I O/ obuonuayf > WIAS Woodworth, J. B. Ancient Water Levels. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 84 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 159 As the inquiry was pushed into various critical regions the ice front became more and more fictitious and the evidence of wide areas of stagnant ice more and more convincing. Delay in the publication of scientific papers by the State of New York has afforded opportunity for testing the relative values of the two conceptions (the ice-front withdrawal and the stagnated glacier melting im situ) as aids in the interpretation of topography, in many widely separated localities in eastern New York. ‘The hypothesis of a general condition of stagnation during the abla- tion of the Wisconsin ice is, therefore, advanced with a corre- spondingly greater degree of confidence, in that a general con- dition demands for its explanation a general cause. Briefly stated, the hypothesis is this: That part of the glacier which had been pushed beyond the mountain barriers south of the St Lawrence river from the Adirondacks to Maine, became stagnant almost, if not quite, at its maximum extension and never regained its motion. This is recognized as an overstatement but the necessary qualifications are easily made and, for the moment, may be ignored. After allowance has been made for local “streaming ” through the field of dead ice and for at least one possible thrust of live ice into it, (see page 168) it remains true that stagnant ice and the associated waters-of-melting played the principal roles in shaping the recessional drift. The high relief and the general topographic relations of the area covered by this part of the ice sheet offered more favorable conditions for early stagnation than the lake basins and smoother surfaces found further west. So that, if any general cause were to operate to deprive the whole glacier of a part of its pressure head, this part would be more likely to respond by stagnating than, for example, the Erie Lobe in Ohio and Indiana. That a general cause did so operate we know. At the climax of the ice burden, the lithosphere subsided under the glacier; the transfer of material in the zone of flow* was radially outward from under *The idea expressed by this term has been variously conceived. The use of a name by which to designate a condition of the deep-seated rocks, such as asthenosphere and the like, seems to imply the existence of a zone or layer beneath the rigid exterior, which is more or less sharply marked off from what is above and what is below. There is probably no such demarkation; rather, the fact is to be understood as follows: On each radius of the earth there is a point or section where the balance between pressure and temperature is nearest to the critical relation where fusion occurs. If all these points or sections be thought of as constituting a 160 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the overloaded region and this resulted in central depression with compensating peripheral elevation. (The latter, being distri- buted, was very moderate as compared with the former and may be disregarded.) These complementary movements served to reduce the grade all round, and in so far as the glacier was dependant upon grade for its pressure head, they tended to stag- nate such portions of the peripheral ice as were situated where conditions were favorable for stagnation. As has been pointed out, the area south of the St Lawrence river from the Adirondacks eastward was so situated ; and it appears probable, not only that the ice south of the mountains lost all motion as a consequence of the crustal movement, but also that that movement was suffi- ciently rapid to destroy the glacier over the St Lawrence valley by floating it in the sea, before the ice to the south had been melted Oltes So much for theoretic considerations. The several stages of retreat of the lobes west of New York State, as for example the Erie Lobe already referred to, are marked by looped recessional moraines fronted by consistent glacial drainage features, sufficiently proving the withdrawal of live ice. When such a region is compared with eastern New York and New England the contrast is seen to be great. Here is no such readable topography: the direct evidence of long, almost con- tinuous, morainal ridges is absent. i{n addition, the drainage lines south of any assumed position of a retreating ice front, are found to be interrupted by the clear record of thick masses of stagnant ice. This is the case with what is probably the most important transverse belt of drift in the whole area, which has been identified and mapped as a recessional moraine, the Ogdens- burg-Culver’s Gap moraine of New Jersey. unit, it may be called a zone. Within this zone, slight alterations of pres- sure or temperature may result in a comparatively sudden fusion of the solids which become, in consequence, capable of motion until relief of pressure or a lowering of the temperature carries the balance back through the critical relation where solidification takes place and rigidity is restored. 4a The basin of the Salmon river (Loon Lake, Chateaugay and Malone quadrangles) should furnish reliable data on this point. From 1800 feet down to 500 feet the plains and deltas built into the rotting ice edge afford material for tracing the successive steps in the lowering of the ice surface. If, as Professor Fairchild has supposed, (N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 209-210) the delta at 500 feet just north of Malone was built at sea level the glacier was already afloat. If on the other hand the sea did not rise to this level, the ice against which this plain was built must have had at least its lower part submerged, unless the maximum depression letting in the Hlochelagan sea was not synchronous with the presence of the ice, but later. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 161 It is doubtful if there is an unequivocal frontal-recessional moraine which is at the same time an ice-built dump marking a halt in the retreat of a still moving ice sheet, through the whole length of the Hudson and Champlain valleys. he short sections west of the Palisades which have been identified as such by com- petent observers are the most difficult to explain. They are com- monly weak belts from one to three miles in length, incapable of correlation with each other, with a proglacial topography assumed to have been recently uncovered by the ice, and with the demands of the drainage. Where not open to a different interpretation, they appear to represent either localized stream- ing through the otherwise stagnant glacier, or the results of that type of motion in a large, isolated body of ice mentioned by Salisbury in the Glacial Geology of New Jersey (page 86). More- over there are several ways in which transverse belts of drift may be formed on the surface of glacial ice and such superglacial accumulations may have been let down upon the land from a stagnated mass without wholly destroying their character and continuity. Every transverse belt of till 1s not necessarily a frontal moraine. | The term moraine as originally used indicated nothing more definite than the glacial origin of the drift as opposed to theories of “ waves of translation” and so forth; it was used to define any recognizable accumulation of drift and should be so used today. However, the preconception of an ice wall retreating reluctantly under the influence of a warming climate was strong, and when the water-built forms were separated and given special designa- tions, whatever was left to fill out the concept “ moraine” appears to have been tacitly accepted as something built by ice and water at the margin of the glacier, “ the glacier”? meaning the still moving body of ice thrusting southward under pressure from an indefinite distance behind it. And evidence of the pres- ence of ice during deposition appears to have been taken as proof of the edge of a still active glacier, even where the stagnant con- dition of the ice masses is quite clear. All the buried blocks which had given rise to kettle depressions were regarded as frag- ments broken from the face wall of the receding glacier and con- veniently inhumed, the drainage being diverted in time to prevent the obliteration of the pits by further sedimentation as the blocks melted. 162 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM All of this remains in the literature and hinders a better under- standing of the accumulations of both stratified and unassorted drift associated with the gradual lowering of the surface of an extensive area of dead ice. Salisbury in his volume on the Glacial Geology of New Jersey gives a comprehensive account of the topographic forms referable to such areas and, in the text describing local details, the general principles are illustrated from almost every section of the glaciated part of that State. Yet the character of the recession was evidently assumed by the author to have been normal, for he finds no insuperable difficulty in leaving much of the glacier behind as it receded and in having the remnants remain unmelted while an ice front halted from time to time to build recessional moraines among them. As far as I have been able to learn, M. L. Fuller and F. G. Clapp, publishing simultaneously in the Journal of Geology in 1904, were the first to interpret the evidence as indicating stag- nation of considerable extent. ‘The former, investigating the area Of Glacial Lake Neponset® writes: “ studies in Lake Neponset have led to the conclusion that the ice in that region, instead of retiring with a definite and somewhat regular front, had become absolutely stagnant before the history of the lake@began en) @eanduthemlattemm study imo ivel @harlecmnciiers Basin (Mass.)® concluded that: the evidence points to “the decay of the ice im situ for many miles back from the ice front — the decaying glacier consisting of a mass of stagnant ice, overlain and buried by sheets of water and by extensive deposits of sand and gravel.” Woodworth’ noted, concerning the “morainic ridge” north of the city of Albany, that “the rise of the ridge to 360 feet or over, in close accordance with the level of the Schodack terrace, suggests that the remnant of the glacier in this district may have been sheeted over with flood-plains of gravel while the depres- sions were filled with the same material.” Fairchild’ writing of the conditions obtaining during the for- mation of the broad sand plains along the southwestern base of the Adirondacks, says: “the ultimate escape of the waters must *Ice-Retreat in Glacial Lake Neponset and in Southeastern Massachu- setts. Jour. Geol. xii, no. 3, p. 181 (April-May). ®* Relations of Gravel Deposits in the Northern Part of Glacial Lake Charles, Massachusetts. Jour. Geol. xii, no. 3, p. 198 (April-May). CIN, Wo Stee Wlwe, 1 CHL, i, W260), SN. Y. State Mus. Bul. 160, p. 19. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 oe alos have been to the south and over the belt of stagnant ice which lay in the Utica-Little Falls section of the [Mohawk] valley.” Aside from these and a few other scattered references which might be quoted, the literature indicates how slight an impres- sion the evidence has made upon the ciassical assumption of a retreating wall of ice. Finally: if everything in New England and eastern New York which has been, rightly or wrongly, thought by some author to be an ice-front recessional moraine were mapped together with the recessional moraines of the Erie Lobe on any reasonable scale (say 20 miles to the inch), the comparison would still be a striking contrast. Lacking the direct evidence of recessional moraines, some indirect evidence ought to be furnished by an application of the ice-front hypothesis to interference with the normal land drain- age; there should be found: the records of ponded waters with lowering outlets at predictable points over cols or across land salients as the assumed ice front withdrew. In critical localities this hypothesis breaks down conspicuously, for example, in the following north-sloping hydrographic basins: Wallkill River, Shawangunk Creek, Rondout Creek, Moodna Kill, (Woodbury Creek branch) and Schoharie Creek. On the other hand the evidence of stagnant ice melting im siiu is widespread and abundant. Its expression is so varied that generalizations are difficult, while detailed descriptions would expand this paper far beyond the limits contemplated for it. The statements which follow should be accompanied by a running commentary on the published conclusions of others who have investigated the several fields mentioned, but this also is ren- dered impossible by space limitations. As has been long known, the Adirondack mountain mass appeared above the lowering surface of the ice sheet as an island. On the principle that the comparatively clean upper ice melted more rapidly than the basal ice which carried the bulk of the drift, the earlier stages of ablation tended to produce an irregular surface roughly corresponding to the upper limit of the portion which was heavily drift-laden. There appears to be little to suggest the action of meteoric waters, and the movement and redistribution of the drift as it was released from the frozen mat- rix was accomplished almost wholly by the waters-of-melting, the higher uncovered basal ice draining down onto the lower ice 164 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and sheeting it over with deposits of more or less assorted sand and gravel (fig. 1). Some of this buried ice persisted for a very long time, time being measured in terms of the establishment of unobstructed land drainage. Above about 2,coo feet the record is too obscure to decipher; most of the drift was left as sandy till and the deposits washed out over the surrounding ice fields were subsequently redistributed or destroyed by the disappearance of the underlying ice. At about the level of 2,000 feet, however, conditions locally permitted the building of waterlaid deposits on the land. Many of these have been preserved and, where not built out into open bodies of water, they show both by their external form and their internal structure that they were laid down along the margins of persistent ice masses, sometimes covering a thin margin and still retaining the slopes of contact, the kettle-hole record of buried blocks and the kames resulting from slump, Quite frequently the position of these highest plains is distant from any confining wall, in which cases they are either fragments of deposits originally more extensive or the filling of cavities in the ice. In the former case the deposit, flat-topped, is bounded by erosion slopes, in the latter by ice contacts or kames. At 1,800 feet the deposits of stratified drift laid on the ground (as indicated by the undisturbed stratification) become more numerous, and at about 1,600 feet begin to fall into a system of broad plains separated by wide spaces where the ice was not yet out. (See Loon Lake Quadrangle for good examples; north- western corner. ) The general northeast-southwest trend of the Adirondack main ridges served to deflect much of the southward drainage to the west. Partly because of this deflection and partly because the surface of the glacier remained higher in the Hudson and Cham- plain valleys, the high level sand plains and kame-belts are developed much more extensively along the western and southwestern margins of the mountains than at the southeastern base. Until the glacier had so far wasted away as to uncover the divide between the Black River basin and southern drainage, and to establish partly free lacustrine conditions in that basin, the succession of falling levels is exceptionally complete. For the most part these levels are marked by discontinuous sand-plains separated by areas of ice occupation in which the present streams follow consequent courses. The Post-Hochelagan uplift has warped the levels and much of the country is accessible with 1605 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR, 1922 ‘JOYULTG IY} WOT, PosAllop sS}UeWIpPss s9UIOG-WIeII]s (A]JSOW) YJIM JOAO PojIIYS SUloq SI UOISSoidep IY} JOAO 9OL JouUve[D ‘Jodvep oy} fO soeFINS s4T, ‘Jo ULTG 9A1}90}01d & WIOJ 0} }JIIP posojoU oY} JO UOT}e[NUINDOe ay} Aq Poprejer Useq sey Sodojs Joysiy sy} UO 9dr Jeseq oy} JO SUIT, “Joloeyd [euoldal JUeUSE}s e JO UOl}EIGe dy} UI Ise}IS BV SBUI}eI}SNI[I weiseiq I ‘Sy i Slicogdea Wyast>o) Sean Nv a1 YW eo ao aia MS a | AYNV TS ¢ . “0 aN ee et ae os ss I RE RN **,“,° S WAAL ne ty ZZ ). ROA aS J 3% Western Ear & Middle Ground Cape Ann hi From a Survey and Map b Richard L.Bowditch Sketch map of Isle-au-Haut reduced from a map made by Richard L.{Bowditch. It shows the shape and extent of Turner’s Lake and its relation to the coast line and shore outlet. The continuous black lines are roads. i Burnt Island il Harbor )) ZZ \) F Y Barter Creek SY r Sandy Covel Rich's Pty « Old Cove 4 ) pore Las x Rich's Cove sv) slivers i, Creer Cove Ledge Sawyers Ledge x core Trial Pt. Ledge Moore's Head — -74 Jj = —— ee EE GE op GL SSS j = eit I : - DOP ace SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF TURNER’S LAKE II The bottom rubbish near the shore, usually so prolific of life is here almost barren; only a few snails, small and thin of shell, and caddisworms tumbling their cases over the stones that hid the may- fly nymphs. Leeches abound and are easily collected if one wades barefooted. On the surface water beetles (gyrinids) and water- striders occur sparingly. The open water offers the richest catch if the net is of fine mesh. Myriads of minute crustaceans (Entomos- traca) of several species, and water mites are present, the latter the most conspicuous organisms of the lake at a depth of thirty feet. These small mites, seemingly so ill adapted to aquatic life in spite of their specialized swimming devices, are surprisingly abundant, every haul of the net bringing them in by hundreds. Insects that pass the larval stage in water are strongly represented in the air above the lake by the mosquitoes ; but these may well have bred in the swamps nearby rather than in the lake itself; for larvae were absent in the water that half-filled a stranded boat; neither were larval exuviae to be found in the shore litter washed up in narrow windrows at the north end. If indeed mosquitoes do not breed in the lake, perhaps a clue to their contro] may be found in the analysis of the water. Tandem-flying dragon flies appeared from time to time and others flying single, dipping their tails between the lily pads and hawking the open swarms of Plecia that passed in sluggish, weaving flight over the water. The white cedar trunk which tops the buried ridge in the lake is a watermark of considerable note for it was standing up to the wind and above the waves when the earliest settlers came to the island It still serves as a convenient mark for hunters who wish to prove the merits of their rifles. Anchored by its root it stands almost erect in 4 fathoms of water. Whence this great tree came is a problem for some ingenious brain. That it long antedates the present forest condi- tions is obvious, for there are no such great cedars left on the island. There seem to be no currents in the lake that could have transported it erect from the shore, nor are there movements of ice in this little lake which would be at all competent to float and drop this heavy load into its present attitude. For some hundreds of years, no doubt, it has resisted the decomposition by the water whose singular chemi- cal ingredients may have helped in its preservation. This arbor vitae tree stands forth as one of the many mysterious things that enter into the make-up of this unusual body of water. Long dead, the old stub each year greens into life with an alien verdure of freshwater sponge worn as a belt about four feet below the surface. The sponge itself is worthy of record for imbedded in its tissues and crawling about I2 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF TURNER'S LAKE over the surface are the micro-caddisfly larvae which clothe them- selves in mantles of silk and the delicate crystal spicules borrowed from the host. The dominant trees of the shores are the white and yellow birches, maples (Acer spicatum), and the arbor vitae; but scattered among them are balsam and spruce, poplar and mountain ash, with thickets of alders in the wet spots. Near the outlet and along the southwest bank, the withe-rod (Viburnum cassinoides) grows and with it the mountain holly (Nemopanthus mucronata.) The plants and animals named in the lists that follow are the com- mon obvious forms present in the lake and along its shores found during September, 1922. Collections made at other seasons of the year would doubtless augment the various lists, particularly that of aquatic insects. Enough evidence was collected however to show that the character of the water inhibits the growth of many organisms and that further study might throw some light on problems of soil and water preference. Considerable time was spent in taking soundings to determine the topography of the lake bottom; the results are shown on the accom- panying sketch map. Samples of water for analysis were taken with great care at the surface and at a depth of about fifty feet; the latter sample by means of a weighted container from which the stopper was removed and replaced by lines manipulated at the surface. We are greatly indebted to the various specialists who have identi- fied the materials collected and whose names accompany the lists; and to Mr. and Mrs. Ulysses S. Grant for many courtesies and much information concerning the island and its lake. PLANTS Determined by Dr. Homer D. House, N. Y. State Botanist; reviewed and checked by NatHanieL T. Kipper whose acquaintance with the flora of Isle-au-Haut is intimate. The majority of the plants listed below are aquatics or, in some cases, plants growing as aquatics that are ordinarily found in drier situations. No attempt was made to collect the species of the border- ing woods. Sparganium americanum Nutt. Bur-reed. This species and the next were found only in scattered patches in shallow water at the south end of the lake and infrequently along the west shore. It is rather common in low grounds from Nova Scotia and Ontario to Iowa, Oklahoma and South Carolina. The direction of the lake is nearly due north-south. Sketch map of Turner’s Lake showing the soundings in feet. Scio ae sntaes are the} cote. 31 mantles of sil 4 tow the host. : el ry Cut ; Bie ; Reet The dominant trdes of “ond 4 res ure Sigg chit ae yellow! maples (Acer | te ip. (WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THY Rew York Spcts)” : NOV 31934 ] BY ae ee rae cat pg ten 4 B aie SHERMAN C. BISHe sd PAGE PAGE Dolomedes, 16, 30 Pisauridae, 7 albiclavius, 32, 56 characters of family, 7 albineus, 32, 33 descriptions of general and species, fulviatronotatus, 32, 59 16-63 family relationships, 9 key to genera, 16 list of species, II okefinokensis, 32, 33, 38 scriptus, 32, 33, 44 references to literature, 10 Stristus, 32, 57 subdivisions, 16 tenebrosus, 32, 33, 40 Pisaurina, 16, 22 . tions 32) 33 . brevipes, 23, 29 sexpunctatus, 52 mira2s triton, 50 var. subinflata, 28 “vittatus, 32, 33, 47 | Thanatidius, 16 urinator, 32, 36 dubius,. 27 i tenuis, 18 Pelopatis, 16, 20 Thaumasia, 16, 61 undulata, 21 | | peregrinus, 62 ALBANY THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK 1924 ‘i Reena of the ee nay be : i fe ; ‘ With years when terms expire! iy oA or926 (Pin, iy SEXTON Ibe, IDL, Dy, Gene } Re Emeritus - = - - - = = = Baan ho) 1034 CHESTER S. Lorp MA. LL.D. \Cheie: - - - Brooklyn De 086 ADELBERT Moor Ta Vice Gheneaoe: BEI) IBteiiallo 1927 ALBERT VANDER VEER M.D., M.A., Ph.D., LL.D. Albany » toz25 CHARLES B. ALEXANDER MA, LLB De ee at Dee en _ aL 2 Miuxedovnes 1928 WALTER Guest KELLOGG B WAU LL. D. - - - Ogdensburg | 1932 James Byrne B.A, LL.B., LL.D. es er "1929 Herpert L. Bripeman M.A.,LL.D.- - =: - Brooklyn Py ogn inomAs J. MANGAN M.A. = (-) -) 27 ee 1933 Wittiam J. WaLin M.A. Se ante - - Yonkers | * 10935 Witt1am Bonpy M.A., LL. B. ,Ph.D., D.C.L. - New York | ce Ha) 1030 Witi1aM P. BAKER Be Tie D.- - - - Syracuse President of the University and Commissioner of Education Pf eeane Pl Greaves PhD, Litt. DUD, UL. Deputy Commissioner and Counsel Teun 18), (Enucetnity Jewels JID), Assistant Commissioner and Director of Professional Education Aucustus S. Downine M.A., Pd.D., L.H.D., LL.D. Assistant Commissioner for Secondary Education James Suuiivan M.A., Ph.D. Assistant Commissioner for Elementary Education GeorGE M. Witey M.A., Pd.D., LL.D. Director of State Library James I. Wyer M.L.S.,-Pd.D. Director of Science and State Massa Joxs IMIG (CinAeiey BaD). IDESya.. Ibe PD), Directors of Divisions Ri aitinitation: Luoyp L. Cupnny B.A. Archives and History, ALEXANDER C. Frick M.A., Litt. D., Ph. D. Attendance, James D. SuLLIVAN _ Examinations and Inspections, Avery W. ani BAL IPL. ID), fo inbinance, CvARK’W. HALLIDAY Law, Irwin Esmonp Ph.B., LL.B. a Library Extension, Witt1Am R. Watson B.S. School Buildings and Grounds, Frank H. Woop M.A. Visual Instruction, ALFRED W. ApramMs Ph.B. Vocational and Extension Education, Lewis A. WiILson | at A by: t i a Un ef ee a! 4 ) K } 1 Hermit AAA A WWE ea Al ; AAT ee ee Pisaurina mira (Walckenaer) in the process of sperm induction the male constructs a small, vertical web, deposits the spermatic fluid in a small drop near the top and, aiter moving to the opposite side, takes up the sperms by reaching over the top of the web and applying the palpi alternately. New York State Museum Bulletin Entered as second-class matter Ncvember 27, 1915, at the Post Office at Albany, New York, under the act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in section 1103, act of October 3, 1917, authorized July 19, 1918 Published bi-monthly by The University of the State of New York No. 252 AND IBYANINI I) INT, NZ, May 1924 The University of the State of New York New York State Museum Joun M. Crarke, Director A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES (WiITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE NEW YORK SPECIES) BY Soe IRSIMDAUNY (Cy eillisylial(OUe INTRODUCTION This important group, scientifically known as the family Pisauridae, includes some of the largest of our true spiders. The various species are widely distributed; they are common in many localities and often conspicuous but, from the point of view of the systematist, they have long been in a state of great confusion. This condition may be accounted for in part by the lack of type material, but to a larger extent it is due to the extreme variability to which many species are subject. Disparity of sizes in the sexes Of certain species has also been a disturbing element. It has not been possible to recognize some of the species described in early accounts where color and size were the only characters con- sidered; but they have been listed in this revision in the hope that more intensive collecting will reveal representatives of at least a few of them. The types of the earlier described species, those on Walckenaer, We Geer, Koch, and) Hentz, ‘have ‘long since disappeared; at least they are not now known in collections. Of those described more recently, | have seen Maypacius flori- CMM oTMOMme ands altigany Dive tprels Lmerton) Wil he drawings by John Thomas Abbott, preserved in the British Museum, have never been published but copies of the pisaurids have been furnished me for use in this study. The family Pisauridae is a cosmopolitan one composed of thirty odd genera distributed most freely in the tropical and semitropical regions but strongly represented in the temperate zones by several well-defined genera. Of the five genera and seventeen species here recognized from America north of Mexico, one genus is new and one reported for the first time. Four of the seventeen species recorded are new. [5] 6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The chief source of materials has been the splendid collection of the department of entomology at Cornell University, which was placed unreservedly at my disposal through the kindness of Profes- sor C. R. Crosby. I am also particularly indebted to Professor Crosby for his continued interest in this report and critical exami- nation of the manuscript. For the use of the valuable series of specimens in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Cambridge, my thanks are due Dr R. V. Chamberlin, Mr Samuel Henshaw and Mr Nathan Banks. Dr F. E. Lutz of the American Museum, New York, Dr. J. M. Aldrich and Mr H. E. Ewing of the National Museum and Dr Eugene A. Smith of the University of Alabama kindly loaned the specimens placed in their care. Smaller collections have been received from Mr J. H. Emerton of Boston, Dr Frank N. Blanchard of the University of Michigan, Dr Charles P. Alexander of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, Dr S. J. Hunter of the University of Kansas and Mr William Barrows of the Ohio Biologi- cal Survey. Dr A. H. Wright and Mr Francis Harper of the depart- ment of zoology, Cornell University, collected and contributed a valuable series of Dolomedes from the Okefinokee swamp, Georgia. The private collection of Mr C. R. Shoemaker of Washington, D. C., is rich in pisaurid material collected chiefly in the District of Columbia and Virginia. Dr L. Berland and M. Eugene Simon of the National Museum of France sent to me for examination the type, and at the time, the only known specimen of Maypacius floridanus. My own collections have been made chiefly in various parts of New York State and Georgia, and the specimens are deposited in the New York State Museum. My former assistant, Miss Fanny T. Hartman, and local collectors, Mr W. J. Schoon- maker of Rensselaer and Mr Hugh P. Chrisp of Albany, have con- tributed valuable specimens and observations. My thanks are also due Professor J. H. Comstock for permission to use the splendid photograph of Pisaurina mira on her nursery. With two exceptions, the drawings accompanying the report are the work of Anna Clegg Stryke of Pasadena, Calif., who is not only an artist of exceptional ability but an accomplished student of aranean anatomy. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 7 DHE) PAMIEY PISAWR DO AE Characters of the family. The characters enumerated below apply to the family as it is represented in faunal area under con- sideration: Cephalothorax longer than broad, somewhat constricted in the cephalic region; dorsal groove well defined, radial grooves less prominently marked; eyes eight, those of the anterior row noticeably smaller than the others except in Pelopatis and Thanatidius where they are almost equal; anterior row straight, recurved or procurved ; abdomen regularly oval (Dolomedes and Thaumasia), moderately long (Pisaurina), or long and narrow (Thanatidius and Pelopatis) ; spinnerets in a compact group at the end of the abdomen;; the pedicle short with its superior lorum composed of two median segments and a pair of accessory lateral sclerites; median segments united by a transverse suture in Pisaurina, the anterior segment notched behind to receive a projection of the posterior segment in Dolomedes, or as in Pelopatis, Thanatidius and Thaumasia, the anterior segment is gently rounded behind and fits the shallow excavation of the posterior segment. The relation of the median segments in the genera last named approaches the condition found in the genus Lycosa; but the lateral accessory sclerites are differently developed. In Lycosa, the lateral pieces are confined to the sides of the posterior median segment while in the pisaurids they extend along the sides of the anterior segment as well, sometimes, as in Pelopatis and Thanatidius, less than one-half its length or as in Thaumasia, its entire length. Corresponding to the general body development, the legs are relatively strong in Dolomedes and Thaumasia, less robust in Pisaurina, and long and slender in Pelopatis and Thanatidius ; tarsi provided with three variably toothed claws. Tibiae of the pedipalps of the males provided with an external apophysis. The structure of the palpal organ of a typical pisaurid may be under- stood by reference to the accompanying figure (1) on which (fol- lowing the terminology of Comstock) the parts are named. 8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fig. 1 Unexpanded bulb of Dolomedes tenebrosus Hentz. The tibia (t) is short and thick and bears an external apophysis (exa)) intel body of the tarsus or cymbium (cym) is concave internally and partially incloses the genital bulb and its accessory appendages; the tegulum (teg.) is a heavily chitinized sclerite forming part of the wall of the genital bulb and contains the receptaculum seminis; the tegulum bears an appendage, the median apophysis (m.a.), slender and semi-transparent in this species but well developed and stout in other species of the genus. The conductor (con) is membranous, attached to the middle division of the bulb and lies below the tip of the grooved fulcrum (ful) which in turn supports the tip of the embolus (emb). A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 9g Fig. 2 Epigynum of Dolomedes trition (Walckenaer ). In the Pisauridae the epigynum is well developed and consists of three parts; a median lobe or guide (m.J1.) and more or less well developed lateral lobes (1.1-1.1.) with chitinized inner margins. The openings of the internal reproductive organs are concealed by the inner margins of the lateral lobes and are reached by the curved embolus of the male. In some species, D.tenebrosusandD.okefinokensis, the median lobe is highly developed and forms the larger part of tHeVepilayuunlMmOtersD wsicimiplulls, Dial lin ehuisvetes ity is inclosed by the lateral lobes which unite across the front and converge posteriorly. Family relationships. ‘The pisaurids have as their nearest rela- tives in North America the spiders of the families Lycosidae and Agelenidae. They have only recently been separated from the former although the arrangement of the eyes and possession of the tibial apophysis immediately distinguishes them. The members of both the Pisauridae and Lycosidae have the distal margin of the trochanters broadly notched beneath, a characteristic lacking in the Agelenidae. In the Agelenidae the hind spinnerets are usually longer than the fore, and sheet webs are laid for the capture of prey. The pisaurids in our fauna capture their prey by stalking, and confine their use of silk to the drag line, egg sac and nursery web. The pisaurid egg sac has a continuous covering of silk and is carried in the chelicera; that of the Lycosidae is composed of two valves and is dragged from the spinnerets until the young are hatched and, in some cases, transferred to the back of the mother. if@) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The young of many spiders develop from eggs neglected by the mother after deposition, but with the pisaurids the egg sac is not only protected but a web is spun for the use of the young until they have developed sufficiently to look after themselves. The females of Dolomedes spin the nursery web only when the young are begin- ning to emerge from the sac but Pisaurina mira fashions a retreat of leaves and silk, suspends herself with her sac to await development of the eggs, and expands the nursery by adding lines when the young emerge. Nothing is known of the breeding habits of Pelopatis and Thanatidius. Most of the species are found in the vicinity of water, hiding under stones or rubbish, stalking insects among the herbage along shore or running freely over the surface of ponds or slow streams. Some commonly take refuge beneath the surface when pursued and cling to submerged vegetation. Structural modifications such as a brush of soft hairs on the ventral surface of the terminal segments of the legs to permit surface navigation, and the hairy investment of the body for entangling air when submerged, have accompanied the adoption of the semi-aquatic habit. References to literature. The genera constituting the family Pisauridae were formerly distributed among other families, those of America chiefly in the Lycosidae but, in the case of Pelopatis and Thanatidius, in a separate group—the Podophthalmidae. Some references to the earlier literature are given below, and include accounts of American genera described under various families. Lycosoidae Thorell, On European Spiders, Upsala, 1860, pp. 188-105 Lycosoidae Keyserling, Verh, K. K. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien, 1876, 26 :610-680, pls. 7-8 Lycosidae Simon, Les Arachnides de France, 1876, 3:223-360; v. 4, 1878, pls. 12-13 Lycosidae Thorell, Synonyms of European Spiders, Upsala, 1870- 1873, Pp. 271-355 Lycosidae Emerton, Tran. Conn. Acad. 1885, 6:481-505, pls. 46-49 — Includes Dolomedes, Ocyale etc., with typical Lycosidae. Lycosidae Marx, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1800, 12:560-566. Dolo- medes and Ocyale. Podophthalmidae Marx, Ibid, p. 567. Thanatidius dubius etc. Lycosidae Stone, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila.. 18090, 42:420, pl. 15. fig. 8 Lycosidae Banks, Can. Ent. 1892, 24:97 (Dolomedinae) Pisauridae Simon, Hist. Nat. des Araignées, 2d ed., 1808, 2:278-316, figs. 284-326 Lycosidae Emerton, The Common Spiders of the U. S., Boston, 1902, p. 67 Lycosidae Montgomery, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1902, 54:534- 592 Pisauridae Comstock, A Classification of N. Amer. Spiders, Ithaca, 1903, Pp. 50-51 A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES IP it Pisauridae Banks, Amer. Nat., 1905, 39:318. Pisauridae Bryant, Occ. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 7, 1908, p. 79 RPusaucidae) Banks, U.S. Nat: Mus) Bul. (72, tote; p. 53 Pisauridae Petrunkevitch, Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 10911, 209: 539-549 } ; | Pisauridae Comstock, The Spider Book, N. Y., 1912, pp. 598-517, figs. 683-710 List of species. The species described or mentioned by various writers and assigned to the family Pisauridae are listed below; some have been found to belong in other families and in these cases the synonymy has been noted. Species of De Geer Mem. L’Hist. des Insectes, 1778, v. 7 ABA Meralynuitia |p. 81) ply 20, ve (6. Regarded) by, Banks (Ent. News, 1898, 9:142) and Petrunkevitch (Bul. Amer. Nat. Hist., 1911, 29:541-542) as identical with Hentz’s Dolomodes albineus. The description is insufficient for identification, the figure is useless and the locality, Pennsylvania, is too far north for this distinctively southern spieces. (See remarks under account of Dolomedes albineus Hentz.) Species of Walckenaer Hist. Nat. des Insectes Apt., 1837, v. I It has been the general practice to regard Walckenaer’s species as invalid because they were believed to be based entirely on the unpub- lished drawings of Abbot. In some instances however there is direct evidence that specimens as well as the drawings were before the author and in such cases (provided the species can be recognized) Walckenaer’s names are used. Lycosa triton, p. 340. Petrunkevitch* was the first to point Olemthe identity OL, thisispecies) with) Dolomedes!) sie xip uw nice tatus Hentz. It is the “water spider” of Abbott, pl. 10, fig. 91. Dioommlerdicsuvalttiat iSpy 3470))lnis)is) the femalevof the species described by Hentz as Dolomedes lanceolatus. AD DOt pl 5. fea 21 Dolomedes lineatus, p. 347. Two varieties are men- tioned by Walckenaer (Abbot, pl. 11, fig. 51, ‘‘ varieté jaune,” and pl. 12, fig. 56, “ varieté rouge”). The first variety, fig. 51, is very hkely Lycosa rabida Walckenaer. The species represented in the second variety fig. 56, may be, according to the opinion of Professor R. V. Chamberlin, Lycosa punctulata Hentz. 1 Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., 1910, 19:219-220. TZ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Dio loim~/ ed e's) Wat u's)))\piy aise) Walckenaenphadtatiileast two specimens before him and in addition, Abbot’s four figures; these he regarded as representing varieties of the single species and identi- cal with De Geer’s Aranea rufa. WDwo of the drawings’ bear no resemblance to any known American species and the other two can not be placed with any certainty. Walckenaer’s description in itself is insufficient for purposes of identification. Dolomedes mirus, p. 357. This species was selected by Simon as the type of the genus Pisaurina. Abbot (pl. 65, fig. 321) represents an immature male with the legs rather short and the color pattern quite unlike any of the familiar varieties. In the description however—and Walckenaer must have had specimens before him—the species is likened to Pisaura (Dolomedes) mirabilis of Europe, Africa etc., a form not unlike our species in color pattern. Io Onmve dels jy Wasa USe spy Fou NDDOLs lms Oimnoama eit Aa Ser ah Sibi ye 1) AL som ated) WNiailkel. Species of Koch Die Arachniden, 1848, v. 14 OlGiyaKelr wha pple la tab goonies he AON Underntine generic name Ocyale, Koch described and gave a figure of a speci- men which he believed to represent Aranea rufa of De Geer and Dolomedes rufus of Walckenaer. I have been unable to place this species which resembles in a slight degree the Dolomedes scriptus of Hentz but lacks entirely the dis- tinctive characters of D. albineus. Dolomedes oblongus, p. 114, pl. 484, fig. 1350. Now placed by Petrunkevitch in Diapontia of the Lycosidae. Dolomedes scapularis, pp. 119-120, tab. 486, fig. 1354. Here considered a synonym of Dolomedes triton Walckenaer but recorded doubtfully, by Cambridge’, in Thaumasia. Dolomedes binotatus, pp. 121-122, tab. 487, fig. 1356. A large yellowish-brown species with a pair of black spots on the back of the abdomen in Koch’s figure. No specimens have been found in the United States that agree with the description or figure. Cambridge loc. cit. places it doubtfully in Thaumasia. Dolomedes aerugineus, pp. 122-123, tab. 487, fig. 1357°.. This species is recorded from “Amerika” so probably not from the United States. It is represented as being uniform yel- 1 Proc. Zool. Soc., London, 1903, 73 :154 2See Banks, Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soci) 1001 o186. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED SHIANAIRI BIS) 13 lowish or reddish-brown and quite different from any of the familiar American species. Dolomedes marginellus, p. 120, tab. 486, fig. 1355. Petrunkevitch* following Simon, places this in the genus Thaumasia. Specimens, apparently of this species, from Cuba have four teeth in the lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera and other characters of the genus Dolomedes. It has not been recorded from the United States. Species of Hentz Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., 1844, v. 4 DyoMlvounierdicis ny temax, py eOsimlul lO. fess (7-8. ) A small species described from specimens taken in North Carolina. It is unknown jin collections and may prove to be the young of some species described under another name. Dro Mopnjediesh shrasit wlahiuis, Hipp 1205-390!) pls} LO hein Oo: Another small species said to have been found in September in a web resembling that of Agelena. Perhaps not a pisaurid although the figure gives the general proportions of Dolomedes with an indication of the pattern of D. albineus. Dioiiommie dielsiy) te me biG Osis yi pMsoOupl LOM ies) TOL is A: common species both in the north and south and perfectly distinct from D. scriptus with which it has sometimes been confused. It is closely related to a species which | have described as new from the Okefinokee swamp in Georgia but differs sufficiently in the various structures to enable it to be immediately distinguished. Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., 1845, v. 5 ID ONO MEGIES Sere doe w Ss) Go Wo) joy Gy, Shreya. 1D) eye) = medes fontanus Emerton is a synonym. The figure given by Hentz shows the characteristic color pattern of the abdomen. Dolomedes allibainre sian. So-100, pl. /1Ovuihg,) 2. Described from Alabama. The male has not been figured heretofore. Dolomedes urinator, pp. 190-191, pl. 16, fig. 3. Long considered to be the, female of the species described by Hentz under the name of Dolomedes lanceolatus: now believed to be distinct The male is unknown. Daltonmedics Wamiecio lates, pr tor) pl. 17. fe. '12)) A synonym of Dolomedes vittatus Walckenaer. Mlowomlerdiels7 Wier piu met atins | pp. 191-12) 'pl) 16,” figs. 5-6. Here regarded as a subspecies of Dolomedes triton Walckenaer. > Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1911, 20:547. 14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Dikernr sts | Gib ss 5 jo, aks.) oll) aeons, rit, [lleecl. yy Simon in the genus Thanatidius. Dh om/i/sias)e vt emu is) ps 440) plii23, hie. 12) \Apparently the species described by Simon as Maypacius floridanus. Goes in Thanatidius. Mivenjomin)atialmuinidaltian i pps mo2— 163.4 ple nOurionm a Mv Se Titastia ap lOg i pla TO oe) MVM tata te tnhOtnctbianmiO pai O™ HO OE My mle, Fe IML. Cale olin Cini) joy LOL, Dil) 1G, Me) ©. Synonyms of Pisaurina mira Walckenaer. Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., 1850, v. 6 Miner om ml aria) si biol Vaya peZzeen pl TON mnie meANGcolon variety of Pisaurina mira Walckenaer. Mich ofan aptia) Mp nicola nip 2o7) spl iro. tice Iie as anlkes collected an immature spider at Punta Gorga, Fla., which agrees so well with the description and figure of Hentz that there is little doubt of its identity. It was placed in the genus Thaumasia in Banks’ catalog! but earlier recorded’, provisionally, as an immature Dolomedes albineus. Comstock’ regarded it as belonging in Dolomedes and it is so considered in this revision. Species of Giebel Zeitschr. fur die Ges. Natur., 1860, v. 33 Dolomedes striatus, p. 252. Placed as synonym of D. tenebrosus by Petrunkevitch but is here regarded as a distinct species. Dolomedes convexus, pp. 252-253. A small species from Illinois which I can not now place. Lacks the distinctive characters of Dolomedes triton Walck., with which it was placed by Petrunkevitch. Species described or mentioned by Emerton Tran. Conn. Acad., 1885, v. 6 Ocyale undata, p. 499, pl. 40, figs. 7, 7a. Equals Pisau- rina mira Walckenaer. Dolomedes sexpunctatus, p. 501, pl. 49, figs. 8, 8a. Here regarded as a subspecies of Dolomedes triton Walckenaer. 1 Bul. 72 U. S. Nat. Mus., 1910, p. 54. 2 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1904, p. 136. 3 The Spider Book, N. Y., 1912, p. 617. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 5) Dolomedes tenebrosus, p. 501, pl. 49, figs. 9, 9a, 9b, gc. Figures ga and gb represent the palpal organ and tibial apophysis of Dolomedes vittatus Walckenaer; figure gc is the epigy- numof Dolomedes scriptus Hentz. Tran. Conn. Acad., 1909, v. 14 Woltomie des) idiom eluls py zit, ply 7, fe.18\))\ This is Dolo = medes tenebrosus Hentz. Dolomedes) vier nialiis\) ippu 2 ply) igs: 7-7¢. Figure 7 represents the male and 7b the epigynum of Dolomedes tenebrosus. Dolomedes sexpunctatus, p. 210, pl. 7, figs. 6, 6a, 6b. I am inclined to believe that figure 6 represents an immature female of Dolomedes striatus Giebel; at least it has the markings of this species. Figures 6a and 60 represent the palpal organ and dorsal aspect of Dolomedes triton Walck. Species of Keyserling Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien., 1887, 37:486, pl. 6, fig. 42 Tetragonophthalma undulata. This species does not belong in Tetragonophthalma nor in Thanatidius of which T. dubius Hentz is the type. It is regarded in this revision as the type of a new genus. Species described or mentioned by Simon Annales de la Société Entomologique de Belgique, 1808, 42:14 Maypacius floridanus Simon is very probably the species described by Hentz as Thomisus tenuis. Goes in the genus Thanatidius. Hist. Nat. Araignées, 1898, 2:2092 Thanatidius dubius. Simon selected Thomisus dubius Hentz as the type of the genus Thanatidius but gave a description of the species earlier described by Keyserling as Tetragonophthalma undulata. Keyserling’s species did not belong in Tetragonophthalma and Simon’s name (Thana- tidius) must be retained because the type (Thomisus dubius Hentz) was designated. Species described or mentioned by Montgomery Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1902 Olcyailienuinidialtiay, p.5S4 equals) Pils au rina’ “mira Walckenaer. Diotormpdleis dio mess) pp. sse—-5o0)) pls 20, fie.) sr.) he figure of the epigynum shows this to be Dolomedes tene- brosus Hentz. 16 NEW YORK STATE. MUSEUM Subdivisions of Pisauridae. Simon separated the Pisauridae into three rather ill-defined groups designated respectively the Pisaureae, Thalassieae and the Dolomedeae. The first embraced a considerable number of genera distinguished by having the median ocular area slightly longer than broad posteriorly and the tarsi generally pro- vided with an onychium. But in the three American genera included in Pisaureae, Pelopatis has this area broader posteriorly than long and in Thanatidius and Pisaurina the dimensions are about equal. In structure of the epigynum and palpus, closer agreement 1s found and upon these characters, rather than eye arrangement, sub- family distinctions may possibly be made. Based on the structure of the sexual organs, the genera named above would fall in one group and Dolomedes and possibly Thaumasia in a_ second; Thalassieae has no representatives in America north of Mexico. Key to the Genera of Pisauridae A Eyes in two rows; width of clypeus at least twice the diameter of an anterior median eye B Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera with three teeth C Median ocular area about as wide posteriorly as long; teeth evenly spaced PISAURINA CC Median ocular area much wider posteriorly than long; two teeth close together, the third somewhat remote THAUMASIA BB Lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera with four teeth DOLOMEDES AA Eyes in 3 or 4 rows; clypeus narrow or obliterated B Line of anterior lateral eyes (first row) about equal in width to that of posterior median eyes (third row) THANATIDIUS BB Line of anterior lateral eyes (first row) much wider than that of posterior median eyes (third row) IP IBILOPZAN ITI THANATIDIUS (Simon) Hist. Nat. Araignées, 1898, 2:293 Cephalothorax longer than broad, somewhat depressed; cephalic part up to posterior eyes, ascending; broad and flat behind posterior eyes to posterior declivity. yes in four rows, the total area not quite as long as broad posteriorly; line of anterior lateral eyes (first row) scarcely wider than line of posterior medium eyes (third row) ; - area outlined by four median eyes a little wider posteriorly than long; area of four anterior eyes considerably wider anteriorly than long; anterior lateral eyes on stout conical tubercles projecting from anterior margin of head. Lower margin of furrow of chelicera with three teeth. Abdomen long and slender. Legs 1-2-4-3; tibia of first and second legs beneath with 2-2-2-2 spines, apical pair reduced; metatarsi with 2-2-2-2 spines beneath, apical short. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES Ivf The genus Maypacius Simon is related but differs in having two teeth on the lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera, the area of the four median eyes longer than wide and the area of the four anterior eyes hardly wider than long. Type of the genus: Thomisus dubius Hentz. Maypacius Simon, Hist. Nat. Araignées, 1808, 2:288, 292 (ad part) Maypacius Banks, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bul. 72, 1910, p. 54 Maypacius Petrunkevitch, Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1911, 29:544 Maypacius Comstock, The Spider Book, N. Y., 1912, p. 605 Key to the Species of Thanatidius A Lateral lobes of epigynum broadly in contact on the middle line behind ; median lobe rectangular, deeply notched behind T. dubius (Hentz) AA Lateral lohes of epigynum narrowly in contact on middle line behind ; median lobe long and narrow T. tenuis (Hentz) Thanatidius dubius (Hentz) BostouneNatwidist,.1oA7 5 44oy pines ties) Tl Type: Thomisus? dubius Hentz; type specimen not known to exist Type locality: North Carolina . Female (alcohol) : length 9 mm; iegs 1-2-3-(4th missing), 22-21-16-(?) mm; pl. 1; pl. 33, fig. 2, epigynum. | | Cephalothorax above with a broad, median light brown band, clothed with short, light brown hair; the band incloses the eyes and extends entire length of cephalothorax; back of posterior eyes an oval area lighter, with a narrow, line like extension through the dorsal groove; sides of cephalothorax light yellowish white clothed with white hairs; extreme margin with a fringe of white; a pencil of long, white hairs extending forward between median eyes. Eyes equal in size or nearly so except posterior lateral which are slightly larger; triangle of four anterior eyes, wider in front than long; anterior lateral eyes separated by about twice the diameter of one of them and slightly farther apart than posterior median. Chelicera yellowish white spotted irregularly in front with black; lower margin of the furrow with three teeth. Abdomen above with a broad median band, dark brown, clothed with short, brown hairs and nar- rowly margined with white; a broad band yellowish white and bear- ing white hairs each side of median dark band; venter of abdomen with sides light brown; back of epigastric furrow dusky yellow with two dark lines extending from epigynum half way to spinnerets. Legs long, slender, light yellowish brown above, dusky beneath with small scattered spots of dark gray; coxae of third and fourth legs darker than those of first and second pairs; Sternwm dark gray with light yellow border and stripe through middle of anterior half. Epigynum (pl. 33, fig. 2) prominently raised on epigastrium, heavily chitinized; median lobe convex and notched behind, lateral lobes broadly in contact posteriorly. Male unknown. 18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Synonymy Thomisus? dubius Hentz, Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., 1847, 5:448, pl. TR Tanne dubius Hentz, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1868, 11 :106 Thomisus? dubius Hentz, Occ. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 2, 1875, p. 82, pl. 10, fig. II Thanatidius dubius Simon, Hist. Nat. Araignées, 1808, 2:288, 293 Thanatidius dubius, Banks, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1900, 52; 539 Remark. Simon designated Thomisus dubius Hentz as the type of the genus Thanatidius but the diagnosis he gives does not correspond to the characters of the type as described and figured by Hentz. The characters given in Simon’s definition of the genus were very evidently based on a specimen of Tetragonoph- thalma undulata Keyserling, a species perfectly distinct but not belonging in Tetragonophthalma and therefore in this revision, made the type of a new genus. Ty Gehonws eral I, wemuUis Mews Deen veay eSnerallhy ime- garded as identical; they resemble one another in general propor- tions and arrangement of the eyes but differ in size, in the structure of the epigynum, and development of the color pattern. A mature female collected by Nathan Banks at Auburn, Ala., and recorded in the Proc. Acad. Nat. Sici. Phila., 1900, 52:539, 1s T. dubius. Distribution. North Carolina, *Auburn, Ala.; *Washington, DAC | Thanatidius tenuis (Hentz) Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., 1847, 5:440, pl. 23, fig. 12 Type: Thomisus? tenuis Hentz; type specimen not known to exist Type locality: Alabama Female (alcohol) : Length 8mm; iegs I-2-4-3; pl. 2, figs. 1-5 Cephalothorax dull yellowish above, lighter on the cephalic part and in front of the dorsal groove; between the median eyes a prominent brush of long, white hairs extending forward; sides of cephalothorax sparsely covered with short, yellowish brown hairs in patches. Eyes (pl. 2, fig. 2) almost of equal size, the posterior lateral slightly larger; four anterior eyes form a triangular area one and one-half wider anteriorly than long; anterior lateral eyes protuberant from anterior margin of head thus obliterating the clypeus; anterior lateral margins of the head prominently angled; transverse space occupied by the anterior lateral eyes only a little wider than that of posterior median eyes. Chelicera yellowish white spotted in front with black; lower margin of furrow armed with * This character indicates that specimens have been examined from localities mentioned. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES IQ three teeth (pl. 2, fig. 5); (the third in Simon’s specimen some- what reduced). Abdomen above with a median dusky band widest in front, tapering to spinnerets; on each side of median band near base, a small, dark spot; ground color bordering median band yel- low with darker reticulations and a row of small, irregular, black spots along the sides; venter behind genital furrow reticulated as above. Legs above dusky yellow, gray or black beneath except coxae which are spotted. Sternwm gray with a median light line and irregular marginal bands of yellow. Labium and endites dusky yellow spotted with black, lighter distally. The epigyium (pl. 2, fig. 1) resembles that of Pelopatis undulata (Keyserling). Male not known. Synonymy Thomisus? tenuis Hentz, Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., 1847, 5:440, pl. 23, fig. 12 | ieivominsiws a tenuis) Lentz.) Proc, Bost. soc.) Nat.) Elist..) 1868," 112100; figs. 84, 101 | iia tie Thomisus? tenuis Hentz, Occ. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 2, 1875, p. 82, pl. 10, fig. 12; pl. 18, figs. 84, 101 Maypacius floridanus Simon, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique, 1808, eon floridanus Simon, Hist. Nat. Araignées, 1808, 2:288 Thanatidius tenuis Simon, Hist. Nat. Araignées, 1808. 2:203 MiakyapiarGuntli Sultiom udaliniuisimebanixc Sule g2) NO SHNat ny VitISe Oro 4 Mes sialatiits floridanus, Banks, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1904, Ae floridanus, Comstock, The Spider Book, N. Y., 1912, B Ree es aia flomi dans) Banks) ProcaAcade Nat.) Sci) Phila1o13) 65 :181, pl. 12, fig. 30 Remarks. Through the courtesy of M. Simon and Dr L. Ber- land of the Museum National D’Histoire Naturelle at Paris, I have been permitted to examine the type of Maypacius ilori- danus and to compare it with immature specimens of the same size from Alabama and Georgia. J am convinced that it is the same as Thomisus tenuis Hentz.* In Simon’s definition of the genus Maypacius, of which M. vittiger Simon is the type, it is stated, “Chelarum margo inferior tantum bidentatus’”’ (Hist. Nat., 2:293). In the type specimen of M. floridanus, how- ever, and in several specimens from Alabama and Georgia com- pared with the type, there are three teeth. Simon also states: “Oculi quatuor medii inter se subaequales et aream longiorem quam latiorem occupantes;” but in his specimen and mine this area is considerably breader posteriorly than long. oe DBOStmOnm Naty eiStodza Se440y pie eay ton) Te: Proc. Bost. Soe. Nat. Hist., 1868, 11 :106, figs. 84, 101. 740) NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Maypacius vittiger Simon is an African species and has been reexamined at my request by M. Louis Fage of the Paris Museum. In this species there are but two teeth on the lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera and the area of the four median eyes is longer than wide. M. floridanus therefore, can not be regarded as congeneric with Maypacius vittiger and is transferred to the genus Thanatidius. Habits. Nothing is known of the habits of this species except that the female is mature in June in the Okefinokee swamp, Georgia. Distribution. *Florida, *Billy’s island, Okefinokee swamp, Ga.; *Holt, Tuscaloosa county, *Epes, Sumter county, Ala.; *Baton Rouge, La. PELOPATIS nov. gen. Generic characters. Cephalothorax considerably longer than broad, depressed. Eyes in four rows; total area of eyes slightly broader than long; line of anterior lateral eyes (first row) at least twice as wide as line of posterior median eyes (third row) ; almost as wide as line of posterior lateral eyes (fourth row) pl. 4, fig. 2; area outlined by four anterior eyes almost 3 times as broad an- teriorly as long. Median ocular area very slightly broader pos- teriorly than long or equal. Abdomen long and slender with a median, basal, lanceolate spot, on each side of which near the mid- dle of its length, is a small, black spot. Lower margin of the fur- row of the chelicera with three teeth (pl. 4, fig. 4). Legs 1-4-2-3; tibiae of first and second legs beneath with 2-2-2-2-2 spines, four pairs extremely long and overlapping; apical pair reduced and some- times missing; metatarsi of first and second legs beneath with 2-2-2-2 spines; apical pair short. Sternum longer than broad, produced posteriorly between coxae of fourth legs. Type. Tetragonophthalma undulata Keyserling Dhanatidiwss ‘Pickard-Cambridze,)Rroe, Zool. ) Soc. wondony 003) 73.156 Thanatidius Banks, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bul. 72, 1910, p. 54 Thanatidius Petrunkevitch, Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1911, 29:547 Thanatidius Comstock, The Spider Book, N. Y., 1912, p. 605 1 F, Pickard—Cambridge (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1¢03) questioned the identity of Thanatidius in note 2, p. 153, as follows: “One can not be quite certain that Thanatidius has been correctly identified.’ On page 156, the description of the eyes of Thanatidius spinipes makes it appear that the anterior row is much wider than the posterior. The description refers to the figure (pl. 14, fig. 10) which is apparently reversed on, the plate. When turned right side up, the eyes appear as they are in Pelopatis undulata (Keyserling ). A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES Pail Pelopatis undulata (IKeyserling ) Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien., 1887, 37:486, pl. 6, fig. 42 Type. Tetragonopthalma undulata Keyserling; type speci- men not known to exist Type locality: Archer, Fla. (Marx collection) Female (alcohol). Length 11-19mm; legs, 1-4-2-3; pl. 3, fig. 1; pl. 4, figs. 2-5 Cephalothorax above dull yellow sparsely clothed with yellowish brown hairs; on the disk, two irregular bands slightly darker, sepa- rated by the dorsal groove and a narrow, dark line extending from groove to posterior median eyes; a narrow, sub-marginal, dark line along sides of thorax to cervical groove. Eyes almost equal in size; posterior lateral slightly larger and anterior lateral perhaps smaller; four anterior eyes form a triangular area over twice as wide anteriorly as long; first row (anterior lateral) much wider than third row (posterior median). Clypeus very narrow, scarcely the width of an anterior median eye; seen from above, the anterior lateral eyes appear to project from anterior margin of head. Cheli- cera in color like cephalothorax and with mixed short and long hairs; lower margin of the furrow with three teeth (pl. 4, fig. 4). Abdo- men above yellowish white; a median dusky band with edges gently scalloped extends to spinnerets; through centre of dusky band at base, a lanceolate mark and on each side of this a black dot; venter of abdomen behind genital furrow pale yellow. Legs light yellowish brown, lighter beneath; unmarked except for dark spots at base of spines. Sternum, labium and endites pale yellow. Fpi- gynum resembles that of Thanatidius tenuis Hentz and IP ih Sey bl seal soley) seal ae ea, Male: length 9-14 mm; legs 1-4-2-3; pl. 3, fig. 2; pl. 4, fig. 1. The male resembles the female in color but the abdomen and legs are proportionally longer and more slender. The abdomen above has the median scalloped band only slightly developed or absent but the basal lanceolate mark is usually evident with its accompany- ing black spots. The palpus (pl. 4, fig. 1) resembles that of Pisaurina mira; the tibia however, is longer and slimmer and has the apophysis shorter and directed forward. Mature males are in the collections at Cornell University and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. 22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Synonymy Tetragonophthalma undulata Keyserling, Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien., 1887, 37:486, pl. 6, fig. 42 Tetragconophithalmia) wnodiutlaitia, Marx) Proc Ul snNate Mus: 18900, 12:567 Tetragonophthalma dubia, Banks, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 1809. 4:188, 190 Thanatidius dubius, Banks, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1904, 56: 136 Thanatidius dubius, Banks, Second Rep’t. Secy de Agricultura Comercio y Trabajo de la Republica de Cuba, 1909, pt 2, p. 106 Thanatidius dubius, Banks, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bul. 72, 1910, p. 54 Thanatidius dubius, Petrunkevitch, Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., IOUL, 20:547. hanatidius dubius, Rosenfeld, Jour. Econ. Ent., 1911, 4:404 Thanatidius dubius, Comstock, The Spider Book, N. Y., 1912, pp. 605-606, fig. 690 Thanatidius dubius, Lutz, Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 1915, 26:101 Remarks. Simon* properly characterized this genus under the name Thanatidius but selected as the type, Thomisus dubius Hentz. It is evident, therefore, that Simon had before him a specimen of the earlier described Tetragonophthalma undulata of Keyserling when he gave his diagnosis. Habits. Specimens from the Okefinokee swamp in Georgia were collected in the low ground bordering the islands. A mature male was taken in May 1912 and a mature female in June of the same year. Distribution. “Denmark, 5S. C.; *Billy’s island, Okefinokee swamp, *Waycross and *Fargo, Ga.; Punta Gorda, *Miami, Archer, Fla.; Mensura and Shreveport, La.; Havana, Cuba. PISAURINA Simon Hist. Nat. Araignées, 1898, 2:205 The genus Pisaurina, proposed by Simon to include Dol o- medes mirus Walckenaer (type), and those species of Hentz described under the name Micrommata (M. undata, M. ser- rata, M. carolinensis ), was characterized as follows: an- terior row of eyes in a slightly procurved line, median larger than lateral; median ocular area slightly longer than broad posteriorly; posterior median somewhat larger than anterior median. Careful measurements of a considerable number of individuals of both sexes, however, show the median ocular area is as wide posteriorly (a little wider in some) as long, and that the eyes of the anterior row are equal in size and equidistant. 1 Hist. Nat. Araignées, 1898, 2:203. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 23 Cephalothorax slightly longer than broad, constricted in front of cervical grooves. Eyes in two rows (pl. 9, fig. 4); anterior slightly procurved, posterior strongly recurved; median ocular area as wide, or slightly wider posteriorly than long; eyes of the anterior row equal in size and equidistant. Lower margin of furrow of chelicera with three teeth (pl. 9, fig. 3). Abdomen about twice as long as broad. Legs: First, second and fourth longest, about equal; third shortest; tibiae and metatarsi of first and second legs beneath, with 2-2-2-2 spines, apical short; superior lorum of the pedicle with a transverse suture (pl. 9, fig. 2). Type of the genus Dolomedes mirus Walckenaer. Pisaurina Simon, Hist. Nat. Araignées, 2d ed., 1898, 2:205 Ocyale Emerton, Tran. Conn. Acad., 1885, 6 :499-500 Pisaurina Banks, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bul. 72, roro, p. 54 Pisaurina Petrunkevitch, Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1911, 29:545 Pisaurina Comstock, The Spider Book, N. Y., 1912, p. 607 Key to Species Median dorsal stripe of abdomen above, when present, with sides more or less notched; first leg without femur and basal segments, as long as body. Pisaurina mira (Walckenaer) Median dorsal stripe of abdomen above with sides nearly straight and bordered each side by a bright white line; first leg without the femur and basal segments, shorter than the body Pisaurina brevipes (Emerton). Pisaurina mira (Walckenaer) Hist. Nat. Ins. Apt., 1837, 1:357 Type: Dolomedes mirus Walckenaer; type specimen not known to exist Type locality: Georgia Female: Length 13-16.5mm; average of ten, 14.4mm; legs 1-2-4 about equal, third shortest; pl. 5, fig. 1; pl. 8, fig. 3; pl. 9, figs. 2-5; pl. 11 Cephalothorax above with ground color light yellow to light brown on the sides and with a median band, dark brown, tapering slightly from clypeus to posterior margin of cephalothorax; median band inclosing the eyes and occupying about one-third of the entire width of the thorax; extreme margin of thorax often with a narrow, dark line; sides diffused with dusky; bordering the median band, often a line of white hairs; the median band clothed with brown hairs and in the eye region, long, white ones. In life or dry, the sides appear covered with dirty white hairs and the color of the integument is obscured. Eyes surrounded with black (pl. o, fig. 4); eyes of anterior row in a slightly procurved line, practically esual in size and equi-distant, separated by a little less than the diameter of one of them; posterior row strongly recurved, eyes equal in size and larger than those of anterior row; median separated by the diameter 24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of one of them, considerably farther from the lateral; area of median eyes as broad posteriorly as long. Width of clypeus about 244 diame- ters of an anterior median eye. Chelicera yellowish brown clothed with long, white hairs, some of which are dark on basal third; lower margin of the furrow with three teeth. Abdomen above with a dark median band clothed with light brown hairs; anteriorly as broad as that of cephalothorax, gradually widening to the middle of the length of abdomen, then, the sides becoming notched, tapering to spin- nerets. Contrast between median band and the lighter integument of sides heightened by dense covering of white hairs on the latter in life or when dry; several oblique rows of small, often indis- tinct, brown spots cross sides of abdomen and terminate indefinitely at sides of venter. Below abdomen is dirty yellowish white spotted more or less with brown; often a median, light line from epi- gynum to spinnerets. Integument of legs brownish yellow, in life considerably lighter from covering of mixed white and light brown hairs. In some specimens otherwise typically colored the legs are strongly banded. Sternum lighter than legs; a median yellow mark with irregular sides is bordered with gray. Labium reddish brown at base, lighter distally; endites usually pale yellow. Epigynum (pl. 9, fig. 5): lateral lobes separated anteriorly, meet on the mid- dle line behind; median lobe excavated in front. Male: length 12-15 mm; legs (1-2)-4-3; 38-38-35-31 mm; fron- TSpiece! ipl Sa ton) 2 apa Oye. a Color and pattern in general like that of female; in size a little smaller with abdomen less robust. Legs considerably longer and more slender than in female. The external apophysis of the tibia of the palpus is truncated and concave on its inner surface. The bulb resembles that of Pelopatis undulata but differs markedly from other genera of the family. Very young specimens are pale green or yellow with a pair of dark longitudinal stripes on the cephalothorax. Dorrie oor. Nelly Oy siler, BS OI, ve, ies, Bo AL In this variety the median band of the cephalothorax is not as well marked as in the typical form, being obscured by a covering of short, white hairs. The integument of the sides is darker but in life the covering of white hairs gives a grayish appearance to the entire cephalothorax. On the abdomen the median band may be almost obliterated or indicated by small dense patches of white hair in spots that correspond to lateral notches in the band of a normally marked individual. The legs may be uniform brown or more or less ringed. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES NN) Vanety subintiata. Pl. 7, fig. 1; pl. 9, fig. 6 Under the name Micrommata subinilata, Hentz de- scribed this variety of Pisaurina mira as a distinct species; but there are no constant structural characters to distinguish it al- though its color pattern may show wide divergence from the form described as typical; moreover, in its distribution it is coincident with the other varieties. The median band of the cephalothorax is narrowly constricted in the region of the dorsal groove or present as a dusky stripe. Lateral margins of cephalothorax with a dark line sometimes broken into spots. Median band of abdomen considerably reduced; widest in front, narrowing to linelike proportions posteriorly or broken, forming angulate spots. Lateral oblique rows of spots intensified and more conspicuous than in typical variety. Legs conspicuously ringed with black or brownish black on distal ends: of femora, tibiae and metatarsi; patellae all dark. The epigynum may differ slightly from that of P. mira but the variation is not greater than that which occurs in a series of the typical form. Synonymy olomedes mirus Walckenaer, Ins. Apt., 1837, 1:357 olomedes virgatus Walckenaer, ibid., p. 358 Micr OQmmata mhmicdate ia, Ios, ow Weta) Tabisey insviz/,) Senos aioR, DITION fe.k7 MINER OUNCE SeOiew ewe Malwa, aoMGl, jo, UO, jolly Coy, aren . The difference in size of the sexes in the north is striking, the females averaging over 20mm in length, the males about 7.5-8mm. Males from the south are larger. A specimen from Baton Rouge, La., 12.5mm long, has the first legs 34mm and the third legs (the shortest) 29mm iong. ‘Two specimens from Virginia measure respectively 11 and 8mm; one from Washington, D. C., 9mm. New York and Ohio specimens are about 7.5mm long with the longest legs, first and second, about 21mm. Habits. In the north adults of both sexes have been found in May, indicating earlier maturity than in the case of D. scriptus; it is in June, however, that mature specimens are commonly found. In the south the males may be fully grown early in the spring and at Baton Rouge, La., Comstock collected one in March. It is probable that during the mating season this species may be found in the vicinity of water; later in the season, however, I have found many immature specimens a considerable distance from water in dry woods. In August on Valcour island, Lake Champlain, where females of D. scriptus _ had their nurseries in almost every rock crevice near water, many immature individuals of D. tene- brosus_ inhabited an old tent several hundred yards from the lake. A single mature female was found under a short board on the A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES A3 hard ground. An immature male was found in May at Thacher Park, Albany county, halfway up a dry hillside on a log. Since immature specimens of all sizes have been found late in the fall, it is evident that neither this species or D. scriptus matures in one season; in fact immature specimens have been found in hiber- nation in November at Ithaca, N. Y. ‘The species in the north is not common compared with D. scriptus but farther south, in Virginia and Maryland they occur in great abundance. Various species of this genus have been recorded as capturing and feeding on fishes. McCook (v. I, p. 235) mentions a case in which a fish three and one-fourth inches long was captured and drawn from the water by a spider only three-fourths of an inch in length. More recently, Thomas Barbour has recorded the capture of small Cyprinodonts by spiders identified as Dolomedes tene- brosus (Psyche, 1921, 28:131-132). Distribution. *Ottawa, DeGrassi Point, Ont.; Truro, N. S.; Chelsea, DeGram Point, Quebec; Falmouth, Me.; Franconia, Three Mile island, Lake Winnipesaukee, N. H.; Vermont; New Haven, Simsbury, Conn.; Blandford, Mass.; Crosswicks, N. J.; West Chester, *“Shawanese lake, Pa.; in New York specimens examined from *Hemlock lake; *Gloversville; *Thacher Park, Albany county; *Mountain lake; *Berkshire, Tioga county; *Ithaca; *Valcour island, Lake Champlain; *Deer island, Thousand islands; *Keene Valley, Essex county; *Axton; *Manlius, Onondaga county; *Cold Spring Harbor, L. |.; *Juanita island, Lake George; Maryland specimens: from *Clearspring ; *Wolfville; “Hagerstown; *Meyersville ; *Cabin John; *Sycamore island; *Plummers island; Delescarlia reservoir ; *Great Falls; *Cedargrove; *Glen Echo; *Forest Glen and *Receiv- ing reservoir; *Rock Creek, *Potomac river, *Washington and “Bastern Branch, DD. 1©.; Falls’ Church, *Black _pond,;) *angley; *Scott’s Run, *Fort Monroe, Va.; *Clifton, Ky.; *Woodville Greenecastle, *Wilders, *Wyandotte, Ind.; Porcupine mountains, “Douglas lake, *Isle Royale, Mich.; *Ames, *Jefferson, Iowa; *Pokegama lake, Minn.; *Walhalla, N. D.; *Gambier, *Rockbridge, *Olive, and *Highland county, Ohio; Gangers, Ill.; Swannanoa val- ley, N. C.; *Memphis, *Beersheba, Tenn.; *Columbia, Mo.; *Baton Rouge, La.; *Billy’s island, Okefinokee swamp, *Thompson’s Mills, *Rosswell, Ga.; *Letura, Coosa river, Ala.; *Brownwood, Texas; PW ATCHe WiElaey cMOnumy timas wATiZ: 44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Dolomedes scriptus Hentz Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., 1845, 5:180, pl. 16, fig. 1 Dypen)Diojliommietde's scriptus Hentz; type specimen not known to exist Type locality: Alabama Female (alcohol): length 17.5-24mm; average of I5 mature specimens, 20.6mm; legs 4(2-1)-3, 39-35-35-33mm; pl. 22; pl. 24, fig. 2 Cephalothorax above light to dark brown; a narrow, median, light line originating between the middle eyes of the second row extends to the posterior margin of cephalothorax; in front of dorsal groove a pair of small, wedge-shaped spots clothed with short, black hairs (in a rubbed specimen, the spots are often absent) ; regularly curved, light lines, inclosing an oval area, extend from the median sides of the posterior lateral eyes to the wedge-shaped marks; thorax nar- rowly margined with black and on each side a broad, submarginal, dusky yellow band often broken into oblique spots; eye area dark. Eyes: anterior row in a slightly recurved line; median separated by about the diameter of one of them, a little larger than lateral ; lateral eyes less than the diameter of one of them from the median; posterior row strongly recurved, larger than anterior; the median separated by the diameter of one of them, a little further from the lateral. Clypeus dark brown to black, often with a median vertical light line. Chelicera reddish brown, clothed with mixed white and brown hairs, the white predominating. Abdomen: Anterior half of abdomen above dark brown with a median, light stripe bi- furcating posteriorly; on each side, an oblique, light line joins the median one near the middle of its length, the acute angle in- closed having its apex directed forward; at the juncture of the oblique lines with the median stripe, there is often on each side a curved, light line extending forward to meet the median line on the front margin of the abdomen; posterior half of abdomen crossed by three or four transverse, W-shaped white or yellowish white lines with the intervals between them brown or black; sides of abdomen light brown or grayish; venter uniform light brown. Legs and palpi with the ground color somewhat lighter than that of the thorax; above more or less distinctly annulate and bearing numerous dark brown and white hairs in patches, and conspicu- ous spines; beneath, lighter, yellowish or greenish gray; metatarsi and tarsi distinctly scopulate; coxae immaculate. Sternum dark brown with a median, often branched, light, longitudinal line. La- bium and endites brownish yellow, lighter distally. Eprgynium red- dish brown, broader than long with the median sides of the ‘ateral A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES A5 lobes evenly curved and extending forward about three-fourths the length of the epigynum; median lobe slightly excavated in front; behind, somewhat convex and attaining the posterior margin of the epigynum. Male (alcohol) : length, 13-16.25mm, average of five mature speci- mens, 14.5mm; legs 4-2-1-3, 40-38-37-35mm; pl. 23; pl. 24, fig. T. Body color and pattern in general like female; submarginal band of cephalothorax usually more distinct and often continued across the clypeus; chelicera yellowish; legs and palpi lighter, not annulate. Palpus: external apophysis of tibia near the middle of its length; broad, concave internally and armed distally with two large teeth. Median apophysis of the bulb well developed, narrow basally, broad distally and with the point turned toward the tip of the embolus. Synonymy Dolomedes scriptus Hentz, Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., 1845, 5:180, Mls Wy ake a Wiolome dels usieni pits Elentz, Occ. Papers, Bost, Soc. Naty iist.. 2) 1875, Dp. 38-30, pl. 6, fig: 1 Dolomedes fontanus Emerton Trans. Conn. Acad., 1885, 6:502, pl. 40, fig. 10 (male) Diotomedes tenebrosus; Emerton) ibid, p. sor, pli 40, fig. ‘oc (female nec male) Dolomedes: scriptus, Marx, Proc. Nat. Mus., 1890, 12:566 Dolomedes tenebrosus, Stone, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1800, 42 :433, pl. 15, fig. 8 Dolomedes scriptus, Banks, Ent. News, 1891, 2:86 Dolomedes scriptus, Banks, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1802, 44:73 Dolomedes scriptus, Banks, ibid., 1916, 68:82 (Banks’ specimens in collection of Cornell University are typical D. scriptus) Dolomedes scriptus, Banks, Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., 1894, 2:52 Dolomedes scriptus, Slosson, ibid., 1808, 6:248 D of omedes scriptus, Banks, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1901, 52:53 Dolomedes scriptus, Banks, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 19002, 25:216 Dolomedes tenebrosus, Emerton, Common Spiders, 1902, pp. 87-88, figs. 213-214 (female nec male) olomedes urinator, Montgomery, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1902, 54:586-590 (female) Montgomery described the female of D. scriptus but figured the epigynum of D. urinator) Dolomedes scriptus, Britcher, Proc. Onon. Acad. Sci., 1903, 1:129 (Specimens are in the collections of the American Museum) Dolomedes fontanus, Montgomery, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1904, 50:316-317, pl. 20, figs. 35-37 Dolomedes fontanus, Bryant, Occ. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 7, 1908, p. 79 olomedes fontanus, Emerton, Trans. Conn. Acad., 1909, 14 :210-211 Dolomedes fontanus, Banks, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bul. (2 LOTOM DAS : Dolomedes fontanus, Banks, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Rinitlaeaen@inene 33452 Dolomedes fontanus, Petrunkevitch, Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bul. 29, IOI, p. 541 olomedes fontanus, Comstock, The Spider Books Nee, Lore) p. 609, figs. 696-608; p. 118, fig. 114 Dolomedes fontanus Emerton, Trans. Roy. Can. Inst., 1919, 12:327 40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Remarks. This species, the Dolomedes fontanus of Emerton, is clearly figured by Hentz: It is the only species of the genus with the abdomen marked with transverse, W-shaped, white lines although this pattern is approximated by D. tenebrosus. The markings of the cephalothorax are likewise distinctive, being much more prominently developed than in the related species. Hentz specimens, taken in March, were immature and on such individuals the wedge-shaped patches of dark hair on the cephalothorax are often indistinct (obsolete) ; even mature specimens when rubbed lose these spots. [Emerton (1885) correctly figured the male palpus under the name D. fontanus; he described the female and fig- ured the epigynum as that of D. tenebrosus but later (1909) he called attention to the error and corrected it. Montgomery (1902) described the female under the name D. urinator and from the several specimens of both species before him selected one of D. urinator to figure the epigynum. Banks (1892) records the species from Ithaca but in his revision he states that his speci- mens were the young of D. tenebrosus. ‘These specimens are in the Cornell collection and are typically marked specimens of D. scriptus. Banks (1891) pointed to the right determination of the species when he wrote: “ What I feel sure is D. scriptus H. has the epigynum as figured by Emerton (1885) for D. tene- brosus.” Habits. Dolomedes scriptus is the commonest species of the genus in the north. The hundred or more specimens col- lected were all found in the vicinity of water where they fre- quent old docks and boathouses or hide beneath stones and rub- bish along the shores of ponds, lakes or streams. The females are most easily found and captured when burdened with their egg sacs or guarding the young in the nurseries; at such times they — seldom try to escape and attack vigorously anything thrust within reach. The males reach maturity a month or so before the females, which are ready to mate about July Ist in the latitude of New York. In August the egg sacs are made and carried about in the chelicera until the young are ready to emerge; the sac is then attached to a convenient weed top or fastened to the side of a rock crevice be- tween the strands that compose the nursery. The young moult at least once within the sac, escape through an opening at the bottom made by the mother, and shortly after moult again. For several days they may remain clustered about the deserted sac but if dis- turbed, they flow out along the strands of the nursery like a puff of smoke, a protective reaction to reduce mortality when attacked. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 47 An hour later perhaps they will again be found in a compact mass which resembles a curled leaf or a dried burr. After leaving the nurseries, the young are often found a considerable distance away, hiding in the grass and leaf mold. Distribution. This species is widely distributed in the east from Canada to Florida. Truro, Nova Scotia; Thousand islands, Ont. ; * Fort Francis, La Sienne river, Can.; * Bethel, Poland, * Wind- ham, Me.; * Hollis, Dublin, Franconia, Three Mile island, Lake Winnepesaukee, N. H.; * Hayward, * Woburn, Vt.; * South Meri- den, Conn.; * Ramsey, N. J.; * Kingston, Pa.; * Columbus, Ohio; * Ames, Iowa; * Falls Church, Great Falls, * Scotts Run, Va.; * Broadwater, * Cabin John, * Beltsville, Md.; * Washington, D. C.; * Woodford county, Ky.; Roan and Black mountains, N. C.; * Glen- haven, Tenn.; Hot Springs, Ariz.; Fort Collins, Colo.; * St Louis, Mo.; Auburn, Pratt’s Ferry, Alabama; * Arden, Fla. In New York State they are particularly numerous on the islands and along the shore of Lake Champlain and Lake George. Many specimens have been examined from * Valcour island, Lake Champlain; * Eliza- beth island, * Juanita island, * Pearl point and * Kattskill bay, Lake George; others from *Albany; * Ithaca; * Locke; * Slingerlands; + Cazenovia; * Onondaga lake; * Pike pond; * Burden’s lake, * Tackawasick pond, * Kinderhook lake and * East Greenbush, Rensselaer county; *Ashokan reservoir; *Merrill, Clinton county; * Chilson lake, Essex county; * Rider’s Bridge, Columbia county. Dolomedes vittatus Walckenaer ist Natwhns. Apts 1os7. 1347 (iyper Dolomedes vittatus Walckenaer; type specimen not known aan locality: Ogechee river swamp, Ga., April 1oth Female (alcohol): Length 19.5mm; legs 4-(1-2)-3, 41-37-37-34mm; pl. 24, oa se pl 25 Cephalothorax above reddish brown or greenish gray densely clothed with short, red or gray hairs; extreme margin with a fringe of long, dark hairs; a broad, submarginal band of short, white hairs, very conspicuous when dry, extends from the posterior margin of the thorax along the sides, and narrowing crosses the clypeus; in front of the dorsal groove, a pair (sometimes united) of wedge- shaped patches of brown or black hairs; head within the curvature of the posterior eyes, somewhat more elevated than in other species of the genus; behind the posterior eyes, a fringe of long, yellow- ish hairs directed forward; reddish brown color of dorsum continued forward to include the eyes and upper third of clypeus. Eyes: an- 48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM terior row slightly recurved ; subequal in size and equidistant, scarcely the diameter of one of them apart; posterior row strongly recurved, almost twice the diameter of the anterior; the median separated by a little more than half the diameter of one of them; about their diameter from the lateral. Chelicera dark reddish brown, clothed with long, dull yellow hairs. Abdomen above dull reddish brown to black clothed densely with short, brown hairs; on the anterior half, an indistinct, median, lanceolate mark somewhat lighter; first two pairs of muscle impressions made conspicuous when dry by small patches of short, white hairs; broad bands of short, white hairs, one on each side of the abdomen are continuous with those of sides of cephalothorax; from each of these bands, behind the middle of the length of the abdomen a pair of short branches ex- tend toward the disk; abdomen below, uniform reddish or grayish brown (yellow when dry) and densely clothed with mixed dull yel- low and gray pubescence. Legs: femori mottled with dark gray or brown on lighter ground in some, others more or less annulate; remaining segments above uniform reddish brown or indistinctly banded; legs below uniform dull brown or dusky with faint indi- cations of annulations. Sternum in old individuals dull brown, in immature specimens often with a light median line. Labiwm and endites reddish brown, lighter distally ; endites scopulate distally with long, dull yellow hairs. The epzgynum resembles that of D. uri- nator but is less than twice as broad as long; the lateral lobes, rather widely separated anteriorly, are half as far apart behind (pl. 24, fig. 3). There seem to be two color phases represented by females; in one the red tones predominate (usually old and mature specimens), in the other, gray. Male (alcohol): Length 19mm; legs 4-1-2-3, 51-49-47-43mm ; Ds Daly aater, V2 sol, AS In this species the male is almost as large as the female and the legs are considerably longer; both sexes have the same color pat- tern although it is often more highly developed in the male where the lateral light bands of the cephalothorax stand out in strong contrast with the darker disk. Anterior median eyes slightly larger than and closer to the anterior lateral than to each other. External apophysis of tibia of the palpus, broad, convex externally and pro- vided with two or three teeth at the tip; a large, blunt tooth on the tibia near base of apophysis, above and below; a cluster of basally stout, apically slender spines on the ventral side of tibia below base of apophysis. Femur of fourth legs beneath with a spinose hump. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES AQ Synonymy Dolomedes vittatus Walckenaer, Historie Naturelle des Insectes Apteres, 1837, 1:347 (Abbot, pl. 5, fig. 21) Dolomedes lanceolatus Hentz, Jour. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1847, S5:101, pl. 17, fig. 12 (male) Dolomedes lanceolatus Hentz, Proc. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 1868, II :103 Dolomedes lanceolatus Hentz, Reprint, Spiders of the U. S., Occ. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 2, 1875, p. 40 pl. 7, fig. 12 (male) Dolomedes tenebrosus, Emerton, Trans. Conn. Acad., 1885, 6:501, pl. 49, figs. 9a, 9b (male) Dolomedes vittatus, Marx, Proc. Nat. Mus., 1890, 12:566 Dolomedes lanceolatus, Marx, Proc. Nat. Mus., 1890, 12:566 Dio lomiledicismurmiimatotebanicse Oui Yen ent. SOG ToOs, 3. O (male) | Dolomedes urinator, Montgomery, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1904, 56:317-318 (male) olomedes urinator, Emerton, Trans. Conn. Acad., 1909, 14:211 (male) Dolomedes vittatus, Petrunkevitch, Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., IQII, 29:543 Dottomedes urinator, Comstock, The Spider Book, N. Y., 1012, pp. 612-613, fig. 701 (male) Remarks. Under the synonymy of this species, I have included besides the original description of the female by Walckenaer and the male (D. lanceolatus) by Hentz, only those references, which by their context, show that the male was under considera- tion. Banks (1891) in his -“ Notes on Some Spiders Described by Hentz,’”’ expressed the opinion that Dolomedes urinator and Dolomedes lanceolatus were female and male of the same species, and the decision has received general acceptance. But Walckenaer described and Abbot figured a female having the markings of the male described as D. lanceolatus and I have since found several specimens which agree in size, color and mark- ings to such an extent that it is impossible to reach any other con- clusion than that Dolomedes urinator is distinct and known only from the female. Emerton (1885) described the male of Dolomedes vittatus as Dolomedes tenebrosus but later (1909) remarked: “The male spider described by me in 1885 as the male of D. tene- brosus appears to be urinator or lanceolatus Hentz. I have not found females but have one from Pennsylvania sent me by Mr Montgomery.” Montgomery (1904) under his descrip- tion of D. urinator included an account of a male, using one of the specimens previously figured by Mr Emerton. I have seen this specimen through the courtesy of Mr Emerton and it is a typi- cal male of D. vittatus (lanceolatus); but Montgomery likened it to D. urinator which it little resembles. 50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Simon considered D. tenebrosus Hentz a synonym of Dolomedes rufus but figured (Hist. Natur. des Araignées, 2d ed., 1898, 2:302, fig. 309a) apparently following Emerton, the tibial apophysis of Dolomedes vittatus. Habits. This may be considered one of the rarer species in the north, particularly when the females are considered; at least they are not common in collections or abundant in the field. Abbot’s speci- MEM Wash enn aca keh nOt iy pill onimthemUOd\vMmOlmamthe cnn Ogechee river swamp, very rare.’ Hentz’s remarks, which apply to the male follow: ‘This spider is always found near or on water, running on it with surprising agility, preying on large aquatic in- sects. . . . This spider can dive and stay a considerable time under water, to avoid its enemies. It was found in March in Ala- bama under stones near a stream of water.” Emerton’s mature male was taken at Beverly, Mass., July 1, 1877, on or under stones near a brook; an immature male in the Fox collection at Cornell Uni- versity was taken at Glenhaven, TVenn., in June or July ; other males from Massachusetts and New York were immature in September and October. Females mature as early as the first week in June, per- haps earlier; one taken at Bee Spring, Ky., June 8, 1874, is the type of the figures here given, of the adult and epigynum. The males mature earlier in the season; one taken April 18th moulted May 11th (when it became mature) and died May 24th. Distribution. Hentz lists the species, of which he apparently had only males, from Massachuetts, North Carolina, South Carolina and Alabama. Banks had a male from Long Island; others from * Purgatory swamp, Milton, * Beverly, * Dighton, Mass. ; * Hollis, N. H.; * Green lake, Onondaga county, * New Rochelle, * Rensselaer, * Nassau lake, Rensselaer county, New York; * Falls Church, * Plummer’s island, * Black pond, Va.; * Cabin John, * Cedargrove, Md.; * District of Columbia; * Olney, Ill. ; * Raleigh, N.C. I have recently (June, 1923) found the females to be fairly common in a tamarack swamp near Voorheesville, N. Y. Dolomedes triton triton Walckenaer Hist. Nat. Ins. Apt., 1837, 1:340 Type: Lycosa triton Walckenaer; type specimen not known to exist Type locality: Georgia Female (alcohol): length, average, 19.5mm; legs 4-I-2-3, 209-26-26-25mm; pl. 27; pl. 30, fig. 2-3 Cephalothorax above greenish gray to reddish brown, clothed with short, dark brown hairs; a broad, submarginal, light stripe in the integument clothed with short, white hairs; extreme lateral margins A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 51 often black; back of posterior eyes an oval area lighter, inclosed by a narrow, yellowish white line; a narrow, light line through the dorsal groove extends to the second row of eyes. Eyes of anterior row in a slightly recurved line, median slightly larger than lateral and closer to them than to each other; eyes of posterior row in a strongly recurved line, equal in size or nearly so, one-third larger than anterior; median separated by a little less than the diameter of one of them, somewhat more than their diameter from the lateral. Lower half of clypeus with a dense band of short, white hairs which joins the lateral bands of the cephalothorax ; width of clypeus about 4 times the diameter of an anterior median eye. Chelicera yellow- ish or reddish brown, clothed with long, dark hair. Abdomen above varying from greenish gray to dark brown and bordered on each side by a broad band of white hairs more or less indistinct in alcohol ; on the basal half, a median, lanceolate, light stripe and two pairs of small, white dots; on the posterior half, four pairs of white dots in two widely separated lines between which are four minute, white dots, often obsolete or wanting in old or rubbed specimens. Legs above colored as cephalothorax, without distinct bands or stripes; below lighter; distal joints sometimes darker. Sternwm with three black dots on each side near the coxae. Labium and endites yellow- ish or reddish brown, lighter distally. Epigynwm median lobe is scarcely developed on the anterior half; posteriorly it separates the lateral lobes and terminates in a rounded hump (pl. 30, fig. 2). Male (alcohol): length, 13mm; legs, 4-1-2-3; 34-32-29-28mm ; DIZo ple sOxmtese TA General pattern as in female but with colors often brighter and tending more to yellow, brown or reddish brown; spots of abdomen usually quite distinct and lateral light bands, bright silvery white ; black spots on sternum often connected to form irregular bands. Femur of fourth legs beneath, in adult males, with a spinose hump (pl. 30, fig. 4). Palpus: the extraordinary development of the tibial apophysis immediately distinguishes this form from all other species of Dolomedes; it is greatly elongated, spoon-shaped distally and is somewhat constricted near the base (pl. 30, fig. 1). The bulb of the palpus resembles closely that of D. albineus. The form described above must be regarded as typical and it apparently occurs only in the south. A dozen specimens in the collections of Cornell University and the State Museum exhibit clearly those color characters described by Walckenaer* and figured 1 Walckenaer, Ins. Apt. 1837, 1:340, Lycosa triton. 52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM by Abbot.' Walckenaer’s description of the species follows: “Abdomen en ovale allongé fauve, a dos blanc sur ses cotés, et au milieu seize points d’un blanc-bleuatre clair, six de chaque cote disposés longitudinalement, et quatre plus petits placés sur deux lignes transversales au-dessus de l’anus. Corselet allonge fauve, borde d’une raie branche sur les cotés. Pattes fauves mouchetées de taches plus foncées.”’ The description fits Abbot’s figure except that he mentions six- teen bluish white points instead of fourteen as indicated in the drawing. [vidence that Walckenaer had a specimen before him is also indicated by the fact that he gave the length as nine lignes whereas the drawing is considerably larger. This is Abbot’s “ water - spider’? and the following note accompanies the drawing: “ Taken June 4th. It makes no web and keeps on the water in ponds, springs and brooks, running on the water’as 1f on the ground. It retreats under logs, boards etc., preying on the insects it meets with, prin- cipally such as fall into it, not very common.”’ Specimens having the wide thoracic band I have found only in collections from Georgia, chiefly from various localities in the Okefinokee swamp. Mature females were taken in June on Billy’s island; other specimens were taken from Minnie lake, Billy’s lake, and the surrounding cypress bays. Dolomedes triton sexpunctatus Hentz Plate 29, figures 1-2 This subspecies, which is the familiar form in the north, also occurs in all the South Atlantic states and differs in the arrangement and extent of the color areas and in the smaller size of the males. In this species the light integument and white-haired submarginal band? of the cephalothorax is reduced to a line which is not continued across the clypeus; the white spots of the abdomen are usually ar- ranged in two rows of five or six each, the posterior ones becoming indistinct in old or rubbed specimens. The females may be as large as those of the typical form, but the males average but 9mm in length. A large male from Georgia measures 13mm. The structure of the palpi and epigyna in the two varieties affords no grounds for their separation as distinct species although there may be slight dif- ferences noted in the shape of the tibial apophyses. In young mature males from the north, there is a more or less prominent spur or blunt tooth at the base of the apophysis which is reduced in older specimens and lost in the southern form. Dolomedes sex- ! Abbot, Georgia Spider, pl. no, fig. of. * The submarginal light band of cephalothorax often yellow in life. A REVISION OF DW INCE BELLS THE PISAURIDAE, OF THE UNITED STATES 53 Hentz is this subspecies, the name having reference to the six black dots on the sternum. Hentz figures an immature male and a small female.’ Synonymy Lycosa triton Walckenaer Hist. Nat. Ins. Apt., Dolomedes sexpunctatus Hentz, Jour. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 191, pl. 16, figs. 5, 6 Dolomedes SIG aipiilia this pl. 486, fig. 1354 Dolomedes sexpunctatus Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 5 1837, 1 :340 1845, Koch, Die Arachniden, 1848, 14:119—120, Hentz, Scudder’s Supplement, Proc. 1868, 11 :103, fig. 55 Dolomedes sexpunctatus Hentz, Reprint, Spiders of U. S., Occ. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 2, 1875, p p. 41, pl. 6, figs. 5, 6, pl. 18, fig. 55. Dolomedes scapularis, Keyserling, Verh. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien., 1876, 20:676, pl. 2, fig. 49 olomedes sexpunctatus, Emerton, Trans. Conn. Acad., 1885, 6:501, pl. 40, figs. 8, 8a Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Stone, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1890, 42 :433 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, McCook, American Spiders, 1889; 1 :347, fig. 339 (nursery web) Dolomedes sexpunctatus, McCook, American Spiders, 1890, 2:145, 146, figs. 177, 178; 3:24 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Marx, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1890, 12:560 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Davis, Ent. News, 1801, 2:77 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Fox, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 1891, 2:260 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Marx, Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 1801, 2:160 DOlOMEAES, GSsxpPWMEUE UWS, Bel lytoc, VAteal, iNet See Jamey 1892, 44:73 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Baker, Ent. News, 1804, 5:164 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Banks Ent. News, 1805, 6:206 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Emerton, Trans. Conn. Acad., 1895, 9 :428 ’ meeutcdiels sexpunctatus, Slosson, Jour. N. Y. Ent. Soc., 1898, 124 DOlOMeEAdESOS SEX PUMCHALMG, BemMkg) IPoe, Avaak INete Sek. IRailky IQOI, 52:538 DOlOMEAES SCHXMOHMCTAUWIG, Iekiniey “Obie ING NG Ison, Swen eon, 9 :186 Dolomedes figs. 210-212 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Phila., 1603, 55:654, pl. 20, fig. 5 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, i 91120) Dolomedes sexpunctatus, 1904, 56:130 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Phila., 1904, 56:314-315 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, 19 :192 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Nat. Res., 1906, p. 743 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Hist., 7, 1908, p. 80 sexpunctatus, 1 Spiders of the U. S., Emerton, Common Spiders, 1902, p. 85, Acad. Nat. Acad., RrocwAcadsuNaty Ser Montgomery, Proc. Sci. Britcher, Banks, Proc. Onon. 1903, Phila., Acad. Nat. Sci. Scheffer, Trans. Kan. Acad. Sci., Banks, Montgomery, Proc. 1905, 36th Ann. Rep’t Dep’t Geol. Bryant, Occ. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Rev/sy, yoy Zitiy (VL Coy aufeasy, info) 54 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, ZOD eat Seow OOD Dolomedes sexpunctatus, D. 53 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Emerton, Trans. Conn. Acad., 1909, 14: Banks, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bul. 72, 1910, Dolomedes triton, Petrunkevitch, Ann. Acad. Sci., 1910, 19:219-220 Dolomedes triton, Petrunkevitch, Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1911, 29 :542 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, 1QII, 53 :452 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, p. 614-616, figs. 704-706 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Dolomedes sexpunctatus, 1916, 68:82 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, brates, 1916, p. 432 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Bealies, Jesxorej Avenal, INet, Sei 1B oulle,,, Comstock, The Spider Book, 1912, Emerton, Ent. News, 1914, 25:118 Banks jb rocwyANcadyuNatsinsctumentlan Pratt, Manual of Common _ Inverte- Barrows, Ohio Jour. Sci., 1918, 18:313 Emerton, Ent. News, 1919, 30:168 Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Emerton, Trans. Royal Can. Inst., 1910, 125327, Dolomedes sexpunctatus, 459, 472 ; Dolomedes, sexpunicta tus.) Kraatz) Ohio! Jour )Sei.) 1o2T mene. Krecker, Ohio Jour. Sci., 1919, 19:440, Remarks. Comstock?! described two forms of the male, which he characterized as follows: “Type a—=In this form the width of the clypeus is about equal to the space between the anterior median eyes and the posterior median eyes; the posterior median are but little if at all larger than the anterior median eyes; the anterior row of eyes is longer than in Type 0; and the femur of the fourth pair of legs lacks the spinose hump characteristic of Type b. “Type b: This type of male is easily recognized by the presence of a spinose hump under the femur of the fourth legs. The width of the clypeus is two or three times as great as the space between the anterior median eyes and the posterior median eyes; the posterior median eyes are much larger than the anterior median eyes; and | the anterior row of eyes is but little longer than the row formed by the posterior median eyes.” I have been unable to find a mature male of D. triton with the characters of Comstock’s type a although material from many collections, including the Cornell University series, has been care- fully examined. The spinose hump on the lower side of the femur of the fourth legs reaches full development as a secondary sexual character with the moult that frees the palpal organs, although it may be indicated some time before by a few stiff hairs. Habits. Of all our species of Dolomedes this is perhaps the most truly aquatic. It is found in swamps, on marshes and ponds or the still reaches of sluggish streams, running on the surface or diving below to hide on the under surface of leaves or stems of aquatic 1The Spider Book, p. 614. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 55 aD vegetation (pl. 31). A film of air entangled in the hairy coat serves as a reservoir and disguise, and permits submersion for one-half an hour or longer. In the north immature males and females spend the winter hibernating in rubbish along the shores of ponds or streams or in the heaped up debris of muskrat houses. In May or early June the males mature and may be found in numbers, pur- suing over the water a solitary female who may not yet be ready to receive their advances; a little later, however, mating takes place and shortly the egg sac appears and is carried about until the young are ready to emerge. I have not collected the nursery web of this species but McCook* gives figures of two which are of the usual form. Dolomedes triton resembles in habits and markings the Dolomedes fimbriatus of Europe which is said to con- struct a raft of floating leaves used as a resting and watching place for passing insects. | Distribution. Newfoundland; * Winnipeg, Lake of the Woods, Ottawa, Aweme, Manitoba, Canada; * Hollis, Franconia, N. H.; Wellesley, Dorchester, Swampscott, Amherst, Reading, Dedham, Ipswich, Riverside, Wood’s Hole, Mass.; New Haven, Conn.; * Brittons, * Long Branch, Onondaga county, * Ithaca, * McLean, * Kenwood, * Albany, * Baldwin, * Grasmere Station, S. I., * Clyde, * Sodus Bay, N. Y.; * Trenton, * Lakehurst, Point Pleasant, N. J.; Philadelphia, Pa.; * Malta, * Columbus, Sandusky, Ohio; * Green- castle, * Buffington, Hammond, Lake Tippecanoe, Ind.; Libertyville, Glencoe ravine, Ill.; Agricultural College, Miss.; Douglas lake, Mich.; St George, Kan.; * Washington, Rock creek, Potomac river, District: of Columbia; * Baltimore, Hyattsville, Md.; Great Falls, Va.; * Raleigh, Swannonoa Valley, N. C.; * Minnie Lake run, * Billy’s island, * Billy’s lake, * Mixon’s Hammock, * Honey island Prairie Okefinokee swamp, *Fargo, Ga.; *Columbia, Spring- field, Mo.; * Baton Rouge, New Orleans, La.; Auburn, Gallant, Magnolia Springs, Ala.; * Beersheba, Tenn.; Lake Worth, Fla.; Austin, Texas. Dolomedes triton triton seems to be confined to the south. I have examined specimens from Billy’s island, Billy’s lake and Minnie lake, Okefinokee swamp, Ga. Several immature specimens from Olympia, Wash., in the col- lection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, are indistinguishable from D. triton sexpunctatus, but it is likely that mature individuals would exhibit characters at least of subspecific value. " eNrontearcann, Synalar, W14)) dy SES il A joy TAI) Sake Tidy 56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Dolomedes albiclavius noy. sp. Type: A mature female in the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass., Nathan Banks, collector Type locality: Springfield, Mo. Female (alcohol): length 22mm; legs 4-I-2-3; 47-40-39-38mm; pl. 32; pl. 33, fig. 4 Cephalothorax above deep reddish brown; behind the posterior eyes an oval area of lighter brown through the center of which a longitudinal, light line extends to the dorsal groove; sides of the cephalothorax each with a broad submarginal band of short, white hairs extending from the lateral margins of the clypeus to the pos- terior margin of the thorax and coincident with a light stripe in the integument. yes each surrounded with a narrow, black ring; spaces between with short, white, and scattered, long and stiff, brown hairs ; anterior row slightly recurved; the median, separated by less than the diameter of one of them, are a little larger than the lateral and closer to them than to each other; posterior row strongly re- curved, eyes subequal in size; the median slightly less than their diameter apart, one and one-fourth times their diameter from the lateral. Clypeus brown with indistinct patches of short, white hairs. Chelicera deep brown to black clothed with long, yellowish pubes- cence. Abdomen above uniform dark brown clothed densely with short, brown hairs; upper half of sides of abdomen with a broad band of dirty white hairs not very distinct in alcohol; lower half and venter brownish and covered densely with dull yellow pubescence. Legs above deep brown, indistinctly mottled on the femora and clothed with short, brown hairs; below lighter with mixed yellow and brown hairs; metatarsi and tarsi scopulate beneath. Sternum red- dish brown, darker on the margins, produced to a point behind and with the sides broadly notched at the bases of the coxae. Labium and endites deep brown to black, lighter distally. Epigynum: lateral lobes widely separated behind as in D. triton, the median lobe, from the posterior margin, extends forward three-fourths the length of the epigynum (pl. 33, fig. 4). The male is not known. | Remarks. This large and distinct species is evidently related to Dolomedes triton but differs from it in the structure of the epigynum, in its general darker color and lack of paired white spots on the dorsum of the abdomen. The legs are proportionally and actually longer in this species than in D. triton and the body more robust. Distribution. *Sprinefield, Mo., *Salt Lake, Utah; *Billy’s island, Okefinokee swamp, Ga. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 57 Dolomedes striatus Giebel Zeit. Ges. Natur., 1860, 33:252 Type: Dolomedes striatus Giebel; type specimen not known to ae locality: Illinois Female (alcohol): length 13mm; legs, 4-1-2-3, 25-22.5-21.5-21mm; pl. 33, mee, 168 Fol, Syst, ther, Cephalothorax above reddish brown, clothed with short, brown hair; back of the eyes an oval area, lighter, extending to the dorsal groove; sometimes a median, light line from posterior median eyes to rear margin of thorax through dorsal groove; on each side of cephalothorax a dusky yellow or white line extending from anterior lateral margin of clypeus to posterior margin of thorax; lateral, light lines parallel with the dorsal groove, not following margins of the cephalothorax. Eyes each surrounded by a black ring; eyes of anterior row subequal in size and forming a straight line; median separated by slightly less than the diameter of one of them, a little closer to the lateral; posterior eyes in a strongly recurved line; subequal in size; the median, separated by the diameter of one of them, are almost twice the size of the anterior median; posterior lateral separated from median of same row, by twice the diameter of one of the latter. Clypeus dark reddish brown with a median, vertical, light mark. Chelicera reddish brown clothed with long, yellow hairs and indistinctly marked with a net work of gray lines. Abdomen above dark brown punctuated with minute, light brown spots and clothed with short, dark brown pubescence; a median, basal mark dusky yellow, short in some, in others, lanceolate; on each side, a dull yellow stripe in the integument clothed with light yellow hair is continuous with the lines of the cephalothorax ; sides of abdomen with dull yellow pubescence; venter with several alter- nating stripes of dull yellow and brown from epigastric furrow to spinnerets. Femora of the legs above with three !ongitudinal stripes of gray on the reddish brown ground; femora below more or less mottled; patellae and tibiae less distinctly striped, reddish or orange- brown; metatarsi and tarsi clear reddish brown, not striped; coxae mottled with dark brown. Sternum dark brown to black. Labium dark reddish brown, endites somewhat lighter. Epigynum: anterior third of median lobe excavated, behind convex; lateral lobes strongly chitinized along inner edges, converging behind to a point on the oma, Ibnave, ) IMG B77, ihe. Th The male has not been described. 58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Synonymy Dolomedes striatus Giebel, Zeitschrift fur die Gesammten Natur- wissenschaften, 1869, 33 :252 Dolomedes striatus, Marx, Proc. Nat. Mus., 1890, 12:566 Dolomedes striatus, Banks, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bul. 72, 1910, p. 53 (Regarded by Banks as a synonym of D. tenebrosus Hentz) Dolomedes striatus, Petrunkevitch, Bul. Amer. Mus. Hist., 10911, 29:542 (Here considered as a synonym of D. tenebrosus Hentz) Dolomedes sexpunctatus, Emerton, Trans. Conn. Acad., 1900, 14:210 (in part) pl. 7, fig. 6 Remarks. The specimens described by Giebel from Illinois were small, only 6mm long, and doubtless immature. This species which has apparently been confused with Dolomedes triton Walckenaer, is distinct in size, proportions, color’pattern and struc- ture of the epigynum; in fact there is a strong superficial resemblance iO ID Kihwnprlawwug (Glherek)., Ika IDs weikO@M, woe’) Wysinti, longitudinal stripes of the cephalothorax whether narrow or broad are submarginal; in D.striatus, these stripes are parallel with the dorsal groove and a considerable distance from the lateral margins of the thorax. The abdomen of D. striatus above is uniform reddish brown except for the median, basal mark; on D. triton the abdomen above bears several pairs of small, white spots arranged in lines. The femora of the legs of D. striatus are conspicu- ously marked above with longitudinal stripes, characters lacking in D. triton. The median lobe of the epigynum in D. striatus extends to the anterior margin and the median extensions of the lat- eral lobes are contiguous behind; in D. triton the median lobe is confined to the posterior half of the epigynum and the lateral lobes are not in contact behind. D. striatus is one-third smaller than Det ton Abbe specinenm icine d Mma Mime tT comun (liaise Contne Acad., 1909, 14:210, pl. 7, fig. 6) is apparently this species. Habits.' Nothing has been written concerning the habits of this species but it is likely they do not differ greatly from D. triton in view of the fact that it has been mistaken for that species. The scopulate metatarsi and tarsi indicate that it, like other members of the genus, is in the habit of running on the surface of the water. A female with egg sac was collected at Bay St George, Newfound- land, in July; other mature females from Pine island, New York, September 8th. 1QOn September 3, 1923, a female D. striatus and recently hatched young were found in a nursey web attached to grass and weed tops in a swale near Kinderhook, N. Y. The nursery resembled that of Dolomedes triton or some of the late season webs of Pisaurina mira. The egg sac was comparatively small, about three eighths of an inch in diameter, and attached to one side of the mass of entangled weeds and grass. A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 59 Distribution. Illinois; *Stephensville Crossing, Bay St George, Newfoundland; *Pine island, *McLean, *Ringwood and *Ithaca, N. Y.; *Douglas lake, Mich. Dolomedes fulviatronotatus nov. sp. Type: a mature female in the collection of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. Type locality: Tamarac swamp, Pistakee, Ill, August 4, 1912, Nathan Banks collector. Female (alcohol): length, I1mm; legs 4-I-2-3, 21-20-18-17mm\; pl. 19, fg. /33) pl. 34) fig. 1 Cephalothorax above yellowish brown; in front of dorsal groove a pair of small, wedge-shaped patches of black hair; a broad, median band composed of irregular, dark spots in the integument and short, brown hairs, extends from the anterior ends of the wedge-shaped marks to posterior margin of thorax; a marginal row of irregular, black spots on each side of the thorax and a small, dark patch behind each posterior lateral eye. Eyes each surrounded by a black ring; those of the anterior row in a straight line, subequal in size and equidistant, less than the diameter of one of them apart; eyes of posterior row subequal in size, one-third larger than anterior, in a strongly recurved line; the median separated by the diameter of one of them, one-fourth farther from the lateral. The width of the clypeus is 3 times the diameter of one of the anterior eyes. Che- licera orange-yellow, lightly marked with dusky on the front and bear- ing irregular rows of long, yellow hair. Ground color of abdomen above, yellowish brown; on the anterior half, a median, lanceolate, black-edged mark; on the posterior half, three lines of black which converge at the tip of the abdomen, the middle line composed of irregular spots which diminish in size posteriorly, the outer lines irregular but continuous; on each side of the point of basal, lance- olate mark, a conspicuous, rounded black spot. Sides of abdomen dusky yellow with narrow, ill-defined, longitudinal lines of brown; venter of abdomen with three brown stripes extending from ept- gastric furrow to spinnerets ; the median distinct and separated from the others by the yellow of the ground color. Sternum dark brown with black spots each side near the margin and a median, light line on the posterior half: Labiuwm and endites yellow, lighter distally. Legs yellow with irregular patches of black around bases of spines and scattered between, more numerous below than above. Epigynum slightly broader than long; median lobe twice as long as broad, 60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM shallowly excavated in front; lateral lobes with strongly chitinized inner margins; the median extensions of the lateral lobes behind are short and widely separated by the median lobe. Remarks. ‘The diagnostic characters in so far as they are re- vealed in the female are those of Dolomedes, although in its color pattern it differs widely from other members of the genus. The anterior piece of the lorum of the pedicle is notched behind to receive the posterior piece, the lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera is armed with four evenly spaced teeth and the area of the median eyes is wider than long. The male is not known. Dolomedes pinicola (Hentz) Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., 1850, 6:287, pl. 10, fig. 14 Type: Micrommata pinicola Hentz; type spec:men not known to hamBe locality: South Alabama Female, immature (alcohol): length, 11.5mm; legs 4-(1-2)-3,17-(15.5- 15.5)-14mm; pl. 35. Cephalothorax light yellowish brown above thickly clothed with short, wavy, white hair; extreme margin with a narrow fringe of stiff, black hairs directed forward; cephalic part elevated more prominently than in the other members of the genus. Eye area dusky; anterior row recurved, median separated by one-half the diameter of one of them, one-third larger than the lateral and nearer to them than to each other; posterior row strongly recurved, eyes about equal in size; median separated by less than the diameter of one of them, a little farther from the lateral; posterior median twice the diameter of the anterior median; median ocular area broadei posteriorly than long. Clypeus with a broad, median, dark band the width of the anterior row of eyes; height of clypeus equals about two and one-half diameters of an anterior median eye. Chelicera dark brown clothed with long, white hairs; lower margin of the furrow with four teeth. Abdomen above dull yellow, finely reticu- lated and marked basally with a median, lanceolate stripe very slightly darker; sides dusky yellow; venter lighter with two lines of minute, brown dots extending from epigastric furrow to spin- nerets. Legs light yellowish brown above, about the color of the cephalothorax and clothed similiarly with white hairs; below lighter, particularly the coxae, trochanters and basal parts of the femora; A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 61 tibiae of the first and second legs beneath armed with 2-2—2-2 spines, the apical short, others long and overlapping ; metatarsi with 2-2-1 spines, apical short. Labium and endites orange-yellow, lighter distally. The male has not been described. Synonymy Micrommata pinicola Hentz, Bost. Jour. Nat. Hist., 1850, 6:287, pl. 10, fig. 14 MACROMMmMACA jOrMICOI ey Inlet, IPs IOs Sere Wen labise, seo) Ti :104 Micrommata pinicola Hentz, Occ. Papers Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 2, 1875, p. 60, pl. 17; fig. 14 Micrommata pinicola, Marx, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., 1890, 12:560 (Refers it to the genus Og -ale) Dolomedes aan Banks, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1004, 56 :136 VMAUMMASTA MilimMlCOle ewes, It 7a, (UL So Net Whee, CIO, fo, SH WMA MIMAGIA jolMNCoOlA Petrunkevitch, Ble Nine ten Vitis Nia teenie ITI, 29 :547 iti | Dolomedes pinicola, Comstock, The Spider Book, N. Y., 1912, p. 617, fig. 710 Remarks. Hentz not only figures the spider from above but shows clearly the arrangement of the eyes and the distinctive shape of the abdomen which is widest beyond the middle of its length. The venter of the abdomen in Banks’s specimen as in Hentz’s description, has two lines of minute, brown dots, extending from the epigastric furrow to the spinnerets. Mr Banks, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, kindly loaned me for study the only known specimen which he collected in Florida. Habits. In Scudder’s Supplement to Hentz’s Araneides of the United States,’ there is a note giving the following information: Tee ae oe .. found March 22, wandering on the trunks of trees like Thomisus.” Apparently nothing further is known of the habits of this species. Distribution. South Alabama, *Punta Gorda, Fla. THAUMASIA Perty Del. Anim. Art, Brazil, 1833, p. 192, pl. 38, fig. 5 Cephalothorax only slightly longer than broad, somewhat flattened above but with a well-marked posterior declivity. Eyes in two rows, the anterior slightly procurved or straight; median eyes of anterior row larger than lateral and closer to them than to each other; pos- terior row recurved, eyes about equal in size and somewhat larger ETOCMBOStSOC Nat mualistymloO7— Ine 104s 62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM than those of anterior row; posterior median about their diameter apart, a little farther from the lateral; median ocular area a little broader posteriorly than long (pl. 37, fig. 3). Width of clypeus varying from two to three diameters of an anterior median eye. _Lower margin of furrow of chelicera with three teeth, the last somewhat remote (pl. 37, fig. 2). Abdomen oval, longer than broad, widest at middle of its length. Legs 4-(1-2)-3 or (1-2)-4-3; long, moderately slender and armed below on tibiae and metatarsi of first and second legs with 2-2-2-2 and 2-2-2-1 spines, respectively. Paired spines of metatarsi long and overlapping; apical spine short. The anterior segment of the superior lorum of the pedicle is gently rounded behind and fits the shallow excavation of the posterior segment; lateral sclerites well developed and extending the entire length of both median segments (pl. 37, fig. 4). Type of the genus, Dhaumiasia senili's) Perty Mhiauimiaisia | Perty (Dels Anim yA Brazil 1823 prelo2) plaesoimonas: Thaumasia Simon, Hist. Nat. Araignées, 1808, 2:313 Thaumasia Pickard-Cambridge, Biol. Cent. Amer. Arach., 1902, 2:308- 309 Thaumasia peregrinus nov. sp. Type: A mature female, no. 9427, in collection of the New York State Museum Type locality: Hot Springs, Ark., June 27, 1901 Female (alcohol): length 19mm; legs 4-(1-2)-3; 44-(43-43)-35mm; pl. 36; PINB7, eS.) 1-4 Cephalothorax light brown above bordered by a light yellow, marginal band which extends from the sides of the clypeus to posterior margin. Short, dark brown hairs clothe the dark areas and light yellow hairs the lateral bands. Curved, light lines, extend- ing from the posterior lateral eyes to dorsal groove, inclose an oval area. yes: anterior eyes in a straight line; median, separated by a little less than the diameter of one of them, slightly larger than lateral and closer to them than to each other. Posterior eyes equal in size and about one-fourth larger than anterior median. Median ocular area almost as long as wide posteriorly. Clypeus dark brown with a median, vertical, light bar; its width equals the height of the median ocular area. Chelicera mottled with dark brown at base, light yellow distally, and clothed with mixed brown and yellow hairs; lower margin of furrow armed with three teeth, two of which are almost contiguous, the third somewhat remote. Abdomen above with a broad, dull brown band sharply constricted just beyond the middle of its length, and a basal, median, light mark. An- A REVISION OF THE PISAURIDAE OF THE UNITED STATES 63 teriorly, on each side of the middle, narrow, light lines extend to a transverse cresent-shaped mark in front of constriction; dorsal band bordered by light yellow; sides dusky yellow, darker towards tip of abdomen. Venter yellow; lighter in a narrow, median stripe. Legs reddish brown with interrupted darker bands on femora; below, uniform brownish except femora and coxae which are lighter. Sternum dusky yellow with three indistinct grayish spots on each side; it is prolonged posteriorly between the hind coxae. Labium longer than broad, reddish brown at base, lighter distally. Endites yellow. Epigynum,; the lateral lobes are somewhat convex, slightly longer than broad and meet on the middle line anteriorly; the external openings are beneath the posterior free margins (pl. 37, fig. 1) HG Male unknown. Remarks. This species undoubtedly belongs in the genus Thaumasia, as defined by Simon and Cambridge but resembles Dolomedes in general appearance. The armature of the legs and lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera and the arrangement of the eyes and suture of the superior lorum of the pedicle is char- acteristic of the genus and quite sufficient for identification. This species is considerably larger than most of the described members of the genus and outside the normal range, other species being con- fined to subtropical or tropical regions. ant fal! : be, spi Wey | hares irae | & \ Te \ eV Ah ae | i wet } mikey Wess ai tee EXPLANATION OF PLATES Plate 1 65 Haat PVN cog aNty Ue thy A i, i Meas Wit Y ¥ in we ! ; WE ux : hw Nite i [he o) , int ‘ 4 H ny re , th i - i ‘ iy ! hy ny i His I \ \ : hs We AL iv tee : Ain TAY A ‘ * i ; , ( uit) ; ' rer U ne i i , Ae SPATS Say 7 vad oy ASME? Bit i i] 7 i Neen A : , \ \ \ COSA TN ay bhighiie nya} a VA ot { i) adult fer ay i\' ay VA nt eee es val | ay 4 f anatidius dubins (Hentz) en Ane ( a, Hens NOL Mealy Mi Pata! Heayne STAN tN Ne een ou Plate 1 ues : ; Dy ih Ore ae ott Tere poe | Ay ‘ 7 veer Pevensey e Ae Sone Sgt bred ew hl sp veya Tk a af ht Let, ek Ba a ee Hy tHe Be 8 oO ye } ‘ De heures Yai if | ie x " nr . ~ oY DAK Gi Sr Eto Hinged ; } i eRe na SP ed 1s Sv SRR ee MEE ERE ERED fu} LA alae We t 1) ARG Rea Hive EO SRO OT AONB ‘ eT > fern ON ; te KOR ANP sn ee t } . ies ash jon Aa ni Po U i ai +) ‘4 : r i" Ors / no U * sia) a DRA UMOEH Ey CO FEV MT ONT! Ebaat ye dal me eely ; IAM teh § Ny, Pare n i with WD) tye sty Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. wm BW bd IMAM CoG wWS wemblis “Calee,) Epigynum Eyes from in front Adult female from above. x2 Superior lorum of the pedicle Claw and lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera 68 Plate 2 LR ae ge ] 2 rf ‘ iy ry AY AN eT Rnee Mery TA Va teed CLM: Sn wiser hoa gar AR el , i tid { fitsay aya nt Ith Hi Nt aN, i bi i -Pelopatis undulata (Keyserling) — Mt te yelp ( ayer pay hee ra Oe ad ee emaleysd2 5 A Wlaikes 382 Plate 3 i Nh hil Hi ih fakin Mh t " i aay DER Pa fi DUP yee ry Raa Nae ann }, iY i, vee ! ’ “Catthtonyaed peek BT AY Ty tts Uh wi Hi) i pan ne Bt RO PEO . ¢ ye Mi) a by BIEN SAN a h| rmotans iA if RANA iE, Agua? pn ee ED AO EYE ST A Tec ECE Bsa | Ciara tL ) ' hay \ NAM a Nee Hai ae tl ‘ at ay i! DY ae ey AY ay nN Aig We A ara ; j bie Shy § cho lANNTED Ih PALL tt +i Ni vty Wey \ i AAs a, NN Mi alata. t i : Ny Ate Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. wm BB ®W NO Pelopatis undulata (Keyserling) Palpal organ of male Eyes and chelicera Epigynum of the mature female figured in plate 3 Claw and lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera Superior lorum of the pedicle 72 Plate 4 amy Ae, +4" ed herd pete Whe Feltat ory, it ty Ay ff A ) voy die Yee SRN, iy yet ey sv : ne ATK ie saath he a ie tare fh Ki Sn ty ist nt (bey Vt wed aS. . Lue. t vets (eben sh re aN RU on Atl ' Pay ies ‘ Avia i e pHi UV Ny bp ye yy | Hy px ' i ‘i i : ie | it i i Wh Ni A a es yy MTR ROH ITY Pisaurina mitra _ (Walckenaer) Ishi, it) JNehbie temas, 202, | Uyjorcall eolloie ioatiinescn Pigs) 2) oNdult maales (xi2iy iypical colon pattern 74 Plate 5 * ' Mi a f 2 th 7: rere Vie i) ANON OR (oi hi ght an it i ates ( het wy , Ae ue SUR OR YS ica Aly i PORT yah f Se AUR BL et s picuypalasnittin eat 1 Hie i SASL yi a) ny! iri Neat Coosuootola yy Miele Ws tienes ation e ts Sit 4s na a ih {i eh anh Pre igi Plo i ty, rong ‘wel Reinontorton aloo A Weld? NobA here ae pain, ah BOL) ho eters) alba! eh / sis My, ‘ OL OE Mena i DOT RNR Te ate Ht Ani Ge i ae ay aid i yi 1 me PISA wietmia mira | OWellekanaer)) Fig. 1 Adult female. x2. A color variety with an indication of the|patternvon Ey mutimanw vat mri uno Tinteliatra Fig. 2 Adult female. x2. Dark variety 76 | | 9 23 Vir | aT rasta NY onlay i , ; ; 1 Neate ey y v, Hela RS adhe Late Dat a a) Hae uxt) bh pha in : SST ras th Reeve oe / i { Wi Loo ar hs tim) A ‘ he ‘Laer Oe NI tines Radar AL i i Ney TA yt) Cig Pig Haren Vi u hey age N) Wise yh ee f a at Cae Lon ip \ « ¥ Me ok L } he vir ‘\ hs ss " Lt 1 i$] ear chan ier ee be EG mG 7 ie a9 Uh uy ee } va When 8 h NY i Ny ly rigeshy ib me (tian yi enais ty wily v ; Hi) Bran ice 1 ar iy al i At yh mr MM fh ti i pa ’ i | seal Havap say AE ai \ it pool Ly } A a evan Ki ams Lat Hoy RN ] iAtileiheevih ol i] t hie \ ( any LAR Ji \ Wea Tay a RA LLP) ‘ate NMR hat { if Be : | He if il , Le aN MVM Maths lp MONI SU LAM DH Bett, i 1 si Hai | NaN fi Ri EOP ORME vent} Me REY Ee seed an it : Mi [et NARA MNRAS TNA MTS UTA NIUE ER DRS 1 Way M } Hii j ANTM SIH SATAY Hh ath ig, MSA elie, alice swale, Siloti eee, Wem, | 2x 2, MN, 2 NS a biciin a lice yin es \leneccom ices, x 2 78 Plate 7 NAAT iia uk RD i i pI Hea MeL} Vay) vy wit ele Mh Fig. 1 Fig. 2 lee, Fig. 4 Pisaurina mitra (Walckenaer) Female carrying egg sac (enlarged) Female, dark variety, with the abdomen distended with eggs (natural size) Female, typical variety, removed from nursery and carrying a recently made egg sac (natural size) Female, dark variety, removed from nursery and carrying egg sac (natural size) 80 Plate 8 ees ex Sa itty Wee F lp a m Me TN e En RY iy i; ; } Ny ¥) HANY ral ni f if . AVN wea EL dA Pi. bets kt Ove re Une PO REA ave A) eelateno) ey. Bietborty aoek be Vana Zh . arc NGG tad eS eran. Lnoetahiok i Pi vy, 4 LAD Mads ooh ca ON be? Mamaia eMail bAATAIDed Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Ow BW DND Pisaurina mira _ (Walckenaer) Palpal organ of male Superior lorum of the pedicle Claw and lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera. Eyes of female Epigynum of typical variety Epigynum of Risaurinia mara var subunit lata 82 Plate 9g pata Ns Cah Sadi ; wilted Sh Lite Lia ith desi f ij sat, A, 4 wht kee hoe Si fai + aa var Ger oo via Tay ih ia MAPS te 1 Epes ah y i (sey hi alae) nae i a Wes Us. piri ating a eh Ll sen N , Ms eae «| Perey f : Af ho 2 Wr it ite mit i i Ate Waly HU AW Gat 4 a va ney if try its £4 hg ; " NSH iOe Attn ia! oT A ARLE OD ae NE UN UN OMe me tes) er. Oe eet inet i ‘ whee roe’ ‘a Wins Baan i anh Ces ap . DAM AC Rie ane seae Dm MY Rein ii J \ } 1 Lauree Hh TAG NA tai UR VAM je a 4 Web y ies i \ j Oe AIDA th fic) He on i a aye Nah Fig. 1 The beginning of the nursery of Pisaurina mira (Walckenaer). Leaflets of poison ivy (Rhus ) pulled together and fastened with a few strands of silk Fig. 2 The nursery (female and egg sac inside) with a silken flom spun across the opening between the leaflets 84 g ey O I 181d eh rg i \ ase lal iy i at Ar prise ia Moa cetera! Yala mS, atl our yeh aE Ng a see ht : ; ly Af ie HART: : ; rem uae tan) Per ae \ Plate 11 Ment Hata a tse he ah Mya ibe (iy i i i i Mey \ieayaton iy POUCA A late season nursery of Pisaurina mira _ (Walckenaer) expanded to accommodate hatching young. Photo by J. H. Comstock 86 Ten Plate La hal eae f te ype (ae) Che Wee AN a i i } eS Li Sa Ny My f mee); Ay Seyi. i x} RP ri i a a ri ieee ug ei i teow hh Pe tlh <7 lp Av? oe Hing, A} h Canton iI 4 ATL Wee gu Eom ar ata Meath", i 4 io ie ela fi i) i aig Ad af ei 1) (oe rer ae ieee rae Hl) i id ie , 7 11 ole iu At) Vil bay 7) yy Wa ti) oi oe . ye ‘i nit | y a) SAN ii UWA A Oy, an } ig! r i i) \ Wii i AeA ae yy 04 at iat ) "% } oh yea til 1 y Mah | 4 ‘ { | \ pita) Li bi ee Ll te By t y fp ; i i; } { i ! ; j ‘ 1 Mt 4 I + n A ii ; \ eye! OP fhe! if ‘te be } ' H f HA 1 \ ' [ : i , i i i ( { { pPlatepran hth) i | Mg ue ROL Bin Sr Dynes at : 7 Wt i et een init a i Aa i Dolomedes albineus Hentz, female. - x 2 88 Plate 12 eo Shi Pe al) " fire a > ie | f é i ‘ pe 7 ve > t Va ice M 4th 1 ‘ ni hl : a hil Tee bi i) , hime ht HA Mates tins ' / Fm Ces an) ql ae yee if F iy if ++ a SN { ' Hah, fw LD Dah r, , : i | 7 i Ng Sarita (4 ; . ‘ BAL ht ’ it Kia ae ne agi i ' ’ ag! 4 (iP a fe , LU rt | +O . AT} + ial) aL WI) \ Rear nner eB alis : eT 8 : i A) oth ha = AA a 5 i i ye Fi \ $0 ilies ans ; Dp al aM i 7 : : ' I [ a ve fbn i i i Pei file ’ I . yess ruins a8) i ) f # 7 : : i A 1 : a , in , ‘ . l f el Win, ' + Pal A ; ; marth a a Aha) rota) wwe ; ah a . 7 Py etn 13 m Ant ‘} pe. HN 7 ¥ 2 » 7 pune M ‘ +. at Vr x * ’ , ‘ ( a / _ me ‘ 1 ie : : i U Dy iPaghe ale Els 5 h inne! | aA * Fi ee r 1 ide My : ¢ ut f i re ' y ah fet ae y fi Ban ionlt TA) os Bs Me : AG ; ah OOM oe ois Sew MEN ae oes 1 AS hha i Vote hn * yw) * iy Seite Yn ‘ y : i i Dr ye Na, he aS ENS Le ( a ey i ie. f See he - ! ny Lash { NT arenar ys 1 as | ; ‘ POA LOnAlY ti) TASTER EN ce Oe ioe Haein aeest uta? sig Vente bene AE Ty ' 1 | ‘ A Seda! NG Wawenyee tre ay eat s | Thies cal FUE, ST i ' Mite pi iN) =i ; ee , ; Bb Me ENID WLAN H ANNs Arie BOL yt PT ey, TAL ticle ty Ay ve ti VF lie ie VAL _ tae ‘ Dolomedes alibinene Brim mk, <2 Peso 0 Plate 13 eoeent ~~ aE ee rie Et = f i BTA es Wage | 7: ' a a: , Jatiohanayunlevies Niagara Ren rosea tried a ig AG | VU) de ; i i | yi i r "| tri) art Aha Aha j a NG ee aes eat ae ee, Wey PS Filmes lee Pg Ey aA Italiane yuh)! Era hae aa a ita PY Wht o ani i 1 Ht oe Aj ¥ Asta) whl PAT ¥ i Munn ae Va Le } Avtge ML Ngee ie - seh Ale hat ie nil Brit. Whi Nay Dolomedes albineus Hentz Fig. 1 Palpal organ of male Fig. 2. Epigynum Fig. 3 Venter of abdomen of female 92 Pris) sais a7 iy ey Pls 74 , Or en ty wT Ay oe Male +e SL ph ges ass Rone SAT COME gta AL eas & EN \ Ader ci i) nee eae Lee we tan ot * 4 ities Y. ys Pere aty Pras v4 thet Habitat of Dolomedes albineus )Mentz, | Upper reaches of the Suwanee river near its source in the Okefinokee swamp, Ga. The spiders cling to the bark of the cypress and tupelo trees, run freely over the surface of the water or dive beneath and cling to submerged objects to escape their enemies. 94 CI 931d 7 s7h'e at a ohne td Veritas tga Ve Eee ah i NAG PB me Vy bit Plates 167) 1) eos k Dolomedes urinator Hentz, female. x2 96 Plate 16 BAER pie : s Habitat of Dolomedes triton triton (Walckenaer) A “run” between lakes in the Okefinokee swamp, Ga., filled with lily pads and bordered by cypress trees festooned with “ Spanish moss.” 126 : CI woe oe Hit b : on altuna Ao Nea Ly: nO ie) Beate ‘ ‘i ny | i Ae Dolomedes albiclavius nov. sp., female. x 2. 128 Plate 32 4) 7 yi! ae z ‘ PM via reper Ene aah, ‘ ' ) “anil mo Hyie Ne ‘a a) r | se ; Ryans Ne ne 7 ii ‘ i i iil Mita hy Ag op eT i en , 7 ery 7 sae f an F eli ae ne oF at ry OA A Ay : staid ee rise Pe ea itty me) ABS MeO Sa ae ot thy , Y , Mal A pane’ . ey tha i i iarnomebemeree eamlitsteya Mai hawks teeesetnalen a ‘elb neiete ra : Arce mth gba sas (nie ani i2 a or, \ " WVeoe Ly Ne J vig AM Ae! Brut pent } } i vi lee 08} heat Lien a VLR ey | Na i} Sone nih aL ear aint NES teat MAN inet aan Fig. Pic, Vig eg. Pig. ie, iw? BR WN 4 Epigynum Epigynum Epigynum Epigynum Epigynum of Dolomedes striatus Giebel HE MINAnAenaiws Gdwiotiws laleinex of Dolomedes turinator Hentz of Dolomedes albiclavius nov. sp. Ol 2 suStacUT ya awe Datenvatepieronmn @ttaei tom) 130 Plate 33 wy ie x as 4 Saas ag U = a Vaal Ws j ey aia tene ds Ae nc en) Gate All Cg inae ny ed rg afd la's 4 Vy ae Me, i IDGL@OnAeG@es fulviatronotatus KeMmele, 362 Fig. 2 Dolomedes striatus Giebel female. 132 nov. x Sp., ee 0 ae Em Plate ay ar ale a nel NA Oe cea Ut WON fed WONT Ree ia it eva NG 3 pate y fod srt ee, ae i ha dear i “4 ie. it i, a ik % viv an ANT) NN) VAs actly tre rh! Riipalnaty yee 8 bit Mee es ks er a> we fi iV) . ; ; £ wy at Ns anon BY podi aaa fidy lta sere tee ipa ‘ Dolomedes pinicola (Hentz), female. SA yaaa Plate 35 id i, ey ay ¢ F aN 4 s) ¥ a \ceaaye ‘ toe #50 1 Tee bet ey 4 fy r t ‘ i < i ‘ 1G any lie ; oy , > es A Ley A a) $ mone mr : , any. FE i Ler J tihy ; 4 ned at Lav 7 5 ANE. ial iy Ft 4 a be i } : My | nae I 3 aay ; : f Fe as ROTTS HC tg : Rina ates et ry aah ip ecu : | ssa Phe ey bantad f \ y ! f thee Mma i i \ . iy ' ! { j i i { ¥ A ; 1 ‘ i ” 0 f . 1 i i a i E i ‘i it i , f t ‘ : r hale Ue eT Wo ' } cbt I | ‘ i , ’ f P F |! is iy 1 ‘ fi ; | . ; } r \ ' -! fi : ‘ i i i J é ) j j i i 7 | { 1, ' aL ti ' i Thi Wald | i ; } ae y i 1 ' 1 1) * t fits re 2 Mo OW, : ley Ni ‘| ri i bh i 1 it i “ | he 1 HA F Dt ! ‘ i a \ i Sy i a m 1 : iy) Vi Ay ery q barn ‘ mi ‘ f : a} a i J + May (Oy ' ie " =)! yey " Wt y - Sook . ¢¥ | H ‘ wy { j Pye: j . j } eres Cr veer) i oT) fi, i P i ih ’ = hee i vw f ae OR ' VEE og va F pie : 1 } rae ad X ; be ; ; Bas . vA eet ne i efi i va ri i ‘ i} . re thi n y i i va edi r ‘1 j rs fi ’ Pier ; : yy ‘ 1 [ = * rc 4 ie Te uy wh (7 pate" 4 wl s i i Phy aid Pyle Pag i wre - Wort co é io Ve" r LA / a i : : ft os ew ral aay SAE YE Tete ee el ee Nag! iw d draped igh gah arg lay er 7 » 1 1 » iv } 1 Vials Hy ¥ ‘ jy ee te L / : : if ae eee Fi ad agen ch ie say m4 \ : — r ' ph fi MV ne hy : ‘ ns ; ; i a ey I : y a. : J 5 i a i Thaumasia peregrinus nov. sp., female. x2 136 mk ee aa Plate 36 oa ae thee et ty on GG a Hey Ay d ee wy in it nate rah Doni! & 2 37 eT ha ADH Dk a Le aa T, sohdabeauphatn tical ane f gets Ua uN ak “ Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. YQ B&W Hb 4 Thaumasia peregrinus nov. sp. Epigynum Claw and lower margin of the furrow of the chelicera Eyes of female Superior lorum of the pedicle 138 Plate 37 Tw ¥) palin ee ‘te INDEX Page numbers referring to descriptions are printed in black face type. Abbott, John Thomas, drawings by, CTL vee Gin Cited ns Acknowledgments, 6 Aldrich, Dr J. M., acknowledgment to, 6 Alexander, Dr Charles P., acknowl- edgment to, 6 Aranea rufa, II, 12 Banks, Nathan, acknowledgment to, 6, 61; cited, 11, 14, 35, 46, 49 Barrows, William, acknowledgment to, 6 Berland, Dr L., acknowledgment to, oyun Ke) Blanchard, Dr Frank N., acknowl- edgment to, 6 Cambridge, cited, 12, 20, 63 Chamberlin, Dr R. V., acknowledg- ment to, 6; cited, II Chrisp, Hugh P., acknowledgment to, 6 Comstock, J. H., acknowledgment to, ORy cited wal4znca Crosby, C. R., acknowledgment to, 6 De Geer, species of, II; cited, 35 Dolomedes, 16, 30 aerugineus, 12 albiclavius, 32, 56 albineus, 32, 33 binotatus, 12 convexus, I4 fontanus, 13 fulviatronotatus, 32, 59 hastulatus, 13 idoneus, I5 lanceolatus, II, 13 lineatus, II marginellus, 13 mirus, 12 oblongus, 12 okefinokensis, 32, 33, 38 pinicola, 60 TUS scapularis, 12 SChIPLUSWRU2 wel unT CAG 2 Nine QNNAlal sexpunctatus, II, 13, 14, 15 Sthiatus! 145 15) 32, 57 tenax, 13 tenebrosus, 13, 15, 32, 33, 40 (EMOYM, 14) 1B} ZL, THs) ey.) eas triton sexpunctatus, 52 triton triton, 50, 55 Uninatormwis32 036 vernalis, 15 virgatus, 12 VALCAEUIS Winiylauel ols OM Aly Emerton, J. H., acknowledgment to, 6, 30; species described or men- tioned by, 14; cited, 35, 42, 46, 40, 58 Ewing, H. E., acknowledgment to, 6 Explanation of plates, follows page 63 Fage, Louis, 20 Giebel, species of, 14 Harper, Francis, acknowledgment to, 6 Hartman, Fanny T., acknowledgment to, 6 Henshaw, to, 6 Hentz, species of, 13 Hunter, Dr S. J., acknowledgment to, 6 ‘ Samuel, acknowledgment Keyserling, species of, 15; cited, 15 IWochm@ ispeciesiion mia ncited wes Lutz, Dr F. E., acknowledgment to, 6 ! Lycosa punctulata, 11 rabida, II triton, II Lycosidae, Io [139] Montgomery, “McCook, tek 43 Maypacius floridanus, 5, 14, -Micrommata carolinensis, WL marmorata, 14 pinicola, 14 serrata, 14 Wsubintataymiani2s undata, 14 species described or mentioned by, 15; cited, 28, 42, 46, (49 Ocyale rufa, 12 undata, 14, 15 _Pelopatis, 16, 20 undulata, 21 ‘Petrunkevitch, cited; 11; 12, 13) 14) SD a i -Pisaura brevipes, 5 Pisaura (Dolomedes) mirabilis, 12 Pisauridae, 5, 7 characters of family, 7 descriptions of genera and species, 16-63. family relationships, 9 key to genera, 16 list of species, 11 references to literature, Io revipes, 23, 29 _ Schoonmaker, W. J., v1 ment to, 6 MUA iene LN GEO acknow 7 Shoemaker, to, 6 tioned (pe 1s etleal 13, 14, 35, 50, 63 Smith, Dr Eugene A., ment to, 6 Stryke, Anna Clegg, -ackn i vot Thanatidius, 10, 16 dubius, 15, 17 . tenuis, 18 Thaumasia, 16, 61 peregrinus, 62 Thomisus? dubius, 14, 15 tenuis, 14, 15 Thorell, T., cited, 30 a 35, 51 ie a | Wright, Dr A. H., acknowledgment 10}, © New York State Museum Onn M. CLARKE, Director Wein ee if FACOOL UM | | # DIRECTOR, @ OF ‘THE STATE MUSEUM ey SPN we Ge Cuil production Ornithology Paleobotany Paleontology Pharmaceutical plants Place names Plant diseases Publications Quarry products Reptiles, study of Spiders, investigations upon Water insects Zoology; collection, preparation and investigation of all forms of animal life in the State. TIGUS, INE SCOIRIE SIT IN, WU SBOE eS SKOUCILAN ANION The New York State Museum Association was organized in 1910 and has been revived this year. The object of the association 1s to bring into closer relationship with the State Museum all citizens of New York State who are interested in such scientific and other sub- jects as are included within the scope of this Museum. Member- ship carries no personal obligation. The service which this association undertakes to render through its staff of scientific experts is to give information to all interested in the subjects which are enumerated on the preceding pages and to suggest courses of reading or study in these lines. To those who are making collections in natural history, information as to procedure and as to the location of suitable sites for such collecting will readily be given. Museum Reservations Provision for the improvement of the parks in the State under the legislation of last year enabled the expenditure of funds for very necessary repairs and betterments at the Clark Reservation, Squaw Island Reservation, Stark’s Knob Reservation and the Lester Park Reservation. In carrying out these betterments the Director has had the cordial and generous cooperation of the Commissioner of Conservation. Under still more recent legislation the Director of the Museum becomes a member of the State Council of Parks. 14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Cooperation The Museum cooperates with various official agencies whose work requires technical information in educational, scientific or administra- tive lines, or with which it works in a partnership relation for the accomplishment of some definite end. Some of these activities are noted here: 1 The United States Geological Survey and the Bureau of the Census in gathering and compiling statistics relating to the mining and quarry industry 2 The National Research Council in the solution of problems in paleontology 3 The Conservation Commission and the United States Bureau of Agriculture in the control of the gipsy and brown tail moths 4 The Conservation Commission in the enforcement of the con- servation law as it concerns the birds, mammals and fishes of the State 5 The State College of Agriculture and the Agricultural Experi- ment Station at Geneva in the study and control of noxious insects 6 The State Department of Farms and Markets in the control of fruit and vegetable insects and the enforcement of quarantine laws 7 ‘The National conferences on state parks 8 Official conferences on the welfare of the national parks Q The State Indian Commission in its educational and adminis- trative work bearing upon the interests of the Indians of the Commonwealth 10 The United States Indian Commissioners and the Federal Commission of One Hundred on Indian Affairs 11 The State Farm Bureau organizations in work upon insect and plant disease control 12 The Public schools of the State in the preparation and dis- tribution of publications relating to the animal and plant life of the State Proposed New Museum Building Not long after the State Museum had occupied its present quar- ters in the Education Building, it became quite evident that the space allotted for it would not be adequate for the science museum alone, and by 1916 the Director had designed a plan for a new and independent museum building, going so far as to secure from the administration of the city of Albany the allotment of a site for this suggested building. The plan was purely an expression of the needs of the institution without any substantial hope of realization REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 15 at that time, but on the occasion of the rededication of the State Museum in 1916, when Colonel Theodore Roosevelt delivered the principal address of the program, the building was brought to his notice as an expression of the realization of the museum as outlined in the statute of the State. With the creation of the Roosevelt State Memorial Commission in 1920, this plan or the idea and the necessity which it embodied, was brought before the commission and accepted by them eventually as an alternative proposition for their con- sideration and approval, the other being a plan to erect a cenotaph hall of great magnitude as a part of the facade of the American Museum of Natural History in New York City. The merits of the two proposals were studied with infinite care by the commission, and on a final vote this commission of six members was divided 3 to 3, so that it became necessary to report to the Legislature the findings of the commission in that form. In consequence of this situation, bills were introduced in both houses of the Legislature of 1924, pro- viding for each of the plans; that of the State capital city and that of New York City. While the debate upon the merits of these claims has not at this time been determined, the effort on behalf of the Museum authorities to interest the public in the welfare of the State Museum has been most productive of expressed concern from all over the State and has thus resulted in more widespread knowledge of the State Museum, its statutory claims and its actual functions and activities. A new outlook which carries favorable intimations for the welfare of the State Museum is presented by the recommendations of Governor Alfred E. Smith for additional buildings to meet the requirements of the enlarged administration of state business. The appointment of a commission to make recom- mendations in this matter should naturally lead to the inclusion of the Museum within the plans of this building project. Committee on Geographic Names The Legislature of 1922-23 repealed the law creating the State Board of Geographic Names. This board was created by statute in 1913 with the Commissioner of Education as ex officio chairman, Director of the Museum as Secretary and Executive Officer, and with three members appointed by the Governor. It never drew an appropriation, never cost the State a cent, but during its existence accomplished no little good work in regulating the introduction of new place names and in compiling and explicating the existing names. Its reports were printed on occasion with the annual reports of the 16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Museum. The reason for the repeal of the law creating this board was chiefly the fact that it had no dependence on or con- nection with any other department of government and it was the expressed feeling of legislators and the Governor that this work should be carried on under the auspices of The University of the State of New York. Therefore, when this repeal became effective, the Regents of the University replaced the old board with a Com- mittee on Geographic Names, without qualification of the functions of the board, this committee taking the following personal com- position: As representatives of the Board of Regents, Messrs Charles B. Alexander, Herbert L. Bridgman and Walter Guest Kel- logg; as active members, the Director of the Museum as chairman, Dr james) Sullivan, Wr AciCy hicksyAs | Eeiavani aenav Aner me Parker and H. C. Wardell. Since its organization, the committee has been called upon to adjudge a number of applications for changes of names, introduction of new names, etc. and these will be sum- marized in a future report. The old board in the course of its existence prepared and printed in the) Directors |Report tor) the jyear 1913 (New York ‘State Museum Bulletin 173, pp. 44-48), detailed lists with historical explanations and definitions of all the place names in Albany, Rensselaer and Schenectady counties, and in accordance with the pur- pose of the present committee to continue this explication of the remaining place names of the State, there 1s presented on a later page a glossary of the place names of Ontario county. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 17 CEOVOGICATETSURVIDY) The areal geological survey of the State has been continued in the Adirondack region by the completion of the Gloversville quadrangle. Progress in this difficult region is slow but the Adirondacks have now been geologically surveyed on the scale of 1 mile to the inch for nearly one-half their extent. During the present season special attention was given by Pro- fessor W. J. Miller to the geological structure of the Thirteenth lake quadrangle in the south-central region of the Adirondacks. It is an area of special interest and presents many problems diff- cult of resolution. A large part of the foundation rocks are the primitive Grenville limestone and its allies, which represent the oldest sedimentary formation of which there is any knowledge. This has been broken through by extensive developments of deep-seated igneous rocks which cover many square miles and seem to be entirely separate from the igneous masses farther to the east in Essex and Franklin counties. These deep-seated rocks are cut across by nu- merous injections of granite which indicate that the former was sufficiently consolidated to fracture when the granite was injected. Garnet-bearing rocks are widely distributed throughout this region, and the evidence strongly indicates that the garnet rocks of the Barton mine on Gore mountain and the Hooper mine near Thir- teenth lake were formed by some kind of interaction along the contacts of unlike masses of igneous rocks. The Sacandaga river from Oregon south, follows a line of faulting and the topography indicates that Thirteenth lake lies in a fault depression. In south- eastern New York, through the complicated Schunnemunk moun- tain region and its extension to the east of the Hudson river, some field work was carried on by Mr Walter J. Yeaton. It is hoped to continue the survey of this region during the coming season. Dr Rudolf Ruedemann has continued the delineation of the seological formations in the region known as the Capital district which includes four quadrangles. In view of the growing interest in the geology of Albany and its vicinity this work, when completed, will be an important guide to students of science. 18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM AN ATTEMPT TO DETERMINE THE ORIGIN OF THE GLACTAW MORAINE Sep ROMA SMUD Ya Ol iGileN@WNG BOULDERS If a boulder buried in a moraine or left standing alone as a re- sult of outwash, can be identified by its mineral structure, its general petrological character, or if it should contain fossils with any known outcrop of rocklike character, a clue is at once afforded to the direc- tion and distance through which this boulder has moved. It happens frequently in the study of such boulders from the fossiliferous rocks, that the fossil contents afford evidence of the approximate origin of the transported block. What is true of morainic boulders is equally true of outwashed gravel from deposits of till. But in a state like New York where the fossiliferous outcrops run for the most part in an east and west direction, except as they bend south and south- eastward along the Hudson valley, such clues as the fossils afford are not very exact, in view of the fact that the sedimentary strata may hold their lithological and fossil characters over long distances. As a striking illustration of this fact we may cite the fossil-bearing pebble beds from about Fort George, New York City. These are full of paleozoic fossils which have evidently come from the north and northwest, but from just what points they have been derived or how far they have been transported is still a matter of uncertainty. Identity of petrographical structure in crystalline or igneous rocks seems to be of somewhat more reliable character and Dr A. C. Gill of Cornell University has interested himself in the effort to establish the identity of such crystalline boulders with their parent ledges, basing his observation on the test of intimate microscopic petrology. It is probably true that in a country like this, whose rock outcrops have been extensively ground down and quite as extensively buried by glacial débris and soil, the chances for such positive identifications must always remain remote and must depend in large degree upon the identification being founded on a rock mixture of unusual char- acter. Doctor Gill has, however, gone far enough to bring out in certain cases a very definite probability in favor of far-traveled glacial blocks whose place of origin can be located with some degree of reliance. These are very suggestive operations and in order to test out this procedure more fully, a field effort has been made to assemble addi- tional data that may eventually lead to further identifications of this kind. In selecting certain areas in the eastern part of the State, —~—— REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 19 boulder deposits have been examined along predetermined lines ex- tending westward from Rensselaer county, through Saratoga, Schenectady and Montgomery counties, and from Altamont south- west and west through Albany, Schoharie, Otsego, Chenango and Madison counties. Further examination has been made of the St Lawrence river lowland near Ogdensburg and Clayton. Specimens of these crystalline boulders were collected for thorough petrological examination in the hope that some of them may lead to a definite correlation with the parent rock. A larger part than is generally thought, of the morainic material and outwashed gravels of our glacial deposits is of local origin; that is, it has not been transported far. By way of illustration, of the coarse gravels which are deposited in what is known as the Van Rensselaer sand bank north of Albany, which are outwash or esker deposits, more than 80 per cent by actual test, show that the ice and water movements have carried them for but a relatively short dis- tance, not far from the confines of the mass of sandstone and shale which makes up a large part of the northern Hudson and eastern Mohawk valleys. Crystalline boulders, however, have better re- sisted wear and have therefore been able to travel farther, and these far-travelled boulders are those which for the most part constitute the large glacial rocks scattered over the State. During this season’s operations in this field the actual work has been done by Mr James ii. C. Martens. 20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM PALEONTOLOGY The Gilboa Devonian Forest. The analytical study and recon- struction of these trees have been so far completed that it has been possible to inaugurate the restoration of this forest intended for exhibition on the floor of the Museum. The plan of this restora- tion is to represent the three successive levels in the rock in which the tree stumps have been found, with the actual stumps in place and in the background to portray a conception of the growing forest in which the trees were rooted. The work is going forward under the direction of Henri Marchand who is aided by his sons, Paul and Georges Marchand. Fauna of the Bertie waterlime and Lockport limestones. These impure limestones were laid down under physical conditions that are not repeated in the succession of the New York formations, and the animal life of these impure and shallow seas is of a very inter- esting character though the fossils themselves, except for the euryp- teris, are not striking or often well preserved. The collection of them requires great patience and perseverance but the accumulations of later years have brought into the Museum a quite extraordinary addition to the known faunas of these geological horizons. Very many of these interesting additions have been collected by Mr E. Reinhard of Buffalo and their characteristics have been developed by Doctor Ruedemann. Graptolites. Doctor Ruedemann is engaged in the preparation of a monograph of the North American Graptolites and for the purposes of preparation has received very extensive collections from all parts of the country, especially the complicated mountain regions of Western America, Idaho, British Columbia and Alaska, as well as the collections which have been accumulating in the National Museum at Washington. This work has received the support of the National Research Council which has enabled Doctor Ruedemann to purchase some expensive but necessary apparatus, notably a Lap- worth-Parks microscope for drawing. Stratigraphy of the Utica and Lorraine formations. The com- pletion of this work by Doctor Ruedemann is the outcome of sev- eral years of labor and contributes a vast fund of knowledge to the understanding of these Lower Silurian formations in New York. The first part of this bulletin has been submitted for printing. The Cryptozoon reefs near Saratoga. Frequent reference has been made in previous reports to the occurrence of these very an- ‘IOJOWILIP Ul Josf YZ Iinsvout so[dwexsd Is1¥] syT, ‘ssulids esoyereS svou yaed otyoyry ye soinsodxo Mou WOIf Wnioagryord uo00z0zyd hay Jo suowpods ommuy lan a ns lr ms i inal REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 ~ : 21 cient reefs believed to have been made by the natural growth proc- esses of lime-secreting algae. The State Museum has for several years controlled the now well-known Cryptozoon Park to which ref- erence is made elsewhere. It is of special interest to record, in con- nection with this park, the very notable further exposures of these reefs which have been laid open by Messrs John and Robert Ritchie of Saratoga Springs. These gentlemen, prompted by a high im- pulse for the public interest, have acquired a considerable acreage nearby which is admirably adapted for park purposes and the surface of which is dotted with exposures of these Cryptozoon reefs. The Ritchie property is not a continuous floor of rock, but is softened and beautified by an undulating grass cover, with clusters and clumps of trees and shrubs so placed that the whole area could be, with very little expenditure, made a most attractive spot to the traveling public. 5 22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM INDUSTRIAL GEOLOGY Oil survey. In the report of last year considerable information was given relative to the oil survey being carried on in southwestern New York. During the past season this work has been continued -and completed. The geological field work was carried on by William L. Rus- sell of New Haven, Conn., and the necessary instrument work by T. C. Major of Wellsville, N. Y. The notes and maps submitted by the field workers are now being used in preparing a report on the New York oil fields. This survey was primarily concerned with problems relating to new processes for increasing the recovery of oil from the oil sands through methods of restored pressure. Restored pressure takes the place of, or acts as a substitute for, natural gas when the latter becomes exhausted to such a degree that it is no longer able to drive oil through the sand. ‘The artificial pressures used to take the place of natural gas are either water or air, or natural gas itself, any one of which may be introduced into a well, and made to serve as a motive force to propel the oil through the sand to another well or wells from which it can be pumped. When air or gas is used it must be put under pressure, but with water, the hydrostatic pres- sures are derived from the column of water in the well. Much in- formation concerning these new methods of extracting oil has been obtained, and field studies have resulted in throwing much additional light on the structural relations of the oil sands. New York State has already produced 70,000,000 barrels of oil since the fields first attained commercial importance about 1878, at which time 250 wells were producing. The maximum annual pro- duction was in the early eighties with the opening of the Allegany county field with a production for the State of over 5,000,000 barrels annually. In 1888 the annual production had fallen below 2,000,000 barrels and in I9I1I it was below 1,000,000 barrels. With the use of flooding, the annual yield of oil is again increasing and the 1922 production was once more to the 1,000,000 barrel mark. Natural gas. Natural gas has been produced in New York State on a commercial basis for more than I00 years. At the present time some 1600 wells are producing outside of the oil regions of Allegany, Cattaraugus and Steuben counties. As a commodity natural gas has an ever increasing value both for fuel and lighting purposes. With the gradual exhaustion of the present gas pools, REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 23 there is a continued demand for new supplies in order to maintain production necessary for communities using the gas. Inquiries relating to the geological conditions under which natural gas is found and requests for information relating to drilled wells are more numerous than for any other branch in industrial geology. Within the past 2 years two pools of considerable importance have been brought in: one at Dansville, Livingston county, and the other at Arkwright, Chautauqua county. It is of interest to note that several wells in the latter pool are among the largest ever found in the State. Many data concerning well records and geological conditions are available but scattered through our various reports. There are also unpublished data which have been obtained during recent years. These assembled and correlated would afford valuable material, which supplemented by further field studies would warrant publica- tion as a bulletin of the State Museum. The investigation of the natural gas resources of the State is perhaps more urgent than that of any other, with the possible exception of salt. Salt. The annual production of rock and brine salt in New York State has now reached a total of over 14,000,000 barrels annually. Within the past year or two a new shaft for the production of rock salt has been completed at Portland Point, Cayuga county. This is the most easterly of the shafts that have been sunk to rock salt in the State. Another shaft has recently been completed by the Retsof Salt Company near the village of York, Livingston county. At present a test well, at Himrod, Yates county, put in by the diamond drill has reached the salt beds. Frequent requests for information relating to the salt deposits in New York are received by this office. These requests we are often able to satisfy by ferreting out scattered details contained in our numerous records on oil and gas wells. Such backhanded pro- cedure of obtaining information on salt is, however, cumbersome and many times inadequate. The salt industry merits an exhaustive study of its own, not only because of its present volume of produc- tion, but also because no special report of the industry has been made in more than 30 years. If New York State is to retain the high place she has established for the production of salt, every encouragement is due those inter- ested in the problem. An exhaustive report would prove of assist- ance to those endeavoring to establish plants ultimately under such conditions that production can be maintained economically with due regard for thickness and character of salt beds together with depth and location of shaft and transportation facilities. 24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Some time ago a study of the salt deposits of the State was under- taken, but unfortunately both investigators are no longer with the Department. It would seem highly important now that the work of this previous investigation be completed as soon as possible so that those desiring the information may have access to it. At present Professor Harold L. Alling is engaged in the investi- gation of the agencies and distribution of our salt deposits. His report, when completed, will be of special interest in indicating the geological history of the salt and also the possibilities of further development. Such a report should doubtless be supplemented by a technical study that will make a direct appeal to the: salt industry in its present refined status. Mineral statistics. The arrangement entered into a few years ago with the United States Geological Survey for the collection of statistics showing the annual production of the natural resources of the State is being continued. Through this arrangement not only is the annual production of our mineral wealth made available, but we are enabled thereby to keep in close touch with the various new enterprises and developments taking place in the mineral 1n- dustry, which leads to correspondence with many of the producing firms through which much geological information is obtained. The last comprehensive report on the mineral industry was issued in 1921. Statistics and notes on the industry since that time are being incor- porated into a report including the statistics for the year 1923, which, however, are not yet complete. The high record for mineral pro- duction was in 1920 with a value of more than $78,000,000. Molding sand. In conjunction with the American Foundrymen’s Association a special restudy of the molding sands of the Hudson river district was inaugurated, the field work being carried on by Mr C. M. Nevin of Cornell University. The Albany molding sand has a wide repute and is the most familiar of any to foundrymen generally. For this reason it was regarded very proper that the first systematic investigation to be carried on under this cooperative arrangement should be in the Hudson river field. The sands are to be submitted to the newly standardized molding sand tests, to- gether with the practical application of the result of these tests which are essentially these: permeability, cohesiveness and fineness or grain size. The publication of the results of these tests upon the Albany grades will, it is believed, form the basis for an agree- ment between the producers and the foundrymen as to the meaning and limits of the Albany sands. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 25 In the judgment of Mr Nevin there seems to be considerable available molding sand of good quality still remaining although the deposits in this field have been worked for many years; in fact since the early days of the iron industry in this country. The region still to be developed seems to lie principally in the upper Hudson valley in the vicinity of Corinth and Glens Falls, and it appears now that future development will probably be in a general northerly direction. Iron ore. With the recent issue of the report by Mr R. J. Colony on the Magnetic Iron Deposits of Southeastern New York, the description of the main iron ore areas which at present have the most important iron ore deposits has been completed. The Clinton iron ore beds of central and western New York, and the magnetic iron ore deposits of the Adirondacks have been described in bulletins already issued. The rounding out of this subject will enable this office to give fairly exhaustive information to those making inquiry regarding the main iron-producing areas in the State. 26 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM BOTANY REPORT BY HOMER D. HOUSE, State Botanist Scientific investigations. The investigative work of the State Botanist during the past year has been directed chiefly toward the completion of an annotated list of plants of the State which is now being printed. This has involved much bibliographic work as well as study of the plants in the state herbarium. Collections and field studies have been carried on in the vicinity of Newcomb, Essex county ; Watertown, and the east shore of Lake Ontario, in Jefferson county, and the vicinity of Oneida lake in the central part of the State. Collections of plants from these and other localities, which are of scientific interest have been incorporated into the herbarium. The ferns and flowering plants of peculiar interest, as well as new or rare species of fungi form the basis for scientific papers which will appear in the next Annual Report of the State Botanist. Contributions to the state herbarium. The accessions to the state herbarium during the past year in the form of contributions and exchanges are presented in the following list of contributors, which also indicates the number of specimens received from each. ONVenClokeyaulDenver Colows(exchance) eeeenee ene nee ereier 254 Fr beeNortonyeblartsvllewSa Gv (exchance) mene E nin ner 152 Dye 1, ©, Saraillene Wamstron-Sallian, We Coocooccccoocgcoovnsgooconec 116 Weland: S:" Slater. \Coxsackier Wavy cc cae eeae cre ae aC et eae 60 Douglas*MaiWihite: Rochester iin oe eee Oc elite OR ne ae ree 43 Dry Jeo Darvas. Madisoms WiASeii as os aielettae tet cere eae ear anne ne 32 Roy) Watham *Omientoiee aeons stores foes Glo COTE ANIC eles cae ea 107 U, S. Dect. or Acmonitinre, Weaslurmetom, ID, Cosccccccssacsdnocnccce 15 Gordons]. Woe whlomesteardi slay Casco mA ae e ea eae na ele ae Lean 10 Walltamin Comiiereison imide Stead cries ei ene inne ae ea 0) WeaGeMuens cher: altha career) 008 AON SOR) Sanit CaO LNGAis) anh Luna 6 MissmeAnnabel satin Oa call bier ee iar irae ieee ie 3 Bryon Wlwgeorm, ILonalom, IWiaellerval, ooascoscobogokooscodsoccoosndoeose a Wash Gy Beauchampa)Syracusects ceiver ee RE ee eee 2 Georcen ep Andruste Middletown nice ela eterna ene ate 2 Braihiibenten Ste SOnavientllunes co sia nne siete eee eee ee a nea ee ree 2 Rrokessonmm ohne Dearnesss london mOntwee eee oe anelreeiTe rine T Charless GilbertwToneoyedic ssh) euces SeperesiePeereAara Peirce res ae een Gr te I Dye Walbbiarin Mierngieiel, ANDERS doStlooboou sb obodobsododcbobooowesooec J Branks Dobbins «Stats hia iiet iho) eee eee ke we Wc Eee ra eer I Wi ts ‘Shoemaker eh limira yee ace Mercier een Pate I Mirs)1u.. Be olleyatiBerkshine: Vib se cae ty amram ie tenant er ites nie Re teen I Additions to the herbarium. The number of specimens which have been added to the herbarium from all sources is 1242. Besides the 732 received in exchange or as contributions, 220 specimens were collected by the State Botanist in the counties of Albany, REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 27 Bronx, Essex, Jefferson, Lewis, Madison, Nassau, Oneida, Os- wego, Rensselaer and Warren. In addition to these, 290 speci- mens of mosses, lichens and fungi have been collected and added to the herbarium. A large number of other specimens were taken, some of them duplicates of those reserved for the herbarium, to be used for the purpose of exchange with other institutions and botanists. Doctor Peck’s field notes. Investigators in mycology who have had occasion to refer to the late Dr Charles H. Peck’s types or other collections in the state herbarium, have often commented upon the fact that his descriptions and reports of species already published do not give the year of collection. This is explained in large part by the fact that the species described or reported upon were collected during the year for which the publication is the annual report. Very rarely does he report upon any collection except of the current year, the various monographs, of course, excepted. These monographs were very largely, if not wholly, a compilation of his former published and reported species, without much reference to the considerable mass of undetermined material of those groups which was stored away in bundles. This is well illustrated by Kauffman’s critical study of Peck’s material of the genus Inocybe (N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 233-244: 43-60. 1921). In his notebooks, Doctor Peck described under tentative names a very large number of fungi which his critical judgment did not per- mit him to publish for one reason or another. Without doubt, many of these are valid as well as unpublished species, as indicated by Miner, it tae Case OF StrOMMAaArIA CAMpeStTiriS, sac Stropharia rugoso-annulata Farlow; Peck (Mycologia 14: 136, 139. 1922). Since the notes were made almost without exception from fresh material they possess a considerable value to the later students of the groups represented. In addition to his notes upon many well-known as well as little-known species made from fresh material, and never published, which are now available for consultation, the descriptions of his unpublished species will prove of value and assistance to future investigations. In order that these voluminous notes, occupying some thirty note- books, may be available for reference, an index has been prepared which has been typed with carbon copies. One of these carbon copies has been placed in the Office of the Pathological Collections at Washington, and the other in the mycological laboratory of the New York Botanical Garden. From the original copy, Dr Howard 28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM A. Kelly of Baltimore has had additional copies made for his own mycological laboratory, and for the mycological laboratories of Harvard University and the Missouri Botanical Garden. Investi- gators working at Albany may have reference to these notes. Those working at a distance, or from consultation with the copies else- where, may secure upon application a transcript of such items as are desired. Unless the material to which the notes refer is quite ample, however, it is a rule of the New York State Museum not to lend material, especially of type specimens. Doctor Peck’s notebooks, covering a period from 1868 to 1913, are numbered from 1 to 32. The typed index to the thirty-two note- books occupies 130 pages, and is divided into: Personal Mention New York Localities Flowering Plants and Ferns Mosses, Liverworts, Lichens and Algae. Fungi The last is naturally the important part of the index and occupies the pages 25 to 130 of the manuscript. Identifications. The State Botanist’s office has been called upon to identify 753 specimens of plants, including many edible and poisonous mushrooms, during the past year. These identifications were requested by 194 persons, most by mail, some of them, how- ever, by personal visit to the office. The summary of this work by months shows that during late summer and autumn this service is in greatest demand: Janttany eich oe eee Bhi [ithy aie sacle sta Mise eanelnaeseran egee Me 46 Rebruanyitd. ). See ee ae 7 MO AUSUSE CR RE Ae OS Bae 172 Marcha eee U see Se ina as andl Ais ‘September. pipers eae! ectaea take 179 Ar eee EN. LOR eo oneal: “ce ene AT svOctobert weaves nev ks wa oes 154 Mays OUEST RERUN Uae 23a November (ta. Ser, Penlra cn ele 4Z JOO eae ES ee We ea AL As.) Decemberjige ance. cee women 32 The identifications made during this period represent very nearly a 200 per cent increase over the preceding year. Visitors. The extensive collections of the state herbarium, espe- cially rich in valuable type specimens of fungi, are frequently con- sulted by specialists in various lines of botanical research. The following botanists have registered in the herbarium for study of material during the past year: Dr L. O. Overholts, Pennsylvania State College Dr A. Gershoy, Columbia University Dr W. A. Murrill, New York Botanical Garden REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 29 Dr K. M. Wiegand, Cornell University Dr W. C. Coker, University of North Carolina Dr H. M. Fitzpatrick, Cornell University Dr C. C. Plitt, University of Maryland Dr James R. Weir, United States Department of Agriculture Dr G. R. Bisby, Manitoba Agricultural College J. Andrew Drushel, Harns Teacher’s College, St Louis Lawrence Stetson, Johnstown, N. Y. Dr H. K. Svenson, Union College Miss Minnie W. Taylor, United States Department of Agriculture Lectures. The State Botanist has delivered nine lectures before various organizations upon the subject of wild flower protection and other botanical subjects. Plants new to the State. The following species of plants added to the state herbarium during the past year were not previously represented in the collections. FHepatics Frullania Selwyniana Pearson Ferns and Fern Allies Adiantum pedatum aleuticum Rupr. Lycopodium carolinianum L. Flowering Plants Chaetochloa ambigua (Guss.) Scribn. & Merr. Panicum auburne Ashe Bromus japonicus Thumb. Klymus robustus var. vestitus Wiegand “striatus arkansanus (S. & B.) Hitche. Carex polymorpha Muh. Rynchospora pallida M. A. Curtiss Ornithogalum nutans L. Smilax herbacea var. latifolia House Salix syrticola Fernald Coriandrum sativum L. Cicer arietinum L. Eryum Lans L. Vicia Faba L. upatorium Torreyanum Short Doellingeria umbellata var. flexicaulis House 30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Fungi Acrospermum cuneolum D. & H. Acrothecium melanoplus (Schw.) Sacc. Asterina Killipii Dearn. & House. Beloniella brevipila (R. & D.) D. & H. Cenangium griseum D. & H. Cercospora avicularis Winter omphacodes E. & H. . Wiolae JB, GS El, Cerotelium urticastri Mais Ciboria firma (Pers.) Fel. Clasterosporium larviforme Fairman Cladosporium subsessile E. & B. Colletotrichum salmonicolor O’ Gara Coryneum Cydoniae D. & H. Corticium tessulatum Cooke Dendrodochium densipes Sacc. & Ell. Dendrophoma Azaleae D. & H. ‘ Syringae Desm. Diaporthe aorista FE. & E. Diplosporium flavidum D. & H. ‘i Polypori D. & H. Dothidella caricina D. & A. Exoascus Farlowii (Sadeb.) Sacc. Gelatinosporium Ilicis D. & H. Gnonomia setacea var. Caryde D. & H. Guignardia Pleurothallis D. & H. Helicia buccina D. & H. Helminthosporium naviculatum D. & H. Phomatae D. & H. Hymenochaete episphaeria (Schw.) Massee Hymenula Phytolacae Berk. Hypoderma brachyspora (Rostr.) Tubeuf Lachnea setosa (Nees) Gull. Leptosphaeria borealis var. Populi D. G H. Leptostroma Alli D. & H. iy Abietis Rostr. Leptostromella Mali D. & AH. ‘ Angelicae D. & H. Leptothyrella aceris D. & H. Lophodermium Abietis Rostr. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 Lophodermium Oxycocci var. hypophyllum D. & H. Marssonina Thomasiana (Sacc.) Magn. Macrophoma Pernettyae D. & H. Macrosporium Martindalei E. & M. Mycosphaerella pachyasca Rostr. Ombrophila setulata D. & H. Ostropa mellea D. & H. Otthiella Staphylina (EZ. & E.) Pestalozzia quadrisetulata D. & H. Phacidium Populi Lasch Phyllosticta Cyanococci D. & H. Placosphaeria Bacchardis D. & H. Plasmopara illinoiensis (Farl.) Davis Pleosphaerulina Briosiana Pollasci Pleospora herbarum var. triglochinis D. & H. (3 scarbra Mout. vagans Niessl. Poria barbaeformis (B. & C.) Sace. “corticola (Fr.) Cooke “Nees (URGES) IBZAS: papyracea Schw. nigrescens Bres. vitellina (Schw.) Sacc. Pseudographis Phragmitis D. & H. Ramularia dispar Davis i fraxinea Davis i, IRGSNS 14 SP 1a Scopaphoma Corioli D. & H. Septoria alnifolia E. & E. Commonsii F. & E. is Si Rob. & Desm. Sphaerographium niveum D. & H. Synchytrium pulvereum Davis Teichospora Chevalierii Karst. Telimena Elymi Orton Tympanis Cephalanthi D. & H. Urnula terrestris (Niessl.) Sacc. 66 31 32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM BRNTOMOLOGY REPORT BY MORTIMER D. LEONARD, Associate State Entomologist Although the past year has not presented any very unusual de- velopments in connection with injurious or other insects, it has seen a rather unusual change in the personnel of the office of the State Entomologist. When money became available early last spring, through special appropriation of the Legislature, for a comprehen- sive and detailed study of the gipsy moth, under the supervision of the New York State Conservation Commission, Dr E. P. Felt, who has been in this office for 25 years, was selected to take charge of the technical investigations in this work. | Doctor Felt therefore applied for leave of absence with retention of title, and has been acting as chief entomologist of the New York State Conservation Commission, with headquarters in Albany. On May ist Dr M. D. Leonard, former extension entomologist of the New York State College of Agriculture and later director of the field service division of the Bowker Chemical Company of New York City, assumed charge of the office of the State Entomologist with the title of Associate State Entomologist. | The Associate State Entomologist and the Assistant State Ento- mologist, Mr D. B. Young, have attempted to continue, as closely as possible, the work which the office already had under way and have made observations upon many insects, particularly those of an injurious nature, in several parts of the State. The more important of these may be briefly noted as follows: The European corn borer (Pyrausta nubilalis Hubn.). The Associate State Entomologist was appointed, in place of Doctor Felt, as collaborator on the European corn borer with the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agriculture, and has attempted to keep in touch with developments regarding this insect, which is of such great potential importance to the corn crop of the country. In order to obtain first hand knowledge of developments, a trip was made in the fall of 1923 to the infested area in western New York in the vicinity of Silver Creek. The United States Bureau of Entomology maintains a laboratory at this place for the study of the corn borer. Following a brief survey of conditions at Silver Creek, the writer proceeded to St Thomas, Ontario, Canada, to attend a field meeting on the corn borer, participated in by officials of the Entomological Branch of the Department of Agriculture of Canada REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 33 and entomologists of the United States Bureau of Entomology and of the state of Ohio. In general, there has been a more or less limited extension of the infested area in New England, a slight extension in eastern New York and a fairly substantial extension, particularly to the southward, in western New York and Pennsylvania. There has been a somewhat considerable extension of infested territory along the lake shore in Ohio and also in Canada. It is worthy of note that a slight infesta- tion was found this past season in Madison county, N. Y., and another in Brooklyn, the latter in an area situated between Prospect park and Fort Hamilton. Fortunately, the infestation has increased but little, if any, in severity during the past season over the whole territory now known to be infested but the continued spread of the pest, even in the face of active measures to prevent such an occurrence, points to the necessity of a widespread campaign for the adoption of measures which would tend to reduce to a minimum the abundance of the corn borer. Gipsy moth (Porthetria dispar Linn.). During the past year the investigational and repressive work on this pest has been adequately provided for and handled by the Conservation Commis- sion. Several slight infestations, which have been found as a result of careful widespread scouting along the eastern boundary of New York State, have been apparently entirely wiped out. Extension of the known western boundary of infestation in New England makes this pest a continually growing menace to the forest and woodland areas of New York State, and studies have been carried on by the Conservation Commission with a view to laying down, as soon as is practicable, the so-called “barrier zone’ along the eastern bound- ary of the State, running from the Canadian line to Long Island sound, east of which there will be an attempt to keep the insect from spreading. Doctor Felt’s observations along this whole line have thrown much light on the possibilities of preventing the east- ward spread of the pest and should materially assist in directing repressive operations in the future to those points at which the chances are greatest of the gipsy moth gaining a foothold in the State. The apple and thorn skeletonizer (Hemerophila pari- ana Clerck). The past year has seen a remarkable extension in the range of this European pest, and it now occurs from Orient Point on Long Island to Whitehall and as far west as Schoharie. It has also been found on the west slope of the Catskills in Greene 34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM county and is distributed throughout the whole of Orange and Rock- land counties. All of Connecticut and most of Rhode Island and Massachusetts are now infested. Many orchards have been almost entirely defoliated by the pest and although the caterpillars readily succumb to poison sprays, the insect is of no little concern to the apple orchardists within the infested area. There is every reason to believe that the coming season will show a marked increase in infested territory. The present status of the pest in New York and neighboring states and the present most practicable suggestions on control will appear shortly in a revision of Cornell Extension Bulletin No. 27 on Apple and Thorn Skeletonizer, by E. P. Felt and M. D. Leonard. The European snout beetle (Phyllobius oblongus Linn.). This pest has appeared for the first time in this country, as far as is known, in considerable numbers on elm trees in High- land park, Rochester. The leaves were damaged to some extent by the feeding of the beetles, but apparently the infestation was con- siderably localized. In England the weevils damage apple blos- soms and it is said that grafted plants in nurseries are especially liable to attack. Particular note should be taken during the coming season of possible extension of this pest from the original point of infestation, since it is quite likely to adapt itself to feeding upon apple trees in the western New York fruit belt should its numbers increase. | Blue bottle fly maggot in child. During October and Novem- ber correspondence was carried on with Dr Ruth Gilbert and Dr L. J. Early, both of the State Department of Health, concerning a rather unusual condition of myasis in a child. This little girl, 20 months of age, had been treated by Dr E. H. Evans ot | Guilford) Ni Yer Doctor Vivans reported to) ithe State m Des partment of Health that the child had been sick for 45 days. For the first 3 weeks the temperature had run from 103 to 106 degrees with continued application of ice bag to the head. During the second week the child developed true meningeal symp- toms and these continued for about 5 days. No pain was felt at any time. There was some abdominal distention but this was easily relieved by enema or tube. At no time was there any definite train of symptoms from which a diagnosis could be made. Two trained nurses were in attendance. On the date in November on which Doctor Evans wrote he stated that on that day the child had a temperature of 102 degrees and was taking a normal amount of REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 35 nourishment, but was very sick. After the use of calomel one Dipterous larva was passed in the feces. Whether more than one maggot was present in the intestinal tract is not known. This was determined as one of the common blue bottle fly maggots. Appar- ently, the child, even though so young, must have had access to blown meat. Serica parallela Casey. On August 13, 1923, a letter was re- ceived from Thomas Dicket of New Rochelle, N. Y., accompanied by specimens of a beetle with a statement that they had destroyed every young flower and vegetable in his garden, and that it seemed almost impossible to poison them with arsenate of lead or any other spray which had been used. They were first noticed eating dahlia plants. The beetles seemed to come from the ground at night and fly on the foliage. Mr Dicket further stated that his neighbors were having trouble with the beetles and nobody in the vicinity had ever seen the insects before. Mr D. B. Young determined the beetles as a species of Serica apparently not represented in the State Museum collection. Speci- mens were sent to Doctor Howard at Washington, who replied under date of August 22d that W. S. Fisher had determined them as Serica parallela Casey. This species is listed in Leng’s Catalog as a synonym of S. sericea, but it does not agree in several respects with the specimens of sericea in our collection. On August 22d Mr Dicket wrote further that these beetles dam- aged severely his dahlias, asters, calendula and young chrysanthe- mum plants and in a neighbor’s garden had destroyed an entire patch of lettuce. He stated that the beetles fed only at night and when disturbed dropped to the ground and instantly burrowed into the soil or flew off to other quarters. Apparently at this time the beetles were not so numerous as they were 2 or 3 weeks before. A cursory search through literature failed to give any informa- tion concerning the life history or habits of the species under question. Diprion simile Hartig. During September a letter was received from Mrs Clara H. Spain of Pleasantville, N. Y., accompanied by sawfly larvae, with a statement that these were doing great damage to several pine trees on her place. The needles were being eaten and webbed together by large numbers of these pests. The larvae proved to be those of Diprion simile, a sawfly from Europe which has quite recently become established in Connecticut on pines, but which has heretofore apparently been practically unknown — in New York State. 2 36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Folsomia fimetaria (Tull) in a well. On November 13th Mr L. M. Wachter, chemist of the division of laboratories and research at the State Health Laboratory, Albany, forwarded to the office specimens of springtails taken in the well of Clyde J. Benedict of Lewis, N. Y. These were determined by Dr J. W. Folsom as Folsomia fimetaria. It is one of the commonest species of springtail in Europe and North America, and often occurs about the roots of plants and on the surface of soil. It has several times been recorded as occurring in wells, but is in no way adapted for existence in the water. Since the insects occurred in large num- bers on the surface of the well water, Mr Bennett wished to get rid of them. It was suggested that hot water or steam would kill them. It was further recommended that the well be concreted up to a curb just above the surface of the water, in order to prevent the insects working their way into the well in the future. Oriental peach moth (Laspeyresia molesta). L. F. Strickland, inspector for the Department of Farms and Markets, located in Niagara county, on September 6th and 23d transmitted specimens of peaches infested with several very young caterpillars which undoubtedly were those of the Oriental peach moth. Speci- mens were also sent to Dr W. T. M. Forbes of Cornell University, who confirmed this tentative determination as being correct, al- though the larvae were very small. The pest is therefore undoubtedly present in small numbers in Niagara county, at least in the vicinity of Lockport. It occurs on Long Island and also to a slight extent in Westchester county, but the exact distribution of the pest in New York State has not been carefully worked out. It is undoubtedly present, however, in other localities, at least to a slight extent. Tetrolopha robustella Zeller. On October 16th C. H. Zimmer of the Department of Farms and Markets sent to the office twigs of Austrian pine infested with caterpillars, apparently from Lyn- brook, Long Island, with the statement that the insects were badly damaging the needles, and that there seemed to be considerable of this trouble on Long Island. The caterpillars were transmitted to the United States Bureau of Entomology for determination and were identified by Mr Heinrich as Tetrolopha robustella. Under date of November 17th Mr Heinrich wrote that the species is found throughout the eastern United States as far south as Florida. He stated that as the species of Tetrolopha is rather hard to rear and since not many adults have been obtained from - pine nests, it is barely possible that another species is the one in- volved in the infestation. Tetrolopha has usually only one REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 By, generation, according to Mr Heinrich, and winters in cocoons in the ground under the infested trees. The adults fly in summer. Spraying is of very little value unless the work can be done early in the course of the infestation when the larvae are young and the nests are not well formed. After this time, it will probably be found necessary to cut and burn the infested twigs. European hornet (Vespa crabro L.) In October there was received from E. H. Costich of Hick’s Nurseries, Westbury, Long Island, specimens of this European hornet with samples of its injury to lilac and apple twigs. The damage was done on the place of Tracy H. Harris, who apparently is located in the vicinity of Westbury. On October 23d Mr Harris wrote that the European hornet had been a source of trouble to him at his Long Island home for several years. He stated that the hornets attacked the trunk of one of his large apple trees, gouging out holes in the bark about one-half inch in diameter and that apparently they fed upon the sap. According to Mr Harris, the hornets appeared along about the first of October and continued up until frost. In 1921 their nest was located in his garage, between the ceiling and the rafters, and he was unable to get at the nest without destroying the ceiling or the roof. Since then he has not been able to locate their nests. The most effective means of killing the pest seemed to be by the use of a heavy rubber fly swatter. Mr Harris stated that by this means he had killed at least 100 of the hornets within 2 weeks. Insect collection. The New York State Museum study collec- tion of insects now comprises the equivalent of about 1000 Schmitt boxes in addition to the Lintner collection and the Hill collection of moths and butterflies. This collection has been built up during the past 20 years by exchange and by active collecting by members of the office of the State Entomologist. Mr D. B. Young has un- doubtedly contributed more specimens to this collection than any other single individual. About 75 per cent of the insects are from various localities in New York State and since many of the groups have been named by specialists it is one of the most important col- lections of New York State insects in the country. Specialists, par- ticularly those in this State, should be encouraged to use it as a repository for duplicates of New York State insects, and many of them are coming to do so. The past year has seen important contributions to the general col- lection, both in specimens collected and in groups rearranged. The Associate and Assistant State Entomologists, with the active cooper- ation of Sherman C. Bishop, State Zoologist, and Professor C. R. 28 ‘NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Crosby of Cornell University, have added from 10,000 to 12,000 specimens from various localities in New York State. About 5000 of these were collected by Mr Young at Wells, N. Y. Mr Bishop and Professor Crosby made important contributions of beetles and other insects collected during the past season in Virginia and North Carolina. Doctor Leonard has collected many Diptera, particu- larly the more minute species, and has rearranged several of the groups. Many Thysanura and Collembola, collected by the above- named workers, have been determined during the past year for this office by Dr J. W. Folsom and we now have one of the best deter- mined collections of these little known insects in the country. Dr H. C. Huckett of the Long Island Experiment Station con- tributed about 500 Long Island Diptera and has also rearranged many of the Anthomyid flies. Dr C. J. Drake of lowa has named our lace bugs and donated specimens of eastern species heretofore unrepresented in the collection. The Tabanidae have been rearranged and specimens contributed by Mr Brimley of North Carolina, Doctor Johannsen of Cornell University, C. W. Johnson of Boston, and others. C. Howard Curran of the Entomological Branch, Ottawa, Canada, and M. C. Van Duzee have rearranged the Doli- chopodid flies and contributed specimens unrepresented in the col- lection. Doctor Matheson of Cornell has worked over the mos- quitoes ; R. C. Shannon of the Bureau of Entomology, the Syrphidae; L. B. Woodruff, the Membracids; Charles Schaeffer, the Donacias, and Mr Young has rearranged and determined many beetles. The insect collection is fully as important as the entomological library and is in daily use for reference in handling correspondence and in determining specimens sent in by various correspondents. There is great need for an additional worker in the office who would — have the time and ability to spend considerable effort in assisting Mr Young in taking care of this important collection. Insect Pest Survey. The office of the State Entomologist has cooperated very actively with the Insect Pest Survey conducted by the United States Bureau of Entomology. Several correspondents in various parts of the State have supplied considerable information, which has been transmitted through this office. This is an impor- tant project and should be given the heartiest cooperation in the future. The office in Washington looks toward the day when insect outbreaks will be forecast in much the same way and with some- what the same accuracy as the weather bureau makes its forecasts. This will only be made possible, however, through the most active support of the several states. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 39 New York State list of insects. Ten years ago the various entomologists in the State launched a cooperative project to list the various species of insects known to occur in New York State and as far as possible the detailed distribution of each within the State. Dr J. Chester Bradley of Cornell University was made editor-in- chief and the various major groups were placed under the immedi- ate supervision of certain specialists who acted as subeditors. Many data were compiled, but for various reasons Doctor Bradley during the past few years has been unable to push the project actively. On his coming to Albany, the Associate State Entomologist was urged by all the entomological workers in the State to assume active editorship of the list and to see it through to a final conclusion. This he agreed to do, realizing it as one of the most important projects he could undertake. The accurate listing of the approxi- mately 25,000 species of insects in the State is a considerable under- taking but it will lay the foundation for important work of a highly practical application and will also encourage amateurs in the col- lection and study of New York State insects. The task requires the most painstaking scientific accuracy on the part of the best specialists and a detailed knowledge of their various groups. The active co- operation of more than seventy-five workers is now enlisted and the work is well along toward completion. Cooperation. As in the past, the office of the State Entomologist has continued to cooperate closely with various agencies. Some assistance was given to the spray service specialists located in the Hudson river valley under the general supervision of the New York State College of Agriculture. The office has acted in a consulting capacity on many occasions with the Department of Farms and Markets and also with the State Health Department and a number of the county agricultural agents. Close touch has been kept with the work of the entomologists at the Geneva Experiment Station both by correspondence and by personal contact. The Associate State Entomologist has acted as collaborator in European corn borer con- trol with the United States Bureau of Entomology at Washington. Conferences. During the past year the Associate State Ento- mologist attended a general corn borer conference and field trip at St Thomas, Ontario, Canada; the field meeting of the northeastern entomologists in Connecticut; the New York State Fruit Growers’ Association meeting in Rochester, and Farmers Week at the New York State College of Agriculture. At this latter and also at the diamond jubilee meeting of the Entomological Society of Ontario, 40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM held at Ottawa, he presented a paper on “The Apple and Thorn Skeletonizer.” Publications. The Associate State Entomologist has published but one paper during the past year. This was on The Immature Stages of the Catnip Leaf Hopper, Eupterix melissae, and was published in joint authorship with George W. Barber of the United States Bureau of Entomology, in the Journal of the New York Entomological Society, December 1923. Acknowledgments. Particular acknowledgment should be made of the hearty cooperation and assistance given by various specialists of the United States Bureau of Entomology, through Dr L. O. Howard, its chief, in making determinations of specimens and in supplying information of various kinds. Without the important clearing house which the Bureau of Entomology forms, for deter- mination of the more doubtful forms and for information in their files, the speed and accuracy of handling the very considerable variety and bulk of correspondence on entomological matters would be greatly retarded. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 Al ZOOLOGY REPORT BY SHERMAN C. BISHOP, State Zoologist The report of the State Zoologist is presented in two parts which deal respectively with the activities of the Division of Zoology and with some proposals for expansion of the work along lines that will permit greater use of the educational facilities afforded by the Museum’s collections. Investigation. The Zoologist has continued the study of the amphibian fauna of the State and the preparation of a descriptive catalog of the spiders. The members of these groups are widely dis- tributed, easily found and cared for and furnish particularly valua- ble material for the use of teachers and students of nature study and biology. Salamanders have lately come into greater prominence as subjects of investigation in the problems of endocrinology and it is therefore desirable to collect more accurate data bearing on their de- velopment, life histories and habits. Field work. Many species not before represented in the collec- tions have been added during the year by intensive field work in the vicinity of Mount McIntyre, Keene Valley and Adirondack Lodge in the Adirondacks, in the Helderbergs, and at Ithaca and Canandaigua lake. During October 1923, Professor C. R. Crosby of Cornell University and the Zoologist collected in the Blue Ridge mountains of western North Carolina and brought together for the Museum a collection of 500 amphibians and reptiles and several thousand spiders and phalangids. Special reports which have been prepared on the salamanders and arachnids include descriptions of nine new phalangids and about twenty new spt “ers. Accessions. The museum is indebte. to Benjamin W. Arnold of Albany for a remarkable collection of Atlantic starfish selected and preserved by him in such a manner that the natural beauty of color and texture is largely retained. The series includes representatives of all the common species to be found on the New York coast. C.S. Brimley of the North Carolina Agriculture Department at Raleigh, presented a series of salamanders from the eastern part of the state to supplement the collections made in the Blue Ridge mountains of western North Carolina. New groups. The starfish presented by Mr Arnold have been arranged for exhibit by the assistant to the Zoologist, Maria Seguin, and exemplify in some half dozen species, the natural phenomenon of variation as it is expressed in form and color. 42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Work of the assistants and taxidermist. Within the period covered by this report the Division of Zoology has had and lost the services of two well-trained and capable assistants. It is very evi- dent that the time has passed when a skilled worker may be retained at a salary less than that paid to clerks and stenographers. As assis- tant to the zoologist, Augusta Wolf worked over the entire collection of invertebrates, identified and labeled the extensive phalangid series and’ contributed largely to the preparation of manuscript catalogs of spiders, amphibians and reptiles. Miss Wolf resigned in September 1923 to accept a teaching position and was succeeded by Maria Seguin. Routine work of the office—cataloging, preparation of specimens for study and exhibition purposes, etc.— occupied the time of Miss Seguin from the time of her appointment until February 15, 1924, when she tendered her resignation. The taxidermist, Arthur Paladin, has devoted much of his time to cleaning the mounted specimens of birds and mammals in Zoology Hall and restoring the small habitat groups that have suffered from time and exposure to strong light. Suggestions for development. Inthe New York State Museum, material for exhibits in zoology has been selected chiefly from those groups of animals whose representatives are comparatively large and conspicuous and which lend themselves readily to effective treatment. Other groups of no less interest to the Museum-visiting public have been neglected, not only because of lack of exhibit space but because they require, in their proper presentation, the treatment and handling that can be given only by a specialist trained in modeling and cast- ing and the preparation of accessory group material. It is obviously impossible to have satisfactory group work done outside the Museum by workmen unacquainted with the limitations of the Museum. Under the conditions imposed by the lack of space and properly designed cases, and suitable systems for the control of light and reflection, it is impossible to display much interesting material already in the collections. These conditions may be remedied by adding to the staff of the Division of Zoology a trained and experi- enced preparator, by replacing certain ill-designed cases with others better adapted for special exhibits and finally, by supplementing the present overhead system with lighting units placed in the separate cases. The State Museum, and particularly the Division of Zoology, has not kept pace with similar institutions in making its resources fully available for the use of teachers and students in nature study and REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 43 biology in the public schools. This may be attributed both to the lack of space in the public halls and to the failure of the teachers themselves to make the Museum an adjunct of the classroom. Special classes of exhibits frequently changed and arranged to meet the need of both teachers and students throughout the school year would do much to advance nature study and biology in city schools beyond the stage of bean growing and textbook study. It would be to the material advantage of the public schools if the city budget could provide a teacher, trained in nature work, to cooperate with the Museum in the presentation of materials relating to natural his- tory, for under such an arrangement exhibits brought together for the purpose could be made to supplement the work of the classroom and laboratory. 44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM ANCE OLO GYAN DT EATEN Ol @ Gi REPORT BY ARTHUR C. PARKER, State Archeologist An analysis of the various activities of this division and the methods of approach have appeared in a previous report, making a repetition unnecessary. In general it may be stated however, that the work consists of making field examinations and excavations of aboriginal sites, conducting field and laboratory studies in ethnology, in collecting folk-lore, in caring for the collections acquired and in conducting the work of the office which consists mainly of corre- spondence, consultation and research. Field work. Field examinations were made of certain sites in the Genesee valley, the Hudson valley near Athens, and in Jefferson county, but no excavations have been conducted this year owing to an injury received by the archeologist. The plans which had been made for work were laid aside and the men engaged dismissed. Certain collections were visited and examined in detail, among them the new collection of Alvin H. Dewey of Rochester, and the collections of Willard E. Yager of Oneonta and of George L. Tucker of Buffalo. Each is representative of its locality. Mr Yager has based an extensive work in several volumes on the data of his col- lection which embraces many valuable objects from the upper Sus- quehanna valley. Condition of the collections. The collections of this division are housed in the two upper mezzanine floors of the museum and run the entire length of the building. In the west hall, termed the Myron H. Clark Hall of Iroquois Ethnology, are the six Indian groups and at the western end are the ethnological collections and osteological exhibits. In the east hall, termed the Lewis H. Morgan Hall of Archeology, are the archeological exhibits. These collec- tions require constant curatorial oversight; new exhibits are in- stalled from time to time and old ones taken out and stored. During the year we have prepared for exhibition the Coxsackie flint mine hill material, the Vine Valley discoveries and the L. V. Case loan exhibit of Egyptian and Mesopotamian objects. New accessions. During the year donations of material have been received from Jefferson Ray, W. R. Blackie and Otis M. Bige- low. Mr Ray presented the Museum with a fine basket hamper made about 1790 by the Indians of Coxsackie hills, and some very fine material from Old Orchard Point and from Indian Fields. Mr Bigelow presented a collection from the town of Cicero. The REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 45 Blackie collection was French neolithic material from the Dordogne region. We received as an exchange some unusual material from A. Barrett who collected it in Tasmania. Through the courtesy of Mrs Mary Clapp Curtis we were pre- sented with a remarkable collection of Mescalero ethnological material collected by her late husband, Dr A. J. Curtis in New Mexico, where he was the Indian Agent and Peace Commissioner in 1870-73 under appointment by President Grant. Correspondence and consultation. The archeological section of the Museum receives numerous letters requesting information. These vary from questions of history and ethnology to requests for Indian names and for material for works on history, drama and fiction. School teachers and pupils have contributed largely to our correspondence. With the numerous requests that have come in for addresses, papers and lectures, the office has been kept busy with paper work. The burden of all this falls on the Archeologist himself. We receive numerous calls from teachers, writers, artists, anthro- pologists, students and others interested in American Indian arche- ology and ethnology. Since this office has accumulated considerable information along general Indian lines, especially in the subjects of law, education and social conditions, it has been consulted by the Attorney Generai’s office, the United States Indian Bureau, the Interior Department, and other federal and state offices. Frequently other museums and historical societies have asked for expert assistance or contributions to their reports. We have usually been able to meet the request. Conferences and inspections. During the year this office has participated in the deliberations of the New York State Indian Wel- fare Society at the Albany meeting; the New York State Archeolog- ical Society at the meetings in Rochester and Albany; the Genesee County Historical Federation at Batavia and the New York State Historical Society at Lake Placid. In each of these deliberations the Archeologist supplied a major paper. Inspection and study have been made of the archeological collec- tions, especially those of the Algonkian and Iroquoian cultures, in the museums of the Buffalo Historical Society, the Holland Land Pur- chase Historical Society, the Ontario County Historical Society and the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society of Wilkes-Barre, Pa. Literary contributions have also been made to the Buffalo His- torical Society, the History of Buffalo, the History of the Genesee 46 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Country, the Researches and Transactions of the New York State. Archeological Association and to the Provincial Museum of On- tario. Assistance has been rendered the Municipal Museum of Rochester and the Buffalo Historical Society, in the matter of the George L. Tucker collection. Laws and legislation. During the year this division prepared two bills for introduction in the State Legislature, one seeking to have the State acquire for the State Museum the flint quarries at Coxsackie, and the other making the manufacture and sale of fraud- ulent archeological artifacts a misdemeanor, punishable by fine or jail or both. The first bill was designed to make an archeological monument of the ancient flint mines of the Algonkin Indians and with the sur- roundings to provide a wild flower and bird sanctuary. The prin- cipal owners of the 43 acres which we desired to acquire were will- ing to let us have their share of the property for $1500. The bill, which had the backing of many influential people as well as the State Archeological Society was passed by both houses of the legis- lature, but was not signed by the Governor. The fraud bill was introduced concurrently by Senator Dick and Assemblyman Griffiths. It was passed by both branches of the Legislature and became effective on September 30, 1923. With this law on the statute books we now have effective means of reaching offenders who for years have been making and selling fraudulent pipes and copies of other aboriginal objects. At the Batavia meeting of the Genesee County Historical Federa- tion the Archeologist suggested that the federation support some specific program and recommended that the federation take measures to acquire the environs of Indian Falls on Tonawanda creek between Buffalo and Batavia, as a state park. The plan at once met with hearty approval and the indorsement of influential men and or- ganizations. It has been incorporated by the state parks committee of the New York State Association in their report on the State park project. Archeologically this park will have considerable interest for it covers traces of the Neutral nation flint workers whose quarries were along the escarpment at Divers lake which is embraced in the park plot. Status of the Iroquois Indians. During the past year or two there has been considerable interest manifested in the legal status of the Iroquois, or Six Nations, of New York and Ontario. This is REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 47 due to the fact that these Indians were parties to well-defined treaties which they have endeavored themselves to keep with scrupulous re- gard. This has produced a singular condition of affairs in New York. The Indian governments claim that they are independent sovereignties having treaty relations with the United States but not under its control except as specified by the treaties. The Federal Government claims that they are wards, and as such are amenable to federal control. Nothwithstanding this claim, the Federal Government has done nothing to assist these Indians in attaining civilization and competency, save for a few instances when pupils are received in government schools. On the other hand, the State of New York for more than a century has supplied for the Indians schools, orphanages, health supervision, charitable aid, and even pro- vided certain scholarships in normal schools. It has built and main- tained for them roads and bridges. Before New York was a state in the federation, it entered into treaties and agreements with the Indians, and the first State Constitution gave the Governor and the Legislature the right to treat with the Indians. When the State be- came a part of the Nation it still persisted in its rights in this direc- tion and repeatedly passed laws aiding and regulating Indian affairs, many times at the request of the Indians themselves. The Seneca Nation in its constitution of 1848 recognizes the right of the State _ to intervene and to legislate for it. Under the Woodbury opinion, rendered by the State Attorney General’s office, it is now held that the State never did have the right to legislate for the Indians and that all such legislation is in- valid. For example, the State can not under this decision enforce the compulsory education act, though it supplies the schools. Under the conditions of this triangular contention, it is held by many friends of the Indians that reservation conditions are not such as are best for the Indian people. All friends of the Iroquois agree that something must be done to fix definitely the legal status of the Six Nation People. In 1920 at the Rochester meeting of the Indian Welfare Society, the Archeologist suggested that the Federal Government begin suit in the Supreme Court against the State ot New York, for the purpose of testing and determining the relative rights of the State and the Nation over the reservation Indians. Ap- parently this suggestion has borne fruit and now plans are under way to start such a suit. As a member of the State Indian Com- mission the Archeologist has been active in endeavoring to obtain legal action along these lines. With the abolishment of that com- mission, the Archeologist was appointed by the Secretary of the In- 48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM terior a member of the committee of citizens on Indian affairs, and as the chairman of this body has been cooperating with federal and voluntary bodies interested in Indian welfare. The Six Nations of Canada have had some similar trouble with the Dominion authorities. The Six Nations there always regarded themselves as allies of Great Britain, and their treaty with Sir Fred- erick Haldiman, giving them the Grand river tract, as “His Majesty’s faithful allies,’ assured the Indians who left New York State after the Revolutionary War, a homeland and independence. It now appears that Canada wishes to declare all the Six Nations Indians citizens and in order to enforce the enfranchisement act has stationed Dominion police on the Six Nations’ domain. The Six Nations have protested and have carried their complaint to the League of Nations for its intervention. These actions and attitudes of the Six Nations Indians on both sides of the line is typical of their entire history and indicates their energy and national persistence. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 49 FUNDAMENTAL FACTORS IN SENECA FOLK LORE BY ARTHUR C. PARKER Basic Premises The myths and legends of the Seneca Indians are built upon cer- tain well-recognized and deeply rooted postulates. Each bit of folk lore must have its consistency adjudged by these elements in order to be credible. Any myth or legend that offended the standards so set would immediately be rejected by the Seneca as spurious. Toa large extent the premises of folk lore are founded on folk thought, and woe to the innovator who sought to direct his theme from the accepted thought patterns. Among the basic beliefs upon which the folk tale is built are the following : Unseen spirits. Spirits pervade all Nature and affect man for good or ill. Their desires and plans must be satisfied by man. There are both good and evil spirits. Spirits may inhabit anything in nature. Conflict of good and evil spirits. Good spirits are constantly making war upon evil spirits. Magical power. ‘There is such a thing as orenda or magical power. Such power makes its possessor the master over the natural order of things. This orenda may be acquired in various ways. It may be residual, and therefore an attribute of the indi- vidual, or it may be inherent in some charm or fetish. Virtuous persons may be given a good orenda, which is always more powerful in the end than the evil orenda which is possessed by witches and sorcerers. Transformation. Any being possessing orenda may transform himself into any form, animate or inanimate, as his orenda gives power. Anything seen in nature may be a temporary or a per- manent transformation of a being having orenda. Transformation may be by command or by entering the skin of the creature whose form one desires to assume. Animals having orenda may assume human form and mingle with human beings. A group of people, therefore, may in reality be a transformed group of animals, and likewise with individuals. All nature 1s conscious. Everything in the Seneca philosophy lives and is conscious. It is a being and in communication with other parts of Nature. Anything in Nature may be spoken to and it will hear what has been said. It may be induced to act in one’s behalf. 50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM All living creatures have souls. ‘The Seneca believes that ani- mals have souls that are like in their nature to the souls of human beings. The hunter, therefore, propitiates the soul of the animal he kills—and explains why he killed it. The souls of friendly animals help man, if man has been courteous, and has properly propitiated them. Souls of evil animals injure men and must be “bought off.” The souls of all creatures return to the maker of souls just as man’s does. Master of souls. There is in the heaven world a master of life and soul. He allows his subordinate spirits to rule the earth world and concerns himself generally with his own realm. Souls that re- turn to him are taken apart and readjusted that they may function properly in the immortal realm. Evil is therefore conceived in a measure as a maladjustment or a pollution of the soul’s parts. Ghosts. The manes of departed men and animals wander over their familiar haunts and startle men by their “materializations.” Wandering ghosts generally want something and must have their desires satisfied. The evil of the living person is intensified in the ghost. A ghost is the body spirit and not the real psychic person- | ality. Dreams. Dreams are experiences of the soul as it leaves the body during sleep. The dream god guides the soul to its dream experi- ence. Dreams that prompt the individual to certain desires must be interpreted by a chosen person or by volunteer guessers, and the desire must be satisfied, or calamity will befall the dreamer as well as the unsuccessful guesser. Prophetic dreams must guide action and dream demands must not be lightly set aside. . Monsters. There are monsters that men seldom see. These affect the welfare and the destiny of man. They are generally evil and seek to destroy and sometimes to eat human beings. Wigards. ‘There are such beings as wizards, witches and sor- cerers. These beings possess an evil orenda and seek to destroy in- nocent people. Gods, Major Spirits and Folk Beasts of the Seneca Bewmgs of the Primal Order The first of the god beings was Te‘hao“hwefdjaiwa”’kho” or Earth Holder. It was he who ruled the sky world and lived in the great celestial lodge beneath the celestial tree. As the result of a dream, this chief, who also bears the title, Ancient One, was moved to take to himself as a wife a certain maiden, known as Awé™ha’s,, Mature Flower (Fertile Earth). Mature Flower consented to the REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 51 betrothal, but due to the embrace of her lover inhaled his breath, and was given a child. The attention she gave this child caused Ancient One to be moved to jealousy, this emotion being aroused in him through the machinations of the Fire Beast, whose invisi- bility rendered his work the more subtle. Little is known through mythology of Ancient One, since his field is a celestial one, and he seldom interferes with the doings of men of our present order. Of his unhappy wife, who was cast through the hole made by the uprooting of the celestial tree, we learn more.* The wife of Ancient One was lage”™’tci‘, also meaning Ancient One (Body). We recognize her in the Huron myths as recorded or mentioned in the Jesuit Relations at Ataentsic (Ataaentsik). In Onondaga this would be Eia’ tage™’tci. Her story is given in all versions of the creation myth. Fler personal name seldom appears, but Hewitt gives it as Aweé™ha1', this referring to her maturity, or ability to bring forth seed. In some versions the chief casts his wife into the abyss made by uprooting the celestial tree, Gai%ia”tgé’”hei‘; in others her own curiosity 1s responsible. The tree in such versions is uprooted as a dream demand and her enraged husband pushes her into the hole made thereby through the crust of the heaven world. After the completion of the earth world the sky mother returned by way of an ethereal path that was plainly visible to her, this having been made by her daughter, the first born and the first to die of earth creatures. | Fire Beast (Gaasiondie’ tha’), appears to have been one of the important primal beings, and to have exercised a malign influence even upon the inhabitants of the celestial world. He is described as of “sky color” or invisible, and he is detected only when he emits streams and flashes of light from his head. When a meteor flashes the Iroquois recognizes the Fire Beast. His appearance is counted as a sign of direfui calamity and death. Whirlwind (S‘hagodiiw"’gowa or Hadu’’i’), was also a primal power of great importance. He is the controller of the violent winds, and he takes his name, He-who-defends-us, from his promise to help mankind when threatened by calamity. His symbol is the crooked-mouthed false face. There is also the concept of the four defenders, one for each of the cardinal directions. It was Whirl- wind who boasted his power to the Good Mind (Iouskeha) and who had the contest with him of mountain moving. The face became * Consult Hewitt in Handbook of the American Indians, under his article, Teharonhiawagon. We have re-edited our notes in accord with his findings. 52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM mutilated by the mountain coming too quickly against it, at the com- mand of Good Mind. Admitting that he was now a subordinate, he agreed furthermore to drive away disease and pestilence and to defend men beings, who should be thereafter created, from malign influences. His face carved in wood, after certain propitiatory and invocatory ceremonies, was and still is used by the conserva- tive [roquois in their ceremonial events, particularly at the midwinter thanksgiving, when parties of masked figures go from house to house singing the magical songs deemed potent for this purpose. The Thunderer, Hi’’no™, was another of the great beings, but he appears in the second order of mythology, as a servant to Iouskeha. He occupies a high place in the category of Iroquois gods, so high a place that it is an open question whether or not the Great Being whom the Iroquois now address as Hawéfio’ is not identical with the Thunderer, though there is also.a recognition of the Thunderer as a separate being. The name Hawéfi'o’, apparently is derived from owén’a’ (voice) and i’o (good, great, majestic or beautiful). The initial Ha is the masculine sign. The name thus means He- great-voice. This alludes to the thunder. The Thunderer is a mighty being, the maker of rains. He wrinkles his brow and the thunder rolls; he winks his eyes and lightnings flash like arrows of fire. The Thunderer hates all evil spirits, and he is charged with ter- rorizing the otgont or malicious dwellers of the underworld to re- turn to.their cave. He seeks to slay the underwater serpents and all folk-beasts that would use evil magic. The beneficent earth god was T*haho™hiawa’ko", the light or elder twin of the Sky Woman’s daughter. He is variously called Iouskeha (Huron), Ha’ni‘go’io’, Good Mind, Elder Brother, and Sky Holder. It was he who watched at the grave of his mother, and discovered the food plants. It was he who set forth on the journey “to the East” and obtained from his father the power to tule. He made the earth habitable for man, obtained the mastery over Thunderer and the Whirlwind, and even made his grand- mother, Eia’tagé®’tci’ (Awé™ha’1‘) play the game of plum stones, the result of which should determine who should rule the earth. He animated his plum stone dice and gave them understanding, ordered them to arrange themselves as he directed, and thereby won the highest count in a single throw. This gave him mastery over his evil brother, Tawis’karo® (the icy or flinty one), for the grand- mother sympathized with this ugly twin brother of his. In the heaven world T‘haho™hiawa’’ko® now lives with his grandmother, in the reunited family of celestial beings, and although he grows very old he has the power of renewing himself at will, and exercises this REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 53 power over good souls that come into the heaven world. He cre- ated man after observing his own reflection in a pool of water, after which he made minature figures in clay and commanded them to live. : Tawis’karo® was the second born of the daughter of the Sky Woman. He was of destructive nature, and found his way to life through the axilla of his mother, killing her at birth. His heart was made of ice or of flint [the words are similar]. His delight is in destroying living things, especially by freezing. He created all the evil beasts, serpents, insects and birds. He invented thorns, briars, and by kicking at the earth made cliffs and precipices. During his career he stole all the good animals and hid them in a cave; he drove all the birds away. His great feat was in stealing the sun and hiding it in the far southwest. Aided by the fires which his brother, T‘hahohiwa’ko", and. his cohorts secured, the birds and animals were found and the sun was released. This of course typifies the annual triumph of summer over winter, the return of the migrating birds and the return of the heat of the sun. Tawis’karo® is then con- fined to his cavern, hence his name Hanis‘he’ono", meaning He- who-dwells-in-the-cave. With the coming of the Christian mission- aries, Tawiskaro was identified with the Christian devil, (Ha’nigo- iét’gi‘, bad mind).1 Strangely, about this time it was the Thunder god, instead of the good-minded Sky Holder, who was metamor- phosed into the Great Spirit, Hawéni’o’, this name being the Seneca equivalent for Jehovah (God).? Lesser known gods were Ai‘ko™ the Dream god, Haskota’hia- haks, the Head Opener and Deioda‘sondai’ko™, Thick Night. Aikon caused the dreams which demanded interpretation, and Has- kotahiakaks opened the heads of soul bodies as they passed over the sky-trail (Milky Way), and examined them for good and evil thoughts, after which he ate the brains. There is a marvelous tree in the center of the heaven world. It bears all manner of fruits and flowers. @here\ is also) a’ great tree in the’ center of the earth, Its’ top touches the sky. It grew in the world of the first order and it bore flowers of light. To touch this tree is to acquire great magical power. The Whirlwinds rub their rattles against it and become full of orenda. 1 S’hagoewat’ha’ also meaning, He punishes them. * Oddly enough, the original Hebrew concept of Yahweh, (Jehovah) was of a god of the elements, particularly the storms. He manifested himsel# in the thunder’s roar and by the lightning’s flash, and blew like a great wind from the Ark of the Covenant. terrifying the Philistines. 54 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Nature Beings The Sun among the nature gods, is recognized by the Seneca as a powerful being. Yet, unlike the gods in other theogenies, the Sun is a creation made after the formation of the world—at least so it would appear from the common cosmogeny. The Sun was created from the face of the earth mother, yet it may be that her face was the sacrifice that brought the Sun into evidence. There is evidence of attempts to conceal the origin of the Sun in several of the myths. He appears as the messenger of the Sky Chief and as the special god of war, Ho‘sgé™ age’ dagowa, he also appears as existing before the birth of the primal twins, and it appears that he is the being who sat on the mountain “to the east across the sea,’ and who gave power to the Good Mind, or T’haho™hiawa”ko". It thus appears there is an imperfect assimilation of conflicting myths, probably from dif- ferent sources. Each day the Sun starts from his resting place in the branches of the celestial tree, takes his path under the lifted east sky, rolls up the dome and commences his unerring watch of the movements of men. Wherever there is light, there is the messenger of the Sky Chief watching human behaviour. Returning at night, he recites all that he has observed on earth. He bears the name Endéka Gaa’kwa, diurnal orb of light. The Moon is Soi’ka Gaa’kwa, nocturnal orb of light, and she is hailed as “Our Grandmother.” In each of her several phases she has a different name and function. She is watched by the females as a sign of health, and by the men as a sign of hunting luck. By the moon, time is regulated, and each monthly moon has a special name. Of all heavenly bodies she is the most mysterious, though not the most powerful. Morning Star, Génden'wit‘ha, is one of the great beings of the sky and her appearance is watched as an omen. Once Morning Star was an important celestial personage, but the Iroquois have drifted away from giving her special honors. She appears in several roles, sometimes as a siren who lures hunters into a luckless marriage, | mysteriously leaving them to wander the world over in search of her. She is said to have charmed an elk into loving her. She also ap- pears as a rescuer of starving villages in time of famine. She is called Gadji‘so™da’ génden’ witha’. Storm Wind, Dagwanoeient, (Dagwano’éf’ien) is a being of great activity and has a whole tribe of subordinates bearing his name. He appears to men as a Flying Head, with long streaming hair, and his exploits are generally discreditable. He is a great wizard and REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 55 takes delight in destroying things. His friends are generally sor- cerers and otgont (evilly potent) beasts. Many legends are related about Dagwanoeient in his various forms, for he has several trans- formations. | The Zephyr, Gaha‘, is a softer wind than the stormy Dagwan- oeient, and appears to be of a kindlier disposition. While Gaha may have done magical things, they were not done with evil intent. There are legends that tell how Gaha wooed some fair forest maid and married her. Gaha helps plants grow and is associated with the warm season when fruits ripen and mature. The Frost god is known as Ha”tho’. He is described as a fierce and unrelenting old man who lives where frosts and ice abound the year around. His home in the North is called Othowege. It is he who brings the frost and who causes the snows to sweep over the earth. His clothing is ice and he carries a maul with which he pounds the ice on rivers and lakes, making them crack with a re- sounding boom. He also causes that peculiar knocking sound on trees when the weather is very cold. He has one great enemy, the spirit of Spring, who assisted by Thaw drives him from the region _ that he has invaded and sends him grumbling back to the northland. The Frost god has as his friends Dagwanoeient, the Storm Wind, and Falling Hail. The Hail spirit is called Owisondyon. He loves to startle lh by coming unexpectedly i in the warm months of early summer and to pelt the growing crops with his icy missles. Sometimes he is given the name, Dehodyadgaowen, meaning Divided Body. The Spring god is Dedio‘s‘nwineqdo". He is young and very muscular. He loves to wrestle with the winter winds and even enters Ha’’t‘ho’s lodge and teases him to desperation while his faith- ful ally, Thaw, plays havoc with the ice and the drifts outside. Spring tortures the Winter god with a medicine made of blackberry juice, for the Winter god knows that when blackberries grow he is beyond the power of injuring the world. At last Spring and Winter have a wrestling match in which Winter is overcome and his bodily form melts upon the ground, while his spirit whines away, driven north by the south winds. Spring lives in Oné’na®’ge‘, sunshine land. The Thaw god is Daga’é™’da, the faithful ally of Spring. When he comes in midwinter he appears suddenly and begins to wreck the icy blankets that winter has placed over the earth. Winter then knows that Spring is coming and exerts all his magic to freeze the world again and to make his reign even more terrible. Time passes 56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM and Thaw comes again bringing his master, Spring. Then there is a fight to the finish, and Spring is supreme, while Thaw pursues ever to torment Ha’tho‘, on his frontiers. The spirits of sustenance are known as Dio™he’ko. They are represented as the inseparable spirits of the corn, the bean and the squash. They are sometimes referred to as “the three sisters.” The ceremonial dance in their honor is called Gonda‘ gofiwi’ sas. There are many legends of these spirits of sustenance and the wise men and women of ancient times tell of hearing them talk together in the fields where they grow together. Tide spirit is known as S‘hagoweno't‘ha, and it is he who controls the rising and falling of the great waters, twice in each day. It is said that he controls the lifting of the sky’s rim in the land of Gaenhyakdondye (the horizon), which allows the sun to emerge in the morning and depart at night. Sometimes he tempts canoemen far out to sea and then crushes them under the edge of the sky’s rim. He sometimes lures disobedient boys to lonely islands where witches and wizards live on human flesh. Altogether, aside from certain functions, he is an evil monster. Will-o’-the-wisp, or Gahai” is known as the witch’s torch. It is not a spirit of the first order, but merely a flying light which directs sorcerers and witches to their victims. Sometimes it guides them to the spots where they may find their charms. Sorcerers have been detected by the frequent appearance of their Gahai’, which leaves their smoke holes and guides them as they ride in mid-air on their evil journeys. Magic Beasts and Birds Cloudland Eagle O's‘ha’da’gea’ is chief among all the creatures that inhabit the air. He seems ever to watch over mankind, espe- cially the Iroquois, and to come to earth when great calamities threaten. Living above the clouds, he collects the dews in his feathers. Some say that he has a pool of dew on his back between his shoulders. The Iroquois regard him with great reverence, for he is connected with many a worthy exploit. Horned Snake, Gas‘hais’dowane®, has several names among which are Doona”gaes and Djo"di”’gwado". He is a monster serpent of the underwaters. His head is adorned with antlers of great spread, though he is also said to have monster horns shaped like a buffalo’s. He is capable of transforming himself to the appearance of a man, and as such delights in luring maidens to his abode. Ina few instances he appears as the gallant rescuer of women marooned REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 57 on bewitched islands. Like other monsters he has a brood of his kind, he having females as well. These sometimes lure men under water and seek to transform them by inducing them to put on the garments they wear. Horned Snake is hated by the Thunderer who spares no energy to kill him before he can dive. Monster Bear, Nia’ gwai’he’gowa, is the most feared of magic beasts and one of the most frequent among them to enter into the fortunes of men. He loves to race and in various forms which he assumes, seeks to induce men, and particularly boys, to bet their lives on the race which generally lasts from sunrise to sunset. He has a vulnerable spot on the bottom of one of his feet and unless some hero hits this, the monster does not die. His bones form im- portant parts of “magic medicine” and the dust from one of his leg bones if taken as a medicine, is reputed to make a runner invincible. White Beaver, Na™ga™nia” go", is an otgont beast who lives in magic waters. He seldom appears, but when he does, he means dis- aster. Usually he is represented as the transformed son of a great witch. He is sometimes called Diat’dagwit. Blue Otter is another magic beast whose home is in the water. His function is to poison springs. He has another function, that of inflicting disease by his magic, and in this way he secures offerings of tobacco. Blue Lizard, Djai’nosgowa, seems to be a beast looking something like an alligator. He lives in pools and is the servant of wizards and witches. Magic Manlike Beings The Stone Giants, or Stone Coats, Gé™no™’sgwa’, are commonly described in Seneca folk tales. They are beings similar to men, but of gigantic size and covered with coats of flint. They are not gods and are vulnerable to the assaults of celestial powers, although the arrows of men harm them not at all. The early Iroquois are reputed to have had many wars with them, and the last one is said to have been killed in a cave. Pygmies, Djogéo® are little people who live in caves. They are a tribe by themselves and live in houses as men do. They frequent deep gulches and the borders of streams. In some ways they are tricky, but in general they do not injure men. They are not suc- cessful hunters and are grateful for the fingernail parings of human beings. These are saved by the thoughtful and tied in little bundles which are thrown over cliffs for the Djogeon to gather as “hunting medicine.” They also require tobacco and when they need it, they will tap their water drums in their meeting places. The observant then make up little packages of tobacco which they throw to them. 58 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Out of gratitude for favors they frequently warn men of danger or assist them to fortune. Mischief Maker, S*hodi‘o"sko, is a trickster, and sometimes is called the “brother of death.” He delights in playing practical jokes, regardless of how they result. He possesses a store of magic and is able to transform himself into many forms. It is related in one legend that in the end he repented and returned to the sky world in a column of smoke. This appears however, to be an allu- sion to the Algonkin trickster. Ghostly Legs, Ganos’has‘ho’o®’, are beings composed only of a pair of legs, having a face directly in front, though the face is seldom seen. They appear only in the dark, and no one has ever made a complete examination of them. They have no arms or bodies, but are like the lower bodies of men, cut off at the waist. On either loin gleams a faintly glowing eye. Some have only one eye which pro- trudes and draws in as it observes an intended victim. The Ghostly Legs are always, or nearly always, running rapidly when seen. They usually betoken death and disaster. No one knows from whence they come or whither they go. Indians of today on some of the res- ervations claim to have seen these creatures. While they have never been known to injure anyone, they are at the same time as greatly feared as a ghost. Glutton Punisher, Sago™’dada“kwus (Sagodadahkwus), is a great being with a lean, hungry looking body, and an insatiable appetite. He seeks out gluttons, and catching them in the dark, takes a long spoon which he inserts into their vitals and spoons out his food. For fear anything may be lost he carries a kettle into which he places everything he can not immediately eat. He is the spirit of gluttony and is the terror of all who gorge themselves unduly. It is well for a man who overeats to stay indoors at night, lest He-who- eats-inwards devour everything within him. So, with his kettle and spoon, Sagodadahkwus wanders over the earth looking for the gluttons. The Big Breast, Gononk’goés, is a gigantic woman whose breasts hang down like pillows. She roams the earth looking for lovers who sit close together in the dark. If they make one remark that seems to be improper in their love making, or if they stay at their love making too long, she leans over them, catching their faces be- neath her breasts and smothering them. Then she stands upright, still holding the smothered lovers to her bosom, and walking to a cliff, leans over and drops them into the dark depths below. The Dry Hand, O”nia‘ta®, is a mysterious mummified arm that flies about to bewitch those who pry into the affairs of others by ask- REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 59 ing too many questions. It will thrust its fingers in the eyes of the peeper who tries to watch others out of idle curiosity. Generally the touch of this hand means death. Themes and Materials There are certain characteristic types of action to be found in Seneca folk tales, and these are closely followed in all tales. How- ever rambling a tale may be, it never departs from certain stereo- typed themes, expressing as they do the accepted idea patterns over which the story is woven. Among these themes we mention the following: 1 Transformation. Characters in the story are able to trans- form themselves into any person, animal or object, as their orenda or magical power gives them power. The Seneca believed in trans- formation to such an extent that he was never sure that a rolling stone, a vagrant leaf fluttering along, a scolding bird or a curious animal might not be some “powered” person in a transformation stage. ; 2 Magically acquired power. The hero of a tale finds himself in a predicament and through his effort to extricate himself is endowed with magical power by which he overcomes enemies and difficulties. 3 Overcoming monsters. The journey of the hero is beset with magical monsters that seek to destroy him. The hero uses his wits and his orenda and subdues them. 4 Precocious twims. Twins are born of a romantic marriage, par- ticularly where the hero or heroine has lost a relative. The twins rapidly grow to maturity and set forth to conquer. 5 Contest with sorcerers. The hero is placed in opposition to a sorcerer and matches his power against him, finally killing the sorcerer. 6 Son-in-law put to tests. The hero is allowed to retain his place, possessions or mate provided he procures certain magical objects tor the sorcerer. In some stories an evil mother-in-law demands such objects as the magical beaver, white otter, or blue lizard. The hero obtains them very quickly and sometimes calls a feast to eat them. The mother-in-law is angry because these beasts are her brothers. | This is a widely diffused theme and is found from one coast to another. 7 Dream animal rescues hero. The hero finds himself in a pre- dicament and remembering that a helper appeared to him in a dream, calls upon it for rescue. A rescue is made. 60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 8 Race with monster. A monster, generally a monster bear, be- comes enraged at or jealous of the hero. The monster challenges the hero to a race, the winner to kill the loser. The hero wins, generally by aid of some fetish given by his uncle or grandfather. Q Boaster makes good. The hero boasts his power to do certain things, for example, to run faster than any living creature. He is — warned to stop before the spirits of swift-running beings hear him. He continues to boast and a monster comes to the door to make the challenge. See 8 for a continuation of this theme. 10 Impostor fails. A jealous rival overcomes the hero and strips him of his clothing. The hero becomes weak and old while the impostor becomes youthful. The impostor now assumes the char- acter and rights of the hero. Finally he endeavors to perform the magical tricks of the hero and fails miserably. Skinner in J.A.F.L. 27-99, cites this as a central Algonkin theme. ~ 11 Thrown away boy. A child is thrown away because it seems too small to live, or it is lost in a blood clot and cast into a hollow stump. The boy that was thrown away lives and becomes a power- ful being who achieves wonders. 12 Hidden lodge child. A child born with a caul is concealed in a lodge, generally under an inclosed bed. It is cared for by some elderly person, generally an uncle or aunt. A normal brother endeavors to rescue it, being told of its existence by some magical being; or the child is hidden to protect it from an evil sorcerer who wants to steal it. The hero overcomes the sorcerer. 13 Double deceives sister. A youth lives in a secluded cabin with his sister. The youth’s double comes to the lodge when the hero is absent, endeavoring to seduce the sister. The double is repulsed. The sister will not believe her brother has not insulted her. The brother finally makes a sudden return from a hunting trip and apprehends the double, killing him. Skinner in Anthrop B. of A.M.N.H., XIII, 528, cites this as a Menomini theme. 14 Uncle and nephew. An uncle and nephew live together in a secluded lodge. Uncle generally becomes jealous of youth’s ability and desires the woman predestined for the nephew. In other cases uncle assists nephew to find lost parents. Generally the uncle guards the nephew and forbids him to go in a certain direction. Nephew disobeys orders. 15 Evil stepfather. The stepfather endeavors to rid himself of an unpromising stepson. He hides the boy in a cave or hole which he stones up. The boy is rescued and taught by animals, and finally returns a powerful being and confronts his stepfather. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 61 16 Witch mother-in-law. A youth marries the daughter of a witch who endeavors to cause his death through conflict with monsters. See 6 for continuation of motive. 17 Animal foster-parents. Animals find an abandoned boy. They discuss which one will care for him. A mother bear generally suc- ceeds in securing him and takes him to a hollow tree where he is protected and educated in animal lore. 18 Bewitched parents. A boy finds that he has no parents. He asks his uncle or grandfather where they are and is told that they are under some evil enchantment and secured in a place beset with magical monsters. The boy overcomes the obstacles and rescues his parents. 19 Obstacles produced magicaily. The hero is beset by a witch or monster. He flees and upon being pressed creates obstacles by dropping a stone and causing it to become an insurmountable cliff. He casts pigeon feathers and conjures them into a great flock that makes a slime that is impassible, or he finds “uncles”? who inter- pose barriers for him, as webs, nets, holes, pits etc. The hero finally escapes to lodge of a waiting mother-in-law. 20 Lover wins mate. A young man marries the girl of his choice in spite of the tricks of older rival and the enmity of sorcerers. This must have been a popular theme in a society where the old were married to the young. 21 Jealous sister-in-law. Sister-in-law offended at hero’s choice seeks to harm bride or to kill hero. 22 Magical monster marries girl. The monster may be the horned snake or the Thunderer. 23 Thunderer wars upon horned snake. The Thunder god hates the horned serpent and fights it. 24 Turtle’s war party. The turtle gathers a company of offensive and loyal warriors. All are killed in action save the turtle who begs not to be placed in water when captured. He is thrust in a river and escapes. 25 Bungling guest. An evilly inclined trickster plays practical jokes. He performs magical acts and induces a guest to imitate. Success attends in the presence of the trickster and perhaps once in a private rehearsal, but miserable failure attends the demonstra- tion before others. 26 Sorcerer's island. A sorcerer lures the hero to an enchanted island. The sorcerer has control of the tides and currents of water. 27 Restoring skeletons. The hero finds bones of persons slain by sorcery. He commands them to arise quickly “ before I kick over a hickory tree,” and skeletons rise so quickly that bones are mis- mated. This is a popular ending of stories. 62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 28 Vampire corpse. The body of a dead sorcerer revives and procures hearts of living victims which it eats at leisure in its grave. 29 Dream demand. The hero guesses the meaning of a fabricated dream and satisfies it, thereby thwarting intentions of the witch who pretended to dream. 30 Sky journey. Brothers journey to rim of horizon and seek to go under it and enter the sky world. All succeed but one who is so cautious that he makes a late start. The sky comes down and crushes him. His spirit speeds ahead and greets living brothers when they arrive. Regeneration by Master of Life. Stereotyped Objects and Incidents Incidents 1 Lonely bark lodge. Hero and associates live in secluded hut. 2 Twins play in ground. Twins find an underground world in which they live and play. 3 Hero spies upon associate through hole in his blanket. He dis- covers the secret of associate’s power and tries this in associate’s absence. 4 Monster is shot in vulnerable spot in foot and is killed. 5 Hero in contest kills magical animal. He alone is able to pull out the arrow, thereby establishing his claim to power or reward. 6 Hero’s double buried in fireplace speaks through fire and reveals his murder to his mother. 7 Burning witch’s head explodes, sending forth cloud of owls. 8 Sorcerer controls flow of waters. Almost captures the hero fleeing in a canoe by drawing the current of the water toward him- self. The hero reverses the current and escapes. g Magical objects are concealed under a bed. Hero dreams he wants them in retaliation for his “ uncle’s’”’ evil desires. 10 Pursuing or sentinel monsters are pacified by gifts of meat. 11 Youth not yet able to hunt practises shooting at an animal’s paw hung on lodge rafter. 12 Sorcerers’ hearts or livers are concealed in a safe place in their lodges, guarded by conjured dogs or ducks. Hero finds hearts and destroys sorcerers. 13 Hero obtains hearts of enemies and squeezes them, causing enemies to faint. He dashes them on rocks and kills enemies. 14 Hero conjures lodge of witches into flint. He orders it to become red hot and so destroys enemies. 15 Hero learns how to jump through the air. 16 Hero reduces sister to miniature and places her in a conical arrow tip, shooting her away to safety. He follows by magic flight, creating obstacles as he goes. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 63 17 Corn rains down into empty bins of starving people. The corn maiden comes to marry hero whose younger brother is ungrate- ful for food, casting it in fire thereby burning the corn maiden’s body. She departs. 18 Powered man throws flint chips, calling upon them to kill animals. 19 Hero violates taboo. Calamity impends but hero overcomes. 20 Heroine kills pursuing monster by throwing boiling oil into its face. 21 Hero kicks over tree and causes skeletons to rise in flesh. Bones are mismated through haste. This is the explanation of the origin of cripples. 22 Hero or twin heroes walk into the ground and disappear. 23 Lonely bird sings for a mate. Various creatures seek to com- fort the lonely bird but all are rejected until a natural mate calls and is found injured or trapped. He is released by the lonely bird who flies away with him. 24 Animals talk to men. Some animal warns hero of impending danger and plans escape. Objects 1 Dream helpers. These are animals or persons that have come to the hero in a dream and promised to assist him in times of peril. 2 Astrai body. The hero has an astral self that appears in times of great danger and points out a way of escape. 3 Hollow log regeneration. Hero who has been abused or con- jured is regenerated by passing through a hollow log. | | 4 Talking flute. The flute kept in a “ bundle” talks to the hero’s friend and informs him of his condition, or it tells the hero where he may find game. 5 Running moccasins. Hero pursued takes off moccasins and orders them to run ahead and make tracks that baffle pursuer. 6 Magic arrow. An invincible arrow that kills whatever it is aimed at. It may be shot aimlessly into the air and game will return with it, falling dead at the hero’s feet. No one but the hero can withdraw the arrow. 7 Forbidden chamber. A certain walled off part of the lodge is forbidden to the hero, who in older relative’s absence explores it, causing anger of magical beings. 8 Door flap action. The sorcerer commands the hero to perform dream demand by going out of door and consummating demand before the door curtain flaps back. Q Magic fishine. The sorcerer hooks the hero’s fleeing canoe with a magical fishline. The hero burns off the line by emptying his pipe upon it. 64. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 10 Hero ties his hair to earth. When the hero suspects he is in the hands of a sorceress he ties a hair to a root before he sleeps. The sorceress makes off with him but can not go beyond the stretch- ing length of the hair and is compelled to return. J 11 Lice hunting. The sorceress hunts lice in the hero’s head, lull- ing him to sleep. 12 Saliva gives power. lf a powered being touches any object or weapon with his saliva, it takes some of his power. 13 Wampum tears. The captured hero or heroine, when tortured, sheds wampum tears which enemies greedily take. 14 Magical animal skins. The hero or sorcerer has enchanted skins which he can conjure to living animals. He may enter a skin and assume the characteristics of its original owner. 15 Magic pouch. The pouch of animal skin holds the hero’s utensils, tobacco and pipe. It may be conjured to a living thing. 10 Magic smt. A self-cleaning suit that gives power to wearer. 17 Magic canoe. A canoe that has unusual speed and may be paddled into the air. 18 Inexhaustible kettle. The hero’s friend puts scrapings of corn or nut into the kettle and it expands enormously supplying enough food. The hero tries the experiment and expands the kettle too greatly, bursting the lodge. | 19 Magical springs. Springs that have been enchanted by sor- cerers are the dwelling places of monsters that lure the unwary to drink. The monster then drags in his victim and eats him. 20 Enchanted clearings. Clearings guarded by monsters who prevent the hero from visiting the sorcerer living in a lodge within. 21 Bark dagger. ‘The hero is incapacitated by thrust of bark dagger piercing his back. The villain steals the hero’s clothing and impersonates him. See Impostor. 22 Sweat lodge regeneration. ‘The hero recovers through a sweat of bear’s grease. The lodge is covered with a fat bear pelt. 23 Powered finger. The hero has power to kill animals by point- ing his finger at them. 24 Animated finger. The hero obtains a magic finger that stands in his palm, pointing out the location of anything he desires. 25 Borrowed skin. ‘The hero borrows the skin (coat) of deer, mole, or other animal, and entering it, moves about without exciting suspicion of enemy. 26 Borrowed eyes. The hero borrows the eyes of deer or owl for a blind uncle enabling him to recover his own eyes or to see for a few moments a long lost relative, generally a brother. 27 Stolen eyes. Sorceresses rob young men of their eyes. 28 Quilt of eyes. Quilt made of winking eyes stolen from young REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 65 men who have looked at the witches who continually sew upon such a quilt. 29 Girls in box. Enchanted girls hidden in a bark box come forth upon demand of conjurer. The enchantment is not of an evil nature. 30 Enchanted feathers. These placed upon hero’s hat give him great power, particularly for running. 31 Enchanted birds. The hero has enchanted birds upon his hat, that bring coals to light his pipe. 32 Bark dolls. Dolls are enchanted so that they speak for their maker, deceiving evil pursuer of hero. 33, Talking moccasins. Moccasins placed in lodge talk to evil pur- suer, setting him or her astray. 34 Reducible dog. A tiny dog that is kept in a pouch. It may be enlarged to a size sufficient to carry the hero or his fleeing sister. Upon being patted with the hand or magic rod, it becomes reduced to a size almost invisible. | 35 Talking skull. The hero finds the skull of his uncle. It asks him for tobacco and then shows him how to overcome sorcery. 36 Flayed skin. A human skin is the slave of sorcerers and guards their lodge, clearing or path, screaming out the presence of intruders. It may be revived by the hero who removes the en- chantment. 37 Wampum eagle. An eagle covered with wampum. Many persons shoot at this eagle, trying to kill it. Only the hero can kill it with his magic arrow. 38 White beaver. '!A magical beaver, generally the “brother” of a witch, is killed by the hero who invites in his friends to help eat the beast. 39 Blue lizard. ‘The lizard lives in a magic spring and lures the unwary to death by pulling them into the water. 40 Flying heads. These are spirits of the storm winds. They are generally evil characters in stories. 41 Pygmies. There are tribes of “little people’ living under- ground or in rocky places. They have valuable charms and can be forced to give them to men. They have a ceremony in which they delight. If men beings perform this ceremony, favor is gained. They like tobacco and nail parings. 42 Buffalo one-rib. A magically endowed buffalo kills men. It can not be injured by arrows because it has only one rib, a bony plate protecting its entire body. It is vulnerable in the bottom of one foot. 43 Fast-growing snake. A boy finds a pretty snake and feeds it. 66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM - It grows enormously and soon eats deer. Game is exhausted and the snake goes after human beings. 44 White pebble. A white stone is given magical power and when thrown at a magical monster hits and kills it. 45 flesh-eating water. The water of a magical lake eats the flesh from the bones of the unwary. Monsters living in it are immune. 46 Sudden friend. The hero in a predicament sees a strange per- son before him who announces that he is a friend and will help the hero escape. He tells the hero what to do. Components of the Cosmological Myth 1 Sky world. A world above the clouds inhabited by transcen- dent beings. 2 Celestial tree. A wonderful tree in the center of the sky world. 3 Sky woman. She falls through hole made by uprooted sky tree and brings a promised child with her. 4 Primal turtle. He rises from the sea to receive the sky woman. 5 Earth diver. Animals dive to secure earth for turtle’s back. 6 World tree. This springs up from the root of the sky tree brought down by the sky woman. It grows in the “middle of the world.” Flowers of light. 7 Female first born. A daughter soon born to the sky woman. Grows to quick maturity. 8 Immaculate conception. Daughter conceives in mysterious manner. . 9g Rival twins. Twins born to daughter. The warty, flint- hearted one kills his mother at birth. The fair one, the elder, watches her grave and finds corn, beans, squashes, potatoes and tobacco springing from it. The elder twin is constructive, the younger is destructive. 10 Hoarded water. The evil twin causes a great frog to drink all the water of the earth. The good twin hits it with a stone caus- ing it to disgorge. 11 Father search. ‘The good-minded twin searches for his father and finds him on a great mountain to the east. 12 Son testing. Good Minded’s father tests him with wind, water, fire and rock. Good Minded proves his sonship and re- turns to the earth island with bags of animals. 13 Man making. Good Minded molds man from clay after re- flections seen in water. | 14 Primal beings return. Good Minded and grandmother return to sky. 15 Evil banished. Evil Minded is placed in an underground cavern. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 67 THE STATUS OF THE NEW YORK INDIANS BY ARTHUR C. PARKER The uncertain legal status of the New York Indians of the Six Nations has been the cause of considerable confusion, not only to these Indians, but also to the various departments of the State. The result has reacted unfavorably upon the reservation Indians and has hindered their progress. At a meeting of the New York State Indian Welfare Society at Syracuse in 1918, various state and federal officials who dealt with Indian matters were invited to submit their opinions as to how a remedy might be found and applied. It was suggested that a com- mission be appointed to consider the problem. Robert W. Hill of the State Charities Department was named to draft a bill seeking the appointment of a commission. The bill was drawn and introduced, passing both houses of the Legislature and signed by the Governor, becoming chapter 590 of the Laws of 1919. After determining the membership of the com- mission the bill defines its duties as follows: Such commission shall confer with the two committees on Indian Affairs of the United States Congress, whenever Congress shall be called into session by the President of the United States, and shall consider with such committees the relations and status of the In- dians living on the Reservations of New York State, as they may be affected by the State of New York and the United States Govern- ment. The Commission was appointed by the Governor and duly or- ganized. The commission was recognized by the Governor who appointed the individual members. A preliminary meeting was held in the office of the Speaker of the Assembly, Thaddeus C. Sweet, on July 9, 1919. At this session E. A. Everett was elected chairman, Loring S. Black, vice chairman, and A. C. Parker, secretary. The follow- ing members were present: Assemblyman FE. A. Everett, Assemblyman Thaddeus C. Sweet, Assemblyman Peter McArdle, Assemblyman Dehart W. Ames; David R. Hill, Indian chief; Deputy A. F. Jenks representing the Attorney General; Senator Loring M. Black, Senator J. Henry Walters; Dr R. W. Hill, State Board of Charities; Dr Matthias Nicoll jr, Health Department; A. C. Parker, Education Department. James W. Yelverton and C. A. Donahue were absent. 3 68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM After communicating with the federal authorities dealing with Indian matters and with the chairman of the two committees of Congress on Indian affairs, it was found impossible to secure a con- ference until after September I919. At a meeting of the commission held in the Murray Hill Hotel December 3, 1919, the commission appointed Chairman Everett, Robert W. Hill and A. C. Parker to visit the Washington authori- ties and discuss the subject of the legal status and condition of the New York Indians. The members so appointed went to Washing- ton in January 1920 and visited the officials as directed. Results of Conference and Visitation No thoroughgoing conference could be held with the congress- ional committees in 1920, but valuable information was obtained. The committees placed in our hands several important documents re- lating to the New York Indians, notably Document 1590, H. R. 63d Congress, 3d Session, under the title Senecas and Other Indians of the Five Nations of New York, and known to the Indian Department as the Reeve’s Report. This report recites the treaties and and court decisions relating to the New York Indians. It was found that the federal authorities desired to cooperate with New York in the matter of clearing the New York Indian problem. A suit in the Supreme Court to determine in which body the ward- ship of the Indians of New York rested, was suggested. The ques- tion in Congress seems to be: Who is responsible for the New York Indians, and to whom shall they appeal for protection? The Washington authorities were interested in the opinion of the Attorney General of the State of New York, rendered October 15, 1915, noted herein. No other meetings with the committees of Congress were held and no information has been received from them. The state com- mission has sent the federal authorities no detailed information. Joint Meeting with Federal Indian Commissioners On July 27, 1920 the State Indian Commission held a joint meet- ing with the United States Board of Indian Commissioners at the United States Hotel, Saratoga Springs. The minutes of this meet- ing are a matter of record. In this meeting Secretary McDowell said: Down in Washington they wonder what the commission is to do; whether they want the State of New York to have jurisdiction or not; whether New York wants the United States to assume com- REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 69 plete control or whether the State wants to continue in this work or go further than the Indian Office...... I don’t care whether it is a bill in the Senate or the House, it will be referred to the Secretary of the Interior and he in turn hands it to the Commissioner of In- dian Affairs. I hear that they all keep away from the New York Indians because they don’t want them........ _ The only intention that the United States has is to carry, out the treaties that they hold with the Indians of the State of New York. Visit of Commission to Indian Reservations On August 15th the commission met at the Onondaga Hotel, Syra- cuse, for the purpose of starting its visit to the New York Indian reservations. The object was to discover the actual legal, social and economic conditions on the reservations and to gain some idea of the needs of the Indian people. As a result of this visit the commission saw that the New York Indians living on reservations had but one social and economic out- look—that toward the white man’s world. New York Indians Dress like white men Live in the same kind of houses Eat the same kind of food, except a few native corn dishes Use the same kind of tools and farming implements ‘Speak the English language Read American newspapers and periodicals Attend, when young, the same kind of schools as are prescribed for citizen children Have a form of native government with native officers, and con- sider their reservations a restricted domain New York State does for these Indians the following things: It has provided thirty-four day schools under the Department of _ Education It provides teachers and books for the Indian children It has provided a splendid institution for the orphaned and for the children of the poor. This institution is the Thomas In- dian School under the control of the State Board of Charities It provides for cases of extreme poverty and for the hospital care of the poor sick It encourages agriculture through the training of Indian chil- dren in the short courses at State College of Agriculture at Cornell University It has provided for a system of visiting nurses and for sanitary inspection 7O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM In helping the Indians it is estimated that the State expends $150,- ooo each year, or $30 per capita. The Indians of the State Pay no direct land tax Can not be sued in civil action Have no jails Have no public institutions Have no national coinage Have no custom houses Have no criminal courts Do not arrest or prosecute criminal Indians In these respects they do not appear in any sense as “free and in- dependent nations.” General Condition of Indian Tribes As a result of this visit it was plainly seen by members of the commission who followed the survey, that the economic interests of these Indians are the same as those of the surrounding citizen popu- lation. Their modern social organization is patterned upon the same model. They have no special requirements other than those sup- plied by or to be found in our Commonwealth. It is not needful that wild game, wigwams, blankets, beads and memorial medals be supplied to them now as in days gone by. The old day has passed and a new day has dawned for the Indian. In it he finds himself, in spite of himself, with a different outlook, in a different world, and moving toward a different goal, the same goal toward which the white man moves. It is therefore needful that instead of presents of trinkets, that the State and the Nation supply the Indian with the means by which he can advance himself toward that goal, when he is unable to supply these things himself. This is simple justice to the Indian and a protective measure for the benefit of the citizen community. In a broad sense, and without a spirit of cynicism, the Indian may be said to need the same things that the citizen community needs, and he must find the satisfaction of his needs in the institu- tions, customs and society of the civilized world. In an economic sense the Indian has no racial separateness. Tribal Rights of the New York Indians By the Treaty of Canandaigua in 1794, the various nations of the Six Nations within the boundaries of the State of New York were recognized, and the lands reserved to these nations or tribes were REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 71 severally fixed and acknowledged. (Kappler, Laws and Treaties, vol. 1, p. 34.) Article 3 of this treaty reads: Now, the United States acknowledges all the land within the above mentioned boundaries to be the property of the Seneca Nation and the United States will never claim the same nor disturb the Seneca Nation nor any of the Six Nations or their Indian friends residing thereon and united with them in the free use and enjoyment thereof, but it shall remain theirs until they choose to sell the same to the people of the United States who have the right to purchase. The Treaty of Canandaigua of 1794 is considered a basic docu- ment in establishing the status of the New York Indian tribes, the Six Nations, and it has never been abrogated by Congress. The Federal Government has always claimed control and guardianship over Indian tribes. By federal decisions it appears clearly that the Indian tribes, while maintaining their tribal organi- zations and residing on their reserved domain, by and with the con- sent of the Government, are regarded as wards of the Nation even when these reservations exist within the borders of a State. (Chero- kee Nation v. The State of Georgia 5, Peters 1). In the language of the decision of the Court it was said: “ . they may be de- nominated domestic dependent nations. They occupy a territory to which we assert a title independent of their will, which must take effect in point of possession when their right of possession ceases. Meanwhile they are in a state of pupilage. Their relation to the United States resembles that of a ward to his guardian. They look to our Government for protection; rely upon its kindness and power ; appeal to it for relief from their wants; and address the President as their great father.” The State of New York does not and can not tax the Indians resident therein, for in the case of the Kansas Indians (5 Wall. 755) and the New York Indians (5 Wall. 761) the court said: . but until they are clothed with the rights and bound to all the ales of citizens they enjoy the privilege of total immunity from state taxation.” In the case of United States v. Kagama, United States 375, Jus- tice Miller in concluding his decision says: The power of the General Government over these remnants of a race once powerful, now weak and diminished in numbers, is neces- sary to their protection as well as to the safety of those among whom they dwell. It must exist in that Government, because it has never existed anywhere else, because the theater of its existence is within the geographical limits of the United States, and because it has never been denied, and because it alone can enforce its laws on all the tribes. 72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Attorney General Woodbury (An. Rep’t, 1915, vol. 2, p. 499) said: If the Indian tribes are wards of the Federal Government and owe no allegiance to any state; and it the power over the Indian tribes rests with the Federal Government because it exists nowhere else: and if, from necessity, there can be no divided authority, then the jurisdiction of Congress must be exclusive. Federal and state authorities agree that state laws do not apply to Indians living in their tribal relations. This doctrine is enunciated in the case of State v. Campbell, 53 Minn. 354, in which Judge Mitchel speaking for the court says, “It would never do to have both the United States and the states legislating on the same subject.” In the case of Peters v. Milan, 111 Fed. 244, the Court held: That so long as the Indians retain their tribal relations and con- tinue to be wards of the National Government, the control and man- agement of them with respect to their tribal affairs is in the Federal Government, irrespective of the question of the title of the lands upon which, for the time being, they may be located. From the facts of the case it appears that the Indians of the State of New York are living in tribal relations and that they main- tain “governments” recognized by the state and the federal legis- latures. That the State of New York has no jurisdiction over these Indians in the matter of enforcing state laws or of legislating for them is asserted in the opinion rendered in the case of United States of America ex rel. John Lynn against Frederick Hamilton and others, in a case of an alleged violation of the state conservation laws by Indians resident upon their reservations. Title of the Indian to Lands and Territory At the time of the European invasion of America in general, and of New York in particular, it was the common belief and practice by both Indians and whites that land and territory might be taken by conquest. In America, Indian tribes took territory from one another just as the peoples of Europe did. The Iroquois who conquered much of the region now embraced within the boundaries of New York State took most of this land by conquest. They recognized title by con- quest as well as by treaty. They even refused to allow their con- quered wards, for example, the Delawares, to sell land to the whites without the permission of the Five Nations’ Council. It is true that the European colonists secured territory by any means within their power. What these colonists did is not of imme- REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 73 diate concern to us now. We are concerned with what took place after the Revolutionary War. After the establishment of the United States, the federal authorities sought to define the relation of the United States and of the Six Nations of Indians, one to the other. This was accomplished in the Canandaigua treaty of 1794, and this must be treated as a basic document and a starting point for any consideration of the legal status of the New York Indians, who are the descendants of the Five and the Six Nations. In this treaty the United States acknowledges the lands reserved to these Indians, “to be their property.” This is apparently a recognition of the right of these Indians to hold their property as their own. Treaties made with the United States, subsequently modify the holdings of the Indians as outlined in the Treaty of 1794. Among these are the treaties of 1838 (known as the Buffalo Creek treaty), of 1842 (known as the Amended Sele camlineatiys pete: It appears that by treaty sy otherwise the land holdings of these Indians have been considerably diminished. In instances it appears that the people of the United States used undue pressure and influ- ence to obtain treaties and signatures, but however this may be, the legal and land status of the New York Indians underwent a con- siderable transformation. Nevertheless, it appears that such lands as remained unsurrendered and unaffected by treaties later than 1794, still have attached to them the same protection as guaranteed by the Treaty of 1794, namely, that of being the sole property of the tribe occupying it. Such lands as were acquired subsequently are subject to other conditions. For example, the Tonawanda reservation in Genesee and Erie counties was purchased by the Tonawanda band from a group of citizen American land owners. ‘The title is by deed vested in the State of New York in trust for these Indians and the deed is deposited with the State Comptroller. Lands Disposed of by the Several Nations The Six Nations of the Iroquois was a society or confederacy of nations. Each nation was independent and self-governing during the period of aboriginal power. In all the laws of the Six Nations as a confederacy there is no item forbidding any of the component nations from acting independently in such matters as land sales. During the entire period of dealing with the Six Nations each one of the six has been dealt with separately and this without the slight- est opposition of the Six Nations Council. The Six Nations Coun- 74 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM cil never intervened and never interposed and never objected to any land cession by any one of the nations of the six for the reason that it never in all its history attempted to control the national affairs of any one of the several nations. The Six Nations as a govern- ment was a convention of a society or confederation of six nations met to discuss common customs and common welfare. The nations were allies in war, but each one of the nations might make war independently and the enemy was not to injure the nation not par- ticipating. They were allies in defensive measures against the white settlers, but at times the several nations were allies of different Kuropean nations. There was no unanimity even in this. To say that any one of the Six Nations could not dispose of its holdings assured by the Treaty of Canandaigua is a fallacy. This very treaty assured and confirmed to each one of the several nations its national holdings. It did not confirm this to the Six Nations as a unit but to each of the several nations. The United States and the several nations of the six, have so construed this treaty and no objection has ever been raised. The plain facts of history and of practice are that each one of the six nations was independent in its right to dispose of its lands to the people of the United States, and that the Council of the Six Nations never thought it a right or function to interpose. To What Lands May the New York Indians Lay Claim? From a study of the legal status of the New York Indians it appears that each Indian tribe or nation owns all such lands as the several treaties acknowledge to be theirs, subject to land cessions made subsequently to the signing of the treaties. 1 They own the land that they now occupy, but the title to this land through agreements and land sales, in some cases has under- gone a change. This the courts have frequently stated. If court decisions in this matter are faulty, then the Supreme Court must be invoked. 2 They own or have other claim to all such lands as have been purchased or taken from them under whatever pretext or authority, if the conveyance of such land was not authorized, agreed to and sealed by the consent of Congress or by authorized representatives of the Federal Government. This position has been held by the United States Circuit Court of Appeals and has been followed by Judge Hazel. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 75 The Attorney General’s Opinion (See page 492 ff, Opimions, 1915) 1 The Federal Government has always claimed guardianship and control over the Indian tribes. 2 The power of Congress to govern Indian tribes by legislation, and thereby to abrogate or supersede Indian treaties has been upheld by the Supreme Court. 3 The principle that a State may act in the absence of affirmative legislation on the part of Congress is not applicable to the govern- ment of tribal Indians. 4 Federal and state authorities hold that state laws do not apply to Indians living in their tribal relations. 5 Power to terminate federal guardianship of tribal Indians and to break up the tribal organization is exclusively in the Federal Government. 6 Conservation laws do not extend over the Indians residing in tribal relations upon reservations within the borders of New York State. Growing out of this opinion the State authorities began to assume that the laws of the State, as well as the conservation laws, did not apply to the State Indians. The Indians themselves in instances began to affirm that state laws did not affect them. _ It was found that the federal authorities thought in some instances that New York should be empowered to deal with her Indian popu- lation; others thought that the Federal Government should have the proper machinery provided for Indian administration in New York, but wished New York authorities to make suggestions. Practical Considerations Concerning the Indian and the State If, as has been contended by the New York Indians and by the Attorney General of New York, the Indians of New York are wards of the Federal Government and not of the State, then the Federal Government and not the State is charged with the duty of supplying the schools, institutions, relief for the poor and sick and other matters. The Federal Government has not done these things and maintains that its sole duty is to carry out its treaty obligations. The failure of the Federal Government ever to exercise the duties of guardian, save in cases involving land cessions and tribal auton- omy, has made it necessary for the State during the past 100 years 76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM to expend increasing amounts for the benefit of the Indians within her borders — and this under the impression that these Indians were wards of the State as well as of the Nation. The Federal Government expends in fulfilling treaties and other obligations, $8949 annually for the New York Indians. The State through the institutions and charities it supplies expends about $150,000 annually. In administering these institutions the State is now denied the authority to enforce statutory regulations, and the Federal Govern- ment has neither conferred authority nor afforded any relief. In matters of governmental oversight the State is now denied the right by the opinions of the Attorney General and some court deci- sions, to intervene on Indian reservations. The imperfect tribal governments make it necessary and even imperative that life, liberty and the secure possession of property be safeguarded by an authority stronger than that supplied by the several tribes. Even here, while the federal authorities might inter- pose, they have not done so. If the tribes are nations, they have no similarity to modern nations and do not function as such in their relations with the people of the State, save in denying the State the right to trespass upon their authority. The chief authority for this assumed status of the New York tribes is based upon the Treaty of Canandaigua of 1794, ratified by the Senate in 1795. It is a question worthy of some consideration whether or not the New York Indians, the Treaty of Canandaigua and the conditions surrounding the status of each and all have not undergone so great a modification that a new consideration of Indian status is impera- wwe. Are the Indians of the State of New York the Same People as When the Canandaigua Treaty Was Made? It appears that our difficult position with relation to the Indians of the State has resulted from sweeping changes on the part of the Indians and of the citizen population. No longer are these Indians living in bark wigwams or living the primitive life of the backwoods. Their economic and social life has undergone a profound change and they are today living the white man’s life, the life of the average American. In this they are scarcely to be distinguished from the citizen population. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 77 In blood these Indians have undergone a change. The numerous intermarriages of the whites with the Indians of New York have diluted the Indian blood until it is a question whether the average New York Indian has not at least three-eighths white blood. Many are half white or more, but the blood status is concealed under the belief that the child takes the blood status of the mother. It thus appears that neither in needs and economic condition nor by blood are these Indians the same people or the same sort of people as those who signed the basic treaties more than a century ago. This fact demonstrates, in view of the present complex condition of affairs, that there is need of a realignment of the whole situation in order that there may be a clear definition of the precise relations of the Indians and the Federal and the State Government, point by point and detail by detail. All authorities who deal with the Indians agree that the present situation is intolerable and leads to great injury to the Indians and to the detriment of the people of the State. This arises from the fact that the Indian governments are imper- fect in themselves and still further restrained from functioning by the restrictions of federal laws and court decisions. It arises from the fact that the Federal Government holds that the New Yerk tribes are federal wards, dependent nations, “distinct communities” of people “in a state of pupilage,” and therefore restrained from the assertion of nationality to the extent of being forbidden to hold criminal courts or to apprehend criminals within their borders, and further forbidden to have any external foreign relations save with the people and Government of the United States. It arises from the fact that most public improvements and institutions are supplied by the State of New York. All this is subversive of distinct and independent nationality and the mixture of authority prevents any adequate administration of the affairs of the respective tribes including the administration of justice. A tribal Indian can do all manner of injustice to his fellow- men on a reservation and suffer no legal consequences, save the pos- sible feudal revenge of the injured party. This is demoralizing, and would be ruinous to the tribe if Indians as a rule were inclined to criminality, which fortunately, they are not. Plainly, the strong, just hand of well-organized government is needed, but at every turn in this triangle each authority is restrained by the two other angles. This is what constitutes the obstacle in the settlement of the legal side of the Indian problem. Both the State and the Nation must come to an agreement as to what authority shall prevail. 78 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM The Indians deserve a better legal environment. Small hope may be entertained for their healthy progress until the State and the Na- tion agree to face the situation. This the Federal Government has consistently refused to do, at the same time maintaining its suprem- acy. This position of the Federal Government has forced the State to exercise authority in certain matters and to extend to these In- dians the benefits refused or denied them by the Federal Govern- ment, yet the Federal Government, the Indians and the courts have refused to allow the State to extend its laws along with its institu- tions. Have the Several Tribes Yielded Their Sovereignty? With the shifting of the economic outlook of the Indian from that of the frontier, of the hunting life and of dreams of an Indian State, the New York Indian has been compelled to face a changed world. He found that the material culture and social organization, as well as the legal protection of the white man’s civilization, were things that he desired because they contributed to his survival. The Indian asked for schools, and received them. The Indian, because of his primitive organization and poverty, was unable to provide schools, orphanages, criminal courts, sanitary inspection, public nurses, highways, asylums, hospitals, poor houses, agricultural instruction. The Indian in his primitive state did not need many of these things, having provided other means for taking care of them. But this is of the past; we are facing the present. Suffice it to say that the Indians in certain instances did ask for and receive, and that they now enjoy, the institutions enumerated. Their people and their reservations benefit by these institutions. If the Indians have contracted for or paid for these benefits directly, they should be entitled to administer or participate in the administra- tion of them, in accordance with laws and regulations agreed upon. Having received these institutions and having accepted their benefits, it would appear that they must logically accept with them all the laws, regulations and administrative authority that goes with them. In accepting a school or an asylum, it would appear that the regu- lative authority attached to the school and asylum or other institution or benefit, ought to be accepted. The institution can not exist apart from the regulative authority that creates and supports 1t. The two are coexistent and one can not be accepted without the other. If the Indians had wished to deny the right of the State to exercise authority over health matters, agriculture, orphanages, charities and REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 79 schools, they should have refused these benefits and fought against them as trespasses. And, recognized, as being needed, the Indians should, themselves, have supplied these things. For many reasons they did not or could not do it. In receiving these benefits of the State they tacitly accepted the regulative authority of the State, and though they now deny this in words, yet they affirm it in action by using and benefiting by these institutions. In fact, until recently, these Indians did not deny the right of the State to extend its laws in this direction, and the State for 100 years legislated for them upon the assumption that it had a right to extend its laws where it extended its protection. Suggested Remedies It will be seen from the foregoing facts that the situation of the New York Indians is complex, and that in view of the relations of the State to them, a conference with federal authorities is both neces- sary and imperative. All persons dealing directly or indirectly with the New York In- dians emphatically assert that something must be done immediately to prevent the demoralization of the Indians and the impairment of the rights of the State. While the Indian Commission was not created to determine the status of the New York Indians, it was created to confer with the federal authorities, specifically the committees of Congress, with re- gard to this status. A determination of this status is immediately needful. The Indian Rights Association, an organization of long and rep- utable standing, said in its Sixty-sixth Report: To cure as far as possible the present evils of administration over New York Indians and to provide for a future equitable settlement, we submit that sovereignty over them should be first determined by the Federal Court. The Secretary of the United States Board of Indian Commis- sioners, Malcolm McDowell, wrote: The New York Indians are under the guardianship of the United States or they are not. There is one place in the whole world where definite and final answer to the question can be obtained and that is in the United States Supreme Court. What it might say will settle the question. Then when it has spoken and you know whether the United States or the State has jurisdiction you can go ahead on a practical program and help the Indians. Until that question is definitely and finally answered we will continue to run around in circles. So NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Judge Cuthbert W. Pound of the New York Court of Appeals writing in the Columbia Law Review, (February 1922), said: The Nation owes a duty to its wards, if it continues to treat the New York Indians as such, either to enact a code of civil and criminal laws for the Indian reservations, or to subject them to state law, or to put an end to the tribal relations and leave the State supreme over the individual Indians as it alone has power to do. (Heckman v. United States). The power of Congress over the tribal relations of the Indians and the Indians themselves is said to be a political one, not subject to control by the courts, and it 1s held in authoritative cases that until Congress declares that Government guardianship over the Indians shall cease, its full and exclusive legislative power over them continues. This power rests not on any specified grant of legislative authority, but on the implied authority which subjects the conduct and property of dependent persons within the jurisdiction to governmental tutelage. (Lonewolf v. Hitchcock, 1903, 187 U. S. 553, 565, 23 Sup. Ct. 216). It would follow that such power is paramount to treaty or state law. From the above opinions it would appear that there are three pos- sible solutions of the New York Indian problem, namely: 1 A determination of the status of the New York Indians by the Supreme Court of the United States, the case being adjudged upon the rights and disabilities of these Indians as guaranteed by legisla- tion and treaty; or 2 A declaration of status by congressional enactment, said dec- laration being based upon present needs, circumstances and condi- tions, together with a consideration of the changes that have come over the country and over the Indians during the last century. A congressional declaration would ignore perhaps existing laws and treaties and give the case an entirely new alignment. 3 An act of Congress delegating to the State of New York authority to act as its agent in civil and criminal cases arising from violations of state and federal laws and regulations on the several reservations, but not binding the State to federal treaty obligations or annuity payments charged to the Government. There are several methods by which the State can force Congress to act. If the Indians of the State are the wards of the Federal Government, then New York could make the following requests of the Federal Government: 1 Request the Federal Government to supply the schools, teachers, asylums, poor relief, roads, agricultural help and public health pro- visions, now supplied by the State, at the same time notifying the Federal Government that the State ought not to be expected or re- quired longer to care for federal wards. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 81 2 If the Federal Government wishes, however, that New York continue this work, then Congress should pass an act giving New York authority to enter the reservations and maintain such bene- fits and institutions. The Federal Government and the Indian tribal governments place the State in an anomalous and well-nigh impossible situation when each expects New York to. provide the benefits of civilization for these Indians, to place the institutions and improvements of the State on the reservations, and then forbids the State the right of exercising jurisdiction over the Indians so benefited. New York State is entitled to relief, and the Indians are entitled to better treatment. These Indians should no longer be compelled by the laissez faire attitude of Congress to be the prey of continual uncertainty and conflicting authorities. It is therefore recommended that the Legislature of New York through the Attorney General and representatives of each State De- partment having relations with the Indians of the State, make a re- quest to the Federal Government that Congress provide by the en- actment of law a declaration of the status of the New York Indians, such declaration to be preceded by a suit in the Supreme Court of the United States for the purpose of determining the legal status of these Indians in accordance with existing laws and treaties. Even without this decision in hand Congress may easily declare the status of these Indians in accord with the joint interest of the people of the State surrounding them, and the Indians themselves. The logical supervision of the New York Indians is by the State, but as court decisions seem to determine that this supervision rests entirely with the Federal Government, it would appear that the Federal Government should exercise its legal supervision, and no longer, with apparent apathy, neglect and even refuse to do so. Continuing to fail, the Federal Government should empower the State to deal legally with its logical right. The foregoing observations are submitted in discharge of my duties as secretary of the commission and as the representative of the State Department of Education. It is believed that some of these facts and conclusions ought to be considered in drawing up recommendations for the untangling of the involved legal status of the New York Indians. Indeed these statements were brought to the attention of the various members of the commission, the Speaker of the Assembly, the Attorney General and Assistant Attorney General A. F. Jenks and other interested parties, in anticipation of the meeting of the Indian Commission at which the commission’s report should be adopted. 82 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM No meeting of the commission was ever called by the Chairman of the Commission for the purpose of. discussing a report to the Legislature, though the members were unofficially informed that the chairman was drafting a report of his own which he wished the members to sign. The members of the commission anxiously awaited a call for the purpose of considering and debating upon a report, but up to the last day of the Legislative session no such meet- ing was called, though it would seem that it was the plain intent of the Legislature in creating the commission and the Governor in appointing it, that such a report should be the result of joint action and mutual consideration. Inasmuch as the life of the commission has now expired and the possibility of submitting a report and argument to it has passed, this copy of the proposed argument of the representative of the State Department of Education, is published as a record, for the benefit of those who are interested in the legal status of the New York In- dians and in establishing the means by which the reservations may be protected and governed. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 83 A FOSSIL SPECIES OF CADDO (OPILIONES) FROM THE BALTIC AMBER, AND ITS LIVING RELATIVES BY SHERMAN C. BISHOP AND C. R. CROSBY Caddo is a rather aberrant genus characterized by the greatly en- larged eyes and is represented by only two very rare living species restricted so far as known to the eastern United States and Canada. It was therefore of great interest to find that an undoubted repre- sentative of the genus was described by Koch and Berendt (Die 1m Bernstein organischen Reste. v. 1, pt 2, p. 101, pl. 15, fig. 125. 1854) from the early Tertiary Baltic amber under the name of Platy- bunus dentipalpus. This should be transferred to the modern genus Caddo. Through the kindness of Dr Walther Horn and the authorities of the Berlin Museum, we have had the opportunity to study the type specimenof Caddo dentipalpus and have had a new figure prepared. It is very closely related to C. agilis. The eyes are relatively as large as in that species and the eye-tubercle is of the same form. The eye is surrounded by a dark ring. The segments of the body can be distinctly seen and are much the same as in C. agilis. Only the first and the basal part of the second segment of the chelicerae are visible and appear unarmed. The palpus is nearly unarmed on the dorsal and outer surface but on the inside there is a bunch of stiff hairs at the tip of the femur (on a distinct swelling) and the inner surface of the succeeding segments is densely clothed with similar hairs. The underside of the femur bears three spines arranged almost the same as in C. agilis. The legs seem to be longer than in that species. The treatment of the genus Caddo in Roewer’s excellent revision of the Opiliones Palpatores, part 2 (Abhandl. a. Gebiete, Naturw. Hamburg, v. 20, Heft. I p. 33, 1912) is unsatisfactory due to no fault of the author. Banks described the type species, C. agilis, (Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., 2:249, 1892) from immature specimens but did not mention thepracty | Grosbya (Journ Neo Ent Soc. 12.253, 1904) described two species which he referred to this genus, glaucopis and boopis. In the same number of this journal, page 256, Banks published a note stating that the original description of agilis was based on immature specimens. A comparison of specimens later showed that agilis and glaucopis are the same. Crosby (Ent. News, 18:161, 1907) published a note to this effect. Roewer overlooked this publication and retained glaucopis as a distinct species. 84 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM This is not the worst. By an unfortunate typographical error the drawing of the palpus of boopis was attributed to glau- copis in the original description of the species, although the copy submitted to the editor was clear. This error was unknown to Roewer and he has copied (pl. 1, fig. 3) the drawing of the palpus of boopis and attributed it to glaucopis. Misled by this drawing, Roewer erred in constructing his table to the species. It should read as follows: Femur of palpus armed with three large spines near base. agilis Banks (glaucopis Crosby) Femur of palpus armed with two spines near base and one toward tip. boopis Crosby C. boopis was based on three specimens from Ithaca, N. Y. In spite of intensive collecting in New York and Missouri since that time no more specimens were secured until the summer of 1923 when Miss A. Wolf collected eight specimens of both sexes at Ballston Lake, Saratoga county, N. Y., August 5th and 15th, by sifting under pine trees. On August 30th, three additional speci- mens were secured at Voorheesville, N. Y., also by sifting pine needles. The drawings were made by C. H. Curran and W. J. Schoonmaker. he F ) ¥ j Lit c Mined ode AT AIR Af } PAOD ACR Te) ASS on hay . AMAR EXPLAN F PLAT | De Wide aR Ie NERA YE eee ely Tio Oa % OT er ; ; ‘ "i tie ‘ \ we ‘ ) y, : hi) U > Ta EIT Bt TAU WSs 0 Oe eT ) e » ! , \ : ‘ae =a : y Me 4 a Mt { . : ‘ ia . -) Th ¢ i z L i ame) Geld! = » am Py iN if y a7 wee i a, i : | | t ¥ t 4, uy ' DENY ‘ i . ay f ee}; 4 A, + i ia ‘ s oy , M : ; Z 1# :; hi i j 1 i } 1 . Lee . it 1 Fig. 1 Caddo dentipalpus Koch and Berendt. Side view of specimen from the Baltic amber. Note the three large spines on the lower side of the femur of the palpus and the spinose hump near the tip on the inner side. Drawn by W. J. Schoonmaker. Fig. 2 Caddo boopis Crosby. Side view of female with ovi- positor exposed. Actual size 1mm. The drawings of C. agilis and C. boopis are made to the same scale and show the relative size of the species. Fig. 3 Caddo agilis Banks. Actual size of specimen about 2mm. ‘The spines on the lower side of the femur of the palpus are confined to the basal half as in Caddo dentipalpus. Caddo dentipalpus is about the size of Caddo agilis. [86] REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 87 NOTES ON SALAMANDERS BY SHERMAN C. BISHOP The collections on which these notes are based were made during a short trip in October 1923, in the Blue Ridge mountains of west- ern North Carolina. A few additional notes and photographs put on record the results of a half day’s collecting in the vicinity of Raleigh in company with C. S. Brimley and W. B. Mabee of the Division of Entomology, North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. Although the trip was undertaken primarily for the purpose of collecting arachnids, the localities chosen for exploration included some that have long been of great interest to herpetologists. This was the case when we collected along the Yonahlossee road between Blowing Rock and Linville, on the southwestern slopes of Grand- father mountain, and finally when we visited Mount Mitchell, Mount Pisgah and some of the foothills near Black mountain. In one of the several streams which rise on the southern slopes of Grandfather Mountain and cross the Yonahlossee road, Dr J. Percy Moore found the specimens to establish the genus Leurog- nathwus.! In this locality, probably in the stream visited by Moore, we found our first specimens of this interesting salamander in the pool at the foot of a small waterfall. Here, ‘.u, were many speci- mens of Desmognathus quadra-maculatus anda few of Desmoenathtus ochrophaeus carolinensis. When encamped on the southwestern slope of Grandfather moun- tain, collections were made in the small streams that rise in the cold Springs near the summit, and under logs and stones both in the open and in the forest. On Mount Mitchell, Steprock creek at about 6000 feet furnished most of the specimens of Gyrinophilus damnwel/ si vandhu yc¢ eal bi slin eatial iwi lider ale) taken on the trip. Other places visited were Minehole Gap, Buncombe county, Montreat, and Stoney mountain near Hendersonville. The exceedingly dry weather which prevailed for a month before we reached the mountains and continued during the greater part of our stay, accounts in large part for the scarcity of some of the terrestrial salamanders commonly found in this region. Neither Plethodon yonahlossee nor P. metcalfi were taken, although the former is reported by Dunn? and the latter by Brimley? 1 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1899, pt 2, pp. 316-323, pl. 14, figs. I-11. 2 Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1017, 37:602. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash., 1912, 25:130. 88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM as abundant on Grandfather mountain. If these species have the same habitsas Plethodon glutinosus, which burrows deep in dry weather, they could scarcely be found in numbers after such a protracted drouth as that of the fall of 1923. On the other hand, streams of considerable size had so shrunken that the aquatic forms were concentrated and more easily found. During the trip I was fortunate to have, as traveling companions, Professor and Mrs C. R. Crosby of Ithaca, N. Y., and Mrs S. C. Bishop, all of whom, at various times, helped in the hunt for specimens. Triturus viridescens viridescens (Raf.) One specimen, land form, Raleigh, October 26th. Ambystoma opacum (Gravenhorst ) Py i, Mie, Wey! 2 Walnut creek bottoms, Raleigh, October 26th. Six specimens including two females with eggs. The two females were found, hiding with their eggs under masses of rotten wood and the débris left by flood waters of Walnut creek. The egg masses contained respectively 102 and 73 eggs with well- developed embryos. They were kept in the laboratory in damp earth and leaves, but showed no signs of hatching until placed in water late in the afternoon of December 6th. The following morn- ing many had escaped the egg envelops and others were in the process of hatching. In hatching, the embryo breaks out, leaving a ragged, or in some cases, a roughly crescentic opening with the inner envelop protruding. The separate envelops often retain the position they had before the larva escaped and the inner one with its surrounding layer of clear jelly may be removed from the stronger, outer covering. When first hatched the larva is somewhat pigmented, Bat the general color rapidly darkens after exposure to the light. A larva immediately after hatching is marked above with small black flecks of pigment on the head and on the back, except on each side of the mid-dorsal line, where there are a few small rounded or oval light areas. The tail fins and sides are mottled with yellow areas where the pigment is lacking. The balancers were all lost before hatching in the specimens here considered. The emergence of the larvae was, in some cases, coincident with the release of small nematodes, apparently from the jelly layer be- REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 89 tween the two egg envelops. The parasites were a little over a quarter of an inch long, colorless and quite active. They seemed to have no effect on the larvae that hatched, but may have occasioned the death of many individuals that failed to develop. Plethodon cinereus (Green) Grandfather mountain, October 11th-12th, at about 4000 feet. Twenty-two specimens, representing both color phases. Plethodon glutinosus (Green) Grandfather mountain, October 12th, (4500 feet) two specimens; Mount Pisgah, October 19th, (3000 feet) five specimens; Oteen, October 16th, one specimen ; Minehole Gap, October 17th, two speci- mens; Stoney mountain, October 18th, three specimens; Walnut creek bottoms, Raleigh, October 26th, one specimen. Gyrinophilus danielsi (Blatchley) IPL A2, aero it ehavel) 220 TEAS ay sake 1 Steprock creek, Mount Mitchell, October 21st-22d (6000 feet and above). Seventeen adults, four large larvae, thirteen smaller larvae of which twelve were hatching when found; Mount Mitchell, 4500 feet, one adult; Grandfather mountain, October 12th, (4000 feet) one adult; Stoney mountain, October 18th, (2500 feet) three large larvae. This species has been regarded as one of the rarer salamanders of the southeastern states. Most of the specimens mentioned in literature and referred to this form have been collected below 3500 feet and are comparatively small and slender. Seventeen adults from Mount Mitchell taken at an elevation of 6000 feet or higher vary in length from 120-204 mm and average 155.5 mm. Eleven of the seventeen specimens (those 150 mm and over) average 168.6 mm. C. S. Brimley has supplied me with a specimen and with the measurements of other individuals taken at altitudes much lower than that given above. I have also a single adult, 143 mm long, from Mount Mitchell taken at about 4000-4500 feet and one 122 mm long from Grandfather mountain at 4000 feet. Mr Brimley’s speci- mens came from Sunburst, Cane river and Cowee mountain, N. C. and measure respectively 125, 127 and 107 mm in length. The specimens from the summit of Mount Mitchell agree with Blatchley’s description, particularly in size and in the mottling of go NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM the throat; some individuals vary from the type in the following particulars. The pigment spots on the back may be large and close together, sometimes coalescing along the mid-dorsal line to form irregular V-shaped marks; or small, very numerous and regularly spaced; the entire ventral surface may be more or less conspicu- ously pigmented. These are probably variations due, in part, to age. On the other hand, the specimens collected at lower altitudes in North Carolina present certain characters which may prove of subspecific value when a larger series is available for comparison. These characters may be summarized briefly as follows: The aver- age size is considerably below that of the high mountain forms; the underparts, including the throat, are entirely lacking in pigment, the lower lip only being narrowly margined; the sides of the head below and in front of the eyes are less strongly pigmented and finally, the tail is usually less pigmented distally, particularly on the lower half of the sides. As mentioned above, all adult speci- mens from the summit of Mount Mitchell are pigmented below, the extent apparently depending on the age of the animal. The larger specimens from lower altitudes are certainly mature and exceed in size the smaller individuals from higher levels but lack entirely the pigmentation of the venter. The specimens collected on Mount Mitchell were found by turn- ing the large flat stones in the bed or along the margins of Step- rock creek. On the morning of October 22d I was fortunate to find a large female guarding her young which were just ready to hatch from the gelatinous envelops attached to the under side of a large stone in comparatively still water. The eggs had apparently been attached separately when laid, like those of Eurycea bis- lineata, but at the time of discovery, disintegration of the gela- tinous coverings and absorption had so far advanced that an area about 7 by 8 inches was entirely covered by a thick layer of jelly. Close examination showed that the individual larvae were inclosed by envelops one-half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter. A dozen larvae were collected as they wriggled out of the jelly mass and made their way into the water. A newly hatched larva is slender and delicate with a ground color of pale lavender marked with small flecks of light yellow. A nar- row median line slightly darker, extends from the head to the hind legs. The head is somewhat darker than the body and marked above with an indistinct Y-shaped mark which originates at the back and sends a branch to each eye. The eyes are black and appar- ently not completely functional ; the lips are well formed. A definite REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 om line separates the color of the back and sides from the venter which is pale yellow, colored by the yoke. The legs are pale and in life translucent as they are in the more northern relative Gyrino- philus porphyriticus. The color of the back and sides of both the larvae and adultsof G. danielsi differs from G. por- phyriticus in being speckled or spotted rather than faintly reticulated. The average length of nine larvae is 25.8 mm. In view of the fact that the larvae were found hatching in late October, it might be supposed the normal egg-laying period of the species is in September. I am not at all convinced that this is the case. The waters of Steprock creek, particularly near the source of the stream above 6000 feet, are not subject to extreme changes in temperature during the different seasons of the year and it is more than probable that the breeding season extends over a period of several months. At lower altitudes the conditions are different and the breeding period may well be restricted. Pseudotriton montanus (Baird) Walnut creek bottoms near Raleigh, October 26th. Eight specimens. Pseudotriton ruber ruber (Sonnini) Bridgewater, October 14th, one adult; October 23d, three larvae. Eurycea bislineata (Green) Bridgewater, October 23d, a single larvae 39 mm long. Eurycea bislineata wilderae Dunn. Montreat, October 16th, one; Mount Mitchell, October 21st (6000 feet) seventeen; Mount Mitchell, October 21st, (4500 feet) five; Grandfather mountain, October 12th (4500 feet) three; Stoney mountain, October 18th, one. Extremely abundant in Steprock creek but agile and difficult to capture. Sometimes as many as a dozen individuals beneath a single small stone at the edge of the stream. Eurycea gutto-lineata (Holbrook) Bridgewater, October 14th, four, October 23d, one female; Mine- hole Gap, Buncombe county, October 17th, one seen; Walnut creek, Raleigh, October 26th, one. All the specimens captured were adult and a rather large female had well-developed eggs in the ovaries. With two exceptions the specimens were found under boards by the side of a small spring run in company with Desmognathus fuscus auricu- latus. 92 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Desmognathus fuscus auriculatus (Holbrook) Bridgewater, October 14th, six; Walnut creek, Raleigh, October 26th, six. Desmognathus ochrophaeus carolinensis Dunn IPN rake ah” Yonahlossee road between Blowing Rock and Linville, October roth, several specimens; Grandfather mountain, October 11th—12th, (4000 feet) forty-two; at 4500 feet, thirty-five; Oteen, October 15th, three; Minehole Gap, Buncombe county, October 17th, five; Montreat, October 16th, one; Mount Mitchell, October 21st, (5500 feet) 55 transforming larvae, ten adults; Mount Mitchell, October 22d (6000 feet) five; Bridgewater, October 23d, three; also one specimen from spring near summit of Mount Mitchell, probably the type locality of the subspecies and two specimens from Blowing Rock taken September 14, 1921 and presented by Dr A. H. Wright of Ithaca, New York. In color and markings one of the most variable salamanders. It is also one of the most abundant forms in the Blue Ridge moun- tains and may be found not only in and along the streams but under stones and logs on the mountain sides and in the trails where there is slight evidence of moisture. The larvae of this species have not before been reported. They were found on the wet sand beneath a large flat stone by the side of a small spring run at an elevation of about 5500 feet. Under the same stone were several full grown specimens, dark and without definite color markings but clearly this species. No other species were found at the spring. Ten larvae have an average length of 18.6 mm but vary from 15 to 23 mm. In spite of the difference in size, the specimens were probably of the same age when taken, for gill reduction had ad- vanced to the same degree in all. Some individuals in color and markings are remarkably like larvae of Desmognathus fus- cus of the same size, but others, even in this early stage, give inti- mation of the variability of markings found in the adults. Thus the dorsal unpigmented light areas may either be separated to form two distinct rows or coalesced with the median dorsal line to form a single, broad band with irregular edges; in other individuals the light areas unite with a very narrow median line to form a series of short cross bands connected in a chainlike pattern and margined along the sides by black. The light areas are sometimes opposite, more often alternating and united in a zigzag band. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 93 The sides of the body and tail and the legs above are rather uni- formly mottled with pigment, the interspaces being dull yellow. The lower half of the sides in some specimens, however, is more strongly pigmented and in strong contrast with the immaculate venter. The tail above, particularly the distal half, is slightly keeled as in larvae of D. fuscus. Thereare no striking differences in the body pro- portions of the larvae of this species and of D. fuscus but the head seems to be somewhat broader in the latter. Where the ranges of the two species overlap, it may be impossible to separate the young larvae except by the amount of the gill reduction for a given size. In the larvae here considered the gills are reduced to short stubs which are pigmented and bear two or three unpigmented terminal filaments. Desmognathus phoca (Matthes) Grandfather mountain, October 11th-12th, (4000 feet) ten; Swannanoa Gap October 14th, three; Montreat, October 16th, seven; Stoney mountain, October 18th, seven; Mount Pisgah, October 18th, one. Several examples of this species strongly resemble, superficially, Leurognathus marmorata Moore. They have the same light buff ground color on the back and these light areas are more or less separated by darker pigment. The difference in pattern lies in the greater development, in Leurognathus, of the dark pigmented areas which are disposed in rather large blotches alter- nating with the buff patches; in D. phoca the dark pigment rather narrowly surrounds the light areas as indicated in Dunn’s figure }. Old and dark individuals are rather hard to distinguish from certain specimens of D. quadra-maculatus, especially when the dorsal pattern has been obliterated and the venter becomes well pigmented. Desmognathus quadra—maculatus (Holbrook) Grandfather mountain (southwest side) October 11th—12th, (4000 feet) ninety; at 4500 feet, five larvae; Mount Mitchell, October 21st, (4500 feet) ten; at Camp Alice (6000 feet) five; Montreat, October 16th, eleven; Stoney mountain, October 18th, six; Swannanoa Gap, October 14th, five. Any stone or stranded log in the mountain streams may furnish a hiding place for one or more specimens of this salamander. They ‘ Bul. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., 1917, pl. 58, fig 4. O04 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM are eminently aquatic, but have the peculiar habit of rushing out of the water and up the sides of stones or the stream bank when dis- turbed. Probably half of the specimens collected and most of the larger ones, were taken as they left the water. In life they may be associated with the smaller Desmognathus phoca and D. ochrophaeus carolinensis although the latter species are also found in situations that do not prove acceptable to D. quadra-maculatus. Some of the larger females had well- developed eggs in the ovaries but others had apparently deposited the season’s complement. The ovarian eggs from two specimens dissected numbered respectively 52 and 49, and were about 34% mm in diameter, yellowish white and unpigmented. So little has been published concerning the food of this species that it may be of interest to tabulate the results of the examination of the stomach contents of five specimens. 1 A half grown salamander (Plethodon). 2 One phalangid, Sabacon cavicolens, one adult stone- fly and one insect larva. 3 A large hairy caterpillar and part of beetle. 4 Three flies, one hairy caterpillar, one stonefly nymph, part of a beetle, several hemlock leaves. 5 Three small salamanders, parts of two beetles, two adult wasps (Vespa), one jassid, one ant, several hemlock leaves and many insect wings, legs and fragments. Leurognathus marmorata Moore IP); BHA), Th gisoud) Yonhalossee road between Blowing Rock and Linville, N. C., October roth, three adult specimens; southwest side Grandfather mountain, (4000 feet) October 12th, two adults. The first specimen of this interesting species was revealed when Mrs C. R. Crosby turned over a flat stone in the bottom of the small pool at the foot of a waterfall. Two other specimens were found in the same pool within a few minutes. The behavior of a specimen exposed to light by the removal of the stone under which it is hiding, is strikingly different from thatof Desmognathus quadra- maculatus or Desmognathus phoca which may be living in the same stream. The highly protective color pattern of Leurognathus, which is of course effective only while the animal is motionless against a pool-bottom background of gravel or small stones, is doubtless responsible for its sluggishness. The pattern is essentially REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 95 that of the darter and other small fish which forage over gravelly bottoms. When exposed by the turning of a stone, scarcely an at- tempt was made to escape and all specimens found were simply picked up by hand and transferred to the collecting bag. They could be induced to swim, but the process was a leisurely one and lacked entirely the vigor shown by D. quadra-maculatus or D. phoca. The first three specimens taken were found in the pool which, I believe, is the one that furnished Dr J. Percy Moore with the speci- mens upon which he based the genus. Two other specimens were taken in a small stream on the southwestern side of Grandfather mountain. Here they were hiding under stones with D. quadra- maculatus but not in pools, probably because the protracted drouth had reduced their living quarters. Following the suggestion of Dr E. R. Dunn, that the species is an inhabitant of large streams, I spent considerable time turning stones and examining possible hiding places, but without results. From my experience with Leurognathus, I am inclined to believe that it will be found in numbers in the streams of Grandfather mountain if the collector who seeks it will devote his time to the pools and not give too much attention to the capture of the ever present and exceedingly active Desmognathus quadra-maculatus. Specimens are so rare in collections that it seems worth while to add some measurements and notes on variations in color patterns. A female 103 mm long has a tail length of 40 mm when measured from the posterior end of the vent. The venter is uniformly and lightly pigmented except for a narrow area on each side of the im- pressed midventral line of the belly, and a spot on the throat. The soles of the feet are considerably darker than the rest of the legs with the tips of the toes black. The sides of the body and tail are brown with light areas in evidence only on the upper part. The light buff areas on the back are mostly confined to the trunk and the base of the tail which leaves the distal half of the tail and head much darker. There are thirteen costal furrows. This female had twenty eggs in the right ovary and fourteen in the left. Their small size (1.6 mm in diameter) indicates that they have not reached full development. The eggs are unpigmented and yellowish white. A larger female, 116 mm long, has the same general color pattern but the venter is more uniformly pigmented and the dorsal light areas extend on the head. This specimen had fourteen eggs in the right ovary and twelve in the left. - Pree, Us So Nai Mie, imOmy, Besta, 96 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM A specimen 103 mm long, which I believe is a male differs from the others in having the venter very dark except for a narrow spot in the middle of the belly. The two other specimens measure respec- tively 90 and 104 mm. The larger is light buff above with alternating patches of darker pigment on the back and tail; the venter is free from pigment except along the sides. ADDENDA Plethodon metcalfi Brimley. Four speciments, all less than half grown, were overlooked in a series of dark colored Plethodon cinereus from Grandfather mountain October II and 12, 1923. EXPLANATION OF PLATES Plate 1 [97] Fig. 1 Male Ambystoma opacum Gravenhorst. The light areas ini the male are clear white, while in the female they are either grayish or bluish white. Fig. 2 Female Ambystoma opacum Gravenhorst. The eggs, which are deposited in the fall, are usually placed in situations that later will be well watered. The embryos may remain in the eggs, which are deposited in the ‘fall, are usually placed in situations placed in water. Both sexes photographed in the field at Raleigh, N. C., October 26, 1923. [98] Plate 1 r Ine, W CyiriMoOolmihwis cdaimiclen Bikuddley, lee from Camp Alice, Mount Mitchell, N. C., taken Oct. 22, 1923 at an alti- tude of 6000 feet. This female, which was found with her hatching : young beneath a large flat stone in Steprock creek, was 204 mm in _ length. Photograph of living specimen in water. Fig. 2 Ventral view of the same specimen to show the color pattern of the throat and belly. Photographed in the office of the — Zoologist by E. J. Stein. a [100] wa Plate 2 = h (ea pein Hie eur oocnath us mianin oma tas Moore ae wsemale photographed after being in formalin solution for several weeks. Locality: southwest side of Grandfather mountain, N. C. Oct. 12, 1923, 4000 feet altitude. Photographed by E. J. Stein. Fig. 2 Leurognathus marmorata Moore. (male) Note the slimmer lines and more definite color pattern. Locality: south- west side of Grandfather mountain, N. C. Oct. 12, 1923, 4000 feet altitude. Photographed by E. J. Stein. Fig. 3 Larva of Gyrinophilus danielsi Blatchley, about twice natural size, photographed in the jelly mass in which it was found. Fig. 4 A half grown specimen of Desmognathus och- rophaeus carolinensis Dunn, photographed in the field. In life, the light areas on the back were a bright red and the inter- spaces bronze and gold. South slope of Grandfather mountain. NE GHOct no no2s : [102] % ‘de ate On i } “7 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 103 ONDARTO, COUN PEGE) NAMES PREPARED BY CHARLES F. MILLIKEN A Academy Tract. Tract of 3000 acres in southern part of Canandaigua township, given by Oliver Phelps in 1804 to aid Can- andaigua Academy Allen’s Hill. Hamlet in town of Richmond. So named from Moses Allen, the first white settler, 1796 Aloguin. Station on the Pennsylvania railroad in town of Hope- well. Formerly known as Lewis Station and as Ennerdale. The name is a shortening of the Indian name Algonquin B Bald hill. An eminence between Canadice and Hemlock lakes. Baptist Hill. Hamlet in town of Bristol, where a Baptist church was organized in 1805 Bare hill or Nun-da-wa-o (Indian for Great Hill). The emt- nence on the east shore of Canandaigua lake from which, according to legend, the Seneca Indians had their origin. So named because of its bare crest Beaver creek or Trap brook. Stream in town of Farmington Black brook. Stream in town of Farmington. It flows over black shale rock Boswell Corners. In town of South Bristol, named after Joseph Boswell who came from Maine between 1817 and 1820 Boughton hill. Eminence in town of Victor, west of Victor village, site of Indian village of Gannagaro destroyed by Denonville in 1687. Named from the Boughton family, first settlers Bristol. Town, named after Bristol, Conn., from which many of the early settlers came Bristol Center. Hamlet in town of Bristol Bristol Springs. Hamlet in town of South Bristol, formerly known as Cold Springs. So named on account of presence of flowing spring of cold water Brown Stand. Site of first tavern in town of South Bristol, owned and conducted by Allen Brown Brownsville. Hamlet in town of Farmington named after three brothers, Rial, Nathan L. and Nicholas Brown, purchasers of a large tract of land in the neighborhood 104. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Burning spring. Natural gas spring near hamlet of Bristol Cen- ter on a small brook that empties into west side of Ganargua or Mud creek, visited by La Salle in 1669 C Canadice. Town, formed under this name in 1829, off from town of Richmond. Took its name from Canadice lake, which lies wholly within its boundaries Canadice Corners. Business center of town of Canadice Canadice lake. Name derived from the Indian name, Skan-e-a- tice, meaning “ long lake ” Canandaigua. Name derived from that of Indian village on same site, (written also as Kanandarqua, Kennadarqua, Ganundagwa and otherwise), destroyed by Sullivan’s army in 1779. Meaning “place set apart’ or, more poetically expressed, “the chosen spot.” First settled in 1789. County seat. Incorporated as village in 1815, as city 1919 Canandaigua lake. Named after Indian settlement near its foot Centerfield. Hamlet on old Utica-Buffalo post road. So named because located half-way between Canandaigua and East Bloomfield Chapin. Hamlet on outlet of Canandaigua lake, east of Canan- daigua city in town of Hopewell. First named Chapinville after Captain Israel Chapin, builder of the first grist mill on the stream in 1789 Cheshire. Hamlet in Canandaigua town, named after Cheshire, Conn., from which several early settlers emigrated Clifton Springs. Village in town of Manchester, first known as Sulphur Springs. Settled in 1800. Incorporated in 1859 Cold Springs. Former name of Bristol Springs, hamlet in town of South Bristol Cook’s point. Prominent point on west shore of Canandaigua lake. First settled by Frederick Winthrop Holcomb in 1812. Later named Cook’s after Robert Cook, who conducted a popular summer boarding house on the point Cottage City. Summer cottage colony on east shore of Canan- daigua lake in town of Gorham Covel Settlement. Small hamlet in town of South Bristol, named after a leading early settler, James Covel, who came from Wood- stock, Vt., in 1806 D Dennison’s Corners. Small hamlet in town of Richmond, named from the pioneer Asa Dennison, who settled there in 1795 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 105 K Hast hill. Sometimes called Kimball hill. Ridge between Cana- dice and Honeoye lakes East hill. Eminence in town of Naples, east of Naples village. Sometimes called Hatch hill East Bloomfield. Township set off in 1833 from town of Bloom- field, so named on account of its natural beauty East Bloomfield. Village incorporated in 1916 Hgypt. Valley east of Honeoye lake, known also as Burby Hollow F Farmington. Township named after Farmington, Conn. Settled by Quakers from Massachusetts in 1789 Fishers. Hamlet located in northwest part of town of Victor, named after pioneer family of same name Flint Creek. Hamlet in town of Seneca, north of Stanley, named after a small stream known as Flint creek on account of its flinty bed Frost Town. Locality in town of South Bristol, named after Jonathan and Jacob Frost, owners of an early saw mill on Mill creek G Ganargua. Stream, known also as Mud creek, which has its source in the South Bristol hilis and runs northwardly through towns of Bristol and East Bloomfield, Victor and Farmington, an affluent of the Seneca river Gan-na-go-ra. Indian village on Boughton hill, in present town of Victor, destroyed by Denonville in 1687 Gannett hill, Eminence in town of South Bristol, named after a pioneer settler, Horace Gannett Gan-no-ga-rae. Indian village, 4 miles south of Gan-na-go-ra, also destroyed by Denonville in 1687 Geneva. City located on or near site of Indian village of Kana- desaga. Origin of name obscure, but probably because of its simi- lar situation to the city of same name in Switzerland. So far as known it was first called Geneva by Dr Caleb Benton in dating a letter of October 14, 1788. Incorporated as a village in 1806, as a city in 1898 , Geneva. Town created by Supervisors in 1872, through division of the town of Seneca. Separated from the city in 1898 Genundewah. Alternative Seneca name for Bare hill or Nundawo Gorham. Township organized in 1789 as Easton. Name changed in 1806 to Lincoln. Again changed in 1807 to Gorham, in honor of Nathaniel Gorham 106 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Gorham Village. Hamlet in town of Gorham, first known as Bethel, site of the first church building (Methodist) in the town Gypsum. Hamlet in town of Manchester, first known as the Dutch Settlement, later as Plainsville, then named Gypsum on ac- count of the plaster beds in the vicinity Gulick. Location of a former post office in town of South Bris- tol. Named after Elisha Gulick H Hall’s Corners. Hamlet in southern part of Seneca town, named after a pioneer settler, Edward Hall Hatch hill. [Eminence east of Naples Village. Called also East hill. Named for Francis Hatch, first settler to buy a farm on its summit Hemlock lake ov O-neh-da. Named from hemlock trees about its shores Hilltown. Locality in District 10, town of South Bristol, where Erastus Hill, about the year 1818, settled and built a saw mill. Later location of post office called Gulick Honeoye. Hamlet named from Honeoye lake, at whose foot it is located Honeoye Falls. Hamlet in town of West Bloomfield, located on Honeoye lake outlet Honeoye lake. Indian name, Ha-nyah-yeh, meaning “ finger lying” Holcomb. Hamlet in town of East Bloomfield. Named after Hiram Holcomb, a prominent business man. Incorporated in 1916 Hopewell. Township, set off from town of Gorham in 1822. Named to express sentiments of those who secured its formation as a separate civil division Hopewell Center. Hamlet in town of Hopewell I Ionia. Hamlet in town of West Bloomfield. Classical name. Former name of Miller’s Corners dropped in 1898, to avoid confu- sion resulting from post offices of similar names in other parts of the State K Kanadesaga. Chief “castle” of the Seneca Indians, located on land now occupied by State Experiment Station in west part of city of Geneva. Destroyed by Sullivan in 1779. Indian name mean- ing “ new settlement village ” REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 107 L Littleville. Hamlet on Canandaigua lake outlet, short distance south of Chapin, named after an early miller and merchant, Norman @reitile M Manchester. Township set off from Farmington in 1821 and first called Burt, changed to Manchester in 1822 Manchester Center. Hamlet in town of Manchester. First named Coonsville after a pioneer by the name of Coon Manchester Village. Named after Manchester, N. H., and Man- chester, England, in view of its prospective manufacturing import- ance on account of being on Canandaigua lake outlet. Incorporated in 1892 Mertensia. Hamlet in town of Farmington. Named from the mertensia or bluebell, a wild flower that blooms profusely in the neighborhood Mill creek. In town of South Bristol, where an early mill was located Miller’s Corners. Hamlet in town of West Bloomfield, named after a pioneer settler, Samuel Miller. Name changed to Ionia, to avoid confusion with post offices of Mill’s Corners and Millers Mormon hill. Eminence in town of Manchester, 214 miles north of Manchester Village, from which Joseph Smith, founder of Mor- monism, claimed to have taken the golden plates from which he transcribed the Book of Mormon. Mud creek. Named by the Indians Ganargua. Has its origin in the South Bristol hills, runs northerly through the towns of Bris- tol, East Bloomfield and Farmington to its confluence with the Seneca river, a tributary of the Oswego river Muttonville. Hamlet in town of Bristol. So named in early days on account of its being a center for slaughtering sheep. Now known as Vincent N Naples. Township, named from the Italian city Naples. Village in town of same name. First known as Wat- kinstown, later as Middletown, and finally as Naples. Incorporated in 1894 New Salem. Known also as “ Pumpkin Hook” in town of Farm- ington. Named by early settlers after Salem, Mass. 5 108 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM O Oaks Corners. Named after Jonathan Oaks, an early innkeeper. Located 3 miles southeast of the village of Phelps Onnaghee. Name of Indian village, in what is now the town- ship of Hopewell Ontario county. Named after Lake Ontario, which at the organ- ization of the county in 1789 formed its northern boundary. Com- bination of two Indian words, “ Oniatara,’ meaning “ lake,’ and Wiow, meaning mybeautiiuliae noblesmonm lod: Orleans. Hamlet in town of Phelps. Originally known as “ Hardscrabble ” 12 Phelps. Township, first named Sullivan in honor of General Sullivan, changed to Phelps in 1796 in honor of Oliver Phelps Phelps Junction. Junction, in town of Phelps, of Auburn branch of New York Central railroad and Sodus branch of Pennsylvania railroad Phelps Village. [First named Vienna. Incorporated as Phelps in 1855 Port Gibson. Port on the Erie canal in town of Manchester. Named after Henry B. Gibson, prominent early banker of Canan- daigua Powell hill. Hill in town of South Bristol where Shotwell Powell, who came from Dutchess county in 1844, established his home Pumpkin Hook or New Salem. First settlement in town of Farmington. An early resident suffered loss of his crop of pumpkins by theft, hence the nicknames, “ Pumpkin Hookers ” and “ Pumpkin Hook ” R Reed Corners. Hamlet in town of Gorham. Named after Silas Reed, a pioneer Richmond. First named (1801) Pittstown, in honor of Captain Peter Pitts. Changed (1808) to Honeoye, again changed (1815) to Richmond, in honor of Abigail Richmond, wife of Captain Pitts Richmond Mills. Hamlet in western part of town of Rich- mond, on outlet of Hemlock lake Rushville. Village, located on line between town of Gorham, Ontario county, and town of Potter, Yates county. Settlement was first known as Federal Hollow, probably because most of the in- habitants were New England Federalists. Named Rushville in 1818 REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 IOQ at suggestion of Dr Ira Bryant, in honor of Dr Benjamin Rush of Philadelphia, an eminent early physician, member of the Con- tinental Congress and signer of the Declaration of Independence. Incorporated in 1866 S Seneca. Township, organized 1793. Divided in 1872 by erection of town of Geneva. Named after Seneca nation of Indians, some- times called the Cinques, the Seneks, etc. Seneca Castle. Hamlet in northwest part of Seneca town. So named because of its proximity to a “castle” or village of the Seneca Indians Seneca point. Prominent feature of west shore of Canandaigua lake, located in town of South Bristol, first known as Wilder’s point from the fact that it was selected as site of first home built, in 1789, by the pioneer, Gamaliel Wilder, who found there an Indian orchard, the only one in the vicinity not destroyed by Sullivan’s army Shortsville. Village, in town of Manchester, on New York Cen- tral railroad, named after Theophilus Short, in 1804. First to utilize water power of Canandaigua lake outlet at that point. First known as Shorts Mills. Incorporated in 1889 South Bristol. Formerly a part of the town of Bristol. Set apart as a separate township, March 8, 1838. Hamlet of same name near center of town Stanley. Hamlet near center of town of Seneca. Named for Seth Stanley, a prominent early settler Stid hill, Eminence in town of South Bristol, named after an early settler, Benjamin Stid Sucker brook. Inlet at foot of Canandaigua lake. So named because formerly frequented by the fish known as suckers T Trap brook. Known also as Beaver creek; stream in town of Farmington Tuttle’s. Station on Lehigh Valley railroad in town of Farming- ton. Named after prominent family of the neighborhood U Unionville. Hamlet in town of Phelps IIo NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM V Victor. Township set off from Bloomfield in 1812 and named after Claudius Victor Boughton, son of a prominent citizen, Heze- kiah Boughton jr Victor. Village, incorporated December 8, 1879 Vincent. Hamlet in Bristol township, first known as Muttonville. Now named Vincent after Dr Thomas Vincent, who settled there in 1797 W West Bloomfield. Township set off from Bloomfield in 1833. Village of same name not incorporated. Site of Indian castle “ Ga-nun-da-ok,”’ meaning “village on top of hill” West Junius. Hamlet in town of Phelps on line between Ontario and Seneca counties West river. Inlet of Canandaigua lake, enters at the head or south end of the lake Whaleback. Long wooded hill on the east side of Canandaigua lake at its head Woodville. Landing at head of Canandaigua lake, from which formerly large quantities of wood were shipped. Worden hill. Eminence in town of South Bristol. Was early settled by three brothers named Worden REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 IEE AL WRN ONG SEE a(S Ha URICN EAU NA DN CHIN TRATE NEW YORK BY H. N. EATON While pursuing field studies on the Baldwinsville, N. Y., quad- rangle, directly west of Syracuse, in 1922 the writer found a fauna in the Vernon red shale. The discovery is important as no fossils have been found in the Vernon shale in central New York and also because of the strange association of the fossils with casts of crystals of rock salt in a formation evidently produced under arid conditions. Occurrence and stratigraphy. The fossils were found in an outcrop along a state highway in Elbridge township, 14% miles west-northwest of Syracuse, and 2 miles east of the village of Jordan. The road runs along the base of a low escarpment of shale hills on the southern side of the east-west channel occupied by the Erie canal and two main railroad lines. The fossiliferous horizon occurs in the Vernon red shale, 13 feet stratigraphically below the contact with the Camillus shale formation. The bed consists of two parts: an upper layer of buff colored clay giving a strong reaction for lime, 4%4 inches thick; and a lower drab colored layer, 9 inches thick. Characteristic of the upper layer are several small cavities vary- ing’in size to a maximum of more than I inch in diameter, lined with crystals of aragonite. A few molds of salt hoppers occur sparingly in this upper layer closely associated with fossils. The term “hopper” has been applied to a cast in the shale assumed to be pseudomorphic after original halite. They are common in the Camillus shale in the Syracuse region and have been reported by Hopkins*. In the lower layer near the contact with the under- lying red shale several hoppers were found. Small flakes of specu- lar hematite occur rarely in the Vernon formation, and in one instance on the face of one of these hoppers. Fauna. The fossils including old and new forms are listed below. They have been deposited in the New York State Museum at Albany. Leperditia scalaris (Jones) Calymene? niagarensis Hall Phragmoceras sp. 1 Hopkins, T. C. The Geology of the Syracuse Quadrangle, N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 171, 1914, p. 32-33. [12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Diaphorostoma? niagarense (Hall) ? Poleumita scamnata Clarke and Ruedemann Streptomytilus? cf. eduliformis (Clarke and Ruedemann) Cuneamya cf. alveata Whitfield and Hovey Ctenodonta cf. salinensis Ruedemann C. ruedemanni nov. Pterinea cf. poststriata Ruedemann P. rotunda nov. P. jordani nov. 172) SiO, Orthodesma? sp. Camarotoechia litchfieldensis (Schuchert) Lingula vernoni nov. Cornulites hopkinsi nov. Besides the above several unidentified ostracods, and forms re- sembling bryozoa occur. The fossils are sparingly distributed in the rock at best, and their fragmentary nature renders specific determination difficult in many cases. In general the fauna consists largely of pelecypods. Only two brachiopods were found, of which Camarotoechia litchfieldensis is quite abundant. No Salina eurypterids were observed. The fauna appears to be typically mid-Sherman with a mixture of Niagaran and Salinan forms. A majority of the old species occur through the Cayugan, two slightly later. Two were reported previously in the Niagaran (Guelph) only, and one in the lower Clinton. The fauna is marine, and flourished apparently in a solution concentrated enough to allow of the occasional crys- tallization of halite. This interesting fact may aid in the de- termination of the origin of the Vernon formation. Descriptions of Species vf Ctenodonta ruedemanni nov. Plate 1, figure 4 Shell small, strongly inequilateral, with a length of about 1% times the height, flat. Beak prominent and mildly acute, set far forward with a resulting distinct apical angle. Dorsal line convex and sloping as in C. salinensis. Anterior margin rounded, posterior probably sharper. Surface covered with indistinct lines of growth. A single left valve only was found. This species resembles the Salina species C. salinensis, but its beak is slightly farther forward than that of the latter. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 1 Length about 11 mm; height 7.5 mm. Named after Dr Rudolf Ruedemann of the New York State Museum who recognized it as a new species. a vA Pterinea rotunda nov. f Plate 1, figure 6 Shell small, length slightly greater than the height although the exact proportions are difficult to determine owing to the fragmen- tary nature of the material, the left valve only being known. Gen- eral form rounded, posterior wing prominent, anterior wing miss- ing on specimen. Huinge-line straight, about two-thirds length of shell. The beak is prominent and is the attenuate expression of the natural body rotundity. Radial markings faint, scarcely visible without the aid of a lens. Concentric growth lines. Length estimated about 21 mm; height 18 mm. ¥ 4 ane * Pterinea jordani nov. Plate 1, artis 8 Shell moderately large with length and height about equal, hinge- line straight about three-fourths total length, form rounded as in P. rotunda nov. described above. Posterior wing broad prob- ably extending as far as the posterior margin of the shell. An- terior wing well defined but not sharply set off from the front margin, making a wide obtuse angle with the upper margin. Con- centric growth-lines covering the entire shell, best shown on wings. This species is the largest of the fauna and is known from poorly preserved left valves only. Approximate measurements are as follows: length 27 mm; height 28 mm. Named from the village of Jordan 2 miles west of the outcrop. Pterinea? sp. Plate 1, figure 7 A pelecypod showing generic affinities with Pterinea was found. It exhibits plain concentric growth-lines and faint radial markings on the left valve, and the right valve shows evidences of ribs. Posterior wing plain, anterior poorly shown. Length 29 mm; height about 29 mm. 114 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM of Orthodesma? sp. Plate 1, figure 5 Fragments of a shell were found not admitting of determination but having the general characteristics of Orthodesma or Rhytimya. Shell long compared with its height. Anterior portion of the shell set off by a shallow but distinct sulcus. Hinge-line not preserved. Left valve convex, ending posteriorly in a prominent umbonal ridge. Distinct concentric folds, which are stronger in front. Left valve only preserved. One of the smaller specimens has the following dimensions: length 26 mm; height about 18 mm. Y Lingula vernoni nov. Plate 1, figures I and 2 Shell small, sides nearly straight and parallel, beak subacute, an- terior margin subquadrate. Much resembles L. clintoni but differs in the total absence of radiating striae. Many fine con- centric growth-lines. Faint traces of a median septum visible. One pedicle valve only found with portions of the original shell. Length 10.5 mm; width 5.5 mm. v¥ Cornulites hopkinsi nov. r Plate 1, figure 3 Cornulites arcuatus Conrad in the Guelph fauna is briefly described thus: “Curved, rapidly attenuate; the base of each ring contracted, the upper edge angular.”’ (Clarke and Ruedemann, 1903.) The new species closely resembles C.arcuatus, differing mainly in its more abrupt taper and possible greater angularity of upper edge of ring. Doctor Ruedemann thinks that a new specific name is justified. Length 18 mm; greatest observed width about 7 mm. Named after Dr Thomas Cramer Hopkins of Syracuse Uni- versity. Acknowledgments. The writer wishes to thank Dr Rudolf Ruedemann for help in the identifications. Dr Burnett Smith of Syracuse University has made valuable suggestions. N. E. Weis- bord of Corne!l University and Edwin J. Stein of Albany made the photographs. 2OPILAMNPAITUIOUN, Ole Jedbve de [115] Lingula vernoni nov. Fig. 1 Mold of type. x 3 PiggZ ly pedmmrediclel valvesoxs Cornulites hopkinsi nov. Piga e it olotyperxs 2 Ctenodonta ruedemanni nov. Fig. 4 Holotype. x 2 Orthodesma sp. igamsiWettanalversaiiy7 Pterinea rotunda nov. Fig. 6 Holotype. x 2 Pterinea sp. Fig. 7 Right valve.x 1% Pterinea jordani nov. Fig. 8 Holotype.x 1% The originals of the figures are in the New York State Museum. Note. From Dr E. O. Ulrich, to whom some of the ostracods had been sent for identification; the following important note was received after this paper had gone through the press: The ostracods are sufficiently well preserved to warrant the following specific and generic identifications : Kloedenia normalis U. and B. Dizygopleura acuminata U. and B. Both of these species are particularly characteristic of the lower part of the Wills creek and the upper part of the McKenzie formation in Maryland, hence of the position to which I have assigned the Vernon shale. (See Maryland Rep’t, 1923, p. 267.) [116] Vernon Shale Fauna TiN. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 Wy D. DANA LUTHER, MILLER AND GEOLOGIST 1840 — 1923 D. Dana Luther, beloved of all who knew him, died at his home in Naples, N. Y., December 17, 1923. He joined the geological staff of this institution in 1891 and served continuously until his retire- ment in 1916. He was 51 years old when this service began and 76 when it ceased. There was much in Mr Luther’s life that was picturesque and unusual. Many of its features bring it into comparison with the lives of Hugh Miller, the Scotch stonemason, and of Robert Dick, the baker of Thurso; one a great geologist and expositor, the other, geologist and botanist of more than local merit, whose story has served as a lesson to boys of the right sort. A thoughtful and reflective stonemason might well become a geologist, and a lover of all Nature might prefer his communion with her to the compulsions of the bread board. With Mr Luther, a miller, it was a mantle of sorrow that fell upon him in middle life which seemed to turn his overwhelmed thoughts from his business to the untrammeled spaces among the hills of his native valley. From the catastrophe of a broken home circle, a motherless group of little children and a grow- ing disability from miller’s asthma, he sought and found an inspiring release where Nature had provided it. It was in this episode of sorrow that he learned to hear the voices in the rocks, the woods and the fields. Calvin Luther and Rebecca Dana were strong names and strong characters. They were of the Puritan stock from Berkshire county which spread westward toward the Genesee country, the frontier, after Sullivan’s raiders upon the Seneca settlements had brought back wondrous stories of the fertility of the land. These parents were not of the first venturers into this remote and _ hill-crowned valley of Naples; they were nevertheless early arrivals, and Mr Luther passed his entire home life in the generous house which his father built on the high terraced bank of the valley creek. Close to it was his father’s mill where for a generation the countryside ground its grist and found its flour and meal, and here Dana Luther ground out the modest living of his early manhood. Mr Luther was the writer’s friend. Like interests in the mysteries of the rocks brought them together at just the critical time when Nature was ministering to his wound; the staid, wise and cautious 118 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM man and the young, trained enthusiast. With that acquaintance came long summers together of excursions into all the rocks of western New York, with a perfect abandon of delight that made him oblivious to the carking things of business. Because of his miller’s asthma Mr Luther was obliged to give over his hereditary occupation and as a means of support he opened a small haberdashery in the village, but no summer day with its temptations afield was missed because of mere business. Often and again the key to the store was turned, and the devoted two, one of whom had nothing else to do and both of them everything to learn, were off and away. To Mr Luther it was all a new world; every fact observed, every fossil found had to be interpreted for him and his zeal for these interpretations led him to close and careful reading and study of the science during the long intervals between summer and summer. Mr Luther had only a common school education supplemented by a year or two of study at thé old academy at Canandaigua, but his mind had the poise and balance of a magistrate’s and the receptiveness of an acolyte’s. Be- sides and above this, he had a training in wisdom from an extraor- dinary mother who herself took counsel of all the works of God. Thirteen summers of these adventures into the rocks and thirteen winters at study of the science, years that were productive of dis- coveries of no little moment to geology, gave Mr Luther a perfectly competent equipment to handle the more obvious problems of the rocks in the well-built country of western New York. In 1891 a start was made on a great shaft at Livonia, Livingston county, which was to go down to the salt, a proposed excavation covering a prism 18 feet square and as long as the depth of the’ salt below the surface which proved to be at 1400 feet. It was to be a great plug cut out of the heart of the most richly fossiliferous rocks in the State and into the unsolved succession of the salt-bearing beds. It afforded a rare opportunity for the extensive acquisition of detailed information of the order and variations of the succession of rocks and faunas, one never before or since afforded. To this work, continuous through summer and winter, Mr Luther was assigned on behalf of this Department and thus he entered formally on his official service for the State. The work led naturally into a wider study of the geology of the salt formations throughout the region of their best development, and in this larger field Mr Luther brought together data whose usefulness has become evident. During these years we were largely without adequate topographic maps for the plotting of areal geology, but as these became available for the GS 7 OO VESTS EST) Y VY Zi Gs ANA LUTHER D 7, Co _ Toe D 1840-1923 see era eS a ree i $ ce Reo wes, tat H s us REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 119 western New York region they were put in service for this areal ¥ survey work, and one after another of these quadrangles, each cover- ing an area of about 200 square miles, was surveyed and plotted by Mr Luther. In a few of these the writer joined, but for the most part Mr Luther did the work single handed. ‘The field was not one of complicated structure but the distinctions between the rock formations required caution and mature judgment, especially in the ease’ of the great formations of the Upper Devonian which slowly eraduate westward to Lake Erie into quite distinct faunistic phases. The survey work thus ‘done was reliable, and Mr Luther covered a larger area of this record on the scale-maps of 1 inch to the mile than has been done by any other geological surveyor connected with this organization. Equally important to the science were the dis- coveries of new fossils that were turned up in connection with this work. Mr Luther was a careful and excellent collector and our present knowledge of the extensive and extraordinary Upper Devonian faunas of New York which have been described in the paleontological reports of this survey, is in sharp contrast to the poverty of what we knew when he began his work. Dana Luther’s labors were an impressive illustration of the fact that a natural common sense, good judgment and painstaking patience, governed by a genuine and intense love of his work, are a better equipment than the average technical training in a younger man who lacks those virtues. Naples and the surrounding country had been regarded by the older geologists as singularly forbidding and unproductive territory in the remains of extinct life, but that old desert has now been made to blossom like the rose since the days when Luther began his work, and its bare rocks have produced a fauna of unequalled interest. Among his notable discoveries was the finding of the great tree trunk in the Portage or lower division of the Upper Devonian in the rocks of Naples—the Protolepidodendron. This was one of the earliest of all the trees of the world, a lepidodendrid, which now stands, both the original and the restoration, in the State Museum. It had floated out from the land into the marine waters of that ancient time and was located by its finder by a mere thin line of coaly substance on the edge of a rock ledge in one of the Naples ravines. A part of the overlying rock was lifted and the nature of the fossil disclosed. Then the concealed trunk, constantly enlarging in diameter, was followed back straight into the cliff under a pigsty and into a pasture with an increasing overload until the bulging root 120 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM was found, altogether a trunk 18 feet long and entirely unique. While this discovery had an element of the spectacular and won for the “Naples Tree” a wide publicity, a multitude of other dis- coveries of equal significance stand to his credit, and many species of ancient creatures have been baptized in his name. Mr Luther was a good citizen. He was the first president of his village, was secretary of its board of education for many years and was for a long time a justice of the peace. He carried his living interests into his retirement, rounded out a full and generous life of wise service and his children and his grandchildren in the flesh and in the spirit, rise up and call him blessed. JouHn M. CLARKE REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 121 New York State Museum Joun M. 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Archeology 171 i 56 Geology 114 Geology 172 oe 57 Entomology II5 sh 173 Director’s report for £913 58 Mineralogy 116 Botany 174 Economic Geology REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 123 175 Entomology 195 Geology 223-224 Economic Geology 176 Botany 196 Director’s report for 1916 225-226 Geology 177 Director’s report for 1914 197 Botany 227-228 Director’s report for 178 Economic Geology 198 Entomology IQIO 179 Botany “199 Economic Geology 229-230 Geology 180 Entomology 200 Entomology 231-232 Entomology 181 Economic Geology 201 Economic Geology 233-234 Botany 182 Geology 202 Entomology 235-230 Archeology - 183 “ 203-204 Economic Geology PAY ARS 184 Archeology 205-206 Botany 239-240 Director’s report for 185 Geology 207-208 Director’s report for 1920-21 186 Entomology IQ17 241-242 Paleontology 187 Director’s report for 1915 209-210 Geology 243-244 Botany 188 Botany 211-212 i; 245-240 Geology 189 Paleontology 213-214 ss 247-248 Entomology 190 Economic Geology 215-210 ¢ , 249-250 Economic Geology r91 Geology 217-218 Geology 251 Director’s report for 1922 192 “i 219-220 Director’s report of 252 Zoology 193 i 1918 253 Director’s report for 1923 194 Entomology 221-222 Paleontology Bulletins are also found with the annual reports of the museum as follows: Bulletin Report Bulletin Report Bulletin Report Bulletin Report I2-1I5 48, v. I 85 58, v. 2 Lil LS 2 OZMVAEe LO? 70, Vv. 1 16, 17 Oy We 78 86 58, Vv. 5 133 OP, Wo i 193 7 OvnViene 18, 19 tg No a 87-89 58, v. 4 134 Os Wo 7 I94 WO, wre B 20-25 25 Neo, af 90 58, v. 3 135 OB} 7b 3 I95 FO} Wo 38 26-31 53, v. I OL 58, v. 4 136 OB Nivea 196 70, Vv. I 32-34 54, v- I 92 58, v. 3 DS pP LS On OStivuLL OT, 70, V. 2 35, 30 54, Vv. 2 93 58, Vv. 2 139 63, v.2 108 70, V. 2 37-44 54, V- 3 94 58, v. 4 140 63, V.-I 199 70, V. 2 45-48 54, Vv. 4 95, 96 58, v. I WAL -ASi a NOS Velen 200 Til) Wo #4 49-54 55 97 58, Vv. 5 144 OA Navan2 ZOOL TPs Wea a 55 56, v. 4 98, 99 59, V. 2 145,146 64,v.1 202 [ity We B 56 56, v. I 100 590, v. I PAH ELA SI MOAV.) Zu 2OS—4 Gaby Wg A 57 56, v. 3 IOL 590, v. 2 I49 OAM ven 205-0 Fak) Wo 2 58 HO5 Wo ae 102 50, v. I 150-54 64, Vv. 2 207-8 ite, We, Uh 59, 60 56, v. 3 103-5 59, V. 2 E555) OSuNe 2 61 56, Vv. I 106 59, v. I I58-60 65,v.1 Memoir 62 56, v. 4 107 60, v. 2 161 Ol, WB 2 AQ, V. 3, and 50, v.2 63 56, v. 2 108 60, Vv. 3 162 OR Wok Sy Zl 53, Vv. 2 64 56, v. 3 I09, IIO 60, Vv. 1 163 OB 8, © Silo Wo B 65 | 56, v. 2 IIt 60, Vv. 2 164 66, v. I 57, Vv. 4 66, 67 56, v. 4 Wu2 60, v. I 165-67 COh Wo By To ae 59, v. 3 68 56, v. 3 I13 60, v. 3 168-70 OOMRVAT SD be 59, Vv. 4 69 56, v. 2 II4. 60, v. I 171-76 67 9, pt I 60, v. 4 70, 71 57, Vv. I, pt I TI5 60, v. 2 177-80 68 9, pt 2 62, v.4 72 Bae Wai ey TON 2 Pita) 60, v. I I8I 69, v.2 10 CONRVANS 73 57, Vv. 2 II7 60, v. 3 182, 183 60,v.1I If 61, v. 3 74 STA Velen pte als 60, v. I 184 Oly Wo 2) GRAS FON TE OBS Wo B 75 57) Ve2 II9-21 61, v. I I85 COUN m2) pulZ) NOOynve 3 76 POST s Nei Durey tl 22 61, v. 2 186 OO,nven2) 13 63, v. 4 77 SiVie Len poy Li weL23 ODnvel 187 OOPiVs ese LAY Vee MOS ives 78 aly ie 124 6I, v. 2 188 COMVAno MSL AN Venez O Samvelial 79 Biever Dyapt Zien L25 62, Vv. 3 189 GON Vast eel SaavenL Ds Ney B 80 SVE D UPleieel ZO 2.5 62, v. I T90 OOyaven 2 Lise sven PR, Nie, B 81, 82 58, Vv. 3 129 Os Wo 2 IOL 70, V. 1 83, 84 58, v. I 130 62, Vv. 3 The figures at the beginning of each entry in the following list indicate its number as 2 museum bulletin. Geology and Paleontology. 14 Kemp, J. F. Geology of Moriah and West- port Townships, Essex Co., N. Y., with notes on the iron mines. 38p. il. 7pl. 2 maps. Sept. 1895. Free. 19 Merrill, F. J. H. Guide to the Study of the Geological Collections of the New York State Museum. 164p.119pl. map. Nov. 1898. Out of print. 21 Kemp, J. F. Geology of the Lake Placid Region. 24p. Ipl. map. Sept. 1898. Out of print. Cah 34 Cumings, E. R. Lower Silurian System of Eastern Montgomery County; Prosser, C. S. Notes on the Stratigraphy of Mohawk Valley and Sara- toga County, N. Y. 74p.14pl.map. May 1900. I5¢c. 39 Clarke, J. M.; Simpson, G. B. & Loomis, F. B. Paleontologic Papers 1. J2peil. 16pl. Oct: 1900. 15¢. Contents: Clarke, J. M. A Remarkable Occurrence of Orthoceras in the Oneonta Beds of the Chenango Valley, N. Y —— Paropsonema cryptophya; a Peculiar Echinoderm from the Intumescens-zone (Portage Beds) of Western New York. —— Dictyonine Hexactinellid Sponges from the Upper Devonic of New York. —— The Water Biscuit of Squaw Island, Canandaigua Lake, N. Y. Simpson, G. B. Preliminary Descriptions of New Genera of Paleozoic Rugose Corals. Loomis, F. B. Siluric Fungi from Western New York. 124 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 42 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Hudson River Beds near Albany and Their Taxo- nomic Equivalents. 1116p. 2pl.map. Apr. 1901. 25c. 45 Grabau, A. W. Geology and Paleontology of Niagara Falls and Vicinity. 286p. il. 1i8pl. map. Apr. 1901. 65c; cloth, 9oc. 48 Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene Geology of Nassau County and Borough of Queens. 58p.il. 8pl.map. Dec. 1901. Out of print. 49 Ruedemann, Rudolf; Clarke, J. M. & Wood, Elvira. Paleontologic Papers 2. 240p.13pl. Dec. 1901. Out of print. Contents: Ruedemann, Rudolf. Trenton Conglomerate of Rysedorph Hill. Clarke, J. M. Limestones of Central and Western New York Interbedded with Bitumi- . nous Shales of the Marcellus Stage. Wood, Elvira. Marcellus Limestones of Lancaster, Erie Co., N. Y. Clarke, J. M. New Agelacrinites. Value of Amnigenia as an Indicator of Fresh-water Deposits during the Devonic of New York, Ireland and the Rhineland. 52 Clarke, J. M. Report of the State Paleontologist 1901. 280p. il. ropl. map, I tab. July 1902. 4oc. 56 Merrill, F. J. H. Description of the State Geologic Map of 1901. 42p. 2 maps, tab. Nov. 1902. Out of print. 63 Clarke, J. M. & Luther, D. D. Stratigraphy of Canandaigua and Naples Quadrangles. 78p. map. June 1904. 25c. 65 Clarke, J. M. Catalogue of Type Specimens of Paleozoic Fossils in the New York State Museum. 848p. May 1903. $1.20, cloth. 69 —— Report of the State Paleontologist 1902. 464p. 52pl. 7 maps. Nov. 1903. $1, cloth. 77 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Vicinity of Little Falls, Herkimer Co. g8p. il. 1r5pl.2 maps. Jan. 1905. 30c. 80 Clarke, J. M. Report of the State Paleontologist 1903. 396p. 2gpl. 2maps. Feb. ae 85¢, cloth. 81 Clarke, J. M. & Luther, D. D. Watkins and Elmira Quadrangles. 32p. map. Mar. 1905. 265c. 82 Geologic Map of the Tully Quadrangle. gop. map. Apr. 1905. 20¢c. 83 Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene Geology of the Mooers Quadrangle. 62p. 25pl. map. June 1905. 25¢. 4 Ancient Water Levels of the Champlain and Hudson Valleys. 206p. il. rrpl. 18 maps. July 1905. 45c. 90 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Cephalopoda of Beekmantown and Chazy For- mations of Champlain Basin. 224p. il. 38pl. May 1906. 75c, cloth. 92 Grabau, A. W. Guide to the Geology and Paleontology of the Schoharie Region. 314p. il. 26pl. map. Apr. 1906. Out of print. 95 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Northern Adirondack Region. 188p. I5pl. 3 maps. Sept. 1905. Out of print. 96 Ogilvie, I. H. Geology of the Paradox Lake Quadrangle. 54p. il. 17pl. map. Dec. 1905. Out of print. 99 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Buffalo Quadrangle. 32p. map. May 1906. 20c. tor —— Geology of the Penn Yan-Hammondsport Quadrangles. 28p. map. July 1906. Out of prini. 106 Fairchild, H. L. Glacial Waters in the Erie Basin. 88p. 14pl. 9 maps. Feb. 1907. Out of print. 107 Woodworth, J. B.; Hartnagel, C. A’; Whitlock, H. P.; Hudson; G.)H.; Clarke, J. M.: White, David & Berkey, C. P. Geological Papers. 388p. 54pl. map. May 1907. 900, cloth. Contents: Woodworth, J. B. Postglacial Faults of Eastern New York. Hartnagel, C. A. Stratigraphic Relations ot the Oneida Congiomerate. —— Upper Siluric and Lower Devonic Formations of the Skunnemunk Mountain Region. Whitlock, H. P. Minerals from Lyon Mountain, Clinton Co. Hudson, G. H. On Some Pelmatozoa from the Chazy Limestone of New York. Clarke, te M. Some New Devonie Fossils. An Interesting Style of Sand-filled Vein. —— Eurypterus Shales of the Shawangunk Mountains in Eastern New York. White, David. A Remarkable Fossil Tree Trunk from the Middle Devonic of New York. Berkey, C. P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the High- lands. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 125 111 Fairchild, H. L. Drumlins of New York. 60p. 28pl. 19 maps. July 1907. Out of print. - 114. Hartnagel, C. A. Geologic Map of the Rochester and Ontario Beach Quadrangles. 36p. map. Aug. 1907. 20c. r15 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Long Lake Quadrangle. 88p. 2opl. map. Sept. 1907. 25c. 118 Clarke, J. M. & Luther, D. D. Geologic Maps and Descriptions of the Portage and Nunda Quadrangles including a map of Letchworth Park. 50p- 16pl. 4 maps. Jan. 1908. 35c. 126 Miller, W. J. Geology of the Remsen Quadrangle. 54p. il. 11pl. map. Jan. 1909. 25c. 127 Fairchild, H. L. Glacial Waters in Central New York. 64p. 27pl. 15 maps. Mar. 1909. Out of print. 128 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Geneva-Ovid Quadrangles. 44p. map. Apr. 1909. 20c. 135 Miller, W. J. Geology of the Port Leyden Quadrangle, Lewis County, INERYE OZ pe ilinply mapas) an TOON 25) 137 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Auburn-Genoa Quadrangles. 35p. map. Mar. 1910. 20c. 138 Kemp, J. F. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Geology of the Elizabethtown and Port Henry Quadrangles. 176p. il. 20pl. 3 maps. Apr. 1910. Out of print. 145 Cushing, H. P.; Fairchild, H. L.; Ruedemann, Rudolf & Smyth, C. H. Geology of the Thousand Islands Region. 194p. il. 62pl. 6 maps. Dec. I9IO. 75C. 146 Berkey, C. P. Geologic Features and Problems of the New York City (Catskill) Aqueduct. 286p. il. 38pl. maps. Feb. 1911. 75c; $1, cloth. 148 Gordon, C. E. Geology of the Poughkeepsie Quadrangle. 122p. il. Zoplamapy Apr LOE.) 30c: 152 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Honeoye-Wayland Quadrangles. 30p. map.| Oct. 1911. 20c. 153 Miller, William J. Geology of the Broadalbin Quadrangle, Fulton- Saratoga Counties, New York. 66p. il. 8pl. map. Dec. 1911. 25c. 154 Stoller, James H. Glacial Geology of the Schenectady Quadrangle. 44p. Opi maps Deco 20c: 159 Kemp, James I. The Mineral Springs of Saratoga. 8o0p. il. 3pl. Apr. NOMA, UE. 160 Fairchild, H. L. Glacial Waters in the Black and Mohawk Valleys. 48p. il. 8pl.14 maps. May 1912. S5oc. 162 Ruedemann, Rudolf. The Lower Siluric Shales of the Mohawk Valley. T52p edly T5pla Aus. Tone. sNas5c: 168 Miller, William J. Geological History of New York State. 130p. 43pl. Io maps. Dec. 1913. Out of print; new edition in press. 169 Cushing, H. P. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Geology of Saratoga Springs and Vicinity. 178p. il. 2opl.map. Feb. 1914. 40c. 170 Miller, William J. Geology of the North Cae Quadrangle. gop. il. 14pl. Feb. 1914. 25c. 171 Hopkins, T. C. The Geology of the Syracuse Quadrangle. 8op. il. 2opl. map. July 1914. 25c. 172 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Attica and Depew Quadrangles. 32p. map. JEN GK, TOYA TO, 182 Miller, William J. The Geology of the Lake Pleasant Quadrangle. 56p. i] 1opl. map. Feb. 1916. 25c. 183 Stoller, James H. Glacial Geology of the Saratoga Quadrangle. 5op. il. E2plymape oars rOnon 25 Cs 185 Martin, James C. The Precambrian Rocks of the Canton Quadrangle. 1i2p. il. 2opl. map. May 1, 1916. 30c. 189 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Paleontologic Contributions from the New York State Museum. 225p. il. 36pl. Sept. 1916. 5oc. 191 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Vicinity of Ogdensburg. 64p. il. 6pl. map. Nov. 1916. 25c. 192 Miller, William J. Geology of the Blue Mountain Quadrangle. 68p. il. tIpl. map. Dec. 1916. Out of print. 193 ——— The Adirondack Mountains. 97p. il. 30pl.2 maps. Jan.1917. 35c. 126 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 195 Fairchild, H. L. Postglacial Features of the Upper Hudson Valley. 22p. map. Mar. Ie UON~Y | AEC. 209-210 Fairchild, H. L. Pleistocene Marine Submergence of the Hudson, Champlain and ’St Lawrence Valleys. 75p. il. 25pl. maps. May—June 1918. 50c. 211-212 Miller, W. J. Geology of the Lake Placid Quadrangle. tog4p. il. 23pl. map. July—Aug. 1918. 35C. 213-214 Geology of the Schroon Lake Quadrangle. t1o2p. il. 14pl. map. NEP OCH MOUS MEA SC: 215-216 Stoller, J. H. Glacial Geology of the Cohoes Quadrangle. 4op. il. 2pl. map. Nov. —Deec. I9IQ9. 25¢. 217-218 Chadwick, George H. Paleozoic Rocks of the Canton Quadrangle. (KOH), Ml, WAM, imakeyo, jana Ko, UGG), BHC, 221-222 Clarke, John M. Organic Dependence and Disease. Their origin and significance. 225-226 Berkey, C. P. & Rice, Marion. Geology of the West Point Quadrangle. 152p. 56pl. map. Pept ee I9I9. 75C. 229-230 Kemp, James Geology of the Mount Marcy Quadrangle. 86p. 25pl. map. Jan.—Feb. 1920. 765c. 241-242 Hartnagel, C. A. & Bishop, S. C. The Mastodons, Mammoths and Other Pleistocene Mammals of New York State. 11op. il. 25pl. January— Feb. 1921. 50c. 245-246 Miller, W. J. Geology of the Luzerne Quadrangle. 66p. il. 11pl. map. May-June, 1921. 65c. Miller, W. J. Geology of the Lyon Mountain Quadrangle. Prepared. Crosby, W. O. Geology of Long Island. Jn preparation. | Luther, D. D. Geology of the Phelps Quadrangle. In preparation. — Geology of the Eden-Silver Creek Quadrangles. Prepared. Geology of the Brockport-Hamlin and Albion-Oak Orchard Quadrangles. Prepared. Geology of the Medina-Ridgeway and Lockport-Olcott Quadrangles. Prepared. Geology of the Caledonia-Batavia Quadrangles. Prepared. Ruedemann, R. The Utica and Lorraine Formations of New York. In press. Cushing, H. Pp, Geology of the Gouverneur Quadrangles. Prepared. Kemp, James F. & Alling, H. L. Geology of the Ausable Quadrangle. Pre- pared. Smyth, C. H., jr. & Buddington, A. F. Geology of the Lake Bonaparte Quad- rangle. Prepared. Miller, W. J. Geology of the Russell quadrangle. Prepared. Geology of the Gloversville Quadrangle. Prepared. Cooke, J. H. Surface Geology of the Albany-Berne Quadrangles. Prepared. Buddington, A. F. Geology of the Lowville Quadrangle. Prepared. Geology of the Lake Bonaparte Quadrangle. Prepared. Fairchild, H. L. Evolution of the Susquehanna River. Jn press. Holzwasser, F. Geology of the Newburgh Quadrangle. Prepared. Economic Geology. 3 Smock, J.C. Building Stone in the State of New York. 154p. Mar. 1888. 30c. First Report on the Iron Mines and Iron Ore Districts in the State of New York. 78p.map. June 1889. 25c. to —— Building Stone in New York. 210p. map, tab. Sept. 1890. 40c. 1r Merrill, F. J. H. Salt and Gypsum Industries of New York. 94p. t2pl. 2 maps, I1 tab. Apr. 1893. 50c. 12 Ries, Heinrich. Clay Industries of New York. 174p. il. ipl. map. Mar. 1895. 30c. 15 Merrill, F. J. H. Mineral Resources of New York. 240p. 2 maps. Sept. 1895. [5oc] 17 —— Road Materials and Road Building in New York. 52p. r4pl. 2maps. Oct. 1897. 15¢c. 30 Orton, Edward. Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York. 136p. il. 3 maps. Nov. 1899. Out of print. 35 Ries, Heinrich. Clays of New York; Their Properties and Uses. 456p. 140pl. map. June 1900. Out of print. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 127 Lime and Cement Industries of New York; Eckel, E. C. Chapters on the Cement Industry. 332p. rorpl. 2 maps. Dec. 1901. 85c, cloth. 61 Dickinson, H. T. Quarries of Bluestone and Other Sandstones in New York. 1114p. 18pl.2 maps. Mar. 1903. 35c. 85 Rafter, G. W. Hydrology of New ore State. go2p. il. 44pl. 5 mips. May 1905. $1.50, cloth. 93 Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York. 78p July 1905. Out of print. 100 McCourt, W. E. Fire Tests of Some New York Building Stones. 4op. 26pl. Feb. 1906. 15c. 1oz Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1905. 162p. June 1906. Out of print. 112 —— Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1906. 82p. July 1907. Out of print. 1I9Q & Kemp, J. F. Geology of the Adirondack Magnetic Iron Ore with a Report on the Mineville-Port Henry Mine Group. 184p. 14pl. 8 maps. Apr. 1908. 35c. 120 Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1907. 82p. July 1908. 15c. 123 —— & Hartnagel, C. A. Iron Ores of the Clinton Formation in New York State. 76p.il. 14pl.3 maps. Nov. 1908. 25c. 132 Newland, D.H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1908. 98p. July 1909. I5¢c. 44 142 —— Mining and Quarry Industry of New York for 1909. 98p. Aug. ROMO SMES Ce 143 Gypsum Deposits of New York. 94p.20pl.4 maps. Oct. 1910. Out of print. I51 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1910. 82p. June IgII. I5c. 161 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1911. 114p. July 1912. 20c. 166 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York I912. 114p. Aug. 1913. 20¢. 174 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1913. 1I11Ip. Dec. 1914. 20cm 178 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1914. 88p. Nov. 1915. I5c. 181 —— The Quarry Materials of New York. 212p. 34pl. Jan. 1916. 40¢. 190 —— Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1915. 92p. Oct.1916. 15c. —— Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1916 (see Mus. Bul. 196). 199 Alling, Harold L. The Adirondack Graphite Deposits. r5o0p. il. July 1, ROM AOC: 201 Smyth, C. H., jr. Genesis of the Zinc Ores of the Edwards District, St Lawrence county, N. Y. 32p.12pl. Sept. 1, 1917. 20c. 203-204 Colony, R. J. High Grade Silica Materials for Glass, Refractories and Abrasives. 31p.il. Nov.—Dec. 1917. 15c. 223-224 Newland, D. H. The Mineral Resources of the State of New York. 315p. il. 3 maps. July-August 1919. 50c. 249-250 Colony, R. J. The Magnetite Iron Deposits of Southeastern New York. 1r61p. il. 15pl. maps. Sept.—Oct. 1921. 5oc. Mineralogy. 4 Nason, F. L. Some New York Minerals and Their Localities. 22p. Ipl. Aug. 1888. Free. 58 Whitlock, H. P. Guide to the Mineralogic Collections of the New York State Museum. 150p. il. 39pl. 11 models. Sept. 1902. 40c. 70 —— New York Mineral Localities. r1op. Oct. 1903. 20¢. 98 —— Contributions from the Mineralogic Laboratory. 38p. 7pl. Dec. 1905. Out of print. Zoology. 1 Marshall, W. B. Preliminary List of New York Unionidae. 20p. Mar. 1892. Free. Beaks of Unionidae Inhabiting the Vicinity of Albany, N. Y. 3op. Ipl. Aug. 1890. Free. 29 Miller, G. S., jr. Preliminary List of New York Mammals. 124p. Oct. 1899. Out of print. 33 Farr, M.S. Check List of New York Birds. 224p. Apr. 1900. 25c. 9 128 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 38 Miller, G. S., jr. Key to the Land Mammals of Northeastern North America. 106p. Oct. 1900. I5c. 40 Simpson, G. B. Anatomy and Physiology of Polygyra albolabris and Limax maximus and Embryology of Limax maximus. 82p. 28pl. Oct. IQOI. 25¢. 43 Kellogg, J. L. Clam and Scallop Industries 0° New York. 36p. 2pl. map. Apr. 1901. Free. 51 Eckel, E. C. & Paulmier, F. C. Catalogue of Reptiles and Batrachians of New York. 64p.il. rpl. Apr. 1902. Out of print. Eckel, E. C. Serpents of Northeastern United States. Paulmier, F. C. Lizards, Tortoises and Batrachians of New York. ee a H. Catalogue of the Fishes of New York. 784p. Feb 1903. I, clot 71 Kellogg, J. L. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus mercenaria. 3o0p. 4pl. Sept. 1903. Free. 88 Letson, Elizabeth J. Check List of the Mollusca of New York. 116p. May 1905. 20c. gt Paulmier, F. C. Higher Crustacea of New York City. 78p. il. June 1905. 20c. 139 Shufeldt, R. W. Osteology of Birds. 382p. il. 26pl. May 1909. 5o0c. 252 Bishop, S.C. A Revision of the Pisauridae of the United States, with special reference to New York species. 140p. 38pl. May 1924. ——c. Entomology. 5 Lintner, J. A. White Grub of the May Beetle. 34p. il. Nov. 1888. Free. 6 Cut-worms. 38p.il. Nov. 1888. Free. 13 San José Scale and Some Destructive Insects of New York State. 54p. 7pl. Apr. 1895. 5c. 20 Felt, EK. P. Elm Leaf Beetle in New York State. 46p. il 5pl. June 1898. Free. See 57. 23 —— 14th Report of the State Entomologist 1898. 150p. il. 9pl. Dec. 1898. Out of print. Memorial of the Life and Entomologic Work of J. A. Lintner Ph.D. State Entomologist 1874-98; Index to Entomologist’s Reports I-13. 316p. Ipl. Oct. 1899. 35c. Supplement to 14th report of the State Entomologist. Collection, Preservation and Distribution of New York Insects. 36p. il. Apr. 1899. Out of print. 24 27 Shade Tree Pests in New York State. 26p. il. 5pl. May 1899. Out of print. 31 —— 15th Report of the State Entomologist 1899. 128p. June 1900. 15c. 30 16th Report of the State Entomologist 1900. 1318p. 16pl. Mar. LOOMS 5C: 3 Catalogue of Some of the More Important Injurious and Beneficial Insects of New York State. 54p.il. Sept. 1900. Free. 46 —— Scale Insects of Importance and a List of the Species in New York State. 94p.il. 15pl. June 1901. 25c. 47 Needham, J. G. & Betten, Cornelius. Aquatic Insects in the Adiron- dacks. 234p. il. 36pl. Sept. 1901. 45¢c. 53 Felt, E. P. 17th Report of the State Entomologist 1901. 232p. il. Opl. Aug. 1902. Out of print. 57 Elm Leaf Beetle in New Yor'x State. 46p. il. 8pl. Aug. 1902. Out of print. This is a revision of Bulletin 20 containing the more essential facts observed since that was prepared. 59 Grapevine Root Worm. 4op. 6pl. Dec. 1902. 15c. See 72. 64 18th Report of the State Entomologist 1992. r1op. 6pl. May 1903. 20c. 68 Needham, J. G. & others. Aquatic Insects in New York. 322p. 52pl. Aug. 1903. 80c, cloth. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 129 72 Felt, E. P. Grapevine Root Worm. 58p.13pl. Nov. 1903. 20¢. This is a revision of Bulletin 59 containing the more essential facts observed since that was prepared. 74 & Joutel, L. H. Monograph of the Genus Saperda. 88p. 14pl- June 1904. Out of print. 76 Felt, E. P. 19th Report of the State Entomologist 1903. 1150p. 4pl. 1904. I5¢. 79 —— Mosquitos or Culicidae of New York. 164p. il. 57pl. tab. Oct. 1904. Out of print. 86 Needham, J. G. & others. May Flies and Midges of New York. 352p. il. 37pl. June 1905. Out of print. 97 Felt, E. P. 20th Report of the State Entomologist 1904. 246p. il. 19pl. Nov. 1905. Out of print. 103 Gipsy and Brown Tail Moths. 44p.1opl. July 1906. Out of pront. 104 a 21st Report of the State Entomologist 1905. 3144p. ropl. Aug. 1906. 25¢. ae Tussock Moth and Elm Leaf Beetle. 34p. 8pl. Mar. 1907. Out of print. 110 22d Report of the State Entomologist 1906. 1152p. 3pl. June 1907. 25¢. 124 —— 23d Report of the State Entomologist 1907. 542p. il. 44pl. Oct. 1908. Out of print. 129 —— Control of Household Insects. 48p.il. May 1909. Out of print. 134 —— 24th Report of the State Entomologist 1908. 208p. il. 17pl. Sept. 1909. 35¢c. 136 —— Control of Flies and Other Household Insects. 56p. il. Feb I9IO. 5c. This is a revision of Bulletin 129 containing the more essential facts observed since that was prepared. 141 Felt, E. P. 25th Report of the State Entomologist 1909. 178p. il. 22pl. July 1910. 35c. 147 26th Report of the State Entomologist 1910. 182p. il. 35pl. Mar. HOP Gin iio I55 27th Report of the State Entomologist 1911. 198p. il. 27pl. Jan. I9I2. 40c. 156 Elm Leaf Beetle and White-Marked Tussock Moth. 35p. 8pl. Jan. IQI2. 20c. 165 28th Report of the State Entomologist 1912. 266p. 14pl. July 1913 40c. 175 29th Report of the State Entomologist 1913. 258p. 16pl. April 1915. Out of print. 180 —— 30th Report of the State Entomologist 1914. 336p. il. I9pl. Jan. 1916. 50c. 186 —— 31st Report of the State Entomologist 1915. 215p. il. 18pl. June I, 1916. Out of print. 194 —— Household and Camp Insects. 84p.il. Feb.1, 1917. Out of print 198 32d Report of the State Entomologist 1916. 276p. il. 8pl. June T, IQI7. 40C. 200 Key to American Insect Galls. 31op. il. 16pl. August, 1917. Out of print. 202 —— 33d. Report of the State Entomologist 1017. 240p. il. 12pl. 35¢. 231-232 34th Report of the State Entomologist for 1918. 288p.il. 20¢. 247-248 — 35th Report of the State Entomologist for 1921. 129p. il. July- August 1921. 40c. Betten, Cornelius. Report on the Aquatic Insects of New York. Prepared. Botany. 2 Peck, C. H. Contributions to the Botany of the State of New York. 72p. 2pl. May 1887. 20c. 8 Boleti of the United States. 98p. Sept. 1889. Out of print. 25 Report of the State Botanist 1898. 76p. 5pl. Oct. 1899. Out of print. 28 —— Plants of North Elba. 206p. map. June 1899. 20c. 130 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM 54 —— Report of the State Botanist 1901. 58p. 7pl. Nov. 1902. 4oc. 67 —— Report of the State Botanist 1902. 196p. 5pl. May 1903. 50c. 75 ——— Report of the State Botanist 1903. 7op. 4pl. 1904. 40c. 94 —— Report of the State Botanist 1904. 60p.1opl. July 1905. 40c. 105 —— Report of the State Botanist 1905. 108p. 12pl. Aug. 1906. 50c. 116 Report of the State Botanist 1906. 120p.6pl. July 1907. 35c. 122 Report of the State Botanist 1907. 178p. 5pl. Aug. 1908. 40c. 131 Report of the State Botanist 1908. 202p. 4pl. July 1909. 4oc. 139 —— Report of the State Botanist 1909. 116p. 1opl. May 1910. 45c. 150 —— Report of the State Botanist 1910. troop. 5pl. May I91I. 30¢. 157 —— Report of the State Botanist 1911. 140p.9pl. Mar. 1912. 35c. 167 —— Report of the State Botanist 1912. 138p. qpl. Sept. 1913. 30c. 176 —— Report of the State Botanist 1913. 78p.17pl. June 1915. 20c. 179 Report of the State Botanist 1914. 108p.1pl. Dec. 1915. 20c. 188 House, H. D. Report of the State Botanist 1915. 1118p. il. gpl. Aug. 1, I916. 30c. 197 Report of the State Botanist 1916. 122p. 11pl. MaytI,1917. 30c. 205-206 Report of the State Botanist 1917. 169p. 23pl. Jan._Feb. 1918. 50c. Report of the State Botanist for 1918 published in the annual report of the Director for r918 (Mus. Bul. 219-220). 233-234 Report of the State Botanist for 1919. 73p. 1pl. May—June 1920. 243-244 Report of the State Botanist for 1921. 98p. April-March 1921. 254 Annotated List of the Ferns and Flowering Plants of New York State. 759p. September 1924. ——c. Archeology. 16 Beauchamp, W. M. Aboriginal Chipped Stone hnplements of New York. 86p. 23pl. Oct. 1897. Out of print. 18 Polished Stone Articles Used by the New York Aborigines. 104p 35pl. Nov. 1897. 25c. 22 Earthenware of the New York Aborigines. 78p. 33pl. Oct. 1898. 25¢. 32 —— Aboriginal Occupation of New York. 1090p. 16pl. 2 maps. Mar. 1900. 30c. 41 —— Wampum and Shell Articles Used by New York Indians. 166p 28pl. Mar. 1901. Out of print. Horn and Bone Implements of the New York Indians. 1112p. 43pl. Mar. 1902. Out of print. Metallic Implements of the New York Indians. 94p. 38pl. June 1902. Out of print. j 73 —— Metallic Ornaments of the New York Indians. 122p. 37pl. Dec. 1903. Out of print. 78 History of the New York Iroquois. 340p. 17pl. map. Feb. 1905. Out of print. 87 —— Perch Lake Mounds. 84p. 12pl. Apr. 1905. 20c. 89 Aboriginal Use of Wood in New York. 190p. 35pl. June 1905. Out of print. 50 55 108 - Aboriginal Place Names of New York. 336p. May 1907. Out of print. 113 Civil, Religious and Mourning Councils and Ceremonies of Adop- tion. 1118p. 7pl. June 1907. 25c. 117 Parker, A. C. An Erie Indian Village and Burial Site. t1o02p. 38pl. Dec. 1907. 30c. 125 Converse, H. M. & Parker, A. C. Iroquois Myths and Legends. 196p. eT pL Weer TOOS.N 50c: 144 Parker, A. C. Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants. 12o0p. il. 31pl. Nov. 1910. Out of print. 163 —— The Code of Handsome Lake. 144p. 23pl. Nov. 1912. 25c. 184 The Constitution of the Five Nations. 158p. 8pl. April 1, 1916 30¢. 235-236 The Archeologic History of the State of New York. Part 1. 47op. 142pl. July-August 1920. 237-238 The Archeologic History of the State of New York. Part 2. 272p. pl. Sept.—Oct. 1920. $1.75 for parts1 & 2. REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 131 Miscellaneous. 62 Merrill, F. J. H. Directory of Natural History Museums in United States and Canada. 236p. Apr. 1903. 30c. 66 Ellis, Mary. Index to Publications of the New York State Natural History Survey and New York State Museum 1837-1902. 418p. June 1903. 75c¢, cloth. New York State Defense Council Bulletin No. 1. Report on the Pyrite and Pyrrhotite Veins in Jefferson and St Lawrence Counties, New York, by A. F. Buddington. 4op.il. Nov. 1917. Free. New York State Defense Council Bulletin No. 2. The Zinc-Pyrite Deposits of the Edwards District, New York, by David H. Newland. p.72, il. Nov. 1917. Out of print. Museum memoirs 1889-date. 4to. 1 Beecher, C. E. & Clarke, J. M. Development of Some Silurian Brachi- opoda. 96p. 8pl. Oct. 1889. $1. 2 Hall, James & Clarke, J. M. Paleozoic Reticulate Sponges. 35o0p. il. 7opl. 1898. $2, cloth. 3 Clarke, J. M. The Oriskany Fauna of Becraft Mountain, Columbia Co., INIo M45 ABO, Col, Oker, mevoyay,' Goro: 4 Peck, C. H. N. Y. Edible Fungi, 1895-99. t106p. 25pl. Nov. 1900. 75c. This includes revised descriptions and illustrations of fungi reported in the 4oth, 51st and 52d reports of the State Botanist. 5 Clarke, J. M. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Guelph Formation and Fauna of New York State. 1196p. 2Ipl. July 1903. $1.50, cloth. 6 Clarke, J. M. Naples Fauna in Western New York. 268p. 26pl. map. 1904. $2, cloth. 7 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Graptolites of New York. Pt 1 Graptolites of the Lower Beds. 350p.17pl. Feb. 1905. $1.50, cloth. 8 Felt, E. P. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees. v. 1. 460p. il. 48pl. Feb. 1906. $2.50, cloth; v. 2. 548p. il. 22pl. Feb. 1907. $2, cloth $4 for the two volumes. g Clarke, J. M. Early Devonic of New York and Eastern North America. Pt 1. 366p. il. 7opl. 5 maps. Mar. 1908. $2.50, cloth; Pt 2. 25op. il. 36pl. 4 maps. Sept. 1909. $2, cloth. Io Eastman, C. R. The Devonic Fishes of the New York Formations 36p. 15pl. 1907. $1.25, cloth. 1r Ruedemann, Rudolf. Graptolites of New York. Pt 2 Graptolites of. the Higher Beds. 584p. il. 31pl. 2 tab. Apr. 1908. $2.50, cloth. oe) Belton) I, Jal, IByhacks om INE? Wonks Wotie Houjos aly ceo veNores | ike) 0), v. 2, 719p. il. 64pl. July 1914. 2d edition. $6 for the two volumes, plus postage, weight 15 pounds, sold in sets only. 13 Wee ce en Cal citestonmNewaMonkan LOOpedia 27 ol) Octa 1OlOdmn pln cloth. 14 Clarke, J. M. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. The Eurypterida of New York. v. 1. Text. 44op.il. v.2 Plates. 188p. 88pl. Dec. 1912. $4, cloth. 15 House, Homer D. Wild Flowers of New York. v. 1. 185p. 143pl. il.; v. 2. 177p. 121pl. il. 1918. $7.00 for the two volumes, postage paid within New York State only. Mailing weight 14 pounds. 264 colored plates in portfolio. $2.50 + postage (mailing weight 5 pounds). 16 Goldring, W. Monograph of the Devonian Crinoids of New York. 670 p. il. 6opl. 1923. $5. Pilsbry, H. L. Monograph of the Land and Fresh Water Mollusca of the State of New York. In preparation. Natural History of New York. 30 v. il. pl. maps. 4to. Albany 1842-94. DIVISION I ZOOLOGY. De Kay, James E. Zoology of New York; or, The New York Fauna; comprising detailed descriptions of all the animals hitherto observed within the State of New York with brief notices of those occasionally found near its borders, and accompanied by appropri- ate illustrations. 5v. il. pl. maps. sq. 4to. Albany 1842-44. Out of print . 132 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Historical introduction to the series by Gov. W. H. Seward. 178p. v. I ptr Mammalia. 131 + 46p. 33pl. 1842. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. v. 2 pt2 Birds. 12 + 380p. 14ipl. 1844. Colored plates. v. 3 pt3 Reptiles and Amphibia. 7 + 98p. pt 4 Fishes. 15 + 415p. 1842 pt3-4 bound together. v. 4 Plates to accompany v. 3. Reptiles and Amphibia. 23pl. Fishes 79pl. 1842. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. v. 5 pt5 Mollusca. 4 + 271p. 4opl. pt 6 Crustacea. 7op. 13pl. 1843-44. Hand-colored plates; pt5—6 bound together. DIVISION 2 BOTANY. Torrey, John. Flora of the State of New York; com- prising full descriptions of all the indigenous and naturalized plants hith- erto discovered in the State, with remarks on their economical and medical properties. 2v. il. pl. sq. gto. Albany 1843. Out of print. v. 1 Flora of the State of New York. 12 + 484p. 72pl. 1843. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. v. 2 Flora of the State of New York. 572p. 89pl. 1843. 300 copies with hand-colored plates. DIVISION 3 MINERALOGY. Beck, Lewis C. Mineralogy of New York; com- prising detailed descriptions of the minerals hitherto found in the State of New York, and notices of their uses in the arts and agriculture. il. pl. sq. 4to. Albany 1842. Out of print. v. I ptr Economical Mineralogy. pt2 Descriptive Mineralogy. 24 + 536p. 1842. 8 plates additional to those printed as part of the text. DIVISION 4 GEOLOGY. Mather, W. W.; Emmons, Ebenezer; Vanuxem, Lard- ner & Hall, James. Geology of New York. gv. il. pl. sq. 4to. Albany 1842-43. Out of print. v. 1 pti Mather, W. W. First Geological District. 37 + 653p. 46pl. 1843. Wail 2 Pt? Emmons, Ebenezer. Second Geological District. 10 + 437p. Oly TkeMiZ, v 3 pt3 Vanuxem, Lardner. Third Geological District. 306p. 1842. v. 4 ptq4 Hall, James. Fourth Geological District. 22 -+- 683p. Igpl. map. 1843. DIVISION 5 AGRICULTURE. Emmons, Ebenezer. Agriculture of New York; comprising an account of the classification, composition and distribution of the soils and rocks and the natural waters of the different geological formations, together with a condensed view of the meteorology and agri- cultural productions of the State. 5v. il. pl. sq. 4to. Albany 1846-54. Out of print. v. I Soils of the State, Their Composition and Distribution. 11 + 37Ip. 21Ipl 1846. Vv. Sy eae of Soils, Plants, Cereals etc. 8 + 343 + 46p. 42pl. 1849. With hand-colored plates. v. 3 Fruits etc. 8 + 340p. 1851. v. 4 Plates to accompany v. 3. 9g5pl. 1851. Hand-colored. v. 5 Insects Injurious to Agriculture. 8 + 272p. Sopl. 1854. With hand-colored plates. DIVISION 6 PALEONTOLOGY. Hall, James. Paleontology of New York. 8v. il. pl. sq. 4to. Albany 1847-94. Bound in cloth. v. I Organic Remains of the Lower Division of the New York System. 23 + 338p. 9gopl. 1847. Out of print. v. 2 Organic Remains of Lower Middle Division of the New York System. 8 + 362p. tr04pl. 1852. Out of print. v. 3 Organic Remains of the Lower Helderberg Group and the Oriskany Sandstone. pti, text. 12 + 532p. 1859. [$3.50] REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1923 133 —— pt2.142pl. 1861. [$2.50] v. 4 Fossil Brachiopoda of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung Groups. I1 + 1 + 428p. 69pl. 1867. $2.50. v. 5 pt 1 Lamellibranchiata 1. Monomyaria of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton and Chemung Groups. 18 + 268p. 45pl. 1884. $2.50. Lamellibranchiata 2. Dimyaria of the Upper Helderberg, Ham- ilton, Portage and Chemung Groups. 62 + 293p. 5ipl. 1885. $2.50. pt 2 Gasteropoda, Pteropoda and Cephalopoda of the Upper Helder- berg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung Groups. 2v. 1879. v. 1, text. 15 + 492p.; v.2. 120pl. $2.50 for 2 v. & Simpson, George B. v. 6 Corals and Bryozoa of the Lower and Up- per Helderberg and Hamilton Groups. 24 + 298p. 67pl. 1887. $2.50. & Clarke, John M. v. 7 Trilobites and Other Crustacea of the Oris- kany, Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage, Chemung and Catskill Groups. 64 + 236p. 46pl. 1888. Cont. supplement to v. 5, pt 2. Petro- poda, Cephalopoda and Annelida. 42p. 18pl. 1888. $2.50. —— & Clarke, John M. v. 8 ptr. Introduction to the Study of the Genera of the Paleozoic Brachiopoda. 16 + 367p. 44pl. 1892. $2.50. —— & Clarke, John M. v. 8 pt 2 Paleozoic Brachiopoda. 16 + 394p. 64pl. 1894. $2.50. Out of print. Catalogue of the Cabinet of Natural History of the State of New York and of the Historical and Antiquarian Collection annexed thereto. 242p. 8vo. 1853. Out of print. Handbooks 1893-date. New York State Museum. 52p. il. 1902. Out of print. Outlines history and work of the museum with list of staff 1902. Paleontology. 12p. 1899. Out of print. Brief outline of State Museum work in paleontology under heads: Definition; Relation to biology; Relation to stratigraphy; History of paleontology in New York. Guide to Excursions in the Fossiliferous Rocks of New York, 1124p. 1899. Out of print. Itineraries of 32 trips covering nearly the entire series of Paleozoic rocks, prepared specially for the use of teachers and students desiring to acquaint themselves more intimately with the classic rocks of this State. Entomology. 16p. 1899. Out of print. Economic Geology. 44p. 1904. Out of print. Insecticides and Fungicides. 20p. 1909. Out of print. Classification of New York Series of Geologic Formations. 32p. 1903. Out of print. Revised edition. 96p. 1912. Free. Guides Guide to the Mineral Collections, prepared by Herbert P. Whitlock, p.45. 1916. Out of print. Guide to the Collections of General Geology and Ecomnoic Geology, prepared by Robert W. Jones, p. 31. 1917. Free. Guide to the Paleontological Collections, prepared by Rudolf Ruedemann. p. 35. il. 1916. Out of print. Geologic maps. Merrill, F. J. H. Economic and Geologic Map of the State of New York; issued as part of Museum Bulletin 15 and 48th Museum Report, v. 1. 59x67cm. 1894. Scale 14 milestoTl inch. 15c. Map of the State of New York Showing the Location of Quarries of Stone Used for Building and Road Metal. 1897. Out of print. —— Map of the State of New York Showing the Distribution of the Rocks Most Useful for Road Metal. 1897. Out of print. Geologic Map of New York. t1g901. Scale 5 miles to 1 inch. Jn atlas form $2. Lower Hudson sheet 50c. Separate sheets of this map are available at 50c each, as follows: Ontario West Finger Lakes Delaware Niagara Long Island Adirondack South Western St Lawrence Hudson Mohawk Ontario East Central Lower Hudson (Note) The Ontario West and Ontario East are not colored as they have no surface geology. The lower Hudson sheet, geologically colored, comprises Rockland, Orange, Dutchess, Putnam, Westchester, New York, Richmond, Kings, Queens and Nassau counties, and parts oh Sullivan, Ulster and Suffolk counties; also northeastern New Jersey and part of western onnecticut. 134 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM —— Map of New York Showing the Surface Configuration and Water Sheds 1901. Scale 12 milestotinch. Out of print. —— Map of the State of New York Showing the Location of Its Economic Deposits. 1904. Scale 12 miles to 1 inch. I5¢c. Geologic maps on the United States Geological Survey topographic base. Scale I in. == 1 m. Those marked with an asterisk have also been pub- lished separately. Albany county. 1898. Out of print. Area around Lake Placid. 18098. Vicinity of Frankfort Hill [parts of Herkimer and Oneida counties]. 1899. Rockland county. 1899. Amsterdam quadrangle. 1900. *Parts of Albany and Rensselaer counties. 1901. Out of print. *Niagara river. I9O0I. 25c. Part of Clinton county. 1901. Oyster Bay and Hempstead quadrangles on Long Island. 1901. Portions of Clinton and Essex counties. 1902. Part of town of Northumberland, Saratoga co. 1903. Union Springs, Cayuga county and vicinity. 1903. *Olean quadrangle. 1903. Oui of print. *Becraft Mt with 2 sheets of sections. (Scale I in.==}m.) 1903. 20c. *Canandaigua-Naples quadrangles. 1904. 20¢. *Little Falls quadrangle. 1905. Free. *Watkins-Elmira quadrangles. 1905. 20c. *Tully quadrangle. 1905. Out of print. *Salamanca quadrangle. 1905. Out of print. *Mooers quadrangle. 1905. Out of print. Paradox Lake quadrangle. 1905. *Buffalo quadrangle. 1906. Out of print. *Penn Yan-Hammondsport quadrangles. 1906. 20¢c. *Rochester and Ontario Beach quadrangles. 1907. 20c. *Long Lake quadrangle. 1907. Out of print. *Nunda-Portage quadrangles. 1908. 20c. *Remsen quadrangle. 1908. Free. *Geneva-Ovid quadrangles. 1909. 20c. *Port Leyden quadrangle. 1910. Free. *Auburn-Genoa quadrangles. 1910. 20¢c. *Elizabethtown and Port Henry quadrangles. I910. 1I5¢c. *Alexandria Bay quadrangle. tIg10. Free. *Cape Vincent quadrangle. 1910. Free. *Clayton quadrangle. 1910. Free. *Grindstone quadrangle. 1910. Free. *Theresa quadrangle. 1910. Out of print. *Poughkeepsie quadrangle. 1911. Outof print. *Honeoye-Wayland quadrangles. I9II. 20c. *Broadalbin quadrangle. 1911. Free. *Schenectady quadrangle. 1911. Out of print *Saratoga-Schuylerville quadrangles. 1914. -Out of print. *North Creek quadrangle. 1914. Free. *Syracuse quadrangle. 1914. Free. *Attica-Depew quadrangles. 1914. 20¢. *Lake Pleasant quadrangle. 1916. Free. *Saratoga quadrangle. 1916. Free. *Canton quadrangle. 1916. Free. *Brier Hill, Ogdensburg and Red Mills quadrangles. 1916. 15¢c. *Blue Mountain quadrangle. 1916. Out of print. *Glens Falls, Saratoga, Schuylerville, Schenectady and Cohoes quadrangles. LORS POC: Lake Placid quadrangle. 1919. Out of print. Schrron Lake quadrangle. I919. Out of print. Cohoes quadrangle. 1920. Out of print. Canton quadrangle. 1920. Out of print. *West Point quadrangle. 1921. Free. *Mount Marcy quadrangle. 1921. Free. INDEX Ambystoma opacum, 88 Apple and thorn skeletonizer, 33 Archeology, II, 44 Bertie waterlime, fauna, 20 Bishop, Sherman C-. Fossil species of Caddo (Opiliones) from the Baltic amber and _ its living relatives, 83-84 Notes on salamanders, 87-96 Zoology, 41-43 Blue bottle fly maggot in child, 34 Botany, 10, 26 Caddo (Opiliones), fossil species from the Baltic amber and _ its living relatives, 83-84 Clarke, John M., D. Dana Luther, miller and geologist, 117-20 Cornulites hopkinsi, 114 Crees, (Cy IRS) Ge Wyse, So Wo, Fossil species of Caddo (Opi- liones) from the Baltic amber and its living relatives, 83-84 Cryptozoon reefs near Saratoga, 20 Ctenodonta ruedemanni, 112 Desmognathus fuscus auriculatus, 92 ochrophaeus carolinensis, 92 phoca, 93 quadra-maculatus, 93 Diprion simile, 35, Dizygopleura acuminata, 116 Eaton, H. N., A Vernon shale (Silurian) fauna in central New York, 111-14 Entomology, 10, 32 Ethnology, I1, 44 European corn borer, 32 European hornet, 37 European snout beetle, 34 Eurycea bislineata, oI bislineata wilderae, 91 eutto-lineata, OI Folsomia fimetaria in a well, 36 Geographic names, committee on, I5 Geological structure map, 9 Geological surface map, 9 Geological survey, 8, 17 Gilboa Devonian forest, 20 Gipsy moth, 33 Glacial moraines, attempt to deter- mine origin from a _ study of glacial boulders, 18 Graptolites, 20 Gyrinophilus danielsi, 89 House, Homer D., Botany, 206-31 Hydrology, 9 Indians, Fundamental factors in Seneca folk lore, 49-66; Status of New York Indians, 67-82 Industrial geology, 22 Insect collection, 37 Insect pest survey, 38 Iron ore, 25 Iroquois Indians, status, 46 Kloedenia normalis, 116 Leonard, Mortimer D., Entomology, 32-40 Leurognathus marmorata, 94 Lingula vernoni, I14 Lockport limestones, fauna, 20 Lorraine formation, stratigraphy, 20 Luther, D. Dana, biographical sketch, 117-20 Milliken, Charles F., Ontario county place names, 103-10 Mineral and mining industry, 9 Mineral statistics, 24 Molding sand, 24 Museum, see State museum Museum reservations, 13 136 Natural gas, 22 New York State list of insects, 39 New York State Museum Associa- tion, 13 Oil survey, 22 Ontario county place names, 103-10 Oriental peach moth, 36 Orthodesma? sp., 114 Paleontology, 10, 20 Rarker te Attn: Archeology and Ethnology, 44-48 Fundamental factors in Seneca folk lore, 49-66 Status of New York Indians, 67-82 Peck, Dr Charles H., field notes, 27 Piethodon cinereus, 89 glutinosus, 89 metcalfi, 96 Pseudotriton montanus, QI ruber ruber, 91 tehinearsp a malils NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM Pterinea sp. (cont'd) jordani, 113 rotunda, 113 Salamanders, notes on, 87-06 Salt, production, 23 Scientific activities, 8 Scientific reservations, 12 Seneca folk lore, fundamental factors in, 49 Serica parallela, 35 State museum, statement concerning, 7; exhibition halls, 11; cooperation, 14; proposed building, 14 Summary of activities, 12 Tetrolopha robustella, 36 Triturus viridescens viridescens, 88 Ulrich, Dr E. O., note from, 116 Utica formation, stratigraphy, 20 Vernon shale fauna in central New York, I1I-14 Zoology, II, 41 i Pie i prs bo gat rnin ne Senet : Silene Hy ne lagen 1 ein Wty e 4" Nie YY ae: ls 4 | Y Pasture Land RN FA 154 YW %. ye Spa v Yo escent J Bagin Depth G2 ft, GREEN LAKE 2 sett ox 227 PLATEAU eyAw GE pe . Se SSR ~ =~ L < S VF Lo BH, om i Stone Fence ia ie go 0G e/a SSS 5.3 Miles to Syracuse RO { Mile to Jamesville 182 Oo NOTES 4 io) Surveyed with pocket compass KAI~ YAH — KOO S==-——== Paths or trails ames LL GREEN LAKE ee een C1] Scale JAMESVILLE LAKE © 199 200 300 400 peat Jamesville, N-¥. Copyright 1924 by O.F Pfordte O.F Pfordte-June 4, 1924 CLARK RESERVATION PROPERTY OF THE STATE MUSEUM AND ITS ENVIRONS Contour lines are mainly depressions. No scale. Duet eee™ i att oid lee ppestoes dav fy Heesnet | Bet VO VGH sherri 4 Vaso Hoge" iesmadataine tte i W) hig ost ithe Biednaek ri av i a \ xy i) ay \ ‘ we \ f i D ," Mf "1 LANA A { ! ¢ i] i \ ) A f thi \ Vea ’ Cay Ag } t ) { { \ J f i if f { iy vk eatul A 1 i MF ig ‘ wut at Ryn Abs a) Wick ve NY Rireaeen iT i Ny; 1 ee TE VD 1) a wal! Mi ‘ ‘ h i Pi DOAN! Asi Me ay pe Ua WY ay it fy A * 1 Ni iy [ ¥ y Ree eae iors ae F 5 onehel ah Bee 4 » 4aA® aia Y | a7mam we eal Vi Ye ean aa gnrama nee nee ( i ae Rida 7 : as ¥ Lt. 7