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The University of the State of New York
Department of Science, April 11, 1917
Dr John H. Finley
President of the Umversity

Sir: I beg to transmit to you herewith for publication as a
bulletin of the State Museum, the report of the Director of the
Museum for the last fiscal years.

Very respectfully yours
JouHn M. CLARKE

Director

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK
OFFICE OF THE PRESIDENT

Approved for publication this 18th day of April, 1917

President of the Umversity

eS

Slile

MEL
New York State Museum Bulletin

Entered as second-class matter November 27, 1915, at the Post-Office at Albany, N. Y., under
the Act of August 24, 1912

Published monthly by The University of the State of New York

No. 196 | JAN DRYING a APRIL I, 1917

The University of the State of New York
New York State Museum

JoHN M. CrarKe, Director

THIRTEENTH REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF
THE STATE MUSEUM AND SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT

INCLUDING THE SEVENTIETH REPORT OF THE STATE MUSEUM,jTHE THIRTY-SIXTH
REPORT OF THE STATE GEOLOGIST AND THE REPORT OF THE STATE
PALEONTOLOGIST FOR 1616

Regents committee on the State Museum:

Charles B. Alexander M.A. LL.D. Litt.D., Tuxedo
Herbert L. Bridgman M.A., Brooklyn
Walter Guest Kellogg B. A., Ogdensburg

INTRODUCTION

This report covers all divisions oi the scientific operations and
museum work under the supervision of The University of the
State of New York and has reference to the progress made therein
during the fiscal year 1915-16. It constitutes the 7oth consecutive
annual report of the State Museum, the 36th annual report of the
State Geologist (consecutive since 1881) and the report of the
State Paleontologist for 1916. It is introductory to all memoirs
and bulletins issued by this Department during the year named.

The subjects presented in this report are considered under the
following captions: |

I Legal Status and Scope of the State Museum
II Present Condition of the Museum
III Condition of the Scientific Reservations Belonging to the
Museum

IV Department Publications

V Considerations for Future Growth of the Museum

VI Report of the Geological Survey

[7]

8 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

VII Report of the State Botanist
VIII Report of the State Entomologist
IX Report of the Division of Zoology
X Report of the Division of Archeology and Ethnology
XI Staff of the Department
XII Accessions to the Collections
XIII Scientific Papers
XIV Appendixes (to be continued in subsequent volumes)

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 9

I
mpGAl STATUS AND SCOPE OF THE STATE MUSEUM

The broad scope of the State Museum was clearly and succinctly
defined in the Education Law (as amended in 1910) under article
3, which relates to the objects and functions of the University.
Section 54 of that law reads as follows: “All scientific specimens
and collections, works of art, objects of IMistoric interest and
similar property appropriate to a general museum, if owned by the
State and not placed in other custody by a specific law, shall con-
stitute the State Museum. . . The State Museum shall include
the work of the State Geologist and Paleontologist, the State
Botanist and the State Entomologist, who, with their assistants,
shall be included in the scientific staff of the State Museum.”

This definition of scope is broad and clear. It is the specific
expression of the intent of the people of the State to constitute
and maintain not alone a state museum of science, but a state
museum of art, a state museum of history and a state museum
which may depict any other field of civic and educational concern
which in the judgment of the Regents of the University, would
be justified by public interest. The spirit of the law where its
sentences bear upon the creation of a museum of art and a museum
of history is so obvious as to be constructively a command. The
wish of the people and the desire of the Board in regard to this
expansion of the actual museum nearer to the ideal of the museum
expressed in the law have become a matter of record. It is then
to be understood that the existing science museum of the State
represents the development of only one phase of what should be,
and what within the implied intention of the law is to be, the
-State Museum.

IO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

IE
PRESENT CONDITION OF THE MUSEUM

During the year the erection of additional exhibit cases with
their displays has reached close to the walls of the Museum halls, —
and has practically preempted all the available floor space of the
Museum.’ Further exhibitions must be carefully planned with
reference to the amount of floor space to be occupied, lest too —
serious encroachment be made on the aisle space necessary for a
dignified presentation of the displays. These physical limitations
of the Museum necessitate the constant renovation of the exhibits,
the substitution of specimens by materials of a better quality; and
while these physical boundaries of the Museum are to be regretted
because of the constraints which they compel, yet they afford an
opportunity of beautification which might not otherwise be practic-
able. ‘There is an undoubted and obvious advantage in the restric-
tion of a museum to a reasonable area. A museum in which the
floor space is without restraining limitations and is distributed over
several floors, often becomes a receptacle of materials which are
put on display solely for the purpose of filling space, and are
quite likely to detract from the impressiveness and quality of the
museum as weil as to add to the fatigue and labor of the visitor.
The thought is kept in mind that a public museum of this kind will
be the resort of the people rather more than of the special student,
and while the demands of a scientific and orderly classification, the
requirements of scientific students, are not lost sight of, the
arrangement generally and the mode of display must be of a sort
to elicit the interest of the average visitor.

The largest addition of moment to the collections has been that
returned to the Museum from the Panama—Pacific Exposition.
The exhibit made in San Francisco was entirely given over to an
illustration of the mineral industry of New York, and the materials
sent there were in a large measure brought together for that specific
end. With their return they constitute a very important addition |
to the Museum displays in practical and applied geology. With
them came fifteen cases which had been built to accord with the
case patterns adopted in the Museum, and though these were of
somewhat inferior quality of material, they have been adapted to
the geology exhibits, and the geology hall is now fairly well

REPORT (OR THE DIRECTOR IQ16 pal

crowded. This condition made necessary the diminution of some
of the aisle space, and it is not likely that the geology collections
can now be much expanded without the most economic. form of
distribution of the material. It should be recorded that these new
accessions were the property of the New York Commission of the
Panama-—Pacific Exposition, and should be regarded as a donation
from them. To provide room for these accessions, and the neces-
sary rearrangement of the cases, the work was in progress for a
considerable portion of the year. While the exhibit as it now
stands is fairly representative of the economic resources of this
State in the present stage of knowledge and utilization, there is
still a very large opportunity for further expansion in order to
illustrate the varied industrial applications of the products of mine
and quarry and to portray by models the technic and methods
employed in their extraction and elaboration. The use of models
has an undoubted educational value, as is evinced by the degree
of attention which they attract from visitors.

In the paleontology hall some important additions have also
been made. Two new cases were added in the hall of fossil plants,
one in the hall of vertebrates, and four in the hall of invertebrates.
Some of the cases have been rearranged and the result of this
work has been the creation of two very attractive exhibits, one of
the starfishes and crinoids, and one of the Pleistocene fossils
deposited by the marine waters of the Lake Champlain basin. All
these cases were arranged by Miss Goldring, and the material for
the latter collected at her own expense in New York, Vermont
and the provinces of Quebec and Ontario. These recently extinct
Pleistocene fossils from the salt-water deposits bounding the
ancient Hochelagan sea which preceded Lake Champlain, are dis-
played in such a manner as to bring out not only the perfection
of the material, but to indicate that these marine shells decreased
in size, thickness and number as one goes southward from the
St Lawrence region where the waters of the sea were deepest and
of maximum salinity. Where the fresh waters flowed freely into
this ancient sea at the south, the species decreased in size and
number, so that the marine life seems practically to have become
extinct at the latitude of Crown Point, while the waters of this
narrow sea extended still farther south, though too diluted in their
salinity to support the existence of these animals.

Some additions have been made of restorations in the paleon-
tology exhibits. The Museum has received by gift a restoration of

12 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

one of the largest of the fossil fishes, Dinichthys, made by Dr L.
Hussakof and presented by the courtesy of the American Museum
of Natural History. Mr Marchand has created some additional
models of graptolites, and Mr Hartnagel has now finished the
special exhibit of fossil corals.

In the zoology hall some noteworthy additions have been made
to the exhibits, among which may be mentioned the installation
of the New York fishes received from the Conservation Commis-
sion; an exhibit of the tree toad, designed to show protective
coloration; new groups representing a family of woodchucks; and
a section of a sand bank with nesting bank swallows. The collec-
tion of domestic pigeons has been enlarged, and an effort has been
made to present a representative collection of the mollusks of New
York. The Museum owns a very large series of the New York
mollusca, but the limitations of the Museum hall have thus far
permitted the display of but a small portion of this collection.
The corals and other low invertebrates have been installed so far
as the available space permits, and a series of cases has been
devoted to the display of the birds’ eggs and nests, the collection
which has been considerably augmented by the acquisition of the
series brought together by the late Martin J. Conway of Troy.

A special illustration has been made of the sea fowl nesting in
the greatest of the remaining colonies of these birds, Bonaventure
island in the Gulf of St Lawrence. These are all representatives of
New York species. Quite recently a very important addition has
been made to the Museum by the gift from Benjamin Walworth
Arnold of Albany, of his entire collection of eggs and nests of birds,
upon the assembling of which he has been engaged for the last forty
years. Mr Arnold’s collection is very large, and represents about
1000 species of birds from North America, and several hundred
additional species from South America, the Falkland and other
South Atlantic islands, Africa, Australia and Europe. This Arnold
collection is one of the very largest in the possession of any public
museum in this country, and its acquisition therefore makes of
necessity this Museum a headquarters for students of ornithology.
It is planned to instal this collection in part along the west corri-
dor into the zoology hall where it will not be exposed to the direct
sunlight, and so in a large measure be protected from fading.

The zoological division is insufficiently manned. So many
special lines of interest are represented here that it is difficult for
one man, however expert, to handle them all. The present zoologist
is active and efficient, but he is without adequate assistance, and

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 13

the growing importance of his work makes it imperative that he
should have more help. In its present equipment the zoology divi-
sion does not balance with the other divisions of the Museum, and
with the burden of work which the division presents, practically
no time is permitted to the zoologist for scientific investigations.

The collection of reproductions of edible and poisonous fungi,
contemplated in the last report of the Director, has now been
completed to its present possible limits. Fifty-nine reproductions
in specially prepared composition, have been made by Mr Mar-
chand and are temporarily installed in the end room of the east
mezzanine. They will eventually be displayed more centrally in
the rotunda, between the corridors, where their extraordinary
workmanship will be more effectively presented. Doubtless this
collection should be increased in size, although it now includes the
most obvious edible species and a few of the noxious forms. It
is hoped that the presentation of this illustration of fungi may
encourage a closer familiarity with this important source of
nitrogenous food. But very few species growing in this State are
poisonous. The great majority are edible, at least by most people.
It happens, however, that the most poisonous species are often
the most striking and attractive, and it is quite essential that
gatherers and eaters of mushrooms should recognize these noxious
species first of all.

It has not thus far been possible to make an effective installa-
tion of the botanical collections. Botanical material seldom lends
itself to public display, and though the herbarium of the Museum is
of a very large size, it must of necessity be kept in the background.
There is very little room in the Museum at present that can be
utilized for such botanical exhibit. The woods of New York
have been arranged in the botanical room in the east mezzanine,
and it is planned to introduce there or elsewhere in the Museum
a display of reproductions of the pharmaceutical plants of New
York. This display, if effectively rendered, should be of distinct
educational value.

The west mezzanine room, which is continuous with the Iroquois
floor, has hitherto been used for lecture purposes and temporary
exhibits. As the Museum needs a place for lectures, not far away
from immediate association with the exhibit halls, it has been found
convenient to utilize this for such purpose, even though its seating
capacity is small. The room is still reserved for this use, but its
walls have been utilized for the purpose of displaying a series of

14 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the geological maps of the State and parts thereof, and also for.
showing the various certificates, diplomas and medals of award
that have been received by the Museum at the various national
and international expositions.

During the past year the heroic statue of Professor Joseph
Henry, which had been for ‘some years standing in the rotunda of
the Capitol, and which was modeled by the sculptor John Flanagan
for use at the St Louis Exposition, has been removed to the
Museum halls, its broken condition repaired, the surface suitably
bronzed, and the statue placed in a commanding position in the
rotunda. Alongside of it is attached a frame carrying parts of
simple electrical instruments devised and used by Professor Henry
for his fundamental experiments on electrical transmission and
induction, made while he was a teacher of mathematics in the
Albany Academy in the years 1827-32.

With the present tremendous development of electrical science
and its application to a great diversity of human comforts, Pro-
fessor Henry’s fundamental work is just coming into the fulness
of its recognition. As he was a native of the Albany district, a
resident of this city for most of his younger years, and a teacher
in one of the Albany schools, it has seemed very proper that
measures be taken for a memorial here to the service he rendered
to humanity. A campaign has therefore been undertaken for the
purpose of raising funds to put this fine model of Henry ‘into
bronze. This canvass has been reasonably successful and the
amount raised, it is believed, will be, with the cooperation that
has been promised, sufficient to erect this memorial, which is to be
placed in the city park well in front of the venerable Albany
Academy building, permission for this having already been granted
by the city council. |

In Lincoln Park, one of the municipal parks of Albany, stands
a low, red brick building which was built by James Hall, the late
State Geologist and Paleontologist, about the year 1856, and which
from that time until his death in 1898, served as the laboratory
where his geological investigations were carried on, and where
were kept the great collections of geological material belonging to
himself and to the State. At the time it was built, Professor Hall
had no other official headquarters. He had chosen a place well
outside of the settled part of the city, and lived in comparative
isolation, surrounded by his scientific materials and his scientific
assistants. From 1856 to 1886 all the work of the Geological

REPORD, OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 T5

Survey was done in this building, and from this laboratory were
graduated many geologists who afterwards attained distinction in
the science, among whom may be mentioned Ferdinand V. Hayden,
mizector of the United States Geological Survey; William M.
Gabb, state geologist of California; Fielding V. Meek, United
States geologist; Robert P. Whitfield, paleontologist; Charles D.
Walcott, director of the United States Geological Survey and pres-
ent secretary of the Smithsonian Institution; Charles E. Beecher,
professor of paleontology, Yale University; Charles Schuchert,
professor of historical geology and paleontology, Yale University.
In the building were written not only the volumes of the Paleon-
tology of New York, various geological reports of New York
issued during those years, but also reports on the geology of the
states of Wisconsin, lowa and Ohio, and various government
scientific expeditions; the Mexican boundary survey, the Pacific
Railway survey, the Stansbury expedition, etc. For a generation
the influences which emanated from this building were the most
potent factor in the development of American geology, and in
recognition of this fact, now that the building has become the
property of the city and is used for purposes connected with the
mainenance: or the Lincoln Park, it tas been decided by the
Association of American State Geologists to perpetuate its asso-
ciations by placing thereupon a commemorative bronze tablet. The
money has been provided for this purpose and the tablet will be
presently erected. We have received from the commissioner of
public works of the city of Albany the assurance that the building
will be maintained intact in perpetuity.

The field meeting of the Association of American State
Geologists. By the desire of the officers of the association, the
annual field meeting of the official geologists of the States was held
under the auspices of the Museum in September. The associa-
tion was represented by a party of about thirty-five, which included
several representatives of the United States Geological Survey.
In spite of rather forbidding weather the field meetings were
instructive and satisfactory. The first day was given to a trip by
_automobile into the classical Paleozoic sections of the Helderberg
mountains, the Indian ladder, with its succession of formations,
and from there upward the geological series was followed along
the outcrops through Thompson’s lake and on by Warner lake,
into Knox; thence, on returning, the geologists were entertained
at Altamont at the home of Mrs John Boyd Thacher, the

16 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

donor of the Helderberg escarpment to the State (John Boyd
Thacher Park). On the following day the party went to Saratoga
Springs to examine the mineral springs and their relation to the
Saratoga fault. From the state reservation there a visit was
made to the Cryptozoon ledge, or Lester Park, returning in time
to arrive at Port Henry that evening. The following day a visit of
inspection was made to the iron mines at Mineville, and by cour-
tesy of the Witherbee Sherman Company the visitors were given
every opportunity to descend into the mines and see the under-
ground as well as the surface workings in every detail. The after-
noon of the same day a walking trip was made from Port Henry
northward along the shore of the lake where brilliant and instruc-
tive exposures were shown of the Grenville limestone with its
contorted inclusions. Leaving that evening for Port Kent, the
early part of the following day was spent in the Ausable chasm
at the mouth of which automobiles met the party and took its
members to the Champlain Club of the Catholic Summer School at
Cliff Haven, the road thus passed running over the dissected deltas
of, the Ausable and Little Ausable rivers. At Cliff Haven the
geologists were the guests of the school by invitation of the
Rt. Rev. Mgr. John P. Chidwick, and here they were most agreeably
entertained. After examination of the very interesting geological
phenomena upon and about the grounds of Cliff Haven, the party
was met by Prof. George H. Hudson, who carried them by boat
to Valcour island. Under Professor Hudson’s guidance the
interesting geological structures of Valcour island were exploited
and the evening of the day was most agreeably spent at Professor
Hudson’s camp on the island. Late at night the visitors returned
by boat to Plattsburg and left thence in the early morning for
Burlington, Vermont, where, under the guidance of Prof. George
H. Perkins, opportunity was given to visit striking geological
developments in the vicinity. There the party. disbanded.
Meeting at Albany. By invitation of the president of the Uni-
versity, the Geological Society of America, the Paleontological
Society, and the Association of American State Geologists held their
annual meetings in Albany during the week beginning December 25,
1916. These meetings brought together a large number of geologists,
perhaps the largest ever gathered here, and they continued through
the week. The comfort of the visitors was studied in every regard
and an effort made to give the sessions the assurance of success.
At these sessions the Director of the Museum acted as president

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 7.

of the Geological Society of America, and Dr Rudolf Ruedemann
as president of the Paleontological Society.

The New York State Archeological Association. The activity
of the Archeologist of the Museum has resulted in the organiza-
tion of a state society devoting itself to the scientific collection of
aboriginal relics and the protection of aboriginal monuments. Its
fundamental purpose is to prevent, so far as possible, the destruc-
tion and scattering of these records as well as the desultory
and indifferent preservation of them. Several field meetings of
the association have already been held, and one vigorous chapter
organized in the city of Rochester. It is planned that other local
chapters will be formed as the local interest in archeological
studies develops. The relation of the Museum to this association
is that of parent organization, and under the present form of
organization the State Museum is the authorized headquarters.
Doubtless the influence and the benefit of the Museum and the
local societies will be muttial and efficient.

Museum lecture course. The course of free public lectures
was instituted during the winter of last year, all of which were on
topics closely related to the activities of the Museum, and all were
presented by members of the Museum staff. As an illustration of
the character of this course, the following list of the topics pre-
sented is here given:

1 The State Museum — How to Use It

2 Diamonds

3 The Forests of New York State

4 Lake Albany, Our Present Abode

5 Man and Insects

6 How Minerals Are Formed

7 Mastodons and Elephants of New York

8 The Empire State of Indian Days

9g Harmonics and Cross Purposes in the Insect World

10 Earthquakes of New York

11 Nature Monuments

12 Life of the Ancient Seas

These lectures were well attended, usually to and sometimes
beyond the capacity of the Museum lecture room. The public
interest in them justifies the continuation of this undertaking.

Dedication of the New York State Museum. Although the
New York State Museum at Albany has been open to the public
for some months past, it seemed wise to the Regents of the Uni-

18 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

versity to bring the public into closer touch with the new Museum
by formal dedicatory exercises. These took place in the Chancellors
Hall of the Education Building at Albany on the afternoon and
evening of Friday, December 29, 1916. The afternoon exercises
consisted. of a series of addresses from eminent speakers, each
representing a special phase of community interest in the Museum.
The Hon. Charles B. Alexander, chairman of the Regents com-
mittee on the State Museum, presided, and the speakers were
President John H. Finley on behalf of the University and the
educational system of the State, Senator Henry M. Sage on
behalf of the state government. Dr Francis Lynde Stetson on
behalf of the people, the Hon. Charles D. Walcott, speaking as a
representative of science in its broadest sense, and Director John
M. Clarke on behalf of the Museum. In the evening the princi-
pal address was by Colonel Theodore Roosevelt, who spoke under
the title “ Productive Scientific Scholarship,” and gave an extra-
ordinary and illuminating speech to a colossal audience. Colonel
Roosevelt was introduced by Governor Charles S. Whitman, who
very happily set forth the value of the research work of the
scientific corps attached to the Museum. The evening exercises
were felicitous and successful throughout, and were followed by
a reception in the halls of the Museum. Colonel Roosevelt’s
address on this occasion, or the part of it that related especially to
his scientific theme, has been already printed in “ Science,” and
all the addresses of the occasion have been published together as a
bulletin of the University.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1910 19

{Il

CONDITION OF THE SCIENTIFIC RESERVATIONS
BELONGING TO THE MUSEUM

Since the publication of the last report of the Director, the
Museum has acquired by the gift of Mr Emerson McMillin, of
New York, the property known as the Northumberland volcano, or
Stark’s knob, situated 2 miles north of Schuylerville. An account
of this interesting geological spot has been given in previous reports
of the Director, and its structure fully illustrated up to the present
state of our knowledge. This gift rescues from certain oblivion
what is to New York, and perhaps in a broader sense to geological
Science, a unique phenomenon. The place is easily accessible to
travelers on the road leading from Schuylerville north along the
Hudson river, and as the volcanic core is now cut in half by quarry
operations, which the gift has happily forestalled, its intimate
structure is instructively revealed. This knoll of volcanic rocks
has a historic interest because of its association with the Battle of
Saratoga and the erection thereupon of the battery by General John
Stark.

Of the three properties now under the control of the State
Museum — the Clark Reservation near Jamesville, the Lester Park
west of Saratoga Springs, and the Stark’s Knob Reservation, only
the Lester Park is well protected and satisfactorily monumented.
In the case of the Clark Reservation, the donor has been pleased
to construct an elaborate and attractive entrance, built of blocks
of local limestone, which in the piers of the gateway are of very
large dimensions. Otherwise this reservation is without protec-
tion. Its line fences are in large measure down, and some of its
boundaries, being new lines, have never been fenced at all. As
public property the place is rather more exposed now to the steal-
ing of timber and the vandalism of collectors of rare ferns than
it ever was before, and while, through the kindness of the bene-
factor, we have rescued the place from commercial invasion so far
as its effective landscape scenery is concerned, we are failing to
defend it against the attacks of marauders. It is further to be
-said that no provision has been made for the accommodation of
visitors by the laying out of paths or building stairways, one of

“20 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

which, down the face of the cliff to the waters of the lake, is quite
imperative for safety’s sake. The condition of the place is such
that it has been necessary to post notices to the effect that visitors
are in the reservation at their own risk, and this has been done in
order to defend the State against any liability. It is foreign to the
purpose of these reservations to turn them into public parks.
They have been set aside in order that they may be preserved, but
it is obvious that we are failing of our duty in respect to the proper
treatment of the Clark Reservation.

This is also true of the more recently acquired Stark’s knob.
No boundary fences have been set up about this property and its
original condition as transferred to us has not been modified.

For successive years requests have been made for modest appro-
priations to cover these justifhable EAPERSE but up to this time
nothing has been allowed.

In view of the fact that the State has in many instances accepted
private properties of real estate for public park uses, as in the case
of the gifts by Mrs John Boyd Thacher of the Thacher Park in
the Helderberg mountains, of the late William Prior Letchworth
of Letchworth Park on the Genesee river, and Mrs E. H. Harri-
man of her large properties, and has in recognition thereof made
annual or regular contributions for their upkeep and maintenance,
it seems an untoward attitude to deny the modest provision neces-
sary to keep these Museum properties in proper condition on the
basis of the somewhat ungenerous argument that whoever is to
give such private properties to the State must also provide for
their care and maintenance.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 21

lV
DE RAK VEN eUBLICATIONS

During the year the bulletins of the Museum have been issued
as rapidly as circumstances permitted. They have the following
numbers and titles:
181 The Cuarry Materials of New York. By D. H. Newland
182 The Geology of the Lake Pleasant Quadrangle. By William
J. Miller

183 Glacial Geology of the Saratoga Quadrangle. By James H.
Stoller

Hoan Whe Constitution of the Five Nations. By A. C. Parker

185 The Precambrian Rocks of the Canton Quadrangle. By
James C. Martin

186 31st Report of the State Entomologist 1915. By E. P. Felt

187 Director’s Report for 1915

188 Report of the State Botanist for 1915. By H. D. House

189 Paleontologic Contributions from the New York State

Museum. By Rudolf Ruedemann

The State Museum Bulletin is now issued as a regular monthly
periodical. This arrangement holds back in some degree the num-
ber of reports which can be issued in any one year, as it seems
impracticable with the present service to issue more than one a
month, while it might be possible for the staff to prepare more
than twelve a year.

The Wild Flowers of New York. Under provision of the
Legislature the preparation of this monograph has gone forward
with entire success, and the detailed account of its present condi-
tion will be found in the report of the State Botanist. It is believed
now that all the necessary color plates for illustration have been
taken and the preparation of the text for these volumes is advanc-
ing favorably, so that publication may perhaps be expected within
another year. }

Birds of New York. The demand for this work still continues.
The supply of the quarto Memoir volumes is very greatly reduced,
and these books can not be much longer supplied. The first edition
f the portfolio of colored plates, 16,759 copies, has been exhausted,
and by agreement with the Comptroller a second edition has been
printed to the number of 10,000 copies, each copy of these being
held for sale under this agreement at the price of $1, transporta-
tion paid.

22 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

V

CONSIDERATIONS FOR FUTURE GROWTH OF THE
MUSEUM

The Director in previous reports and on many occasions has set
forth the conception of the central State Museum as pictured by
the statute, and has failed of no opportunity to present the claim
of the statute to the attention and consideration of the people and
their representatives. Constant dropping will wear away the hard-
est stone; constant reiteration may eventually effect the purposes
of the law. .It has been a source of gratification to find the expressed
purpose of the statute as so often and so urgently presented,
indorsed by the speakers who participated in the dedicatory exercises
at the formal opening of the Museum.

Senator Henry M. Sage said:

It is hoped that its [Museum’s] growth will finally include collections of
every kind which have an educational value to the people of this State. The
“chariot is hitched to a star,’ and yet no great thing has ever been accom-
plished without ambition seemingly impossible of fulfilment.

Dr Francis Lynde Stetson said:

So for our own people, this generation as well as its successors, wise pre-
vision is needed and also wise provision, and the people of the State of New
York need, even though they may not know it, the creation and nourishment
of public museums of art and of science and in particular their own museum,
in this capital city.

Mr Theodore Roosevelt said:

I warmly sympathize with the ambition expressed in your annual report to
have this Museum more than a mere scientific museum. It should be a
museum of arts and letters as well as a museum of science.

The science museum in its present development constitutes a
unit in the museum scheme. The development of the additional
units must be a matter of slow growth, but it is not necessary to
wait for the development of these additional units in the central
State Museum in order to validate the provisions of the statute
which give to the central Museum control, the same advisory and
inspection functions as are given to the State Library in its attitude

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1910 23

toward local libraries. The State Museum stands in the law with
this positive and well-defined function; supervisory affiliation with
local museums supplemented by power to grant public moneys
for the encouragement and maintenance of such local museums.
It may be said that the effectiveness of this provision is fully contin-
gent upon the willingness of the Legislature to make money grants
for the specified purpose. This, however, is a secondary reason.
The primary reason lies in initiative in approaching the Legislature
for this purpose in order to carry out the expressions of the statute.

24 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

VI
REPORT ON THE GEOLOGICAL SURV

In the last season the Director was obliged to take a large per-
sonal risk in order to continue field operations of an ‘important
character, because of. the failure of adequate provision for this
purpose. Only the well-worn appeal to the loyalty of some of
the more patient members of the geological staff and the generous
disposition of others in deferring immediate compensation for
their work has made this active field service possible.

AREAL GEOLOGY

In the work directed toward the completion of the great geologi-
cal map of the State on a scale basis of one mile to the inch, con-
siderable progress was made in the Adirondack region by Prof.
El. P. Cushing, Prof. W. J. Miller and Prof. ©. H. Smythiijeayiae
was associated in the field operations with Dr A. F. Buddington.

The geology of the Gouverneur quadrangle was in part reported
upon last year. Professor Cushing’s report on his later operations
follow: |
_ The Gouverneur quadrangle. With the exception of scattered
patches of Potsdam sandstone, most of them very small, the entire
area of the quadrangle is occupied by Precambrian rocks. Early
Paleozoic sediments seem to have once covered the entire quad-
rangle and to have been entirely removed by erosion except for
these Potsdam remnants. This sandstone was deposited on the
worn and irregular surface of the crystalline rocks and the patches
which remain are those portions of the sand which were deposited
in the deeper depressions of the old surface. Such depressions
were substantially in all places where limestone was the surface
rock, and all the patches which remain rest upon limestone. In
many of them a small thickness of conglomerate is found at the
base of the sandstone, the angular pebbles having been derived
from the thin bands of quartzite in the limestone. The sandstone
is either red or gray in color and for the most part very thoroughly
indurated. It was deposited on sloping surfaces, for the most part,
and its dips rudely conform to these slopes. Locally the limestone
surfaces were intersected by joint cracks which had become
widened hy solution, these became filled with sand, and such sand-
filled cracks still remain in places where the remainder of the
sandstone has been entirely worn away, and appear like dikes

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 25

cutting the limestone. A notable instance of the sort occurs at
Halls Corners (Rock Island School).

As is the rule in northern New York, the Precambrian rocks
comprise the sedimentary Grenville series and various later intru-
sives. Though the igneous rocks occupy somewhat more than 50
per cent of the area of the quadrangle, it is nevertheless probably
true that the Grenville rocks have greater areal extent here than
in any other quadrangle in northern New York. Particularly
impressive is the great belt of Grenville limestone which stretches
all the way across the quadrangle from northeast to southwest,
much of it very pure limestone. Toward the northeast it becomes
impure and belts of other Grenville rocks wedge into it; but along
the west margin of the quadrangle it has a breadth of some 8 miles,
5 miles of which is pure limestone. As Smyth long ago pointed
out, it is the longest and broadest belt of Grenville limestone in
New York. A large quarry industry has long been based upon it.

The larger part of the impure limestone of the quadrangle con-
sists of alternating beds of limestone and quartzite. Where the
quartzite bands are few and thin the stresses to which the rocks
have been subjected have resulted in the fracturing of the brittle
quartzite bands and the indiscriminate mingling of the fragments
with the general mass of the limestone, giving a rude resemblance
to a conglomerate. Such pseudo-conglomerate alternates with
thicker bands of quartzite. One very prominent band of alter-
nating limestone and quartzite enters the quadrangle from the
south at Sylvia lake and runs east-north-east to Edwards. It is of
especial importance because of the talc deposits that occur within
it, and a line of openings for this mineral marks the course of the
belt across the quadrangle. Because of this it has been given a
separate coloration upon the map; at the same time it must be
understood that there is always some quartzitic material in the
belts which are mapped as limestone.

Aside from the limestone and the quartzite the Grenville rocks
comprise a great variety of schists, hornblende schists, mica schists,
red to green calcareous pyroxenic schists, garnetiferous gneisses
and pyritous gneisses, together with many other less common
varieties. For the most part these varieties of gneiss and schist
are sufficiently distinct and of easy enough identification to war-
rant their separate mapping were it not for the fact that they com-
monly occur interbanded with one another in such thin beds as
wholly to preclude their mapping, except upon a very large scale.

26 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In general also thin bands of limestone and of quartzite are inter-
bedded with them. It therefore becomes ‘necessary to map the
whole complex as Grenville schist in the majority of cases. It is
only in exceptional instances that any one of these rocks occurs in
sufficient bulk and sufficiently free from admixture with the other
varieties to warrant separate mapping. Within the Gouverneur
quadrangle are two belts of hard, mica gneiss, usually garneti-
ferous, which have received separate mapping. One of these belts
enters the quadrangle near its southwest corner, and has been
traced for 12 miles when it is apparently cut out by granite.
Another and still broader belt occurs in the southeast part of the
quadrangle, and only a small part of its mass lies within the
quadrangle’s limits.

There is considerable of the rusty, pyritous gneiss, which is such
a characteristic Grenville rock, within the quadrangle but in such
thin beds that separate mapping is not practicable. One such belt
wedges up within the limestone just west of Gouverneur and thence
runs continuously clear across the quadrangle and beyond. A num-
ber of openings for pyrite have been made along it and the Stella
mine at Hermon, just without the quadrangle’s limits, is still
active. But the rusty gneiss is simply a thin, uppermost bed to a
belt of hard, fine-grained gneiss and coarser mica gneiss inter-
bedded in the limestone, too thin to separate from them in mapping.
Another thin band of the rusty gneiss overlies the limestone belt
which comes into the quadrangle on the west side of Sylvia lake,
lying between the limestone and the gabbro which borders it on the
west and north.

The Grenville rocks across the quadrangle have a general north-
east strike and northwest dip. The mapping clearly brings out the
fact, however, that the structure is not that of a simple monocline
but consists of a series of closely compressed and overturned folds;
in other words, that it is isoclinal. Southeast dips occur here and
there, but only locally. The dips are in places very flat, elsewhere
so steep that they are nearly or quite vertical. At one stage in
the work it was hoped that one limb of a fold would prove to have
a steeper dip than the other limb, and that this might give aid in
working out the structure; but no such relation could be demon-
strated. Many of the folds, probably all of them, have a decided
pitch, but in the vast majority of cases it can not be determined
whether the pitch is to the northeast or the southwest; in other
words, whether the structure is anticlinal or synclinal.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 27

Locally many variations in direction of strike occur, and there
is especially manifest a tendency on the part of the sediments to
wrap around the ends of the sills of igneous rocks.

The igneous rocks of the quadrangle consist of gabbro and of
two different granites. The gabbro is much older than one of the
granites and is probably older than either, though its time relation
to the older of the granites can not be definitely ascertained. It is
everywhere highly metamorphosed and converted into the horn-
blende-feldspar rock called amphibolite for convenience. In its
marginal phases it is always a thoroughly foliated hornblende
gneiss or schist and can not be distinguished from similar gneisses
which are interbanded with the Grenville sediments and form a
characteristic constituent of that series. But in the larger masses
more solid, less metamorphosed cores are always present whose
igneous origin is clearly apparent. In the southeast half of the
quadrangle there was originally a large mass of this gabbro but it’
has been badly cut up and cut out by the later of the two granites,
and now occurs in a number of disconnected masses.

Of all the rocks of the quadrangle this gabbro was the most
susceptible to attack by the granite. Its marginal portions are
always full of masses of pegmatite and of quartz either as dikes
or as lenticles; and in addition there has also been much minute
penetration and soaking of the gabbro by the granite. Wherever
the two rocks adjoin there is apt to be a gradual passage from the
one rock into the other, no sharp boundary separating them can
be drawn, and to discriminate between granite-cut gabbro and
granite with plentiful gabbro inclusions is no easy matter. More
rarely, however, the boundary is quite sharp.

The gabbro occurs in part in more or less oval masses which
plainly either wedge aside or else cut out the sediments and whose |
intrusive nature is therefore clear; and in part in long, narrow
bands which probably represent sills and whose intrusive nature
is much more difficult to demonstrate. The long, narrow belt of
gabbro which lies just east of Moss ridge and whose prolongation
is associated with the rusty gneiss of the Stella pyrite mine at Her-
mon, is mostly thoroughly gneissoid and the proof of its igneous
nature is very difficult to obtain, though rather massive rock may be
obtained from within it at various places. Smyth shows a disposi-
tion to regard it as an igneous rock at the Stella mine occurrence,
and my study of the whole belt leads me to the same conclusion,

28 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

though with the candid admission that certainty is unattainable in
the matter.

The only representative within the quadrangle of the old granite
gneiss which I correlate with the Laurentian granite of Canada is
the oval mass or stock, comprising some 7 square miles in areal
extent, which lies directly north of the village of Gouverneur. In
its thorough conversion to orthogneiss with evenly granular tex-
ture and its abundant inclusions which are invariably of amphibo-
lite, it conforms wholly to the type of this earliest granite and is
quite distinct from the remainder of the granite of the quadrangle.
Though the mass is small it lies only a short distance from, and
is really the northeast prolongation of, a large mass of this granite
which the railroad cuts across all the way from Keene to Phila-
delphia and which forms what I have called the Antwerp batholith .
in reporting upon the Theresa quadrangle. This stock at Gouver-
neur is entirely surrounded by limestone, into which it sends dikes;
hence it 1s impossible to determine its time relations with the
gabbro and the other granite.

The younger granite of the quadrangle is a porphyritic granite
which is precisely like the porphyritic granite which in many
localities in northern New York occurs as a border phase of: the
augite syenite of the region, so that I have no hesitation in corre-
lating it with that rock. It shows many phases, sometimes being
very coarsely porphyritic, sometimes being fine grained and with
little trace of porphyritic texture. The smaller bodies of the rock
are most apt to be fine grained, and the larger masses are often of
similar grain marginally; but there 1s much variation in the differ-
ent masses, and from place to place in the same mass. Where the
granite cuts gabbros broad zones of mixed rock are often pro-
duced, in the manner just described, injection gneisses, soaked |
zones, and a host of pegmatite and quartz veins. Where Grenville
rocks are cut the granite sends occasional dikes into them and
holds occasional inclusions of them, but the Grenville rocks are
little affected by the intrusion except locally. Some very large
Grenville inclusions are found in these granites, often large enough
to be mapped, and several of these are of limestone. In this
respect this granite contrasts strongly with the older granite in
which the inclusions are always of amphibolite.

The most unusual feature attaching to the porphyritic granite
is its manner of occurrence, in a series of subparallel, long, narrow
tongues, which conform to the bedding of the adjacent sediments

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9QI16 29

and which seem to be sills. This type of occurrence is unusual
in northern New York, in which the igneous rocks occur usually
in batholiths, stocks and dikes, and I have met with it only in this
immediate region. When the mapping shall have been extended
over the southeast part of the quadrangle it may prove that these
sills are merely outlying members of a batholite of granite or
syenite which occurs there. If not that then, in all probability,
they indicate the presence of a batholite at no great depth below
the) present surface. Evidence’ has been forthcoming in the
Thousand Islands region, in the case of the Picton granite, that
the present surface exposures of the batholite are of its very roof.
The occurrence of these granite sills on the Gouverneur quad-
rangle, and on the Ogdensburg and Lake Bonaparte quadrangles
just north and south also, sills which have with little doubt been
given off from a larger mass of probable batholic nature, is addi-
tional evidence that in this northwestern region erosion has not
cut deeply into the Precambrian rocks; and the large amount of
the Grenville series which still remains, in contrast to the region
farther east, is indicative of the same thing. It is becoming quite
clear that there is a sharp contrast between this region and the
general Adirondack region in this respect; that the general altitude
of the former has been less than that of the latter, as it 1s today;
that it has been less subject to considerable uplift; and that as a
result erosion has bitten far less deeply into the Precambrian rocks
of the Gouverneur region than into those which lie more to the
east.

Lake Placid quadrangle. Professor Miller, who is completing
the survey of this region for a joint report thereon by Professor
Ruedemann and himself, makes the following statement:

A prominent belt of coarse, often porphyritic, granite extends
across the northern portion, and extensive areas of the Whiteface
type of anorthosite lie just south of the granite. Two consider-
able areas of Grenville gneisses with some limestone occur, one
near Franklin falls and the other between Catamount and Wil-
mington mountains.

Between 1 and 2 miles west of East Kilns a large mass of rock
was discovered which quite certainly has resulted from the
assimilation of anorthosite by syenite (and possibly granite)
magma, the evidence for this mode of origin being well shown in
good outcrops.

A feature of particular importance is the occurrence of parallel,
narrow dikes of basic rock cutting the coarse granite on Cata-

30 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

mount mountain and on the small mountain between 1 and 2
miles north of East Kilns. These dikes are holo-crystalline and
mostly badly weathered. They are quite different from any dike
rocks hitherto observed by the writer in the Adirondacks.

Catamount mountain exhibits a remarkable variety of rocks.
Within a single square mile from the base of the mountain to the
summit, the following rock types are well exhibited: Grenville
gneisses and limestone, Whiteface anorthosite, coarse granite,
syenite, granitic syenite, aplite dikes, gabbro stock, basic (norite?)
dikes, pegmatite dikes, diabase dikes and quartz veins.

Schroon Lake quadrangle. For this quadrangle Professor
Miller reports that the Precambric rocks comprise anorthosite,
Whiteface anorthosite, syenite, granite syenite, granite, gabbro,
pegmatite and diabase. :

A feature of particular importance is the outlier of Pateozoic
strata in the vicinity of Schroon Lake village. Several large out-
crops of Little Falls (?) dolomite occur in and near the village.
A smail area of Potsdam sandstone was discovered one and one-
half miles southwest of the village, but most of the Paleozoic strata
are concealed under Pleistocene deposits.

In the central portion of the quadrangle, a zone several miles _
wide, between the great body of anorthosite on the north and the
-syenite-granite series on the south, exhibits a very mixed lot of
rocks, one type which frequently appears being almost certainly
an assimilation product between anorthosite and syenite-granite
magma.

Lake Bonaparte quadrangle. The field work on this area has
been carried on by Doctor Buddington under the direct super-
vision of Prof. C. H. Smyth jr. They report as follows:

The results of the survey in I916 are, in all essentials, con-
firmatory of the conclusions regarding this district based upon
brief reconnaissances made by the senior author in 1894 and 1897.
A detailed report on the region is now in course of preparation,
although not yet far enough advanced to warrant more than a
slightly modified restatement of the previous conclusions. The
dominant trend of the formations is from northeast to southwest
throughout the quadrangle. The prevailing strike of the gneissic
and cleavage structures is likewise northeast with a variable steep
dip to the northwest. The region may be considered in a broad
way as comprising three bands of different geological character-
istics. The entire southeastern half of the district is formed by

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 31

a great mass of banded differentiated syenitic rocks, varying in a
very broad way, from a normal augite syenite with more basic
bands, through a more siliceous red hornblende grano-syenite
(interrupted by bands of a more basic or more siliceous character)
to a hornblende biotite granite which sends off numerous dikes.
Wecasional dikes of hyperite with an ophitic texture eut the
syenites. 3

The central band, about 4 miles wide, comprises a belt of Gren-
ville gneisses and marble intruded by sheets and bosses (for the
most part parallel to the cleavage or bedding) of gabbro, syenite
and granite, the latter usually a coarse porphyritic type. The
gneisses are the usual biotite, pyroxene, garnet,: sillimanite and
rusty gneisses characteristic of this formation. South of Lake
Bonaparte the Grenville gneisses are intruded by an elliptical
shaped mass of fine-grained red granite.

The northwestern band is a rock complex consisting of (1) an
elongated intruded mass of fine-grained granite partially overlain
and completely surrounded by a narrow belt of garnet gneiss with
‘thin beds of intercalated marble; (2) two masses of gray quartz
biotite gneiss intruded by sheets of porphyritic granite and more
or less abundant pegmatite veins parallel to the cleavage, one
mass wrapping around the granite-garnet gneiss belt on the
southeast and northeast, the other intruded by a small mass of
porphyritic granite and forming the whole northwest corner of
the district; (3) a narrow tongue of marble and white quartzite
beds overlapping on this quadrangle from the Gouverneur district.
The garnet gneiss is a mixed rock formed by intimate injection
of Grenville gneiss by pegmatite veins. On the northwest side of
the granite mass it possesses a low undulatory dip in general about
320° northwest, while on the southeast side of the granite it dips
vertical to steep northwest indicating the possibility of an asym-
metrical fold slightly overturned toward the southeast. The
quartz biotite gneiss is presumably igneous, but of doubtful origin.
It contains inclusions or residuals of gabbro but is granitic in com-
position. Like the garnet gneiss, the northwest area dips low north-
west while that on the southeast side of the granite-garnet gneiss
belt dips steep northwest beneath the garnet gneiss.

Indications are that the mode of intrusion of the porphyritic
granite has been dominantly by pushing in along cleavage or bed-
ding planes, and to a minor extent by brecciation. In one case,
the gabbro similarly forms an almost continuous belt about 14

32 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

miles long and not over one-half of a mile wide and must be sill-like
in nature. The northwestern mass of fine-grained granite is now
being exposed by erosion of a domed series of overlying beds of
Grenville gneiss, while the strikes of the beds around a similar
mass of fine-grained granite south of Lake Bonaparte are parallel
to its border.

The syenite bears intrusive relations to the gabbro, while the
syenite itself 1s intruded by granite dikes offshooting, presumably
from the porphyritic granite, from the fine-grained granite, and
from its own granitic differentiate as the case may be.

Four small patches of Potsdam sandstone remain as outlying
remnants within the central belt of the Grenville series, resting
unconformably on the lower eroded levels of the marble beds.

Thoroughgoing cataclastic metamorphism of a portion of the
syenite mass, as well as of dikes of hyperite and granite cutting
this mass whose cleavage is parallel to that of the inclosing rock,
together with the regional trend of the formations, shows unmis-
takably the evidence of intense, long-continued orogenic forces pre- —
viously acting in this region. The minor evidence of cataclastic
structures in the Grenville gneisses may be partially explained by
subsequent igneous metamorphism. A possible variation in the
effect of these forces distributed according to the geographical
location and character and age of the rock is being investigated.
Other important data with respect to the gneissic structures will
be given later.

SURFICIAL GEOLOGY

The glacial phenomena of the Catskill mountains. The
investigation of the glacial geology of the Catskills was begun —
during. the past summer by Dr John L. Rich, and meladedya
reconnaissance of the region as a whole and a semidetailed map-
ping of its glacial features directed toward the outlining of the
major events of its glacial history and a determination of the
problems for whose solution more detailed examinations might be
required.

All the higher mountain region, except a small section south
and southwest of Arkville, was studied, and, in addition, reconnais-
sance surveys were carried down the west branch of the Dela-
ware river to Delhi, thence up the little Delaware to Lake Dela-
ware, and also south of the mountains into the upper branches of
Neversink and Rondout creeks. The area examined included the
whole of the Phoenician and the mountainous parts of the

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI16 33

Kaaterskill and Durham quadrangles besides parts of the Gilboa,
Hobart, Delhi, Margaretville, Neversink, Slide Mountain and
Rosendale quadrangles.

Within this area, all the principal valleys and those of all but a
few of the smaller tributaries were examined. Almost all the sur-
face was seen from a greater or less distance.

Types of glacial deposits. On account of the prevailing rugged
relief of the region, the glacial deposits, with the exception of the
ground moraine or till, are rather strictly limited to the valley
bottoms and lower slopes and are absent, or very weakly developed,
on the steeper slopes. To trace moraines from one valley across
the intervening ridges to another is, therefore, commonly difficult
or impossible, hence the correlation of moraines 1n adjacent valleys
can not always be made with certainty by this means.

The types of glacial drift distinguished on the map include till,
thick nonmorainic drift, drumlins, kames, eskers, and glacial lake
and outwash deposits. Smooth-topped deposits of thick non-
MGnAinicmdniit proved to be widespread, They differ - from
moraines in that the characteristic irregular topography and
looped form are lacking. In many places they seem to have been
formed by the accumulation of débris beneath the ice, and there
are all gradations to typical drumlins. -Elsewhere they prove to
be glacial deposits of various kinds which have been overridden
and smoothed by advancing ice. In the upper Schoharie and the
Esopus valleys many such smooth-topped deposits were found to
be stratified lake clays, sands and gravels covered with a veneer of
till.

The drift filling in the valleys is surprisingly deep. Borings by
the New York City board of water supply have established the
fact that the rock beds of Schoharie creek and its tributaries in the
' vicinity of Prattsville lie, roughly, 200 feet below the present
beds of the streams. Much of the filling in that vicinity consists
of stratified glacial lake clays, but in most places there is a veneer
of till on the surface.

Glacial movements. At the time of its maximum extension, the
ice of the continental glacier appears to have completely buried
the Catskills, with the possible exception of.a few of the highest
peaks. The highest definite striae were found on the west spur of
Slide mountain at an elevation of 3580 feet, but compact, stony
soil, indistinguishable from glacial till, was found at 4030 feet on
Slide mountain and at 3900 feet on Hunter mountain. No conclu-

34 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

. sive evidences either for or against glaciation were found at higher
elevations on these or other mountains. ‘In general, it is very diffi-
cult to find evidences of glaciation at elevations above 3000 feet,
partly because erratic boulders of rocks foreign to the region are
very rare except opposite the passes on the north and east borders
of the mountains.

The striae at the higher elevations all indicate a general south-
westward movement of the ice across the region. The direction
of movement ranged, in different places, from south to S. 45° W.
About S. 20° W. is the dominant direction. At lower elevations,
the striae indicate much greater diversity of movement.

During the retreat of the ice front across the mountains, the
series of events was complicated by the fact that the movements
of the marginal portion of the ice were strongly influenced by the
broader features of the topography, and, further, by the develop-
ment of local valley glaciers whose deposits are not everywhere
easily distinguished from those of the continental glacier. The
possibility that important readvances of the ice may have affected
the northern and eastern parts of the region must also be borne in
mind.

Possible early drift. The earliest stages of the ice retreat across
the area under examination are recorded in the valley of the Little ©
Delaware, where the ice moved southwestward and westward
down the valley, and along the upper courses of Neversink and
Rondout creeks, where, also, the movement ‘was southwestward
down the valleys. |

In each of these regions the glacial deposits seem to be notably
older than those observed elsewhere. Flood plains are wider;
extensive alluvial fans have developed; the forms of the drift seem
more subdued; and drift terraces appear to be much more dis-
sected by streams than elsewhere.

These features suggest the possibility that the ice of the latest .
glacial advance did not reach these localities, sheltered, as they
are, in the lea of the higher Catskills.

Ice movements in Esopus and Delaware watersheds. The
major valleys on the north side of the Slide mountain range — Big
Indian hollow and Woodland valley —appear to have been last
occupied by local glaciers moving northward.

The valleys leading southward and southwestward from the cen-
tral escarpment of the Catskills, which extends northwestward
from Plattekill and Overlook mountains to and beyond Stamford,

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 a

were all important channels of ice movement, and those which head
in gaps in that escarpment all carry heavy deposits of moraine
whose southern limits are marked, in a general way, by the Esopus
valley and by the valley of Bush kill between Grand Hotel and
Arkville. From Stony Clove, Forest Valley and Bushnellsville
creek, the ice entered Esopus valley, spreading, in bulb form, both
up and down the valley.

Of the valleys at the head of ie east branch of the Delaware
river, those heading against the central escarpment, namely, those
of east branch, Batavia kill, and Vly creek have massive moraines
ending respectively at Margaretville (?), Kelly Corners and
Griffin Corners, whereas those which do not extend back to the
escarpment, notably Red kill, have very little morainic material
in them. 3

There are strong moraines near Stamford and between Stamford
and Hobart, opposite the gaps in the escarpment east of Stamford,
and there is an almost unbroken series of morainic loops along
the valley of the west branch of the Delaware river from South
Kortright, 4 miles below Hobart, to Delhi and beyond. These
moraines are most strongly developed along the south side of the
valley.

At about the time that ice lobes were descending from the
Bushnellsville and other valleys into Esopus valley, the great tongue
of ice on the Hudson river lowland lay across the mouth of
Esopus creek. From it, lobes of ice pushed westward and north-
westward into the valleys of Beaver kill and Little Beaver kill,
and pushed up the Esopus nearly to Phoenicia, impounding a lake
in Esopus valley. Meanwhile the ice lay banked against the
eastern spur of the Catskills at High Point, south of the Esopus.
At this period, which must have been a long one, the marginal
drainage of the ice, together with all the drainage of the Esopus
watershed, discharged into Rondout creek through the “ Gulf”
past Peekamoose lodge, and cut a magnificent gorge. Later, as the
level of. the ice banked against the eastern spur of High Point was
lowered to that of the bottom of the “Gulf” (1677 feet), the
latter was abandoned and a sharp notch, “ Wagon Wheel gap,”
noted by Darton? was cut in the mountain spur. Further lowering
of the ice caused this channel to be abandoned. The lower slopes
of the spur have not been examined.

* Darton, N. H., Preliminary Report on the Geology of Ulster County,
N. Y. State Museum Rep’t 47. 1894.

2

36 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Ice movements in Schoharie valley. North of the central
escarpment the ice movements, dominated by the major features
of the topography, were very complex. The principal valleys tribu-
tary to the upper Schoharie trend approximately across the gen-
eral direction of the ice movement at the flood stage, and the val-
leys of the two upper branches of Schoharie creek are entirely open
to the east where they have been beheaded by the retreat of the
Catskill front.

In the lower Schoharie valley, nearly as far up as Prattsville, the
ice movement at all stages appears to have been southward, up
the valley. In the valley of the Batavia kill tributary above Red
falls, and of Schoharie creek above the mouth of Little West kill,
the general ice movement at an early stage of the retreat was west-
ward, down the valleys, as is indicated by moraines and abundant
striae in the valley of Batavia kill and by moraines along the north
side of the valley of Schoharie creek. This current met the oppos-
ing current, moving up Schoharie valley, in the general neighbor-
hood of the junction of Batavia kill with the Schoharie where, by
alternating advances of the opposing currents, a complex series of
moraines was formed. Between the opposing ice tongues small
lakes were impounded, as is shown by a series of hanging deltas.

‘Ata later stage in the retreat, ice from the lobe in the waiudson
valley pushed into the open eastern ends of the Schoharie valley
past Kaaterskill and Plaat clove to the vicinity of the junction
of the two valleys between Tannersville and Hunter, while ice
from the north lay banked against the East Jewett range, pushing
a tongue into the pass south of East Jewett, another through the
gap south of Beaches Corner, and a third and larger one round
the western end of the range at Jewett Center. The latter spread
out as a bulb in the alley of Schoharie creek and seems to have
blocked the valley, impounding a lake in which deltas were built at
various levels by the streams carrying outwash from the tongues ©
of ice which pushed through the gaps in the range farther east.

The ice stood in this general position long enough to build
conspicuous moraines. Meanwhile, the great, fluted, drumlinlike
deposits of thick drift which lie across the valley of East kill,
especially between Beaches Corner and the pass south of Henson-
ville, were probably accumulated beneath the ice.

Small deltas in the valley of East kill, between East Jewett and
Beaches Corner, indicate that the ice melted out of this part of
the valley while the lower end was still blocked.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQ16 © a7

At the next later stage of the retreating ice front to be marked
by conspicuous moraines, the ice was pushing through the gaps
in the northeastern border range between Mount Pisgah and
Windham High peak and building massive moraines in the valleys
tributary to Batavia kill at and above Windham. The ice from
the gap at East Windham bulged eastward into the upper Batavia
Kill valley above Hensonville and impounded a lake in which deltas
at two levels, approximately those of the cols south of Big Hollow
and Hensonville, respectively, were built. At Windham and below,
the ice at this stage discharged into the waters of the glacial lake
whose outlet was through the central escarpment at Grand gorge.

East and northeast of Windham are about a dozen perfectly
formed drumlins whose origin is probably connected with the
spreading of the ice after its passage through the narrow gaps in
the northeastern border range. Z

Local glaciation. Special attention was given to the problem
of local glaciation, evidences of which had previously been dis-
covered at a few points.

On the north-facing slope of the central escarpment, no less than
ten valleys were found in which distinct morainic loops, convex
down-valley, testify to the former existence of independent local
glaciers moving northward and northeastward in a direction
directly opposed to that of the movement of the continental glacier.
Many other valleys, similarly situated, contain deposits which, con-
sidered individually, do not constitute convincing evidence of local
glaciation, but which, taken as a whole in the light of more definite
evidence in neighboring valleys, seem to be most reasonably inter-
preted as the products of local glaciers.

A characteristic type of deposit, found in most of the valleys on
the north face of the central escarpment, and elsewhere in similar
situations, is a mass of smooth, thick drift which makes a dis-
tinct step in the valley bottom with a steep slope up to the top of
the step and a more gentle slope above. Such deposits commonly
present a convex front down the valley and many of them are
higher in the middle of the valley than at the sides. In many
instances it is clear that they were fashioned by local glaciers
moving down the valleys. Field study led to the hypothesis that
they were built, in a manner analogous to the formation of drum-
lins, by deposition of till beneath the ice where its transporting
ability was decreased, either on account of its thinness near the
end or on account of its spreading in the form of piedmont bulbs

38 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

on being released from the confines of the narrow mountain
valleys. Some of the deposits may be moraines of local a
overridden by later advances.

In addition to the indications of local glaciation furnished by the
short, steep valleys on the north slope of the central escarpment,
there is evidence which suggested and gives strong support to the
theory that the valleys of Little West kill and West kill, respec-
tively 42 and 11 miles long, were for a time occupied for them
full length by independent local glaciers. Unfortunately the evi-
dence on which the above theory is based can not be adequately
presented in the space available for this abstract. |

South of Esopus creek, in the valleys on the north side of the
Slide mountain group, there were also local glaciers, some of them
of large size. Big Indian hollow, at least above Oliverea, and pos-
sibly for its whole length, was occupied by a local glacier. A
smaller one descended the north slope of Balsam mountain, south-
west of Big Indian and reached levels at least as low as 1400 feet.
Woodland valley, which heads on the north side of Slide moun-
tain, was occupied by a local glacier which left distinct moraines
at Woodland and less distinct ones a mile below. Whether the
great morainic embankments in Esopus valley at Phoenicia were
built by a bulb of a local glacier from Woodlawn valley is a prob-
lem whose solution requires further field study.

There is evidence that, for a time at least, local glaciers occupied
the Stony Clove valley and its higher tributaries, but whether the
great moraines in the lower part of the valley at Chichester belong
to the morainic system of a local glacier could not be definitely
determined by reconnaissance.

The critical elevation necessary for the formation of local —
glaciers was found to be about 3400 feet, and the glaciers in the
smaller valleys descended to various levels down to 1400 feet.
In the larger valleys, heading in the highest mountains, what are
believed to have been local glaciers reached levels between 1300
and 1400 feet above the sea at the mouth of West kill and, possibly,
of 800 feet at Phoenicia.

A noteworthy feature of the local glaciation of the Catskills is
the weak development of land forms produced by glacial sculpture,
namely, cirques and trough valleys. The heads of the valleys
tributary to the upper West kill and those heading on Hunter and
Plateau mountains present evidences of weak cirque action, but
typical, strongly sculptured cirques were nowhere recognized.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 39

This condition harmonizes with the evidence of very slight glacial
erosion in the bottoms of all but a few of the valleys occupied
by glaciers, and with the fact that the moraines of the local glaciers
are built largely of drift previously deposited by the continental
glacier.

All these features indicate that the local glaciation of the Cat-
skills, though extensive, could not have been of long duration.

The moraines of the local glaciers are remarkably fresh and
distinct and are undoubtedly among the most recent glacial deposits
of the region. The evidences upon which a statement of the
exact date of local glaciation might be based have been partly
worked out, but not in sufficient detail to warrant review here.

‘Broader problems. The work of the past summer, in addition
to its contribution to the knowledge of the local details of the glacial
history of the Catskills, brought forward two major problems of
more than local interest.

The first is based on the seeming greater age of the glacial
deposits in the lea of the Catskills than elsewhere, and may be
stated as follows: Did the ice of the last glacial epoch (possibly
corresponding to the Late Wisconsin of the Middle West), though
it pushed into the northern and eastern Catskills, fail to override
the southern ranges?

The second is based on the somewhat anomalous .phenomenon
of extensive, though seemingly short-lived, local glaciation in a
region far to the-south of such mountain groups as the White
mountains, Green mountains and Adirondacks where the evidence
hitherto presented indicates a very limited development of local
glaciers at the close of the last glacial epoch. The problem may
be stated thus: Is the local glaciation of the Catskills a border
phenomenon of an ice sheet which ended in the Catskills, or is it
merely a phenomenon of the retreat of the continental glacier from
its maximum limits in New Jersey and Pennsylvania?

The solution of these two closely related problems should be
made the first object of future studies.

INDUSTRIAL GEOLOGY

Mr David H. Newland reports as follows:

Mining summary. The usual summary of the mining develop-
ments, with statistics of production, was presented in the form of
an annual bulletin for the information and guidance of those inter-
ested in the local resources. The year’s contribution of crude

40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

ores and of mineral products in first marketable forms was valued
at $35,988,407, a total equal to that of the preceding year, but
rather below the normal output. It was an exceptional season,
marked by great prosperity in certain branches of industry and
by equally great depression in others, such contrasting conditions
as have scarcely been witnessed in any previous period. There
was a notable revival of activity among the iron ore properties
which will probably lead to a new record in the output for the
current year, and some expansion in other lines; but the market
for building materials (stone, clay and cement) was poor and
led to decreases in these important items of local productions.
A new industry came into existence in 1915 with the inaugura-
tion of zinc mining in the Edwards district of St WLawrence
county. The first ore shipments (several thousand tons for the
year) are an earnest of a ‘sitbstantial increment ime tnemoreter
developed resources. The district has long been known for its
valuable talc deposits, but the value of the metallic minerals, which
include both pyrite and zinc, has only recently gained recognition.
Quarry materials. An appraisal of the quarry resources that
are contained im the ‘crystalline formations, mainly Esecammaies
was published during the year as Bulletin 181 of the State Museum.
The various kinds of products derived from these formations are
granite, gneiss, marble, trap and pegmatite, all of which have con-
siderable commercial importance. Their distribution and local
development are presented comprehensively ; and some of the more
attractive building or monumental stones are reproduced, as faith-
fully as may be, in color. The description of the local features is
preceded by a general discussion of the fundamental geological
structures of the State as a key to the distribution of the resources;
- and by chapters on the qualities, physical and chemical, which
determine the value of stone for different uses, and the methods
available for their discrimination in the field and laboratory.
Zinc ore investigations. Steps have been taken to meet the
call for information, which has come to the department from ail
directions, in regard to the general features of the zinc ore occur-
rences in the Edwards district and their probable economic impor-
tance. In addition to the areal mapping of the region now in pro-
gress, it is purposed to carry out a special investigation of the
more limited area in which the ores occur. The necessary field
work for this investigation, in fact, has already been practically
completed. Short summaries of the developments and geological

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQ16 4I

conditions in the district have been prepared for the technical and
scientific press, preliminary to the complete report which it is
hoped will soon be ready for publication.

The Edwards zinc district stands quite apart from the other
productive areas of the country, for the deposits are found in
Precambric (Grenville) limestones, about the lowest and oldest of
the geological formations that can be definitely recognized with a
place in the stratigraphic sequence. So far as known there are no
other active mines based on sulphide ores in this association,
although occurrences of similar type have been discovered from
time to time in the Canadian Grenville areas. The problems con-
nected with the derivation of the ores and the time of their intro-
duction necessarily are complicated by the vicissitudes of age. The.
wall rocks have been subjected to intrusion repeatedly, have been
broken up, strongly compressed and metamorphosed, so that their
structure and original characters are most obscure, only to be
cleared up by careful study and weighing of the evidences.

Miscellaneous. The demands upon the office for information
and guidance in matters pertaining to mining and mineral resources
have been particularly large in the last year or two, partly as a
result, no doubt, of the unusual commercial and industrial situa-
tion generally. Requests of this character are always given con-
sideration, and so far as compatible with the practice of the office
the desired information is promptly supplied. In many instances
this can be done by the mailing of a published bulletin, for which
only a nominal charge is made. It should be noted, however, that
the office does not undertake to supply analyses or ores and
minerals in competition with public laboratories, although there
seems to be a very general impression to the contrary. Samples,
however, may be submitted for identification and an opinion as
to their value, which can be given in most cases with a close
approximation to the truth upon the basis of experience and tests
that are readily applied. To carry out an exact analysis is the
work of one or more days and can not be undertaken except under
special circumstances where the matter is of unusual interest.

PALEONTOLOGY
The Museum. The work of installation in the division of
paleontology was actively continued during the year. There were
added two cases in the hall of fossil plants, one large wall case in
the hall of vertebrates, and three cases in the hall of invertebrates.
Of the two new cases of fossil plants, one contains Devonian

42 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

plants from western New York and the Catskill region, the other
Upper Devonian plants from Scaumenac bay, P. Q., Canada. The
new case in the hall of vertebrates is a large wall case devoted to
the remarkable Devonian lung fishes and ganoids from Scaumenac
bay. A recent Australian lung fish and a recent ganoid from the -
Nile have been installed for comparison with the fossil forms.
The new cases in the invertebrate hall comprise two AA cases of
crinoids in the general collection, and an upright case of starfishes
and echinoids. The two AA cases of starfishes have been rear-
ranged and much new material, lately described, has been added.

‘The special exhibit of corals, filling eight AA cases altogether,
has been finished. |

Mr Henri Marchand has added four more wax models of grapto-
lites to the series in process of construction. This series will illus-
trate not only the remarkable variety of forms attained by grapto-
lites in the Paleozoic seas of New York, but also the distinct genetic
series which they form, from irregular sessile bushes to highly
symmetric floating and swimming forms.

An exhibit of the Pleistocene fossils from the marine invasion of
the Champlain basin at the end of the last glacial period has been
installed in special cases. In obtaining this fine and comprehensive
collection the important observation was made that the marine shells
decrease in size and thickness as one goes southward from the
St Lawrence region, and that at the same time one species after
another drops out, until at the southernmost locality of marine
Pleistocene shells at Crown Point, N. Y., and Chimney Point,
Vt., only small representatives of Macoma groenlandica
Beck and Yoldia arctica Grey are lett. Mronithteteeawecs
brought about in marine forms where a gradual freshening of the
water takes place, as in the Baltic Sea, it is inferred that these
facts indicate a gradual decrease in the salinity of the Hochelagan
sea southward, until at Crown Point the water had become so fresh
that it no longer could support marine forms. The continuation |
of the Champlain clays proves that the sea itself extended much
farther south.

Guidebook. A Guide to the Paleontologic Collections (35 pages)
which purports to give a popular account of the fossils shown and
of their biological and geologic relationships has been prepared
for free distribution to visitors who are sufficiently interested in
the collections to inquire for it.

Field work. The field work consisted of the two months’ col-
lecting trip in the Pleistocene and about six weeks’ investigation of

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQ16 43

the Utica, Frankfort and Lorraine formations in central and north-
western New York, the funds not allowing a longer stay in the field.

Researches. The field work of the year here recorded,
together with a few weeks of research in the field, in the preceding
year, have furnished sufficient data to continue the laboratory
investigation of the Upper Ordovician shale and sandstone ter-
ranes of the Mohawk and Black River valleys; the first instalment
of which was published in Museum Bulletin 162, entitled “ The
Lower Siluric Shales of the Mohawk Valley.” In this publication
the Trenton age of the black shale (formerly Utica) and sand-
stones (formerly Frankfort and Lorraine) of the Lower Mohawk
valley was demonstrated. )

In the westward continuation of this work in the last two years,
the Utica, Frankfort and Lorraine beds of the Upper Mohawk and
Black River valley were investigated. It was found that:the true
Utica shale in the Utica basin contains at least three major grapto-
lite zones, to which a fourth or younger zone is added in the Black
River valley. This rests on Trenton limestone younger than the
Trenton of Trenton Falls. The black shale hence shows a con-
tinuous and progressive rise in the time scale from the Hudson
river westward and northward to the St Lawrence river, from
lowest Trenton to post-Utica age. A distinct graptolite zone
develops also in the Black River valley in beds corresponding in
stratigraphic position and lithology to the Frankfort shale of the
Utica region. Collections of Lorraine fossils from the Lorraine
gulf and the deep ravines interesecting the Lorraine plateau toward
the Black river at the Whetstone gulf, with careful notation of their
horizons, have been made and it is expected that their study will
also permit the subdivision of the Lorraine formation on the basis
of its faunas and a subsequent correlation with the horizons dis-
tinguished in the Ohio basin and in Canada. It is by this care-
ful analysis of the faunas of sections that the facts of the shift-
ings of the ancient epicontinental seas are established and the basis
for paleogeographic maps of the different periods furnished. The
work on the Lorraine formation could not be fully completed
owing to the lack of funds.

Occurrences of Mastodon and Mammoth

In my report for 1903 a summary was given of the recorded ©
occurrences of the mastodon in this State, and this summary has
been supplemented in succeeding reports as new discoveries were
announced both of the mastodon and the mammoth (Elephas).

44 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM’

Additional lists have been published in the reports for 1906, 1907
and 1909.

Further discoveries and items not before recorded are here given,
including several localities where mammoth remains have been
found.

Onondaga county

Near Salina. Two specimens of mammoth teeth in possession of
the Museum bear the label “Near Salina, N. \Y7? 7@memspcer
men is a single nearly complete tooth; its small size and immature
appearance stamp it as one of the milk teeth. The second specimen
is) a fragment of a small) tooth.

Near Minoa. Specimens from a mammoth obtained from the
east side of Limestone creek near Minoa have been described by
Dr Burnett Smith The remains were unearthed during the con-
struction of the West Shere Railroad about 1883, and consist of
one tooth and parts of a tusk or tusks. The best preserved part of
the tusk and the molar are in the museum of Syracuse University.

Wayne county

Near Clyde. In November 1910 a mammoth tooth was received
from Mr William B. Landreth, deputy state engineer. A letter
from Mr B. E. Failing, resident engineer of Lyons, N. Y., gives
these details: “The mammoth tooth was found while excavating
for lock 26, Barge canal, 2% miles east of Clyde; No Yo iemwes
found about too feet from the Clyde river and 22 feet underground
in a layer of sand and clay, on top of gravel which appears to have
been the old river bottom.”

Near Savannah. In October 1916 there were dug up in a gravel
pit near Savannah, two excellently preserved mammoth teeth con-
sisting of the back upper left and right molars. They were about
8 feet underground and 4 feet apart. These teeth have been pur-
chased by the Museum.

In September of this year an additional find, consisting of the
right shoulder blade, was reported. The bone has been presented
to the Museum by Mr Gipson Mead of Savannah, N. Y. Recently
Prof. G. H. Chadwick has visited the gear pit and his report is
here incorporated.

The Savannah Mammoth. ‘The gravel pit at Savannah from
which the two mammoth teeth and the shoulder blade were pre-
viously secured was visited on October 27th, at which time exca-

*New York State Mus. Bul. 171, p. 68 (1914).

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al
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REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 45

vation had ceased for the winter. A systematic search resulted in
the finding of two more pieces, belonging to the leg and foot, which
are transmitted with this report. A sketch map with cross-section
of the area is also submitted. |

The chief interest of this find is the character of the occurrence.
The locality is a gravel pit on the west side of a high drumlin hill
one mile due northwest of Savannah, N. Y., at the northwest corner
of what Fairchild has aptly called the “ heart of the drumlin area.”
The isolated nature of this drumlin mass, surrounded by wide
marshes as is strikingly shown by his plate 12 of Bulletin 111 of
the Museum, is due to the fact that it was an island or rather an
archipelago in the waters of glacial Lake Iroquois. The gravel pit
itself, which is about 1400 feet due north of the power house (stop
number 67) on the Rochester, Syracuse & Eastern electric rail-
way, is dug in one of the beach spits built by the waves of the lake,
and its summit level of about 420 feet above the sea therefore
marks the position of the ancient water surface. This level is over
30 feet above the surrounding marshes, indicating clearly that at
no point between this mass and the mainland or the neighboring
islands could the icy waters of Lake Iroquois have been less than
30 feet deep. Nor was it anywhere less than one-fourth of a mile
across to the nearest other land, which was, like itself, an island.

There is every reason to believe, nevertheless, that the bones were
buried in these beach gravels by the waves themselves, and at the
time when Lake Iroquois was at its full height. In no other way
could they have become so interstratified with the beach shingle.
Three pits have been opened here: a large one (90 by 325 feet) on
the west slope of the spit by the trolley company during the con-
struction of their line, and two smaller ones (respectively 50 by
170 and 4o by 80 feet) on the crest of the beach for road metal.
These upper pits are shallow, not over 6 feet deep, in the finer sur-
face gravels, stopping when they reach the underlying coarse
gravels that appear in the railway pit just below them. It is the
larger and fresher of these shallow upper pits that has furnished
the remains so far found. Besides the portions that have been
saved, a crumbling tusk appears to have been shovelled in with
the gravel, and there is no knowing how many other small bones or
fragments have been distributed upon the roads of the town. The
two pieces just collected lay unrecognized among the rejected larger
cobbles.

The separation of the parts, especially the isolation of the teeth,
and the fact that the pieces found have belonged to various portions

46 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of the animal, harmonize with the belief that they were the play of
the waves, yet not carried far. Lying high in the gravel ridge, yet
mostly beneath the reach of plant roots, they have escaped rotting,
suffering chiefly from pick and shovel. The problem that engages
us is, How did the mammoth reach the island?

Without attempting to defend any theory, the following possi-
bilities are suggested: that he swam there; that he crossed on the
ice in winter; that mammoths may have roamed on the surface of
the glacier itself and been drifted to this shore by icebergs; that the
bloated carcass was floated to the island; that a mammoth colony
may have been marooned on the Savannah island by the slowly
rising waters of Iroquois, since that lake is now known to have been
flooded back upon the south shore by slow uplift of its outlet region.
These are some of the possibilities that present themselves; it is
not imperative that their pros and cons should be argued until
more is known about the pit and its fossil contents. The out-
standing fact that seems unlikely to be modified by further evidence
is that this occurrence fixes the existence of living mammoths in
western New York during the closing phase of full-height Iroquois,
a lake that coincided with the period of final recession of the second
Wisconsin glacier from the Ontario basin and upper St Lawrence
valley.

Madison county

Near Canastota. In August of this year Dr. Burnett Smith
reported the discovery of mastodon or mammoth bones. The occur-
rence is 4 miles north of Canastota and 2 miles distant from the
south shore of Oneida lake. The bones were found while exca-
vating for a drainage canal in the extensive swampy region lying
to the south of Oneida lake. At the present writing, one each of
the following bones have been uncovered: femur, ulna, radius, rib,
patella.

Chittenango. Among the collections are several ribs bearing the
label “ Chittenango, N. Y., E. Emmons 1873.” Fron the !same
collection are two tusks, with the ivory in an excellent state of
preservation. They bear the label “ Chittenango, N. Y.”” From the
character of the tusks, these remains are referred to the mammoth.
(See Tenth Ann) Rept State'Cab Nat welist 1857: ) pees)

Orange county

Near Harriman. In October 1913 there was acquired by the
gift of Mr W. J. Post of Harriman, N. Y., a finely preserved tusk
of the mastodon. The specimen was found about 2 miles south of

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 47

Harriman station (Erie Railroad). It was covered by about 6 feet
of muck at the bottom of a pond which had become dry at this
season.

Near Vails Gate Junction. During the summer of 1917, remains
of a mastodon were found on the muck land of Antonio Fisher, one-
half of a mile west of Temple Hill monument and 1 mile north of
Vails Gate Junction. The find consists of a few scattering bones
together with a well-preserved lower jaw containing the four teeth.
These remains were found in a shallow excavation 2 feet below the
surface. In size the jaw is slightly larger than that of the Cohoes
mastodon.

Near Milton. About 1890 a very small tooth of a neroden was
found near Milton by Charles Kniffen, on the farm now owned
(1917) by J. R. Bray. The tooth at the present writing is in the
- possession of the finder.

Schenectady county

South Schenectady. In 1914 a fairly well-preserved tooth of
medium size of the mastodon was obtained from the gravels at South
Schenectady by Richard Ribley, who still has possession of it.

Cortland county

Near Homer. Among the collections are two mammoth teeth
carrying the label “ from near Homer, N. Y.” One is a complete
large specimen, the other has one end broken away. ‘The part
remaining represents two-thirds of the specimen.

Niagara county
Lewiston. In 1912 the remains of mammoths were found in a
gravel pit of the Iroquois beach, not more than 40 rods from the
railroad station at Lewiston. The parts recovered include two
atlases, one complete molar, parts of two other molars, the pelvis;
a few ribs, and one vertebra. The layers of sand and gravel dip
at nearly 45° east or southeast, and the bones were found in several
layers aggregating 6 to 10 feet and 20 to 40 feet below the flat top
Orie terrace:
Warren county

Near Queensbury. Among the collection of local objects from
the vicinity of Glens Falls presented to the Museum by James A.
Holden is a large tooth of a mammoth. The specimen was found
on the farm of John Harris in upper Queensbury.

48 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

MINERALOGY

Exchanges. Pursuing the policy that the large stock of dupli-
cates both in the general mineral collection and in the New York
State collection should be utilized as a means of acquiring by
exchange desirable new material for both collections, a circular
letter was issued to a group of private collectors soliciting exchange
and stating the needs and standards of both collections. This
policy, which will be adhered to in the future developing of this
section of the Museum, has already enriched the collections in both
exhibited and study specimens. The high standard already set by
the exhibited specimens in both collections makes it increasingly
difficult to add new material, which, at least in the case of an addi-
tion to the general collection, must be subjected to a rigorous com-
parison with the displayed suite, and which must prove its right
to a place in the exhibited series by displacing a corresponding
specimen.

Guide. ‘The visitors’ guide to the mineral collection which
was issued in October 1916, and distributed to the public in
response to a request, has met a demand amounting to about 100
copies a month. It fills a gap in the educational scheme of this sec-
tion of the Museum in that it supplies to the visitor whose inter-
est has been aroused, popular information of a more detailed char-
acter than can be gained from the necessarily brief group labels,
and it also opens the way for a more comprehensive study of the
collections, using Bulletin 58 as a textbook. In line with this idea,
a reference table has been placed in the center of the collections,
equipped with several of the mineralogic publications of the
Museum, descriptive of the collections.

Lectures. The extension work of the section of mineralogy
has grown in the past year. In addition to the two lectures
delivered in the State Museum course, the curator of mineralogy
has been called on to deliver the following lectures and addresses:

“Lettered Signs” before the State Library School.

“The New State Museum and the Peoples University ” before
the Peoples Forum of Binghamton, N. Y.

“ Diamonds” before the Chemical Society of the State College
for Teachers, Albany.

“Gems and Gem Minerals” before the Woman’s Club of
Hudson.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 4Q

“Gem Symbolism in Legend and Folklore” before the Albany
Philosophical Society.

“The Installation and Development of the Mineral Collections
of the New York State Museum” before the New York Mineral
Club, New York City.

“ Methods of Museum Installation as Illustrated in the New
York State Museum” before the State Library School.

Research. Crystallographic research has been confined to the
study of several occurrences of barite, the material for which was
furnished by the general collection, and an occurrence of werner-
ite, the material for which was drawn from the New Worle Sree
collection. Both studies have resulted in the establishment of
new crystal forms.

50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

VII
REPORT OP WHE SPAY fab Om Anges a

Noteworthy contributions. The most important additions to
the state herbarium during the past year are contributions of
specimens from Prof. J. J. Davis, of Madison, Wis., the New
York Botanical Garden and Dr J. R. Weir of Missoula, Mont.,
in addition to the collections made by members of the staff.

Wild Flowers of New York. The season of 1916 was largely
spent in continuation of the field work necessary for the comple-
tion of the proposed memoir on the Wild Flowers of New York
State. This work was started early in August 1915 and with the
appearance of the earliest spring flowers in April 1916, the work
was carried forward and completed late in September of the past
year. During the two months of 1915 and the six months from
April 15 to September 15, 1916, there were photographed in the
field 364 species of plants which, because of their conspicuous
flowers or attractive appearance, might be classed under the rather
indefinite term of “ wild flowers.”

The 364 illustrations will be in colors and grouped on about 264
plates, of which 161 plates will have each a single illustration and
the 103 remaining plates will contain two illustrations each. The
text will consist of a brief description of each species together with
its range and such other remarks concerning its habitat as seem
proper.

By means of a specially constructed apparatus as shown in the
accompanying illustration each flower was photographed in
position as it grew, without) any interference) iiommeygme
or excessive sunlight. For each subject. there were taken one
or two (usually two) dry plate photographs and one lumiere
(autochrome) photograph. These were usually developed within
a few hours so that any serious faults might be corrected by taking
another exposure of the subject.

It is proper to remark here that the success of these photo-
graphs is largely due to the skill, patience and enthusiasm, often
under disagreeable physical circumstances, shown by the two photo-
graphers employed: Mr Walter B. Starr of the Matthews—
Northrup Company, Buffalo, and Mr Harold H. Snyder of the
Zeese-Wilkinson Company, New York.

surydessojoyd o[IYM PuUIM WOTF SToMOY PIM yooj01d 0} posn advo JO MolA

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 51

Each subject photographed was given a number in order to
facilitate its designation in subsequent correspondence, engraving
and arrangement in final order. Photographic proofs of the dry
plates were marked with directions for size of completed illustra-
tion and such other alterations as seemed desirable and duplicate
copies of such proofs were kept on file in the Botanist’s office.
From retouched photographs approved by the Botanist, the engrav-
ing companies made their plates for engraving and these were
etched down with the autochrome positive as a color guide until
each of the four copper plates gave the proper register of color
when used upon the press in combination with one another, that
is to say, blue, yellow, red and black.

Scientific investigations. A rather limited amount of time
was devoted to the completion of a reconnaissance of the vegeta-
tion and its ecological relations about the eastern end of
Oneida lake, a region of extensive sandy barrens, swamps
and bogs in addition to the broad, sandy beach of the lake and the
numerous shallow waters of the lake shore and the streams
flowing into the lake, the home of numerous water-loving
plants. Because of soil conditions and a climate, influenced to
some extent by the Great Lakes, the region is characterized ‘by a
large number of plants common to the northern coastal plain. The
results of this investigation appear in the Botanist’s report.
Exchanges. Duplicate specimens of fungi, ferns and flower-
ing plants have been exchanged for desirable material with the
New York Botanical Garden, the National Herbarium at Wash-
ington, Prof. J. Dearness of London, Canada; Dr J. KR. Weir of
Missoula, Mont., and other institutions and individuals.

Additions to the herbarium. The number of specimens of
New York State species which have been added to the herbarium
from current collections of the staff during the past year is 528,
from contributions 375, a total of 903 specimens. Of the total
number of specimens received, 131 were new to the herbarium
and 25 species are described as new to science.

In addition, about goo specimens of species extralimital to New
York, from the Sheldon herbarium, presented in 1914, representing
characteristic species of the eastern and southern flora, have been
remounted and incorporated into the herbarium. It is not the aim
of the state herbarium to represent to any great extent the flora
of regions beyond the State’s border. The Sheldon herbarium.
however, contains over 13,000 specimens, representing nearly

52 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

S000 species, most of them extralimital to New York, and it seems
advisable gradually to incorporate the best of them into the her-
barium for purposes of comparison with our native species and
as an aid in the identification of material collected outside the
State by persons who bring or send them here for determination.

T'wenty persons have contributed specimens to the herbarium,
and the number of species represented by their contributions is
375. This includes specimens sent or brought for identification
which were desirable additions to the herbarium.

Collections have been made by the staff in the following counties:
Albany, Bronx, Cayuga, Columbia, Genesee, Herkimer, Madison,
Monroe, Nassau, Oneida, Onondaga, Ontario, Oswego, Queens,
Rensselaer, Suffolk and Wayne.

Identifications. The number of identifications made of speci-
mens sent or brought to the office by 95 inquirers is 465.

Mushroom models. The Peck testimonial collection of models
cast in wax of edible and poisonous mushrooms now includes 56
groups of which 8 represent poisonous species. This constitutes a
most interesting exhibit and one of high educational value. It is
planned to arrange these in an attractive manner in wall cases.

Many of these groups have been the subject of special study and
illustration by Doctor Peck. The following list of the groups is
collated with reference to illustrations of them which have
appeared in publications of the State Museum.

I Craterellus clavatus (Pers.) Fr.
Memoir 4, pl. 56, fig. 17-21; 4oth Rep’t, pl 44, fe. T-sunas
Craterellus cantharellus)
2 Mitrula irregularis Peck (M. vitellina Sacc. var. irregularis
Peck)
48th Rep’t, pl. 5, fig. 8-14
3. Russula cyanoxantha (Schaeff.) Fr.
4 Lepiota naucina Fr. (Lepiota naucinioides Peck)
48th Rep’t, pl. 19
5 Agaricus arvensis Schaef.
48th Rep’t, pl. 8
Leottia lubrica (Scop.) Fr.
Peziza badia Fr.
Pleurotus sapidus Kalchbr.
Tricholoma personatum Fr.
48th Rep’t, pl. 20
10 Clavaria pistilaris umbonata Peck
Memoir 4) pl. 60, ne. 15-17

NS} (2 St ON

4O
AI

REPORT, OF THE DIRECTOR IQ16 5

Le)

Russula roseipes (Secr.) Bres.
Bist) Repb, ple 53) ue. 1-75) Memoir 4) pl. S4, fig. 2-7
Russula emetica Fr.
Lycoperdon pyriforme Schaeff.
Peziza aurantia Pers.
Tremellodon gelatinosum (Scop.) Pres.
Clavaria cristata Pres.
48th Rep’t, pl. 39, fig. 8-12
Cantharellus cibarius Fr. :
lepioras procera (Scop. ) S.i) Gray
48th Rep’t, pl. 18
Hypholoma perplexum Peck
48th Rep’t, pl. 47, fig. 11-18; Memoir 4, pl. 60, fig. 10-i7
Armillaria mellea (Vahl) Quel.
48th Rep’t, pl. 20
Scleroderma vulgare Hornem.
Boletus cyanescens Bull.
Tricholoma sejunctum (Sow.) Quel.

Craterellus cantharellus (Schw.) Fr.

Russula albidula Peck
Pleurotus serotinus (Schrad.) Fr.
Fistulina hepatica Fr.
48th Rep’t, pl. 37, fig. 8-12
Geoglossum ophioglossoides (L.) Sacc.
Hypomyces lactifluorum (Schw.) Fr.
Mus. Bul. 105, pl. 103
Hydnum albidum Peck
Memoir 4, pl. 67, fig. 1-6; 51st Rep’t, pl. 56, fig. 1-7
Hygrophorus eburneus (Bull.) Fr.
Collybia radicata Relh.
Chanterel floccosus Schw.
Memon plscs, ne: On; 52d) Rept, pl, 60) fig: 10-14
Coprinus comatus Fr.
48th Rep’t, pl. 10
Boletus alboater Schw. (B. nigrellus Peck)
Clavaria ligula Fr.
Russula virescens Fr.
48th Rep’t, pl. 31
Calvatia elata Massee
Gyromitra brevipes Fr. (G. esculenta very similar to this-is
illustrated in 48th Rep’t, pl. 5, fig. 1-3)
Gyromitra brunnea Undervw.
Sparassis crispa (Wulf.) Fr.

54
42
43
44
45

40
47

48

49
50

51
52

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Morchella deliciosa Fr.
48th Rep’t, pl. 3, fig. 4-7
Strobilomyces strobilaceus (Scop.) Berk.
Mus. Bul. 94, pl. 92
Craterellus cornucopioides (L.) Pers.
48th Rept, pl. 24, fig.- 7-10
Polyporus sulphureus Fr.
48th Rep’t, pl. 37, fig. 1-4
Polyporus caudicinus (Scop.) Murr. (P. squamosus Huds.)
Agaricus campestris (L.) Fr.
48th Rep’t, pl. 6, fig. 1-10
Amanita caesarea (Scop.) Pers.
48th Rep’t, pl. 10
Tremella lutescens Pers.
Clitocybe illudens (Schw.) Fr.
Memoir 4, pl. 68
Hypomyces hyalinus (Schw.) Tul.

Amanita phalloides Fr.

(Four models showing variations in color and form)

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 55

WAIEL
Nit Ok Or ME Si Ahh EN OMOLOGEIST

The Entomologist reports that the frequent and rather heavy
rains of the spring and early summer offset, in large measure,
depredations by various leaf feeders by producing an unusual
growth of vegetation. Apple tent caterpillars were numerous in
many localities and yet the damage was relatively small. There
were no complaints of injuries by the forest tent caterpillar and
very little serious damage by the elm leaf beetle, a pest which, in
earlier years, defoliated thousands of trees, and one which has
killed many magnificent elms in the Hudson valley.

The subjects briefly outlined in this report are more fully dis-
cussed in the annual report of the Entomologist.

Fruit tree insects. Practical work with the codling moth was
continued the past season in cooperation with the bureau of horti-
culture of the State Department of Agriculture, and the Monroe
County Farm Bureau. These studies were conducted in four com-
mercial orchards in western New York through the hearty coopera-
tion of their respective owners and an effort made to determine
the relative value, as in former years, of the first, second and
third sprays for the control of this pest. In connection with these
investigations, observations were also made upon the development
and biology of the codling moth. The data secured show, as do
those of earlier years, the very great benefits which may be derived
from the first or so-called calyx spray, and indicate most strongly
the necessity of thoroughness if satisfactory results are to be
obtained. This alone is of great value to the commercial fruit
grower, since it indicates the most promising method of control-
fing a destructive insect. The work in the orchard of Mr H. E.
Wellman, Kendall, when compared with that of the preceding year,
shows a very gratifying reduction in infestation. The same plots
were used and the wormy apples of the past season were from
one-third to two-thirds less than those of I915.

A careful study of the different types of codling moth injury
has enabled the Entomologist to verify his earlier opinions as to
the relation existing between them and the habits of the insect,
and also to outline rules for determining the period during which
different types of injury may be inflicted. The latter is of con-

56 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

siderable importance in connection with the enforcement of the
apple grading and packing law. He has also, through the coopera-
tion of several local observers, secured detailed records of evening
temperatures and other meteorological data under actual orchard
conditions. Unfortunately the egg laying of the moth was so dis-
tributed the past season that it was impossible to demonstrate a
well-marked relation between variations in evening temperatures
and the deposition of eggs, though it is very probable that such
exists. The meteorological data recorded constitute a substantial
basis for subsequent investigations. Spraying for the control of
the codling moth was followed by serious and somewhat general
injury to Baldwin foliage, in’ particular, due probably to the appli-
cation of a rather strong fungicide immediately after a series of
rains which produced an unusually tender growth.

Continued injuries by the apple maggot resulted in beginning an
investigation of the pest, with especial reference to practical con-
trol measures. This was started through the cooperation of Mr
Edward Van Alstyne of Kinderhook, and Mr George T. Powell of
Ghent. The results of a series of tests with sweetened poisons
for the destruction of the flies were so equivocal that this office
is unable to recommend this spray and for the present is content
with advising the early destruction of infested fruit, supplemented
by good orchard practice. The investigations of the past season
demonstrated such variations in the habits of the flies in nearby
orchards that a continuance of the study is planned for another
year.

Incidental to work with the codling moth noticed above, investi-
gations showed that the leaf roller, a serious pest of the fruit
grower in the western part of the State, was much less abundant
than was the case in 1915. This condition is probably due to one
of the natural and frequently unexplainable oscillations in insect
life.

Studies of red bugs the past year indicate that the two species
generally grouped under this common name, are becoming well
established in the fruit-growing sections of the State and here and
there are causing serious injury. The practical work of the past
two years has demonstrated nothing ‘to be more effective than the
use of a tobacco extract, 40 per cent nicotine, just before the
blossoms open. This may be applied in water to which any cheap
soap has been added to aid in spreading the insecticide, or incor-
porated in the delayed dormant spray. In the case of bad infesta-

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9Q16 57

tions this last treatment should be supplemented by the use of
tobacco in the usual calyx spray for the codling moth and the
compound applied as soon as possible after the dropping of the
blossoms.

The San José scale, greatly feared in earlier years, has caused
comparatively little injury in the Hudson valley, and in some sec-
tions has been remarkable for its scarcity. This reduction in
abundance is probably attributable in large measure to the
activities of various small parasites, though climatic conditions
may have considerable influence. Unsprayed orchards, even
though they have been infested with the scale for a series of years,
are in somewhat better condition, generally speaking, than they
were eight or ten years ago and a few fruit growers have been
encouraged by this comparative scarcity of the pest, to omit the
early spring application for the control of the scale. No serious
consequences have followed this procedure to our knowledge,
though it is a practice which can not be recommended at the
present time.

The minute and destructive pear thrips have been abundant here
and there in the Hudson valley and has caused serious injury in
a few localities. Through a combination of fortunate conditions
the Entomologist was able to secure a somewhat satisfactory test
of the value of a thick lime-sulphur wash as a means of controlling
the thrips, the application being made before the buds crack.
The results are most encouraging though owing to the erratic
habits of the insect, there can be only a qualified recommendation.

Injuries by the pear psylla have not been serious, as a rule, in

Hudson valley orchards and in many, comparatively few eggs were
deposited in early spring. The late application of the winter
lime-sulphur wash for the destruction of the eggs continues to
be one of the most satisfactory methods of controlling this pest
though occasionally the treatment must be supplemented by mid-
summer spraying with a contact insecticide.

Gipsy moth. The area infested by the gipsy ote at Mount
Kisco was examined, and though the scouting of the winter of
I9QI5 and 1916 revealed an extension of the infested area there was
no marked change in the situation. The infested woodland had
been well cleaned during the winter and early spring, was thor-
oughly sprayed in early summer, and in August no living insects
were to be found. There is no reason why this local infestation
should not be eradicated if the work is prosecuted with desirable

50 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

thoroughness and those most conversant with the situation can
not gainsay the wisdom of such procedure.

Grass and grain pests. The grasshopper devastations of the
last two years on the borders of the Adirondacks were much
reduced during the past season, though many young insects hatched
in early spring, as shown by observations in Lewis, Saratoga and
Albany counties. There were two causes for this change. The
frequent and copious rains of the spring and summer produced an
abundant forage capable of supporting many grasshoppers with-
out marked injury. The rains doubtless killed many of the young
insects by producing conditions unfavorable for their development
and, in addition, the systematic poisoning of earlier years over
large areas resulted in a great decrease in the pests. The experi-
ence of the last three years has amply demonstrated, generally
speaking, the practicability of local control through the distribution
of poisoned baits.

The white grub outbreak of 1915 was followed, as was to be
expected, by numerous full-grown grubs in many fields last spring
and as a consequence many farmers were afraid to plant sus-
ceptible crops on such land. Moderately late planting of these
areas was advised and the outcome in the field fully justified the
recommendation. General notices were also issued calling attention
to the more salient features in the life history of these destructive
insects and pointing out the most practical means of avoiding
injury. Studies were continued of the white grub robber fly, a
species which has proved an important natural enemy of white
grubs.

Incidental observations during recent years, upon several minor
clover insects, have been brought together and placed on record
in the Entomologist’s report. It will be seen by referring to these
two accounts that two European weevils in addition to the much
better known and earlier introduced, punctured clover leaf weevil,
have become established in recent years in the Hudson valley and
in certain localities, at least, are causing an appreciable amount of
injury.

Shade tree insects. There has been comparatively little
damage to the shade trees of the State, owing in part to the cli-
matic conditions being unusually favorable for the growth of
vegetation. |

An interesting injury, that of the maple leaf stem borer, has
been studied. This insect is a comparatively unknown one in New

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 59

York State and occasionally, as shown by observations in other
portions of the country, becomes somewhat abundant and injurious.

There is annually more or less bleeding from wounded trees.
The past season was characterized by an unusual prevalence of
this trouble. While there may be other causes for this phenome-
non, observations of the last few years have enabled us to associate
much of this damage with slender, white maggots, the young of a
small and hitherto almost unknown fly.

Forest tree pests. Injuries by the hickory bark beetle, as
shown by observations, have continued though the damage the past
season appears to be materially less and, in certain cases at least,
seems to be favored by a weakened condition following the severe
drought of earlier years. Studies of this species have resulted in
securing valuable information respecting the biology and habits
of several associated species.

Greenhouse pests. A number of greenhouse insects were
brought to the notice of the office during the past year and investi-
gated so far as opportunities permitted. The Florida fern cater-
pillar, a well-known southern insect, was found well established in
a fern house at Lockport.

The rose bud midge, a dangerous enemy of indoor roses, has
again appeared in greenhouses in the lower Hudson valley, while
reports from different localities indicate a wide dissemination for
the recently introduced chrysanthemum gall midge, a species liable
to appear in numbers and cause serious injury in almost any
chrysanthemum house of the State.

Periodical Cicada. A brood of this remarkable insect
appeared in the western part of the State, and detailed records
concerning its distribution and abundance, together with observa-
tions upon its habits, have been collated and are given in the
Entomologist’s report.

Flies. There is continued interest in the control of the house
fly and a number of requests for information in regard to this
insect have been complied with. Mobilization of troops the past
summer made it necessary to control flies under camp conditions
and at the request of Dr H. L. Van Winkle, the Entomologist made
a personal examination of Camp Whitman, Greenhaven, and
submitted a series of recommendations for the control of the house
fly.

Infantile paralysis. A serious outbreak of this disease made
it very desirable to investigate thoroughly the possibilities of flies

60 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

or other insects acting as carriers of this infection, and at the invi-
tation of Dr Haven Emerson, commissioner of health, New York
City, the Entomologist attended a conference for the purpose of
outlining a fly survey. This work was placed in charge of an
entomologist employed by the department of health of the city of
New York, and the details of the investigation will be made public
later.

Gall midges. An unusual number of economic and compara-
tively unknown species belonging to this group have been brought
to our attention during the past year, and the probabilities are that
there will be more rather than less injury of this character in the
future. The studies of these interesting forms have been continued
and a number of new species, mostly reared, and several new
genera described.

Key to insect galls. The studies of gall midges have resulted
in many insect galls being submitted for identification and, as a
matter of convenience, an illustrated key of these deformations
has been prepared. This tabulates about 1400 galls in relation to
their food plants, gives the principal characters of each deformi-
ty and a reference to the best or more accessible description.
The key has greatly facilitated the naming of galls and it is believed
that its publication will materially increase the interest in this
branch of natural history.

Lectures. The Entomologist has delivered a number of lec-
tures on insects, mostly economic species, before various agricul-
tural and horticultural gatherings, some of them being in coopera-
tion with the Bureau of Farmers’ Institutes or the county farm
bureau agents. Several lectures have also been given under the
auspices of local welfare associations.

Publications. A number of brief, popular accounts regarding
such common pests as the apple tent caterpillar, pear thrips, white
grubs and grasshoppers have been prepared and widely circulated
through the press. The Entomologist’s report contains a list of
his more important publications during the year.

The increased interest in agriculture and nature study resulted
in a large demand from school teachers for information relating
to insects, and as a consequence the editions of certain more
popular bulletins and reprints, some dating back a number of years,
were exhausted the past summer. These publications could hardly
have been placed to better advantage.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 61

Faunal studies. Investigations along these lines have been
continued and a manuscript list of the insects of the Adirondack
region, based mostly upon material in the state collection, is nearly
ready for publication. This list is a growing one, additions being
constantly made thereto in connection with other work carried
on within the limits of our faunal area, such as the study of grass-
hoppers the last two or three years.

Another valuable addition to the natural history of the State
is practically ready for the printer, namely “A Monographic

Account of the Caddis Flies or Trichoptera,’ by Dr Cornelius

Betten. This work had its inception in the studies of aquatic
insects begun at the entomological field station, Saranac Inn, in
I90I, many of the results of which appear in Museum Bulletins
maroc oo and 024. Ihe Nrichoptera are an important group
economically, since there are numerous species occurring in all
kinds of fresh waters throughout the State, some of them being
exceedingly abundant and consequently of great value as food for
fish and other aquatic life.

Substantial progress on the “ Monograph of the Stone Flies or
Plecoptera”’ has been made by Prof. James G. Needham. This
is another study begun at the entomological field station mentioned
above and will make an extensive and valuable addition to our
knowledge of an important and comparatively unknown group of
aquatic insects. These studies and those already published on
aquatic forms, comprise by far the most important additions to
our knowledge of American aquatic insects.

The contributions to the natural history of the State from the
office of the State Entomologist are worthy of mention in this
connection. The scope of these studies, as indicated by the titles
cited and the amount of work involved, is suggested by the approxi-
mately 3500 pages of text with numerous illustrations devoted to
the discussion of the various groups. The more important titles,
aside from the long series of reports and bulletins, treating of
especially destructive forms, are listed below.

Entomological Contributions 1-4, by J. A. Lintner, appearing in
the 23d, 24th, 26th and 30th Museum Reports, respectively, con-
tain many and valuable additions to the knowledge of our local
fauna.

Scale Insects of Importance and List of the Species in New

York State, by the Entomologist, Museum Bulletin 46. The more

62 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

destructive species are faithfully illustrated in color, discussed in
some detail and a list given of all the species then known to occur
in the State.

Aquatic Insects in the Adirondacks, by J. G. Needham and
Cornelius Betten, Museum Bulletin 47. Contains comprehensive
accounts of many aquatic forms and is illustrated by a number of
admirably executed colored plates.

Monograph on the Genus Saperda, by the Entomologist and
L. H. Joutel, Museum Bulletin 74. An extended economic and
systematic discussion of these important beetles illustrated by an
unequaled series of colored plates.

Mosquitoes or Culicidae of New York State, by the Entomolo-
gist, Museum Bulletin 79. The first comprehensive account of
New York forms, based upon an exact study of both adult and
immature stages, illustrated by a large series of original plates.

Aquatic Insects in New York State, by J. G. Needham, A. D.
MacGillivray, O. A. Johannsen and K. C. Davis, Museum Bulletin
68. Contains accounts of numerous aquatic forms with mono-
graphic discussions of several groups.

May Flies and Midges of New York State, by J. G. Needham,
J. K. Morton and O. A. Johannsen, Museum Bulletin 86. The
greater part of this work deals with) the )Pphemeridacmand
Chironomidae and there is, in addition, a valuable paper on the
Hydroptilidae.

Studies in Culicidae; Jassidae of New York; List of Hemiptera
Taken in the Adirondack Mountains, by the Entomologist, Herbert
Osborn and E. P. Van Duzee, respectively, Museum Bulletin 79.
The three papers specifically mentioned comprise valuable addi-
tions to our knowledge, the first being mostly morphological and
taxonomic and the others faunal and biological.

Catalogue of the “ Phytoptid” Galls of North America; Report
of the Entomological Field Station, Old Forge, 1905; New North
American Chironomidae; Studies in Cecidomyiidae II, by G. H.
Chadwick, J. G. Needham, O. A. Johannsen and the Entomologist;
respectively, Museum Bulletin 124. This comprises a series of
extensive and important additions to our Seas of the natural
history of the State.

Catalogue of the Described Scolytidae of ainleees North of
Mexico, by J. M. Swaine, Museum Bulletin 134. The only com-
prehensive bibliographic catalog of this group which has appeared.

A Study of Gall Midges, Parts 1-4, by the Entomologist, in

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 63

Museum Bulletins 165, 175, 180 and 186. Portions of a mono-
graphic account of a large and important family, the American
forms of which, prior to these studies, were practically unknown.

Insects Affecting Park and Woodland Trees, by the Entomolo-
gist, Museum Memoir 8. Contains many New York records relat-
ing to forest and shade tree insects and is the only comprehensive
and moderately recent work dealing with this very important group.

Collections. The insect collections: of the State Museum,
more than those of any other institution of the State of New
York, should contain an adequate representation of our rich and
economically important fauna. There are probably 20,000 different
species of insects in the State, each represented by at least four
stages and these, with varieties, specimens of their work and other
desirable illustrative material, would mean a collection of some
100,000 different specimens in order to represent properly this
great and fascinating complex. The development of this one
feature is an enormous undertaking and one utterly beyond the
limited time which can be devoted to such work under present
conditions.

The assembling and preparation of the enlarged exhibit of
insects extended well into 1916 and, owing to the great amount of
time required, necessarily prevented very desirable work in the
arrangement and classification of the reference collections. Addi-
tions to these are constantly being made, especially of specimens
representing the early stages and work of various injurious forms,
since biological material of this character greatly facilitates identi-
fication of the different insects and is indispensable in a well-
prepared exhibit illustrating the life histories of different species.
Several special collecting trips in connection with grasshopper or
other investigations were made by Mr D. B. Young and resulted in
securing a considerable number of very desirable specimens. The
identification of this material, especially of the crane flies or
Tipulidae, has been taken advantage of to rearrange this interest-
ing and hitherto largely neglected family. The state collections
now contain a large amount of material which is invaluable because
of the associated data. Numerous microscopic preparations of
smaller insects have been made and incorporated in the collections
as in earlier years.

A number of very desirable additions have been made by
exchange, notably those from Mr Paul B. Sears, Columbus, Ohio,
Mr W. J. Chamberlin, Corvallis, Ore., and Mr J. R. Malloch,

64 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Urbana, Ill. The species acquired are listed with the other
accessions.

The wooden boxes containing the insect collections should be
replaced by steel cabinets, as soon as practicable and more pro-
vided to accommodate the extra boxes and trays required by the
normal increase in the collection. No adequate provision has as
yet been made for the constantly increasing biological material
and the large number of microscopic slides, many of which con-
tain types of species and genera and are therefore unique. A
metal filing case for the collection of negatives and photographs
illustrating insects or other work is also greatly needed.

Nursery inspection. Nursery inspection work of the State
Department of Agriculture has resulted in a number of specimens
representing various stages of insect development, some in very poor
condition, being submitted for identification. As such material
may originate in a foreign country, determinations of this character
are laborious and require for their successful prosecution a large
collection and an excellent library of both domestic and foreign
works. The correct identification of such material is important, °
since the disposal of an entire shipment of nursery stock must
depend in considerable measure upon the character of the
infestation.

General. The work of the entomological division has been
materially aided, as in past years, by the identification of a number
of species through the courtesy of Dr L. O. Howard, chief of the
bureau of entomology, United States Department of Agriculture,
and his associates. There has been, as already stated, very effective
cooperation with the State Department of Agriculture, several
county farm bureaus and other public welfare agencies in the
State. A number of correspondents have donated valuable speci-
mens and many have rendered efficient service by transmitting
local data respecting various insects., There has been) as meine
past, a most helpful cooperation on the part of all interested in
the entomological work of the Museum.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 65

IX
RE POR OF Ek ZOOFOGISH

In February of the past year, the Zoologist, Dr. Willard G. Van
Name, tendered his resignation and left the service of the depart-
ment. Just preceding his departure, Doctor Van Name was
engaged in arranging for exhibit the collections of bivalve mollusks
and birds’ eggs and relabeling in part the bird collection.

During the period following Doctor Van Name’s resignation
and the appointment of a new zoologist, a considerable amount
of material was worked over and prepared for display by Mr N. T.
Clarke and the taxidermist. At this time the collection of corals
was unpacked, cleaned and installed in zoology hall; the birds’
eggs rearranged and augmented by additional specimens from the
recently acquired Conway collection and a series of skeletons of
birds, fishes and mammals installed in cases reserved for them.
An interesting tree-toad exhibit designed to show protective colora-
tion was placed in zoology hall for the first time and additional
specimens of mounted fishes added to those already displayed.

The preparation of groups has proceeded as far as available
material would permit. New groups recently installed are a family
of woodchucks and a section of a sand bank with nesting bank
swallows. The Museum’s collection of univalve mollusks, native
to New York State, are now on exhibit but many species are needed
to complete the series. The accessions to the department during
the fiscal year include the collection of birds’ eggs and nests of
the late Martin J. Conway of Troy and represent about three hun-
dred species. Fourteen pairs of domestic pigeons of as many
varieties were secured from Mr B..M. Hartly of West Haven,
Conn., and these with the specimens already in the possession of
the Museum represent most of the common varieties.

By exchange with the Victoria Memorial Museum of Ottawa,
Canada, a number of sea fowl were secured typical of the great
nesting community of Bonaventure island.

But little time was available for field work, nevertheless in the
few days’ collecting a rather extensive series of spiders was taken,
including many species new to the State and several new to science.

The visible evidences of the activities of the department repre-

66 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

sent but a fraction of the work accomplished during the year. A
considerable amount of cataloging and labeling of specimens, with
complete sorting and arrangement of the collections of birds’ skins
and eggs, has been finished.

That there is a growing interest in general natural history and
zoology is daily evidenced by the increasing number of inquiries
relative to these subjects and the number of visitors to the office
of the Zoologist.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 67

xX
REPORT OF LE ARCEHEOLOGIST

The activities of the Archeologist of the State Museum are
divided in the field of research into two distinct groups, each of
which requires different methods of approach and study. The
field of archeology requires a knowledge of the prehistoric and
more recent aboriginal occupation of the State, a knowledge of
the various culture areas and the ability to seek out the important
centers and excavate them. The field of ethnology requires the
study of the folk ways, social organization rituals, folk lore, tech-
nology and material culture of the Indians who still survive and
who are able to give information concerning their ancestors. It
will be seen that the special training needful for equipment in each
of these lines of research differs, and that while the two fields are
correlated, any attempt to follow both thoroughly requires con-
stant application.

Supplementing the research activities are those of the curator.
The archeological and ethnological collections in our custody are
extensive and very valuable. To arrange, catalog, label and instal
the specimens properly is a work of years and will require care-
ful study. The value of our collections to students of ethnology
is such that every effort is being put forth to bring out fully the
facts represented by them.

Condition of the collections. The collections placed in the
care of this section of the Museum are installed in the mezzanine
halls of the top floor and extend from one end of the building to
the other. The ethnological collection occupies the most space.
Owing to the rarity of the specimens and the relatively small num-
ber to be obtained it is not likely that our cases will soon be over-
taxed. The installation is in tall cases, centrally placed, and in wall
cases having desk extensions. The wampum belts of the Iroquois
Confederacy, placed permanently in our custody, are displayed in
the ethnological hall.

Care is taken to poison properly all specimens that might become
infected with moths or other vermin but we have not yet been able
to destroy all vestiges of such life in some of the more recently
acquired specimens of food plants. Constant inspection during the
year has contributed to the safety of the valuable specimens and

3

68 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

we are now reasonably sure that none of the fabrics are infested
with destructive insects. We are still troubled by the entrance
of dust into the cases caused by the minute particles of cement
dislodged from the floor. There can be no adequate remedy
until means are at hand to coat the cement properly with a prepara-
tion that will prevent the formation of dust through abrasion.

The Iroquois habitat and culture-history groups in the Governor
Myron H. Clark Hall of Iroquois Ethnology are constantly receiv-
ing attention and care. This is necessary not only on account of
the value of the groups, but owing to the necessity of inspecting
the electric wiring, protecting the contents from destruction by
moths and keeping the acessories in a state of good preservation.
During the year all six have been poisoned ‘with a cyanide gas and
all fur garments sprayed with mercury bichloride.

The physical condition of the groups is good and no signs of
deterioration have become visible since their installation. An effort
is made to preserve the proper humidity and to keep the tempera-
ture at the uniform degree of 72. Screened ventilators permit
the exit of air heated by the electric lamps to a point above nor-
mal. There is thus a constantly automatic breathing by the cases.

The detached rooms on each end of this mezzanine are at pres-
ent serving for other purposes than ethnological exhibits, but only
temporarily so. The westmost room, near Swan street, 1s employed
as a convenient lecture hall for museum lectures. The room at the
opposite end, at the center of the building, is designed to contain a
bark lodge, to be furnished.completely with Iroquois utensils. At
present the room contains an exhibit of plows, illustrating the
evolution of. the plow and the plowshare in America.

The hall of archeology is in the eastmost mezzanine. The cases
are crowded and there appears to be no room for expansion. ‘The
most recent section of the Museum has completely outgrown
the quarters assigned to it, and this within the period during which
the collections have been installed in the Education Building. Only
by carefully selecting the specimens and by restricting the exhibits
is it possible to display ‘what we have. There remains but little -
room for the exhibition of the many relief maps, models and
restorations that were originally contemplated. The only relief
will be to disjoint and disassociate the collections and remove a
section to the west end of the building and eliminate the lecture
room.

The archeological collections on exhibition are receiving .con-

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REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 69

stant curatoral oversight, each specimen having been selected by
the Archeologist and given its place in the exhibition series. The
painstaking labors of Mr Howard A. Lansing in cataloging and
preparing labels have contributed much to the preservation of the
facts associated ‘with the specimens, but the work yet to be done
remains enormous.

Our complete plan calls for a typewritten or printed guide
book on each case, whereby the student may have a proper under-
standing of the meaning of each exhibit. :

Office work. The work in the office, besides the labor of pre-
paring the catalog and making the proper entries on the records,
consists of answering numerous requests for information, for
names of Indian localities, and for publications. It is the study
and classification of specimens, however, that consumes the greater
portion of the time. About ten thousand objects have been placed
on exhibition but nearly ninety thousand are stored in drawers for
study purposes. These have received attention during the year.
Our researches have covered the subjects of industry, experi-
ments in primitive methods of manufacture and experiments to
determine the uses of certain forms of “problematical” objects.
These latter include banner stones, boat stones, gorgets and bird
stones. On these specimens we have made extended notes.

Public interest. The interest of the public, and particularly
of the special student, grows from year to year, as is evidenced
by the number of letters received, by the personal visits of col-
lectors, historians, museum curators from other states and from
foreign lands, and especially by the visits of teachers and pupils
in the public schools. Our section is becoming known, as it should
be, as a repository of Indian lore of widely varied subjects. Our
facilities make possible the answering of appeals for service from
the several state departments and in several instances from the
federal government. The interest and cooperation of the surviving
Iroquois Indians must also be mentioned, and our records are
frequently used as a source of information by them. An unusual
example is the appeal of the “last remnants of the Mohicans” for
assistance in locating Indians in New York State related by blood
to them. This was in order to distribute certain funds that the
tribe, now living in Wisconsin, had recovered.

Utility of the archeology section. Beyond the scientific and
historical value of this section and its value in the study and preser-
vation of New York’s prehistory, it has a distinctly utilitarian

70 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

value which is appreciated by certain specialists. Our collections
are visual illustrations of primitive technology and illustrate the
beginnings of industry. We are able to show how early man
responded to his environment and what he devised to overcome
its obstacles. There is a pointed lesson here that the student of the
simpler life appreciates, for we are able.to teach by means of the
collections, how to employ the simplest things at hand for useful
purposes. Modern man is forgetting this and relying on complex
devices that he is unable easily to produce without machinery. By
means of our exhibits of primitive industries, primitive amuse-
ments, primitive agriculture and primitive ceremonials, we respond
to vital human interests. We believe that this is a correct museum
theory and that one of our highest functions is to meet human
needs, physical as well as intellectual.

By this effort to interpret human cultural development we have
attracted students of history, artists, writers and advocates of out-
door life. Our exhibitions thus become a source of material of
no uncertain value to the public.

Publications. During the year the Museum has published a
bulletin on the Constitution of the Five Nations, or the Great Bind-
ing Law of the Iroquois. This work has been widely sought by
ethnologists and by students of primitive civics and law. Copies
have been requested by persons in many parts of the civilized
world. The edition has all but become exhausted.

Another manuscript is in the course of preparation and deals
with the “Archeological History of New York.” Additions to the
manuscript have constantly been made during the year and it is
hoped that it may go to press during 19017. (Whe rangevor sropies
considered by this work is a discussion and description of the
various culture areas, a list of sites, a series of detailed maps and
a description of the earth works, mounds and other evidences of
aboriginal work, together with descriptions of implements and
ornaments used by the aborigines of the State and the territory
adjacent to it.

The New York State Archeological Association. During the
year a new statewide organization has been formed by collectors
and students of New York anthropology. This is the New York
State Archeological Association. We have been developing the
plan for several years and during the month of March instituted
the first local branch in the city of Rochester, under the name of
Lewis H. Morgan chapter. The plan of organization contemplates

TYPES CF ALGONKIAN PIPES FROM NEW YORK

1 and 2 are from a single grave in Madison county
3 and 4 are typical Cayuga county Algonkian forms

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 7a

the adherence to scientific methods by collectors, a uniform catalog
system, the registration of collectors and an insistance upon the
taking of adequate data by every individual member. By means
of a state society we are able to unite the interests of those con-
cerned in archeological research and to obtain the results of their
field studies. This contributes to the advancement of knowledge.

The association has held several field meetings during the year
and has planned a lecture course during the autumn and winter of
1916. It has already taken steps to work in cooperation with the
state archeological societies of Wisconsin and Ohio. The present
officers are Alvin H. Dewey, president; E. Gordon Lee, secretary,
66 Richland street, Rochester; Edward D. Putnam, treasurer; and
John G. D’Olier, vice president. The headquarters of the associa-
tion are in the State Museum, the Archeologist at present acting as
director. This organized effort on the part of citizens to contribute
to the extension of the influence of the State Museum and to con-
serve properly the field of investigation is worthy of attention and
some analysis. It marks the beginning of a more efficient, not to
say more patriotic, cooperation of the citizen with the institutions
that he has created for the benefit of society. By means of the
work of the association local museums of archeology will become
better supported and their collections fostered with greater care,
archeological monuments will not be so ruthlessly destroyed nor
will vandals destroy and scatter archeological evidences as
heretofore.

Field meetings of the association have been held at the estate
of Admiral Hanford, Scottsville, and on the John Dann farm,
Honeoye Falls. Under the auspices of Lewis H. Morgan chapter
the Archeologist of the State Museum this year delivered the
annual address before the federated scientific and_ historical
societies of Rochester at Rochester University. During the year
the chapter, which has a membership of about 100, began its plans
and collected funds for a memorial arch to Lewis H. Morgan to
be erected in Rochester and also requested permission to place a
memorial tablet to Morgan in the hall of ethnology in the State
Museum.

Needs and recommendations. The work of the archeology
section is seriously handicapped by the lack of adequate clerical
assistance. We are in need of a stenographer and transcript clerk.
With this assistance the efficiency of our office work would be

72 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

more than doubled. At present the congestion of work renders
any progress in the preparation of manuscripts, the prompt reply
to correspondence or the preparation of descriptive booklets for
the cases, cumbersome and difficult. Our work is extensive and
urgent but without equipment we can not do what should be done.
Thus hampered, we are nevertheless doing all that should be
expected.

ihe etiiciency-) of vom) eld investigations would be largely
increased if the Archeologist or a representative could be stationed
in the field when the weather opens up every spring. Proper field
work requires actual presence on the field and an uninterrupted
and unhampered research. To bring this about there must be an
adequate research fund. Wiauth this support we should not only be
able to obtain an efficient grasp on our field but also make it pro-
ductive of far greater results. This is true in both the fields of
archeology and ethnology. If the State Museum will not and can
not undertake to exploit its field, a field to which it is restricted,
other institutions must and will take up the work. During the year
field explorations in New York were made by the Museum of the
American Indian and by the Andover Academy Expedition, as
well as by private collectors.

Observations. In conducting this section there should be no
undue concern about obtaining specimens, the primary aim being
to advance the knowledge of our subject, and the secondary pur-
pose being to bring back illustrative material. We point out, as an
example of this method, the explorations by the Peabody Museum
of Harvard, in New York during 1903-6.

Prehistoric Seneca site. A very important Seneca site, from
the standpoint of chronology, examined during the year is that
situated on the George Reed farm on the terrace above the Hem-
lock lake outlet, near Richmond Mills, New York. During the
past seventy-five years this site has been gone over by collectors
who have carried off an incredible amount of material. During
the past twenty years excavators have been particularly active and
so far no object of European origin has been discovered in any
pit or refuse heap. :

The Reed Fort site is a sandy arm of the terrace projeernme
nearly westward into the Hemlock valley. It covers a sloping
sandy hill lying between two brooks that have cut deep ravines.
The place is a natural fortification since the brooks at the south-
west end come within 30 feet of each other, measured from the

REPORD, OF GEE? DIRECLOR 1916

The effect is a natural inclosure easily pro-

heir banks.

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From this upper neck the

tected from human and beast enemies.

area gradually expands to a point directly above a fine spring

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“rom this point

that flows into a large brook on the north bank.

the site gradually tapers down the slope until it reaches a steep

knoll the base of which rests in a more level space between the

FA NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

brooks, which again approach within 4o to 50 feet of it. The
brook on the northwest side is shallower at the upper end but
quickly eats its way into the shale and plunges over a series of
falls until at the lower end of the fortification the banks are 30
to 40 feet in height. The brook on the opposite side is deeper and
throughout the length of the hill its depth is 40 to 50 feet with
high shaly embankments impossible to climb in places. Along
these embankments, particularly at the upper end, the refuse heaps
are found scattered over the end of the bank and down the talus
slope almost to the bed of the brook; in fact the entiresourume
of the fortification is nearly bounded by refuse heaps.

The site covers an area of about 5 acres, which was ample space
for a considerable Indian village. When the site was cleared about
1850, it was covered with a dense growth of large oak trees, with
pines at the lower slope.

The Seneca Indians who frequently passed over this site at the
time it was cleared and who frequently hunted, fished and worked
in the neighborhood, told the original settlers they had no idea who
had lived on the site and the pipes, flints and fragments of pottery
were of as much interest to them as to the settlers who opened up
the tract. |

From this time on antiquarian and amateur archeologists com-
menced their search for relics and the first spring plowings were
always a signal for relic hunters to pick over the surface for finely
shaped flints, pipes and shell and bone trinkets. During recent
years the most successful collectors so far as we know have been
Mr Alva Reed, Mr Joseph Mattern of West Rush; Mr Alvin H.
Dewey, Mr H. C. Follett and Mr George Mills of Rochester; and
Mr Frederick Houghton of Buffalo. A large share of the material
found by individual collectors is in the New York State Museum
collection. No burials were found until.1912, when Mr Frederick
Houghton, excavating for the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences,
found a burial site on the projecting nose across the ravine east
of the spring and nearly opposite the falls. Our examination of
this site made in 1905, I910, 1911 and 1916, resulted in the series
of notes here given.

It was found that the soil in nearly every portion of the site was
deeply stained and that there were natural depressions irregular
in shape that seem to have been used as refuse dumps. Even
after much cultivation for farming purposes, the soil still shows
blackened areas that outline the village dumps. Some of these

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 75

pits and deposits are 6 or more feet in depth and filled with broken
stone, ashes, animal bones and broken implements with an
occasional fine specimen in good-condition. As we have pre-
viously stated, the larger deposits were along the northeast bank,
sloping toward the falls. In many of these sidehill dumps the
ashes are several feet in thickness and have led some excavators
to think that the site was occupied for a prolonged period. Our
opinion is, however, that a village of one hundred to one hundred
fifty people occupying this site for ten years would produce the
amount of ash found in the dumps, especially if refuse as well as
fuel had been consumed. :

The present appearance of the site is that of a sloping sandy
hill edged by ravines and fringed with trees. The brooks flow the
year around and the larger one has a considerable fall over which
the farm owners have built a bridge. Above the falls it is possible
to walk along the edge of the brook and up the ravine for a con-
siderable distance. The ravine is wide and has a flat bottom
which gives ample space for the meandering of the stream. Near
the upper end of the fort from the base a natural trail runs up the
embankment along the projecting nose, but access is not easy
from any other point. Along this embankment from the falls
southward and up the ravine the debris may be seen mixed with
the talus. An excavation reveals quantities of animal bones,
broken pottery and fragments of implements.

From the lower end of the fortification the trail runs down to
a sloping flat that gradually leads to the valley level. From this
point it is about one-fourth of a mile to the Hemlock outlet.

The character of the implements found on the site are without
question prehistoric Iroquoian and presumably Senecan. Sites to
the northeast on the Alva Reed farm are non-Iroquoian, as are
most of the contiguous sites where relics are found in any quantity.

76 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

XI
SEAFE OF THE DEPARTMENT OF SCIENGE

The members of the staff, permanent and temporary, of the
Department of Science as at present constituted are:

3 ADMINISTRATION
Jota Me Clarke Director

Jacob Van Deloo, Director’s Clerk
Edwin J. Stein, Stenographer

GEOLOGY AND PALEONTOLOGY

John M. Clarke, State Geologist and Paleontologist
David H. Newland, Assistant State Geologist, Curator of Geology
Rudolf Ruedemann, Assistant State Paleontologist, Curator of

Paleontology |
William L. Bryant, Honorary Custodian of Fossil Fishes
C. A. Hartnagel, Assistant in Geology, Curator of Stratigraphy
Robert W. Jones, Assistant in Economic Geology, Assistant

Curator of Industrial Geology
Herbert P. Whitlock, Mineralogist, Curator of Mineralogy
George S. Barkentin, Draftsman
Noah T. Clarke, Technical Assistant
Winifred Goldring, Assistant in Paleontology
H. C. Wardell, Preparator, Assistant Curator of Paleontology
Theodore J. Lipsky, Stenographer
Charles P. Heidenrich, Mechanical Assistant
Joseph J. Bylancik, Clerk
John L. Casey, Custodian
William Rausch, Cabinet Maker
Jerry Hayes, Laborer

Temporary experts
Areal geology

Prouvkiere | Cishimedelbert College
Prof. W. J. Miller, Smith College
Prof. G. H. Hudson, Plattsburg State Normal School
Dr W. O. Crosby, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Prof. George H. Chadwick, St Lawrence pees
Prof. John L. Rich, University of Illinois
Dr A. F. Buddington, Princeton University

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 77

Geographic geology
Prof. Herman L. Fairchild, University of Rochester
Prof. James H. Stoller, Union College

BOTANY
Homer D. House, State Botanist
Joseph Rubinger, Assistant, Curator of Botany

ENTOMOLOGY

Ephraim P. Felt, State Entomologist
D. B. Young, Assistant State Entomologist, Curator of Entomology
Fanny T. Hartman, Assistant, dssistant Curator of Entomology
Anna M. Tolhurst, Stenographer
eyVilhiam A. J. Tracy, Page

ZOOLOGY
Sherman C. Bishop, Zoologist, Curator’ of Zoology
Benjamin Walworth Arnold, Honorary Curator of Ornithology
Arthur Paladin, Taxidermist

Temporary expert
Weide AS Pilsbry, Philadelphia

| ARCHEOLOGY
emain ‘©, Parker, Archeologist, Curator of Archeology and
Ethnology
Temporary assistant

Howard A. Lansing, Albany

78 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

XII
ACCESSIONS TO THE COMUNE CONS

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Collection
Hartnagel, C. A., Albany
Zing, one from Canajoharie.. ».. 42.08) ..akvases oat
Newland, D. H., Albany
Rutile ores, irom Roseland Vay sy ses0 ee
Ilmenite from near Galax, Va

TL UO st t ay aC CCnaT Yat Val ie MOC Pete CuOUOROKOho OMG. 0 9 CoS On

Magnetite and country rocks from Sterlington, N. Y..............
Zine ores and country focks from Edwards. N. Y...0.2) eee

Donation
Robert Geer & Son, Albany
Large block of crystallized solar salt
New York State Highway Department
Samples illustrating physical testing of cement....................
Binn, Prof. Charles S., Alfred
Burned clay samples showing shrinkage....... nunca ie Pen ie a

ee eee Se Ce Om MORO th OOo Oe o0 4 4

MINERALOGY
Donation

Emerson, Prof. B. K., Amherst, Mass.
Fluorite, Westmoreland, N. H

0) [ele Re: (e) jay (aise im) (6) Se) oe) ele, eee ¢: eye! ja) (e\eilamet le! (a) (efivlin\keitaitaMcilvitaita tte
eye) 8c (@ Je) (6 Ke: (ee) 'e) ‘e) 2) (e) © © ¢ (0 “e| 0) 0) © © .0) fe) oy injiar ie Sites

CO OS CE NONOSO OT OOS ONO TONONONTY Cl OnOeOn Ore Cieth OOOO Ooo OO Oo OLN OO

oh ase rey he) je) fe) sete sje) le! (e) 0) ie. ie) \p| ea) we, ce-fe\ te: [e's \eile| (ee tel 6; fe) ton elteliahiaiiattea ite

Rutile. (large)® (Graves Mit Gai ee) a
Psilomelane, Cary Mimpire Mame (Gav), 409) 62s. le
Ginnabar in’ jopal,” Almadencitoy “Miexicors...0" 20.)
azulite,. Gravess Mts \Gally nes gai tan ian bona! 1 ly ee SS) oe
Statirolite;. Farrington, (Gard: eas Jeet an fuer, an ao
Loisite, Moulliney. OVE cdl ac Site eee ae) ea ee ae ee ee
Diaspore,:/ChesteriosMiassy iach tie aetna Wels ees ee ee
Coltmbite Borland asGonne sateen aa ee ah She ee is ole ROE Ne ee

118

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916

AE tet eine WIN OCAMACA eral Ss ie ak teks ene Oh cats oes

Seems NV astm Tome Marie Toso a sa. ie ote Sec oo ae Waleed

Opal (tripolite), Dacres, South Africa

SegMemilieqe dl cay aniaae Ota acs ails: ost then os 4's Mein wee ll ewe oe

Vauquelinite (elroquite), Elroque, West Indies

pAhe Mm Crock. piospiate). @harleston, SiC. 4.2 va. ca.sosare cece ee.

Apatite (rock phosphate), Mona, West Indies

Apatite (rock phosphate), Dunellen, Fla

Serpentine (menelite), Beaufort, S. C
Wait, Charles, Crown Point

Fluorite in microcline, Crown Point, N. Y
Newland, D. H., Albany

lilemesmnive:: AGRI Re. Sie tek A Re tRNA aati NR A A oar baa grr
Mathis, William, Feura Bush

Quartz (crystal), Feura Bush, N. Y

© =) stein! ejse/vel eljel ol= ie eal _etisj-si oileliel oii»! >) /siha tee) le
(e) (es) @) at 'e\\@, a) eo) 10) @: 016! (¢)\e\ 00) ©) 0:0 6.

eo oe ste eo ee we se ew ee te ee
eee eee eee eee ee we we ee ew ee et

@| |e ;@) (ee! ae) 6,0) elle''e) «lo Je (ee 2) 'o\Je: ee) si 6|e\le: (0) » Lene

CRON Ce Ct Or Os CORO) COM OF CuO NONONIO: CG Cy. CieOerS

©), 09 @ ie},8) 0° eile siis) e]0) © ¢ «© ¢. 0 lee ere (««/)6) ee, 6) e=e1e, ©

Exchange
Utman, J. C., Ashland, Wis.
teria tem hoy OO neVilChb S.0 fa kite Sos hore eR eel als) § Sis due aecs ns
Psilomelane, Ironwood, Mich
Limonite, Ironwood, Mich
ciaiiel ame we inl tnleyay VMS on Meneses Gee a 0. hisses ccs. SLA RE Sale oats
Hematite after goethite, Ironwood, Mich
Pyrolusite on psilomelane, Hurley, Wis
Mee atiihe ee nom WOO Uy NIMC se: eet eins a 2.5 to ss ea as WN eae ee oe cde
Xanthosiderite, Ironwood, Mich

OM OY OVC CeO OS CC. FiO SO OR OCP OOM Om OCs Or: ONOVOMONC OAD CUO

fo} ohliay ollie) alee lvicarin (ey ws) ies) ene. a hele ele. s/s) eee

o), 6) ope eel ce he) s\ellel sj ele) jello ef vel ihe'te ss melee) leliejis)\ell a

@iiol ie! sieltelts) isi silo) _eliels)\e) 'e 4s) (s\'s! 10) 0) /e)v) se) 6 \e)i0! (ee) e)|e!'e. 0\1 se) 0) e

Gorcenteon psilomelanelromwood, Mich: ..26 62.50.05 ee ee ee
WonpeimeG@aline ty: WiiCle. wre eee A. ARs esis cereal at Bevelo nas «Bielaltiotiee
rte CSS MINED RAVI CIN ye en eta epeten Me MEL. |. eos tad Wha Gees meres
Le PRVERO ATES. | [MROWEINTROYOYG ue WY UC) ON se rn ee erm ee
Galette © nronacony eWitchtn > mays eta Ni Soe oe hal a Bodh tes
Caciverand: «copper. tancock,. Mich... ..3. 5.505.480. oats phan
Cilcite ands stilbite. Mass aMich ss 22.52. 2-- oot eh ap Ae ts tl Ab ean Sag
Glenn, M. L., Erie, Pa.
Rew lism: wists eem MO cia AC Tay atl) RANE cca edelahe ee oi sie teclieeok ed va biata Seah cw ace ac omebeat els
PMO EN OClAaSes SSE x GOIN ce Wena cls cabs cae eet ane ares Beep eased we
Se we Iohe mele SS Oxe COM MENGI™ [ute ines? rns sense elt cts SA UES VL dae ote
Minicegites Lor Mile: Creek bt nie. co.) (Ne Yo cece Giro he had a Oe) te
Pan puainolewemeniceley al Calige.c. wale cae dine eive wiclame sae Anal oe eoietn stata
Semis e ype aaNet Daily re GUILIN Ga Tein sty cee = cs oe ey Tyaelelee evereus ovale Mieensions
Patoecichite, sires (Patase yt. 3. SAC) oetay MeN Naa GPR Rtn ACT pte so oaeatep ated
Fitts, William L., Springfield, Mass. ;
WapaliieevWesmichde assis See Gu scala) te alsla's, acainrettw ty eeyera Sa « aeaee Piapa ics
Purchase
Law, Edward S.. Charlemont, Mass.
menikerate.welawiley, WASSe: 8... 5... eet eee se Sco en SA eR iets

(OR

OV

So NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

PALEONTOLOGY
Donation
Arnold, Benjamin Walworth, Albany
Trenton cephalopods from Fossil island 15 miles north of Mani-
toulin” (sland "Canada SUN cn are he
Bostock, Lillian D., New York
Pygidium of Dalmanites perceensis Clarke, Grande Gréve
linvestones Pence (Rock. Ri On Canadaysss tee, cae
Halsey, William D., Bridgehampton
won Ca: tran sweet sa, Pleistocene, sBnideehanipton: nie
Vi Sail So Shiu tear a Raed nueeaphckeerin ee f putiae clk aes tis ofa ee
Cie pavdiuhl a minonmrakaye artiig iin wee. Fhw he dalas ee
Colburmebvelitva 1) oltiratt cine em nin on) pcs coeur pelele a atid
Undetermined) Jamellibmanechisi.1)42 6) ceo. us cic See
Hudson, Prof. G. H., Plattsburg
Cephalopods from Lowville limestone, north end of Valcour island
Johnston, John S., Wellsville
Rossil sponge from) Chemiune sandstone, Eimsdale:.)..-4 ese
Kinnear, W. T., Kirkbuddo by Forfar, Scotland
The following from the Middle Oid Red Sandstone:
Pra la eros pro midi lies 6o Wieninin a raqianitayeeaaa
Mesocanthius peachi Lraquair (on one slab)... eee
Palaeos pomdylus “own a Uraquair, 2240) oda
Lewi, Dr W. G.
Sponge boring in) brachiopod, Berne) N.Y. .4.02 4s
McGill University Museum, Montreal, Canada
Baropezia (Sauropus) sydnensi1s Dawson, Coal Meas
ures, Sydney, C. B. Cast from original in McGill University. Type
Acadian Geology, Dawson (1878), p. 358, fig. 140.
Price, W. Armstrong
Clionelithes canna Price, from Conemaugh: (seriess)serien
Creek limestone, Preston co. WoWValck ce ee
Clionolithes canna Gn shell of Derbya crassa je@icak
.& Hayden) from Pottsvil'e series, Kanawha group, Winifrede
InnmVeSinoine, Reuleiteln. CO. WE hee eatin a, BEal oy hohe

Exchange
Buffalo Society of Natural History, Buffalo
Cladoselache fyleri Newberry, Cleveland shale, Lindale,
Qin ee RY at STO ie Sh MR ha ee oe a i
Eurypterus pittsitordensis Sarle, Pittsford shale
(Salina); "Pittstonds) (Na. Views olla let ace ie
Greger, D. K., Columbia, Mo.
Drilobites: from Wouisiana Jimestone, Choteau,” Mio... 42. eee

| Purchase

Luther, D. D., Naples
Fossils from various formations, mostly western New York...
Crinoids mostly from Keokuk group, Crawfordsville, Indiana...

30

- 475

22

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI16 81

Plourde, Anthony

Hess dishes, (Devonie)) from Migouasha, P. ©., Canada......--.. 84
Ward’s Natural Science Establishment, Rochester
Olenellus thompsoni, Lower Cambman, Lancaster co., Pa.. 8
Neolenus serratus Rom., Middle Cambrian, Mount Stephen,
FB, Conc Se bnce att SSE i NG TET acti aA NE Pre IES or) te D
Ptychoparia cordillerae Roemer, Middle Cambrian,
MWirounie Steplenybs. | Cord cae sce es. ERR eR Inn Pare, San ae ee Pct, GRC I
Ban Mywr uses orotundatus: Rom. Middle Cambrian,
Hornig She pineniaiee Cpe ir uk GAs a tes Ble Sel yd Aly 5 SIE) Ra A ieee I
Mune puelasmlda Str vetim.+ mort Ewen beds, Port Mwen..... 1
Maeomrariledtalis. var, Fort (EP wem beds, Port’ Ewen...-.- I
Schuchertella woolworthana, Port Ewen beds, Port
TERRI oe SS A ee ee A eee ren ae ge De Th ie, SB ee I
Stenocisma acutiplicatum, Port Ewen beds, Port Ewen
Dap souessopus, shale with Ineptocoeélia flabellitesi... 1

The following fossils from the Acadian (Burgess) Burgess Pass,
near Field, British Columbia:

Wikawimmer eta Spy 1ayaie mse WVNALCOLE face aso. eeind.s fae 2 sd adobe Sis we ace
aon pen error tein aint WN COPL is se es cs a wna dose dds tees cee
EM ECeOritir ma letinc ivy le Outn UNV aC Ott says a @ scams Gh ie crelals we sates ace boswnuteroe Ge
Helyatierin@ Coat sluse preci Ihe .Chtias 1 VWVialCOLtyin. 6 ah 62% «is ae nase dee ome
Grande Greve limestone fossils from Grande Gréve, P. Q., Canada. .1700
Mastodon bones found near Perkinsville

= SS Ss eS

Collection
Clarke, John M., Albany
Pansomapyeidiim of Dalmanttes “pereeensis, trom Grande
Greéve, Perce, P. Q., Canada. This pygidium is 5 feet 7 inches long
and 8 inches wide at anterior margin; the original complete trilobite
MASmenObaly 2245. iichesnlomes sacs ech oe sc be 2 at oe oo een eee eee I
Ruedemann, Rudolf, Albany
Utica, Lorraine and Frankfort fossils from Mohawk and Black
River: valleys, lorraine gult and Pulaski resion....+....2-....- 2000

ZOOLOGY
Donation
Birds
Conway, Mrs M. ]J., Troy

CGreensheron Ot toriudes virescens. Climn)...)).)...cune ses
riidcer ployer, Oxy echis vocihe pus Cluint.)ic. 0. y.¢.-o. o
uncdectonse, bro masa wim be llms (einnl)).. cn. 3. ce dente ae © ete
Sion caked owl Aus 40 ila ribm-etss Ce OMb.)s 2. Us casper sm ale ae
SERECERA On MiSh aes IO VCMT Ta yee aie otc alee 42 Mase beige WS einen somes
Shacp-shimmed hawk Acetpiter velox (Wilson)..)..../...-
casa Gay amlOfen titi er is tat ayy (isitia, i. Ge See rast cet a
Hoxeswatrowee asset ella aliaea, (Merrem) 0 aucune ct
Moines tie ws: Mhir at Omi ms -CLinn.)\ 22... lite. noses ce

a a oe ee oo

82 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Schell, Elvira A., Albany

Case of twelve foreign birds.
Edwards, Harriet A., Port Henry

Merring gull) Larus argentatus Pont. ..2...0) oe
Dewey, Melvil, Lake Placid

Goldtinch Gieot ily pis: trichas (Linn), /...)..)s ca

Ruby-throated hummingbird, Archilochus colubris (Linn. )
Little, Miss E. E., Menands

Red-shouldered hawk, Buteo lineatus (Gmel.)
Conservation Commision, Albany

Rose-breasted grosbeak, Zamelodia ludoviciana Cena) peer

Birds’ Nests

@) (@; /e) @] (e\ie| -e) e: 10) cu) le) e) fe) eteire

Conway, Mrs M. J., Troy

Kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus (Linnacus). 72.
Alder flycatcher, Empidonax trailli alnorum Brewster..
Least flycatcher, Empidonax minimus (W.M.&S.F. Baird)
Bobolink, Dolichonyx oryzivorus (uinnacns) see
Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus (Linnaeus).
Orchard-oriole, leteruls spurs (linnaens))) eee
Baltimore oriole, 1eterus galbulla (Linnaeus) .eeeee
Goldfinch, Astragalinws tristis (limnacus)) eae
Arkansas goldfinch, Astragalinus psaltria Dp Ssadl sbtreted

CSaV)e seiuy eclcs el sacs eee AL wees ial ee eho cl aa ie on rr
Vesper sparrow, Pooecetes ¢faminews (Gmelin) ee
Grasshopper sparrow, Ammodramus savannarum aus-

tia las. “Maynard... 2:46..4 20 nd 'lno sd a ee ee ee
Chipping sparrow, Spizella passerina (Bechstein)........ 0)
Bield spatrowe cup ize lap prals iliac mC VWWallcor) eae yt eae
Indigo bunting, Passerina cyanea (Linnaeus): .... ee
Cedar waxwing, Bombycilla cedrorum (Vieillot)...........
Migrant shrike, Lanius ludovicianus migrans (Palmer)

Yellow warbler, Dendroica aestiva (Gmelin). eee
Chestnut-sided warbler, Dendroica pennsylyanica (Lin-

TASS) cen ACS lance ok lap dB Megs aii Oi, gaa eet oe ccc
Yellow-breasted chat, lcteria vire ns (luinnaens) ee
Kedstart; Setoplhalga Gute lay (Glinnaens)) 0)
Catbird, Diumetella carolinensis 8@Linnaens
Brownethrasher, @oxost oma, iat aim (einanaens) ee 9
Long-billed marsh wren, Telmatodytes palustris (Wil-

SOME as uy ale does epee acs Bea oui, tau tae Gore ve
Chickadee; Plenmthestes atrica pilluas (uinnacns) eee
California bush-tit, Psaltriparus Minimus cali Pomnae

Cus) Ridswatys usd 5 Sauces eee ne eho eel ae ot one nh
Wood thrush, Hy locicehla mus telina (Gmelin). ase eee
Veery, Hylocichla fuscesicens (Stephens)...

—
BHO = we &® CK ND

-
to

mH NHN COW Ww

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 83

Birds’ Eggs

Conway, Mrs. M. J., Troy No. of sets
mestem grebe, Acchmophorus: occidentalis (Lawrence)... 1
Eared Cheve ws (Cro lover Drs Mies ac On lis Cali o mics
(TELS Siam) Me a Base ater) 3 eae tne ge ne eR AEE
Pirin Mratercula arctica (Linnaeus)
Peano Taal bs Ole | CRATIMIAGUS) choc che oo oecn ab buh sueee eee ncon
Saicomiia murre (Uria troille californica Gi Bryant).
Bevormilledank. Alea tormdia Linnaeus. 3.8) 2) ohei oni sess os ok eos
Kittiwake, Rissa tridactyla (Linnaeus)
eeu Terapia Se ee ULCODite t Us) f HADEh Gn aL science lene aoe
mack picked cull) Ila rics. ma minus: linnaews... 0... ..506.-5.-
fetine gull’ Larus argentatus, Pontoppidan
Ring-billed gull, Larus delawarensis Ord
iewmeclimelesaaatisu del awed ems tis Onds.3 6s oss ak oo dea eS dlnee
Franklin gull, Larus franklini Richardson
HoOrscmtchineo ben tha, for s temn Niittalls oc. eek ace elon a sies
POmMonmtcnmmoowe fil ay hindi dor Iinnaeus.....c.....sereeseee<
PGEMe tern, conker ia paradisea Brunnich
mOsecicrteni, Sterna dowe@allim® Montagu... $.c..2.0<..eeesessce!
east term, Sterna antillarum (Lesson)
POOmMaarcin moet) ay tis Cal tay IeIMIMAaeUS.. 2 ik dca cs oc ne ey oleae ees
Black termn.) Elydrochelidon nigra ©surinamensis
CGSTH ENING!) 5° 4 by bb ris eee Ree olan BL cc besaeaiene teat Sele) re ap ee ne Ne DRL Beery I
White-winged black tern, Hydrochelidon leucoptera
(CTesmarna dial) 05 5 Ree AN, a Os a em
Roddvmtenmenanows Sstoliduws Cuinnaeus)). 3... oils q. cen cok se.
Black Skimmer, Rynchops nigra Linnaeus
PM welomean ws eolavcia lars) (leimnaews)) 4.8 5s .c <tc scld- ee 2
Beachepetrel © ceanodroma) leu corhoa, (Vieillot):..... -
anne raeoy bay iars salma G@NInWaeCUS))0 a. oe bs as) s os segs ete see e eee
Commonmiconmorant, Ehalacrocorax carbo Clinnaeus)). ..
Double-crested cormorant, Phalacrocorax auritus (Les-

ee

DO Osc OCMC Goo dso oO OOD oO Ooo

OOD OGoOnD Ooo Do oO Oo

o) 6) (6) (6 .0)-¢) ©) (one) ee) se) |e) vine

ONO ONO ONC Oe Go ODO O10 OU

CC i ee Y

Pe DT | = Yan > J NL a JT = YL © TC TI a = OE on IT TO © Yo

eee ee eee he ee ee we eo

ee en en

SOY) oo cue BSAC mR ea SERENE CE DRE oT Ae nn gn oP er I
Earailoneicotmorant, Bhalacrocotax auritus albocilia-

Tats Bnei CL OANA ae een se eae rei ian tah MckeMan avs, hist sc ose care a ee Oe I
Brandt’s eCiraoreuaic, — 12 Ie) We) (re G) fe (16 BS pDemac 1) lraxteuls

Ges tenilclis) pein ere Nev ain care Cw Nis, dels avant Saree Sees 8 & apes he I
Green-winged teal Nettion carolinense (Gmelin)......... I
Bive-wineed teal, Ouerquedula discors (lLinnaeus)...... I
Redheaducducie tN aria. aterm te ania Cyto)... s4: 420.5. . ae I

Trumpeter swan, Olor buccinator (Richardson) laid in cap-

ASA ye EER CON 2 ee ats CN ooh cpr tape Ae oke Bouche bi ly as ag NN as ec aN ER hea Os sce obs
RVAMiem nice G. Oeics eal lM yale GlsdtitVa SUIS!) 5, <4, «.cl-stcar dials vials op seepsttoies ele hc seer
White-faced glossy ibis, Plegadis guarauna (Linnaeus)...
ieasiemittenns socom yeohus. ex il 1s CGmiielin) i)... oe ee nee ss
Great blue heron, Andea,tersodias Winnaeuse.- 2.2.0.4...
Saowy Heron Meretia candidissimia |(Gmielin). (02.01. 0...

ed eed ed SN

84 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

No. of sets

Louisiana, heron, Hydranassa \tericolor |) fut leoemes
CGOSSE) si seek UO na aE OL ee I
Little blue heron; Pilorida caerulea \einnaeus) see I
Green heron, Butorides vines ens (Linnaeus) eee I

Black-crowned night heron, Nycticorax nycticorax nae-
VIS / GCBOddaert) acy Oo Sas oan eee alces a ok An Re
King rcailkpRallws: elegans Audubon)... .... 4... 35
Sora rail, Piorzana ‘carolina <(luinnaeus))..... 4 ee
Florida gallinule, Gallinula galeata’ (Lichtenstein) 7 yess ee
Northern phalarope, Lobipes lobatus (Linnaeus)i. eee
Black-necked stilt Himantopus mexicanus (Miiler)......
Spotted! ‘sandpiper, (Aetitis »majculacia, Glinnaecns) eae
European curlew, Numenius numenius (Brisson). 225... --
Whmbrel Niimenins phacopus, Cemnaens)).. eee
Lapwing, Vanellus vanellus (Linnaeus)... \ 225) -eee eee
European golden plover, Charadrius apricarius Linnaeus
Kalideer ‘plover, Oxyechu's vocifterus Ccinnacus) eee
Ringed plover, Ace valitis hiaticula (Minndens) ee eee
Pea fowls ‘Pavio cristatus: Linnaeus... 3.00.
Walley equals o plienm iy x Calin on mile a jive) lec oneal (Ride.
WAY Vibes hee ace Sie oie ane esd oeenb anaes BUSS Reece 2
Prairie chicken, Tympanuchus americanus (Reichen-
IOFEYG) oi ty ete rate he eee Beh PERM DR MEIER NICH A no if
Mourning dove, Zenaidura macrowura’ /capolume misuse
GRinmaeUs ye hokey elk dae a dein Sd a ole Sie eel eee I
Cooper hawk Accipiter cooperi (Bonaparte)... eee I
Red-shouldered hawk, Buteo lineatus (Gmelin)........2-..5. I
Sparrow hawk) Falco sparyvertus, Linnaevs,]\.) 1... 3
Desert sparrow hawk, Falco sparverius phalaena (Les-
SOM) y ye tee ew eee shes tiie ec aee wile fr af bfione "eco roticUe ite te ke tee Mere er I
Screech owl Otus)asio (Minnaeus)\. 02320). eee ese een I
Burrowing owl, Speotyto cunicularia hypecgaea (Bona-
PPAMLE DY) og lcdsue load eteraret cle cae ae veloc bee dale eraueue bere oa Su RPLe eMC CURE eae rr 1
Yellow-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus americanus (Linnaeus). 2
Black-billed cuckoo, Coccyzus erythrophthalmus (Wil- ;
SOM es eet eee eta ae So BU LUNG Vo LSC 20 cade ta rrr @
Downy woodpecker, Dryobates pubescens medianus
CSwaitsom)iy Cae sad Soe cate nese 4 Gk eee eal eee nb 2 I
Red-headed woodpecker, Melanerpes erythrocephalus
CTL ATOUIS ss eine ete coe bate als oloraae 0 ante A, STRING ch diate ace ee
Flickers (Golaptes aunatus Liteus Banesie.. een
Red-shatted ticker, (© olaptes' cater collaris Vieoncuaams
Nighthawk, Chordeles (vire ina anus ) (Gmelin) >see eee
Black-chinned hummingbird, Archilochus alexandri (Bour-
Cherie Mialsamt)) oat Piel ee Sak aleiautie Rime hei a ee
Annas) hummingbird) ) Galptes vam na 9 (Gvesson)) / 4. 12 oe
Allen hummingbird) Sielasphiorus)’alleni Henshan. ssa
Scissor-tailed flycatcher, Muscivona foriicata (Gmelunee
Kingbird, Dy,ran nus ‘ty a nm us) Coimnaeuds) ee. ee ee

oe A oe oO el |

Ln <> |

Noe FH A

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 85

No. of sets

PucansasmKing mind iiiaminmis. syle ttc alls «Say. .a). os -mese. I

Grestediivcatcher, Mi yianchus -c¢rinmit ws (linnaeus):......- I

RHOeher Say. Oils | plo be, .cuatham)® caus loosens a acceine hee les 8

Black pioebe, Sayornis nigricans (Swainson). .........+... I
Western wood pewee, Myiochanes richardsoni (Swain-

SYD IAL)) 4 Bos Wh CAR EL Ps Os Aer eg a IR et ae SO Na TO RD NO ee I
Duderuycatcher Han pidonmax pfroailli alinotriwm Brewster. 2
Measteiyeatchen. Hamipa do max jm imimius CW. Mo S&S. EB:

IEBINTEGD)) Sih eel Re Rene Ons aie ON ce Re RU eS Ne UMA MEL ge Oe eter an I
miaide snonmeden lark) Opuoceris . alipestris. pratiwco la

TEL SAMS TBR AG soo ld Sho ies Setoeeh OOS Tee Cece RE ane mI gE eS on PE RIE, reat I
MeEopie mit Cay epiice ay lit dis onltiag) (SADIME) i sits << 2 oles cadets as I
Gemma i Oivcia O1e ty hal © tiSit arb a.) (eIMMaAelIS)) 6k dieu ss sceante © os ae 2
Poneucrestedse ayn ey amocitta, stellen) “dirade mata

(CE OMA TOS Cyc GB CHE ane Caterham aan be RE eR RS I
Calimornan jay (Aphelocoma ‘calitornica CVigors)....:. I
Grove Gory us) brachyriny mehos rehm...6)...05.005....-2- 10
Sau onee Sitters my Sa mye es aye igs, , MoM MACUL sa). Sous ekeha recta ous eeo-e I
Bobolnke Diolveh ony = oryzivornus. Cuinnaeus).....5)..0. 3
Govindan Vino tot aes) a tiene C@hoddaenrbt) CEges) 2.5. naa. ce ee: 10
Dwart cowbind, Molothrws ater obs curtus (Gmelin)...... i
Yellow-headed blackbird, Xanthocephalus xanthoce-

foptabad eLiesi CE OMAPAUEC) PMc ae laws ty Mak cde Seca rales CU EL sa dh hela gnsbaahe I
Red-winged blackbird, Agelaius phoeniceus (Linnaeus). 8
Bicolored red-wing, Agelarus gubernator californicus

INiGIS Ouray i 8 ey es eae ol ld eae Wee wie 2
‘iricoloredsred- wine, Ase laims tricolor (Audubon)... .:....- 2
Meadowdeatricn Suthionnyenlilay ann ace ta iC limmaeus)). a4 seo. sade «opti I
Western meadowlark, Sturnella neglecta Audubon......... I
Arizona hooded oriole, Icterus cucullatus nelsoni Ridg-

IU fclay a rn Nth IR te ee Se Sep cel ek Moya data Ain do ae, otha I
@rchardoniole. ‘letenus spurius ((Linnaeus)................- I
BaleiMoreconole Nete pusmeral bwla Cuimmacus):. i. ...42--55 4. 2
Brewer’s blackbird, Euphagus cyanocephalus (Wagler). 2
Purple grackle, Quiscalus quiscula quiscula (Linnaeus) 5
Houscich Carpodacis mMexicanmus trontalis (Say). \ 11
Goaldfinchea nese farce as lions) tie Situs) 9 Cimmaeus)2 ses ann bs he ace 2
Enelishs sparrow, bas Sem, Gomes t vcs) einnaens ss. 2.255 6.505. 3
Mans aS O Giiiehyer Asin aopalidttse piSa@ bt tidy (Saye ee « I
Wesper sparrow, Looeccetes @ramineus (Gmelin)... >... 3
Grasshopper sparrow, Ammdramus savannarum aus-

imme let GaN ley dict, apse etaeie as 1M te ake Shek Sisieivd ond dclode Bah hee I
ankaisparrow. © omd estes or ami marc ws) (Say)yud. ss oes eek I
Chipping sparrow, Spizella passerina (Bechstein).......... 12
ieldisparrow. oo pine lac pis lla, -CWalson) $2.23) Gules ee I
Sone sparrow. Noelosipuza melodia CWilsom). dole redo le 42
Heermann’s song sparrow, Melospiza melodia heermanni

BIBL Oe tee Ra IR 4 sagen ea ee an ts Ee Tee erate OR AUN 4 I
Nowhee. Pipito erythrophthatnrous » (Linnaeus))....5...: 2

86 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

No. of sets
Anthony's towhee, Pipilo crissalis senicula -Anthonye. ae
Cardinal, Cart dimalis) cardinalis Ceainndens)s-55) ae I
Gray-tailed ‘cardinal; “Gardinalis cardinalis \camie ae
dais, ‘Chapiiatal i cn oe ico Pn ee ei dus I
Rose-breasted grosbeak, Zamelodia ludoviciana (Linnaeus) 1
Black-headed grosbeak, Zamelodia melanocephala (Swain-
SOM)! Wee cee ee eS be Be a Mic oe oa Ec ed ee 2
Indigo “bunting; Passerina, cyanea (oinnacus)as)4) 40a 3
Dickcissel, Sipizas americana (Gmelin) 2.) .6es. 6) eee 2
Scarlet tanagerm, (Pitan ea ony thaome las) Vaciloi. ee I
Clift swallow, -Petrochelidon Iuniatro ns: “(Saye I
Batn swallow, Hirrunde venythroecasttra Boddaert. \. see I
Tree swallow, Jridoprocme breolor (Vieillot) 3a I
Bank swallow, (Riiparitia Tiparia (linnaeus)— 40. eee B
Rough-winged swallow, Stelgidopteryx serripennis
(Audtbom) (beso We Ea 8 YC ROA BU See I
Cedar waxwing, Bombycilla cedrorium Wiellot.. oe 2
California shrike, Lanius ludovicianus gambeli Ridgway 1
Migrant shrike, Lanius ludovicianus migrans Palmer.. 2
Red-eyed! vireo, Vireosylva olivacea (limnacic) aaa 2
Warbling vireo, “Vireosylv a eilv ay (Vielllot) 2) eee I
Bell's vireo; Vireo biel tio Audubon... ..) 2.5002 5 ae 2
White-eyed vireo) Vireo griseus (Boddaert), 4... eee I
Worm-eating warbler, He lmitheros yermivorus (Gmelin) 1
Yellow warbler, Dendroi1ca aestiva (Gmelin)... oe 4
Black-throated green warbler, Dendroica virens (Gmelin). 1
Oven-bird, Seiupus aurocapillus (GQinnaens))2) 3 eee I
Yellow-breasted chat, Icteria virens \(Linnaeis)=.-oe eee I
Long-tailed chat, lecteria virens longicauda) Wayanences naam
Hooded warbler, Wilsonia citrina (Boddaent).)..>- one I
Redstart, ‘Sietopwaga xruticilla (Guinnaeus):- > 2-8) see 4
Meadow! pipit, -Anthus; pratensis (luinnaeus)))2 9). .aeeeee I
Dipper, "Ca niclius mexicans) Swanson: 44.40. ee I
Mockingbird, “Mims poly ¢lottos (Cunndeus)) ) eee I
. Cathird, Dumetella carolinensis (Linnaeus). Seer 16
Brown thrasher, Moxost oma rutrum Comnaeus) 2. eee I
California thrasher, Toxostoma redivivum) (Gambel)pee-semeee
House wren, ©troelodytes aedon, (Vicillot):... see I
Long-billed marsh wren, Telmatodytes palustris (Wile
SOM). He yehe ehtae oe Wise ee beers Biouech) s siele sae uate fer sca eerste seas el ee rr 2
Chickadee, "Pien tiestes jatrica pills (einnacus) ease uf
Calitornia bush-ti, Psaltriparus minimus caltionmae
Cr S VRudowraiys igh ea es Sian a tslie ice hance Ooh 2
Wood thrush, “Hiylocichia li mustelana)) (Gmelin) eee 7
Veery; Hyloctchla fus cesic eno (Stephens) aces 4
Robin, (Planeste ws maeratorm us) —Geinmaens) 27.0. eee 00
Wester robin, Planésticus migratorius propi nig ans
CR): 4 ihr, alee atc ev proyeba ictal sR Reet ae le te cll Re ASV aloe cl ey rr 2

Bluebird; “Siia‘liva) saad vs SiGlainnaens) 25, Ya. S22 aes oo Or ee 14

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 87

Mammals
Conway, Mrs M. J., Troy
Plinakem ets erlar gyi USiOml POCNTEDEL of. 0 oe. cells os ods aet cee 62 Bait hs 35
New York Aquarium
Bottle-nosed dolphin, Tursiops truncatus (Mont.)......... I
Downing, Dr A. S., Albany
Skane Me litt isu p Mel dan Boitard. 6) peo... ckec ss ios eee ok I

Conservation Commission, Albany
Wirsinia-idecs ((Grawns)) © docotleus virginianus. (Auct:).-

bdo

Reptiles and Batrachians

Albee, Mrs M. E., Mohawk
Milk snake, Lampropeltis doliatus fei mons Lies

CUBYOEG DY 5 AR he ae eR ken I
Clarke, N. T., Albany
Crickewinos, Vents ory bhiuse MeConte: . 2.8. 2.4508. 0 os. bk ek Sens I
WewinaO Memite bh ylds void d.e's ce mS VRate fs dw ed oae ss I
Casey, George W., Elsmere
Pi ioe c apace sti Moas Shawiad i. oi0 5a. oe ese ee ce ke I
Invertebrates
Araneida
Clarke, N. T., Albany
PemaeineiGee Sten ie a t Us eh CleEnekst sh nos elaes dope ea Sa de Gece tose I
Pr omtonnte dec saison ta MaUSe PMMeGLOM$. fe 28 clos visa os wie d's seven ee I
PMs EIN Tdi aye lad tll Sao Clonee cia Bes cles soa 6 boc Stee wd Cams I

Stoddard, Miss A. G., Dunkirk
Araneus cornutus Clerck
Mranewus sericatus Clerck
Araneus trifolium (Hentz)
Aranetus marmoreus Clerck

Lansing, Howard A., Menands

Paes! | em jeans GVWalckender )las o. 2 4-0 if fs 3,3 e855): I
Conway, Mrs M. J., Troy

Elogsesiioe cab) “iphioswmra polyp hem us Brunnich: 3253.4 I
Gunn, Elmer D., Albany

SMC Me OUP OCOn) PPE a leeiiT s WESMCIE SS. ws wldivete so eaten Ses wile Ome eele aie I

Exchange
Birds

Victoria Memorial Museum, Ottawa, Canada

CAmneds +: Suddeyaeb ciSS anid a CLAM ls Sie. Hoe Mle he eek Oe 3

eazot piled aul. Aulicaruto dia. Cities. <siyn< ns Asatte Opel tee es I

ae ceenmlemot. Gc piplatisi oot yikes (Minit): fi2...6.cn een ccaes 2

rie tnd a ere CHa. Mast Cub Gra. WC LAMIL Js fo aie keels oo 8% ane ares I

Contmomanutre,. Origa to tile Cain. ie) Ps So es i Be 2 JS

88 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Purchase
Amphibian casts

Franklin, Dwight, New York
Toad, Budo jamie taicaavus ileConte0... ee eee
Pree toad, Hy lasiwersi co lor WeConte.. 4.2%...) eee
PickerelMiros aia aial opraduns: fs mlue Conte: 449 eee Lice gebss a aie
Marbled salamander, Amblystoma’ opacum (Graveu.).....
Newt, Diemrety lus, veriudesicens, 2Rat.-...0.. eee
Newt, red land stage, Diemictylus viridescens Raf......
Mud ‘puppy, IN ee ta ris) alc Whats) Rat.) eo

Domestic Pigeons
Hartley, B. M., West Haven, Conn.

Tre Sts a eae oe RRS et aE Ge oe al or re eh
Blwettés (i. oi Sim a al ero see seapen le Semen Pe Seka Ait
Hungarians Wem i eee eek Sotuae eM kee eee
Tee. pigeow 2h vals eles ure S's des oa Win vos cide oe ie 6 Se er
Wihinte: Siege 29 Se ae meee Gu tiaise yaks Ato cs couse) a als etic eee eee
Satimetten ow W cau ern wels eh Baki Pew al ens on wesle Caleta Gaiters
Polish eilyatx” Pace clues sis Suees aels ad, 3 soe Woke «ie el eee Se
Biltele anya ete oe a ter ac eee co Soda Ssh le al Gus SUSI oe
Enelish ‘carrier’ i(black) iii. i iew tos coco Oe tule oe ee ee
Mokee: (narrow: tailed) eos 62 ods bls ts a tom se
Porilpaclke: (Wa eek onto aleve hes ial Sale Slots diate veeteilecece Mean eM nO RO tke
Aur Diteeni se) ye. WA ates iti Bee a BS Ga Oa ec oe
White dinehish pouters 22 5 fits os es. ose cod Shee ERE ee
S eterna psc hich hecteoe nese ass os Shc cebe woes ree a oth coals Ee RUE ee
RU EA OE Fe Sk Beh ce Ne cok helt hs teneta hol gt cka Neary oe le ye, ete verbo te ee etna ee er
Mammals
Boyd, Harold, Rensselaer, N. Y. ;
Woodchuck, Marmota monax rufescens, Howells. ee
Skunk Mep ha tis putida (Shaw). foes.) 22h
Collection
Birds
Bank swallow, Ripacia tipataa “Ceimn) ade)... eee
Bank swallow, -Riparia 1ripla tia (linn) ve..... 0 eee
Nests; Bank swallow, “Riparia ti piadta (Guinn) ..) secre
Begs Bank swallow. Ra paria. ciparia, (limnn)24--- cee
Robin, olka nye Sit vic tS; mo art Onn ans) linia) aan heey.
Nest, Pilianes t tc ws) mie Tato cms, (Guin). .). cee eee
Mammal

Bat, ‘FE pt is teas” fi's.eS, \CBeats)\. 2 en sle wae eit eerie eo

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916

Reptiles

Pnedmemesiake seo melting. vermalis (DeKay) ........5.20ccca-e
eee agipiitcik ie Taint MOtOLEB ui. o. o4 ees c she berg koe bee me oe
PipiclcciamiiOo mI City 11S) portal hts) NBECOmte ss i) 0. etie'e 5 bile sete bots ole sree

Arachnida

Araneida

List of species
iheridion montantum Emerton
Theridion frondeum Hentz
Theridion murarium Emerton
iicimndHon) sex punmecia tum Emerton
Minecridion tepidarivorum C. Koch
Ceratinella brunnea Emerton
Prosopotheca communis (Emerton)
Bathyphantes nigrinus (Westring)
Bathyphantes alpinus Emerton
Bathyphantes zebra Bmerton
Linyphia insignis Blackwall
ciiypiia phrygiana.C. Koch
Pity pila mareginata C. Koch
Linyphia communis Hentz
winyphia pusilla Sundevall
Minyphia nearctica Banks
Pimeticws animatu s Banks
Oedothorax montanus (Emerton)
Oedothorax bidentatus (Emerton)
Oedothorax microtarsus. (Emerton)
Araneus trifolium (Hentz)
Aranetuus marmoreus Clerck
Atanews sericatus Clerck
Araneus angculatus Clerck
Araneus patagiatus Clerck
Araneus cornutus Clerck
Araneus cucurbitinus Clerck
AGanets corticarius (Emerton)
Araneus labyrintheus (Hentz)
Araneus arabescus (Walckenaer)
Argiope trifasciata (Forskal)
Argiope aurantia Lucas
iWetracmatha laborios a Hentz
Eudecta lacerta (Walckenaer)
Dictyna foliacea (Hentz)
Agelena naevia Walckenaer
Cicurina brevis (Emerton)
Cryphoeca montana Emerton
Pirata minutus Emerton
Pardosa distincta (Blackwall)
Pardosa mackenziana (Keyserling)
mastaneira descripta (Hentz)

gO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Clubiona canadensis Emerton
Neon nellii Peckham
Evarcha hoyi (Peckham)
Pellenes decorus (Blackwall)
Sittiie sy pia lusitaas (Peckham)
Dendryphantes marginatus (Walckenaer)
Dendryphantes mccooki (Peckham)
Misumena vatia (Clerck)
cao Ta mum wcallica qa cums eimertor
Dolomedes sp. im.
Siteatodaltbionea las (Celentz)
Erigone sp.
Phalangida

List of species taken
Oligolophus pictis (Wood)
Mitopus montanus (Banks)
Leiobunum vittatum (Say)
Leiobunum politum Weed.
SOW tiltlin Caleaie. CWWooul)
Leiobunum nigropalpi (Wood)

ARCHEOLOGY

Purchase
E. P. Bouton, jr
Shell gorget
Ward’s Natural Science Establishment
(Articles from Richmond Mills)
Boome awilss hose asa ied ae es don we ads URS Fh Sa oe ee eee 65
Fish plate
Bone. ‘needle fragments: 002. ee ese sisi dane 2 9 cieseele eon eee I
BOG Ge lantS CIS MN Seg ae acy tere cee eure cite eieee\ lee orp be ea re ee hv oid Gere
BOE! PUMEMeS tem Mic eee hacen teak Ce ene env Vanes yes desi aie cles ues eee eee
Tubular, Bone stoole sew es aie ae hoc ee Gee ee ae eee
Raccoon. petlis Domes: Gk ook ids bine be etek cee ae ee
Bone Marpoomn’ Wh ci. tiie siccle «sus Worst elo eine ae alee isle eee yee
Digeiney tOols Sa sores a ik Rew a sdiciaks ital bk ton enc cee eee
Bone. Spatula ss eis Sees oa GO RR ie cakely oh Sant ae
Parts ‘of skeleton ...520 008 Os0s ccc e ses oe ek A ee ee
Patella: (Dome! is oe eee Ba as eee aioe Le ds Oils (ce tee I
Cupped: stone ey wie) 2 ele Re pula att lhe eee
(Articles from Lima, Tram site)
Gun barrel: tragmentind. 2. eke Ae eee eee, ee
Pestle and “fragment... c.cecxn Bot cas fee BEG ae er
Battering Stoney: Uni eee aim cil «eer cereus eee cee kee La: ala peees
Grooved Jaxe (ii vied Oe ee Ee
Celts and fragments ()..5020.0esece caeeee ee eee k eee een
Hammer Stones: 4.2.04.) 626 eae Rie wee ei orieier ie sie ree ee
Net sinbsets wd ic ik Sid eae Gee oe eee Ee ik het ee ea
Stone natural perforation, fy 4.4 te. c ue eee a ed” ee ee
Small polished iStOme, ec ce peice © pauidl Salke welece iste e'nites 4 Ase ROR ene

ae NHN HB FO HL He

Feds pets I Gace NOs

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 gli

(GOUT SHS SS Gea dS eaten REE a OPP ne OL PR ae Oa oe eg RE SO a I

ENGI gases Ace a MGR lS SSSA Ans El ate ante a EU RO oot na re gee I
IBGaiGleh HE Me DUaIeer yy ot) MUA En I Ns 5 aoe er a aN Oe URE a Reet, MMR SC 800
OLE Tayar kira CN eMUGir eke aweials « Fotge whee Bw Ca aig Seis we ISL eke om Gate 40
strayecOntainnneperdsuancmmteral ODjeCks ne ce nccs 4c menisieiss ae eee os 10
OTC MNS APA OOS era rec geen cect a. ee pences Mier cucNelaal ser eleie relay seaeente. «oe aha ioe old 2
Olay aap Cr ACdMeTUbSy aeone ey kis ee iis SGlnin eoee ei kue ae w/a eliotn seed ages 4
TEPORGL ISICEY SISRNG ISS MAAR EL i eis ae at ag 3, eam USI age omen Co ogo REE STU TO 3
icone side: platesnoy mimlSketas cient ears cele rs Aaya tes ieee sg cna Sule 2.
Miigcrilpeetaiinew Dla ecn tary a sete ayer Set rete sku et ueeca She ites eubl ane, Celie ps. J 3
Mctallitcergacinentsmiin thave, HUmOpeaty seme. ahh. sees em see ce eee 5
Mitivetalieinl Owe tant awway et yin Meee eee ants iene LN Cai a eu bas yaa 2
Mice companion ainda mueetiie aid DEAGSH ye ..m ih. cia aie a + level cer o/s ore cals

Donation

W. R. Blackie, Williamsbridge
SHON COON CCMA Cum ee ra saene apna nme el aN Le ill tek eines un) oe
ENGRONVMED OULESM er me atr ates ment Freee eee Neaitie afte. 04, hoe cud Pics ate Ma
SWPEIDSIS sre BSc Sk gee ee OR EROS RSS IER ese RE a a ERE Pc
JEXOANS: OMGNTLCI AT eS ker ese GRIP SN ec ROA AM et alsa Soe es aE a SWC Th a 8
H. L. Bowers
Glave Ue Sem tLe sys ee tan ai meen a ater Hise hE whe hoe 2
Leona Babcock
CSHleueneill DSN D LG eee As tn C9 faa ge ee OP
MNO OUdenmecoopeote ladon sear tyne) rene Women sat, ely Ait ee UE ee ie |
A. A. Schmidt ;
xe Sale Men Gay TOIGL tal Cole ne cor arosy anaes Sere ce ts iss ars arises aie di aaes, gi acai i'aydl a adhere meee I
E. H. Gohl, Auburn
(CGI SORIDIS * ata Rey a eDes eel tan bie clk ton A eco ent lo BR Re Ue I
LENSECOMSE CSTE a oN acy RPS nc, Bice ORES eu Pe ae tS ar et RE ea Oe I
Cl mEDIDe TEAC TMCMES weeny ti aes ote) ese wine id ee woe aleiete ciate ae
Halil ciitexamamee eect tey ace ries UN OE RAN NU aia teas atta ARR AU A I
TBXOWE” ARI gtk aet es ER Oa A ict isi, ECR ROR Le nice eat hee de ee eee fue AN I
EO emcee dl Cutten eiiigut ciara tecsto atts as totes c/siehs ea 5 ac ela whens ave See A ee i
MO OmESII CH ny arene rere Meta Aye cies, arias dogo al gle, TAL Ns aU OM eee I
ERO Be ie sag © layla y Urata erie nate Sct otha da. a Mayne oer aioe mad oe ae ae I
Wer MetilomsSLOllemn te rete tay tcnitins oe atresia ciel ac, Laaiaty SAG spears et eee a I
Nf tater Sulittxcee tei, Mprmer tenet teat Nearer vas CHL NC oy, at oN A ai gibi ideal soake Whe Gy teeta eee 8
I
I
5
2

ke

WwW Ul

HPAI ete RS UOTMEG am tartare Mra ayaa ahs oto Glia pce res gre lg wear hls ak arene name aba) ener aenS
FV etcetera iy Olw Chay AnayNoe eqy te erstaaea fy atoretouere oA cies ate ee cavn Rio) ee ails eve oases
TEAG I SINITG epee Pee Ghee uc ee ero sol ROT RNC OIA CREPE ER URES aie SL NTE ree tang ip 3
SeChIOMsy Oteel ay, MOSM ue en ts) | os eae eotes al SPar a) Sasa talegs ale eet cname PAR et grater a ate
Seehom lous: tmecks clay: VESSEl sus ane tera hops sce) s clas entra sa crs oe ek oo gieen sae 0)
SECHONs Clava POtSn dacs eras eo lets Gite ccs Aor adele COMM ae hha Nab ca Seaton 7

Exchange

American Museum of Natural History, New York
TeOs GENE Taal umd Mae trate De Me Gian Rx ihey sewn dani aaccthe yeah, J gieala Sacer Car oboe Rosie: ane 38
Partsnclay.pOtS: ssc eae... pe MES END yee aed eR PREY Jt aca SURI MN 42
OA UAECEM CHIN Sey a totare aerate ard si ec tee Nee, hes oso va'e, & Shei ve Se Seale av. oo et asp vere am ¢ 2

g2 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Deer iantlen pacts! iso eis iin aise sted ep alee cvena lode sh conan) ema Ue eve Se nea a
Claya pipe iaementci es sylnnet ae siglaylebatg adialaldi ati ignite hats Gees
Bar samtlettirasimemts ) cuacicotoauelacccleho vere tebe teet tase
Banner Stine -fracimieiats). ain be kis tee tele sient dereserteleremeusetae ac ee
Red-islate: fragment wi es che Wan cttw cqantadon mute tee ate ae
Oysters shell ig BV ede pera eh cad lash cee i Ra 20.0
Clay concretion, Waar reste ran Os deasicm SUM Cust e Nee een
Platteried 'Stome wah vitcuac eed a loit Blue tobrery Gee wise vee classi aa eee ek
GOneety oi S54 MGs cee hae Sale gehen ce Peek Bie mea pup tee
Bore’ awl Speen oie eeu cee tecane, Siete diac iafeit See sk an te es
Charred hickory | mt 4% 4 ic ie wh tien a cise 0 cee
Lea keg cal elt en PNR ee eae, AUP CMEC, aaa a
NGEOW' s (POMIES 2) Wage axe nye cles hae cael ey Rede ae cle Lah asi cal De ee rrr 6.
Blamdesy ess pens sos det Ane tes Se Se agp Rec Tee Pe ce
Chipped. smmplemients 2 )..K ir. Bean oe ells aes Oe aetna
Dialligne ) Peo he SR eae yah aE ae eich ane eee

HHO RH FRR DH HDHD

—
Ss

Scrapers Loyisni cleh wu oii ead oe terete eee o olshE OG Silane er
Goreet: fragments: Siamese eo aa i. ore a cigioure cs ne titers
Hs Ret eich ae eae Se nnn Sp ee Ae ie we MiG My CRB ssi ay etega Aue BND ith din edek So
KE; BVOOVER Mgrs sie ee rb lice iaatane ple co Ss Bleye scheme asl ear cn rr
Flamer Stones Wai: eitee eet seer oe cells ele 2 eel
PAZ AF SOLD ME Wa Nacsa NG 1 aes rage tihc, waste cstte Rue dene See
Padme CUPS hee Dis oslak ois slataty ene Soke ge Roa Tole ayelete ptbhn ate Ok get otc
IPESELES Nee nn Per Uaioe Lia ace ull ce tate: © let auat eal pe an ea ee D site ee eee
CETES Oe aan PA eres ees cde puerta Sheil lide, hy Sl cat Se eae ee ieee
(GOW ees ve? icc cteta eae ote o os ieretwte elvis er fc eed: ola orate lente ee ae

NHHN NHN BPH YBN DN

XIII
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS

Reta ILOSOPHY OF GEOLOGY AND THE ORDER OF
AEE = SPATE

President's address before the Geological Society of America,
Albany, December 28, 1916

BY JOHN M. CLARKE

Once each year we come together to renew our strength in unison,
like Antaeus, by touching the earth.

I am conscious of taking some degree of liberty in departing from
the usual form of this established function— the annual address.
It would gratify me and might in some measure have diverted or
persuaded you, if this occasion were given to the illumination of
some specific technical theme. But the spirit of the hour seems to
impel me rather to read from my experience and observation, or
at least to portray as I see it, some part of the obligation of the
state to our science and the responsibility of this science to the state.

The occasion is perhaps opportune, not so much in this place of
meeting which happens to be the seat of government of but one of
the many states here represented, and in the presence of members
from two great federated governments; but essentially because, for
the sake of all parties of interest, we must recognize more clearly
the civic element in geological science and insist more pertinaciously
on the immediate as well as the ultimate dependence of a state, if
organized to endure, upon the demonstrated laws of this science.

I wish I might extend to my colleagues among the official geol-
ogists of many states an assurance that this address is to be devoted
to some added demonstration of the obligation of the state to ex-
ploit to the utmost its geological resources, for the sake of the com-
mercial interests of its community, but such public arguments are
now stiperfluous. It is a primary impulse and an almost elemental
instinct in the state to develop the commercial assets of its rocks.
The appeal is so direct, so simple, so imperative that no state can
afford to ignore a well-directed official effort to increase thus the
general well-being and comfort of the commonwealth. The broad
proposition is not debatable; the proposition in detail has always

[93]

94 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

been debatable and debated. Too often and too much in representa-
tive public opinion is the existence of the official geological organi-
zation justified by certain perfectly obvious considerations which
subtend a large angle in the public consciousness. Gold and silver,
iron and coal, petroleum and natural gas, and terms like these are
made too often to set forth a reasonable vindication of official
geology. But you and I may well insist that such factors as these
reckoned in terms of the wealth of the state are not the justification
of official geological research. We may as well draw back the veil
— private enterprise will pretty effectively take care of such things
as these without much help from us. Against such factors which
we may term the obvious sources of wealth must be weighed the
more recondite products which have seldom entered into the esti-
mate of the law-making body or the public knowledge.

It is in these that many of our states are richest, not in those
obvious factors. In a state like this, which I cite not for com-
parison but for illustration, the unexploited iron ore would seem to
be well over a billion tons, while the actual value of the annual
product of iron is not more than one-tenth that of the annual output
from thirty or more different mineral products. And we can not
even begin to estimate for our state the vast reserves in products
undeveloped or conceive the now unknown applications to industry
and the arts which our commonest geological compounds are com-
petent to supply in response to the demands of the state.

I can see in such a state or in a union of states and governments
such as ours, the demand for every human need, today actual and
tomorrow possible, which is in any way dependent on the rocks of
the earth, fully met here without reliance on any outside source.
And it is of eminent importance that the state take counsel with
itself to magnify such independence, at the sacrifice of its com-
mercial ease, for dependence in commerce means no less than does
dependence in the scheme of nature, that is, degeneration or stag-
nation.

I counsel therefore, you who are official servants of the state, to
urge, within your power, upon the state this primary obligation: to
take from no other what it can itself as well produce from its own
stores. Insist, as the right is in you, that the state shall take account
of the knowledge you possess for the full but conservative develop-
ment of its own resources, and neglect no occasion to enforce the
claims of the man who knows best, to precedence in these councils
of the states.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I916 95

I would not seem to profane my high office by stating in this
presence the elemental conceptions of the science, but it is most
imperative that I here, and you elsewhere, shall be lucid, exact and
comprehensive in setting forth its claims, namely and briefly: that
there is no substantial conception of property apart from the prod-
ucts of the rocks, the soils, the mines, the water, the air — and
these in all their functions are geological factors; that there is no
correct understanding of the meaning of human life, individually
or in its complex community relations, 1f we stand with our backs to
the great panorama of events which have builded the earth and the
trains of life which have moved over it from the dawn of its history.
It is most essential that every state should above all things com-
prehend these facts.

The current of my thoughts is toward the well-established prin-
ciples of geology which have constituted the state; not the state as
a geographical section of the earth, and not just now those prin-
ciples which have laid its material foundations, builded its rocks,
formed its veins and beds of ore, made its soil, established the
sources of wealth as expressed in terms of human market; but un-
avoidably I turn to those principles which illumine the trail of
humanity and have given it direction. My time has been long
enough to ripen some of the green fruit of experience and enforce
some deep-seated lessons. In the light of this experience and these
associations there is no escape from the earnest conviction that the
things of supremest value to mankind, the refined essences of the
earth, lie in its records of the life which has gone before us. As the
emergence of what we call the living, quoting Professor Chamberlin,
is the transcendent event in the history of the earth, there is cer-
tainly no other fact in the presence of humanity so vital as that and
the vast procession of the ages with the key it holds to our present
state and future hopes. Need I say to this audience what I would
wish to say to a wider: We are passing, we have stopped only to
see the march of life and play our small part in the tremendous and
endless pageant, happy indeed if, endowed with powers of divina-
tion, the rays of truth have dawned upon us from out of the past, to
light the imagination on toward better things.

To what extent, then, are we fortified by the evidence of the past
career of life in reading its oracle for our present guidance? This
inquiry sets plainly before us, first, the paramount question as to
the oft-alleged and too often magnified imperfections of the record
of life upon the earth.

Q6 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In many, probably in most, expositions of the science of geology
and paleontology, prepared for the use of students and general
readers, the so-called imperfections in the record of past life are
brought out with a vivid intensity. These expositions are, I think, |
in large part due to a more or less unconsciously apologetic attitude —
on the part of the authors, as though they were in some way, being
apostles of the science, likely to be held to account for any over-
statement of its claims; and these attorneys in bankruptcy are not
inaptly, to my mind, comparable to buyers of ancient but damaged
rugs, torn, raveled, worn bare of their patterns: ostentatiously de-
claring their defects while overlooking the beauty, the symbolism,
the perfection of the design seen clear through all the ravages made
by the wear of time. |

I find myself out of sympathy with such deprecating portraitures.
Neither my experience nor my philosophy finds support for pes-
simistic conceptions of the ultimate hope of completing our tapes-
tries from the patterns we know and the threads we are yet to pick
up. For a few years, as we reckon human history, we have
scratched with our hammers some surface exposures of the tablets
of the law in parts of the earth most easily accessible to us, and the
occasional explorer into remoter parts has gathered the life records
in haphazard way, here a few pounds weight, there a few tons. Not
one-fiftieth part of the exposed rocks of the earth has yet been
closely scrutinized for these life records, and of the unexposed but
known strata, practically none at all in the great total. This State
of New York covers 47,000 square miles, two-thirds of which are
underlaid by life records of the earth. This fossiliferous area is
one eighteen-hundredth part of the land area of this globe, about |
one eleven-hundredth part of the exposed fossiliferous rocks. In
this State the work of assembling the evidences of the life record
has proceeded continuously in organized attack for eighty years.
An eminent French geologist has intimated that there are few places
of equal area in the world where the life record is so completely
assembled — and yet every year brings new and necessary additions
to our quiver. What shall we say of the other 1099 equal areas of
fossiliferous rocks on the earth? Many of them have indeed been
studied with precision but there remains and must remain for long
years yet an overwhelming balance of the unknown. In the abund-
ance and perfection of the life that is preserved in these rocks only
the living seas themselves are comparable. I have estimated the
number of individuals of a few of the species occurring in one in-

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQ16 07

sulated mass of marine Devonian strata known as the Percé rock, a
section which above the waterline represents a sea deposit 300 feet
thick, 1300 feet long and about 250 feet wide; and the figures for
these few species run into the hundreds of millions of individuals —
and yet the rock is not richly fossiliferous, in the customary use of
that expression.

It seems to be my experience, too, that the most closely studied
formations have already yielded up a large percentage of their
actual fauna. For some well-studied formations in limited areas the
known fauna is, approximately speaking, a true and fairly full
expression of the actual fauna. I can not of course pursue this
matter here into its further details with its brilliant vistas already
before us of learning the inchoate life of the primitive soils and first
impounded waters, but I think I shall venture to enter the lists on
call, to contend that for plant and animal life alike the records of the
rocks where unaltered, are unimpeachable for adequate suggestive-
ness of the designs which the threads of life have woven. And when
the imputation is too often made of imperfection through loss of
anatomical detail, or the destruction of essential structures, com-
_pare by way of simple illustration compressed into the emergencies
of this occasion the growth of knowledge of fossil anatomy within
the fragment of the lifetime of one man. Fifty years ago all that
was known of the ventral organization of the trilobite was a mere
suggestion embedded in a nest of speculations; of its ontogeny a
few discrete facts. So far has knowledge advanced that today we
seem to know these animals in all their essential details and de-
velopment ; and if aught is left to become known of internal anatomy
or ecology, the lessons of the past are the promise of the future.
What was known of the Eurypterida fifty years ago was little but
their outline and their grosser form. Today their ontogeny is
understood almost from birth onward, their anatomy almost to
ultimate details, their habits at least as well as those of vast num-
bers of living animals, their phylogeny as well as or better than the
phylogeny of any living race subjected to this speculative treatment.
Supplement these illustrations, which are nearest to me, with the
scores of others known to you and with the tremendous strides
made in this same period of time among the extinct vertebrates, and
within the’ realm of lost floras where sheaves of knowledge have
piled higher with every year.

These are the theses I should wish to nail on the doors of our
temple:

4

98 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Nature makes for the individual. This truth is registered on the
tablets of the earth; it lies also in human observation and in human
experience. Its recognition is of paramount importance; its ac-
ceptance sweeps away cobwebs of vagrant hypotheses which befog
the pages of writers on political and social economics.

In the progressive line of development which in the present ter-
minates in us, the procedure of nature has been one of only limited
concern for the family and of tried out and abandoned experiment
for social partnerships and the division of labor. To perfect the
individual inconceivable safeguards have been thrown about him.
The individual is creation’s unit in terms of which all progress in
life is to be reckoned. With unsparing hand she makes and wastes
these units, both for her greater purposes and those which we may
call her lesser ones. Units of purpose are wiped away to make
place for units of other purpose. Yet the unit type remains; re-
mains with its full seeding of possibilities, armored for its fight with
double portions of food supply, of sense organs, of locomotive
means, with an inexpressible superfluity of reproductive supply.
Whether a given unit survive till its work be done or perish in the
doing, it is the individual type that is at stake, it is against this in-
dividual type that all the powers outside it are imposing their
obstacles.

This the geologist knows: There has been no cooperation in the
historic development of the life in which we are directly concerned. _
We may not yet know the trend of many life lines for far in their |
history, but wherever such lines are best known, within the limita-
tions of large natural divisions, those that run through from limit
to limit and point the way both backward and ahead, and those other
lines collateral to ours which have ended and determined fruitlessly
~~ these all can be conceived in no other way than variant expres-
sions of the individual. And in the history of human life is it
aught else than the individual that has stood for the progress of
mankind? Was it the barons at Runnymede, was it some bill of
rights, some declaration of independence, some joint action of
human agencies that have been the crowns of our achievements?
Or was it the Aristotle, the Plato, the Socrates, the Christ, a solitary
Shakspere, an incomparable Franklin, a rebellious Darwin, or the
historic twenty individuals, who have stood fur the progress of the
race?

I say this only for the purpose of saying per contra, that the his-
tory of the excellent life (and by that I mean the line of life that is
best perfecting its psychology), has shown the futility of attempts

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1Q16 QO

at progress through any other agency than the independent indi-
vidual. This is so important a conclusion to every state taking
cognizance of its dependence on natural laws that it is highly essen-
tial to consider nature’s own alternatives to such individualistic
effort, her own experiments in trying out other modes of ascending
heavenward. For “individual liberty,’ said President Butler
speaking before the Constitutional Convention of this State, “is the
cornerstone of the free state.’”’ That is the decree which is written
im burning letters on every milepost of the course of life. “ The
perfection of the individual is the perfection of the race” says Pro-
fessor Hoffman. “ But,” he adds, writing on the organization of the
state, “the individual can have no rights or duties that conflict with
the good of the whole ’’—a supplement for which it is exceedingly
doubtful that any substantiation can be found in nature.

a It has been my environmental control to study and, I hope, to
learn some of the lessons of life from their simplest and most
easily legible expressions —a result that has come from living and
laboring in a state built from the early waters with their undifferen-
tiated expressions of life. The panorama of successive early worlds
of life glows with the simple expressions of law which become more
involved, supplemented and beclouded as the passing of the ages
complicates the process of higher evolution, and produces expres-
sions which, in terms of existing life alone, would be difficultly in-
telligible. The study of the meaning of existing life without the
light of its vast history leads nowhere.

It is safe to say, I think, that living beings at the start, animated
nature whatever its composition, had an equal chance for progress
and improvement. How soon that chance became forfeit we can
not say, but it is obvious that life was not long begun and its greater
stocks established when their courses throughout existence were
set and determined. Nothing is more obvious in chronology than
nature’s deliberate failures, nothing more clear in paleontology than
her set purposes.

The vast subkingdom of the Mollusca started well with bodily
independence, fully equipped with locomotive powers, an excellent
innervation, but they sold their birthright for ease and content.
They soon became dependent upon the movements of the waters
and waited for the waves to bring them food. Compact in their
protection and adaptation, these types of life have come crowding
down through the ages in inexpressible variety. They and their
allied phyla in the great subkingdom to which they belong have, it

100 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

would seem, struggled now and again to regain their primitive in-
dependence and maintain it, but the early condemnation of the law
has overawed them and out of them all has come, and can come
nothing better. They had their chance. That chance was missed;
for untold millions of years they have failed to improve. They still
cumber the earth and teach the lesson of an incurable heritage. You
who are students of ancient life know how great is the multitude of
lessons like this.

None of the observations of the competent have afforded any
evidence that the lines of development through such groups of lowly
animals have led to anything of promise or of excellence. The ages
have rolled away and left them still with us, progressed, arrested or
degenerate within their own narrow limitations, as the case may be.
There is no evidence to indicate that these great groups from which
nothing can be expected were deprived of their equality of oppor-
tunity as contrasted with the other great subkingdoms of the anne-
lids and the articulates from one or the other of which, or from one
and the other in succession, our own line has been derived.

The lesson then is this, that dependent conditions of life, how-
ever we may see them, throughout untamed nature or in our own
communities, are not primitive, are not in the essence of things, but
they are set back so far in the history of life that they are now or
seem to be unavoidable and unconquerable.

These evidences I have discussed before this society on previous
occasions. The field of observation and of inference as well, is
greatly to be enlarged and well justifies the appeals that have been
made on its behalf, but so much at least is indicated: that here and
in analogous cases parasitic existence in whatever group in nature,
and with whatever expression in the natural assemblage or the com-
munity group, involves the essential abandonment of normal direct
upright living and the benefactors thereby are types of life which
nature has cast out and aside as hopeless.

It is probably yet to be determined, at least there is no record I
can find, that even in the passing of the ages nature has ever set up
again upon its feet an organism or group of organisms once fallen
into this dejected mode of life.

It is well the state should recognize this harsh truth which is a
law. With a police power guided by intelligence and sympathy,
some of the harshness in this inevitable human condition may be
ameliorated, but the paleontologist looking at the record of life on
the earth says to this state: Be intelligently guided in the treat-

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I916 IOI

ment of hereditary community parasites, defectives, congenital or
confirmed misdemeanants, whatever the form of degeneration may
be, by recognition of the presumption that in so far as they can not
be physiologically corrected, they are abandoned types in which
there lies little hope of repair. I can state this conclusion only thus
succinctly without here attempting to present or argue its many
ramifications.

6 Soon after the great outburst of articulate life in the Cambrian,
wherein, so far as our present knowledge permits, we find the lines
along which have come the complicated expressions of today ; some-
where in there, we may not say securely now, branched out the
great phylum which led into the world of insects. We are wont to
say that the first whirr of insect wings was made by the dragon
flies and great cockroaches of the Devonian forests — an admission
which of course implies that long earlier ages saw the differentia-
tion of this type of life. At all events the six-legged type of articu-
lates adapted to life in the water and air, full of vivacity and agility,
with full independence, equipped with all potentialities that come
from abundant innervation— this type, this six-legged articulate
expression of existence, the insecta, started reasonably early on its
career. It is my desire to note only in passing that, however close
and direct may be the derivation of the vertebrate type from the
primitive articulate stock, we have no inheritance from and hence
only a collateral interest in this six-legged type of articulate life.
Yet the outcome of development along this line has led to most
extraordinary displays of morphological and psychic differentiation.
A distinguished naturalist has said that the brain of an ant is the most
marvelous speck of matter in existence. I hardly need, before this
audience, to recall the exquisite and minute specialization in mor-
phology, physiological function, performance and, I should say,
conscious or at least psychic behavior among the most advanced
attainments of development in the six-legged articulates, the social
insects. The ant colony is the ideal of differentiation of function.
Its members are by birth and inheritance, food and training, destined
to certain specific duties in the colony. Armies are marshalled,
wars are waged, the wounded nursed, the captives are trained for
their duties, gardens are planted and crops are harvested; the
stock is fed and food is stored, and a score of marvelous concerted
doings which amaze us by the perfection of their totality, which
is — the welfare of the community. Here the individual is actually
constructed nervously and physically, anatomically and physio-

102 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

logically for the niche in the community which he is destined to
fill. No human community where cooperative efficiency has sub-
merged the individual and has been the objective and the attain-
ment, no such human community has ever yet reached such an
ideal of joint effectiveness as has a colony of ants. The ants are
nature’s great triumph, her highest performance in communistic
effort and in cooperative achievement. And what has come or can
come of development along this line?

Let us look back a little into the antecedents of the ants. Says
Professor Wheeler, “So many genera and species of these insects
appear full fledged in the early Tertiary we are compelled to
believe that they must have existed in the Trias or even in the
Lias, but belonged to so few genera and species, or lived in such
small communities that they left no remains.” This distinguished
student cites 276 Tertiary species as indicative of their sudden out-
burst, or perhaps it would be safer to say the development of better
modes for their preservation, and he has further stated that there
is no reliable observation to prove that polymorphism was existent
among the earliest ants of this long period. This differentiation
does, however, show itself in the fossil ants of the Quaternary.

This paramount attainment of intellectual activity in the line of
insect development, in the line of the six-legged type, would seem
thus to have been accomplished largely through the same period of
time when the human line was perfecting its mentality. The psy-
chology of the two ultimate results is separated by processes and
directions of development as wide apart as the poles. Neither is
to| be expressed, perhaps, in terms of the other. The esmicuvem
are wide asunder — one a deadly communism, a moribund partition
of labor, a lethal socialism; the other an active, progressive and
fertile individualism. For the former the student of nature’s history
sees no outcome. ‘Whese too are nature’s experiments: ))@her sm
legged type with all its purposes in its highest expression lies
prostrate on the ground at our feet, it and its achievements have
risen to nothing higher than an ant hill, its communistic relations and
subservience are entirely apart from the true genius of humanity.
Socialism and communism have been tried out and found wanting,
and nature holds conspicuously before the eye of the state the
warning that they have nothing either for the growth of the spirit
or the progress of the intellect.

c I regard as peculiarly a doctrine of paleontology, one whose
demonstration or confutation would be hopeless in the hands of

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 103

the biologist, that of palingenesis, or recapitulation, or in other
words the broad and familiar statement of the fact that each
individual carries in himself and his development history, the
history of the race to which he belongs, however accelerated or
however retarded it may be. I am trenching familiar ground, but
it is because I would remind this audience that not the mere exist-
ence but the panorama of life is essential to this conception and that
the law remains only an assumption of probability as long as its
manifestations are pursued only among creatures of high specializa-
tion. In our bodies politic the more complicated our existence
becomes the more like a tangled web of ordinances: become our
statutes. Forty-five thousand new statutes it is said have been
enacted in the last five years in these states for some of us to trip
and fall over, and just as it is difficult to pick our way through
this tangle of expediential legislation, so it is likewise difficult to
read in highly specialized organisms the leading of this great govern-
ing principle of biogenesis. If we do trip and fall among the
entanglements of the statutes, the difficult mechanism of our present
community life, let us remember that also back even of the bewilder-
ing, confusing, interlocking webs of the physiological mechanism
of evolution lies, outspoken and luminant, the simpler expressions
of the basic law on which rests the whole superstructure of evolu-
tion whether of the individual or of the state.

d It is well for us, well for the state, that we read aright the
teaching of the greater past upon the doctrine of majority control,
for whatever enduring virtue it has takes its roots in these past
procedures of life when laying the foundations of its phyla. Over
and over again the dominant race has started on its career as an
insignificant minority struggling for its existence against an over-
burden of mechanical and vital obstacles, armed only with specific
virtues which have little by little fought their way into the fore-
ground, and by so doing consummated their upward purpose. If
I refer to the geological history of the phylum to which we belong,
the Mammalia, it may stand for the oft-repeated procedure which
has in various forms come under the notice of every paleontologist.
The Prototheria, or the first of all mammals, appeared upon the
scene in the Jurassic, diminutive, mouselike creatures even yet
retaining from reptilian ancestors the function of ovulation, pos-
sibly having already developed a marsupial pouch for their nurs-
lings, insectivorous in dentition, creeping inconspicuously through
sheltered places of the forests or among the crevices of the earth,

TO4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

their minute but agile brains by which they were steering their
course, tremendously exceeding in proportion the brains of the
giant reptiles whose variant forms constituted the majority and
‘ made them masters of earth and air and sea— whose gigantic
physique and fleshly lusts had outstripped the early promise of
their cephalic ganglia and left them hopelessly decephalized. Insig-
nificant in size and number, but equipped with the vigor of phyletic
youth, agile adaptability, locomotive independence left unimpaired
through excessive food supply, with such equipment, good balance
between cephalic and motor nerve centers, these inconspicuous and
feeble folk started on their career of triumph over an overwhelming
majority. Time passed and the deed was done. The agile-witted
founders of the race had spread abroad through the earth. They
grew vast in number and variety, adapted to all media of earth and
air and sea. To them at last came the temptations of the flesh pots;
they grew great in bulk, slow in body, weaker in locomotion and
feebler in proportion. They too had met their impasse and there
was nothing beyond. The majority had arrived, but the majority
had fed itself fat on the spoils of the conquest and was moribund.
Once more out of this majority arose the protest of the minority
and again the keener witted, better cephalized, unimpaired, but
obscure and diminutive minority, strong always at the head,
emerged from the welter of self-indulgence to save the race.
Robbed of luxuriant food supply by a mantle of ice, its vitality
quickened and stimulated by the invigorating cold, imperiously com-
pelled by a world chill which hung upon the earth unknown years
to purge itself of indirection and seek the straightest way to
physical salvation through the practice of simple virtues; from out
of such conditions came the human stock.

If we do not recognize fully the fact that a majority control in
our governments is purely a matter of expediency in the handling
of civic affairs, let us remind ourselves of it on this occasion. We
need only the reminder, for however often the man in the ward
and the voter at the polls conceive that a majority is the paramount
issue at stake, it is too often forgotten that the majority is purely
numerical while wisdom and truth may rest with the minority.
Amidst the inevitable expediencies of government this is its salva-
tion —- that the minority, if clear and strong at the head, like an ante-
cedent river, will cut down mountains of opposition.

“The triumphs of liberty have been due to minorities” said
Lord Acton. “The rule of the tyrant is tyranny whether he have

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 105

one head or many. The principle of absolute majority rule is as
profoundly immoral and as profoundly undemocratic as is the
principle of the divine right of kings. Majority rule is a practical
device for the working of free institutions and not a principle
without limits or bounds upon which free institutions may be based.”

This is the teaching of our science; the ephemeral worth of
majority control is always obvious; the voice of the people is not
the voice of God.

e We have come to a point in our researches where observation
and inference teach us that life originated in unicellular microbic
forms under conditions which have been indirectly indicated by the
Chamberlins, father and son, as governed by and intimately asso-
ciated with a conjunction of soil and moisture, with obstructed air,
and probably without direct exposure to the actinic action of the
sunlight. There has already been interesting and substantial con-
firmation of the presence of actual bacteria in the most ancient
rocks of continental origin antedating the Cambrian, and many
well-demonstrated expressions. The discovery of fossil bacteria
is to be accredited to several students, Van Ingen among others, but
their existence in this age preceding the primordial outburst of life,
in times when by every line of sequential reasoning they should
exist, this important determination is among the brilliant results of
Walcott’s researches.

So now every legitimate evidence of fact and deduction points
to the origin of microbic unicellular life in the moist, subaerated
soil away from the direct sun; and the soils of today are alive —a
mighty host — with such microbic creations existing under parane-
robic conditions. This army, we are coming to understand, is
endowed with specialized functions; and if this statement is, and is
to remain, approximately correct, then the acquisition of such
special functions speaks of a long past with its gradual and cumula-
tive inheritance. It still remains to be demonstrated that the cycle
of life is renewing itself from day to day by the continued trans-
mutation of the inorganic to the organic, however such a possibility
may lie in the lap of logic. But it is well for us to realize that this
microbic life which in the passage of time has become adapted to
such special functions that we recognize among them germs of
disease as well as of benignancy, has the historic impress of hostility
to the direct rays of the sun. Mlicrobic disease is disease only from
the human standpoint, from the point of view of the host of the
disease-causing parasite. For the germ—the microbic parasite

1c6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

itself — it is normal living. I think we may well urge upon the
attention of pathogenists the importance of estimating the historic.
impress which is, in all disease-making bacteria, the natural primi-
tive and inherited hostility to the sunlight. In the adjustments and
readjustments of these parasites to special hosts and specific toxic
processes some may have overcome in a measure this natural
antagonism, but for the most their work is in the dark. The
marvelous results which have been attained in the treatment of
tetanus during the present war, by simple and constant exposure
to the sunlight, encourages us to believe that in similar pathology
a like treatment would be historically and logically correct.

Fifty years ago when President Andrew D. White published his
“ Warfare of Science and Religion,” he said, “A Truth written upon
the human heart today in its full play of emotions or passions can
not be at any real variance with the truth written upon a fossil
whose poor life ebbed forth millions of years ago.” These fifty
years since have enabled us to say with equal security that the
record written on the fossil is the candle by which we must read
the fate of the community, the passions and emotions of the human
heart.

We have been shocked into a consciousness that not all the virtues
abide in us. You may recall the ancient days of Rome when the
people annually gathered to pay an offering of oil and wine, of milk
and violets to the spirits of their ancestors, from the study of whose
examples they gained for themselves and inculcated in others a
respect for the virtuous past. So we say our aves to the great past
out of which we and all our guiding principles in individual life, in
the community, in the state, have come.

Our broader vision which must be the bloom of our intense
specialization is like the dream of the patriarch who, resting his
head on a pillow of stone, saw a ladder reaching from this earth
to heaven and beheld the angels of God ascending and descending
on it.

il Ven ONM@OLOGCY Or ARRESDPED EVOLUTION
BY RUDOLF RUEDEMANN
Address by the President of The Paleontological Society, Albany, December
1916

When last year your society honored me in electing me your
president, it was my first desire to present in my address a general
survey of the work in which I have been most interested, namely,
the analysis of the faunas of the graptolite shales and their corre-
lation. Fear that this theme might not be of sufficiently general
interest, and still more the discovery of new facts in the last two
years, calling for further investigations of the Ordovician shales,
have influenced me to select another problem for presentation in
which I have also been interested for some years. This is the
Paleontology of Arrested Evolution, as seen in the persistent types
and relicts. Unfortunately, this problem, also, as here presented, is
still far from being solved, and I have to beg your indulgence for
obvious shortcomings.

INTRODUCTION

The student of fossil faunas, both for stratigraphic and biologic
ends, can not fail to be struck by the remarkable differences in the
ranges of the various species, genera, families and higher groups.
As a rule, the broad stream of organisms that passes our view in
geologic history changes quite regularly from formation to forma-
tion, but there are certain species and genera which reappear again
and again without any or with but slight variation, often in totally
different faunal associations. These types which thus remain
unchanged throughout a number of formations have been desig-
nated as persistent or conservative types, in contradistinction to the
variable types. As pointed out by Osborn (The Age of Mammals,
paar was eatly observed by Eiuxley,” Cope and others, that
Cuvier’s broad belief in a universal law of perfection was erron-

* Huxley, in his anniversary address to the Geological Society of 1862 on
“Geological Contemporaneity and Persistent ey of Life” (reprinted in
“Lay Sermons, Addresses and Reviews,” 1906, p. 176) has, in a general way,
established the existence of persistent types of structure, and from a general
survey of the development of the organic classes reached the conclusion that
the common doctrines of progressive modification which suppose that modi-
fication to have taken place by a necessary progress from more or less
embryonic forms, or from more or less generalized types within the limits
cf the period represented by the fossiliferous rocks, are negatived by the
evidence of the persistent types, for it either shows no evidence of any
such modification, or demonstrates it to have been very slight.

Our purpose and scope of investigation in the present paper is different
from that pursued by Huxley.

[107]

108 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

eous, and these authors began to perceive the difference between
persistent primitive types (Huxley) and progressive or advancing
Ly pes.

The causes underlying the variation of species have been, since
Darwin’s time, and are still the storm center of discussions of
evolution; the negative side of the question or the continuous
failure to vary has been thought hardly worthy of notice, partly
because its frequency impresses itself principally upon the paleon-
tologist only, and partly because it seems to promise little of impor-
tance to that discussion. Various facts, however, have come to
our notice which bear on this problem and appear to invite a brief
investigation of the causes of persistence, principally as it appears
among invertebrate fossils.

Persistence of types, generic and specific, presupposes the avoid-
ance of two antithetic causes of extinction; to be persistent a
type must not be variable, for if it develops into another type it
becomes extinct as the former type and, though living in its
descendants, it is relatively extinct; further, it must not become
absolutely extinct through death of the race. Variability is the
general means to adaptation and progressive development, and so
persistent types must, generally speaking, be in the peculiar posi-
tion of being not so highly vitalized or alive as the developing and
climacteric forms, and yet still too vigorous to become extinct or
permit the death of the race.

It seems to us that the generic units permit the clearest survey
of the persistence of types. We shall therefore make this unit the
principal subject of our investigation.

The ranges of the persistent genera, as here given, are extracted
from Zittel-Eastman’s Textbook of Paleontology (1913), and I
have here defined as persistent all genera which pass through more
than two periods.

Tables of Persistent Types

The most striking cases of persistence are among the Foram-
imifera, as follows:

Ordovictan=— iMmecen) sees Saccamina

Silurian — Recent ...........- Lagena, Nodosaria

Carboniferous — Recent....... Ammodiscus, Dentalina, Endothyra, Lituola,
Rheophax, Vextularia, Valvulina,
Ammobaculites

Carboniferous — Tertiary ....Nummulites

Mriassic——dRecenta. aaen ss see Bulimina, Cristellaria, Frondicularia, Glandu-

lina, Globigerina, Lingulina, Marginulina,
Orbulina, Polymorphina, Vaginulina, Miii-
ola, Placopsilina, Trochamminoides

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 10g

irassic —— Recent. 2.26 oe. ee. Astrorhiza, Rhabdammina, Marsipella,
Bathysiphon, Rhizammina, Planorbulina,
Pulvinulina, Rotalia, Polystomella, Cornu-
spira, Nubecnularia, Ophthalmidium

Sretaceous — Recent. s.63..-.- Calcarina, Discorbina, Operculina, Sphaeroid-
ina, Bolivina, Ellipsoidina, Chilostomella,
Allomorphina, Dimorphina, Hauerina,
Alveolina

Not only the genera possess this remarkable persistence but
also many species persist, according to Parker, Jones, Brady, Bagg
and others, throughout a number of formations (see p. 126). In
general, the persistence of the Foraminifera surpasses that of all
other orders which are known in fossil condition. The Radiolar-
ians were probably as persistent in their genera but the group is
still very imperfectly known in its fossil representatives, especially
the Paleozoic. Their minute and delicate skeletons are, however,
known to have been as abundant and diversified in the past ages
as at present.

The sponges, contrary to expectation, furnish but very few per-
sistent fossil types:

Cambrian — Carboniferous ...Hyalostelia

Devonian — Cretaceous ..... Peronidella
Carboniferous — Jurassic .....Cnemidiastrum (Hinde)
Carboniferous — Cretaceous ..Doryderma (Hinde)
Mriassic — Cretaceous:........ Corynella, Raphidonema, Sestrostomella
icassici——-"ettlary .......%. Craticularia
Cretaceous — Recent.......... Cystispongia

A great number are found among the corals:
Ordovician — Devonian....... Anisophyllum, Aulacophyllum, Columnaria,

Halvsites, Heliolites, Plasmopora
Ordovician — Carboniferous .. Amplexus, Aulopora, Cyathophyllum, Em-
monsia, Favosites, Petraia

Silurian — Carboniferous .... Clisiophyllum, Strephodes, Syringopora,
Zaphrentis

Carboniferous — Jurassic .... Chaetetes

Triassic — Cretaceous ........ Isastraea, Stylina

Triassic — Tertiary ......... _Astrocoenia, Astraeomorpha, Calamophyilia,

Dimorphastraea, Montlivaultia, Phyllo-
coenia, Thecosmilia, ,.Dimorpharaea

dibitassic —" RECENE 5.5 ets chaise Stephanocoenia

Jurassic— Tertiary -..:...... Comoseris, Cyclolites, Leptoria

Nrassie— Recent’... 24.2... Cladocora, Favia, Goniastraea, Orbicella,
Stylophora, Trochocyathus, Thecocyathus

Cretaceous — Recent ......... Caryophyllia, | Ceratotrochus, Coelosmilia,
Diploria, Lophosmilia, Sphenotrochus,

Goniastraea, Porites, Turbinaria, Heliopora

I1O NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Among the graptolites we have Dictyonema from the base of the
Ordovician to the Carboniferous, Desmograptus from the Ordovi-
cian to the Devonian.

Among the Anthozoa in general, the number of persistent genera,
ranging through more than two periods, is remarkably large; the
number would be more than doubled if the genera living through
two periods only were to be added.

Among the Crinoidea we find:

Silurian — Carboniferous ....Cyathocrinus, Saccocrinus, Eutaxocrinus
iriassig—sinecemta an eae Isocrinus, Monachocrinus
Cretaceous. necenta eee Rhizocrinus

There are no persistent genera among the Cystoidea; among the
Blastoidea, only Codaster extends from the Silurian into the Lower
Carboniferous.

Among the Ophiuroidea all are short-lived ; among the Asteroidea
we find:

Devonian (C:)—ivecent 54. - Astropecten
Jiuicassic —sIRNecente as. ee ee Oreaster
Cretaceous — Recent ......... Calliderma, Nymphaster, Comptonia

In regard to the Ophiuroidea it is stated that in the lower, middle
and upper Jurassic are found brittle-stars closely allied to the
recent Ophiolepis, Ophiocten, Ophiura and Ophiomusium; and
that it is possible that some of these are really congeneric with
recent species.

The persistent Echinoidea are:

Silurian — Carboniferous .... Koninckocidaris

Carboniferous — Jurassic .... Miocidaris

Triassic — Cretaceous ........ Hemicidaris (subgenera) (Subgenus Hypo-
diadema, Triassic-Cretaceous )

Triassic ==secemtmece -. eae Cidaris (culminates in Jur.-Cret.; artificial
subgenera )

(Subgenus Rhabdocidaris Jurassic-Recent ;
Leiocidaris Cretaceous-Recent)

dirs Sic ——slveCenita aes .. Hemipedina, Centrechinus (Diadema auct.)

jurassic —-Nertiaty 4-8 aoe ee Cyphosoma, Nucleolites (Echinobrissts),
Pseudodiadema, Cyphosoma

(Creavweects —— INeowmr ... 2.555. Linthia, Salenia, Echinus, Echinocyamus,

Fibularia, Rhynchopygus (subgenus of
Cassidulus), Palaeolampas

The Vermes have furnished a few persistent genera of Poly-
chaeta or Marine Worms, namely:

Ordovician — Recent ......... Spirorbis

Ordovician — Devonian ...... Cornulites

Ordovician — Carboniferous ..Ortonia .

Siltinian)—— Recents 4-2. aoe ae: Serpula (collective name for various forms)

ities Sc ete ce ihe er te ere Terebella

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 PAE

Some remarkable ranges are cited among the Bryozoa, namely:

Ordovician — Devonian ...... Corynotrypa, Ceramopora, Discotrypa, Erido-
trypa, Hallopora, Monotrypa, Monotrypella,
Pseudohornera, Petalotrypa

Ordovician — Carboniferous ..Lioclema, Rhopalonaria, Vinella, Heteronema

Ordovician -— Permian... >. -. Rhombopora
Ordovician ——Meecent!, 225... Berenicea (culminates Jur.-Cret.)
Stomatopora, Proboscina
Silurian — Carboniferous .... Allonema, Ascodictyon, Chilotrypa, Eridopora,
Hemitrypa, Meekopora, Acanthoclema
Silupmanm—— Permian. «2.3 s+ <.-. Fistulipora, Polypora, Thamniscus, Batosto-

mella, Cystodictya, Dichotrypa, Coscinium,
' Fenestella, Pinnatopora, Phyllopora

@riassic — Recent .....-.. te SCemionona
Miirassic——ilettiary (....... 6. Diastopora, Fasciculipora, Theonoa
HiGIGASSIC ——WNECEME!:. 0/0 2. sus. oes Entalophora, Heteropora, Idmonea, Licheno-
pora, Spiropora, Crisina, Membranipora,
| Onychocella
Cretaceous — Recent ..... eaten Crisia, Filisparsa, Phalangella, Actinopora,

Eucratea, Cyrtopora, MReticulipora, Dis-

cocavea, Hornera, Cribrilina, Lepralia,

Lunulites, Floridina, Smittipora, Micropora,

Membraniporella, Porina, Selenaria, Schizo-
. porella, Smittina, Mucronella, Porella

Among the Brachiopoda we find:

Ordovician — Devonian ..... Dalmanella, Glassia, Scenidium, Atrypa, Atry-
pina, Schizocrania
Ordovician — Carboniferous ..Leptaena, Pholidops, Rhipidomella

Ordovician — Permian ....... Chonetes

Ordovician — Cretaceous .... Orbiculoidea

Ordovician — Recent ......... Crania, Lingula (two maxima of Crania, one
in Ordovician, another in Cretaceous)

Silurian — Carboniferous ....Schizophoria, Schuchertella, Camarotoechia,
Wilsonia, Cyrtina, Nucleospira, Spirifer

Devonian — Permian ........ Dielasma, Strophalosia, Seminula

Carboniferous — Jurassic .... Spiriferina

sitiassiec-——1©@retaceous ...-2 2. Aulacothyris

Jitteassic —= Recent ..... 620.0. Acanthothyris, Lacazella, Magellania, Mega-
thyris, Muehlfeldtia, Terebratella, Terebra-
tulina

Cretaceous — Recent ......... Agulhasia Argyrotheca

The persistent types among the Pelecypoda are:

Ordovician — Devonian ...... Cleidophorus

Ordovician — Carboniferous ..Pterinea

Silurian — Carboniferous .....Aviculopecten, Cardiomorpha
Silurian —Jiirassic ....:...... Posidonomya

Siti tam = Mecetite ... i. os ae Leda, Nucula (over 200 fossil and as many
recent species )

L112 : ~ NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Devonian Eriassic 224-45. Solenopsis, Pleurophorus

Devonian’ @retaceous. 5.7 ‘Pseudomonotis

Devonian — Tertiary ......... Parallelodon (maximum in Coal measures)

Devontan'—— Recent. 24.42... Modiolus, Pteria*

Carboniferous — Cretaceous.Entolium, Myoconcha

Carboniferous — Recent ...... Atrina, Lima (subgenera: subgenus Limaea:
Jurassic-Recent), Ostrea, Solemya,

he id Lithophagus .(Lithodomus)

ARGiassie——) Grenrceolsm enue ae Homomya, Opis, Pleuromya, Tancredia,
Unicardium

Mniassic.— dMettiagy meme Gervillia

Tassie Recentys) ae. seee Alectryonia, Cardita, Cardium (subgenera),

Chlamys, Corbula, Gastrochaena, Hinnites,
Limopsis, Mytilus, Pedalion (Perna auct.),
Plicatulay iiracta, seucinia

Jurassic — Tertiary ...... ..... Anisocardia, Gryphaea

Jumassie—— INecent eae eer Amusium, Anatina, Anomia, Arctica, Camp-
tonectes, Corbis, Cucullaea, Cuspidaria;
Cyrena, Cyrtopinna, Jsocardia, Phola-
domya, Pholas, Pinna, Spondylus, Tellina,

| ' . . Teredo, Trapezium,’ Venus, Trigonia

Cretaceous — Recent ......... Acila, «Achatax, Yoldia,; Batissanue@larnar
Clavagella, Crassatellites, Dosinia, Gly-
cimeris, Panope, Pecten, Pseudamusiuin,
Sphaerium, Spisula, Venericardia, Ungulina,
Thyasira, Paphia .

Among the Scaphopoda the persistent types are represented by:

Silianian (ri weceltie see Laevidentalium
Carboniferous — Triassic .... Plagioglypta
Cretaceous — Recent ......... Antalis, Fustiaria, Cadulus

The Gastropoda furnish the following persistent genera:

Gamilbriant——iSiluiniam mene see Trochonema

Cambrian — Carboniferous — .Subulites

Cambrian ——riassic aes Murchisonia

Cambrian — Recent! ......... Capulus (See p! 116)

Ordovician -— Devonian ..... Cyclonema, Eunema, MHolopea, Lophospira,

Oxydiscus, Sinuites
Ordovician — Carboniferous ..Omphalotrochus

Silurian.— Carboniferous ..... Diaphorostoma, Lepetopsis, Metoptoma, Holo-
pella, Natiria, Orthonychia, Platyceras,
: Platyschisma
Silurian — Permian’ .2.20 J... : Bellerophon
Silucian —=niasstciaes pine Euomphalus, Loxonema, Macrocheilus,
Scalites (?)
Silliman IGESSIC, Gon +6455 0 Straparollus

*Several subgenera, among them Meleagrina, Jurassic-Recent ; Oxytoma,
Triassic-Cretaceous.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO ety

Silumiai = — Ie cewil ease... Acmaea, Eotrochus, Patella, Pleurotomaria

(subgenera, see p. 116), Trochus (sub-
Senera aur pOncs )

Devonian — Triassic ......... Naticopsis

Devonian — Cretaceous ...... Zygopleura

Carboniferous — Jurassic .... Bourgetia

Carboniferous (?) — Tertiary. Pseudomelania

Carboniferous — Recent! .....Actaeonina, Emargiaula, Fissuridea (?), (Fis-

surella auct.), Vermicularia (Vermetus
awe), (2) (Suloeeaeic))

ilitiassic — Cretaceous ........ Amberleya, Cylindrites, Fibula

sigacsie ——Nentiary: 2.0.04)... Discohelix

Triassic — Recent! ........... Astralium (subgenera), Calliostoma, Cylichna,
Delphinula, Eulima, Epitomium (sub-
genera), Monodonta, Natica (subgenera),
Nerita (?), Neritopsis, Niso, Turritella

(subgenera)
ucassic-— Tertiary ......... Pileolus, Tornatellaea
Jurassic— Recent ........ ..-. Aporrhais (subgenera), Bullaria (?), Bullina,

Cerithium (subgenera), Cypraea, Etallonia,
Fusus, Hydatina, Liotia, Littorina, Mathilda,
Melania, Rimula, Rissoa, Rissoina, Scurrsa,
Solarium
@reiaceous ——, Recents |. 5 sac Acteon, Ancilla, Bithinia, Calyptraea, Chry-
sodomus, Clavatula (subgenera), Cominella,
Conus (subgenera), Crepidula, Diastoma,
Erato, Fasciolaria, Galeodea, Hipponyx,
Hydrobia, Latirus, Megalomastoma, Melan-
opsis, Murex (subgenera), Nassa, Nyctilo-
CAusmeGlrtroniuim). )) Oliva, Bhastaneliay
Philine, Pleurocera, Pseudoliva, Potamides
(subgenera), Pyramidella, Pyrula, Rapana,
Rimella, Ringicula, Scaphander, Siliquaria,
Strombus, Tonna, Tudicla, Turricula, Turris
(Pleurotoma) (subgenera), Typhis, Vivi-
para (subgenera), Xenophora

‘The Pulmonata contain as persistent genera:

Iirassic—— Recent) 3010 oe. os Auricula, Carychium, Lymnaea, Planorbis,

Physa
Cretaceous — Recent ......... Glandina, Megaspira
There are also persistent types among the Pteropoda, namely:
Cretaceous — Recent ......... Clio (subgenera), Vaginella

Conularia is recorded as ranging from Ordovician-Jurassic ;
Hyolithes from Cambrian to Permian.

The Cephalopoda furnish the following persistent genera, all
among the Nautiloidea:

Ordovician — Devonian ...... Clinoceras, Cyclostomiceras, Zitteloceras
Ordovician — Carboniferous ..Actinoceras (subgenera), Geisonoceras, Loxo-
ceras, Poterioceras, Spyroceras

IT4 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Ordovician — Permian ....... Cycloceras
Silurian — Carboniferous ..... Kionoceras, Protobactrites, Thoracoceras
There are no persistent genera among the Ammonoidea and
Dibranchiata. |
The Trilobites contain a few persistent genera, namely:
Ordovician — Devonian ...... Goldius (Bronteus), Calymmene, Conolichas,
Cyphaspis, Hoplolichas
Ordovician — Carboniferous ..Proetus
The Branchiopoda contain:

Devonian — Pleistocene ....... Estheria
Mriassic—— Recent ek eee eee Apus

The Ostracoda have the following persistent genera:

Ordovician — Devonian .......Beyrichia, Primitiella

Ordovician — Carboniferous ..Aechmina, JBollia, | Entomis, Leperditia,
. Ulrichia

Ordovician — Permian ....... Primitia

Ordovician — Recent! ........ Bairdia (maximum in Carboniferous), Bytho-

cypris, Cypridina, Cytherella, Macrocypris

Silurian — Recent! ........... Pontocypris

iRerimiai——w Meee ees: Cythere

Jurassic — Recent. 5.0. Cytheridea

Cretaceous — Recent ......... Cythereis, Cytherideis

The Cirripedia contain the following persistent genera:

Cambrian (?) — Devonian ....Turrilepas
Ordovician — Devonian ...... Lepidocoleus
Cretaceous —-"Recent 02.5. ....: Chthamalus, Scalpellum

The Malacostraca contain a small number of persistent types,

namely :
Triassic — Cretaceous ........ Glyphaea, Lithogaster
jitirassic — Riecenity nce cane Callianassa
‘@retaceous —— Recent say Astacus (?), Homarus (?), Nephrops (?),

Panopeus

There are no arachnid (save the extinct Merostomata given
below), myriapod, or insect genera recorded as passing through
two or more formations. Among the Merostomata are:

Ordovician — Devonian 22. -.- Pterygotus
Ordovician — Permian........ Eurypterus
iPriassic == Recent) ke ae Limulus

Among the fishes the following Selachians are persistent:

Triassic —'Cretaceous =< .. .2%222 Acrodus
Jurassre —— Recent): 25... 4326) Cestracion, Hybodus, Pristiurus, Rhinobates
Cretaceous — Recent ......... Acanthias, Callorhynchus, Carcharodon, Cen-

trophorus, Lamna, Pristiophorus, Odon-
taspis, Raja, Scapanorhynchus, Scyllium,
Squatina

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 TES

The Dipnoi contain:

riassic— Recent. 9505 52.2 bets ae Ceratodus
The Teleoster:
Cretaceous — Recent ........ Diplomystus (in rivers of New South Wales

and Chili)

There are no persistent genera among the batrachians, and none
among the reptiles save the turtle Chelone which ranges from
Cretaceous — Recent.

No persistent genera, as here defined, are found among the birds
and mammals.

In the following table we have compared the number of per-
sistent genera of each group cited in Zittel’s textbook with the total
number of genera cited there, adding the percentage of persistent
genera:

NUMBER OF ee ee
PERSISTENT aaa PERCENTAGE | AVERAGE
GENERA
CITED
A B
Zittel- | Zittel-
East- | East- A B A B A B
man man
1896 1913
DOmefethenisy, oo adosbeeaenee oo auoee 29 48 “hal 86 38 156 38 156
SS DOMSESH Etre «cha biel sy hie ce he. lets > 7 9 90 IAQ Swlio 8 |6
‘COIS 2. oo Ub bees aCe OIS erties rer 42 46 242 237 17/ Wats 07 5
(E@rinoideatis 2. okie. ares Oe 10 5 169 277 6 | 2
GramlmGvstotdear cis so cca. ue aie Tea ps oo 38 96 Sialne
SISO IB Iastoldea eh. woe) ic gain ee 2 I 23 23 10 | 4 Tl Omsiaes
SOMO DIUTOIded to 2), si 502 acne pH aera Wl alsin 17 25 oan ine
ElpoepAsteroideans «0. lone. ¢ sec bane 5 5 32 43 16 |II
Dehinotdeassa ane see ee 8 19 194 IOI 4 |1o
BROAD cus, 6 hoo 6 FIO Ric eeS Bae trEe AQ 68 225 306 Ws QB Ty, = rex
BGAChtOPOGasere eiwers a5 bide ese oars 29 33 298 384 Io | 9
IRelecypod ar sees se tacis cloee. aie afi 78 452 4406 I5 |16
8 SCAphOpod aieey ao ease ee aye or 3 5 I4 18 ait Noy)
z GasiropOGae sas) see ee ee ee 108 126 376 420 29 |30
SME CCLOMOG AR cle nasal ess ens 2 el 5 5 107) 1e7 29 |29 TA a hes
CO SRulmonatay. een. - Peres eco ie 8 7 67 65 WA, |i
= Nautiloidea...... I2 12 170 170 A Ala
Cepialopoda 4. huumonoideana..-| 50-7. |) 455 A455 Leahy lies
IDWlorPanavelovieeey « setolh Soee || Seu os pene meee fe
te (ADONG) CYTE) Py ee oS eel Coe tere 7 6 53 131 112) || aS)
29 } Ostracoda...........-+++++-. 16 18 45 68 35 |26.5
Pa eCirripediays fat. sc cists se) ee | 5 4 20 20 25 |20 20 |I4
ebm ialacostraCa. 2 6. ss. sae = 9 7 IA7 134 |) Ass)
Japa lami ly Ls a ys hain, Sere cc Peete aeons Baten 3 3 42 66 oN gta sees fee
Selene init gw oe ea are cee. soeeree te Oe [tee 168 Rare 9.5 se fee
Dim Ore ees Mite sot ergo ee Ae eeye Te | het Ae 2 oben ie ee
MNeleOstete nt 8 ns kis nels O Aeerel eae ae Tales tee “ie | 5
Re bile nt MS ee a sb ae. De Bt SE | ie : | ate

1 Including Merostomata.

It is obvious that some of these figures are misleading in some
regards. They give a fair representation of the percentages in the
entirely or nearly extinct classes, while in those which are now

LTO NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

culminating or just beyond their climacteric period, the percentage
is too high, the great number of recent genera not being taken into
account.

Immortal Types

Of greatest interest are the types which range from the Paleozoic
to the present time. These, one might well term immortal types.
They are principally found among the Foraminifera (11 genera
and 13 from the Triassic-Recent) ; Pelecypoda (9 genera) ; Gas-
tropoda (13 genera and 12 genera from Triassic-Recent); and
Ostracoda (7 genera). It is, however, to be considered that at
least some of these extreme ranges may result from as yet incom-
plete knowledge of the forms, especially among the Pelecypoda
and Gastropoda. Thus, of the two immortal bryozoans, Berenicea
and Stomatopora, the latter has lately been shown by Bassler to
differ from the Paleozoic forms hitherto referred to them, and in
the case of the gastropods, Perner restricts Pleurotomaria to the
Mesozoic genera, separates Platyceras from Capulus of Tertiary
and recent age, but points to the great resemblance of the
Paleozoic forms to this latter genus.’

Considering, however, the close study that has already been
given to the lower invertebrates both here and abroad, it does not
seem to us probable that these figures will be greatly reduced. On
the contrary, a comparison of the figures given in the preceding
table and taken from the editions of Zittel-Eastman of 1896 and
I9I13 even brings out a considerable increase in the more important
groups, namely, in the Foraminifera from 29 to 48, the Corals
from 42 to 46, the Bryozoa from 49 to 68, the Pelecypoda from
71 to 78, the Gastropoda from 108 to 126, all in the short period
of seven years, as the result of the discovery of longer ranges of
forms.

But even if it be conceded for the sake of argument that the
majority of these persistent genera may, on further study, be
found to be still divisible into successive groups and that the abso-
lute persistence is hence merely a deception due either to lack of
knowledge or to extremely slow but still perceptible variation and
development, then the fact of their extremely slight change and
relative stability as contrasted with the rapid development of the

* He cites as gastropod genera remarkable for their longevity: Carinaropsis,
Clisospira, Euryzone, Hercynella, Palaeacmaea, Loxonema, Platyostoma,
Turbonitella and Eotomaria. The four genera Bembexia, Calloconus, Mour-
lonia and Trochonema are peculiar for their manner of reappearing after long
periods of absence (Geol. Mag., Aug. 1911, p. 374.)

REPORT, OF THE) DIRECTOR 1916 Ty

great mass of the organic types, would still remain true and invite
investigation of its underlying causes.

General Inferences from Tables

From a general survey of the percentages of persistent types of
the classes and of their subdivisions, we may draw the following
inferences:

1 The lower classes tend in general to have more persistent
types than the higher. This is exemplified by the higher percen-
tages of the Foraminifera, Corals, Molluscoidea and Mollusca in
contrast with those of the Arthropoda and Vertebrata. And the
extreme cases of longevity, the immortal types, occur only among
the lower classes. Most of them are found among the Foramini-
fera; then follow the Molluscoidea and Mollusca, and a few are also
met among the Crustaceans, but none among the other arthropods
and the vertebrates.

2 Within each order and class, again the lower subclasses tend
to furnish the greater percentage of persistent forms. ‘This is
best exemplified by the Pelecypoda (16 per cent) and Gastropoda
(30 per cent) in contrast with the Cephalopoda (2 per cent), and
within the latter by the fact that the Nautiloidea contain all the
persistent types and the Ammonoidea and Dibranchiata none. Also
within the Crustacea, the Ostracoda (26.5 per cent) and Cirripedia
(20 per cent) contrast with the Malacostraca (4.5 per cent).
Among the vertebrates the primitive Selachians contain nearly all
the persistent types.

This would seem to verify the assertion of some authors (cf.,
for example, Neumayr, Staémme des Thierreichs, p. 106) that
groups that have been overtaken by their more advanced relatives
and descendants, become stagnant and either die out or continue
to exist in unvariable forms. These are the genera that trail in
their existence after the group when it has passed its climacteric
period. This feature is well illustrated by many diagrams seen in
works on fossils showing the range of divisions and having in
general the following form’:

i ire

” As seen, for instance, in the diagrams given by Beecher for the ranges of
the orders of the trilobites in Zittel-Eastman, p. 638. Also Walcott, Cambrian
Brachiopoda, U. S. Geol. Surv. Monogr. 1913, p. 3106.

118 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

All the lower classes that in their turn have been overtaken by
more rapidly developing dominant classes are more or less in this
persistent, stagnant condition. Thus, the cephalopods, the ganoid
fishes, the amphibians and reptiles have successively dominated,
been overtaken and become stagnant in most of their sub-
divisions. Among the plants the Lycopodiaceae and Equisetaceae
have the characters of typically persistent and stagnant groups.

Types of this class were variable at first and became persistent
later in the phylogerontic stage of the class.

3 A closer study of the phylogenetic relations of the persistent
genera shows, however, that frequently they form a central primi-
tive stock from which numerous shorter lived genera branch off,
while they themselves continue vigorously to the end. Such a
genus is, for instance, Eurypterus among the curyterids. It per-
sists from the Ordovician to the Permian and is the most common
and most vigorous genus of the order, which dominates in numbers
of species and individuals its relatives and descendants. Many
other such persistent, vigorous genera could be named, such as
Cidaris; Camarotoechia, Leptaena, Spiriter, Leda, Nuculayiode
olus, Lima, Ostrea, Mytilus, Pholadomya, Murchisonia, Strombus,
Cypraea, Tellina, Platyostoma, Loxonema, Fusus, Murex, Oliva,
Pyrula, Geisonoceras, Poterioceras, Spyroceras, Kionoceras,
Calymmene, Primitia, Cypridina, Carcharodon, Lamna. All these
persist through many periods and are everywhere among the vigor-
ous dominant forms. It should be noted that these genera not
only show their virility in their persistency, but also in their cos-
mopolitan distribution. In contrast to these primitive long-lived
central stocks stand the aberrant groups which, as a rule, die out
in short time.

4 In general it seems true that all specialization which restricts
and adapts the types to certain narrow conditions of life, while
producing a short period of luxuriance, leads to extinction when
these conditions change.

In contrast with these restricted and changeable conditions
stand (1) the stable conditions of the open ocean and deep sea, as
shown by the remarkable immortality of the genera of the Fora-
minifera, and (2) the subterranean conditions. Types that bury
themselves out of sight, both on land and in the sea, seem to tend
to become persistent. This is shown by such genera as Lingula,
the persistence of the boring pelecypods (Lithophagus, Carboni-
ferous-Recent; Pholas; Teredo, Jurassic-Recent), scaphopods, the

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO I19

mud-burrowing trilobites Conolichas, Hoplolichas, and also by the
many relicts of extinct groups among the recent burrowing animals,
as) Amphioxus, the Caeciliae, Limulus, etc. Even among the
extremely variable insects we find in the cockroaches, which are
given to a secretive life under stones and logs, a group of remark-
able persistence of characters which have changed relatively little
since Paleozoic time.

5 A perusal of the percentage table shows further that the
sessile forms contain more persistent types than the vagile ben-
mass atisetie Corals have 15 per cent, the Byrozoa 22 per cent,
the Cirripedia 20 per-cent. Likewise many of the immortal and
very long-range persistent types in the other classes are more or
less sessile forms, as Crania, Schizocrania, Pholidops, Spirorbis,
Wroma, serpila, lerebella, Ostrea, Chlamys, Camptonectes,
Entolium, Pseudamusium, Platyceras, Capulus, Acmaea, Patella.

On the other hand, the sessile sponges and Crinoidea show but
relatively small percentages of persistent forms.

In the case of the sponges we are sure that the Paleozoic forms
are only very imperfectly known owing to the sporadic occurrence
of the sponge fields. Thus the Dictyosponges, which in the New
York Upper Devonian have furnished a great variety of forms,
are only rarely met with elsewhere (Carboniferous of Mississippi
valley, Devonian of France and Poland) and their range is there-
fore probably greater than known at present. The Hexactinellid
sponges which culminated in the Jurassic and Cretaceous time,
have withdrawn into the greater depths of the oceanic basins and
through this different habitat undoubtedly been forced to change.
The Crinoidea display a great multitude of rapidly developing,
short-range forms in their climacteric period in the Carboniferous ;
their persistent types do not appear until later.

It is further noteworthy in this connection that the Rudistae,
typically sessile pelecypods, and the Richthofenidae, most remark-
ably modified, sessile brachiopods, were extremly short-lived.
In both cases we have groups that were widely divergent from
the primitive central stock of their classes, and it can be claimed
as a general proposition that groups that diverge widely from the
median expression of a class do not become persistent.

A distinct example of the different influence of the sessile and
vazile modes of life on the longevity of forms is furnished by the
graptolites. The writer has in other places shown the contrast be-
tween the Dendroidea which remained sessile to the sea bottom and

120 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the Graptoloidea which became first pseudoplaktonic, being sessile to
seaweeds and later free-drifting or floating. Among the Dendroidea,
Dictyonema persists from the top of the Cambrian to the Carbonifer-
ous, while among the Graptoloidea we meet kaleidoscopic changes
throughout the Ordovician and Silurian, the cause ‘of this rapid
development having been the departure from the sea bottom and
the suspended position of the colonies. |

In general it can be asserted that the sessile mode, if taken up
by a whole class, tends to persistence of the types. This inference
would, at first glance, seem to disagree with the previous conclu-
sion that stability of physical conditions is essential to the per-
sistence of types, for sessile forms are largely found in the
littoral zone \ bécatise” there the physical | conditions mages
require sessility. But since these same conditions are there also
most apt to change, it follows that by becoming sessile, types would
seem to expose themselves to early extinction. If the conditions
of existence change, the organisms can react only in three ways.
They either die out or emigrate or adapt themselves. The last
reaction leads to new forms. ‘There is hence left only emigration,
and this would seem to be the very road to salvation which the
sessile forms have closed to them. But it is to be considered
here that the principal change of the littoral zone consists in its
wandering up and down the continental shelf through the relative
movements of the oceans and continents which take place so slowly
that the sessile forms, which, moreover, are as a rule provided
with very mobile young growth stages, are well able to follow them,
as instanced by the persistency of the littoral corals.

Another factor of the persistence of the sessile forms lies, in
our view, in the hard and massive protective covering which most
of these types had to develop and which tends to counteract the
variability otherwise induced by changing conditions.

6 A further inference that appears distinctly in the percentage
table is that the persistent types, as defined here, prevail in much
greater number among the marine forms than among the land and
fresh-water animals. This is shown by the 11 per cent of per-
sistent Pulmonata as against the 30 per cent of the other Gastro-
poda and by the scarcity of persistent types among the old classes
of Arachnida, Myriapoda and Insecta, the only persistent arach-
nids, for instance, being found among the marine Merostomata.
This could be a priori inferred from the fact that the climatic and
physical conditions in general have changed much more frequently

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 I2I

and thoroughly on land through glacial periods, mountain folding,
etc. than they did in the oceans. |

Nevertheless we find some remarkable cases of persistence on
the continents, as that of Ceratodus, ranging from Triassic to
recent time, and of Diplomystus, a teleost which arising in Cre-
taceous time still exists in the rivers of New South Wales and of
Chili; of the phyllopod Apus, persisting since Triassic time; of the
pulmonate genera Auricula, Carychium, Lymnaea, Planorbis,
Physa, persisting since Jurassic time.

Among the continental forms again the limnal and fiuviatile
forms appear to be more persistent than the terrestrial forms.
This is indicated by the greater number of persistent limnal snails
(as Lymnaea, Planorbis, Physa); such very ancient Phyllopods
as Estheria and Apus, and the fact that all the relicts (see below)
among the ganoids and amphibians (Phanerobranchia and Crypto-
branchia) are fresh-water forms. It is possible that this greater
persistency is only apparent and principally due to the greater
probability of the water organisms to become entombed in the
rocks and thus preserved; but it is also to be noted that the limnal
and fluviatile faunas are to a much greater percentage composed
of the lower classes of animals which are more apt to become per-
sistent than the higher terrestrial faunas; and finally, isolated river
systems, like that of the Nile, and land-locked lakes, like those of
Mexico, produce conditions clearly more isolated and favorable
for the continuation of ancient types than any terrestrial regions,
other than islands, can afford."

2 Related to the persistent terrestrial and limnal types are the relicts that
survive as the last of their races in slightly changed forms. They have been
termed persistent types by several writers. Thus Henn (Amer. Naturalist,
vol. 46, IGI2, p. 543) has discussed as persistent forms, what we prefer here
to call, with the Germans, relicts (or “Relicten”), and found that they owe
their presence to their (1) insular, or (2) subterranean habitats, and (3)
their insignificant size. All these features tend to shield them from the battle-
fields of the struggle for existence. The famous surviving Rhynchocephalous
reptile Sphenodon or Hatteria of some islands off New Zealand is a striking
example of such a relict. Having no fossil record of it, we can not consider
it as a persistent form. Other such curious relicts of antiquity are the Aus-
tralian organisms, some of which, as Ceratodus, date back almost unchanged
to great antiquity; the primitive Insectivora, as the shrew, which are pro-
tected by their small size, and the few surviving Ganoidea, as Polypterus, etc.

All these relicts owe their survival principally to their isolation. Suess in
the final volume of his Antlitz der Erde has pointed out that there are regions
where the terrestrial population has not been exposed for a long time to any
physical changes, transgressions and orogenic forces. He calls these asylums
and distinguishes four, namely, Laurentia, Angaraland, Gondwanaland anc
Antarctica. These have not taken part in upfoldings since the Carboniferous.
He shows the biological peculiarities of the asylums, of which it may be me=
tioned tha? 2ll the oldest fish types live in them, as Ceratodus in Australia

122 ‘NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

(Antarctica), Polypterus and Protopterus (Gondwanaland), Lepidosiren if
Brazil (West Gondwanaland), and finally Amia and Lepidosteus in North
America (Laurentia).

Abel in his excellent “Grundziige der Palaeobiologie der Wirbeltiere”’
(Stuttgart, 1912), has pointed out other regions as existing Refuges or Sanc-
tuaries, namely, the Indo-Malay Archipelago where the Miocene vertebrate
fauna persists till today; central Africa where the Pliocene Eurasian verte-
brate fauna still persists, and the central Asiatic steppes where the European
glacial vertebrate fauna still survives. He asserts that these survivals are
not especially strong and resistent species, but weak and effeminate types
which have disappeared everywhere where conditions of life. changed, the
more resistent forms having there adapted themselves and changed to new
types. Inasmuch as the conditions in these “refugien” have not changed
from those of the respective former ages, it can be claimed that the animals
were not forced to change there, the lack of changing conditions not reacting
upon their possible variability.

_It is certainly true that insular forms, though more persistent than the con-
tinental forms show a fatal weakness as soon as they come in contact with
the continental types. This is shown by the rapid extinction of many insular
floras and faunas, as that of St Helena, New Zealand, etc., as soon as these
asylums are invaded by the more vigorous continental types brought there by
human agencies. Even faunas of isolated continents may acquire this fatal
weakness, as was shown by the rapid extinction of the various South American
ungulates in the middle Pliocene when South America became again con-
nected with North America. In this case the invading host brought with it
large rapacious animals which had not been present in South America.

There are no asylums for marine forms in the open oceans. It had been
claimed that the Pacific ocean, in distinction from the Atlantic ocean, con-
tained the old types or relicts, but Philippi has shown that all oceans contain
a fairly equal number of relicts. It had further been claimed or expected
formerly that the abyssal depths of the ocean would contain Paleozoic types.
The actual fauna obtained by later dredging proved to be derived from
Mesozoic forms, which fact had led to the conclusion that the deep oceans
are not older than Mesozoic time. Thus Abel (p. 452) has pointed to the
fact that all abyssal fishes belong to very young families. He sees the reason
for the voung age of the abyssal fauna in the entire extinction of the older
abyssal fauna through the cold waters which during and since the glacial
period have reached the abyssal depths. mt,

On the other hand although the abyssal depths do not at present contain
any forms that can be considered as persistent types of great antiquity, it is
certain that the abyssal life is in such stagnant condition that no progress
will take place and the entire fauna will become a persistent one. Austin H.
Clark in his suggestive paper, “On the Deep Sea and Comparable Faunas,”
(Internationale Revue der gesammten Hydiobiologie und Hydrographie, vol.
1. Leipzig, 1913. p. 17-30, 132-46), from his study of the deep sea crinoids,
arrives at the following conclusion (op. cit., p. 23):

The ocean abysses are regions of uniform and absolutely unchanging con-
- ditions; the temperature is very low. approaching the minimum at which the
body liquids can be maintained in liquid form; the pressure is enormous;
food, all of an animal nature on account of the absence of light, is scarce,
and is, as ingested, adulterated with an enormous amount of waste matter,
either extraneous inorganic or internal excess of liquid. Altogether condi-
tions are very unfavorable for animal life, and of course plant life in any
form is quite impossible. What animal life there is, existing under absolutely
constant conditions, has no incentive other than internal (here as will be seen
reduced to a minimum) to cause it to produce variants or to give rise to new
forms, and there is not the slightest evidence that any markedly differentiated
new animal type ever originated in the deep sea.

But, while the abyssal forms are now in a persistent condition, they are
derived from the most vigorous stocks of former faunas, according to the
studies of the same author, who states (op. cit., p. 134):

“Thus the deep-water fauna is composed of the relics of all the previous
shallow-water faunas, and is in effect an incongruous and heterogeneous col-
lection of what were once dominant, adaptable, widely spread and exception-

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 123

7 Vhe claim which was made by Henn regarding the relicts, that
they are small and inconspicuous forms, is also applicable to the
persistent types of geologic history. The immortal forms are
throughout of the most lowly organisms, as the Foraminifera; the
brachiopods of the Lingula and Crania types; gastropods of the

Capulusand Patella types; small pelecypods as Leda, Lucina,
Nucula and Modiola.!

ally vigorous types which, at the summit of their vigor, extended downward
to depths which were physically the same as the great abysses of today; and
thus the deep-water types of one area reappear as shallow-water types of
another into which competing forms have never intruded, and types found
from the littoral to great depths in one part of the world are confined to great
depths in another.”

There is no isolation in the air as there is on islands, in the rivers or in
subterranean life. Hence we find hardly any persistent types and relicts
among the insects and birds. :

A group of ancient types has found isolation in a nocturnal habit. Austin
Pies @lagia (Ops) Cit. “p: 10). in discussing the “types of faunal restriction,”
has pointed out this fact as follows:

“The strictly nocturnal habit, now known to be a characteristic of a num-
ber of fishes and other organisms once supposed to be confined exclusively to
the deep sea, and long appreciated in regard to a number of diverse terrestrial
groups, is an attribute of ancient types, or of types which have not been able
to maintain themselves under normal conditions, and is therefore comparable
to a habitat in the deep sea or in any other biologically unfavorable situation.”

As typical relicts among the mammals of nocturnal habits we may cite the
Proximii or lemuroids of Madagascar and India, among them the lori
(Stenops) and Kobold maki (Tarsius spectrum) which has large spectacle-
like eyes, and our opossum. :

* The number of examples among the vertebrate relicts is immense ; among
the most striking are the insectivores, notably the shrews; the monotremes,
marsupials, Xenarthrae (armadillos, ant-eater, sloths) with their gigantic
ancestors in South America; the Kiwi (Apteryx) of New Zealand, as the
last survivor of the gigantic Mioas; the small reptiles as the survivals of the
Mesozoic giants. Animals of immense proportions are in all classes a post-
‘cilmacteric phenomenon; gigantism indicates already the decline and approach-
ing extinction of the race. Such animals lack a compensatory element in the
environment, which fact leads to their destruction. The gigantic reptiles, the
Dinosaurs, the gigantic crocodiles, snakes, all became extinct, but the small
representatives of these orders survive. The mammals are now furnishing
the giants in the whales and pachyderms, but it is doubtful whether mammals
larger than man will survive. It is obvious to every one that the small forms,
as the mice and shrews, hold their own better under all conditions than the
larger types. just as the small mammals did in the Mesozoic age against the
gigantic reptiles.

Likewise the lizards (Lacertilia) which are throughout small as compared
with the extinct reptiles, are one of the latest and most flourishing side
branches of the reptiles and not until now reach their climax. Among the
amphibians the partly gigantic Stegocephali have become extinct in Paleozoic
and early Mesozoic time, while the pigmaean salamanders and frogs and bur-
rowing small Caecilia are very well able to hold their own against the higher
reptiles, birds and mammals.

Special notice in this connection is deserved by the remarkable Phanero-
branchia with exterior gills (represented by the Axolotl, Siren, Proteus,
Menobranchus) and the Cryptobranchia with “ gill-apertures ” (Amphiuma,
Menopoma. Cryptobranchus). These remarkable relicts are persistent
ontogenetic stages of the salamanders, as is especially shown by the Axolotl
(Siredon) which under certain circumstances may change into a salamandroid
form. It is also interesting to note the asylums these strange relicts have

124 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

8 Many persistent types whose geologic history is well traceable
in the rocks show a slow development, a distinct climacteric period
and a long postclimacteric period. Good examples of such genera
are the bryozoan Berenicea which is “rare in Ordovician, very
abundant in Jurassic and Cretacéous, less frequent in Tertiary and
Recent”; the coral Halysites which begins in the Ordovician,
culminates in the Silurian and extends into the Lower Devonian;
the echinoid Cidaris which appears in the Permian, is very abund-
ant and variable in its climacteric period in the Jurassic and Cre-
taceous and persists until today; the worm Serpula, which appears
in the Silurian, culminates in the Mesozoic and still persists; also
the Paleozoic representatives of Lingula, which begin in the
Ordovician, culminate in the Silurian and Devonian, and decline in
the Carboniferous and Permian; the ostracod Bairdia which
develops in the Ordovician, reaches its maximum development in
the Carboniferous and then continues in diminished numbers until
the present day. The diagram of such slowly developing long-
range genera would appear like this:

EE SSR eae —

We believe that the life history of most long-lived genera
when fully known will be found to have possessed this mode of
development, in contrast to all rapidly developing genera which as
a rule disappear as quickly, either by changing through their
variability into new genera or by extinction. This contrast is well
shown in the Cephalopoda by the difference between the slowly
developing Nautiloidea with their fair number of persistent genera
in a relatively small number of genera (12 in 9170) pandwane
Ammonoidea, which are so variable that they count 452 genera
and change so rapidly that they have no persistent forms.

Connected ‘with the preceding factor of persistence in genera is
the following fact: that the persistent genera which slowly develop
never produce many species during a single geological period.
Genera that produce a great number of species, as a rule become
soon extinct by progressive development to new generic groups
and a crowding out of the older primitive stock by the descendants.

g There are a number of minor factors that pertain to great-
longevity in the organic world and that are clearly present in some
of the persistent genera. (a) One of these is an extreme individual.

found, as, for example, Proteus the subterranean caves of Carinthia in
Austria, Siredon the land-locked lakes about Mexico City, Cryptobranchus.
the volcanic-lakes of Japan, and the others the asylums cited by Suess.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 125

vitality. To cite one example: Schuchert comments on the won-
derful vitality of Lingula and Crania. He states Bul. Geol. Soc.,
nol. 22) IO11, p. 203):

It is also desirable to point out here the wonderful vitality of the living
inarticulate brachiopods. Lingula is exposed on the tidal flats of Japan for
hours without injury, and on account of its accessibility is regularly gathered
by the poorer people for food. At high tide these animals are covered with 3
to 4 feet of water. Their habitat may be brackish or foul with decomposing
organic matter, even to such an extent that all other shell fish may be killed
off, but Lingula will continue to live under such adverse conditions. Yatsu,
who has studied living Lingula, tells us that on little estuaries in certain bays
of southern Japan their habitats may be covered by sand and mud brought
down by stream freshets, so that all of the burrowing shell fish will be
destroyed, but Lingula will still live in such stinking places and the
individuals tunnel themselves to the surface. The burrows are from 2 to 12
inches long, and the movements of the animals up and down in the holes are
madé by means of the highly contractile and regenerative peduncle. It is
thought that Lingula may attain an average of 5 years or even more. Yatsu
kept them alive in aquaria with the water fetid, and Morse did the same,
keeping his specimens alive for six months in almost unchanged water.
Joubin kept Crania, taken from great depths, alive in jars under very adverse
conditions for 14 months. In these statements we see the very adverse
conditions under which the burrowing Lingula may live, and that the tenacity
of endurance is also very great with cemented Crania. In this adaptability
lies the probable explanation of why the lingulids and craniids have lived
since the Ordovicic, Lingula and Crania have endured all of this vast time
apparently without change other than the superficial ones of form, size and
ornamentation.

b Many of the still existing persistent forms are known to pro-
duce immense broods, as e. g. Ostrea and Limulus. Of the latter
it is told that the quantity of eggs deposited on the sandy shore
of New Jersey is so great that scows loaded with supposed. shore-
sand were found to be filled with Limulus eggs and had to be reemp-
tied when the sand became alive! Also some of our noted relicts
are remarkable for the great quantity of the eggs they produce, as,
for example, the sturgeon.

c Further, it is sure that many of the persistent forms are eaters
of carrion and refuse and thus being easily fed are able to subsist
where other more fastidious types had to leave. The Capulidae,
which already in Carboniferous time began to live on the excre-
ments of crinoids, and the oyster, exemplify this group.

Persistence in Species

Before attempting a synthesis of the factors obtained by an
analysis of the persistence of the genera, we will, in order to
obtain a wider view of our problem, briefly survey the persistence

126 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of the smaller units, the species, and also that of the higher units,
the families and orders. :

The longest ranges are again found among the Foraminifera. We
cite here, to illustrate this striking persistence, the following cases
mentioned by Bagg:

Anomalina ammonoides (Reuss).......Cretaceous — Recent
A. grosserugosa (Gumbel)
Bolivina dextilaniondes) Reuss... 26 Cretaceous — Recent
Bulininar py cillarac@Ggiicmy: ee eee Triassic — Recent
Cristellaria crepidula (Fichtel & Moll). Triassic — Recent
(CG yresrotulata + G@laamatnrck.)p acer econo Triassic — Recent
Discorbina turbo (d’Orbigny)......... Cretaceous — Recent
Gaudryina pupoides d‘Orbigny.:......: Cretaceous — Recent
Globigerina bulloides d’Orbigny........ Devonian — Recent!
lagen ActbicOstameNc SSN nr ee rss Cretaceous — Re:ent
La elobosae GMliontact)) pam sce cance Carboniferous — Recent!
Le seraclhicnNValltamsSon meme eer eee Cretaceous — recent
L. marginata (Walker and Boys)....Cretaceous — Recent
L. suleata (Walker and Jacob)....... Silurian — Kecent!!
Mareintulina scostata a @aatseh)) sane Lower Jurassic (Lias) — Recent
Wiese labrardt@npionyae aeons ee cee Lower Jurassic (Lias) — Recent
Miliolina oblonga (Montagu).......... Cretaceous — Recent ;
Meo Mtnicaninata sa Cds@r ptony ee oe ee Lower Cretaceous — Recent
Nodosaria communis (d’Orbigny)...... Permian — Recent
ING@Y consobrinas@d‘@rhigny,)) tae. see eee Cretaceous — Recent
ING taccimenm CSOldaniin ie ae serie oe Permian — Recent
IN. -apaiperatan¢d @cbieny)) wens Lower Jurassic (Lias) — Recent
NensolutaiGReuss) iw saa eta a hee Cretaceous — Recent
Nonionina scapha. (Fichtel and Moll) ..Cretaceous — Recent
Orbulinatuniversa jd‘ Orbieny !o5 2. /s6-0- Lower Jurassic (Lias) — Recent
Polymorphina compressa d’Orbigny....Lower Jurassic (Lias) — Recent
Pe problemand Ox mietiye ci eee hie Lower Jurassic (Lias) — Recent
Pulvinulina elegans (d’Orbigny).......Jurassic — Recent
Pe srepanda @hichtel and: Wioll) se. Cretaceous — Recent
Textularia agelutinans d’Orbigny.....- Cretaceous — Recent
Truncatulina lobatula (Walker and
TACO D Neca: titer alee otek! reat ee Carboniferous — Recent
©. “ungeriana (d’Orbieny)s..). 525... Cretaceous — Recent
Vaginulina legumen (Linnaeus)........ Triassic — Recent

Among the brachiopods such types as Atrypa reticularis, which
ranges through the Silurian and Devonian throughout the world,
and Leptaena rhomboidalis, which ranges from the Ordovician
(Trenton) into the Lower Carboniferous (Waverly) in America
and Europe, come here readily to mind. Also the coral Halvysites

“Rufus Mather Bage ir, Phocene and Pleistocene Foraminifera from
Southern Cahjorma, U.S. Geol Surv, Bul. 513) “tere, pp: “wste

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQ16 127

catenulatus which appears in the Ordovician, flourishes in the
Silurian and still persists into the lower Devonian, may be cited
here. Some of these, as Halysites, belong under the heading of
persistent sessile forms; the others, as Atrypa reticularis and Lep-
taena rhomboidalis, are clearly forms of extreme robustness and
fertility but slight variability.

That the persistence of these species is but more or less relative
was interestingly brought out in a discussion at the New Haven
meeting (1912) of the Paleontological Society, when Prof. H. S.
Williams mentioned Leptaena rhomboidalis as a form that is per-
sistent because it is a form of great plasticity and very variable in
every locality and horizon where it occurs; therefore, he believes
it has not been separated although its differences are as great as
those of several genera, like Leptostrophia and Stropheodonta.
Dr E. O. Ulrich asserted that it is not so variable in each place,
there being but little variation of individuals, but that it is made up
of a multitude of species of different horizons that can be distin-
guished. Dr A. F. Foerste has, indeed, distinguished some of these
species. The fact that Leptaena rhomboidalis has so long been left
undivided by paleontologists who are ever ready to distinguish
species would still indicate that it represents a long-existing compact
group of little changing forms of a relatively persistent type.

Persistence in Higher Groups

There are also a number of families and orders that are remark-
able for their wonderful persistence without material change.
Such are the limulids among the Merostomes, which begin in the
Devonian; the scorpions, arising in the Silurian and culminating
in the Carboniferous, but still in vigorous existence today with but
little change; of the Carboniferous Eoscorpius it is stated (Z. E.
p. 788) that it does not differ in any important respect from living
forms; the Pedipalpidae, known in a considerable number of types
from the Carboniferous and but little different today; the cock-
roaches which, with 300 species from the Paleozoic of North
America alone, were then the prevailing type of insects and still
flourish but little changed, the true Blattinidae beginning in the
Mesozoic; various families of the bryozoans, especially of the
Cyclostomata; the lingulids etc.

The causes of persistence here applied to the genera also hold
true in a more generalized form, for the larger groups. In some
cases, as in the scorpions, a superior set of offensive and defensive
arms (the pincers and poison glands), early developed, have

128 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

greatly helped to give the group stability; in others, the limulids,
the burrowing habit combined with an excellent leathery defensive
armor have allowed the little offensive and sluggish anal to
persist through an astonishing length of time.

The whole class of turtles which, in contrast to the Dinocerata,
still flourishes today, although already arising in the Triassic, 1s
an example of a group that has successfully specialized for protec-
tion and thereby survived, while the Dinocerata, in spite or in
part because of their gigantic dimensions, are extinct (Wieland).

Persistent Types Originally the Most Vigorous Stocks

We have seen that a great number of persistent types and relicts
have found isolation in restriction to regions with a minimum of
ecological competition, that is, by withdrawing to greater oceanic
depths, to a burrowing habit, to underground water on land, to
islands, to lakes and old rivers of ancient continents (as Ceratodus
in Australia and some fishes of Africa), to very saline water, to a
nocturnal habit, etc. All these persistent forms are to be considered
as senescent types which are in a very delicately balanced condi-
tion and would quickly succumb if younger and more vigorous
forms should intrude upon their ecological territory. While they
thus now appear as weak forms, they were, however, originally the
most vigorous stocks which were able to reach and adapt them-
selves to the more abnormal conditions at the periphery of the
ecological field. It is not probable that a mature or senescent
form can be forced into new territory; when subjected to competi-
tion by younger and more vigorous species it merely dies away.
This relation of the old types to the younger types still in process
of evolution has been clearly recognized by Austin H. Clark (op.
cit. p. 136ff) from his studies of recent crinoids. He writes:

It must be remembered that, although we are at present concerned only
with deep-sea forms, internal specific pressure due to enormous increase in
the numbers of individuals within a species operates not only to cause a
species to colonize bathymetrically undesirable locations, or unnaturally cold
and uncongenial regions such as the polar seas, but also to force species into
small localized areas, or as it were pockets, possessing special and circum-
scribed unfavorable characteristics where they may be able to remain unin-
fluenced by the changes in the general fauna of which they once formed an
integral part. Thus we find such genera as Artemia, and in fact all the
phyllopod crustaceans, Carcinoscorpius, Tachypleus, Xiphosura (collectively
known to palaeontologists as “ Limulus’), Lingula, and many others occupy-
ing special areas into which no competing younger forms have ever forced
themselves.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 129

Living under the normal conditions, which are fixed and vary only very
slightly in all parts of the world, we find the vast majority of phylogenetically
new forms with a few still vigorous less young types; under the conditions
grouped in the second heading, which show an almost infinite variation, we
find the vast majority of all the older forms still persisting, and a very few
of the more recent types.

If we are ever to find recent representatives of such past types as the
cystideans, blastoids, trilobites or eurypterids we shall find them living under
abnormal conditions to which they became adapted when at the height of
their vigor and from which no subsequently developed competing type has
succeeded in ousting them. We must look for them in the deep sea, in fresh,
very saline, acid or alkaline water, in regions of great cold, great heat or
great climatic change, or in some such situation far removed from the opti-
mum conditions under which marine life is maintained. It is probable, how-
ever, that none of these types were possessed of such vigor that they were
able to colonize localities of such a nature that they could not be reached by
competing forms of later development or with a subsequent period of maxi-
mum vigor.

Summary of Factors of Persistence

In summing up, our evidence appears to show that the lower
classes and within each class again, the lower divisions tend to
have more persistent types than the higher ones, or in other words,
that the groups that have been overtaken by their more rapidly
advancing relatives are apt to become stagnant and persistent;
as a corollary, persistent types appear more frequently after the
climacteric period of a group than before or during the same; in
some cases, however, they clearly form the central vigorous stock
from which the shorter lived types branch off. In such cases
they are primitive types or forms that vary little from the general
class-type in contrast with the aberrant and specialized types which
as a rule are short lived, however well adapted they may be to
special conditions. Sessile classes, further, show a greater number
of persistent types than vagile forms; the persistent types prevail
more among the marine forms than among the terrestrial or fluvia-
tile types. Isolation, as by a subterranean habitat was further recog-
nized as favoring longevity of types. On the continents the
absence of transgressions of the sea and orogenic movements
through long stretches of geologic periods have been favorable to
persistence of types (asylums). As factors contributory to generic
longevity were further mentioned small and inconspicuous size,
individual vitality, production of large broods, restriction to most
easily procurable food. In some cases the early development of
superior offensive and defensive arms appears to have been of
great effect in making the race conservative.

5

130 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

If we try to reduce this multiplicity of factors to a few con-
trolling agents, we find that these are the fixation of overtaken and
postclimacteric types, the presence of stable physical conditions,
and withdrawal in various ways from the fields where the struggle
for existence is fiercest. The stable physical conditions have been
found by many in the open ocean, by some in the deeper littoral
regions of the oceans, by others again in subterranean fields, by
some in the rivers and lakes of continental regions that remained
undisturbed from folding. Withdrawal from the struggle for
existence with other organisms has been accomplished by a variety
of means, as by isolation, burrowing life, small, inconspicuous size,
superior, often deadly, offensive and strong defensive arms,
through restriction to poor fare, great power of endurance, etc.

Analysis of Biologic Factors of Persistence

In any analysis of the biologic factors that have permitted per-
sistence in the tremendous stream of organisms that has evolved
since the Paleozoic age, we must distinguish between the two
entirely different groups of persistent types mentioned repeatedly,
(1) . the postclimacteric types, and (2) the priniutive ycental
vigorous stocks. ,

Stable physical conditions and withdrawal from the arena of
the struggle for existence, as far as. possible, are the only means
for the salvation of the postclimacteric persistent types; the primi-
tive stocks, however, which persist are frequently dominant in the
very seats of war. While the first group are among the
‘“ overtaken,’ and are mostly the gerontic groups which, though
once the most vigorous of their race, are affected with a sort of
congenital weakness or diminished vitality. which renders them
less fit for the struggle for life, the second group frequently con-
tains what Beecher has termed “ radicles” or the stocks from which
the specialized groups continually branch off, while they live on
vigorously though primitively. We will term the first persistent
terminals the others persistent radicles. The first class has reached ~
fixity; the latter retained variability.

A partial explanation of the possibility of the existence of two
such radically different groups of persistent types we may find in
the views of Simrott.’’ According to this author: “ Organic evolu-
tion is dependent on the action of two opposing factors: that of

. W. Simrott. The Fixation of Character in Organisms. The Bue
Naturalist, 47: 7C5-29. 1913.

REPORA TORS Eth DERE CLOR: 1916 r4i

progressive fixation which tends universally toward greater rigidity
and conservatism in all characters during evolutionary advance;
and that of natural selection, which tends to maintain or increase
the variability of those characters important for survival by elimin-
ating individuals where such characters have become so fixed that
the organism fails to possess a necessary degree of adaptability.”

According to this conception it is possible that the persistent
types which, so far as they belong to the class of postclimacteric
forms or fixed terminals and are not among the dominant forms,
have become so fixed in all their characters as to make them per-
sistent, partly by the factors of progressive fixation and partly
by the fact that they have in various ways, as we have shown,
avoided the opposing factors of natural selection which otherwise
would have maintained their variability. Their conservation is then
due in part to their gerontic condition and in part to the compara-
tive constancy and peacefulness of their surroundings.

In the central, frequently dominant stocks, or the persistent
radicles, the persistence, on the other hand, is the result of the
fact that through their primitive nature they are still adapted to
a greater variety of conditions and that while there may be and
probably always is considerable variation, it is around a still
unspecialized, primitive form and thus difficult of recognition, and
further that the plastic and: variable characters which, according
to Simrott, are essentially those of size, shape, color and texture,
are not always quite apparent or observable to the paleontologist,
especially where the hard parts are not readily affected by the
variations in the soft parts.

If this conception is true, only the persistent terminals will be-
actually fixed and are true persistent types, but it would also appear
that the taxonomic characters, by which we recognize them as
persistent, are of little or no functional influence.

Seen from another angle, that of the physiologist, the problem
resolves itself into one of difference of selection of adaptability. »
Albert P. Mathews* writes as follows:

In the evolution of animals two movements may be perceived: a spread-
ing out and a progress; a diversification and a movement forward. The
question which I wish to raise is whether these two movements which are at
right angles to each other, may not be due to the natural selection of two.
different kinds of adaptation; first, adaptation of form and function to dif-
ferent kinds of environments; and second, the natural selection of the func-

* Adaptation from the Point of View of the Physiologist. American
Naturalist, 47: 9off. 1913

132 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

tion of instability, or, in other words, to the selection of adaptability, or the
adaptation to changeableness of environment. Selection of the first kind of
adaptation may have given rise to varieties, species, genera of the same
iype of animal, and have produced spreading or diversification, while selection
of the second kind of adaptation may have produced the movement onward
and upward of all animal forms.

The two kinds of adaptations do not always go together and selection of the
one may outweigh the other. It is because selection to a specific environ-
ment sometimes is more important than selection of adaptations to change-
ableness, that not all organisms have progressed in the scale of evolution
equally rapidly; but some have persisted in special environments with slight
changes of structure for very long periods, or may even have retrogressed;
while other forms in which the second adaptation has been vigorously
selected, have moved rapidly onward and upward, and show little adaptation
to any special environment.

The clearest conception of the biogenetic causes of persistence
we obtain, it seems to me, through Osborn’s law of the four insepa-
rable factors.1 This fundamental biological law is: “ The life and
evolution or organisms continuously center around the processes
which we term heredity, ontogeny, environment and ‘selection;
these have been inseparable and interacting from the beginning;
a change introduced or initiated through any one of these factors
causes a change in all.”

We must then infer that since no changes or but extremely slow
and insignificant ones are apparent in the characters of the per-
sistent forms, the fundamental condition of persistence is that
each of the four factors, heredity, ontogeny, environment and
selection, remains constant and no changes are originated through
any of them. We have already seen that environment and selec-
tion are processes which comprise all competition, survival. or
elimination of individuals, and which appear under different forms
as important factors of persistence. Heredity is, according to
Osborn, by far the most conservative and stable of the four pro-
cesses involved in life and evolution, because it is embodied in a
form of matter (germ-plasm) least subject to changing external
influences, but it is also a fact, according to the same authority, put
forth through paleontological observation, that many origins of
new characters are through some internal action in heredity (both

*H. F. Osborn. Evolution as It Appears to the Paleontologist. Science,
DS AOI Wally |) UC O7/7-

Also H. F. Osborn. The Four Inseparable Factors of Evolution; theory of
their distinct and combined action in the transformation of the Tithanotheres,
an extinct family of hoofed animals in the order Perissodactyla. Science,
TES 2 7) AS MOO ie ,

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 ee

the continuous mutations of Waagen and the discontinuous muta-
tions or saltations of de Vries). It then appears that in these per-
sistent types the process of heredity has become entirely fixed and
rigid. While heredity is the most stable of the four processes,
ontogeny is the most unstable. That no changes originate from
this factor, requires entire stability in the habit and the use of the
organs.

Of the four factors, heredity, ontogeny and environment
evidently work toward fixity after the climacteric period,
since the evolutionary advance in each phylum tends to
result in the decrease of variability, which becomes a
hereditary character, and since the early ontogenetic stages repeat
these characters which were most conservative and firmly fixed in
their ancestry, this condition progresses into later and later
ontogenetic stages and leads thus to a loss of the potentiality of
introduction of new characters during ontogeny. The environ-
ment in all postclimacteric persistent types is notably stable.

But while in persistent types heredity, environment and ontogeny
are rigidly stable factors — heredity especially to be considered as
fixed in the postclimacteric forms — selection can not be fixed but
is still ready to act whenever the other factors introduce slight
variation. It then follows that the possibility of slow development
continues and that all persistent types may still develop, perhaps
infinitely slowly. There are, then, theoretically no absolutely per-
sistent types, and the differences but those of rate of development.

The difference between the two groups of persistent types, the
relatively rigid terminals and the more variable radicles, consists
according to this view in the fact that in the former all factors
have become fixed and unresponsive to stimuli, only the selection
still slowly acting, while the latter are so well adapted to a variety
of conditions that no changes readily originate through any of the
processes of environment, ontogeny and selection, which affect the
whole stock, while at the same time no changes in the germ-plasm
are induced through hereditary tendencies.

General Conclusions

‘The evidence here gleaned from the persistent types and equally
supported by both groups of persistent types, the persistent radicles
and persistent terminals, leads necessarily to the general conclusion
that there is no inherent propelling force of variation or of
development, and that all evolution in the last analysis is largely

134 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

dependent on the exterior agencies supplied by the ever changing
physical conditions, which stimulate the four inseparable factors
of evolution. As seen from the side of the persistent forms, vari-
ability and development in the organic world stop when the physical
conditions become stationary.

This conclusion from the persistence of types is corroborated by
evidence from the opposite phenomenon, that there are periods of
rapid development under the stress of severe and rapidly changing
physical conditions, such as, for instance, obtained 1n the periods
of maximum emergencies of the continents that separated the
geologic eras. |

While we stand in awe before the orderly and apparently wilful
steady development of the organic world to its highest expression,
man, the persistent types remind us what might have happened if
the surface of the earth had remained unchanged and unchange-
able, if the advancing and receding seas, rising and sinking con-
tinents and mountain ranges, drying up seas, rivers and lakes,
changing climates and other physical factors had not continu-
ously subjected the organic world to new conditions and new
stresses, ever propelling them forward, letting the oceanic organ-
isms into the epicontinental seas and forcing them back again into
the oceans, or driving them into the rivers and thence upon the
dry land, in successive waves of worms, insects, arachnids and
vertebrates; and from the dry land even into the air. There is no
doubt that without these driving forces a stagnant, lowiy organ-
ized world of relatively persistent types would have resulted.

GEOLOGY] AND: PUBLIC, SERVICE

BY GEORGE OTIS SMITH
Director of the Umited States Geological Survey

~The subject on which I have been asked to speak presupposes a
science that is practical — one that serves others than its devotees.
It is only utilitarian geology that I shall discuss — that side of the
science by some termed economic geology, by others applied geology,
but for utilitarian I shall take the definition credited to Tolstoi —
solely what can make man better. This human side of scientific
work is simply part and parcel of its wider purposes, and to
recognize its utility is to ennoble Science rather than to degrade it.

Five years ago, in the presidential address of the Geological Society
of Washington, Mr Brooks gave some quantitative expressions of
the marked tendency in geology toward practical problems. This
growth in the utility of our science during the last quarter of a
century was measured by the activities of state geological surveys
and of universities, as well as of the federal survey. Further, as
Mr Brooks pointed out, the trend that has made applied geology
the dominating element in our science has not been limited to the
North American continent; it has been worldwide.

The United States Geological Survey was created for publi¢
service in the widest sense. Congress intended it to be a large factor
in placing “the work of national development and the elements of
future prosperity upon the firm and enduring basis of truth and
knowledge.” To quote further the language used in the debate of
thirty-eight years ago, “the institution and continuance of an
effective geological survey’ was then regarded as a measure such
“as will prevent the waste of natural resources, clear the way of
progress, and promote the triumphs of civilization.” Such a declara-
tion of purpose, though more eloquent, was in full accord with the
report of the National Academy of Sciences and surely leaves the
federal geologist free to devote his science to public service without
fear of just criticism.

The present status of our science forecasts an even larger use-
fulness in the future. In oil geology alone the profession has won
a place in the business world undreamed of ten or even five years
ago. When we see single corporations having in the field more oil

1 Delivered at the Albany meeting of the Geological Society of America,
December 10916.
[135]

126 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

geologists than the United States Geological Survey, we realize that
our federal service must rest its claim to consideration on some-
thing other than size.

In other lines, too, the science of geology is gaining the recog-
nition that we perhaps feel has too long been withheld. Especially
gratifying is the tendency of constructing engineers to consult
geologists in matters related to large engineering projects. To the
trained geologist, familiar with the many kinds of rocks and their
varied habits of assembling together, it has seemed strange indeed
that so many engineers have gone ahead on the theory that rock
is rock and that nothing can be learned of the third dimension of
the earth’s crust in advance of actual excavation. Possibly, how-
ever, some of this blame may be laid at our own door, for geologists
do not always seem firm believers in the practical side of their own
science, and only in these later years have we learned to talk of
the facts of geology with any approach to the quantitative exactness
that engineers expect. Even now a wide difference in degree of
scientific accuracy and refinement may be noticed in the manner
in which we handle data in our own particular specialty and data
relating to some other phase of geology or to another branch of
science. This lack of respect for specialized science may sometimes
be found in our own midst, even though we call ourselves specialists.

The opportunities for expansion are plainly before us, for the
practical worth of geology is now widely acknowledged. How can
we best increase the contributions of geology to mankind? Has
the science other possibilities? What is its relation to public service f

In the last three years it has been gratifying to see the prepared-
ness issue broaden so as to include the contingencies of peace as
well as of war, to hear of industrial as well as of military prepared-
ness. But back of both, and indeed including both, there needs to
be a more vital preparedness— the preparation for citizenship.
In any day and generation this test can and should be applied to
any religion, philosophy or science: Does it make good citizens?
It is therefore with real concern that we ask ourselves this question:
Does geology contribute to citizenship?

The president of this society, in a thought-inspiring address at
the University of Chicago convocation this year, made reference to
a little red-brick building here in Albany, which this city does
well to preserve —the laboratory of James Hall. And I believe
Doctor Clarke is right in regarding that small and plain structure
as the source of broad conceptions of the philosophy of evolution,

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 Lay

which, radiating outward, have influenced not only our science but
also your State and our country.

The sciences of geology and astronomy are founded upon postu-
lates which they in turn have done much to make real —the
permanence and universality of natural laws as we of today know
them. By training and almost by second nature the geologist may be
a conservative in politics; at least, the believer in natural law should
possess the patience to wait for results in this particular epoch of
this geologic era. By training the eye'to see far back into the earth’s
remote past, geology can add to our power to put correct values on
the events and changes in the brief present in which we happen
to live.

There is another way in which geology especially contributes to
the training of an enlightened citizen. Someone has said that a
man’s breadth of mind is measured by the diameter of his horizon.
Geology as a study and especially as a profession leads to wide
travel, and travel surely maketh the broad man. This advantage
may seem to us so much a matter of course that we underestimate its
silent influence in fitting us for citizenship. The geologist has the
opportunity to think in terms of country rather than of community,
of continents rather than of country; and his broader outlook over
the world surely gives perspective, just as his longer view back into
the past gives poise.

In an address at the University of Illinois I referred to the
inspiration and incentive which come from Professor Chamberlin’s
conclusion that there is good reason for measuring the future
habitability of the earth in millions or tens of millions if not hun-
dreds of millions of years. This belief in the high probability of
racial longevity is, as you know, the result of an exhaustive analysis
of the past as revealed by geology and of the future as forecast by
astronomy. But now I wish to add my personal acknowledgment
to our greatest American geologist for the inspiration gained from a
talk with him several years ago, when I realized that it was this
scientific expectation of the evolution of humanity continuing
through these millions of years that was prompting him to public
service not limited to his own city or country.

The geologist’s appreciation of that delicate adjustment of earth
to life by means of which “life has been furnished a suitable
environment for the uninterrupted pursuit of its ascensive career ”
and the geologist’s vision of the continued adaptation of the earth to
the uses of man together constitute a real call to larger service.

138 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

No one has more reason than the geologist to believe that wise
utilization of nature is essential, now that man the engineer has
become so effective a geologic agent; nor can the geologist overlook
the need of a social organization that will adequately serve the
larger and higher demands of humanity, now that man himself
controls in large part the adaptation of this earth to man in his
further evolution. We believe that the Golden Age is in the future,
but it will be of man’s own making.

This tribute was paid a year ago to the work of the geologist and
engineer by one in high official position who has a vision of things
as they are and are to be — Secretary Lane: “ This is a glorious
battle in which you are fighting —the geologist who reads the
hieroglyphs that nature has written, the miner who is the Columbus
of the world underground, the: engineer, the chemist, and the
inventor who out of curiosity plus courage plus imagination fashion
the swords of a triumphing civilization. Indeed, it is hardly too
much to say that the extent of man’s domain and his tenure of the
earth rest with you.”

Keeping in mind these thoughts of the larger things of time and
space, I desire to mention what may be termed the professional
obligations of geologists. As scientists, working in a practical world
on problems that have come to have very practical bearings, we may
need to take special care that our scientific ideals be not lowered.
As an associate in a large group of geologists I have been proud to
see the science of geology win this larger recognition in the market
place, for I hope to see our science cooperate in the further raising
of business ideals. There can, however, be no double standard for
geologists — one for guidance in research work in pure science, |
the other for purposes of professional exigency. As geology enters
into the larger sphere of usefulness, there naturally come to the
geologist opportunities somewhat different from those of the labora-
tory or lecture room. The profession in its newer activities
encounters stresses for which new factors of safety must be figured.
As I look at the demands now made upon geologists, the temptation
to lower our ideals comes not so much when our task is to find some-
thing as when we may be called upon to prove something.

The geologist sent to South America to determine the extent of
an ore body or to Oklahoma to discover an oil pool must needs
bring into play every resource of a trained mind in order to wrest
the truth from secretive nature. This is a contest which calls for
geologic science at its best and in which scientific ideals are in no
danger. A demand of another kind, however, is made upon the

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 139

geologist who is asked to certify to some doctrine in the conserva-
tion creed, it may be, or to testify in support of some contestant
in a court of law. Professional demands of this type may cause
our scientific ideals to tremble, if indeed they do not suffer a tumble.
It is for this reason that a geologist’s ideals are safer in the field
than in the court room; Mother Nature is a better associate than
the goddess who goes blindfold.

Yet the problem faces us and we must answer our own question:
What are the professional obligations of the geologist? Possibly
the official geologist is less exposed to temptations of this type: he
is allowed to make his testimony follow the evidence. At least I
remember that the Survey geologist published, uncensored, his
estimates of coal reserves, even though his statement did not fit in
with the popular argument for conservation; nor was the official
opinion required by the statute as to the influence of forests on
stream flow given until field examinations by geologists and engi-
neers furnished a basis of fact; nor again do I believe that the
federal geologists who testified as to the mineral character of
petroleum were in any degree influenced in their opinion by the
chance circumstance that this was the Government’s contention. On
another occasion the federal geologist whose duty it was to defend
the official classification of land in a western state had definite
instructions to reverse the Geological Survey’s position in the matter
if new evidence should indicate an error of judgment, even though
such action would have enabled the railroad claimant to win the
land. Nor should a Government geologist hesitate to file notice of a
correction in some assays earlier introduced as evidence, even
though he thereby strengthened the land claimant’s contention.
Here, of course, the issue was plain: the duty of the public servant
was to see that truth prevailed, even though the Government might
seem to lose its case. In two other of the instances I have men-
tioned some degree of temporary popular favor and freedom from
current newspaper criticism could have been gained by a different
course, but I believe that in the end the good name of science would
have been besmirched.

Yet in courts of law we now see geologists testifying as experts
on both sides of the case, and too often as experts on subjects on
which they would not be regarded as specialists by their fellow
geologists, or at least on specialized phases of geology which they
themselves might hesitate to discuss before this society. But even
when such opposing witnesses are both eminently well qualified,

T40 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

what is the spectacle presented to the puulic? One expert testifies
that the thing under discussion is absolutely jet-black ; the other that,
as he sees it, it is purest white; whereas it may be that without
the legal setting the same thing would present to most of us varying
shades of gray, or perhaps some one using a higher power of lens
might call its general color effect rather spotted. I regret to add that
this suppositional illustration is almost paralleled by an important
case in which two of my own friends, both honored fellows of this
society, were the opposing expert witnesses; and afterward the
judge told me that he could believe neither, although he would
have taken the unsupported opinion of either one had this geologist —
been in the pay of the court! Does not such a statement by an
eminent jurist put geologic experts on a par with other expert
witnesses, and would it not be a “safety first ’’ measure for geol-
ogists to decline professional work of this type until the day comes
—and I think it is not far off — when the court will summon the
expert witness and compensate him for his services to the state in
telling the whole truth and not that special part of the truth which
favors one litigant? This society wisely put itself on record last
year as recognizing the urgent need of this reform in legal procedure,
but to be effective resolutions need to be adopted by each individual
geologist. |

As first suggested to me, the subject on which I was invited to
speak today was geology in the national service, but I feared if
thus expressed my topic might seem to limit opportunities for service
to the nation to those of us who are on the Federal Geological
Survey. The president and more than a score of other fellows of
this society are in the public service as officials of the several states;
and too much credit can not be given to the long succession of state
geologists who for nearly a century have both contributed to the
science of geology and guided the development of their states. A
few years ago Doctor White, in addressing the West Virginia
Board of Trade as its president, referred to the function of the state
geologist as that of “a kind of mentor or guardian of the state’s
natural economic resources.”

Yet I would not limit the obligation for public service to those
of us who happen to be public servants. The use of the United
States Geological Survey as a training school for professional
geologists in private practice can not be regarded as wholly a
hindrance to the nation’s business when viewed ina large way. The
spirit of public service can be carried over into the work outside
the official organization, and I like to believe that there is a per-

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQ16 IAI

sistence of this same purpose, on the part of our Survey graduates
that will lead them to do their share in planning for the utilization
of the nation’s mineral wealth, not merely so as to increase dividends
for the corporations that employ them or to assist a few capitalists
in speculative endeavors to corner some limited resource, but also
so as to benefit society in a large way through future decades.
Why can we not be trained scientists and professional geologists
and loyal citizens at one and the same time ?

President Vincent has referred to the sweeping indictment of
professional schools, with all their modern efficiency, as turning out
graduates “bent upon personal success and regarding the public
as a mine to be-worked rather than a community to be served.”
In whatever degree unwarranted, this criticism, as President Vincent
points out, is in itself encouraging as a sign of general discontent
with self-centered careers. And there is another approach to this
subject of the civic obligations resting upon us as geologists. Those
of us who have shared in the benefits of the American educational
system, up to and including the university, must realize to what a>
large extent our education has been gratuitous. As Doctor Becker
once expressed it to me: “ Men who seek or use their university
training solely for their personal advantage are almstakers. Only
by public service can educated men repay the debt they incur and
thus fulfil the designs of the founders.”

It is a fortunate sign of the times that applied science is touching
more and more upon the human and social side of its work.
Measure of the breadth of view already attained in this public service
idea is found in this month’s issue of a leading technical journal,
Metallurgical and -Chemical Engineering, wherein the longest
editorial bears the title ‘Expensive Slums.” Social responsibility
is acknowledged and civic duty set forth in the closing sentence of
this editorial: “It is needful for industries that they be in good
standing, and they can not maintain good standing so long as they
have slum attachments.”

So, too, it is eminently fitting that in a technical volume bearing
the title “Iron Ores” the closing chapters should discuss the large
social questions of public and private policy. The author, a geologist
and fellow of this society, properly regards the social value of iron
just as worthy of his thought as the purity of its ores. Indeed, it
is simply the need of society that makes the mineral hematite an ore
and thus the object of the geologist’s special study.

In my administrative report for the past year I had occasion to
refer to a professional paper by Doctor Gilbert now in press. In

142 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM:

his wonderfully broad and complete investigation of the mining-
debris problem in the Sierra Nevada the geologist began with the
antagonism of mining and agriculture, but he soon found that his
research also involved questions of relative values between com-
merce and irrigation and power development. So this report,
thoroughly scientific in data and method, will illustrate how high
a public service can be directly rendered by the geologist. Nor is
this a new departure: some of us belong to the generation to whom
Monograph 1 of the United States Geological Survey was a source
of inspiration in our student days. That monumental work by the
same author, a classic in its exposition of geologic processes, was
the result of an investigation also planned as the answer to an
economic question of large civic importance. Director King thus
stated in 1880 the purpose of the Lake Bonneville monograph: “ Is
the desert growing still drier or is it gaining in moisture are ques-
tions upon the lips of every intelligent settler in that region.”

Moreover, aside from making our science more human, there is
the larger need of humanizing ourselves. Doctor Favill, of Chicago,
in addressing a group of business men last winter, gave them this
professional advice: ‘“ Have an outside interest’: and the outside
interest he prescribed was political or social activity. This physician
regarded it as conducive to individual happiness as well as helpful
to society that “ every honest, able-bodied, red-blooded, clear-think-
ing man should have his mind set on what is the right thing for him,
for his community and his country to do.”

The Austrian geologist Suess may furnish the best illustration of
the happy combination of scientist and citizen. He was a leader not
only in the science of the world but in the parliament of his country.
‘A close student of geologic discovery even after reaching fourscore
years, Professor Suess was equally keen to learn of political progress
the world over, and in a letter to me within a year of his death he
inquired particularly about the reforms in public-land administration
in the United States.

Appreciation of civic duties has fortunately not been lacking in
American geologists: one of the best volumes on citizenship was
written years ago by Professor Shaler, and it is worthy of mention
that in that book he emphasized not so much the opportunities for
service in high station, for he states that the best work in the
practice of citizenship is done in the town or precinct. “In these
fields of activity the spirit of the freeman is made; if the local life
be not of a high citizenly character, all the constitutions in the

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 143

world will not give the people true freedom.” And it has been said
of Professor Shaler that he not only preached good citizenship, but,
what was better, he never neglected his own political duty. While
we must properly look upon enlightened citizenship as a 305-day-a-
year undertaking, there is one day in each year, or two years, or
four years when a special duty is laid upon each citizen of the
state and nation, and in these times no one is better qualified to
exercise the right of suffrage than the geologist. A few weeks ago,
too, we learned that even in this great country of ours, where
eighteen million ballots were cast at a single election, individual
votes have not lost their power to influence the result. And how
true it is that education of the scientific type is essential to a correct
understanding of many of the issues of the day.

In a leading editorial, the day before election, a nonpartisan writer
mentioned the discussion of prosperity as a campaign issue and
remarked that “Analysis of the interminable political arguments
about it would probably disclose that in the main they consist of
about 95 per cent imagination and exaggeration, in equal propor-
tions, 5 per cent of fact, and of unbiased opinion not a trace.”
A low-grade ore of that composition surely needs a citizen who
is a scientist or engineer to make the necessary separation and
concentration.

Take another political and economic issue that must be faced —
the length of the working day. Professor Lee, of Columbia, recently
emphasized the fact that the determination of the proper numbe1
of hours of work is primarily a problem of physiology, although
too often economic and social considerations have been made para-
mount. Must we not agree with the physiologist, at least to the
extent of admitting that it is all too evident that here is a present-day
issue of large importance which deserves scientific rather than
political treatment? Or we may say, Here is a civic question that
demands the attention of citizens who have had scientific training.
Who can better weigh the opposing elements of this question — on
the one side the cumulative fatigue of the individual producer and
on the other the economic requirements of society as the consumer?

To mention just one other of the larger issues of the moment, the
railroad question is one so intimately tied up with the geographic
relations of mineral resources that the geologist citizen is eminently
well qualified to consider how dependent is industrial opportunity
upon fair freight rates. When we realize that the railroad earnings
from the transportation of the raw products of the mine alone
exceed the earnings from passengers and also exceed the freight

144 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

receipts on all products of both farm and forest, we have a measure
of the interdependence of the mineral industry and the railroads.
The proper regulation of common carriers thus becomes a pre-
requisite of the full utilization of our mineral resources, and on
such a political issue no citizen should have a larger interest or more
intelligent opinion than the geologist. It is therefore more than a
happy coincidence that President Van Hise has rendered large
service to society in his contributions to the railroad and labor
problems ; the broad training of the geologist is being utilized in the
work of the publicist.

Have I not already shown that the geologist is well qualified by
his special training to serve his day and generation, not only in the
capacity of professional adviser but, better than that, in the role
of fellow citizen? It may be rather late in this discourse for me to
select a text, but there is an old saying in the book of Proverbs that.
has been much in my mind for several months — “ Where there iS
no vision the people perish.” Imagination is necessary in our
science, and it is equally essential to the larger citizenship. I believe
the geologist possesses the vision; his duty and privilege is to let
that vision cuide him to a larger public service.

Peo PPPORM ATION OF GRENVILLE LIMESTONE
BY D. H. NEWLAND

Some of the most interesting exposures of the Grenville lime-
stone in the Adirondack region are found along the shores of Lake
Champlain, on the New York side, where the series of ridges that
confront the lake have been cut through to afford room for the
tracks of the Delaware & Hudson Railroad. The rock faces still
preserve their fresh appearance in contrast with the stained and
weathered condition of the limestone in natural outcrop; and the
vertical sections afford opportunity for observation of the rock
im eimlass. with iS complicated) structures and deformation
phenomena.

The accompanying series of photographs, contributed by Prof.
G. H. Hudson, reveal the conditions found in the exposures just
motti of Porth Henry and within the limits of the Port Henry
sheet of the United States Geological Survey map. This area has
been described by Professor Kemp, whose reportt contains a
description of the limestones here depicted, as is later noted.

For students of Adirondack geology the vicinity of Port Henry
holds much that is of interest; no other part of the mountains
probably in so brief a compass has such variety of rock forma-
tions, illustrative of the principal types as well as of their general
relationships and structural features. The Grenville strata include
limestone, schists and gneisses in extensive development; while of
the igneous rocks occur granite, syenite, gabbro and trap, and at
MO TcmMoLre Gistance also anorthosite ini typical exposures. ie
early Paleozoic beds which once covered the crystallines are pre-
served in small downfaulted patches at the lakeside, ranging in
horizon from the Potsdam to the Trenton inclusive. At Mine-
ville, 6 miles from Port Henry, are the largest of the Adirondack
magnetite mines.

The Grenville limestone shown in the photographs forms only
a small part of the exposed area and is divided into numerous
bands interbedded with quartzose, rusty gneisses and _ schists.
According to Professor Kemp’s map, the Grenville strata altogether
EOVeR ail tmeollan ared that reaches Some 2 or 3 miles co the north
PE Wer orate Ninse ule 1365) 1OKO:

[145 |

146 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

and south of Port Henry and as much to the west and is bordered
by bathylithic masses of syenite and granite. Of this particular
locality he makes the following mention :

Along the Delaware and Hudson Railroad tracks on the lake shore north
of Port Henry where there is an irruptive contact of gabbro and basic syenite
and limestone one can see the igneous rock tonguing out into the limestone
and apparently pinched off at times by the dynamic disturbances. While it is
entirely possible that the hornblendic rocks have been derived from aluminous
bands in the original sediment, which might yield greater or less amounts of
hornblende, yet we are dealing with a district in which are numerous intru-
sions of gabbro and basic syenite and where apophyses are abundant. The
marked plasticity of the limestone under pressure tends greatly to disguise
the relationship and to render a demonstration difficult. Igneous phenomena
and their expiring effects must have been very general and have probably
occasioned widespread recrystallization. Undoubtedly they have set in migra-
tion many heated solutions.

The limestone at times becomes extremely small in amount and may be
represented by little more than calcareous streaks amid more siliceous rocks,
such as mica schist and quartzite bands. The more resistant silicates having
been involved in a plastic medium like calcite have been bent into shapes that
seem almost beyond the power of brittle minerals to assume. ‘The presence,
however, of the limestone is indicated by the pitted and cavernous

weathering.

Along the lakeside for the first mile or so north of. Port Henny
the Paleozoic beds alone are exposed, the strata representing a
triangular block of which the western edge runs diagonally to the
lakeshore and comes out to the lake in a little cove known as Craig
harbor. Here they terminate suddenly in a single great fault which
brings the Beekmantown beds on the south side in line with the
Precambrian on the north side of the cove. The faulted beds dip
toward the crystallines at a low angle. The two series are separated
by the width of the cove, but the well-marked escarpment on the
north side probably corresponds nearly to the plane of the fault;
while the interval is represented by brecciated Beekmantown
which by its rapid weathering has formed the embayment. A
view of the fault-scarp on the north side of Craig harbor is shown
in plate 1. This reveals the Grenville limestone in heavy beds
resting upon a gneissic hornblende rock which at a little distance
from the contact grades into recognizable gabbro. The contact,
therefore, is igneous, but there is nothing to show the intrusive
nature of the gabbro in the way of reaction effects upon the lime-
stone or of offshoots of the gabbro into the latter. It is very likely
that movement has occurred along the contact through underthrust-
ing of the block of gabbro, causing the less resistant limestone to

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REPORT, OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 Ay,

ride over the upper surface of the intrusive. The relations are
interesting in that they give a clue probably to the extreme contor-
tion and flowage effects exhibited by the succeeding photographs
which are taken a little farther north in a second exposure of the
limestone. The gabbro forms only a small boss and is succeeded by
syenite gneiss in which occurs a band of limestone that forms the
shore line for nearly a mile. It is in this area that the freshest
faces of limestone are found.

The deformation that is revealed in the pictures is no doubt
the result of squeezing between the more resistent igneous rocks
which themselves have assumed more or less cataclastic and
eneissic characters under the strain. The effects could only have
been accomplished under conditions of cubic compression such as
would be supplied by a thrust exerted upon the beds when they
were heavily loaded or weighted down by many thousands of feet
Hot cover. :

The nature of the silicate bands in the limestone is something
of a problem, as is remarked in the citation from Professor Kemp’s
bulletin. It is not unlikely that some of the bands are dikes
derived from the gabbro and syenite magmas, as instanced by the
dark amphibolite bands which in appearance and mineral character
are scarcely distinguishable from the border phases of the basic
intrusions. This type is illustrated by plate 2 in which 1s seen
a small band of black amphibolite that has been folded and broken
up under the pressure transmitted by the mobile limestone, itself
giving no evidence of the deformation that has taken place. In
plates 4 and 5 the bands are in part of a more siliceous character,
and may well represent original impure layers in the beds.

Plastic deformation of the Grenville limestones is a common con-
dition throughout the Adirondacks, 1f one may base an inference
upon the circumstance that it is the purer beds alone that do not
reveal its effects; in them the results would be masked even if
present.

An exposure of siliceous limestone in which the silicate layers have been stretched,
disrupted and folded under cubic compression. Cheever dock, near Port Henry

Limestone with bands of dark siliceous material which show disruption and fold-
ing. Near Port Henry

Plate 6

Near Port Henry

Recumbent isoclinal folds in the Grenville limestone.

Span ER SENG’ GEOLOGICAL FEATURES AT. THE
Ch AMP AUNeAS SE MBIY CLIBE HAVEN, N.Y:

BY GEORGE H. HUDSON

Visitors reaching the grounds of the Champlain Assembly by the
Delaware and Hudson Railroad must notice that the last few miles
of the journey are over an exceptionally level roadbed. The land
at Cliff Haven is spread out like a plain which tips gently toward
Lake Champlain with a drop of about 1 foot in go. One marked
exception to this general and rather widespread flatness of surface
is the large rocky elevation on which the Hotel Champlain stands,
elevated nearly 150 feet above the eastern edge of the assembly
grounds, !

If the visitor arrives by boat he will observe the very marked
irregularity in the Lake Champlain shore line which is caused by the
position of this elevated area, for here the lake is not only bordered
by high and vertical rock cliffs, but these project into the lake
itself, a part of the cliff. face being nearly a mile east of a straight
line connecting the Champlain Assembly bathing beach with the
mouth of the Salmon river; hence the name “ Bluff point.”

A student of nature may well ask himself the reason of this
great elevated rock mass to the south, now beautifully clothed with
woodlands, affording a veritable sanctuary for birds and a flora of
unusual interest. What were the forces which gave rise to this
rock barrier, with its long and protecting seaward arm (shown in
figures 1 and 2), and to the recess on the north, with its beautiful
bay and sand beach so well protected from the waves of a “ south
blow ” and forming a veritable “ Cliff Haven’?

The thoughtful student should first of all visit the apex of the
somewhat acute angle where the beach meets the cliff (indicated
by arrows in figures 1 and 2) and there note the great difference
in character between the kind of rock forming the south cliff and
the kind of rock lying in contact with it on the north. A view of this
contact is given in figure 3. The rock on the north side (the right)
consists of sheets of a hard but brittle limestone with many partings
of. weak shale. This rock belongs to the Trenton formation and
crumbles readily and rapidly under the action of frost, water, and
the roots of trees. In the early spring the lake also reaches the cliff
base (see figure 4) and lake ice and wave action help to break down
this wall. That this wall is receding rapidly will be realized by

[149]

150 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

noting the overhanging turf and tree roots (figure 3). Recent rock
falls may also be noted at a and b (figure 4). A direct comparison
should be made between the cliff itself and the view of it which
is here presented.

The rock which forms the south cliff offers very marked contrasts
to the Trenton which rests against it. It has successfully resisted
the same influences which are so rapidly destroying the Trenton
beds. The southern wall belongs to the Chazy formation, older than
the Trenton. This stone is so good for building purposes that it
was once extensively quarried here. When the United States
spent a million or so in building Fort Montgomery (on the Canadian ©
side of the United States boundary) the Cliff Haven stone was
chosen on account of its excellent quality and many a fine block
was taken from the now abandoned quarry just around the point
shown in figure 2 and loaded on boats which were tied to'a dock
built for that purpose just outside the same point.

The answer to our first problem should now be apparent. The
softer rock has been eaten away by the “tooth of time” while the
harder rock has offered more effective resistance to all eroding
agents. The bay and the protecting wall to the south are the result.
If further evidence is desired one has but to ask why an artificial
stone wall was built along a portion of the beach front and why to
the north of this several breaches in a boulder-built wall were
repaired and further fortified in the fall of 1916. The effects of
wave action on a weak shore line are manifested in numerous local-
ities between Plattsburg and Cliff Haven. In many places the
Delaware and Hudson Railroad has had to build a sea wall and
residents of Plattsburg can remember recent landslides which carried
forested portions of the higher banks down to the lake level, where
the waves of new storms could take care of the débris.

As soon as the student gets an answer to his first question he will
be ready to ask another. How fast has the Trenton rock been
receding and where was the shore line of this bay when the dis-
coverer, Champlain, first passed through the lake? This ques-
tion will not be so easily answered as the first. Quantitative
analysis is always more difficult than qualitative. The former, how-
ever, usually yields results of the greater value. We may here
point out one or two lines of investigation that will yield an answer
to this question. :

At a in figure 3 we may note what remains of a small tree whose
age, at the time its trunk was lopped off by an axe, could be readily
determined by counting its annual rings. When this tree started

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REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 I51

to grow it must have been at least a few inches within the border of
the bank. Those of its roots which were directed lakeward may be
made to tell approximately how far. At present the old stump has
no support and is held in place only by a rather long and strong
landward root. There is direct evidence here of a quantitative kind.
Figures 3 and 4 will serve to indicate many others of a similar
nature. In figure 5 is a view of the contact walls of these two rock
formations as they existed in 1897. No face of any Trenton frag-
ment here shown is the same as those seen in figure 3. In figure 5
a strong arched root is present in the upper left corner but no roots
pass over the faces of the Trenton beds. In figure 3, however, a
recent fall of Trenton fragments has revealed (at }) roots which,
in their search for water and dissolved mineral matter had found
a hidden fissure and occupied it. The wall which once protected
them on the outside is gone. So too is the arched root of figure 5.
If one will now examine the south or Chazy wall in figure 3 he will
find some evidence of loss from portions that were in place when the
photograph for plate 5 was taken, but all of the old smooth face is
not lost. If one could recognize some feature of the south wall
common to the two figures he would have additional testimony as to
the rate of change.

To a student of the peculiar conditions which gave rise to Cliff
Haven physiography another question will arise. Why is it that only
bedrock of Trenton age is to be found for three and a half miles
northerly, or along the shore from Cliff Haven to Plattsbure,
while on going nearly three and a half miles southerly, or from the
smooth, hard wall of the Haven bay recess to Valcour bay, only
bedrock of Chazy age is to be found? The answer to this ques-
tion will involve some geological knowledge of the utmost practical
value —a knowledge that would have saved many residents of
Clinton, Essex, and Warren counties from the loss of their savings
through boring for oil where the geologic conditions are such nes
it could not possibly exist.

In the first place, the great Adirondack mass (Adirondackia)
consists only of old crystalline rocks or those which. have been
subjected to tremendous pressure and great heat. Around this
old land or at least on the north, east and south sides there
existed the waters of an ancient sea and all along this sea margin
wide sheets of sand were deposited which in places attained great
thickness. Over 400 feet of these beds are exposed in Ausabie
chasm. The Morrisonville “oil well” penetrated rock of the same
character to a depth of over 750 feet but did not reach the basal

152 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

beds of the formation. Very interesting exposures of this same
rock are to be seen along the Saranac river for some 2 miles above
and below Cadyville. Here the thickness has been estimated to be
over 1000 feet. The downwarping of the basin of the old Potsdam
sea continued and its shore lines near Plattsburg retreated south-
westerly. In off-shore waters new beds containing much lime
were deposited on the top of the former sand beds. These
newer rocks are easily recognized by their lithologic and other
characters and have been named the Beekmantown formation
because of their interesting exposures in Beekmantown township.
Professors Brainerd and Seeley of Middlebury College gave much
study to this formation in the Champlain valley and estimated its
thickness to be in the neighborhood of 1800 feet. Beds of this
age are well exposed along the lake shore for about a mile and a
half south of Valcour bay. At the end of Beekmantown time
there seems to have been a local cessation of deposit. On its
recommencement the deposits were of a markedly changed char-
acter and were laid down on a much modified surface of the Beek-
mantown formation. The new deposits were named for the town
in which they were well exposed and first thoroughly studied,
constituting the Chazy formation. These are the rocks that form
the great Bluff Point mass. Their thickness, as measured on
Valcour island, is close to 988 feet. Over the Chazy beds there
were deposited in succession those of Lowville and Black River
age and over the latter the rock beds known as Trenton.

It will be proper here to ask how we may distinguish rocks of
Trenton age from those of Chazy age. and as the outcrops at Cliff
Haven show very many of the interesting differences in these
deposits, we will call attention to a few of them.

Many of the ancient builders of Babylonia inscribed their bricks
or molded them in inscribed forms. Because they did so we may
now determine the date of the laying of many ancient pavements
and corner stones. So too the maker of the Trenton pavement
stamped it with his own easily recognized seals, which are far
more numerous and more wonderful in character than any inscrip-
tions left by either Sargon or Nebuchadnezzar. Trenton seals in
the form of exquisite brachiopod shells, bryozoa and other remains
of denizens of an ancient inland sea, may be found in the first rock
ledge outcropping on the lake shore just south of the Cliff Haven
steamboat landing. The southernmost Trenton exposures are more
barren of life forms but even here the writer has found the beauti-
ful stems of “stone lilies” and the delicate frondlike forms of

“4OQI UL JOYINe oy} Aq Usye} YdeISojoyd e WO ‘“UoAe_, YYD ye Ynez yo Mata SG ‘Bry

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 153

graptolites. Nobody as yet kncws the total thickness of the Trenton
beds in the Champlain valley, but the exposures are very numerous
and easy of access. A short row from Cliff Haven brings one to
Crab island, and by automobile Cumberland head or Long point
are quickly reached. ‘These are all excellent localities for studying
Trenton beds and for collecting from them. ‘There is a fascination
in the study of these ancient stamps or seals, but we shall not really
appreciate their significance until we become familiar with at least
some of the lessons they can teach. It is of importance that we
notice one of these now.

Bulletin 92 of the United States National Museum is entitled
“ Bibhographic Index of American Ordovician and Silurian Fos-
sils.’ It is a work of 1521 pages. On pages 1448 to 1452 a list
is given of 524 different species of fossils found in and described
from American beds of Chazy age. Following this is a list of
toso different species found in the deposits of Trenton age. On
comparing these long lists the student will be surprised to find that
only 8 species are common to both groups of rocks. Some of the
fossils in these lists are known to range through all the various beds
of a single formation but there are others that are restricted to a
single “zone” or to a series of thin sheets of deposit which
together measure but a few feet in thickness. Knowing the short
ranging species and their mutations one can identify the particular
zone of any formation now exposed at the surface; and knowing
how thick the formations are in any given locality, a geologist is
able to tell the seeker for mineral wealth just what formations he
would go through and the approximate thickness of each, if he
should sink a shaft in any thoroughly studied locality. For instance,
a boring made in the immediate vicinity of the Boston Cottage
would pass through postglacial deposits and then enter the boulder
clay of the glacial period. About 30 feet below the surface the
Trenton rock would be encountered. As the local thickness of
this formation is not yet known and as the particular zone exposed
here has not yet been determined, it would not be possible to give
the actual depth at which the Black River formation would be
reached. The Black River limestone would, however, be the
next formation encountered below and would have a thickness of
less than 10 feet. Under this about 20 feet of Lowville rocks would
be encountered and under these the Chazy would be found. The
thickness of the latter formation would here be about 9oo feet.
After passing through the Chazy beds we would enter those of
Beekmantown age and the sequence is known to still greater depths.

154 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

A little knowledge of this kind would have saved many a foolish
investment not only in Clinton county but in many other quarters
of the globe. We may now see one reason for the fostering of
geological knowledge and, as the mineral wealth of the United
States in its buried coal, oil, potash and metalliferous deposits is
of enormous value, a more accurate knowledge of the earth’s crust
is much to be desired. At the same time we should bear in mind
that there is a “ growing army of nature students,” of “men and
women who love nature, or love science, for the sake of nature or
science, without any set and immediate utilitarian purpose.

Mere addition to the sum of the interesting knowledge of nature
is in itself a good thing: exactly as the writine of) a peammemm
poem, or the chiseling of a beautiful statue is a good thing.” + To
encourage such work in the geological field, museums should be
established at all centers of learning. These could show the fossils,
rocks and minerals of the surrounding region and if carefully and
accurately labeled would in time become of inestimable value.
Much is yet to be learned of the manner of rock formation and of
the translation of the evidence of ancient conditions as recorded
on millions of thin sheets of the earth’s sediments. For the present,
however, we must leave the interesting field of seals and sediments
and ask a new question. If Trenton rocks naturally belong over
those of Chazy age, how is it that we now find them placed side by
side in the corner of Haven bay? We will return to that locality
and give it further study.

As shown in figure 3, the Chazy wall has been ground down to
yield a very smooth but somewhat scratched surface. Between the
Chazy and the upturned edges of the Trenton beds is a thick sheet
of rock flour. This is the grist formed by the grinding of the rock
walls against each other. We have here a very instructive example
of what geologists call a normal fault. The earth’s crust, after the
deposit of the Trenton beds, was here cracked open on a line
running N. 79° E. How far to the west this crack ommmssune
extended we do not know, but easterly it reached Rockwell bay on
South Hero and still further easterly separated Chazy beds on the
north from Utica shales on the south. At Cliff Haven the north
wall settled down, slipping bit by bit, a foot or so at a time, and
probably giving the country in its vicinity a long-continued series of
earthquake shocks. The amount of downward movement or dis-
placement, when the top of the Black River beds had reached that

1 Theodore Roosevelt, at the opening of the New York State Museum, De-
dember 29, 1916. See Science, N. S., 45:8-9. j

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 155

zone of the Chazy which now shows here, had already amounted to
450 feet, and the total displacement is equal to this figure plus the
distance from the base of the Trenton to the zone of that formation
which now rests against the Chazy at this place. This will in time
be determined, but a necessary factor in this determination will be
the careful collecting and comparison of the fossils from all the
exposed Trenton beds of the Champlain valley or from borings
which may subsequently be undertaken in some portion of the
region.

So far, this fault has had much to tell us, but we have as yet
translated only a very small part of its story. If we carefully
examine the slickensided Chazy wall we shall find that the scratches
produced by the movement of the other wall against this do not
dip to the north, as the Chazy wall itself does, but their lower ends
are carried easterly. We must remember that the scratches we
now see were among the last to be made for no douht this “ slate ”
was used many times and the older scratches removed by additional
grinding. Here we state a new problem. If the last large move-
ments of the Trenton were still downward then it also moved east-
ward at the same time. How may we account for such an east-
ward movement? The truth of the matter seems to be that we can
not; and if we study the locality a little more closely we may find
‘that, in its later movements over this wall, the Trenton moved
westward and therefore upward. ?

Walking along the Trenton beds which are.exposed for about
one-half of a mile to the north of the steamboat landing, we shall
note that their slope (dip, the geologists call it) is easterly. South
of the steamboat landing we may notice a marked change in the
direction of this dip and as we approach the exposure shown in
figure 4 we shall find that the dip is decidedly westerly. The Chazy
rocks on the south, however, dip easterly. If this condition of
things continues westerly we should soon have the base of the
Chazy resting against rocks well up on the Trenton side. In other
words, our fault with a displacement of say 600 feet at the lake
shore might have a displacement of a thousand feet where the rail-
road crosses it. This is evidently a rotatory fault, or at least it
became such near the end of its activity. Now if we will face the
Chazy wall we may see that the twist of the Trenton side must
have been clockwise, which would indicate an upward and west-
ward movement of its: beds where exposed in Haven bay. The
scratches would partake of the nature of broken arcs of great
circles, the axis of rotation being situated at some deeply buried

156 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

point on a line perpendicular to the chords of these arcs. There
is Other evidence of an uplift of the east face of the Trenton where
it lies near the fault plane, and this evidence we will now examine.

In figure 3 at c, d, e and f, there has been a strong upward bend-
ing of the Trenton beds just at the south of a clearly shown but
minor fault plane. The beds at the right of this minor fault had
their edges dragged down by the load which resisted the upward
movement. At g and h still another minor fault plane is shown and
the beds again have their edges dragged up on the south side. Near
the northern end of this Trenton exposure the beds are again
dragged up but here a little brook found an easy place in which to
cross the barrier and it long since carried away all local trace of
the fractured Trenton material. By taking a boat and going around
the southern point of the bay we may note that the dip of the
Chazy beds, near the fault plane, has also been altered by this
local uplift.

If now we ask ourselves why late in the history of this fault
the Trenton next it should have been lifted and tipped westerly
we shall have to refer the movement to some period of great and
extensive thrust from the east, such as that which existed during
the Taconic or Appalachian revolutions. At these times mighty
forces made themselves very manifest and threw many of the
sediments of eastern North America into great folds. During
these ancient, geologic revolutions old Adirondackia tried to play
the part of a buffer state and remain neutral. When at last
Vermont was conquered and compelled to join the attacking forces
in the attempt to overrun New York territory she actually moved
her boundaries from 10 to 30 miles westerly. The more solid
Chazy rocks have shown less evidence of this revolution than the
Trenton, which still plainly shows the effects of the ancient struggle.

The reader may perhaps say, “If there has been such a great
dislocation of the rock foundations of Cliff Haven involving a
downthrow on the north of, say 600 feet, why is it that the cliff
at the south is not a sheer precipice now 600 feet high? If the
Chazy on the north side of this fault is now covered by beds of the
Lowville, Black River and Trenton formations, why do we not
also find the same formations covering the whole Bluff Point or
Chazy mass on the south?” These questions open the door to an
interesting field of nature study.

So soon as any land mass is elevated it begins to feel the search-
ing influence of the wind, and this robber not only carries away
all the loose material that it can lift, but it uses this material to

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I916 157

grind against and detach other particles of the surface. Those who
will consult the more recent textbooks of geology, or the gradually
increasing literature on the work of wind, will find that there is
here an important and almost virgin field for quantitative experi-
mental work.

So soon as any land mass is elevated it has a decreased thickness
of atmosphere over it, and this allows more energetic action of
insolation and radiation. The more rapid the changes in surface
temperatures, the more quickly the flaking off of rock surfaces is
accomplished. This process, producing exfoliation, can be studied
on all exposed and elevated rock faces in the Adirondack region.

Elevation also reduces temperature and increases rainfall. The
two together lengthen the annual period in which the expansive
power of freezing water can come into play.

Elevation not only increases the amount of precipitation but it
increases the speed of running water and we here have one of the
most effective agents for loosening and transporting rock material.
Any textbook of geology will help one to attain some comprehension
of how this and still other factors work and we need not burden our
paper with the mere mention of numerous erosive processes which
are intensified through elevation. It should be enough for us to
know that every molecule of rock above sea level has its ticket pur-
chased for the sea and, though frequent “stop overs” are granted,
it must make its journey, though this may be by an air route, by
running water, by moving ice, or by depression of great land
masses.

If the fault at Haven bay began to develop so far back as Utica
or Lorraine times, and while as yet both sides were under water
and receiving deposits, then, as the southern side was lifted nearer
water level, wave and current action would remove its unlithified
surfaces and deposit them in the deeper waters over the northern
Hoc neneat last the bieher side vemerged from the sea its
destruction would still further add material to the depressed side.
If the faulting began after the emergence of Utica or Lorraine beds
the lower side would also be subject to erosion but the higher side
would be worn away the more rapidly.

To the reader it may seem that our attempt at an explanation has
only increased his difficulty for we have implied that not only was
the present Bluff Point surface once covered by beds of Upper
Chazy, Lowville, Black River and Trenton ages (which together
might measure some 1000 feet or more in thickness) but we have
added thereto some 1500 to 2000 feet or more of Utica anc

158 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Lorraine beds. Our purpose, however, is not to explain, but to
encourage those who like to exercise their mental powers, not only
for their own advantage and pleasure, but to increase the sum total
of human knowledge.

Much might be written about the Haven Bay fault but enough
has been said to establish its peculiar value as an index of the
vast changes which may be brought about by long-continued action
of natural causes. The “Mills of God” may grind “slowly ”
but their action never ceases. After all it is not the spectacular
that counts in the long run.

One of these days we shall be able to narrate fully the changes
which tock place in the Adirondacks and the Champlain valley
after Lorraine times. At present we know that the carving which
gave rise to our hills, valleys and plains was accomplished in part
by sun, wind, frost, running water and the powerful action of
thick ice sheets or glaciers moving southerly. The last of. these,
the Wisconsin ice sheet, brought many a rock specimen to Cliff
Haven from the far north and these “boulders” are strewn in
remarkable profusion along the lake shore from the bathing beach -
to the steamboat dock. Glaciated surfaces are still to be seen on
some of the rock ledges on the road to Hotel Champlain and in
figure 6 we present a view of a fresh surface just west of the road
by the “bluff,” which was cleaned off for quarrying purposes in
1915. This figure well shows the plaining effect of the moving
ground moraine. A part of this moraine is still seen in contact with
the stone just as it was left at the close of the glacial period.

As the ice barrier melted away at the north it allowed an invasion
of the sea, called the Hochelagan sea, and wave action cleaned off
many rock surfaces. Just before crossing the Little Ausable river
on the road from Plattsburg to Peru one passes by a gravel pit
which is part of a recent beach line and which contains many
species of sea shells whose present home is along our North Atlantic
coast. The elevation of this beach is about 200 feet above the
present Lake Champlain surface. When the land had sufficiently
recovered from the “ depressing influence” of the great ice sheet
to be able, through recoil, to litt this” Peru beach’ abveve mere
the waves of the Hochelagan sea still beat against the Bluff Point
mass. When this sea surface had dropped to a level about 80 feet
above that of Lake Champlain, wave action removed part of the
eround moraine seen in figure 6, and the level sod- covered shelf
in the upper right corner is a present witness of deeds of a dim’
past. Ata still later date the receding waters began to cut a shelf

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REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 159

in the weak Trenton beds near the Haven Bay fault. This ancient
lake shelf is fairly well shown near the right edge of figure 2. Note
that the present surface does not follow the slope of the bedding
planes but cuts across their upturned edges. The strand line was
then farther inland than now. When the lake was reduced to its
present level it had to start near the outer point of the Chazy
bluff and begin. anew its carving of the Trenton.

In New York State Museum Bulletin 133, pages 159-63, will
be found an article by the author dealing with evidence of a pre-
glacial lake which he has named Lake Valcour. A still more
ancient body of water worked long enough to cut the Trenton and
other weak beds of the region down to a rather extensive local
plane but it did not succeed in removing the harder Chazy mass
now forming Bluff Point. The ice sheets of the glacial periods
next began their grindings of Clinton county surfaces but they
succeeded only in lowering Bluff Point from its more ancient
domineering height and in rounding off its edges. These ice
scourings, however, grooved the old wave-cut Trenton shelf and
spoiled its flatness. This flatness the Hochelagan sea tried to
restore by cutting down the hills of glacial deposits and using the
removed material to fill up the hollows. Last of all a new brook
system, draining into Lake Champlain, began to carve the region,
but so far it has cut only rather narrow channels in the late sea
bed. The general level of the country, which we first noticed, is
due then to a sequence of causes involving ancient seas, glacial
periods, and recent seas, all of which left traces of their work.

At different times during this elevated interval the rocks were
in places cracked open to great depths, and these cracks were filled
with molten lava. Two of these lava-filled fissures are to be seen
at Cliff Haven. One of them is near the southern boundary of the
Champlain Assembly grounds and is best seen from a boat. The
lava filling this fissure proves, on analysis, to be like that first dis-
covered by Bonet in the Monchique mountains of Portugal and is
now known as Monchiquite. At another period in the history of
this region the assembly grounds were again fissured, and this
fissure filled with a very different lava called fourchite (from
Fourche mountain, near Little Rock, Ark., where similar dikes are
found). This fourchite is the only known dike of its kind in
Clinton county and may be seen just north of the steamboat land-
ing. It is 32 inches wide and runs about N. 95° W. or toward the
extreme southern end of Crab island where a few displaced masses
of it are still to be seen. This dike is also of unusual interest

160 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

because soon after it was filled, and before the central portion had
become cold, the fissure walls sprang wider apart and a new filling
rushed up from below. Before its arrival, however, and under the
low pressure of the newly opened walls, the bubbles near the older
lava surfaces expanded and by that expansion further chilled their
walls. They thereby saved their bubbles from obliteration py the
new filling. A view of this dike is given in figure 7.

There seems to be evidence that these fissures never reached the
ancient surface of the land. This evidence will be given in a forth-
coming paper on the “ Geology of Valcour Island.” If the con-
clusions there given are supported by further study, we may hold
that after this dike was injected into its fissure, some 3000 feet
thickness of deposits have been removed from over its present
exposed portion. The dikes of the Champlain valley have not yet
been given the attention they deserve. |

Fig. 7 The fourchite dike at Cliff Haven

SOV DUCA DEATURES OF A FOSSIL BMBRYO
CREN@OMUD:

BY GEORGE H. HUDSON
(With 1 plate)

While recently engaged in the study of a specimen of the genus
Urasterella I found, associated with it, what appeared to be an
cmpiyo chinoids, Ihe structire of its arms and their branches:
however, revealed no definitely formed ossicles but in their place
there appeared to be a linear series of irregularly shaped tranverse
disks or semicircular wedges of developing stereom in an other-
wise fleshy extension of epidermal or associated tissues. This
structure was so like that of the spines and spinelets of Urasterella
medusa, as revealed through gum mountings under cover-glass and
photomicrographic stereograms (see plates 1, 2, 4, and 5 in article
“On the Genus Urasterella with Description of a New Species ” in
the annual report for 1915 of the Director of Science) that for a
long time I half suspected the specimen might be but a detached
fragment of this sea star and its crinoidlike appearance to be due
to an association of plates originally surrounding some body open-
ing which was protected by a cluster of unusually long spines and
connected with a tubular extension simulating a crinoidal column.
Both plates and spinelike processes were fairly commensurate in
size with those of the Urasterella next to which it lay (see upper
part of figure 2 in stereogram illustrating this paper) and, if a
crinoid, but two infrabasals, three basals, and two radials were
to be seen and these, in part, in vertical section. A portion of the
surface of the specimen had been removed by weathering but it
appeared as if the sharp eye of the collector (Dr Charles D. Wal-
cott) had noted the spinelike processes and cut along them with
a knife to expose them to their tips. How carefully this was
done is clearly revealed by figure 2.

After encouragement given by certain paleontologists, to whom
I showed the stereograms, that I might trust my vision in this
matter, and after seeing, on reexamination, a vertical line of zigzag
sutures on the column, I finally exorcised the Urasterella ghost.

* Paper as read before the Paleontological Society, Albany, N. Y., Decem-
ber 28, 1916.

[161 |

162 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Two reasons have induced me to-describe this embryonic form
as a new species and give it the self-explanatory name of Embryo-
crinus problematicus. The first of these is because of the arm
structure. |

The gum process has enabled me so many times to reproduce
sutures where others had long failed to detect them (as, for instance,
in the anal and radianal plates of Palaeocrinus stratus; see New
York State Museum Bulletin 149, plate 6, figure 1, and in recent
work on Steganoblastus) that I must place some confidence in its
ability to show such structures where they really exist. These
crinoid arms show no trace of them. In studying the stereogram
here presented comparison should be made with the four plates
already mentioned as accompanying Doctor Clarke’s recent annual
report. It is doubtless true that some of the white partings in
our present illustration are due to cleavage planes in the calcite, but
it must be noted that the plates of the theca show but few such
planes and their white partings reveal true structural characters.
It must also be noted that in the pedicellariae- ot (Waasterciia
medusa the spines and spinlets actually broke up into disks on
decay. If the interpretation of structure here eivyenwineeconsces
then primitive arms in crinoids developed, so far as their main
ossicles were concerned, much as did spines, and from such a
linear series of mixed disk-shaped and wedge-shaped ossifying
centers either a uniserial or a biserial arm might be evolved. The
factors determining the ultimate outcome would in large measure
be due to the amount and kind of motion given this arm during its
period of evolution.

The second reason for presenting this specimen to the public
is because it forms so fine an example of light penetration made
possible by mounting in a transparent medium and under a cover-
glass, thus doing away with the surface scattering of light from
the myriad points of an unpolished surface.

Embryocrinus problematicus, new genus and species

Theca subconcial, 0.75 mm wide at base, across basals 1.66 mm,
height of cup 1.8 mm. Apparently four or five infrabasals, five
basals and five still larger radials, two of which are clearly seen and
one at the left carrying an arm is also apparently present. From
radial to first fork of arms 2.5 to 2.8 mm. Column 0.6 mm wide,
apparently of five series of plates, nine in 0.6 mm. These micro-
scopic plates of the column are fairly well shown in the photo-

x20

Fig. 2.

To be viewed through a stereoscope

iB) 1 © |o) | Gam 2 te HOBS

18; 1am |) PY O© © iw aim wl S

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 163

graphic stereograms though details may be lost in the process of
reproducing as a halftone.

Covering both column, infrabasals and basals is a coating of
epidermal structures which measures about 0.08 mm in thickness.
The numerous white dots shown are sections of spines between
0.02 and 0.03 mm in diameter. Near the arms are cross-sections
of biserial pinnules with cover-plates. One of these cross-sections
is less than 0.03 mm in diameter.

Specimen collected by Dr C. D. Walcott from the Trenton near
Trenton Falls, N. Y., and now in the Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. It was loaned the author through the
courtesy of Dr P. E. Raymond and Hon. Samuel Henshaw.

If the pinnule fragments belong to tthe specimen, which is
extremely probable, they serve to increase the difficulty of inter-
pretation. In the most primitive cystids brachioles were no doubt
associated directly with short food grooves. The extension of the
food groove possibly never involved the ttrning of a brachiole
into an arm. Epithecal extensions like those found in Blastoi-
docrinus and the blastids were never developed from arms which
were once exothecal; the recumbent arms of Malocystites may have
hedetaei: yore im free arms like those of Canadacystis: Ji
brachioles developed before supporting arms and if the arm
structure was afterward developed to form a common food con-
duit, enabling the bracholar structures to function at some dis-
tance from the mouth and also allowing a large increase in their
number, then one of our difficulties disappears.

NOTES ON THE BANNER STONE, WITH SOME
POWERS AS: TOO Irs PURPOSE:

BY ARTHUR C. PARKER, Archeologist

Among the many interesting objects of stone which the American
Indian has left as a legacy to the archeologist, few appear more
interesting than that which has been sometimes called the “ banner
stone.” Objects of this character, with the gorget, the bird and
boat-shaped stones, and a number of other forms, have been
classed as “‘ ceremonial objects.”

ihc wn. bauer Stone. 1s peculiar to North America. Its range
is approximately the United States east of the Mississippi valley,
and southeastern Canada, (see figure 1). The material of which
these objects are made varies greatly according to locality. They
are, however, nearly always made from soft and easily worked
stone, such as steatite, talc, pagodite, slate and marble. Some have
been found, chiefly in southern New York and New England,
made from bluestone and granite pecked into shape. These are
not perforated, but have grooved sides. Most of the heavier
granites have an incomplete perforation.

The forms of “ banner stones”’ are many, some fantastic in the
extreme and others severely plain and crude.

The principal classes are, first, those specimens having two thin,
flattened wings extending in the same plane from a common cen-
ium. This center may be socketed or it may be notched or
grooved on either side. A comparison of these types is shown
in plate I.

The second form comprises the more solid varieties of the horn
or “pick” shape and analogous forms. ‘This class is represented
in plate 2. |

The third class consists of the one-armed or geniculate variety.
This form is generally of a solid pattern and has a larger hole
than the other forms. Unlike the cylindrical holes of all other
drilled banner stones the geniculate form has an elliptical hole
(see figure 1, plate 3). The elliptically socketed banner stone may or
may not have an arm or “ thumb.” The form of this class suggests a
closed fist, with or without the thumb held upright.

Banner stones belong to the period preceding and immediately
following the era of the white man in America. - They are found

*A paper read before the July 1916 field meeting of Morgan Chapter,
N. Y. S. A. A., held on the John Dann farm, Honeoye Falls.

[165]

NEW. YORK STATE MUSEUM

166

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Plate 2

Range of types in New York State of the lunate form, sometimes
called horn or pick-shaped

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI16 167

throughout eastern North America and Canada on prehistoric vil-
lage sites and in mounds. Mr FE. P. Upham writes that of the
approximately three hundred specimens in the National Museum,
about one-half came from ‘mounds,’ a small number from vil-
lage sites, and the remainder from ploughed fields or from the
surface.

That banner stones should have been abandoned by the many
tribes who used them, as they came in touch with the white invader,
is significant. Does this not mean that they were given up because
some more useful article was obtained from the white man? Cer-
tainly we know of several aboriginal utensils that became gradually
obsolete with the coming of European goods. Or should we hold
that banner stones were abandoned long before the coming of the
European?

The varied forms in which the so-called banner stone is found
suggest varied uses of this puzzling artifact. It seems probable
that the pick or horned type, the thin-winged butterfly type and
the elliptically pierced type may have been intended for distinct
and separate purposes.

Banner Stones on Handles or Shafts

In many instances, by examination, it is found that the hole per-
forating the body of the banner stone tapers, as if for the insertion
of a tapered rod. An examination of many broken specimens
clearly indicates fracturing by internal pressure. Banner stones
which have been made for experimental purposes and broken by
internal pressure within the socket show fracture lines identical
with those of ancient specimens. Thus, it seems reasonable to
believe from the form of the stone and its perforation that banner
stones were designed to be placed upon rods, spindles or shafts.
By placing a banner stone upon a shaft and studying its poise and
the use it suggests, we may arrive at some approximation of the
actual purposes of the implement. In conducting our investiga-
tions, therefore, a thin-winged banner stone was placed on the rear
end of a javelin shaft to see what effect this would produce. We
found by experiment that an ordinary spear shaft headed with a
sharpened flint does not fly with precision but rotates to a percept-
ible degree at the point of balance, causing both point and tail to
describe circles, the circumference of which depends on the degree
of rotation and the length of the shaft. Thus, a spear does not
fly with absolute precision. To be of correct form for throwing,

168 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the shaft must have a certain taper ihe taper ortsetsmomameons
siderable degree the rotation of the extremes and has a well-
defined mechanical effect on the shaft. A well-tapered rod can not
be thrown small end foremost; if this is done it will turn in mid-
air and proceed large end foremost.

Using a well-tapered shaft 5% feet long and 1% inches in
diameter at the head and about one-half of an inch at the tail and
placing a banner stone upon the tail, we conducted experiments in
javelin throwing. It was found that the thin wings of the banner
stone acted in a similar manner as the feathers do to an arrow.
The javelin thus arranged could be thrown with greater precision,
with greater poise and at least one-fourth farther, than a shaft
without the banner stone. Although the banner stone consumed a
certain amount of additional propulsive force, the advantage was so
great through the addition of poise, that the projecting force was
not expended in keeping up the wabbling flight. Besides giving
poise and adding distance, the banner stone gives the additional
advantage of greater weight, greater impact and greater speed.

It would seem that objects of so brittle a subtance would not
stand the use of throwing. The writer, however, having made
one of soft steatite threw it more than fifty times in an ordinary
field with no breakage, except a slight one caused by the incomplete
insertion of the shaft. When this breakage was sustained the stone
was placed for experimental purposes with the wide end forward,
although the reverse seemed to be the more effective method.*

The banner stone thus employed on the spear shaft does not
break because the shaft strikes the ground at an acute angle, and
if it does not strike into the ground it has but a slight distance to
fall.

Banner Stone as a Spindle Whorl

By placing a shorter shaft in the hole of a banner stone another
experiment was conducted. The pick-shaped banner stone resem-
bles in miniature the war club of the modern Sioux and it will be
noted that many of these decorative clubs had comparatively
slender handles. By pushing the spindle through the banner stone
for some distance so that three to five inches protrude, we find,
by handling the arrangement, that there is a desire or tendency to
whirl the shaft, the weight of the banner stone making the com-
bination spin like a stem-heavy top. This gives rise to the idea of

These experiments were conducted during April and May 1899.

Plate 3

Fig. 1 Geniculate forms showing elliptical perforation and
breakage due to internal pressure

. Fig. 2 Banner-stones of compact, hard rock, partially drilled. The
drilling is nearly always started on the wider portion

Showing method of using a pump drill with a bannerstone as a
spindle whorl for perforating a slate tablet

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 169

its use as a spindle whorl for fire-making and drilling. In our
experiments’ we used nearly every type of banner stone with
equal success and all forms of drilling were used, including the
pull string, strap, bow and pump. The thin-winged forms were
especially efficient, the air resistance giving weight and steadiness
to the rotating shaft. This is so apparent that a pump drill worked
on a smooth surface, in conjunction with a banner stone used as a
fly-wheel, keeps the shaft rotating upon one point (see plate 4).

The value of the banner stone used upon a spindle must have
been apparent to the banner stone maker. A simple twist of the
spindle would reveal its possibility as a whorl and with this dis-
covery its use would be suggested. We can hardly see how the
aborigine of the polished stone age who made banner stones could
have neglected to employ the banner stone as our experiments
suggest.

This subject leads us to inquire into the prototype of the banner
stone and to discover the reason for its various forms. The wings
of the artifact suggest in some ways the wings of a flying bird,
other forms suggest the ears of an animal sewed together or winged
seed pods, or winged insects, while still others plainly represent
horns. The centrum, by its one grooved side, suggests an original
tube of cane from which wings expanded. Our knowledge of the
Indian’s veneration for the thunder bird and indeed his regard for
the assumed magical qualities of birds, suggests the possibility that
the banner stone wings were the heavy portions of an effigy designed
to represent a bird, which was fastened to the spindle or shaft.
The horned type of banner stone might represent the horns of a
buffalo or some mythical monster that was believed to emit fire
or to symbolize power. The horned type of banner stone in a
considerable number of specimens has upon the surface at the cen-
trum certain cross-hatched or incised projections which suggest,
to the writer at least, an attempt to represent horns laced, sewed
or tied together. Any student of Indian mythology will quickly
recall the many legends of horned monsters, especially serpents.

Among the uses of the banner stone heretofore suggested is the
theory advanced by Frank H. Cushing, which describes the banner
stone as used on the stem of a calumet to prevent it from tipping
over when placed upon the ground. Within our experience, we
have not seen banner stones associated closely with pipes, although
platform pipes are sometimes found on the sites yielding banner

1 Experiments conducted during December 1015 and January and July 1016.

170 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM —

stones. We have not learned, however, of a banner stone and pipe
from a grave that would bear out this theory.

An interesting specimen in connection with this idea occurs in a
highly decorated form of pipe in the New York State Museum
collection. The pipe is of European brass. About the bowl of the
pipe extending from the neck-base upward is a large crescent-
shaped object perhaps intended to be a moon effigy or more
remotely a canoe, though the crescent is too thin to resemble one
closely. On one side of the crescent is a figure of a man with an
arm extended and holding a shaft having a weighted bottom. The
pattern has been cut out and riveted on the crescent. In form this
adjunct to the pipe somewhat resembles a banner stone, but we do
not believe that the maker of this pipe was ever familiar with ban-
ner stones or knew of their actual value. This pipe of brass, which

re]

ee anti A

Fig. 2. Mound effigy of native copper. Note the wing-shaped ornament
on the head. The people who made these embossed copper drawings
used banner stones. Note the object held in the right hand.

SsvIq JO JUotuvUIO 9}eUN] 10 podvys-jeoq ev YSno1yy ysn41y} ssesq Jo odid voauds

REPORD OF THE: DIRECTOR 1916 171

has a wooden core and stem, has an-:earlier prototype in certain
forms of prehistoric Onondaga clay pipes, the bowl of which is
extended forward and backward to resemble a canoe. (See plate 5).

Another use of the banner stone is that of a helmet ornament
suggested by certain human figures embossed on sheet copper from a
mound (see figure 2). There is some merit in this conjecture when
a study 1s made of the elaborate head dresses of the mound-building
period. The Sioux and other Indians within modern times have
decorated their heads with horns and the Iroquois cap had a spool-
shaped socket at the crown in which an upright feather was placed
in such a manner that it would revolve.

The allusion to the fish tail shape of the banner stone made by
Dr George Byron Gordon, curator of the University Museum, Phil-
adelphia, is given further significance by the conclusions of Dr Clar-
ence B. Moore in his reports: in the Journal of the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, volume 16. The results of Doctor
Moore’s expedition along the Green river, Kentucky, were made
remarkable by the numerous banner stones which he discovered in
graves, especially on “Indian Knoll,’ Ohio county, Kentucky.
Here the banner stones were found associated with heavy hooked
implements of antler, called by Doctor Moore “net knitting
meedies: ihe winged stones are called ~ mesh spacers” and a
considerable argument is given supporting the theory. This idea
is new to most American archeologists but the theory has some
merit. We are not convinced, however, that it is without difficul-
ties nor that it 1s quite so apparent that one is warranted in giving
a “use-name” to the object hitherto called “ problematical.”

Some observers have suggested that the ‘“ knitting needles ”’ were
atlatls or parts of them and used as auxilliary devices for project-
ing javelins. Doctor Moore argues that this supposed use would
also necessitate explaining the reason of the close association of
the “mesh spacer” banner stone with the hook. He presents a
valid objection when he says that no points of antler or flint were
found that could have been used as “tips” for the shaft and fur-
ther says that the hooked antlers are too short for use as atlatls.
We may not be convinced of this entirely in view of our experi-
ments with the banner stone as a tail weight to a spear shaft.

It is interesting to note that banner stones have been found in
considerable numbers during the past two years. We mention
again the discoveries! of E. W. Hawkes and Ralph Linton in New

* Philadelphia, 1916.

172 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Jersey, on Rancocas creek near Masonville. Here banner stones
were actually found in caches associated with the lowest stratum
in which artifacts were present.

Implements Suggesting the Banner Stone

In connection with our studies of the banner stone as a whorl
we have examined the drill spindles of various races in several of
the larger museums. We find that the headpiece of a drill spindle
employed by the Eskimo, for example, resembles in certain ways
the knobbed or blunt ended banner stone of the horned type. The
headpieces are rather more neatly made than the remaining por-
tion of the drill among the Eskimo. The Eskimo top pieces are

Fig. 3. Boring set used by the Point Barrow Eskimo. From Report
National Museum, 1888, Hough. The top or mouthpiece resembles one
form of the banner stone.

* A pre-Lenape site in New Jersey. Anthropological Publications, Pennsyl-
vania University Museum, vol. 6, no. 3.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 ye

IGE i
=

frequently carved of bone and have at their upper portion, that
- curve to fit the mouth, wooden: projections which are used as
handles and held in the teeth. On the lower side is the socket in
which the top of the spindle is inserted. One of these headpieces
worn through by long use and pushed down over the shaft would
quickly suggest a new use. The possibility of wearing through
is not remote because the holes were drilled in the bone to a con-
siderable distance in order to prevent the slipping out of the
spindle. Indeed, to prevent the rapid wearing into the bone or
ivory the Eskimo even recently mortised into the headpiece small
pieces of rectangular stone into which the hole was drilled. Not
all headpieces take a similar form and there is a large individual
variation. In general, however, the headpiece was curved upward
so as to fit against the mouth, which gives a crescent or boat shape
to many specimens.

The utility of such an object as a whorl, once discovered, would
bring about many further variations and new outline motives would
be employed. Dr George Byron Gordon in his study of banner
stones’ suggests that certain forms were derived by the lines sug-
gested by a whale’s tail and we see no reason why this idea should
not seem plausible though tails of other aquatic creatures may
have been likewise copied.

Our conclusion is that the banner stone is a portion of a more
complex utensil or ornament and was designed to be placed upon
a shaft or spindle. The manner in which this was done and the
purpose is suggested by the experiments described. We can by no
means be certain that any of these suggested uses were employed,
but likewise we can not positively say that none of them are valid,
especially in the face of the presumptive evidence we have
advanced.

Notes on the Process of Manufacture

In the New York State Museum collections are some score of
banner stones in the process of manufacture. We are able through
an examination of these articles (specimens of which are found
in almost every stage of the process of manufacture from the
crude block of intermediate form to the finely polished specimen)
to describe in a measure the various stages in the making of banner
stones. The unfinished forms are usually not of slate, which was
easily worked and quickly finished, but of compact shale, schist,
sandstone or granite. The material out of which this series is
made is tough rock not easily worked or perforated.

*Museum Journal, U. of P., June 1916.

L7A: NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The first process, after a suitable material had been found,. was
to chip the implement into shape, outlining the wings and centrum.
With the exception of the central bulb from which the wings
expand and the indentation on the upward curve, all these heavier
specimens in form are kidney or bean shaped. The second process
as indicated by our series was that of picking or pitting; the third
process that of scouring or grinding, and the fourth finishing the
polish. A set of these specimens also indicates that the hole or
perforation was started in the centrum on the inward-curving
side. Preparations for the perforation were also indicated on
specimens which have merely been blocked out, by a picked-in
indentation. It would seem, therefore, that the shaft which we
postulate was placed in the centrum was inserted first at this point.
It may be possible that the shaft was sometimes placed in the
unfinished specimen.

Incomplete banner stones have been found throughout the State
from Lake Champlain region on the north to Staten Island on the
south and westward through the Mohawk valley to Chautauqua
county (see figure 2, plate 3). Other specimens are reported from
the St Lawrence valley, but a greater majority have been reported
from the Finger Lake region of central New York and from the
valley of the Genesee and its tributaries.

A fine incomplete specimen of laminated limestone containing
chert is contained in the D. F. Thompson collection (T-27923)
and was found at Waterford near the Mohawk river. This speci-
men has been roughly chipped to shape and shows some minor
picking. The top side is indented to shorten the length of the
centrum, but the perforating process has not been started.

An unfinished specimen chipped and roughly picked to form
comes from the Susquehanna region a little east of Binghamton.
It is a heavy specimen of compact schist containing a vein of sandy
quartz. The centrum has been roughly blocked to shape, but there
is no indication that the specimen had been sufficiently formed
for the commencement of drilling. The material out of which
this artifact is blocked appears entirely unsuited for the purpose
and very likely this specimen was rejected in the unfinished form
because of the defects in the material. This specimen is 6 inches
im length and the measurement through the centrum diametrically
1s 2% inches and the weight is 2834 ounces.

Another specimen of unfinished banner stone is of silicious sand-
stone. It has been picked completely to shape ‘but one wing is
longer than the other by nearly one-half of an inch. _A chip,

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I916 175

however, has been taken off from the longer point and if the
specimen had been abraded to eliminate this chip it would have
been fairly symmetrical. The centrum is well formed but on one
side the central line is not correctly opposed to that of the other
side. A most interesting feature is that the wings are placed at an
opposite slant as if each had been grasped in the hand, the upper
and shorter one being twisted to the right and the lower to the
left, somewhat after the fashion of propeller blades. No attempt
has been made to start a perforation. This specimen is from
Schoharie county, but no detailed location is mentioned in the
catalog. |

Specimen C-25045 is composed of picked mica schist and has
well-defined wings, though they are somewhat thick. The socket
is well outlined on either side and the perforation has been indi-
cated both at the top and bottom by slight concavities picked in.
The drilling process has not yet started and there is no indication
of surface polishing. This specimen is from site no. 38, explored
by Mr Fred H. Crofoot.

A broken specimen similar in the stage of process was found by
Mr Forest Ryder at Coxsackie, N. Y. The material seems to be
decomposed granite. The centrum is well defined and on either
side has been flattened in order that perforation may be started.
The specimen is not polished, but still bears the marks of the
abrading process. (Mus. 32871).

Specimen C-21154 is a heavy bulbous and bilobate banner stone
from the Abel farm in the Genesee valley and was found by Mr
Fred H. Crofoot. Like all specimens of unfinished banner stones
in the State Museum, this one is drilled in the central portion, at
the wider portion of the stone. The perforation continues nearly
half the depth of the stone and is exceedingly smooth. It appears
not to be a tubular drill hole. There is a depression on the under
side, but no drilling has been attempted there. A portion of the
surface of the stone has been polished and it is thought that the
‘specimen was intended to be used approximately in its present
form. The weight is 26 ounces.

A very fine specimen of picked sandstone banner stone of j incom-
plete form was collected by Prof. D. F. Thompson at Hoosick
Falls, N. Y. (T-29792). The centrum is especially large at the
upcurved end and probably the picking process has not been com-
pleted. The specimen shows no signs of polishing, but a perfora-
tion nine-sixteenths of an inch in diameter has been started, the
broken portion of the drill core being visible at the bottom of the

176 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

perforation which is about seven-sixteenths of an inch in depth.
The weight of this stone is 1644 ounces. The wings are not uni-
form in length, there being a difference of more than one-fourth
of an inch in length. The twist of the wings, right and left, is
also apparent in this specimen.

A narrower specimen of unfinished banner stone (M-2419) was
found at Arius lake, Rensselaer county. The specimen is 6%
inches in length and weighs 15% ounces, the width through the
centrum being 1% inches. The perforation has been started and
the drill core projects from the drilling, which is about three-
sixteenths of an inch in depth. There is a groove on the upper or
outer side of the specimen which appears to have been slightly
polished, but the general surface of the stone has been scoured only
enough to remove the deeper pitting. One of the lower corners
has a chip taken out which shows the material to be an impure
marble quartz.

A fine specimen of unfinished sandstone banner stone from
Atwood, Perth county, Ontario, Canada, is in the Museum col-
lection and is interesting for the purpose of comparison. A twist
in the wings of this specimen is also evident. The bulbous centrum
is flattened on each side and drilling has proceeded about two-
thirds the diametrical length of the centrum. A broken core shows
as a break at the bottom.

Specimen M-21591 is an unfinished granite banner stone with
the drilling at the expanded portion and carried to the depth of
about three-eighths of an inch. ‘This specimen shows drilling by
tubular perforation. The indented and in-sloping top of the stone
has a rather high polish, but the under side has been only roughly
picked and ground into shape, though there is an indentation in
which the perforation was to be made.

A very interesting specimen of a dark drab slate banner stone
(Y-29632) comes from the Hudson valley in Orange county. This
specimen has been undoubtedly finished, though the perforation is
only about one-half the depth of the centrum. The centrum is
like a pipe bowl, fifteen-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. The
lower curve of this centrum is about three-eighths of an inch from
the curvilinear line forming the outward circumference of the
specimen, but a notch has been cut in the base of the wings meet-
ing the bottom of the bowl like centrum. It is not exactly in the
center, which makes the wings appear unequal in length by almost
one-fourth of an inch. Two tally marks appear at the top of each
wing.

POVNPIBUTONS TO THE PALEONTOLOGY. OF NEW
YORK

DEVONIAN GLASS SPONGES
BY JOHN M. CLARKE
1 The Ontogeny of Hydnoceras

(Plate' 1)

The interesting specimen here illustrated was recently sent to the
State Museum by Mr L. D. Shoemaker of Elmira. It is a slab
of sandy flagstone found near the village of Wellsburg, N. Y.,
6 miles southeast of Elmira. One surface of this slab carries, as
represented, two essentially entire and mature individuals of
Hydnoceras, undoubtedly of an undescribed species, which lie side
by side as they must have stood when they were growing erect on
the sea bottom. The specimen is otherwise rather full of fossils
characteristic of the Chemung fauna, principal among which is the
little brachiopod Ambocoelia gregaria.

The genus Hydnoceras has been abundantly described and it
would seem as though almost every variety of expression is mant-
fested in the various species represented in the Monograph on the
Fossil Reticulate Sponges.t. In the preparation of that somewhat
exhaustive treatise, very abundant material was available, and in
the study of the representatives of this nodose and highly specialized
genus Hydnoceras, it was desirable, at times to emphasize local
variations in form and character of surface which might not have
been so distinguished had the specimens been found in the same
place or colony. In other words, it became very evident in the
study of the various local colonies of this genus of sponges, in
some of which the individuals grew by hundreds and thousands,
that there was in many cases a distinct local impress which prob-
ably, on careful weighing of the evidence, would be found not to
equal species values.

We there also indicated that morphologically, the simplest type of
expression in these sponges is the obconical, smooth tube or
reticulum ; that is a skeleton without any division into nodes, rings,
tufts or other surface modifications. This type is maintained in the
greatest abundance throughout the climacteric development of these

*Hall, James & Clarke, J. M., 1898.
[177]

178 NEW YORK: STATE; MUSEUM

glass sponges in the Chemung fauna, and the genus Dictyospongia,
which expresses it, is not only freely developed in species but its
individuals are often of commanding size and graceful form.

It was also indicated in the study of these fossils that the
smooth, obconical shape being primitive, the nodose structures of
. the surface appeared as a secondary character. Such evidence, how-
ever, was not, at the time of the preparation of the work cited,
regarded as altogether conclusive.

It was further observed in connection with the study of the
interrelations of these sponges, that the large series of annulated
forms known as Ceratodictya stood in somewhat similar relation-
ships ontogenetically to the smooth cones, as did the nodose species;
that is to say, the secondary conformation of the surface begins to
express itself either as nodes, or as rings, or as a combination of
both together. We must here note a third consideration, and that
is the series of prismatic or banana-shaped sponges, Prismodictya ;
a large tribe of very effective, compact and graceful appearance,
in which the prismatic sides are developed with rarely any indica-
tion of nodosity or annulation. These prismatic sponges also, are
found to develop their prismatic faces as a secondary feature, the
incipient part of the sponge or its infantile condition being still of
the smooth, obconical pattern.

We have then three different secondary modifications superim-
posed upon the primary expression of these sponges, all of which,
in combination or independently, are competent to produce and
have produced a very extraordinary variety of generic and specific
expressions. The exact order of succession in these features
should be established, if this is possible. Inspection of a very
large amount of material does positively indicate the development
of the prismatic form of the skeleton before the appearance of
either rings ar nodes, and of the other two it is reasonably safe
to say in a general way, that the tendency to nodes manifests itself
earlier than the transverse constrictions which produce the annula-
tions. The normal order of time and succession therefore, in the
development of these three characteristics from the simple, smooth
obcone, is first the prisms, second the nodes, third the rings. In
terms of this ontogenetic succession it is therefore possible to esti-
mate any species of these various types of the prismatic, nodose
and ringed Dictyosponges and their combinations, in terms of
stationary, arrested, or accelerated development referable to the
standard type of the simple, smooth skeleton.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 179

These ontogenetic traits are brought out emphatically and beauti-
_fully in the specimens now under consideration. Here is a very
strongly nodose and a very deeply annulate species in which the
slightly modified, early and infantile expression of growth is con-
tinued for a long period, the lower obcones being smooth or faintly
prismatic. In one of these this infantile condition is maintained for
fully half the length of the completed skeleton, while in the other
it covers a less proportion — one-third of the full length of the
sponge. Thereupon follows, at the upper end of the obcone, the
primary development into nodes, and directly thereafter, the con-
strictions which are to produce the annulations. Over these annula-
tions, constrictions and nodes run the prism lines in the usual
manner characteristic of all the nodose species of this genus
Hydnoceras.

The smaller of the two specimens under consideration (that at
the left of the drawing) is actually complete so far as its length is
concerned and the distal or upper extremity is the entire margin
of the osculum of the sponge itself. The specimen presents other
features of maturity and decline which are highly instructive. The
first three of the annulations, counting from the bottom, are broad,
their nodes are blunt; but therewith onward the constrictions
become deeper, the annulations narrower and sharper, the nodes
relatively smaller. The gradual decline in the prominence of the
nodes is obvious, and in the seventh and eighth rings the nodes
show distinct signs of suppression; in the eighth or terminal ring
a suppression which indicates a tendency to complete extinction
in further growth, had such further growth continued. This con-
dition is likewise true of the rings themselves, and accompanying
all this general decline after the adult development of the skeleton
midway of its length, is its loss of diameter, approximating again
in this respect the infantile condition. The specimen thus quite
emphatically and unusually shows the unfolding of the general
morphological characters of the genus and species in regular order
through the nepionic stages into the mature, and then their equally
gradual decline from the mature ontogeny into the gerontic or
senile stage.

This evidence thus ties together a good many outstanding scat-
tering data, regarding the structure of these sponges and the true
relations of their individual development. The special interest of
this specimen is that it helps to interpret the morphologic value of
the sponges of this class; that is to say, here is a sponge, obviously

180 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of the, genus Hydnoceras, which bears in itself the characters of
the typical genera; Dictyospongia, the smooth sponges; Prismo-
dictya, the prismatic sponges; and Ceratodictya, the annulated
sponges; and upon these characters assumed in succession, are
imposed the nodes which, generally speaking, are later than the
other features (although they may appear at times on the prism-
angles without the intervention or presence of the annulations) ; all
of which indicates the fact that the nodose sponges of this type
are the extreme terminus, the final term of development along these
lines. They are the most advanced, the most highly accelerated,
the most extravagant in ornament, and carry most conspicuously
in themselves the evidence of the path they have followed in their
development. Whether or not the nodose sponges are the last to
survive in this peculiar group is quite another matter; upon that
we are not prepared to speak positively. They are certainly the
most abundant of all the known representatives of the stock, but
logically the last to survive would be the stronger type, and theo-
retically the stronger type is the simplest.

The species under consideration has no outstanding specific name.
It can not be brought into specific relationship with any other form
now described, and for this reason it is herewith given the desig-
nation, Hydnoceras walcotti, im honor of vinegar
tinguished secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

2 Chemung Sponges from the Vicinity of Erie, Pa.

Through the courtesy of Mr E. J. Armstrong of Emme hag
have received interesting indications of heretofore undescribed
species of Dictyosponges from the neighborhood of his city. Both
of the species are represented by more than one specimen, and each
is of very exceptional interest as presenting a type of structure,
broader than specific, which has not heretofore been recognized
- from the great sponge fauna of the later Devonian Period.
The first of these may be designated and described as:

CERATODICTYA ORYX Sp. NOV.
(Plate 2)

The term Ceratodictya was introduced by Hall and Clarke for
the purpose of embracing a series of rather commanding species
characterized by simple or duplicate annulations but without retain-
ing either the prismatic or the nodose features of the surface.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 181

Ceratodictya, in its ontogeny, may properly be construed as ele-
mentary rather than senile; that is to say, the constrictions of the
surface do not, in the ontogeny of the sponge, appear to be pre-
ceded by any other conformation of the skeleton.

The specimens in hand are long, slender, twiglike skeletons, with
very prominent horizontal rings, all of which, in the best preserved
of the two examples, appear to be duplicate on the periphery; that
is to say, these rings stand out prominently and abruptly; they are
compressed, and the surface is grooved in such a way medially,
as to make each ring a duplicate one. On the second and longer
specimen this duplication is not obvious, or at least is no more
than suggested, but the preservation of this individual is bad and
the absence of the crown groove may be due entirely to this fact.
These annulations are separated by smooth and subcylindrical sur-
faces, which are rather long, as they have fully twice the width of
the annulations themselves, and this is rather more than the interval
in the other species of the genus. As preserved, the specimens
show a sinuous or gracefully curved stock or twig, very slender
and scarcely tapering from one end to the other, so that the
original sponge must have been of extraordinary length in pro-
portion to its diameter. The shortest specimen measures I0o mm,
and carries 12 annulations; the longer specimen is 180 mm, and
carries 23 more or less recognizable annulations. The average
diameter of the shorter and better preserved specimen is 15 mm.

The matrix of this specimen is Chemung sandstone of somewhat
coarse grain, and no trace is left of the reticulum. The larger
specimen is buried in the sand, but the smaller is represented only
by an external mold. The block which carries this smaller specimen
has ‘also a very indistinct trace of either another individual or
the continuation of the first, bent at a very sharp angle. The
locality of these specimens is given by Mr Armstrong as “ about 6
miles southeast of Erie, Pa.”

HY DNOCERINA Ze. NOV,

It seems necessary, for purposes of reasonably precise definition,
to introduce a new generic term here for species of these sponges
which combine the characters of Hydnoceras and Ceratodictya in
such a way that they can be safely referred to neither. I think
the group which is represented by the species herewith described,
must be looked upon as a departure from the normal development
of the elementary types of these sponges. The variability in their

182 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

expression and the easy flexibility in the development or suppression
of their surface characters, may make the group a convenient
receptacle, even though the characters can not be very strictly
delimited. Hydnocerina, then, is characterized by a reticulum bear-
ing more or less prominent rings crested by one, two or even three
rows of nodes, the nodes being often of irregular size; sometimes
long and simple, sometimes low and duplicate, frequently fusing
together and thus losing their distinctness.

HYDNOCERINA ARMSTRONGI Sp. Nov.
Gilates sepanids 5)

This species is represented by two specimens which present a
fairly complete conception of the entire reticulum, the larger being
almost the entire horn; the smaller, the initial end of a specimen
which might well have been of the same dimensions as the larger.
The aspect of the initial part of the reticulum is interesting as dis-
playing very clearly the development of the exterior features.
Prism-faces are almost wholly undeveloped, although suggested ;
annulations appear at once and these are quite simple. This small
specimen carries six of these annulations, on the summit of which,
at the crossing of the prism-lines, are intimations of nodes. At
once thereafter, apparently, the nodes spring into greater promi-
nence and the annulations at first become more upstanding through
deeper constriction of the intervals. Growth appears to have ‘been
regular for a matter of three or four additional annulations, the
nodes developing in such fashion that up to this point the species
would be safely placed with the genus Hydnoceras. Then com-
mence the irregularities which take it outside the boundaries of
that genus. The annulations become broader, grooved on top; the
nodes appear first small and then large, or small and large together,
some of the rings being made up of a single row of large nodes as
below, and other rings being broad, duplicate, or triplicate, grooved,
with the nodes quite low and confluent. The larger of the speci-
mens shows eleven annulations in which the character of the
nodosity may be indicated from below upward as follows:

1 Large and simple

2 Large, some of the nodes fused laterally
3 Large, some of the nodes fused laterally
4 Double row of low nodes

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI16 ; 183

5 Single row of low nodes

6 Triple row of low nodes, more or less fused vertically
7 Large, simple nodes, obviously fused vertically

8 Large, simple nodes

9 Low, triple, grooved nodes
10 Low, triple, grooved nodes
11 Low, duplicate, grooved nodes

The above details give a fairly adequate account of the char-
acters of the species. The length of the specimen is 180 mm, and
this length, if increased by the length of the smaller specimen,
with a slight allowance for the break, would be 220 mm. The
specific name 1s given as a recognition of Mr Armstrong’s interest
and his diligence in the study of the paleontology of his neighbor-
hood. These specimens are from “ about 8 miles east of Erie, Pa.”

ELUCIDATION OF THE GENUS CRYPTODICTYA
(Plate 4)

In the Monograph of the Dictyosponges its authors described as
Cryptodictya alleni, certain frond-shaped structures of
large size which seemed to have been sponge masses with extremely
thin, expanded reticulum and which, in being tossed together by
the waves, had assumed irregularly infolded shapes. There was no
evidence, from the study of these bodies, that the films had ever
been inclosed into vases or other symmetrical forms. The sponge
character of these organic structures was only presumptive, but
their association in the Chemung rocks of Cattaraugus county,
N. Y., was with other sponges and the occasional indications which
they presented, of structures which might be interpreted as spicular,
and also the fact that surfaces were irregularly marked by little
monticules or acute papillae, sometimes symmetrical but often
elongated and irregular elevated surfaces which might have served
as bases for spicular tufts and did indeed, when protruding into
the matrix, seem to be accompanied by evidences of such spicular
sponges. |

Mr Armstrong has recently discovered a series of ‘small disks
which have the same general surface appearance as those of C.
alleni, but which are distinctly outlined, and I have little hesi-
tancy in comparing the latter with the type species of the genus.
These smaller disks are all of about the same size and average about

184 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

2 inches in diameter; are approximately circular, with some irregu-
larities in outline, and the upper surface is broadly convex. Many
of them show the effects of compression in a rifting of the surface,
and so we are obliged to infer that these biscuit-shaped bodies were
originally nearly as convex as the bell of a jelly fish. The surface
is marked by monticules or acute elevations, distributed with appar-
ent irregularity and varying very much in number. There are
some in which these conicles are hardly apparent; others may have
ten or twelve, while still others twice this number: In the slab
which Mr Armstrong has sent me, there are at least eleven indi-
viduals, and he speaks of there having been more in the rock from
which these were taken. The accompanying illustrations will eluci-
date the character of these specimens better than any further
description, but it may be added that there is no clearly defined
indication of spicular structure on these surfaces; further, that .
the surfaces of the organism must have been very thin, for the
space between the outer and under casts is tenuous. Several of the
specimens show the peculiarity of a scar or a broken, disordered
spot at or about the center of the convexity, but as this is not
shown by all, it does not now seem possible to ce poe as a
structural feature.

Whatever may have been the full form of these sponge bodies,
there seems no evidence now that they were attached to the bottom
by any other means than their spreading growth or by the margins
of their reticulum. No specimen shows any evidence of an upright
or vertical stem or other form of support. As the species is very
sharply defined from C. alleni and “occurs im a ‘differen:
horizon, it is here distinguished by the name Cryptodictya
tylea. Mr Armstrong reports that his specimens were found
loose in the gorge of Six Mile creek, 7 miles east of Erie, Pa., and
he is of the opinion that they must have come from something less
than one hundred feet above the base of the Chemung.

3. A Branching Form of Silicious Sponge

This sponge expresses a peculiar type of growth so unusual to
this reticulate group that its silicilous character may be held in some
degree of reserve. The quadrate skeleton structure, however, seems
to be evident on various parts of the surface, and the probability is
that in the predominant silicious character of the great sponge fauna

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 185

of the Upper Devonian period, this species partakes of the nature of
the rest.

The specimens on which the genus and species are founded occur
in a slab of hard silicilous Chemung sandstone found loose at Hins-
dale, Cattaraugus county, N. Y., and sent to the Museum by John S.
Johnston of Wellsville. On the weathered surface of this slab is
the deep impression of the large, branched specimen, (plate 6),
taken as the type of the genus and species. In the substance of the
slab several others, smaller in size, have been found preserved as
external and internal casts.

OZOSPONGIA gen. nov.
zospongia johnston. sp. nov.
(Plates 5 and 6)

Obconic, anodose, nonprismatic; generally expanding from the
base up and rather abruptly constricted to well-defined ostia;
extended below into short or long, subcylindrical stems which join
at various intervals, uniting in or branching from a common stalk.
This stalk or stem tapers so slowly that it must at times have reached
very considerable length. The best expression of this compound
form is shown in the typical colony, where it will be observed that
two individuals divide the common stem equally, the branching
stems having about the same caliber as the parent. One of these
sponge cups has grown to larger size than the other, and from the
stem of the lesser has apparently branched off a third cup attached ~
by a much shorter stalk. The true position of this third individual
may quite possibly be concealed by the compression of the colony.
Over the surface of these bodies, particularly about the base and
stems, there is a perfectly evident cross-lining, indicating a network,
but the greater part of the surface bears irregular, low ridges run-
ning longitudinally and in some measure evidently due to lateral
compression, though some such roughened surface might well be
quite normal to the sponge.

The other specimens here shown indicate variations from this
individual expression. Figure 2 shows a young offshoot of small
size, branching from the parent cup by a very short stem. In these
specimens the network of the reticulum is much more clearly indi-
cated. The stem here does not termisate so abruptly as indicated,

186 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

but is further represented by a stain in the rock. It is not thought
that this structure can be construed as a basal spicular tuft.

Figure 1 is a single individual broken at the basal end but indi-
cating an extending stem, while figure 3 is the basal end and very
much compressed stalk of another individual.

EXELANATION OF PEAGES

Plate 1

[187]

Hydnoceras walcotti sp. nov.
(Page 180)

The original specimen; two individuals lie side by side as they
may have grown on the sea bottom. The drawing has been made
from a plaster counterpart of the original natural mold.

Chemung group near Wellsburg, N. Y.

[188]

Re

e n ;
De A

SALTY
sy er ay
im, aoe) . By. 7 J

f.
Po ae fle

aya ay

t. 4
roy
4

Ceratodictya oryx sp. nov.
(Page 180)

Figure 1. The shorter but better preserved specimen of this
genus, showing the grooved annulations which are generally char-
acteristic of Ceratodictya.

Figure 2. The longer of the specimens, but poorly preserved.

Both are casts from natural molds.

Chemung group, 6 miles southeast of Erie, Pa.

[190]

Plate 2

yas

a
ve
&
A ¥
Ff

Hydnocerina armstrongi sp. nov.
(Page 182)

This is the best preserved of the specimens and shows the char-
acteristic variation in the nodes upon the annulations.

[192]

Plate 3

Cryptodictya tylea sp. nov.
(Page 184) |
Figures 1-5. This plate shows a series of these discoid sponge
bodies as they occur somewhat flattened in the sandy shales of the
Chemung group in the gorge of Six Mile creek, 7 miles east of
Erie, Pa.

[194]

Plate 4

i

¥

aa) a
Ne

Ozospongia johnstoni sp. nov.
(Page 185)

Figure 1. A small single obcone of this species.

Figure 2. A specimen showing a single branching cone from
the parent frond.

Figure 3. The base of an obcone retaining a part of the stem or
pedicel.

Hydnocerina armstrongi sp. nov.
(Bage1s2))

Figures 4 and 5. Opposite sides of the initial end of the indi-
vidual which shows the incipient development of the nodes upon the
rings.

Chemung group, 8 miles east of Erte. ina

[196}

Plate 5

4
i

Ozospongia johnstoni sp. nov.
(Page 185)

The branching colony on which the description of the genus and
species are based. . This appears to represent three individuals or
obcones derived from the same pedicel. All of the figures of this |
species have been made from plaster replicas of natural molds in
the Chemung sandstone at Hinsdale, INNS

[198]

Siw DANDY UNDERTOW MARKINGS OF UPPER
DEVON LAN ivi ONS UNDICATIONS OF TE PR
VE UNG CRIMEAT te

BY JOHN M. CLARKE

The most conspicuous features on the surfaces of the sandy
strata of the Portage group in the Upper Devonian of New York,
are markings which have commonly been assigned to the moving of
the waters over the strand. Wherever the beds of this important
formational term of the Devonian become preponderantly sandy,
these phenomena are observable. They have long been known;
indeed, while they have commanded very little attention in the lit-
erature, and have been generally passed over as almost self-explana-
tory, the best outstanding descriptions of them are those given by
the first official geologist reporting upon the region where these
developments are most manifest. Reference is made to the descrip-
tions of them given by James Hall, in the Geology of the Fourth
District of New York, 1843, pages 232-37. These and the very
striking illustrations he presented of them, have passed current as
final, and even though occasionally his figures have been reproduced,
there has been, so far as the writer knows, no published modifica-
tion of his explanation of their origin.

During the many years which have elapsed since the date of that
report, and especially since the writer’s attention has been particu-
larly directed to the phenomena, mechanical and biological, of the
Portage formation, there has grown up in the Museum a very exten-
sive collection representing the various expressions of these strand
phenomena, from the study of which it has become perfectly
obvious that we have not had a proper understanding of their.
origin. It is thought that the present paper may suggest a truer
conception of them.

Preliminary observations. The phenomena which we have to
discuss or to debate, are conformations in strong relief, invariably
on the under side of the strata as they lie in normal position. The
beds which bear these surface figures are slabs and flags of thin,
hard sandstone; in other words, flagstones in which lamination beds
are obvious but cleavage only potentially developed. In every case,
also, the relief figures on these slabs in normal position fit into cor-
responding grooves and depressions in the underlying and inter-
vening sandy shales. Emphasis is here to be laid upon the expression

[ 199 |

200 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

sandy shales, for when the shales are predominantly of clay, no such
marks seem to have been made.’ This is a fact and an observation
which is in accordance with the interesting propositions recently
set forth by Kindle,? who finds that the muddy bottom or muddy
shore in which the sand is not predominant, is not competent to take
such current marks as the commonly known ripple marks. The
phenomena under consideration are not invariably*those which can
be interpreted by any action of moving water alone, so far as known
to the writer, and it is necessary, therefore, to supplement the pre-
vious condition by stating that the shales of the Portage formation
are prevailingly sandy, and in thé upper measures of this forma-
tion, wherein these phenomena are most conspicuously shown, are
quite inevitably sandy and therefore competent to take and preserve
impressions that have been made by water in motion.

As a preliminary necessary to the understanding of this paper,
reference is made at once to the accompanying illustrations. An
effort has been here made to present these strand surfaces in their
normal position and therefore counterparts in plaster of paris have
been photographed to place alongside the pictures of the original
rock specimens. If the observer’s eye is quick to grasp these con-
trasting reliefs and intaglios, part and counterpart will help to
remove risk from deceptive appearances. I say deceptive appear-
ances, because even Professor Hall, in pointing out the fact that
these marked sandstones occur with their relief surfaces downward
in the strata, nevertheless so far forgot his statement as to illustrate
one of the commonest varieties as a “ cast of flowing mud,” and
such “mud flows” have been repeatedly referred to by geologists,
as though their convex relief were the true one. “ Mud flows” are
in reality the natural casts of deeply marked strand slopes rilled and
eddied by the ebbing tide.

In order, now, to present practically all the outstanding data
regarding the particular phenomena with which we have to deal,
I shall first quote from Professor Hall’s very lucid description.

Casts of Mud Furrows and Striae

I have applied this term to certain appearances upon the under side of the
strata of sandstone, or flagstones, which are numerous and extensive in the

* Markings similar to some of those here noticed occur in great variety in
other rock media and in many formations. Notice is incidentally taken here
in the illustrations of such records on certain Silurian argillaceous limestones.

*E. M. Kindle. . Recent and Fossil: Ripple-mark. Mus. Bul.~25, op. 4,
Canada Geological Surv. 1917.,

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 201

fourth district, as well as elsewhere in this group; having from my own
observation detected them in other parts of New York, in Pennsylvania,
Ohio, and even to some extent in Indiana.

These casts are elevated lines or ridges upon the surface of the stone,
varying from the size of the usual scratches upon the present surface of
the strata to the diameter of half an inch, and even one, two and three
inches, and in one case I have seen a specimen six inches in diameter.

The only assignable cause for these ridges is the action of a current flow-
ing over the surface of the strata, sometimes transporting sand and at other
times coarser materials, which furrowed the surface upon which the sub-
sequent deposits were made. They are, in all cases, preserved upon the
under surfaces of sandstone or shaly sandstone layers, which rest upon soft
shale, so that the furrows or scratches must have been made in this mud.
They are not all confined to one position, but appear at different depths in
the group; showing that the cause, be it what it may, operated through a
long period, and in a pretty uniform manner. The ridges are never curved
or bent on one side; and though two systems are sometimes observed cross-
ing each other, they are still as well defined and their course as unbroken
as in the glacial or alluvial scratches upon the surface of the present rocky
strata.

From the frequent occurrence of these, and their continuation through a
great thickness of strata, we can hardly suppose the furrows to have been
made upon hard surfaces; and if we suppose the mud in which they were
made to have been soft, it seems almost impossible to conceive how they
should be preserved. Still the numerous similar facts in other rocks prove
that even the most delicate markings are preserved, under even more un-
favorable circcmstances. The tracks of birds and reptiles in the New Red
sandstone, with the impression of rain drops, is equally difficult to compre-
hend, were it not demonstrated beyond all question. Again it has been
shown that in the Medina sandstone’ the delicate wave lines and the minute
ridges of sand, piled up before some little obstacle in the current, are pre-
served with the same integrity as they appear upon a sandy beach just left
to dry by the receding tide. In the same manner, the evidence of these
slight scratches and deeper furrows in the mud of the Portage group have
been preserved in the casts formed by the succeeding depositions. Nothing
can be more clear and convincing than the proofs, and nothing more beauti-
fully illustrative of the effects of oceanic currents upon the bottom. We
have little space here to describe these phenomena, and they should be seen
to be fully appreciated. This fact, however, may be added to the number,
if we have not already sufficient, to prove the condition of the sea in these
remote periods.

The following woodcut represents a surface where three systems of
ridges appear, or where the grooves were made in three directions.

This account is wise and safe; indeed may well be regarded com-
petent so far as it goes. This phrase in the quotation may be empha-
sized, ‘“‘ they should be seen to be fully appreciated ’’ — a characteri-
zation which in part justifies and leads to the present presentation.

1 Pages 52 and 54 of the Geology of the Fourth District of New York.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 203

that he had detected on the same sandstone stratum in outcrops
twenty miles apart, striations that ran in the same direction and
suggested to him a uniform cause efficient over this entire stretch
of strand or sea bottom. I regret very much not being able to verify
so important an intimation. “ Thus it appears,” says Hall, “ that,
whatever may have been the cause, it operated very uniformly over
large surfaces.”

It is important for me to premise, in seeking the interpretation of
these phenomena, that, in my experience, ripple marks in the Portage
strata are of rather rare association with these other strand marks.
If this statement is even approximately true, then the rhythmic fac-
tors producing ripple marks are measurably excluded from the
formation of the strand marks under consideration. Doctor Kindle’s
perspicacious and faithful analysis of the causes to which ripple
marks are due, finds, as we have intimated, that whether laid under
water or under air, a sandy medium is essential; that ripple marks
are of two kinds, symmetrical and asymmetrical; that the former
are due wholly to oscillatory action of the water and occur, in his
conclusion, entirely in fresh-water deposits, that is, in water bodies
presumably free of tidal currents; while the other or asymmetrical
type characterizes the salt water ripples. Disturbance in the cur-
rents, interfering waves or tidal flows, obstructions to regular flow,
projections of rocky points between sandy beaches and over seeth-
ing bottoms, are all influential in modifying the form of the ripple
ridge and furrow, and the amplitude of the sand wave 1s in a definite
though not determined relation to the force of the tidal ebb. There-
fore, in the opinion of Doctor Kindle, which has been supported by
the observations of others, principally those of Dr G. K. Gilbert,
the ripple mark may be of any reasonable amplitude, often attaining
a width of many feet.

The objects which we have under direct consideration, divide
themselves into two groups; those which seem readily to explain
themselves and those which obviously do not.

To the former we may reckon the characteristic “ mud flows,”
as shown on our plates 7-14. ‘These, it will be observed, are
obviously the markings made by rills following the fall of the tide,
or possibly the retreat of heavy storm waves on a strand of low
pitch. These phenomena have various expressions and are often
accompanied by collateral contemporary markings showing the
dragging, scratching or otherwise indenting of the surface, pre-
sumably by objects dragged down by the ebb and following the

‘¢

204 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

same general direction as the surface rills. Tidal rills are produced
by the downrush of considerable masses of water lagging behind the
retreating and broken surge, and it is easily conceivable that larger
amounts or continuous sheets of water, flowing down the strand,
might produce series of unbroken water channels, rather than dis-
continuous rill channels. This is put forward as a possible ex-
planation of the latter phenomenon, and as these and allied appear-
ances seem to be intelligible by such explanations, they are included
among those which are readily and deductively interpreted.

The other class of these strand markings includes those we are
especially trying to interpret. Of, this large class there are first the
striated surfaces, which are here illustrated by specimens which
are really less effective than that given by Professor Hall, but at the
same time of more variant character. Various observers, speaking
casually, have thought that these markings might have been due, in
some part at least, to more or less compressed trunks of wood buried
in the sand and fossilized. One might see a reason for such sugges-
tions upon consulting our plates 16-19, but in my judgment this
interpretation is absolutely excluded. ‘There is seldom any straight
tree-tissue associated with these beach marks, and whenever the
opinion referred to has been expressed, it has generally been based
upon the contemplation of the wrong side of the specimen. These
slabs are actually grooved and furrowed in parallel lines, and these
groovings are of various degrees of magnitude, from coarse to
exceedingly fine. The surfaces of the larger grooves are not only
sometimes, but usually striated finely by lines parallel to them. Even
in our greatly reduced figures these details are very obvious and the
fact stands out without reasonable challenge that these markings
have been made by the dragging or- shoving of irregular objects
over the surface of the wet sand; not necessarily above water, but
if not, then within the moderate water depths. One can conceive,
for example, a heavy kelp attached at its root to a stone loosened
from its moorings, thrown upon the strand and dragged down by
the suck of the undertow, producing if moving with sufficient rapid-
ity and without interruption, some such channelings as are indicated
on our plate 16, or on plate 18, which is a single deep, sharply angu-
lar groove. But my observation leads me to doubt if anyone ever
saw stich an effect produced by the suggested cause. We may,
however, for the moment, assume that heavy objects dragged by
the undertow of storm waves might create such channeled strand
and substrand surfaces as are here indicated.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 ZC,

Granting that the whole class of these parallel channelings and.
striations are of the mechanical origin suggested, I must say that
my experience and observation do not justify the interpretation sug-
gested above. I must therefore briefly refer to my field of observa-
tion in order to verify the conclusion which I am, by elimination,
forced to reach with reference to these markings, and also to leave
room specifically, for the wider or different experience of others in
the observation of strand phenomena. In order to find some reason-
able interpretation for these Devonian strand marks, many different
kinds of coast have come under my examination — the broad and
sandy shores and dune strands of bays and gulfs; mud flats a mile
or more across, exposed and covered with every change in the tide;
the short, steep, gravelly strands of rocky promontory fronts; capes
and bays, retreats and endroits where the tidal interval may be slight
or the tide waves rush in upon the coast like an army of white
horses; tide-swept channels and broad, flat seabars of the islands,
covering scores of square miles, among whose sands the sea breaks
its way by inlets and gullies. I believe my experience has been
variant and illuminating, much of it coming from intimate examina-
tion along several hundred miles of coast line on the shores and the
islands of the Gulf of St Lawrence. I should remark further, that
in this Gulf of St Lawrence region the tides are, as a rule, heavy;
and heavy tides on strands of sharp angle would have the power,
the other conditions being favorable, of producing such strand mark-
ings as those under discussion, if such markings could have been
made this way. I am not convinced, either from my observation or
from the considerable literature which I have been able to consult
on the present action of the tides, that these things could have had
the indicated origin under the action of such tides as exist today. It
may be granted that heavier tides with more powerful undertow
might have produced some of these effects. No such tides are now
effective or at least no such tidal effects are, so far as observation
and reading indicate, recorded. The world’s tides may, it has been
strongly contended, have been heavier in such ancient ages of the
earth and so herein may lie a partial, in at least an alternative
explanation of these channeled strands.

Let us now pass to the consideration of the so-called Fucoides
graphica, the object early illustrated under this name by
Vanuxem and by Hall, and which has long been known as eminently
characteristic of these sandy Upper Devonian slabs, but whose vege-
table nature was never contended for even at the time the name was

206 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

-applied to it. These things are short, straight, rodlike relief figures
usually single but often crossed and in radiating fasces. They are
large and small and lie at all angles with reference to the slope
of the strand or of the bottom. If they are accompanied by parallel
channelings or grooves, the “ Fucoides”’ may lie between them or
even upon them at every angle. They therefore can have nothing
to do with any tidal flow or other mechanical movement of the
waters which would have the power to arrange loose material lying
on the bottom or on the beach. I have troubled a great many of
my colleagues by asking of them an opinion as to the nature of these
objects, and I have profited very ‘much by a suggestion made to me
by Prof. J. B. Woodworth. Professor Woodworth has intimated
that these rodlike grooves might well have been produced at the
bottom of the shallow water through the formation of ground ice;
that the rods, independently or in mass, crossing and radiating, are
directly comparable to ground-ice formation, and as a result of fur-
ther study of ground-ice phenomena, I am confirmed in my belief
that his intimations are sound. If this is a fair deduction, we may
be confronted here with preliminary proof of seasonal or climatic
freezing in the Portage ocean. The inference is confirmed by the
character of the longitudinal strand channelings. The presence of
ice and the moving of shore ice along the strand, its shoving up or
its dragging down, are clearly indicated by these phenomena and
may well be called upon and account for all the parallel striated sur-
face to which we have referred, and very particularly to that illus-
trated on plates 21 and 22, where two striated grooves lie in the
mud, commingled with the crystals of ground-ice.

The competency of ground or anchor-ice to produce such rodlike
crystallizations, would seem reasonably evident from the discussions
which have been given by various authors, and I shall take this
occasion to quote somewhat from the volume by Doctor Barnes on
“Tce Formation,” with special reference to anchor-ice and frazil.’
This spicular ice, in the opinion of not only the author cited but of
other writers, forms at the bottom under varying physical condi-
tions, and the fact that it may vary in respect to the size of the
crystals or crystal groups formed, is emphasized at various points in
this work. It is frankly to be admitted that no writer has had occa-
sion to record observations on this spicular structure in which the
crystallizing rods attain the size that are indicated for Fucoides,
usually the spicules being fine and massed together in anchor-ice

*John Wiley & Sons, New York. 1906.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQ16 207

in spongy condition. Doctor Barnes cites remarks made by Sir
William Dawson from his observations on the formation of such
ice needles in the St Lawrence and elsewhere:

The spicular ice may further grow on the bottom in the manner in which
crystalline needles form in some saturated saline solutions. The fact that it
forms most readily in open water, without any covering of ice, and in clear
cold weather, indicates that radiation from the bottom has an important
influence in its formation, but where the water is sufficiently cold it may
crystallize on any nucleus presented to it, and more especially, it would seem,
on metallic bodies and stones which are good conductors of heat. Hind
states that on the coast of Newfoundland anchor-ice forms in large masses
in the sea at depths of 60 or 70 feet, and it has been known to raise stones
and anchors from the bottom and to freeze round fish caught in nets.
These are merely desultory observations from the point of view of a
geologist, but they may serve to show that there are different kinds of
spicular ice and that they may be formed in various ways. It seems cer-
tain that several of these modes of formation are concerned in the produc-
tion of the spicular ice so troublesome in our river, so that it is not prudent
to limit ourselves merely to one theory of formation any farther than the
general principle that they all depend on the same rapid crystallization of
water under circumstances in which it tends to form groups of spicular
crystals rather than solid sheets.

The suggestions above given can not be regarded as conclusive
of the ice crystal character of Fucoides, for they deal with objects
of different magnitudes. Professor Woodworth, in his study of
the Boston clay beds, has illustrated crystallizations of ice lying
between the laminae of the clay, such frost marks as one might
expect on surfaces where a small amount of moisture has been free
to take on crystal form under proper conditions of cold. Such
occurrences are frequently observed.

While then the ice origin of these markings may not be conclusive
in itself, these suggestive similarities to ground-ice and spicular bun-
dles of ice crystallization, corroborated by the other evidences here
brought together of the work of the ice upon these ancient strands,
give good reason for the deduction that all these phenomena to-
gether are to be referred to the glacious conditions of the Portage
sea. |

As a corroboration of the foregoing interpretation, there is an
interesting reference to the grooving action of the ice foot when well
loaded with stones, in the account of the travels of Lyell in North
America on his first visit, 1841-42. This is referred to because at

* The Glacial Brick of Rhode Island and Southeastern Massachusetts, by
N. S. Shaler., J. B. Woodworth and C. F. Marbut. 17th Annual Report,
Director U. S. Geological Survey, 1896, p. 951.

208 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the time Mr Lyell was here, he and his colleagues were struggling
for an interpretation of what were then commonly known as
“glacial” phenomena; but the glacier itself, as a factor in produc-
ing such phenomena, had not yet arrived. Both Lyell and Hall used
the word “ glacial” in their writings with reference simply to the
action of ice, and in most every application thereof at this time, to
the action of moving berg or floe ice carried southward over the
surface of the continent. Mr Lyell was always searching the
beaches for an evidence of rock grooving caused by the movement
of such ice, and on this first trip it was not until he had practically
made his entire tour, that he happened to find what he sought on
the rock beds of the beach at Cape Blomidon, Nova Scotia. I quote
his memorandum regarding this occurrence’ without reproducing
his illustrations and for the purpose of indicating here the effective-
ness of such a grinding by the ice, not only of such soft beaches as
we have been considering, but even on the rocky slopes of the
strand :

As I was strolling along the beach at the base of these basaltic cliffs,
collecting minerals, and occasionally recent shells at low tide, I stopped short
at the sight of an unexpected phenomenon. The solitary inhabitant of a
desert island could scarcely have been more started by a human footprint
in the sand, than I was on beholding some recent furrows on a ledge of
sandstone under my feet, the exact counterpart of those grooves of ancient
date which I have so often described in this work, and attributed to glacial
action. After having searched in vain at Quebec for such indications of a
modern date, I had despaired of witnessing any in this part of the world.
I was now satisfied that, whatever might be their origin, those before me
were quite recent.

The inferior beds of soft sandstone, which are exposed at low water at
the base of the cliff at Cape Blomidon, form a broad ledge of bare rock, to
the surface of which no sea weed or barnacles can attach themselves, as the
stone is always wearing away slowly by the continual passage of sand and
gravel, washed over it from the talus of fallen fragments, which lies at the
foot of the cliff on the beach above. The slow but constant undermining of
the perpendicular cliff forming this promontory, round which the powerful
currents caused by the tide sweep backwards and forwards with prodigious
velocity, must satisfy every geologist that the denudation by which the ledge
in question has been exposed to view is of modern date. Whether the rocks
forming the cliff extended so far as the points [indicated] 10, 50, or 100
years ago, I have no means of estimating; but the exact date and rate of
destruction are immaterial. On this recently formed ledge, I saw several
straight furrows half an inch broad, some of them very nearly parallel,
others diverging, the direction being N. 35° E., or corresponding to that of
the shore at this point. After walking about a quarter of a mile, I found

4 Charles Lyell. Travels in North America, 2: 144. 1845.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 209

another set of similar furrows, having the same general direction within
5 degrees; and I made up my mind that if these grooves could not be
referred to the modern instrumentality of ice, it would throw no small
doubt on the glacial hypothesis. When I asked my guide, a peasant of the
neighborhood, whether he had ever seen much ice on the spot where we
stood, the heat was so excessive (for we were in the latitude of the south of
France, 45° N.) that I seemed to be putting a strange question. He replied
that in the preceding winter of 1841 he had seen the ice, in spite of the tide,
which ran at the rate of 10 miles an hour, extending in one uninterrupted
mass from the shore where we stood to the opposite coast at Parrsborough,
and that the icy blocks, heaped on each other, and frozen together or
“packed,” at the foot of Cape Blomidon, were often 15 feet thick, and were
pushed along when the tide rose, over the sandstone ledges. He also
stated that fragments of the “black stone’ which fell from the summit of
the cliff, a pile of which lay at its base, were often frozen into the ice, and
moved along with it. I then examined these fallen blocks of amygdaloid
scattered round me, and observed in them numerous geodes coated with
quartz crystals. I have no doubt that the hardness of these gravers, firmly
fixed in masses of ice, which, although only 15 feet thick, are often of con-
siderable horizontal extent, have furnished sufficient pressure and mechanical
power to groove the ledge of soft sandstone.

In Nova Scotia the term ‘‘ loaded ice” is in common use for large sheets of
ice several acres in area, which are sometimes floated off from the rivers
as the tide rises, with sedge and other salt-marsh plants frozen into their
lower surfaces; also with mud adhering plentifully to their roots. In our
speculations, therefore, on the carrying power of ice, we ought always to
remember that, besides gravel and large fragments of rock, it transports
with it the finest mud.

Doctor Harding informed me that the surface of mudbanks along the
estuaries near Wolfville are often furrowed with long, straight and parallel
ruts, as if large wagons had passed over them. These conform in their
general direction to the shore, and are produced by the projecting edges of
irregular masses of packed ice, borne along by the tidal current.

Essentially good and well-established reasons otherwise exist for
believing that in the Gaspé peninsula at least, the period of the
Middle Devonian was followed by a general coating of land ice. I
have written somewhat at length upon this theme and it is not neces-
sary to enter here into detail, but the premises are, first, the absence
in the Gaspé succession, of any true late Middle or early Upper
Devonian deposits; second, positive evidence of the ice-worn, ice-
scratched morainic material outwashed and heaped together in beds
beneath the Upper Devonian fish deposits of Migousha on the Bay
of Chaleur. There is then reason for inferring that the late
Devonian was a period of cold which brought the land ice down to
what is now the edge of the sea at the northeast, and may well have
created conditions, regardless of the alternation of the seasons,

210 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

which would give plenty of means for channeling the Devonian
strands of New York, by the movement of land ice toward the sea
or by the landward thrust of the sea ice back from the water.

References to Literature Consulted

Ridpath, J. W. High Tides of the Bay of Fundy. Franklin Inst. Jour.
Vee lO7Z.) 1909.

Kruger, Gustav. Ueber Sturmfluthen an den deutschen. Kusten d. westl.
Ostsee. 1904.

Seebach, K. v. Ueber die Wellen des Meeres u. ihre geolog. Bedeutung
(Virchow Samml. 7 ser. heft 153) 1872.

Walther, P. Land u. See. 1907. .

Hunter, H. W. Rivers and Estuaries or Streams and Tides. 1913.

Mitchell, H. Tides and Tidal Phenomena; Navy Scientific Papers No. 2.
1868. ,

Davis, C. H. Law of. Deposit of the Flood-tide. Smithson. Contrib. to
Knowledge, v. 3. 1851.

Greenwood, W. N. Phenomena of the Tides. Shipmasters Soc. London,
Noo SOs nl893:

Carr. Tide-lands of California. 1869.

Bourdelles. Etude du régime de la marée dans la Manche. Ann. d. Ponts
et Chaussees, v. 9. 1899.

Darwin, G. H. The Tide and Kindred Phenomena in the Solar System.
1898.

Brocklehurst, G. The Trent “ Aegir.” Wide World, London 1914, v. 32.

Parsons, H. de B. Tidal Phenomena in the Harbor of New York. Amer.
Soc. Civil Eng. Prog 8813, v. 39.

St

LD ePiaAN MON TOE PEATES

All illustrations, unless otherwise stated, are from Portage slabs
and all are much reduced in size.)

Plates 7 and 8

[211]

7 is the original, 8 the plaster counterpart showing the true sur-
face. For the purpose of reversing the relief, figure 8 is placed so
that the depressions expand upward or toward the top of the plate.
This is “ mud flow ’’— 7, as it is found in natural cast; 8, as it was
made by rills owing down the beach (from bottom to top of plate).

[212]

Plates 9 and Io

[213]

9 original; 10 counterpart; the latter placed so that the rill dis-
charge is toward the bottom of the page. One may note here as on
the preceding figures the flanges at the side of the rilled channels
which indicate a stronger followed by a weaker flow of water; that
is, the gradual running off of the wave or tide. At the sides of the
slab are continuous channels and accessory markings ; scratches and
bruises of the sand are also evident.

[214]

Plate to

:

Pt ee te

Plates 11 and 12

[215]

Ir original; 12 counterpart. This “mud flow ” is interesting as
showing straight surface scratches made by objects carried down
with such celerity and directness as to touch only the upper surfaces
of the rilled channels. They are obviously later than rills. The flow
is here downward to the right.

[216]

Plate 11

Plate 12

Plates 13 and 14

[217]

13 original; 14 counterpart. A very fine illustration of this sort

of configuration.
[218]

Pilatensns

Plate 15

[219]

Original and counterpart. Grooved and striated surfaces. These
two are so much alike because close reading with the eye does not
readily catch the difference between them, General parallelism in
the striae is accompanied by crossing lines and vibratory “chatter
ing ” is indicated. Striation as shown on the original is carried out
with extreme delicacy.

[220]

Plates 16 and 17

[221]

16 original; 17 counterpart. Deeply channeled (ridged) and —
finely striated slab. * |

[222]

Plate 16

fe

Plates 18 and 19

[223]

18 original ; 19 counterpart. A single sharply angular and striated
groove. The attempt to show the depth of the groove on the sand

has not been very successful.
[224]

——~

Plates 20 and 21

[225]

20 original; 21 counterpart. A typical slab of * Fucoides
graphica”’; short straight rods (depressions ) with tapering and
squared ends lying at various angles with reference to each other
and to the bottom. Some of these angles are approximate to or
suggestive of ice angles and there is observable a tendency to radia-

tion from several centers.
[226]

mF

Plate 21

22 original; 23 counterpart. This slab shows the ice crystals,
“ Fucoides,” lying on a surface of the sand in which is buried a
goniatite shell (Manticoceras) and over which have been dragged
two objects, presumably rough-edged stones set in ice, which have
made deep and clearly striated channels. The interspaces show a
fine parallel striation. It is seen that the ice erystalsmory the
“ Fucoides ”’ formed on the sand after the grooves were made.

[228]

Plate 22

Sea eritcn. on: Sy]

Plates 24 and 25

[229]

_ 24 original; 25 counterpart. This is an illustration of the win-
nows or wave ridges of sand pushed together on the beach by suc-
cessive overriding and retreating waves or wavelets. 24, the orig-
inal, presents them as shallow, narrow, oblique grooves ; 25, the true

aspect of the surface, is placed so as to bring out the delicate relief
as effectively as possible.
[230]

i
a

Plate 26

[231]

Vertical Silurian limestones in the cliff of Mt Joh, Perce, show-
ing ripple and other strand markings on the under surface of the

thin limestone plates.
[232]

QZ J21PTT

Pilate 27

[233]

A closer view of the same, showing on various surfaces the casts
of snail tracks or worm meanderings over the wet sand of the

beach.

[234]

Another part of the same section of jointed thin limestones with
snail-tracked and polygonal ripple-marked layers.
[236]

Plate 29

[237]

This view of the same cliff shows, on a limestone surface, the
relief impressions of rill marks; the characteristic “mud flows”
of the sandy strata elsewhere described.

[238]

Plate 29

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY STRESSES

RECORDED BY THE VEIN SYSTEMS IN THE PERCE ROCK
BY fO EON EME CLARKE
(Plates 30-32)

The Percé rock in Gaspé, P. Que., to which reference has fre-
quently been made in these publications, is a. block of lower
Devonian limestones standing almost on end. An isolated mass out
of the flank of a great anticline of Appalachian type, it is a part of
the mountain folds of the Gaspé peninsula. The strains to which it
has been subjected through upturning of its strata were naturally
manifold and as some part of these were torsional the rock mass
has been considerably cross-checked by fissures now filled out of
calcite veins.

There is, however, a very evident record of successive strains
which, when closely read, gives an interesting clue to the history
of the deformations; and this record is illustrated in plan by the
accompanying sketch made by the writer. Doubtless there are
like evidences of other disruptions which may point to later stages
in the development of the rock mass.

In studying the figure on plate 30 the observer is looking
down on the vertical strike edges of the strata, which are made up
of limestones largely composed of fine sand grains stained brilliantly
by red and yellow iron oxides, the former, a bright brick red,
predominating. Of the two vein series crossing these strata, the
older is an anastomosing network in which the main strands have a
generally parallel direction. These veins are all solid white calcite,
filling the fissures entirely and streaked lengthwise by black
deposits of impurities. The veins of this series are of prevailingly
larger size than the others and may be several feet across. Gener-
ally’ they contain no inclusions .of wall rock or other material and
are thoroughly healed wounds of the rock mass.

The secondary series crosses the primary at a bold angle; in
one place, however, a branch of this fissure series has opened
along the middle of one of the primary veins. These veins are
red in general cast of color, brighter even than the mother rock;
carry well-defined wallbands of crystalline calcite and later bands
upon these; they are filled with a breccia of small horses which are

[230]

Z40 NEW YORK SiAne Wushu

partly fragments of the mother rock and partly pieces of the crystal-
line wall lining or a continuous laminated deposit of the calcareous
red sand which composes the rock itself. Where bread, the veins
are still open and lined with calcite crystals.

It is very obvious that these secondary fissures have been built
in a different way than the primary. Torn-off parts of old fissure
linings and bits of the rock itself may have got into them with
the process of rending the strata, but the laminated sand deposits.
which completely fill the veins over a considerable extent can have
come only from the washing into the open fissure of the sand
resulting from the meteoric decomposition of the rock itself. It
is to be conceived that these secoridary fissures opening across the
strata when exposed to weathering agencies, received from the wash
of the rain, etc., the red limestone sand which now fills them.

The inference, therefore, is that however ancient the primary
series of fissures may be, the secondary series is of relatively late
origin.

The torsion stresses in these rocks are indicated by the photo-
graph on plate 31.

Sketch of primary and secondary series of veins in the Perce
rock. The observer is looking down upon the strike edges of thin
Devonian limestones.

7 a ne Plate Bul |

243)

Figure 1. Sketch of a section of part of the secondary vein
illustrated on plate 30. This shows the filling of the vein by solid
calcite-carrying fragments which are parts of the crystalline wall
of an earlier vein of the same series, and also a fragment of the
red lime-sand filling of which this secondary vein is now largely
composed.

Figure 2. A similar section of the secondary series of veins in
which the entire vein-space is filled, with the exception of the
crystalline wall lining, with red lime-sand derived by influx into the
fissure from above.

Figure 3. A fragment of the limestone showing a major vein at
the bottom and the series of torsion veinlets departing therefrom.

[244]

Plate 31

Front view of the Silurian limestone pit at Mt Joli, showing a
horizontal displacement of the beds, definitely bounded by undis-
turbed upper and lower surfaces. At X the vertical layer is not
displaced but the fault that starts there and travels across the sec-
tion shows actual displacement. This displacement is terminated
by the layer which is shown at the left of the plate; unfortunately
not fully shown in this photograph.

[246]

Plate 32

THE MINING AND QUARRY INDUSTRY OF NEW
YORK STATE

REPORT OF OPERATIONS AND PRODUCTION DURING 1916
BY D. H: NEWLAND

INTRODUCTION

The mineral industries of the State made a good record in 1916,
and more than restored the losses that were experienced. during the
slump of the preceding year or two. Prices were more favorable
than they had been for a long time, and the demand in many
branches, particularly those related to metallurgical and chemical
manufacturing, readily absorbed all the supplies that had accumu-
lated as well as the year’s production. It was a period of great
activity and high prices. 3

An exception to the general prosperity obtained in the branches
dependent upon the building trades, such as stone and clay wares,
in which the conditions were not altogether favorable. Although
prices were better than for some time, the scarcity of labor and the
higher scale of wages served to restrain production and diminish
profits. The cement manufacturers, however, had a good season.

A new item in the list of mineral products of the State, which
helped to expand the total for the year, was zinc ore from the
mines near Edwards, St Lawrence county. The initial market
hipments were made in 1915, but the past year was the first in
vhich operations were continuous throughout a twelvemonth.
Owing to the fact that so far only a single company has been
engaged in production of the ore for the furnace, the output is not
listed separately in the table. Preparations were under way during
the year to revive operations in some of the old zinc-lead mines
in southeastern New York. :

The statistics of production incorporated in the present report
have been collected by the United States Geological Survey and
the New York State Survey in cooperation; this plan was adopted
by the two offices so as to diminish the task of collecting and com-
piling the information and to give uniformity to the results.

The summary of the various industries active in the State, as
presented in the accompanying table, shows that the value of the
year’s production reached the sum of $45,947,947, which established
a new record. The best previous year was 1913 when the: corres-
ponding figures were $41,598,399. As compared with the total
for 1915, there was an increase in the value of $09,667,508, or

[247]

248 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

about 27 per cent. It is to be noted in connection with the statistics
that they are based for the most part upon materials in crude and
first marketable forms, as they are shipped from the mine or quarry,
rather than finished products, and consequently represent only a
fraction of the total which are contributed annually by the mineral
industries in the more general sense. If such materials as iron
and steel, coke, sulphuric acid, carborundum, aluminum, alkali
products, artificial graphite, etc., manufactured in the State were
included, the total would amount to several times the aggregate
returned by the particular industries covered in this report.

Mineral production of New York in 1916

UNIT OF
PRODUCT NGA OREN QUANTITY VALUE

Portland cemeéent...0:.). 05... ..| Barrels... .:.... .| 5, 603477" \onpaESeme oe
INaturalicementins Ta. oo ae este Barrels ce se 104 415 51 635
Buta dam oyiorick cm cnt adres ne ence Thousands...... 982 942 6 497 270
RoOtteny... AR ete ee te Cally ashes an eieatia cfr Soc (PU 3 344 672
Other clay products. SEP Seep thon oe, van Gets ie eater ae a Pee Sei a I 913 070
Gruderelay esa hey peat ce hs Short tons...... II 158 36 413
Emery. . Bere 2c.) ee OM On tR LOLS ee eeNe 15 282 123 9OI
Feldspar and quartz. ee Short tons. seen. 20/1279 115 311
Garnet. Short ONS sue se 5 840 198 200
Graphite. . HUN epee Os eeedae lly Al ONIN GS 5 reine eas a a ny
Cpt he RL iy hha SHOrtntOnsan wen 579 827 I 459 587
PT ORHOGG Spi BA AMAR re me Longstons.. 27 I 464 917 5 571 429
Millstones. . BE anne ahs am CaM Lad ee Nah 10.287
Metallic paint b.. Sd tke Oe oe MOLEC ONSreqaueee 14 572 34 296
Mineral waters... 9. 4-04-4072 | Gallons 302) al ag oeaon 697 650
INaituralieasn si. 4s seers 4 eT OOOCUDICHICeL Ea EOS OUn ton 2 524 115
Petrole tina em rart, borage caren ode WAT RCL Sim lans ae eke 874 087 2 190 195
De Serer Tay beg Sah gs One LOOMS a seer a a,
Salt. Batrelst) nie. 14 087 750 3 698 798
Molding sand... ie ae SHOnbMtOnseens be 661 673 570 898
Other sand and gravel. . RUNGE Sens § Short TOnSty is a4 sou4en 25073) (93%
Same iatewOEieke ele rd pe nea Mhousands 7795. 15 851 109). 337
OLE cy AU RRA CL RM leeS wile ete ena SqManeseuea eee PIG P| 21 345
GEVAMIGe We, wich ee it pk par ite ree, ay ks gecenla eigenen a ang Leo 368 119
TSM ESEOME: Ha wey eee eye Seg eR | en Srna ane Somes neta ("CME a ec 3 672 454
Marble. . sesh Li ati id alee a ae Le 2 RO Ur Myra pec (268 391
WAMASEOME Dei ret we cly aye Loan nee Ree mee © Bon Erg Cv ILL o LL ree ear 714 558
bho) CER ee eas a7 a CL Mer Gs Oh S| RNIN TE hat RE RN Ss CRS 956 I00
Male SIMO OWS. 5.4 oF 93 236 Q6I 510
Zinc ore. UTE Nie eee | MODOLELONGM te a- a
Other materiale esti 2 We Wels I ee Aa eee ae 2 OII 666

Motalival@er peep eee eee es eel eee ee vines 0s oy [DA OnE Oden

a The output is reported under “‘ Other materials ”’ in last item of table.
6 Iron ore sold for paint manufacture.
c Includes zinc ore, apatite, diatomaceous earth, graphite, marl, mica and pyrite.

the zinc ore is based on that of the metallic zinc recovered from the mine product.

The value of

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 249

CEMENT
BY ROBERT W. JONES

With the great increase in building construction which opened
with the year 1916 there came a steady demand for the output of
the portland cement plants in the State. Nine plants were in
operation during the year as compared with 7 in 1915. One plant
was temporarily out of commission due to destruction of a portion
of the plant by fire. One new company began to produce. This
plant is operated by the Acme Cement Corporation, in the Catskill
district, having taken over the property of the Seaboard Portland
Cement Gompany. The old plant of the Cayuga Cemerit Com-
pany, Portland Point, Tompkins county, after being extensively
reconstructed is again in operation under the management of the
Cayuga Cement Corporation. Properties at Phelps, Ontario county,
were under examination for the production of portland cement.

There was during 1916 a total of 5195 feet of rotary cement
kilns in operation as compared with 4o1g feet in 1915 and 4499
fecemim none Of the total saumber or teet im operation dure
1916, only 1750 feet were operating under the wet system. The
total number of feet represents the combined length of 37 kilns
varying in diameter from 5 feet to 12 feet and with a combined
daily available output under normal conditions of 26,000 barrels.

After allowing 7% cents a bag and four bags to a barrel, the
price of portland cement f. o. b. New York, opened in January
at $1.37 and continued at this figure until May when it rose to
$1.42, where it remained until December, the year closing at $1.62.
This was a considerable increase over the selling price of the
preceding year, when a maximum and minimum were $1.32 and
g2 cents respectively.

The factory shipments of portland cement in the State amounted
to 5,603,477 barrels with a value of $5,752,809 as compared with
a production of 5,219,460 barrels and a value of $4,175,528 for 1915.
There were on hand at the mills on January 1, 1916, a total of
729,430 barrels, and at the end of the season on December 31, 1916
a total of 776,856 barrels. A little trouble occurred during the
summer months in securing barge capacity for the Hudson River
plants.

The Alpha Portland Cement Company has entered upon the
production of potash for agricultural purposes, making a product
in the form of a calcium salt carrying a minimum of 2% per cent
soluble potash. This country before the war imported annually
potash-bearing materials which if reduced to pure potassium oxide

250 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

would amount to practically 360,000 tons, with a ‘value of
$20,000,000. The flue dusts and gases produced during the manu-
facture of portland cement generally carry a considerable per-
centage of the alkalies. It has been estimated that if all the cement
plants carrying available potash in the United States could be
equipped to produce this material, there would be an annual pro-
duction equivalent to approximately 80,000 tons of potassium oxide.

Materials grouped under the heading of natural cement were
produced to the extent of 104,415 barrels, with a value of $51,635.
The decline in production of natural cement was very great during
1916. In the previous year there was a production of 223,564
barrels with a value of $134,138. There were 4 plants in operation
with a combined total of 18 kilns. Of this number, 12 were of the
continuous type of vertical kiln, having a daily available capacity,
under normal conditions, of go barrels each; the others belong to
the old style of intermittent vertical kiln of variable capacity.

The following table gives the statistics of cement production in
the State for the period 1897-1916. The figures prior to 1904 have
been taken from the annual reports of the Mineral Resources. It
will be noted that the amounts given for the year 1916 represent
shipment rather than production, but the difference is not important.

Production of cement in New York

PORTLAND CEMENT NATURAL CEMENT
YEAR aaeieenl Gian

Barrels Value Barrels Value
LS COy TARR OVI Soa ie gb 394 398 $690 179 | 4 259 186 | $2 123 771
1898 554 358 970 126 | 4 157 917 2 065 658
LiysX0 [0a AE BAY BAL ulate 472 386 708 579 4 689 167 2 813 500
FO OO ci ea AV arate 465 832 582 290 3 409 085 2 045 451
1 (OO) BiAgleteg hie MIU eA robo ss 617.228 617 228 Dir 22Ay tan I 117 066
MOOD Leh. Ray teeta I 156 807 I 521 553 3 577 340 2 135 036
TOOQU Rs Se Pek teu I 602 946 2 O21 -200 2 TANGER I 510 529
1904 T a7 302 I 245 778 I 881 630 I 207 883
LOO Sy hia per (ae eat wae 2) TFG, (O22 2 046 864 2 257 698 I 590 689
ROOO sa ine ne La DAG an a7! 2 766 488 I 691 565 I 184/205
TOOW eae ciece ait ee eto 2 108 450 2 214 090 Ls 7s 279 757 730
HO OOo oye tech eet I 988 874 i Ol 7622 623 588 441 136
EQOOM rues Meme ees 2 O61 O19 Te ioleZor 549 364 361 605
OO Mon Wa eon Mls ise hea 3 364 255 | 2 939 818 292 760 147 202
ROAM MR ey le oi pee ee 3 416 400 2 930 434 274 973 134 900
OMEZI 2 Cy As iN ete 4 495 842 3 488 931 287 693 142 165
1G) et ER i Reese Ay La 5 146 782 4 873 807 193 975 95 565
UCU Leg aa date fiy ne 5 667 728 5 088 677 232 076 Lise hb7
iO) dS MR Ro an aateven cua tet Vd 5 219 460 | 4 175 528 223 564 134 138
ROMO ea eey se etree eee 5 603 477 5 752 809 104 415 51 635

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 251

ChAW
BY ROBERT W. JONES

The building trade industry for 1916 was affected by a variety
of conditions. In general, construction was carried on at a higher
rate than in the preceding year, although held back to a consider-
able extent by labor and transportation difficulties, both in regard to
construction and production. A certain portion of this increase
in construction is the result of a sudden demand due to war con-
ditions and may not be considered as being permanent. There is,
however, a heavier demand growing up for burned clay materials
in construction, especially where fireproof conditions are concerned.

The following table gives the value of the output of clay materials
in the State, exclusive of crude clay, for the last three years:

Production of clay materials

MATERIAL IQI4 I9QI5 I916
Womnion tick... 52h. ews...) $4 507 856 $4 886 734 | $6 433 266
PERCIEIS EEG [aoe ae ge 105 439 153 572 64 004
anmee prick. ies 2k. ules Sle. 680) 226 382 502 204 209
Plone ricky. ie Oe. aoc 38 119 59 683 b
DEEP S7OERG C101 (Re oe a 245 034 177 844 174 786
GL BEG’ (COG ies ee ae eee ae 892 630 647 815 714 O41
Fire brick and stove lining...... 221267 502 478 498 410
MB ASMIANC cs hay shy yh gm, gd) 92 938 QI 221 63 756
SET IEE [OTOL Aes ee aa a ae ee 8I 000 a a
SS DTREEe Le ere Ea eee ee 2 405 676 3 064 274 3 344 672
Mliscetlaneons: Yo. <4. 2 os 2s 4 630 36 250 257 868

CES ea itt eel ee aE ee $9 475 219 | $10 002 373 | $11 755 O12

a Included under miscellaneous.
b Included under fireproofing.

During 1916 there were 216 plants in the State which were in
a condition to produce clay products of various grades. Thirty-
four of these plants were idle and 19 reported a production of
pottery, for which the crude materials, except that used for red
ware, were imported. Five plants producing miscellaneous burned
products also secured their crude materials from sources outside
the State.

Sales of burned clay material during the season had a value
of $11,755,012. Onondaga county led with a production of
$1,630,587, most of which is represented by sales of pottery. Ulster
county occupied second place with sales amounting to $1,444,275
made entirely of common soft mud building brick. Erie county

252 INE Wi MORI Si AE aN wWiSie Ovi

was third with sales of $994,994, followed by Rockland county with
$809,019. Thirty-four counties of the State were productive, of
which 32 reported a production of common soft mud brick, §
reported a production of drain tile, 3 of paving brick and 7 of
fireproofing.

The sales of common building brick for 1916 amounted to
977,085,000, with a value of $6,433,266. The actual production
during the same period was 945,348,000, with a value of $6,196,284,
as compared with 934,726,000 and a value of $4,886,734 for 1915.
Of this number during 1916, 59,414,000, were made by the stiff
mud wire-cut process, with a value of $445,112 as compared with
41,896,000 and a value of $290,003 for 1915.

Production of clay materials by counties

COUNTIES 1914 1915 1916
Albany. . eben eca qe Se $369 312 $447 344 $459 665
BOOLne hr Ata el 1) ae em arn emem hs a a a a
@aptaradeush Yn. cen eases ae 334 557 180 290 157 676
Cay cleats Lee ols MEM ane ce me ete eid 8 765 9 800 8 100
@hrautauigtiay = skh ae eden se 168 134 128 798 106 937
Oob esac oh ave eect eae Unevor ee aw” oh eae a a a
Whititome noe Pt Seema eset ec in Be a ME rm Sy oso 5 os 3
Coltmibiage sb eee weet 198 866 272 350 771
JO) CUE CIESSM ain ues tai asada Sure NL 430 269 AQI 156 552 271
PD iale sey Apne Penne Meg Bka ee) ade 819 427 710 IOI 994 994
(Chass Sra lees ae Fe Re LED AN Dt OPK Le a 196 889 130 093 188 032
VRS RSASE ah cian ae RT LAUD ey ee eee 449 839 489 264 719 963
Ase SUOMc 4) yee eee reir ieie ns 2 HE Gals 724 207 170 982
IN ORINOE cats See Me ram cunv. ae) Mee. «tonne 168 463 98 863 169 856
Monte omery ry, seat nee acc: a a a
INAS SET OL We teats ee bee re Ne irae mg a 96 534 92 559 135 931
INARA nrewcaen eae tae ee ater me Zhe). Bul 44 188 67 999
OMeiGawe Phe che eenineeh as cee a aa 45 000 159 400 80 100
Onondaga cite Ne een ene eit eee I 556 093 T2OgO22 I 630 587
OMUARION S Aer tach r antes ie he ame ate 68 762 222 AS 369 068
OAM ae Leen, Meee Garis tan es nigh 319 500 AGI 233 577 829
OUuceOSs By OAs ei ee Me Mie tes 472 616 333 904 356 399
Iensselaer seis) Wieties cous a ietee pores 124 152 DR PED 116 994
RichlmmionGet wie weno Manus. 454 646 515 600 527 903
Roc atari: 2 selene ee ee henite oee 747 026 446 583 809 O19
Stal wren ce ey ar ces ney as an ree a a a
SAGA Oars tMerne in etiee Wine, anes Sinus 255 562 270 950 552 294
Scheneetadiyc/ es saree ae 354 872 AII O18 572 792
Sreuben ie 2 OM aie Gime Dua et a a a
S)UDBEG) le Mois Pinte We keloe ti hee a neal. 69 300 66 600 96 097
AU Onag OI oRAISIAM mama tetas aan esi, Baas a a a
OI KSic/=) ao eaenaee NY para COE aia aati 895 126 1 OO) 277 I 444 275
Ge aisa(esa ean Marnie ene nlina tn lb azarae a a a
AWieis interiors eye sieeve: 10 186 59 300 7 800 ©
NVESEGHESt CIA S sie er wena) etree 321 826 303 558 170 547
Other counties. . Saat ft wt cay tous ee 427 509 337 952 260128
DOG allay Cee ete nate a $9 475 219 | $10 002 373 | PII 755 O12

a Included under other counties.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 253

COMMON BUILDING BRICK

The year 1916 opened with great activity along the lines of
building construction. Owing to this increase the supply of burned
clay building material in stock had been drawn on to such an
extent that very early shipments were necessary from the Hudson
River yards. The productive season, of the Hudson valley, closed
with approximately 60,000,000 bricks in the yards. During January
common brick were selling in the New York market as high as
$10 a thousand with an average of $9. This was the highest selling
price for common brick since May 1906. During January 1015,
there was sold in this market 8,400,000 Hudson river common as
compared with 20,650,000 for the same period of 1916. Many of
the larger yards produced throughout the winter months, bringing
the stock in the yards to 135,000,000 at the opening of navigation.
At the beginning of March common brick were selling at $8.50 a
thousand with a slightly smaller demand. In April the price
dropped to $8.25 and in May to $8, with a final reduction at the
end of the month to $7.50. In June the price rose to $8.25, result-
ing from a shortage due to labor difficulties. In July the price fell
to a minimum of $7 with an average of $7.50. Clean brick from
demolished buildings began to be a factor in the trade with a selling
price of $3 a thousand. In September building construction received
a setback and combined with labor troubles on construction man-
eseato hold the price atyo7.25. In October orders? fon future
delivery begam to be called and) the. price rose to $7.75 with) a
further increase to $8.25 for the first two weeks of November, the
month closing at $9.25. Transportation and labor troubles again
affected the market. In December 6,000,000 bricks were unexpect-
edly placed on the market, but due to the heavy demand had no
effect on the price which closed for the year at $10 with a minimum

of $9.50.

254 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Production of common building brick by counties

COUNTY

PRADA Y Bote rege tate
Canals sh) Spee ale ass
Chautauqua a. sees
Coluanloial eo Ye ene
DEtChesse. Aes eoee
NS Tgle Meters St yess ee Ae

IN@mnOe Hie: ui ee
INFSS ae ie erg Rael ede

Onondaga. cle een.
Oranserie au eae
Ret lamang! ean tee
Rockland) sos. 2 cht ;
SALALOCa Ml Toe ar
Spiker) ee eC

Westchester 2.64 5.)20.
Other counties) .2..5 422

Pousilis, cn wie eee

1915

NUMBER VALUE
68 112 000 $392 344
I I00 000 6 100
3 905 000 31 187
57 766 000 27 eG72
108 459 000 491 156
28 807 000 176 O10
27 555 000 130 093
7 738 000 38 690
13 783 000 £86 (747,
22 200 000 154 200
22 635 000 155 376
84 997 000 461 233
38 341 000 176 657
87 917 000 446 583
53 390 000 267 950
II 100 000 66 600
211 230 000 I 059 377
47 619 000 278 955
38 072 000 195 804
934 726 000 | $4 886 734

1916

NUMBER

71 183 000

59
87

43
29

10
22
80

121
Q2

222
18
1

977

a

000
000
OOO
000

O00
O00
000

000
000

000
000
000

000

VALUE

$442
a

a
350
552
323
182
a

a
78
166
577
a
809
549
a

I 444
126

830
$6 433

640

07
PAG
006
524

100
260
829

O19
894
275
197
480

266

a Included under other counties.

Hudson River region.
was slightly less than the preceding year with an output of
691,485,000 and a value of $4,485,526. The following table gives
the production of the Hudson River region for the last two years:

Output of common brick in the Hudson River region in 1915

COUNTY

NUMBER

OF
OPERATORS

The total production from this district

PRICE

PER

THOUSAND

NS

PANIC Bhai frown Manson certo ae

Greene cue eer ee a ie
Orangery jc)

‘otal poorer wins ae

85

OUTPUT VALUE
|
68 112 000 $392 344
57 766 000 271 672
108 459 000 491 156
27 555, 000 130 093
84 997 000 | 461 233
87 917 000 | 446 583
Bil 280 O00 |), 1, 0501/4777
47 619 000 278 955
693 655 000 | $3 531 413

a The output of Rensselaer county is included with that of Albany county.

On Un

4:
on

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQ16 255

Output of common brick in the Hudson River region for 1916

NUMBER PRICE

COUNTY OF OUTPUT VALUE PER
OPERATORS eis THOUSAND
| tid
ANJOBSON aha Ne eae II 71 183 000 $442 640 $6 21
(Oe nS ia allo te eee ee a eee 4 59 415 000 350 771 5 90
WORE MESS PO oh 14 87 779 000 552 271 6 29
Greene 5": Mena een caus A 5 29 683 000 182 524 6 14
Oi ele etnies 5 80 450 000 577 829 7:58
ensselaeri@en . i. 38 5: Ee ee abe lier Seat Miah ayia nee MOL ok he a rr
Hocadan. Cl 19 I2I 967 000 809 O19 6 63
RUtere NE ei fas vee 22 222 O51 000) TF AAA 275 6 43
Wrestchestenis. (6.0. e. 3 18 357 000 126 197 6 87
“UNGiG URS UN a eae 85 | 691 485 000 | $4 485 526 $6 48

_a The output of Rensselaer county is not included with that of the Hudson river counties, having
tidewater transportation.

CRUDE CLAY

Sales of crude clay as reported had a value of $36,413. Of this
amount, slip clays reported a total of over 50 per cent of all the
crude clays shipped. The amount reported in excess of the slip
clays was entirely for the production of red burned ware and coke
oven use. This clay came almost entirely from Onondaga county.

REID SPAN

The discussion as to the use of feldspar for the extraction of
potash, noted in the previous issue of this report, was continued
during the past year, but so far as known no definite steps were
taken toward the establishment of an active industry. While it
is generally agreed among chemical technologists that there is no
special obstacle to the extraction of potash, so far as the methods
are concerned, opinion seems to be divided in regard to the com-
mercial outcome of the undertaking, in view of the probable reduc-
tion of market values with the close of the war. An establishment
on a commercial basis would have to be of large capacity and
would entail a correspondingly large initial outlay. The matter
thus becomes mainly of financial nature.

Some difficulty would likely be encountered, however, in finding
a suitable location for such an establishment. Most of the large
feldspar deposits are situated in rather remote districts, where fuel
and other needed supplies are not readily to be had. Another

250 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

matter which has not been adequately considered in the discussion
hitherto is the amount of waste which would have to be dealt
with in the working of most feldspar deposits. These are in the
nature of coarse granites and carry quartz and other minerals
besides the feldspar. Furthermore, very few occurrences contain
the potash varieties alone (microcline and orthoclase) but usually
they have considerable, if not important, amounts of the soda-lime
varieties or the plagioclases. In nearly all the New York State
occurrences the common variety of potash spar is microcline.
Orthoclase is a rarity. The microcline often is intergrown with
the soda variety (albite) in such manner that the two can not be
mechanically separated, and thereby the potash content is brought
down very considerably below the amount required by the chemical
formula for microcline.

There were no important developments in the production of
feldspar for pottery and other established uses, and the output, as
reported, of 16,240 long tons valued at $82,461 showed no material
change from the total of the preceding year. The figures are
inclusive of unsorted pegmatite, which is shipped by two quarries
in the Adirondacks for roofing and other purposes. The active
quarries included two in Essex county, one in Fulton and one in
Westchester county. |

A detailed account of the feldspar resources of the State was
incorporated in the report of the New York State Museum, entitled
“The Quarry Materials of New York,” published in 1916. There
is an abundance of the mineral among the crystalline formations
of the Adirondacks and the Highlands, where it occurs in “ giant
granites’ or pegmatite intrusions, some of which attain large size.
Only a few of the large occurrences have so far been developed.
The market for feldspar and the prices obtainable do not encourage
extensive exploitation of the resources, and only under favorable ,
conditions can deposits be profitably worked.

Among the factors that have to be taken into consideration in
determine the possibilities of a particular occurrence, some relate
to the intrinsic characters of the deposit which require more or
less expert knowledge to determine. The geological features are
important in relation to the form and probable extent of the body,
since there is almost every variation in these respects to be met.
with among pegmatites. Tabular bodies or dikes, with parallel walls
and of indefinite continuity downward, are rather the exception
than the rule in the large workable occurrences. More commonly

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 2h

these have a rounded, lenticular or irregular shape as seen on the
surface, while the concealed portion is likely to be variable as well.
Some pegmatites occur in normal granites as local differentiation
phases and show gradation by imperceptible stages on the borders,
but such rarely exhibit so coarse crystallization as the separate
intrusions. The size of the crystal individuals is a factor of prac-
tical importance, since it affects more or less the work of sorting
and cobbing. In all quarry operations, except those connected with
the production of roofing material, there is considerable waste in
- the preparation of the shipping product, the proportion varying with
each separate occurrence. In some the loss may amount to fully
one-half of the rock broken down, represented by quartz, lime-soda
feldspar, and the less important silicates like mica, hornblende,
tourmaline etc., the presence of which is detrimental to the use of
the spar for pottery manufacture.

The other factors that need to be considered are the situation
- with respect to shipping facilities and the distance to market. The
selling prices, which in recent years have ranged between $3 and
$5 a long ton for selected crude spar of pottery grade, impose
narrow limits upon the costs of haulage and freights. The market
centers are Trenton, N. J., and East Liverpool, Ohio, where are
situated the largest pottery manufacturers. The local pottery
industry, though important, does not afford a sufficient outlet for
the quarry product of the State.

GARNET

The production of abrasive garnet last year was stimulated by the
widespread industrial activity and by the curtailment of supplies
of foreign abrasives owing to the high ocean freight rates. The
Adirondack mines, which yield the larger part of the domestic
supply, reported a gain of about 50 per cent in the year’s ship-
ments, a very encouraging increase after the general dulness which
has obtained in the industry in recent years. The ‘output has
averaged around 4000 tons, and only a few times has it exceeded
5000 tons. The output for 1916, however, established a new record.

The largest operations in the Adirondack region were carried on
by the North River Garnet Co., at Thirteenth Lake, near North
River, Warren county. This company has a large, open quarry
in a great body of garnetiferous gneiss that consists of acid feld-
spar and hornblende, with garnet crystals rather plentifully distri-

258 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

buted through the mass. The gneiss has the appearance of a meta-
morphosed igneous rock allied to the syenitic class which is so
abundant in the eastern and northern Adirondacks. The garnet
crystals range from a fraction of an inch up to 4 or 5 inches in
diameter. It is only occasionally that they possess crystal bound-
aries and then show dodecahedral development with a parting
_ parallel to the crystal faces. .They are of dark red color, trans-
lucent on thin edges. The garnet is extracted by mechanical means,
the rock being crushed and passed through jigs of special design
which effect a good separation although there is only half of a
unit difference in the gravity of ‘the garnet and the hornblende.
The product has a bright, fresh appearance of typical garnet color.
It is shipped unsorted, the sizing being done by the manufacturers.

The Rogers quarry on Gore mountain in the same vicinity has
been operated for many years by H. H. Barton & Son Co. and is the
oldest of the Adirondack workings. It is based on a long, narrow
band of hornblende schist or amphibolite, which may represent
either an altered dike of gabbro or an inclusion of Grenville gneiss
in the country syenite. The garnet occurs in roundish masses and
aggregates which are probably crystal individuals, though not regu-
larly bounded. It shows the effects of deformation and crushing,
so much so that the masses shell or break down readily when they
are exposed, yielding small fragments which are bounded by one or
more smooth surfaces that represent the dodecahedral parting,
characteristic of the crystal garnet. The individual crystals attain
very large sizes, some of them yielding many hundred pounds of
broken garnet. The extraction of the garnet is by cobbing and
hand picking.

The Wevertown quarry of the Warren County Garnet Mills
turns out a product that is rather different from the others, the
garnet being less distinctly of crystalline habit and of lighter color.
It is associated with pyroxene, the two minerals constituting the
rock which is undoubtedly a metamorphosed limestone. In some
parts of the workings the garnet occurs in nearly solid masses. A
very similar occurrence was worked for a time near Keeseville.
The product when crushed is of granular rather than platy char-
acter.

The total shipments from the Adirondacks last year amounted to
5840 short tons with a value of $198,200. The figures are not
strictly comparable with the statistics of previous years, which
represented production and not sales. The output in 1915 was
reported as 3900 short tons valued at $134,064.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 259

In recent years small amounts of garnet have been imported
from Spain for manufacture, in competition with the domestic
product. The quantity so imported in 1915 was 1343 short tons
with a declared value of $24,472. No figures of the amount imported
in 1916 have been obtainable, as no record was made of the ton-
nage that passed through the customs office, although the value
was given as $43,481.

GRAPHITE

Trade conditions in the graphite industry last year were quite
unprecedented. The demands for crucible grades far exceeded
the supply and there was a marked advance in consequence in the
prices of crystalline graphite, both domestic and foreign. Since
the outbreak of the present war the consumption has increased
greatly on account of the requirements for crucible steel and for
brass manufacture, both of which industries have experienced a
tremendous expansion in connection with the making of ammuni-
tions. The shortage of supply has been in part an artificial con-
_ dition, resulting from the scarcity and high costs of shipping and
‘also from the embargo which the British and French governments
put upon the importation of graphite from Ceylon and Madagascar
in the first year of the war. This embargo was later removed, so
that importations could be made under certain guaranties and
restrictions; but still the imports, which last year exceeded all
records, supplemented by a large domestic production, did not meet
the needs.

The imports of crystalline graphite for the last five years have
been as follows: In 1916, 64,120,000 pounds valued at $6,933,731 ;
in 1915, 45,064,000 pounds valued at $2,049,792; in 1914, 22,166,000
pounds valued at $1,107,192; in 1913, 38,756,000 pounds valued at -
$1,835,530; and in 1912, 39,220,000 pounds valued at $1,506,934.
Of the quantities given, all but a small proportion each year has
come from Ceylon, the remainder having been supplied by Mada-
gascar, Korea, Canada and other countries. The domestic produc-
tion, as given by the United States Geological Survey, for the same
period has been as follows: 1916, 10,931,989 pounds worth $914,748 ;
1915, 7,074,370 pounds, $417,273 ; 1914, 5,220,539 pounds, $285,368 ;
1913, 5,064,727 pounds, $254,328 ; 1912, 3,543,771 pounds, $187,689.

The highest market prices are commanded by the Ceylon graphite
in lump form, for which as much as 25 to 30 cents a pound was
paid in 1916. The domestic flake graphite of the best quality was
sold at 12 to 15 cents a pound. A reduction on these prices should
be made of course for the lower grades, which in regard to domestic

260 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

graphite include the smaller and more impure flake, but no regular
scale of prices can be given. “Whe commercial erades onmune
domestic crystalline graphite show wide variations in respect to
purity, the best carrying 90 to 95 per cent carbon.

There is some doubt as to the ability of Ceylon to meet the
increasing demands for its product. According to expert testimony
the mines on the island are worked at about their full capacity
under the present system of operations, which is quite primitive.
This seems to be borne out by the record of exports, which have
shown no decided tendency toward expansion during the last
decade. On the other hand, Madagascar is likely to forge ahead
and become a very important factor in the world’s markets, judg-
ing from the progress it has made within the last year or two.
The industry there was started less than 10 years ago, and the
product for the current season promises to reach 40,000,000 pounds,
according to a recent article in “The Engineering and Mining
Journal,’? which is about two-thirds of the average quota of Ceylon.

The active general market conditions were reflected in the year’s
developments in the local mining industry which reported a good
gain in the output, with an outlook for a still further enlargement
of the production during the current season. This will undoubtedly
follow, inasmuch as two new companies have already started pro-
ductive operations and should make a considerable increment to
the previous year’s total. The list of producers for 1916 included
the American mine of the Joseph Dixon Crucible Co. at Graphite,
the Graphite Products Corporation of Saratoga Springs, and the
Popes Mills Graphite Co. of Popes Mills, St Lawrence county.
The recent mining developments in the Adirondack region are
covered in the following notes.

American mine. This is the oldest of the Adirondack mines now
active, having been continuously in operation for about 40 years,
and probably is the most productive mine of its kind in the country.
It is based on layers of graphitic quartzite, interbedded with Gren-
ville limestones and garnet-sillmanite gneiss, that outcrop some 6
miles west of Hague on Lake George. There are two principal
deposits, which outcrop with an interval of a few hundred feet
between but follow the same northeasterly course and southeasterly
dip. The two are probably the broken faulted members of one
series, inasmuch as both are characterized by similar geological rela-
tions. Most of the mining hitherto has been done in the north-

italy eho 7

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 261

western or main deposit, which extends from near the present mill
where the incline shaft is situated southwest to the limits of the
property, a distance of fully one-half of a mile. This has been
worked almost entirely underground, the bed which ranges up to
30 to 35 feet thick being stoped in drifts which run off from the
incline to the southwest. The dip is low, 20° to 25° ordinarily,
but may change suddenly to 45° or 50°; the bed varies greatly
in thickness, as it has been squeezed into a succession of bulges
and constrictions so that it is in places really a series of lenses
separated by varying intervals in which the quartzite is reduced
to a thin seam. Occasionally a subsidiary graphite deposit occurs
in the foot or hanging of the main deposit. In the last year con-
siderable attention has been given to the Summer bed, which for a
long time has lain idle. It was opened in the early nineties, mostly
by pits situated along the outcrop and following only short dis-
tances down the dip. The length of outcrop is around 7oo feet.
On the northeast end it begins on the surface as a thin band only
a foot or so thick, but widens rapidly to the southwest to 6 to 8
feet and has recently been mined down to 150 feet on the dip.
After another interval it pinches again to a foot or less, only to
open out once more, showing that the deposit here also consists of
a succession of lenses. The bed has been explored on the dip onto
the adjoining Wheeler property, of which the mining rights are
held separately. The relations of the two beds have importance
in regard to the future mining operations, since the reserves of ore
would be likely to be much greater in case there were two distinct
beds. The circumstances in evidence, however, point to a repe-
tition by faulting of a single ore zone.

Graphite Products Corporation. This company with mines and
mill near Kings station, 4 miles north of Saratoga Springs, was
engaged in active production during the year, after having carried
out an extensive program of construction and development on the
property. The company succeeded to the ownership of the hold-
ings of the Saratoga Graphite Co., which had performed little more
than experimental work on the property. The mines were enlarged
and equipped for economical operation, and a new mill with 15
stamps and approved devices for separating the graphite was
erected by the company. The year’s record of operations was
reported as very satisfactory. The graphite appears in two main
series of outcrops, which may be displaced parts of a single zone
as is the condition on the Dixon property, and the beds have been
intruded by amphibolite and pegmatite so that their structures are

262 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

rather difficult to determine. In the main workings which lie near
the summit of the ridge to the southwest of the mill the bed ranges
up to 25 feet or more thick and is worked partly under cover and
partly as an open cut.

The matrix of the graphite is a thin-bedded schist, carrying a
good deal of feldspar and sporadically more or less mica, in addi-
tion to quartz. It is rather heavily charged with pyrite and the ex-
posed edges of the beds have been decomposed into an iron-stained
clayey material which is relatively enriched with graphite. The
flake varies in size, a good proportion being fairly coarse. Plans
have’been considered for increasing the output, which will necessi-
tate an addition to the milling plant but little change in the mine
equipment.

Hooper Brothers’ mine. This is a new property, situated in the
vicinity of South bay, west of Whitehall, Washington county. The
first development work was undertaken in the late summer of 1916
by the present owners, Messrs F. C. and George Hooper, and so
rapidly was the development and construction work carried forward
that the property was ready for commercial operations in the early
part of 1917. The deposit combines many advantages for economic
production, and it seems remarkable in view of its size and exposed
situation — lying within the narrow peninsula between Lake George
and Lake Champlain —that the deposit should not have been
brought to attention long ago. The outcrop of the graphite bed is
on the northern flank of the ridge called the “ Diameter ” which
rises from the western shore of South bay, about 4 miles due west
from Whitehall, which is the shipping point. The old Burgoyne
road, built by the British general of that name, crosses the property.

On the south side of Diameter, next the bay, is the mine of the
Champlain Graphite Co., now inoperative, no doubt located on the
same bedded series but under much disturbed conditions, due to
faulting and igneous intrusion. The deposit on the Hooper Broth-
ers’ property outcrops along a low ridge facing north with a con-
tinuous exposure for over 3000 feet; for much of the distance the
exposed edge forms a steep wall, of which the base is formed by
garnet gneiss conformable with the graphite schist, while the ridge
is capped by a sheet of gabbro that apparently was intruded along
the bedding planes of the schist overlying the graphite and later
uncovered by erosion. The whole series dips to the south at an »
angle of 20° or so. The layer of graphite schist measures 40 feet ©
or more in maximum thickness. Samples have returned up to
15 per cent graphite, but the average of course is less by several

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 7203

per cent. The flake is medium to coarse, some of it unusually large
and thick for this type of occurrence. There is little mica in
evidence.

The mill stands near the eastern end of the ridge where a favor-
able slope of the ground provides ample storage for the tailings.
The ore is broken in a preliminary crusher and reduced by stamps,
after which the separation of the graphite is effected by tables and
buddles according to the general plan employed in the Adirondack
mills. The mill product is now shipped without refining, but it is
the plan of the owners to provide facilities for turning out refined
flake graphite and to market the product in that form.

GYPSUM

Market conditions in the gypsum industry which had been rather
unfavorable to the producers during the preceding year or two
showed distinct improvement in 1916. ‘There was a better demand
for calcined plasters, the principal products made from gypsum, and
also a slightly increased demand for crude gypsum in portland
cement manufacture. As a result the local mines extended their
operations wherever this was possible and attained a new level of
output, well above that of the most prosperous year of previous
Precord.

The market for calcined plasters, in keeping with conditions in
nearly all the building trades, was upset by the war, and further-
more suffered for a time from an excess of productive capacity
which conduced to extreme rivalry for trade among the individual
producers. It would appear that this feature has been removed
Prom) the situation, at least for the present. Im fact last year the
local concerns were unable to keep pace with the market demands,
which were somewhat abnormal owing to the curtailment of imports
that ordinarily enter the New York and New England markets in
large quantities. Most of the imported gypsum comes into the coun-
try in crude form to be converted into plasters by calcining plants
situated along the seaboard. Nova Scotia is the principal source of
the material, and the falling off in supply has been owing to high
freights and not to any impairment of the productive resources of
that country.

The production of gypsum and its products in New York State
for 1915 and 1916 is shown in the accompanying table. The figures
given for wall plasters in the last item of the table cover only the
amounts that were made from local rock by plants operated in
connection with the mines. The actual output of such plasters is

264 NEW > YORK Sia visi Ui

much greater than is indicated by the table, since large quantities
in addition are made by local plants from imported materials. Of
the total product of crude gypsum last year, about two-thirds was
converted into calcined plasters (plaster of paris, stucco and wall
plasters) by the companies who operated the mines, and the remain-
ing third was sold in crude form, principally to portland cement
mills, or ground to land plaster.

Production of gypsum in New York

1915 1916
MATERIAL aye
SHORT SHORT

TONS ee TONS VALUE
Rotallvo tit pub acre Gt. an eee ett Pan Sil Ot OO2.4 |e ramen areas ae 579 827 |e eee eee
Soldserudeiis csi eee ete 162 686 $241 511 188 077 $272 322
Ground for land plaster.... 6 536 13 486 7 169 18 710
Wall plastersetc. amadenr |) 202) 277) I 006 203 311 264 I 167 555
Mota te: 1 gery eet ee DT. 26 200 nee $1 459 587

The production in 1916 was reported from five counties (Onon-
daga, Cayuga, Monroe, Genesee and Erie) situated in central and
western New York along the belt of Salina strata which hold the
gypsum. The Salina beds are mostly shales, with limestones near
the top, inclosing beds of rock salt and massive gypsum. The great-
est thickness of the formation is in Onondaga and Cayuga counties
where the beds altogether measure 1000 feet or more from the base
to the top. Here also occur the heaviest layers of gypsum, ranging
from 20 to 60 feet, the latter thickness being attained in the vicinity
of Fayetteville and Jamesville, Onondaga county. The gypsum in
the western section seldom exceeds 6 or 8 feet in thickness.

There is a great difference in the grade of the gypsum that is
obtainable in the different deposits. The percentage of hydrated
calcium sulphate, or gypsum substance, ranges from 65 to 70 per
cent in the more impure sorts to 95 per cent in the best rock. The
impurities consist of clayey matter and the carbonates of lime and
magnesia. The variation is not altogether without rule, for it can
be stated in general that the grade improves progressively from
east to west, the best quality of rock being: found in Genesee and
Erie counties on the extreme west end of the belt, while on the east
end in Madison, Onondaga and Cayuga counties the average

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI16 205

material does not carry much above 75 per cent in gypsum. It is
for this reason that the bulk of the output now comes from the
western section, despite the advantages that the eastern deposits
have in regard to size and accessibility.

All the mines are situated on the outcrop of the deposits and are
opened usually by adits or tunnels on the level of the beds, although
in one or two mines access to the workings is through shallow
shafts. There are no mines now operated under more than 100
feet of cover. With the exhaustion of the resources in the outcrop
mines the workings will have to be extended in depth, to the south
of the outcrop, where it would appear that deposits of similar
character to those now worked are to be found.

Very. little exploration has been carried on of late years in the
gypsum belt. The period of greatest development was from 1900
to 1907, when the mines in the western section, that is Genesee and
Erie counties, were opened and rapidly gained the lead which they
have since maintained. In the last year the testing of deposits near
Victor, Ontario county, has been under way, but it is not known
just what results were obtained. |

TRON ORE

The unprecedented conditions in the iron trade which obtained
during the year 1916, when production and consumption proceeded
at rates that are absolutely without parallel in the history of the
industry, showed their influence upon the local mining developments
and the statistics. of output as returned by the active companies.
The shipments of lump ore and concentrates by New York mines
amounted altogether to 1,464,917 long tons, valued at $5,571,429,
a new record and representing a gain of over 50 per cent in the total
for the year.

The details of the record will be found in the accompanying table,
which gives also the figures for the past two decades. In comparing
the statistics of the table it should be noted that those for 1916
represent shipments, while in previous years the mine output has
been the basis of compilation. As a matter of fact, however, there
is rarely any wide variation between the quantity of ore mined in
any one year and the shipments for the same period, since little of
the product is held in stock at the mines but is sold on yearly
contracts.

The shipments consisted of magnetite, hematite and limonite in
the order of their importance. A total of 1,402,859 long tons con-
sisted of magnetite in the form of lump ore and concentrates from

266 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the Adirondacks and the southeastern Highlands. The hematite
amounted to 61,712 long tons, all of it from the Clinton district;
while the remainder consisted of a few hundred tons of limonite
from Columbia county. The magnetite was made up of 802,241
long tons of mill concentrates and 600,618 long tons of lump ore.
The concentrates averaged over 60 per cent in iron, the bulk of the
shipments carrying 63 to 65 percent. The lump ore contained 58
to 60 per cent iron. In the concentration of magnetite as practised
in the Adirondacks, each ton of finished product represents from a
little over 1 to nearly 3 tons of crude ore, the ratio varying with
each deposit. Improvements in the,methods of mining and milling
have made it possible to handle ore running as low as 25 per cent
on a profitable basis.

The amount of ore hoisted exceeded the shipments by several
hundred thousand tons, the difference being accounted for by the
shrinkage due to the concentration of the magnetite ores. The
actual mine output in 1917 was a little over 2,000,000 tons, consider-
able more than the total for any preceding year.

Production of iron ore in Néw York State

MAGNE- HEMA- | LIMO- | CARBO-

TITE TITE NITE NATE TOTAL
TOTAL VALUE
aa VALUE A TON

Long Long Long Long Long

tons tons tons tons tons
ESO7 i) 29087220401 7004) 120) O50ul 1h 280 2325 725 | $642 8384 -oimign
1898 | 155 551 | 6 400 | 14 000 | 4 000 179 951 350 999 | 1 95
1899 | 344 159 | 45 503 | 31 975 | 22 153 443 790 | I 241 985 | 2 80
1900 | 345 714 | 44 467 | 44 891 | 6 413 441 485 | 1 103 Sl7piea5e
I9OI 229,167 | (66.280) |123) 302 I 000 A20) 208/11 (OOG.2am 2 30
1902 451 570 | 91 075 | 12 676 Nil 555 321 | I 362 987 2 45
1903 451 481 | 83 820 5 159 Nil 540 460 | I 209 899 2 2a
1904 | 559 575 | 54 128 5 000 Nil 619 103 | 1 328 So4meecens
1905 TAQ. F264 FO" 38 8 000 Nil 827 049 "|>2 576 see es
1906 717 365 |187 002 I 000 Nil 905 367 | 3 393 609 ans
1907 | 853 579 |164 434 Nil Nil 1018012, | 3 750402 3 68
1908 | 663 648 | 33 825 Nil Nil 697 473 | 2 0908 247 27 O%
1909 | 934 274 | 56 734 Nil Nil 991 008 | 3 179 358 | 3 21
I9IO |I 075 026 | 79 206 4 835 Nil | I 159 067 | 3 906 478 3°37
IQII | 909 359 | 38 005 | 5 000 Nil 952 364 | 3 184 057 | 3 34
I9I2 954 320 |103 382 Nil Nil, | 1 (057 :702”| 3) 240 OO 50am ia
1913 {I 097 208 |120 691 Nil Nil | 1 217 899 | 3 870 841 2 TS
LO TAM 7/037 070"| Ain 705 341 Nil 751 710 | 2 350) 517 eas
1915 | 873 422 | 70 147 834 Nil 944 403 | 2 970 526 | 3 15
5 571 42904 3 80

1916 402 859 | 61 712 346 Nal re ensen7,

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 267

The list of active mining companies for the year included the
following in the Adirondack region: Witherbee, Sherman & Co. and
Port Henry Iron Ore Co., Mineville; Chateaugay Ore & Iron Co.,
Lyon Mountain ; Cheever Iron Ore Co., Port Henry; Benson Mines
Co., Benson Mines. The last two companies were active only for
part of the year, the Benson mines operating only for a short period
in an experimental way to test the new process of mill treatment
that had been installed on the property. In southeastern New York
the Hudson Iron Co., Fort Montgomery, and the Sterling Iron &
Railway Co., Lakeville, maintained operations on the usual scale.
The hematite mines included those of C. H. Borst, Clinton; Fur-
naceville Iron Co., Ontario Center; and Ontario Iron Co., Ontario
Center. The single limonite mine near Boston Corners, Columbia
county, was worked by Barnum, Richardson & Co., of Salisbury,
Conn.

Mineville. The most active year in the history of this district
was indicated by the reports of the mining companies, whose com-
bined output was nearly 1,500,000 tons of crude ore. The more
productive properties were the Old Bed, Harmony and Barton Hill
of Witherbee, Sherman & Co. and “ 21 ” mine of the Port Henry
Iron Ore Co. The former company also worked the Sherman and
Smith mines on a small scale. The principal feature in the recent
history of the district, perhaps, is the increased exploitation of the
low-grade or-concentrating ores, which are rapidly superseding the
richer ores in importance. This has been made possible by the
extensive additions to mine equipment that enable a large tonnage
to be handled economically and by the erection of large milling
plants, of which three are employed at present in the beneficiation
of the different mine products. The available ore resources have
been greatly increased by these developments and a long life
assured for the district.

To facilitate ore shipments from the district, extensive ore docks
and loading machinery have been erected at the lakeside at Port
Henry, which through the New Champlain and Barge canals has
direct water connection with the important furnace centers on the
Great Lakes and with the Atlantic seaboard. A fleet of barges is in
course of construction by Witherbee, Sherman & Co. and will be
employed in transporting the ore to market and in carrying coal or
other freight on the return trip.

Cheever mine. This property was again placed in operation,
after a shutdown of about two years, and since has been working to

268 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

the capacity of the plant. The mine holds the record among the
New York magnetite mines in the handling of low-grade ore, as |
its product for some time has run considerably under 30 per cent
in iron, requiring nearly 3 tons crude for a ton of 60 per cent con-
centrates. Much of the ore treated has come from the floor and
roof of the old workings, but there is still available a large area of
unworked ground on the northern and southern borders of the
exploited territory, enough to assure a supply for many years to
come. An increase in the capacity of the plant which now is rated
at about 500 tons of crude a day seems justified economically in
view of the available tonnage. ‘

Lyon Mountain. The low-phosphorus concentrates from this
group of mines find a ready market at a premium over the usual
prices and of late have been in special demand. The Chateaugay
Ore & Iron Co. is the operator. Plans are being put into effect to
enlarge the production. A new shaft with a hoisting capacity of
3000 tons daily has been constructed to take the place of the sev-
eral small, inconvenient openings that have been used in the past. ©
The principal addition to the surface plant is the mill, on which
construction was started during the current season and which when
completed will affect considerable economies, as well as provide for
a larger outturn, in comparison with the old plant.

Benson Mines. A renewal of operations in these extensive
deposits 1s in prospect for the current season. During 1916 only
test runs were made, but it was planned to inaugurate a steady
campaign during the present year. The milling plant has been
rebuilt, with a change in the method from the dry magnetic concen-
tration practised elsewhere in the Adirondacks to the wet magnetic
system similar to that employed largely by the mines of central
Sweden. The ore is very dense and close textured, necessitating
finer crushing and more careful handling than the common ores of
the eastern Adirondacks. Owing to the presence of considerable
sulphur, the concentrates also require a roast, which is further bene-
ficial on account of the accompanying agglomeration that takes
place. The success of the undertaking will mean a great deal to the
iron-mining industry of the State, as the resources in this class of
ore are very large.

Jayville. The mines at this place, 14 miles west of Benson Mines,
on the Carthage & Adirondack Railroad, were under examination
in 1916, with a view to their reopening. They are based on a group
of shoots and lenses of magnetite, some of which yield a merchant-

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 269

able ore, while others consist of an intergrowth of magnetite with
hornblende, biotite and other minerals, forming a lean ore suitable
only for concentration. Unlike the Benson Mines deposit they carry
little pyrite. The mines were worked last in 1888 by the Magnetic
Iron Ore Co., which mined about 25,000 tons in the period of two
years in which they were active. The recent work has been under-
taken by W. J. Hughes.

Palmer Hill. The exploration of the magnetite bodies at this
place near Ausable Forks, Clinton county, has been in progress.
The property, as well as many others in this region, was acquired a
few years ago by Witherbee, Sherman & Co. with a view to their
eventual reopening.

Sterling Lake. A good record was made last year by the two
active mines in southeastern New York operated by the Hudson
Iron Co. (near West Point) and by the Sterling Iron & Railway
Co. at Sterling Lake, just north of the New Jersey state line. Both
companies ship their product in lump form, having no concentrating
mills on their properties.

The output at Sterling Lake is now taken from a single deposit,
known as the Lake, one of the numerous bodies that occur in the |
vicinity and that together have supported a mining industry for the
last 150 years and more. The different deposits vary greatly in
their physical features as related to form and content, although sit-
uated in the same general geological surroundings, so far as cur-
sory examination shows. Some are thin sheets lying flat, or slightly
inclined, others are attenuated lenses with a moderate to steep dip
and usually with a pitch to the north, and still others are developed
as narrow, elongated shoots with the long axis on the pitch which
likewise is to the north. More complex forms result from differen-
tial compression and folding of these simpler types.

The principal deposits le within a belt that begins near the New
Jersey line and extends some 5 or 6 miles to and beyond Sterling
Lake. It is part of a much larger ore zone that reaches into New
Jersey on the south and extends in a general northeasterly direction
across Orange county to the Hudson river. Beginning at the south,
within a short distance of the state line, the series includes the Steel
mine which outcrops on a ridge at about 800 feet A. T. and is based
on a band of ore striking N. 20° E. It is opened by a few pits on
the south end. The same band of ore extends north beyond the hill
under the adjoining valley. The next deposit is the Crawford,
located on a lens which begins near the base of the succeeding ridge

270 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

and pitches northward under it; it is-opened as a pit and under-
ground drift for a distance of 500 feet on the strike. It measures
20 to 50 feet in width from wall to wall, but includes bands of lean
or barren gneiss intercalated with the magnetite. An interesting
feature of its geology is the presence of massive granite on the
eastern or hanging side (the dip is about 75° E.) whereas the foot
wall consists of the usual hornblende gneiss. The granite on the
north end also caps the ore body.

The California mines are about 7000 feet farther north, on the
opposite side of the ridge on which the Sterling and Lake deposits
outcrop, and about one-half of a mile distant from these. They are
based on a thin but persistent band of magnetite that lies nearly flat
and outcrops on the southern and southwestern sides of the hill.
The ore is of Bessemer grade, whereas the Lake and Crawford
mines contain too much phosphorus to come in that class.

The Sterling and Lake mines, of which the latter is now the only
active producer on the property, are opened on two long lenses or

shoots which outcrop on the side hill at the foot of the lake and

extend north under the latter at an angle of 28° for the Sterling
and 23° for the: Lake body, measured on the average inclination of
the respective slopes. Both dip to the east, although rolls occur
which locally reverse the normal dip. The Sterling mine is down
tooo feet and has not been worked-since 1902. The Lake slope is
over 3200 feet in depth. The two slopes are 500 feet apart at the
surface and pursue a slightly divergent course. From the presence
of numerous pinches and minor rolls in the Lake mine, it might be
reasonably maintained that the two bodies are parts of one original
deposit which has been squeezed out into the present form. It seems
to be the prevalent opinion locally, however, that they are separate
and distinct deposits and the Lake, if it were continued on the dip,
would lie above the Sterling deposit. For a distance of 2300 feet
on the slope, granite forms the hanging wall of the Lake slope, but
at that depth gives way to hornblende gneiss.. The Lake mine has
yielded 1,500,000 tons of shipping ore up to the present time. The

ore runs about 57 or 58 per cent iron and 1 per cent or so of phos-

phorus.

To the east of Sterling lake about 3000 feet are a series of lenses
that lie along a nearly north-south axis, on which are located the
Causeway, Mountain and Smith mines. About 800 feet farther east
a second series, with openings known as the Augusta, Cook, Scott,
Oregon and Long mines, occurs along a parallel axis measuring

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 271

6500 feet from south to north. They all have an easterly dip and
northerly pitch and have been worked by open cutting or by drift-
ing under cover. The Cook mine, however, was worked through a
vertical shaft and had underground connections with the Scott
deposit, which also was tapped by a slope. There is little of the
early workings in this part now accessible, but the ore as seen in
place near the outcrop measures up to 25 feet thick. Altogether the
resources still remaining in the various mines are undoubtedly very
large since they were worked in early times for the rich ore alone
that could be used directly in the furnace, and as a rule all the
material that could not be so employed was left in the walls. There
is no evidence also that the mines have been bottomed. The ore
supply would maintain a large mill for many years.

MINERAL WATERS

The production of mineral and potable spring waters for public
sale constitutes an important branch of the mineral industry of the
State, though perhaps seldom considered in that light. Not only is
a large revenue derived from the bottling and shipment of such
waters, but some of the spring localities by virtue of their waters
have become favorite resorts for tourists and health-seekers and
thus become indirect sources of income of large importance. Sara-
toga Springs, Ballston Springs, Richfield Springs, Sharon Springs
and Lebanon Springs are among the number that will be first called
to mind in such connection. They illustrate also the variety of
waters which are to be found within the state limits. Saratoga
and Ballston yield waters of alkaline-saline character, of wide range
of composition. They are further characterized by the presence of
carbon dioxid in free state to the extent often of two or three
times the volume of the water. The waters are mostly drunk, both
for table use and for therapeutic purposes. The application of the
highly carbonated waters to bathing has become an important
feature of the cure at Saratoga. At Richfield and Sharon the waters
are sulphurous and charged with alkalies and alkaline earths. They
are employed mainly for bathing. Waters that contain important
quantities of, sulphur as sulphureted hydrogen, are obtained at
Clifton Springs, Massena Springs, and many other localities. Leb-
anon in Columbia county is the only example of a thermal spring
in the State, its water issuing at a temperature of 75°, winter and
summer, indicative of a deep source. It is only slightly mineralized,

272 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

among the ingredients being small amounts of carbon dioxid and
nitrogen.

The sale of potable waters that are not mineralized in the usual
sense has become a prominent factor in the industry of late years.
Suitable waters for the purpose are obtainable in almost every sec-
tion of the State, but the industry is mainly centered in the vicinity
of the larger towns or points convenient to shipping facilities. The
main requirement of such waters is that they be free from con-
tamination and any injurious impurities, in which respect they are
usually superior perhaps to the ordinary public supplies. Their sale
is extensive in some communities, ‘and altogether the commerce in
such waters is greatly in excess of that of the medicinal class.

In 1916 the total sales of mineral waters, as reported by the
springs listed below, amounted to 7,746,490 gallons valued at
$697,650. To the total value the table waters contributed $610,937
and the medicinal waters $86,713. The returns in 1916 indicated
sales of 8,636,920 gallons with a value of $745,530.

List of springs. The following list includes the names and
localities of most of the springs in the State that are employed
commercially, as shown by a canvass of the industry:

NAME LOCALITY
Baldwin Mineral oprines nee: aes Cayuga, Cayuga county
Coyle & Caywood (Arrowhead Spring) Weedsport, Cayuga county
Diamond Rock Sprinew seh. oo Cherry Creek, Chautauqua county
Eassadacam uh Vlwteite netuyh ret aan Stockton, Chautauqua county
Breesport Oxygenated Spring....... Breesport, Chemung county
Breesport Deep Rock Water Co..... Breesport, Chemung county
Chemung WV alley. J.) ee cae sen ane Elmira, Chemung county
WeepaNocks Weyer ee eee elas ae ae Breesport, Chemung county
Chemung Spring, Water Conte... oe Chemung, Chemung county
AVP GUL Ces gee MMR PU ieee rt hats ET REET RN an Norwich, Chenango county
Dretade ti sik y. euke terkots aae tiene enh uk 0) Keeseville, Clinton county
Keeseville Mineral Spring.......... Keeseville, Clinton county
ebaron) Mineral] Springs.) ste Lebanon, Columbia county
Greendale Crystal Sprinesenea sa. Livingston, Columbia county
Mount Washington Spring.......... Hillsdale, Columbia county
eS PU Spree so Oren ore eee McGraw, Cortland county
AalingtonASpilie2es wii ony eee Arlington, Dutchess county
Mount Beacon, Sprite ayes n er Mount Beacon, Dutchess county
Mont View. Springs: ae eee Poughkeepsie, Dutchess county
Mionanch Spine Weiter) Conte see: Beacon, Dutchess county
Bike Sprine Water Come aeeana. ee Lancaster, Erie county
Nidenat Rarieicnir meni pene. Aare Alden, Erie county

Gollins } 22% AAs eR Re OR Uae he ee

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 2

‘S (DDFS PS Ra eee en ea et ie Buffalo, Erie county
DD Aelouiitaities cs ook wa ee ws See's clos « Dolgeville, Fulton county
iy ls JENN te [STS cine a On ae Tupper Lake, Franklin county
PPS EMO PMO NAY ie een eM yeaa es +e Edgewood, Greene county
“EES 1 By Se Be Re ce RR ee Gh a Batavia, Genesee county
asist COldHS PhINS oid akc tete a le ea os Soh ees , Genesee county
Mel leainit Santen kite) vctac cee deters suresh ein crete aac sea , Jefferson county
PCCM IROG le G-35 Soke As Gees See woe es Fine View, Jefferson county
Sherine Ca ae eae ye ee a Alexandria Bay, Jefferson county
\y QUES ee Sep pee Haiti HRseR Omar, Jefferson county
insted aller ie be Se Wee ot sisi Crystaldale, Lewis county
NandayMineral. Springs:..=...+..>-- Nunda, Livingston county
Miontanvich SPiN «no Sccob Sle la cio ase s Amsterdam, Montgomery county
able ivocks Muneral. 2.2.22 ..) 050420. Honeoye Falls, Monroe county
GandensGity NWelle vib. Oe. ke es Garden City, Nassau county
S ZiD RTC OLAS Balan, Greece toe eee ee Oyster Bay, Nassau county
Glaton tithia Springs; Inc.:). 6.0.04). Franklin Springs, Oneida county
Gleiie Wlixe SP Tie hs Pe oS) 2s Washington Mills, Oneida county
feitiiamizolasis Springs... 68s. 5 oes Boonville, Oneida county
F. H. Suppe (Franklin Lithia Spring) Franklin Springs, Oneida county
OravallewiRisley: 62.4, oS iiaies oe ok New York Mills, Oneida county
COG! Ve SEs ee ne Utica, Oneida county
IP SiCIS 4 sacle geee ete ee Pe Men ei. Haag Wp Sauquoit, Oneida county
Spb ocksleibiitarnch << ose steele oe Franklin Springs, Oneida county
Wiariermatrtesian: Well... 2s... ssa. Franklin Springs, Oneida county

me \Wiestmoreland Mitieral. ......\...2.. Westmoreland, Oneida county
Geneva Mineral Water Springs...... Geneva, Ontario county
Wrangce Great Rock... 005.0 bok lee Middletown, Orange county
CiystalSprinee 682 iw ks CS Oswego, Oswego county
BeCemOROC SPMNl. 40.08. .as nie: Oswego, Oswego county
Crcameiscam Spring... os. aac hed. Fulton, Oswego county
Restchalleeit le apn eae ee cs fioctacc ew hey has -Richland, Oswego county
Witte Sulphur Spring... 0.05.00... Richfield Springs, Otsego county
ick Rock Spine. 28)... oe ys Rensselaer, Rensselaer county
Memo pnts Spiimne v4 sanctus North Greenbush, Rensselaer county
Strelistvocks SPLMie so. seueo.ecbers. East Greenbush, Rensselaer county
IEMs 3" ES Sa ee eae Ae ee ee West Sand Lake, Rensselaer county
TGIF As eter ota ee gm Troy, Rensselaer county
EAE MLN ene Sak capes ees ch etn North Greenbush, Rensselaer county
SANTOR URC ey Ome ae oe eR Troy, Rensselaer county
(CRIPPS AEE eA ae ee a Potsdam, St Lawrence county
Madudi indian: Sprig: 6.005 shes Madrid, St Lawrence county
WISSEL am OPTUGS wera el ste a sous wat Massena, St Lawrence county
mrtesiam Acithia sSprle....5....... Ballston Spa, Saratoga county
Comstock Mineral Spring.......... Ballston Spa, Saratoga county
ROMICATES PINS = Alero s dais Aba teen 0 4 Ballston Spa, Saratoga county
NTH GIACGE NE peaps) Dim TA Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county
Hathorn Nos. 1 and 2 Springs...... Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county.

CORSA, SD eae ee Bee ie eee Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county

73

274 NEW YORK SPATE MUSE Ua

Geyser Spring sates ee elias Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county
Mimnionebe Sprittgan 2 See fii oes ras « Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county
Orenda Sprideayanaeoeis Genie = belle Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county
Saratoga: Gunny Speime Ur ce seer Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county
Saratoga Vichy ae SSH nen sake oC Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county
Oll@usliton:s asks oe A eed tere Ballston Spa, Saratoga county
Goneress INO 2 sa rece cei oe Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county
Metndale: 27.(iees eet naren sike oe sa: Saratoga Springs, Saratoga county
Chalybeate Spring oo ee By rah hese aaa Sharon Springs, Schoharie county
Eve. Waters Sprites. tee cece Sharon Springs, Schoharie county
Sulphur-Magnesia Spring .......... Sharon Springs, Schoharie county
White: Sulphtr Sprig ae ates ae eee Sharon Springs, Schoharie county
Red jacket. Sprineewen on ses. ld thas! Seneca Falls, Seneca county
Pine Halli@nystalgne es. can beeen Pine Hill, Steuben county
Pleasant <Vialleyia: es ee wae Ari Rheims, Steuben county
Setauket Spmige 2 ese = BS sy ie he Setauket, Suffolk county -
ULblacuia. bite: 24g sc nee RN dit ee 8 Ithaca, Tompkins county
EC air? SP RNS ac taaat eee etna Clintondale, Ulster county
Siimneivcy) Spiineen eee wv anomie s cic Ellenville, Ulster county
WEEP So ena egies near tens As Sa ee PR Fort Edward, Washington county
Vermont Mineral Spring: 2.52. .% . 4 Granville, Washington county
Briarcliff Lodge Association........ Briarcliff Manor, Westchester county
Giramatan, Sprine Watert@o...5 5h. & Bronxville, Westchester county
(Giapapeitbeest8 A Siar eaek ler Sas UAE Us See Bele Granite Springs, Westchester county
OxchandaS pre Boot a. eee a ee Yorktown Heights, Westchester county
No OnOW hae 1G teeing eos res Mount Kisco, Westchester county
Skendorock Verte le eee tur ese me eae Baldwin Place, Westchester county
MOLYBDENUM

The rare metal molybdenum has for its principal ore the sulphide
MoS,, which is known as molybdenite. This mineral is found in
several places in New York State. The recent extraordinary
demand that has developed for the metal in consequence of its
application in the manufacture of heavy ordnance, lends interest
to every occurrence of molybdenite that has not been inspected and
reported upon with reference to its economic possibilities. It is for
this reason the accompanying notes upon some New York a
denite localities have been prepared.

Whitlock! lists the following occurrences for saps in his
“New York Mineral Localities ”’

Manhattan Island, between ad and 4Ad4th street and Purst
and Third avenues, found in mica schist; West Point, Orange
county, in gneiss; Constitution island (Hudson river off West

*N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 70, 1903.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9QI6 275

Point), in gneiss; Warwick, Orange county, in limestone; Tilly
‘Foster mine, near Brewster, Putnam county, in serpentine; North
Russel, St Lawrence county, gneiss-limestone contact. To this list
may be added a locality in the town of New Bremen, Lewis county,
reported to the writer by A. F. Buddington; and one north of
Peekskill, in Phillipstown, Putnam county, discovered by the writer
a few years ago. :

Of the above occurrences the one in New York City is no longer
accessible. From what has been learned indirectly, it is evident that
the West Point, Constitution island, and Warwick occurrences have
little or no interest except purely from a collector’s standpoint.
At the Tilly Foster mine molybdenite occurs sparingly as a contact
mineral in the metamorphosed limestone and is no longer to be
found except in the waste dumps of the old workings.

The Russel locality, about which little has been made known, was
visited during the past summer by A. F. Buddington who contributes
the following account of it. The mineral is found in association
with a green pyroxene rock, or coccolite, that has been prospected
in several places, but rather for copper than molybdenite, according
to local accounts. There are few indications of copper, although
the rock carries considerable pyrite in thin, lenticular bands. Molyb-
denite occurs in disseminated flakes and aggregates of flakes, some
of which attain a size of an inch or so in diameter and an eighth of
an inch thick, but mostly much smaller. The mineral seems to be
rather sporadic, and at best too sparsely represented to warrant its
mining. The occurrence apparently belongs to the contact type, as
the pyroxene wall rock is the result of alteration of limestone and
is included in a mass of granite gneiss which undoubtedly has pro-
duced the change and introduced the metal. The wall rock is
traversed by veins of a coarser pyroxene-phlogopite material which
seems to be free of molybdenite. The property on which the pros-
pecting has been done lies just south of Boyd pond, near Russel. It
is owned by Martin Leary.

The occurrence in the town of New Bremen, Lewis county,
belongs to a different type in that the sulphide is distributed
through the mass of a granite intrusion, or rather within indefinitely
bordered veins of pegmatite that are found in the granite. The
granite has a gneissic appearance and weathers to a reddish color,
but is green and pink on fresh surfaces. It may represent a phase
of the green syenite found to the northwest of the locality. This
occurrence is on the farm of William J. Aucter, three-quarters of

2706 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

a mile southeast of Bushes Corners, and is reached most con-
veniently from Croghan, the terminus of a branch railroad from
Lowville. Altogether four narrow pegmatite bands were noted,
each scarcely more than 1 inch wide, exposed on the face of a
sloping ridge for a distance of 25 feet. The flakes are relatively
coarse and will average from one-quarter of an inch to one inch in
diameter. Traces of the mineral are found at other points along
the same ridge. A hill of coarse red gneiss, one-half of a mile south
of Stifts schoolhouse, west of the highway, also shows its occur-
rence. The locality is one that seems to warrant more careful
search and possibly some exploration in the hope of uncovering
some larger pegmatite veins than those now exposed, which are on
the whole fairly rich.

Perhaps the most promising locality of -all in respect to actual
content of molybdenite in the ore is that on the Owens farm about
5 miles north of Peekskill. The place is just south of the Catskill
aqueduct on the west side of Sprout Brook valley. It is now a
part of the Stuyvesant Fish estate. The occurrence consists of
rusty gneiss which forms a hard ledge traceable for several hundred
feet and is made up largely of pyroxene of green color in fresh
fracture. The rusty color results from the presence of pyrrhotite
that occurs in scattered grains. The rock is of contact nature, an
altered limestone undoubtedly, but neither limestone nor granite was
noted in the immediate vicinity. It carries disseminated flakes of.
molybdenite, and in one place so abundantly as to constitute a
fairly rich ore, that is containing 2 or 3 per cent of the sulphide.
The flakes are small and average scarcely more than one-eighth of
an inch in.diameter. It would appear that the richly impregnated
zone that is now exposed is of small compass, probably only a few
feet in diameter. If a considerable body of the ore like that now
exposed in the ledge could be found, it would undoubtedly be of
commercial importance.

NAD URAL Gas

The decline in the production of natural gas that had been under
way in the preceding two or three years was checked in 1916 when
a campaign of active exploration succeeded in bringing in some new
supplies large enough to counteract the material falling off in the
older wells. Although a considerable addition to the flow was made,
no very important discovery occurred that could be considered as
promising a material enlargement of the productive territory. The
last event of this kind was in 1912, when the Orchard Park field

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I9I16 277

of Erie county was opened and brought about the large gain in the
yield for that year.

The total flow of natural gas in 1916, according to the reports
received from the producers and distributors, was 8,594,187,000
cubic feet, as compared with 7,110,040,000 cubic feet in 1915 and
8,714,681,000 cubic feet in 1914. The figures represented a gain of
21 per cent in the output in the year and put the industry back in
nearly the same place it held in 1914. The leading counties on the
basis of their output were Erie, Chautauqua, Allegany, Cattaraugus
and Genesee.

The value of the production last year was reported as $2,524,115,
against $2,085,324 in 1915. This is based on the prices received

for the gas in the different centers of consumption. The mean for

the whole State was 29.4 cents a thousand, the same as in IQI5S.
Actually the prices at which the gas was sold ranged from 20 cents
aS a minimum to over 50 cents, according to locality. The lowest
selling rates were reported in Allegany and Cattaraugus counties,
where the local product finds close competition with the Pennsy]l-
vania output. The isolated districts of Central New York reported
the highest prices which as an extreme, however, were only about
one-half those obtained for artificial gas elsewhere.

Production of natural gas

OUTPUT Us ae NUMBER
see 1000 CU. FT. Sha OF WELLS

EGsOuls 6.5 bile sisal eee Oe een ee 2 399 987 $552 197

MSO PPMP TMLee he ates er oh 2, O39) £30 607 000
PID De. ch-01 SO Eee ey ee Rll ne ee en 3 007 086 7FOG2 579. Ws <a te cree
DORR aot ER hn ech vases +3 O52 TAS 800 O14 925
TDG) 6 y ad Stale Peeks eee ee eee eae ae 3 860 000 987 775 I 100
TEED a 9 lh eRe fae Soe oe eee 3 825 215 I 045 693 I 280
ESIODS cd SA eee 4 815 643 I 4II 699 I 340
RE Ts Ie Sere ee See es! 5 127 571 I 547 O77 I 403
POND. clare UALS a ene ne a 6 564 659 I 882 297 I 660
APO M IE DN A an tian.)Z ios Wolo, clea se yo 9 9 055 429 2 SAQ) 227 Le750
Mepham ee OL BF EA, O81 2 570 165 W797
Re PIER eee es i 1 ah. arte |, 7 LEO, O4O 2 085 324 2 OSI
MING MPIC OED fet Meee cl ase ot uv a cif HO) 504, 187 2 524 115 | 2 068

For several years it was the practice to report the production
according to the counties and leading districts from which the out-
put came. This is no longer possible, as the greater part

278 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of the supply is now handled by a few distributing companies who
operate over a large area, often taking in widely separated districts,
and who are not always able or willing to distribute their receipts
according to locality.

The field reports indicated a total of 2046 wells used for gas
on January 1, 1916. A total of 141 new wells were drilled, of which
35 were dry, and 8&4 old wells were abandoned, so that the number
of producing wells at the close of the year was 2068.

Altogether natural gas is produced in 15 counties, situated in
the central and western sections between Lake Erie and the east
end of Lake Ontario. The most productive fields are in Erie
county and include the area east of Buffalo and also many pools
in the southern part in the towns of East Hamburg, Aurora,
Collins and others... Chautauqua county has over 100 separate
producers, most of them small, but with a few large companies
which supply their product to local communities. Cattaraugus and
Allegany counties contribute considerable quantities of gas,
obtained from the same general area as the oil, which is found
in several pools along the Pennsylvania boundary. Genesee county
has come into prominence in recent years through the Pavilion
field in the southeastern corner. Ontario county contains a number
of wells, mainly in the towns of East and West Bloomfield. Among
the smaller factors in the industry are Livingston, Monroe, Niagara,
Onondaga, Oswego, Schuyler, Steuben, Wyoming and Yates. A
test well was drilled in 1917 near Belleville, Jefferson county, which
found some gas in the Trenton limestone at Ooo feeh depur
Similar discoveries are reported from time to time in the lime-
stones and shales along the Mohawk valley as far east as Albany
county, but there have never been any commercial pools developed
anywhere east of Oswego county, which contains some small but
persistent and paying wells in the vicinity of Pulaski and Lacona.

The business of distributing the output among the cities and
towns within the different districts is controlled by a relatively
small number of concerns, some of whom are engaged also in
productive operations. The Iroquois Natural Gas Co. of Buffalo,
the largest single distributor in the State, operates pipe lines to
the principal fields in Allegany, Cattaraugus, Erie and Genesee
counties. The Alden-Batavia Natural Gas Co. and the Pavilion »
Natural Gas Co. are important producers and distributors in the
Erie-Genesee county districts. In Chautauqua county the larger
operators are the Frost Gas Co. and the Silver Creek Gas & Im-

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 279

provement Co. In Allegany and Cattaraugus counties the Gowanda
-Natural Gas Co., the Empire Gas & Fuel Co. and the Producers
Gas Co. are important. In Ontario county the main producer and
distributor is the Ontario Gas Co. Among the smaller companies
engaged in the business are the Consumers Natural Gas Co. with
wells in the town of Darien, Schuyler county, the Baldwinsville
Light & Power Co. of Baldwinsville, Onondaga county, the
Pulaski Gas & Oil Co. of Pulaski, Oswego county, and the Sandy
Creek Oil & Gas Co. of Sandy Creek, Oswego county.

PETROLEUM

The production of petroleum in 1916 fell a little short of the
usual average, for which the decline in prices in the previous
season and the resulting discouragement of new drilling may be
held partially responsible. The total pipe-line receipts were
874,087 barrels, as compared with 928,540 barrels in 1915 and
933,511 barrels in 1914. A gradual falling off in the production,
furthermore, has to be expected; no new oil pools are being dis-
covered to take the place of those now drained nearly dry after
many years of steady output. There is still left some undrilled
territory in the Allegany and Cattaraugus county fields and its
development will keep the industry alive for some time to come.

The progress of drilling from year to year depends largely upon
the encouragement that is received from the market. The new
wells can be depended on for a yield of one or two barrels a day
as a rule, but rarely more. Consequently it is unprofitable to carry
on the work when prices are low, which for New York crude
means considerably more than the general average of quotations.
When prices fall below $2 a barrel for New York crude there is
little profit in production. The trend of quotations in 1915 was
downward during the first half, starting at $1.50, and then a
gradual rise began, persisting to the end when the price reached
$2.25 a barrel. In 1916 the course of the market was upward
during most of the twelvemonth. At the start the price was $2.25,
the same as in the preceding December, but in February an advance
to $2.35 took place, to be followed in March by a further raise to
$2.50 and in April by another to $2.60 a barrel. The market re-
mained at this level during May and June. In July a decline to
$2.35, with a further recession to $2.30 in August, brought an
interruption to the usual trend. In September the price advanced
to $2.50. A sharp rise to $2.75 came in November, followed by

280 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

still another increase to $3.05 in December, the highest mark
reached in recent years.

The number of new wells drilled during the year was larger
than in 1915 but still fell below the average.

Production of petroleum in New York

YEAR BARRELS VALUE

TOOT see acct sek ees ia op R ER eae CO RARE ah il RAE eT I 279 155 I 005 736
TSO Sie aad hie Sat ance aac ce SUA enter ae ate hy Oe feet hc a I 205 250 I 098 284
SOO ea coc nicl en Race ae Cees ae ee on eat cei eee’ hc, Oe ee I 320 909 I 708 926
MOOR Sareea etiad MW UM Ne OME a Be Se PSR Se a Nr aa MR I 300 925 I 759 501
ROOM ed cee Li kis a Se CMe eine ee Mk me eB Whi desks Mle tat > OO ORES I 460 000
TQOQ See 2s LTA EMER Oe Ba Bale ete Caer hal nis nM ee eral aT mT Oe aO) I 530 852
1903. I 162 978 I 849 135
RQ OAL fas Wea ns i4 Ce Bde ieee DAMN RM ecm oe NS ORE My ll ad Wie elt Teed) 2 OIE) I 709 770
POOR ES os OE Rs Ruse ST A am UNE e deoe BEe e em a 949 5II I 566 931
QO OR geet hero ace RA AL cect tet Ae ne 9 a cae I 043 088 I 721 095
BOO E iees eran Re Ae eek ap an aes OE eA Reine iene See ats I 052 324 I 736 335
BOOS iy Weg lel och eee at oR eet gear eta Ale eye ile Mh EE te HLT Tt) O BTR 2071533
OOO EA eee eae ed rae SUMO eee aces ccna eae oe OL tae I 160 402 I 914 663
TIC TNC ca eee Mn rb De MRR et hp Lae Restle tsdlr ae I 073 650 I 458 194
TOMA aie ia ee met STL, ee aU pe Sane ete kamen 955 314 I 251 461
QT iat an Cita eR aaah lea RO SoU Caleiaed ays Carman Mele ps pate 782 661 I 338 350
CONIA ee me ATS ei M nett Se emre ain kd ey Aker ab he Sth AM calEP 916 873 2 255 508
ICG 07 sc Ac RPC AS PR eae Sore SAU SM apne Ate P Re ae Agi 1 ed Be 933 511 lL 773-671
110) St peta Pees MMe ao ee LAL a mA RR MCN L AON MU Gar PPE EM LL OU, ead 928 540 I 476 378
TGQ SOR SE Aas ale er dans lad i CIN IN A OCA eed, A 874 087 2 190 195

The statistics of production for the 20-year period 1897-1916
are shown in the accompanying table. The figures up to the year
1903 are those published in the annual volumes of the Mineral
Resources while for the remaining years the statistics have been
collected directly from the pipe-line companies and shippers who
operate in the New York fields. For 1916 a canvass of the indi-
vidual producers was carried out by the United States Geological
Survey and the New York State Survey in cooperation, which
showed a total of 11,200 wells in production at the close of the
year. The wells were distributed as follows: Allegany county,
7794; Cattaraugus county, 3183; Steuben county, 223.

From time to time efforts are made to extend the limits of the
oil-bearing territory by drilling to the northward and eastward of
the productive area. The results occasionally have seemed suc-
cessful at first, as oil in some quantity has been encountered in
such experiments. A few years ago a good deal of excitement

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 281

was aroused by the bringing in of a well in the extreme northern
part of Allegany county, near the Livingston county line, in the
so-called Granger field. The oil at first flowed under natural
pressure. In the boom that followed some 30 wells were drilled
in the vicinity, but the supply was quickly exhausted and less
than 3000 barrels in all were produced. Another discovery was
made in the vicinity of Swain in the same county, with similar
results. The attempt to develop oil in the region to the east of
the proved territory has been scarcely more successful. So far
no persistent pools have been tapped much east of the Allegany-
Steuben county line. A well was recently drilled near Adrian, in
the town of Canisteo, Steuben county, that is reported to have
encountered oil at 625 feet in shale. The oil was of canary yellow
color and high in the light distillates. At the start it produced 14
barrels a day, much better than the average in the old territory,
and attracted wide attention. The flow soon ceased.

Je vCRILIE 8,

In its resources of sulphur ores, New York State has an asset
which is not as yet fully appreciated. The deposits have been
little exploited up to the present, although for a number of years
they have shared with those of one or two other states the prin-
cipal role in the domestic industry, which, it need scarcely be
remarked, has never measured up to the needs of the home market.
In sulphur content they are low grade, so that the ores have to
be concentrated before shipment, but they are extensive, well
located for convenience of mining and milling, and have the
advantage of ready accessibility to the leading centers of acid
manufacture on the Great Lakes and Atlantic seaboard.

In the present situation which portends a probable scarcity of
pyrite in the immediate future, if not an actual dearth of material
available for acid making, the resources of New York deserve
consideration for the possibilities they hold of increased utilization.

The deposits that are of most importance, present and pros-
pective, occur on the west side of the Adirondacks in St Lawrence
and Jefferson counties. The region is underlain by the same Pre- |
cambrian rocks as the Adirondacks, but has a moderate altitude,
only 500 to 800 feet A. T., and low relief. In a way it bridges
the gap between the Precambrian area of northern New York and
the Laurentian province of Canada, here separated only by the
width of the St Lawrence plain. The region is noted for its agri-
cultural wealth, no less than for its varied mineral character.

282 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The pyrite, associated with more or less pyrrhotite, occurs in cer-
tain well-defined belts of Grenville gneiss, of which the more im-
portant have been recently mapped by A. F. Buddington for the
State Geological Survey. There are at least 9 or Io individual
belts, so far known, distributed over the region, but those of most
interest from a mining standpoint are grouped within a single zone
that stretches: from the town of Canton in the central part of St,
Lawrence county southwest for some 40 miles to and beyond Ant-
werp in Jefferson county. The developed deposits all lie in this
zone; they include the Pyrites and Stella mines near the north-
eastern extremity, both with abundant resources, the Cole mine
opened in a large ore body near the center, and several others which
are to be classed as prospects so far as exploration is concerned,
but with the appearance of substantial deposits.

All the deposits possess a certain similarity in their physical sur-
roundings and mineral character, however much they may differ
in the details of form, size or content. They are associated with
one of the characteristic Grenville rocks (a banded rusty gneiss)
which varies in individual layers or beds from a quartz-feldspar-
biotite gneiss to nearly pure quartzite and not infrequently con-
tains intercalations of crystalline limestone. The rock occurs in
belts that extend northeast and southwest, usually for distances
of several miles, but of narrow width. Careful study of the field
features has revealed that these belts are parts of a single series
of beds repeated by folding, the strata having been tightly com-
pressed and overturned so'as to give a common inclination to all,
the dip being almost invariably northwest and usually at a high
angle. In outcrop the gneiss is distinguished by its rusty burnt
look which shows the presence of sulphides, and where concealed
its occurrence is denoted by the red color imparted to the soil.
The gneiss with its disseminated pyrite is much like the “ fahl-
bands ” that are described in connection with metalliferous veins in
the crystalline schists, whereas the concentrated pyrite that consti-
tutes the deposits proper may be likened to the veins themselves.

The .workable bodies partake of the tabular form of the gneiss, to
the structure of which they conform very closely. Their parallelism
with the foliation of the gneiss, the general similarity between the
ore and wall rock so far as qualitative mineral composition is con-
cerned, and the indefinite contacts seem at variance with the idea
of a secondary derivation for the sulphides but rather argue for
their primitive accumulation with the sedimentary wall rocks. On

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 283

the other hand C. H. Smyth jr.t who has given most attention to the
origin of the ores, shows that the pyrite in large part is undoubtedly
of later crystallization than the gangue and that the only difference
between the workable deposit and the country rock is the degree to
which the metasomatic process has been carried. In evidence of
such derivation may be pointed out the abundance of secondary min-
erals, chiefly chlorite, developed as an accompaniment of the process.
It is noticeable also that graphite is always associated with the ores,
in a manner suggestive of precipitating action upon the metallic
ingredients.

In most examples of the ore the pyrite may be seen to occur in
two forms: as finely divided particles more or less evenly distributed
through the gangue and as aggregates of coarser grains and crystals
in bunches, veinlets and stringers of quite irregular distribution.
The relative abundance of the latter type determines to a great
extent the relative richness of the ore. Pyrrhotite is not uncommon,
but much less abundant than the pyrite. It forms independent
bodies and also occurs in a few places in association with the pyrite.
Its distribution seems entirely without rule.

Analyses of representative samples taken from various parts of
the district show that the: sulphur content ranges between the
approximate limits of 20 and 30 per cent for the most part. The
samples on which they were based were taken so as to give, so far
as practicable, a fair average of the ore in a working face or
exposure. The results are in agreement with mining experience in
the district. Ore carrying around 30 per cent has been shipped in
some quantity from the Cole property, and the average of that mine
is probably over 25 per cent. The Stella and Pyrites deposits are
lower grade, with an average of 20 per cent or a little more.

Experience has shown that the ores will concentrate readily to
about 45 per cent sulphur, for which something over 2 tons crude
will be required, depending on the individual deposit.

Of the three properties which have been exploited on a commer-
cial scale, the Stella is the single one in present operation. It is
worked by the St Lawrence Pyrite Co. and turns out 50,000 tons or
more of concentrates a year. The Cole mine, which has been
worked intermittently, shipping lump ore, was taken under option
by the same company during the past summer and explored. It has
an ore richer than the average. The third mine, known as the
Pyrites or High Falls, is held on lease by the Oliver Iron Co., of

oN State Wlus: Bul. 158, 1912.

284 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Duluth, which has never worked it but apparently is holding the
property as a possible future source of supply.

In addition to these developed mines there are many prospects
and outcrops of the pyrite ores in southwestern St Lawrence and
northern Jefferson counties. The beltlike development of the
pyritous schists makes for a degree of continuity in the ore-bearing
areas as they are traced on the strike that is quite remarkable,
although of course there is no absolute uniformity in the enrichment
of the material by sulphides. At the same time the work of pros-
pecting is greatly facilitated by this characteristic.

The same belt in which the Cole mine is located extends north-
east for 6 or 7 miles, paralleling the Rome, Watertown & Ogdens-
burg Railroad for the first 5 miles to a point a mile or so beyond
Bigelow. The Hendricks, Styles and Farr shafts are located within
this area.

Another belt extends through Hermon and has been prospected
near Ore Bed school, 2 miles northeast of Hermon village.

A remarkably persistent outcrop of the pyrite schist is found in |
the towns of Hermon, Fowler and Gouverneur, St Lawrence county,
and Antwerp, Jefferson county. It crosses the Oswegatchie river
at Hailesboro, from which point it reaches northeast in a nearly
straight course to the Barnum school, in the town of Hermon, and
southwest to Keene station below Gouverneur and thence along the
Rome, Watertown & Ogdensburg Railroad to near Antwerp. Its
principal development is in the stretch from near the old Caledonia
iron mines just north of Keene to the Dickson mines north of Ant-
werp. The pyrite schist is accompanied in this stretch by hematite
which also occurs in sporadic bodies elsewhere and which is an indi-
cator of pyrite throughout this section. Little or no prospecting
for pyrite has been carried on in this belt, although the schist has
been well exposed by the iron-mining operations or is found in nat-
ural outcrop. In several places, notably on the Keene, Morgan,
Wight and Dickson properties, there is a good body of the ore
shown which carries above 20 per cent in sulphur. The vein ranges
from 10 to 25 feet or more in thickness. The deposit is so per-
sistent on the surface that its continuity for a good distance on the
dip may be regarded as assured. The ore is coarser in grain in the
southwest part on the Wight and Dickson properties than elsewhere.
With the railroad close at hand this section seems one of the most
attractive in which to prosecute exploration for pyrite.

In the vicinity of Oxbow, Jefferson county, is another schist belt
that has locally enriched bodies that carry around 25 per cent or

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 285

more sulphur. The Laidlaw farm, 1 mile east of Oxbow, on the
north end of the belt, has been prospected in a small way by trench-
ing across the body in one or two places. The ore shown in the
principal pit consists of 4 feet of pyrrhotite on the footwall with
15 to 20 feet of pyrite overlying it. A composite sample of the
latter gave the following results on analysis: Sulphur, 29.06 per
ccuEwabScmc, O22 pet. Cellt;ifon, 33.77 per cent. A sample ot fue
pyrrhotite from the same place yielded 27.78 per cent sulphur.

In the vicinity of Sylvia lake is a belt of pyrite schist on which
some prospecting has been done. The Kilburn place is one of the
localities that has been tested. In the average the ore is lower
grade than that of the other belts described. The belt is also rather
inaccessible, lying several miles distant from the nearest station on
the Edwards branch railroad. A very similar grade of ore occurs,
south of Talcville, near Pleasant Valley school.

Altogether the St Lawrence-Jefferson county region contains
enormous resources of ore of low-grade character. All of the
material requires concentration to bring it up to marketable standard.
The ratio of concentration and tenor of the product obtainable
under practical conditions can be determined of course only by
actual tests conducted for each deposit. But the experience that
has been obtained in the past at the several mines under operation
may be taken as a useful guide in a general way. It would appear
that the practical limit to which concentration may be carried with
the ores is to produce a product with 45 to 47 per cent sulphur.
Miicnceduines trom 2 5/103 tons of the crude 20 to 25 per cent one
to each ton of concentrates. Mining conditions in the region on the
whole are favorable. The costs for mining and milling may be taken
as about on the same level as in the iron mines in the eastern
Adirondacks, or a little below the latter if anything, due allowance
being made for local conditions and surroundings of the ccurrences.

SLAP

The salt industry experienced a remarkable expansion of activity
in 1916. Although no new mines or evaporating plants entered the
list of producers during the year, the output increased by about 27
per cent in quantity and 23 per cent in value as compared with the
totals reported for 1915. This shows the great reserve of pro-
ductive capacity available that was not hitherto brought into use.

The total product, inclusive of rock and evaporated salt and the
salt contents of brine employed for the manufacture of soda prod-
ucts, amounted to 14,087,750 barrels, as compared with 11,095,301
barrels for the preceding year, also a record output. It is noticeable

286 | NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

that the value placed upon the product, $3,698,798, represents a
smaller average than the amount $3,011,932 returned for 1915, the
value a barrel being 26 cents last year, against 27 cents in 1915. In
spite of this the actual selling prices of marketed salt showed a con-
siderable increase, as will be observed from the figures given in the
accompanying tables. The explanation of the apparent anomaly
lies in the proportionately larger output of salt in brine used for
chemical manufacture without evaporation, on which a merely nom-
inal value is placed and which in consequence of the size of the
product has a very appreciable influence upon the average figure.
The grades of evaporated salt, which naturally command the highest
prices in the market, account for only about 25 per cent of the total
product of the State. [he prices for such grades fanged@lase
year between 44 and 71 cents a barrel, as compared with an average
of 16 cents for the combined output of rock salt and salt in brine.

Production of salt by grades in 1915

VALUE A

Jes APs BARRELS VALUE ieee
Common ine a. 07 621 eer Me hal! EI) AGO 270 $598 193 | - $.40
Commonreoarsent: 2s aon yee eee 126 193 59 077 .46
Ae ume eR gn te poe a Maa ce: L274 743 829 581 .65
Solari: - ese POA Se es ee Raa HUE as Mane 267 886 93 760 35
Packers... spasm oreeh eer mo Om 165 179 83 890 .50
Other grades b.. PEN DALE) Save A OAM a ried (YO) (OY I 347 431 7,
ROGAN sok suchen hee oe beeen ates aie os, oe OOS |. 3 ON phe eOmMnGs2 $.27

Production of salt by grades in 1916

: VALUE A

GRADE BARRELS VALUE alee
Conmnon ine a. be eee peed ee OO ZR O42, $828 617 $.48
Comuniongcoarseny as cic) 0 eeacooe ee ric 267 421 153 844 .57
ablevand dainyt: tc. en rene OS 152Q 940 969 BG
oD Ie sai UOT ONO ERE CAMEO an JE it aR Ra hE 249 728 IIO 505 44
PAGISer Sa) F i oni eee beg ep a ep Meee Cee paar Co) ee er
Othemerades Dae ise wae ashy ee ieee 10 567 129 I 664 863 16
Hotta Raye se 4c met ea Wier es erent au Cr 14 087 750 | $3 698 798 $.26

a Common fine includes a small amount of common coarse.

b Includes rock salt, salt in brine used for alkali manufacture, agricultural salt and small amounts
of brine salt for which the uses were not specified in the returns.

c Included in other grades.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR I916 287

In respect to the separate items of the tables, it may be noted
that common fine salt includes the commercial product of fine arti-
ficially evaporated salt, not specially prepared for use. Common
coarse is the coarser product of similar quality. Table and dairy
salt represents the highest grade, specially sorted or otherwise pre-
pared for table and dairy use. Packers is the grade sold to meat
packers and fish salters. Solar salt is a somewhat exceptional
product, as it is made in no other state in the east, and it does not
compete in the market with other grades of evaporated salt. It
represents the output of solar evaporation of the natural brines that
occur in Syracuse and vicinity. Its uses are much the same as
those of rock salt. .

The returns for 1916 showed a total of 25 active concerns in the
business in the State, distributed among the following counties:
Genesee 1, Livingston 3, Onondaga 15, Schuyler 1, Tompkins 2)
Wyoming 3. Of the number, 14 were solar salt makers with a small
individual output. .Two produced rock salt and the other 9 were
engaged in making various grades of evaporated salt. Livingston
county has the largest output, followed closely by Onondaga, with
Tompkins in third place.

Following the recent exploration at Portland Point, Cayuga
county, announced in the report for 1915, which resulted in the loca-
MOM On Ded On Tock Salto feet thick at a depth of 1484 feet trom
the surface, shaft sinking operations were begun with a view to
working the salt deposit underground. Operations were held up
during a part of the year by trouble with natural gas, which resulted
in a serious explosion and incident loss of life. The flow of gas
came mainly from the Marcellus shale, according to accounts, and
there seemed to be no reason to anticipate that the difficulties from
this source would increase with depth so as to endanger the final
success of the undertaking.

The following table of production for the 20-year period 1897-
1916 evidences the rapid strides that have been made in the develop-
ment of the local resources. The figures for the years preceding
1904 are taken from the volumes of the Mineral Resources, pub-
lished by the United States Geological Survey.

288 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Production of salt in New York

YEAR BARRELS VALUE
Lo 0 7S ete ap En typ aad arta aN yt MINE AR ees ir, TR Ga tis Weep 6 805 854 | $1 948 759
SOSH ayegn le arene ama Meer My neo ehce ys Oe TaBUa A ope way oe ec gee cay naa 6 791 798 2 3690 323
DO OO eye 015) tanh ten Fae ace aR ARMs canes AN AES J dt Aiea etl 71 489) OS 2 540 426
BOQ OO eco eee sg We rate corte: CTEM Se LE nd el ashe ng eRe ee a 7 897 O71 2 171 418
{SOTO} Ne ee Ra el ad ec RAG Urata ce ONS eh eM Ape NS Ded AU Ta 7 286 320 2 089 834
TOQOD fhe c Nii ty MR mela iets se et AM nD paRWa LEIS Ged See peg Rae 8 523 389 I 938 539
DLC OY 02 Mais Yaa aM a neINUe NMEA tenho) Slr Me MRM hndhy Trt TAA 8 170 648 2 007 807
RO OWE SA As RE eee Ete pes ee eee eter atta e MAR 8 724 768 2 102 748
MOOS ahven chs biatch bree Hae era Raa as Ea ae 8 575 649 2 303 067
bY) )-abe tea mae toon aga merit Ohicreben Nik GMS cial S dria agra Ua 9 O13 993 2 131 650
LCC) Oy Benet ieee eee RN Rs CUR MEAE OWLS OME STR Sidhe tehes Mee aay pe 9 657 543 2 449 178
MOOS sas eens HS eye Satta. eared aces apa ae a re: pace a 9 005 311 2 136 736
TQ OQ ceric ert s Bele Comedy oie 2 ievergeae (e198 ec ceecton eo er tReet 9 880 618 2 298 652
TOTO AES Sela eo ee ROUND Set te SR MARS ey 10 270 273 2 258 292
OTM Aes cele! A Ah AU ENR LO Peel Hap Le 10 082 656 2 191 485
THO Dy att) NN Se CaS. Ua arene on mine eee lea a EU TT 10 502 214 2 597 260
IO (Cea M ni Cin uN RRR | Soo WAS eng ENO et 10 819 521 2 856 664
TQM Ray cn MRR UN ETA Vek Oa Sea ME a AR Bia seid eh 10 389 072 2 835 706
COIS RE pe a RPA IN ona eR 02a ily Bi Le aR ae Mri oat II 095 301 3 OII 932
TOMTOM ite ce cess aoe tne: Aes Ores ARISEN emt iogite ts Spe eN ea ewe 14 087 750 3 698 798

|
|

SAND AND GRAVEL

The sand and gravel industry is represented in every section and
nearly every county of the State. The deposits of these materials.
are so widespread that usually the ordinary demands of each com-
munity, so far as building purposes are concerned, can be met from
supplies close at hand.

The sand and gravel beds of the State belong mainly to the
Pleistocene formations, accumulated as the result of the great ice
invasion which moved from north to south and reached as far
south as northern New Jersey and Pennsylvania. ‘This ice sheet
swept the rocks bare of their former mantle of disintegrated material
and in its place left a covering of transported boulders, gravels,
sands and clays. These deposits, when laid down directly by the
ice as ground moraine, are so intermixed as to have little or no
industrial value. Such unmodified drift covers a considerable por-
tion of the area, especially of the hilly country; in the valleys and
lowlands the ground moraine has been removed by stream action or
concealed below beds of sorted gravels and sands that were laid
down in bodies of standing water whose existence in most cases was
incidental to the flooded waters of the Glacial period. In some of

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 289

the larger valleys like the Hudson, Champlain and Genesee, as well
2s in numerous smaller ones, the glacial waters were held imprisoned
for a time by dams so that they stood high above the present levels,
and the sands and clays are revealed .today in a series of terraces of
great thickness and well-sorted arrangement.

Beach sands are found on the shores of many of the interior
lakes and around Oneida lake in particular are of considerable
economic importance. These are characterized by a degree of uni-
formity and purity which make them valuable for many purposes,
like glass-making, molding, etc. The most valuable sand beaches,
however, occur on Long Island where most of the supply of building
sands for New York and vicinity is obtained.

The information as to the production of sand and gravel collected
for this report gives probably a fairly close approximation of the
business, and for certain branches is very reliable, but it is not
claimed that it is complete. The figures for building sand and gravel
are perhaps the least reliable, and understate the actual business
perhaps as much as 15 per cent of the total output in any one year.
The operations in building sand are so widely scattered and often of
so fugitive nature that it is impossible to keep abreast of all the
developments and changes in the industry that take place. On the
other hand, the data on molding sand are measurably full and the
statistics can. be accepted as being as accurate as those in many
other lines of the mineral industry. This branch of the trade has a
stable basis and is restricted to a limited area, mostly in the Hudson
River valley.

Production of sand and gravel

MATERIAL 1914 1915 1916
eilcinoucanGdw ay whe seek ey) Srr5n 527 | Sr 185 Sr $0941 884
lola usa Gee, 25h less ects Ges 310 727 AI5 073 570 898
iineranGr cOrewsanGds oo le ko 23 944 24 797 16 4300
BEN SteSaN Gu iis Geter hk Soe een Rees 75 000 75 000 134 638
SSPE EIS SES Sie es Cee ert a 650 895 965 336 980 979

operon ee hr SO) or 2 O87 $2) GOO .01S: | 2) O44s20

a Includes engine sand, paving, glass, railroad ballast and a small amount of miscellaneous sand.
b Represents fire sand alone.

The total quantity of building sand (for concrete and mortar)
reported in 1916, for which the value alone is given in the above

290 NEW: YORK Stat] NWSE UAvi

table, was 4,331,603 short tons. In the preceding year the com-
pilation was based on cubic yards, of which the reported quantity
was 4,127,508, equivalent to about 5,000,000 tons. The drop in the
production thus shown was owing to the. dulness of the building
trade, a condition that obtained all over the State as the result of the
general situation brought on by the war. Nassau county, from
which the New York market derives its supply, produced 3,044,359
tons valued at $578,945. The industry there is controlled by a few
corporations who dredge the sand from shallow waters or excavate
it by steam shovels from the exposed beaches. The sand is screened
and loaded onto barges for shipment.

The output of molding and core sand in 1916 was 661,673 short
tons valued at $570,898, against 454,511 short tons worth $415,073
in the preceding year. The business experienced a decided improve-
ment, compared with the conditions in 1915, from the extraordinary
activity in the metal industries. Most of the molding sand comes
from the Hudson valley, from Rensselaer and Saratoga counties on
the north to Dutchess and Ulster counties on the south. The material
represents a special form of the fine sands, which with the brick
clays, were laid down in the expanded waters that occupied the
valley at the close of the ice invasion. The molding sand layer
consists of the uppermost weathered layer from a few inches to
several feet thick.

Among other kinds of sand that were produced in the State may
be mentioned abrasive and grinding sand, 169,737 short tons,
valued at $46,900; fire or furnace sand, of which the output
amounted to 38,144 short tons, valued at $16,430; engine sand,
66,497 short tons, valued at $30,144; paving sand, 83,671 short
tons, valued at $29,282; and various other uses 17,862 short tons,
valued at $5,325.

The production of gravel for roofing, concrete and other uses
amounted to 2,728,910 short tons, of a total value of $1,003,966.

STONE

The stone industry has for many years occupied a prominent
place among the branches of the mineral industry of the State. Its
growth was particularly rapid in the decade from 1890 to 1900,
which was a period of remarkable advancement in all kinds of
engineering work. At about the latter date, however, certain
changes began to be introduced in the methods of building and

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 291

engineering construction that served to check the rapid develop-
ment of the stone industry and partially to transform it. The use
of cement and terra cotta first gained importance about that time
and has steadily expanded in the subsequent interval, largely at the
expense of cut stone. This branch of the trade, consequently, has
declined to small proportions, whereas formerly it was one of the
principal elements in the industry and probably the most profitable
one. Similarly the market for flagstone and curbstone has fallen
off, especially flagstone, as a result of the favor shown for cement
in street work. As a partial counterbalance for these losses, a
tremendous development has occurred in the crushed stone trade
through the requirements of concrete construction and road
improvement work; yet altogether the changes that have occurred
have meant a loss industrially, since in place of the numbers of
skilled workmen once employed in the business there is now a
minimum of hand labor, and much of it untrained.

The year 1916 brought little change in the conditions of the stone
trade from those of the preceding year which were regarded as
unsatisfactory. In one or two branches some improvement was
noted, sufficient to give a slight impetus to the productive activities
which were on a little larger scale than in I915. The aggregate
value of the quarry materials for the year was $5,979,622 against
$5,162,115.in 1915 and $5,741,137 in 1914. There was thus a gain
of about 16 per cent in the output for the year, but an increase of
only 4 per cent for the two years. It is not unlikely that the
turning point in the downward trend has been passed and that
conditions will hold the slight gain already made, if they do not
actually show further improvement.

The record of the industry for the last three years is exhibited
in detail in the accompanying tables.

The granite quarries have continued to operate at about the usual
rate. A large share of the product is building stone and is supplied
on contract. A considerable gain in the output in 1916 under the
last item of the table is accounted for by the restarting of some
paving block quarries.

Limestone accounted for coneidleale more than one-half of the
total value last year. Its importance lies mainly in its extensive
use for crushed stone, for which limestone is by far most exten-
sively employed.

Marble showed a gain, contributed by the building and monu-
mental branches, which more than made up for the falling off in
1915. There are only a few quarries active in this industry.

292 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Sandstone is the one variety which has experienced an almost
uninterrupted decline during the last decade. More than any other
kind it has felt the competition of cement, since the principal
branches in New York State are those supplying stone for street
work — curbstone, flagstone and paving blocks.

A gain in the production of trap restored the loss registered in
the preceding year. The industry is carried on chiefly in Rockland
county, and the principal quarries are in process of condemnation
as part of the plan for the conservation of the Palisades.

Production of stone in 1914

Buin CURBING
fetes ee ~ | MONU- AND CRUSHED ALL - TOTAL
eee stone | MENTAL | FLAG- STONE OTHER VALUE
GING
Gratitens.e ne ..|| S7OOOS | plO, O52... ea. ss: $259 750| $16 637| $367 242
IHimestome: wid 3) 8h AOOlo an orale. $3 877| 2 156 503! I 074 274! 3 316 063
MERON S see's W222 27 OC 7G Mine ose s 8 000 Q7222 230 242
Sandstomens e207 500lne a ek 490 222 36 143] 313) 117) mos6)oe0
sd Di fal OM anarhach a ane al URL tn al meee Co i a ae A G7 Ol GOO)... hae ee 770 600
otalma i $521 043) $81 749/$494 099/$3 230 996/$1 413 250/$5 741 137
Production of stone in 1915
CURBING
Be MONT AND CRUSHED ALL TOTAL
vee ING | MENTAL | FLAG- STONE OTHER VALUE
STONE
GING
|
GCranitemtws. a ‘$261 Ogi] $19 926} $1 165) $61 965 $78 450| $422 597
Limestone... (Sie Mis WL wma haga I 627| 2 072 852) I O40 100) 3.1777 7aD
Marble ee els <OTNOOTl)) FayOTAl ese meen lets cane tne 21 a7 120 447
Sandstone a4 LOSu74si re ee leo CO 77 368 296 314 890 4II
Doe o rears Neeeamatann foment yi tore vs cum Im Lalla a BUR eget 497 660 53 300 550 960
Total 94-5 $584 556] $57 000 $320 778\$2 709 845|$1 489 936|$5 162 115

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 203

Production of stone in 1916

| |
LEE CURBING
aieay sirens MONU- AND CRUSHED ALL TOTAL
Onn | MENTAL! FLAG STONE OTHER VALUE
F GING
ramiters...<. ($173 431) $9 293)......-.. $55 196] $130 199} $368 119
Limestone.....| 59 492 @ 2 $11621|'2 085 748] 1° 525 503| 3 672) 454
Marble. . Ms TAOS Me SS les, ak Ae |e) cusps alae 59 566 268-301

MMA SEONG. of 2 TOF. OF Tic. 2 oi. 2: 259 047 124 555 145 985 714 558
MAD ess sete. ANOOO iSoaraat ee Veteia Scape O52) LOO) aires 956 100
SA BRAS Ns Sis Ue UA Ia we see enc OR oS A Ux Nee
potatliene.. « $555 132| $84 880 $260 668/$3 217 599|\$1 861 243165 979 622

a Included under “all other.’’

GRANITE

The quarrying of granite for commercial purposes is carried on
in the Adirondack and St Lawrence river regions in the north and
the Highlands in the southeastern part. A detailed account of the
resources in this material, which are much more important than one
might infer from the statistics of production, will be found in
Bulletin 181 of the New York State Museum, issued in 1916.

The granite employed for building stone is mainly quarried in
southeastern New York. The Mohegan Granite Co., with quarries
near Peekskill, and the firm of H. S. Kerbaugh, Inc., with quarries
at Valhalla, are the principal factors in this industry. The Peekskill
stone possesses an attractive appearance in the mass, being from
light gray to deep yellow in color. The yellow variety has been
much in demand for large structures.

In the Adirondacks, Essex and Clinton counties contribute most
of the stone reported from that region. Included in the product is
the green monumental stone from Ausable Forks, scarcely to be
duplicated elsewhere. The material is really syenite and is very
lustrous when polished, showing a dark green color.

In the St Lawrence River district the Wisconsin Granite Co. has
recently acquired interests in quarry lands of the well-known red
granite which outcrops on several islands in the river. Its main
quarries are on Wellesley island, which were worked last year for
paving blocks. J. Leopold & Co. have quarries at Alexandria Bay,
where paving blocks are the main product. The output of this
region is sold in the markets contiguous to the Great Lakes.

294 NEW YORI SARE sou SH Wai

The output of granite in 1916 had a value of $368,119, as com-
pared with $422,597 in 1915. The value of the building stone was
$173,431, against $261,091 in the preceding year. Monumental
stone accounted for a value of $9293 ($19,926 in 1915) and crushed
stone for $55,196 ($61,965 in 1915). The output of paving blocks
was valued at $44,437. Rubble and riprap represents a value of
$81,412. |

LIMESTONE

The stone classified under the heading of limestone consists for
the most part of the common grades of limestone and dolomite, such
as are characterized by a compact granular or finely crystalline
texture and are lacking in ornamental qualities. A smaller part is
represented by crystalline limestones and by the waste products of
marble quarrying which are sometimes employed for crushed stone,
lime-making or flux. Limestone used for the manufacture of port-
land and natural cement is, however, excluded from the tabulations
so as to avoid any duplication of the statistics.

Limestones have a wide distribution in the State, the only region
which is not well supplied being the southern part, where the
prevailing formations are sandstones of upper Devonic age. The
micro-crystalline varieties occur in regularly stratified order in the
Cambric, Lower Siluric, Upper Siluric and the lower and middle
parts of the Devonic system. In most sections they occupy con-
siderable belts and have been little disturbed from their original
position. On the borders of the Adirondacks and in the meta-
morphic Hudson River region, however, they have been more or
less broken up by faulting and erosion and in places have a very
patchy distribution.

The main limestone formations of the State are the Beekman-
town, developed in the Champlain and Mohawk valleys, usually
rather impure and hence not very important economically; the
Chazy limestone in the Champlain valley, with its time equivalent
the Pamelia limestone in Jefferson county, one of the highest grade
calcium limestones in the State and suitable for nearly all purposes,
even being employed as ornamental stone by reason of its attractive
color and the ornamental pattern it takes on in polished condition,
from the presence of fossils; the Trenton limestones which include
the several members known as the Lowville, Black River and Tren-
ton, developed on the eastern, southern and western sides of the
Adirondacks, extensively employed for cement, lime, flux and vari-
ous structural uses; the Niagara beds, mainly represented in the

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQI6 295

western part between the Genesee and Niagara rivers, including
dolomite with minor beds of calcium limestones ; the Cayugan group
of the eastern and central parts; the Helderbergian limestones,
strongly represented in the Hudson valley from Albany county to
Ulster county, employed in portland cement manufacture, lime-
making and structural purposes ; the Onondaga limestone, developed
from the Niagara river across the State to Albany county and
thence through Greene, Ulster and Orange counties to the Delaware
river, probably the most extensively quarried of all; and the Tully
limestone, a relatively thin formation extending from Ontario to
Madison county, used by the cement works at Portland Point on
Cayuga lake. In addition to the hard limestones there are beds of
marl or earthy carbonate of lime in many parts, particularly in the
lower ground which are or have been occupied by swamps and
lakes. |

As has been noted in a previous paragraph, limestone takes first
place among the kinds of stone represented in the production of the
State. In value it constitutes considerably more than one-half of
the total, although for some uses it ranks far inferior to other kinds.
Its main use is as crushed stone for concrete and road work; mate-
rial for such purpose may be had from practically all the formations
that contain these rocks. It also finds extensive employment for
chemical and metallurgical purposes, serving as reagent in numerous
ways. Lime manufacture still holds a prominent place in the
industry, although it has felt the competition of cement and gypsum
plasters. Of late a growing demand has been felt for ground lime-
stone and for burnt lime in agriculture. As a building stone lime-
stone 1s of secondary importance.

The production of limestone in 1916 increased somewhat, the
value $3,672,454 comparing with $3,177,700 in the preceding year,
which also was smaller than in IQ14.

The output of crushed stone was returned as 3,612,177 tons,
valued at $2,085,748. Of this the quantity used for road purposes
was 1,566,530 tons, with a value of $903,350, that for railroad
ballast 891,118 tons valued at $494,858, and the quantity for con-
crete was 1,154,521 tons valued at $687,540. In 1915 the quantity
was reported in cubic yards, each cubic yard representing about one
and one-fourth tons, and the total for all kinds was 2,985,347 yards,
valued at $2,072,852.

Building stone, rough and dressed, was returned at a value of
$50,492, against $63,121 in the preceding year. The decline was

296 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

small but was a continuance of the trend that has been maintained
for several years past; the total was scarcely one-third that of Io
years ago, so rapidly has this branch of the business fallen off.

The quantity of stone quarried for furnace flux was reported as
657,788 tons valued at $405,774. In 1915 the quantity was 822,729
short tons with a value of $440,237. This material largely consists
of high-calcium limestone, and to meet the requirements the stone
has to be quite low in silicious and aluminous ingredients, and con-
tain little or no phosphorus or sulphur. The large flux quarries are
in the Onondaga limestone of Erie and Genesee counties; the
Clinton limestone of Niagara county; the Chazy limestone of
Clinton county; and the Precambrian crystalline limestones or
marbles of the Adirondack region.

Lime manufacture is still one of the larger outlets for the pro-
duct, although the business has undergone considerable change in
the last few years. Building lime, formerly the most important
branch of the business, has only a limited market now, with the
general use of cement and gypsum plasters; on the other hand
various other uses have developed to take its place. The paper
mills afford a large market for the product, and one of the most
profitable, since the local burners command certain advantages
from their situation near the markets. The recent campaign for
the improvement of farm lands has brought about a large increase
in the amount of lime employed as an amendment, though there is
still a great field for further development along this line. Metal-
lurgy is another outlet of growing importance. The curtailment of
supplies of magnesite has caused manufacturers of refractory
_ materials to turn to dolomite as a substitute. The State has ample
resources of this material. The statistics of the industry for 1916
show a total output of lime amounting to 117,490 short tons with a
value of $636,668, which represented a large gain in the business.
The principal centers of the industry are in Warren, Washington,
Clinton, Fulton, Lewis and Dutchess counties.

Ground raw limestone for agricultural uses was reported to the
value of $164,237. This would correspond to about 80,000 tons,
which is probably somewhat short of the actual sales in that form.

MARBLE

True marble is a thoroughly crystalline limestone, in which the
carbonates are developed as more or less equidimensional rhombo-
hedra. Such form of limestone results from the crystallizing

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 297

influence of heat and pressure and consequently is found in meta-
morphic areas that accompany mountain-making and igneous intru-
sions. In New York State this form occurs in the Adirondacks in
the north and the Taconic-Highlands region in the southeast. It is
thus of early geological age, since the period of crustal movement
and metamorphism in the Adirondacks was terminated before the
beginning of Cambrian time, and in southeastern New York was
completed with the Paleozoic.

In the Adirondack region the crystalline limestones useful for
quarry materials are most abundant on the western border in
Jefferson, Lewis and St Lawrence counties where they occur in
belts up to 4 or 5 miles wide and several times that long, interfolded
and more or less intermingled with sedimentary gneisses, schists
and quartzites. They are found in smaller and more irregularly
bounded areas in Warren and Essex counties on the eastern side,
but have little importance elsewhere. The serpentinous marbles
that have been quarried at different times belong to the same series.
The marbles of the Adirondacks comprise both calcite varieties
with little magnesia, and magnesian varieties ranging into ‘true
dolomites, with 40 per cent of more of magnesium carbonate. No
definite relations seem to underlie their respective occurrence and
both calcic and dolomitic marbles are found in the same belts and
sometimes in close association.

The southeastern New York marbles occur in belts which follow
the north-south valleys that parallel the ranges of hills to the east
of the Hudson from Manhattan island north to Columbia county.
On the west side of the river in Orange county are found a few
smaller belts. In this region the marbles mostly belong to the
dolomite class. They are interfolded with schists and quartzites,
the whole series having steep dips like those of strongly com-
pressed strata. The geologic age of the southern belts may be Pre-
cambrian, but on the north and east within the Taconic area they
are perhaps Paleozoic. Individually the marbles range from very
coarse to fine-grained rocks, white to grayish in color, rarely show-
ing color pattern and are either magnesian marbles or- true
dolomites.

Some compact granular limestones that are capable of taking a
good polish are classed as marbles in the trade. They lack the
brilliancy of the crystalline varieties, but may possess an attractive
color or a variety of pattern such as is lent by the presence of fos-
sils. In some instances a subcrystalline texture has been developed
as a result of solution and precipitation of the carbonates by ground

298 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

waters. There are quarries in the Chazy, Trenton and Becraft
limestones that have produced stone for decorative purposes.

The marble quarries reported a more active business last year
than in 1915, which was an exceptionally dull season. The value
of the output reached $268,391, of which about 50 per cent repre-
sented building marble, or in exact figures $133,238. Monumental
stone accounted for $75,587 and other kinds for $59,566. There
were 8 quarries altogether in operation distributed among Clinton,
Warren, St Lawrence, Dutchess and Westchester counties.

SANDSTONE

Among the sedimentary formations which occur in the State,
sandstone probably has the largest areal distribution, while in
economic importance it has normally ranked second to limestone.
Nearly all the recognized stratigraphic divisions above the Archean
contain sandstone in one or more horizons. The kinds chiefly
quarried are the Potsdam, Hudson River, Medina, Hamilton,
Chemung and Portage sandstones. A few quarries have been
opened also in the Shawangunk grit, the Rensselaer grit and the
Clinton and Triassic sandstones.

Of the Potsdam sandstone, which represents the Upper Cambrian
in New York State, the most extensive outcrops occur along the
northern and northwestern borders of the Adirondacks, in Clinton,
Franklin, St Lawrence and Jefferson counties. Other exposures
are found in the Lake Champlain valley and a few uneroded rem-
nants occur in the Mohawk valley. The sandstone in many places
has the character of quartzite, consisting of quartz grains cemented
by a secondary deposition of quartz, and is an exceedingly hard
and durable material. It is the purest of the sandstones and in
certain exposures carries over 95 per cent silica. There are some
beds which are adapted for glass-making-or for the manufacture of
metallic silicon and ferrosilicon, and in fact the latter products are
now being made from this material. The principal quarries of
building stone are situated near Potsdam, St Lawrence county.
Redwood, Jefferson county, and Malone and Burke, Franklin
county.

The Medina sandstone has been quarried extensively for build-
ing stone, paving blocks and curbstone, and there is still an
important industry based on the production of those materials in
Orleans and Niagara counties. It is a fine-grained sandstone of
pink, white and variegated color. The pink is an excellent free-
stone that has been employed in many of our cities for large
structures.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 299

The Shawangunk conglomerate is more widely known for its
use in millstones than for constructional purposes. It outcrops
along the Shawangunk mountain ridge in Ulster county. The
quarries near Otisville have supplied considerable quantities of
stone for abutments and rough masonry.

_The Rensselaer grit is limited to a rather small belt in the so-
called Rensselaer plateau east of the Hudson river. The stone has
a close texture which may resemble that of a trap, and is used for
crushed stone. The largest quarries are near Brainard Station,
Rensselaer county.

The sandstones in the Hamilton, Portage and Chemung forma-
tions of the Devonian are popularly known as bluestone, a name
first applied to those in Ulster county where in many places they
are distinguished by a bluish gray color. They are for the most
part fine-grained, evenly bedded, bluish gray, green or pinkish
sandstones, that often have a well-developed “reed” or capacity
for splitting along planes parallel to the bedding so as to yield
smooth, thin slabs. For that reason they are extensively used for
flag and curbstone, and a large industry is based on the quarrying
of these materials for sale in eastern cities. Most of the flagstone
is produced in the region along the Hudson and Delaware rivers,
where there are convenient shipping facilities to New York, Phila-
delphia and other places on the Atlantic coast. The Hudson River
district includes Albany, Greene and Ulster counties, but the quar-
ries are mainly situated in the area that includes southern Greene
and northern Ulster, with Saugerties and Kingston as the chief
shipping points. The Delaware River district embraces Sullivan,
Delaware and Broome counties; the shipping stations are along the
Erie and Ontario & Western Railroads. Large quarries outside of
these districts are found near Norwich, Chenango county, and
Warsaw, Wyoming county, which produce building stone chiefly,
for the general market. Numerous small quarries have been
operated at different times in Otsego, Chemung, Tompkins, Tioga,
Schuyler, Steuben, Yates, Allegany, Cattaraugus and Chautauqua
counties.

The production of sandstone in 1916 showed a decline of about
2G per cent, marking a continuance of the downward trend in the
business that has been noted for several years past. The com-
bined value of the output was $714,558, whereas in 1915 it amounted
to $890,411. The extent and rapidity of the decline in this branch
of the quarry industry may be appreciated from the figures reported
IO years aga: in 1907 the total was $1,998,417 and in earlier years

300 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

it reached over $2,000,000. An examination of the conditions year
by year shows that the industry has been depressed by the strong
competition it has had to meet from other kinds of material in the
building and city engineering markets. Granite and cement have
been gradually superseding sandstone for street work, and the
same holds true for building stone.

Of the total returned for 1916, the bluestone quarries reported an
aggregate value of $376,845, against a value of $339,779 in the pre-
ceding year. The slight gain may doubtless be accounted for by
the high prices of cement that ruled during the year. The value of
the building stone included in the total was $168,834 against $178,-
577 in 1915. Curb and flagstone amounted to $169,973, against
$155,288 in 1915. Of other kinds, there was produced crushed
stone valued at $27,767 and miscellaneous kinds valued at $10,271.
The Hudson River district accounted for an aggregate of $98,669,
mostly curb and flagstone; the Delaware River district contributed
$67,493, made up largely of curb and flagstone but with some
building stone. q

The sandstone other than bluestone represented a value of
$337,713 as compared with $550,632 in 1915. Paving blocks were
the largest single item, with a value of $131,430, while crushed
stone was worth $96,788, building stone $16,137 and other kinds
$4284. Orleans county alone contributed a product worth $226,945,
which was little more than one-half of the value reported in 1915,
in actual figures $449,620.

TRAP

Trap is not a distinct variety of rock, but the name is given col-_
lectively to the fine-grained, igneous rocks that occur in intrusive
sheets and dikes. From granite it differs by its darker color, due
to the absence of quartz and the participation of the ferros
magnesian minerals in. large amounts. Some of the so-called
“black granites,” however, are really trap. The particular value
of trap lies in its hardness, toughness and lack of cleavage. Its
fine, compact, closely knit texture gives the stone great wearing
powers, and it is eminently adapted for road metal and concrete of
which heavy service is required. The principal outlet, therefore, is
for crushed stone. It has been used to some extent, also, for paving
blocks, but these are rather difficult to prepare, since trap very
seldom shows any capacity for parting comparable to the rift and
grain structures of granites. As building stone it finds very little
application, probably on account of its somber color. The expense

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR 1916 301

of cutting and dressing trap is also an obstacle to its employment
for building or ornamental purposes.

The largest body of trap in New York State is represented in
the Palisades of the Hudson, and the continuation of the same
intrusion is found southward in New Jersey and on Staten island.
This occurrence, properly, is diabase, with plagioclase, feldspar
and pyroxene as the main ingredients. The Palisades are the
exposed edge of a great sill or sheet of the rock which came up
from below and forced its. way along the bedding planes of the
Triassic sandstones and shales. The sheet is several hundred feet
thick, in places nearly 1000 feet, but the outcrop is narrow, seldom
over a mile wide and in places is limited to a single vertical escarp-
ment. The principal quarries are near Nyack and Haverstraw at
the base of the cliffs. Other quarries have been opened near Suf-
fern, on an isolated intrusion of a similar rock, and also near Port
Richmond, Staten island, at the southern end of the Palisades sill.

There are numerous occurrences of trap in the Adirondacks,
where it occurs in the form of dikes that intersect the older Pre-
cambrian crystalline formations. The dikes occur literally in thou-
sands in Essex and Clinton counties, but they seldom attain any
considerable thickness, 20 to 30 feet being about the maximum.
Near Greenfield, Saratoga. county, and at Little: Falls, Herkimer
county, occur dikes of much larger size. The Greenfield dike has
been worked in-years past for crushed stone.

The output of trap in 1916 was valued at $956,100, a large gain
over the total of $550,960 reported in the preceding year. The
quantity of crushed stone reported was 1,280,500 tons, consisting
of crushed stone for roads 561,000 tons, for railroad ballast 64,250
tons, and for concrete 655,250 tons. In 1915 the quantity was
reported in cubic yards and amounted to 683,700, a yard amounting
to nearly one and one-half tons.

TALE

The conditions in the talc trade showed notable improvement in
1916 and more than made up for the dulness of the preceding
season. The demand in the paper trade was especially active, with
the curtailment in the supply of foreign clays which used to enter
the market very freely. In their place southern clays are being
employed quite extensively, but not in the full proportion to the
former use of foreign material. While the paper industry, especi-
ally the branches engaged in book and writing paper manufacture,

302 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

are the largest consumers of St Lawrence county talc, other
important outlets are found in the manufacture of wall plasters, in
the paint and rubber trade, and many other industries.

The production reached record figures, amounting to 93,236
short tons valued at $961,510, larger by nearly 20,000 tons than
the total reported in the best previous year. The contributing
mining companies were the same as enumerated in the preceding
year, inclusive of the International Pulp Co., the Uniform Fibrous
Tale Co., and the Ontario Talc Co. in the Gouverneur district and
the St Lawrence Talc Co., with a mine at Natural Bridge. The
International Pulp Co. operated several mines situated in the Talc-
ville and Sylvia Lake sections, the principal producers having been
No. 2% and No. 3 mines in the former section and the Balmat
mine in the other. ‘The Uniform Fibrous Talc Co. worked its
single property on Wintergreen hill, below Talcville, where its mill
is also situated. The Ontario Talc Co. lost its mill by fire and has
gone out of business. Its mine near Fullerville contains a good
body of fibrous tale and will doubtless be worked again, although
it has been allowed to fill with water.

The St Lawrence Talc Co. produces a different grade of talc
from the others, which finds special uses.

There has been no new work undertaken in the St Lawrence
county tale district for several years. The industry in fact suffered
for a long time from overexpansion, with mine and mili capacity
that far exceeded the market outlet for the product. This con-
dition has been gradually remedied by the shutting down of mines
from time to time, and recently by the unexpected expansion of the
trade which it is not yet certain will prove more than a temporary
feature. There is no doubt that the profits in the business hitherto
have been smaller than they should have been by reason of com-
petition among the producers on the one hand and the payment in
many instances of excessive royalties to the owners of the mineral
rights covering the talc. The latter are often held apart from the
land surface and the owners have been able to exact heavy royalties,
amounting to as much as $1 a ton on the output, several times over
what is ordinarily considered a fair tax on other minerals of
approximately the same value.

The talc business was started in St Lawrence county in the last
of the seventies of the last century, and began to take on importance
about 1880 since which time the output has amounted to nearly
1,800,000 tons valued at nearly $16,000,000.

REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR IQIO 2OR

ZINC

The production of zinc ore in 1916 was all made by one mine,
that of the Northern Ore Co., which began operations in the pre-
ceding year. The shipments were in the form of mill concentrates,
carrying around 48 or 49 per cent zinc. They were of such size as
to place the property on a very successful basis, in fact establishing
it as one of the prominent zinc mines in the east. Owing to the
fact that there were no other producers, the actual figures of output
are withheld from publication.

The developments in the mine at Edwards have continued to be
favorable and have warranted the policy of gradual expansion of
operations. A verticlal shaft was started to intercept the ore bodies
on their extension in dip that have been worked through the Brown
incline. The shaft starts in the gneiss, overlying the limestone ore
formation. It is expected to continue the shaft to a depth of
around 800 feet but it will be used for production before that point
is reached, since the first ore body will be encountered at around
500 feet. The drift on the 400-foot level of the Brown shaft has
been extended northeast to test the ground explored by the White
and Williams shafts which are not used for hoisting, all the ore
from that section being taken to the Brown shaft on account of its
convenient situation.

There is enough ore assured on the property to sustain operations
for several years to come.

Prospecting was carried on in other parts of the district but no
deposit was actually developed to the productive stage. So far
little more than surface testing, supplemented by diamond drilling
in one or two places, has been undertaken.

No new occurrences in addition to those listed in the report for
1915 have been uncovered during the year.

In southeastern New York preparations were under way for
restoring some of the old mining properties along the Shawangunk
mountain ridge, which were opened 75 years ago and worked for a
time for the lead content of the ore. The principal work in 1916
was in the Summitville property, which was taken over by the St
Nicholas Zinc Co. The ore body consists of a brecciated zone in
Shawangunk grit that has been filled by secondary quartz and the
sulphides of zinc, lead, iron and copper. The principal fracturing
has taken place along the bedding of the sandstone, and the vein
consequently conforms with the dip and strike of the wall rock,
although the boundary between ore and rock is more or less irregu-

304 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

lar. The sandstone shows effects of alteration by the mineralizing
solutions, becoming charged with iron oxides and in places develop-
ing a greenish decomposition product.

The workings from the former operations consist of several
openings on the outcrop some 200 feet below the ridge summit,
together with an adit and level 220 feet below the line of outcrop,
measured along the vein. This level is about 4oo feet long north
and south. The ore here dips 35° west and ranges from a few
inches to 4 feet in thickness. A second adit was driven into the
hill lower down at the level of the mill but did not encounter the
vein.

Assays of ore samples as reported to the writer by Mr Kirby
Thomas, consulting engineer for the company, showed an average
of 21 per cent zinc, 12.6 per cent lead, a little copper and an ounce
or two of silver. The sample represented the rich part of the vein
of an average thickness of 18 inches.

The plans of the company are to mine the ore already in sight
and simultaneously to carry on exploration for additional supplies.
The milling operations are intended to effect a saving of both lead
and zinc. The site of the new mill is close to the tracks of the
Ontario & Western Railroad, near the base of the ridge. A 1600-
foot aerial tramway will lower the ore by its own gravity from the
working adit to the mill. J. MacDonald Mitchell is the engineer
in charge.

At Wurtsboro, to the south of Summitville, is a similar occur-
rence of lead and zinc sulphides. It is referred to in the reports of
the First Geological Survey as the Shawangunk mine, and Mather
states that three solid masses of galena weighing 800, rtooo and
1400 pounds were taken from the vein at the time of his visit to the
property about 1838. .The vein apparently parallels the bedding
planes of the grit and ranges up to 5 feet wide.

The Ellenville mine is another of the occurrences, similar in its
metal contents to the two just described but differing in the fact that
the vein occupies a cross-fracture in the sandstone rather than con-
formable with the bedding. It has been worked at different times
since its first opening, which is stated by Mather to have been 23
years before his investigation, or before 1820. It is famous for
specimen ores, which exhibit crystallized quartz intergrown with
chalcopyrite, galena and sphalerite, also often in good crystals. A
mill equipped with crushing and separating machinery of modern
type remains on the property from the last period of operations in
the years 1903-4.

LINGID 1 DS

Accessions to collections, 78-92

Adirondack region, 24

Archeologist, report, 67-75

Archeology, accessions to collec-
tion, 90-92

Association of American
Geologists, field meeting, 15

State

Banner stone, notes on, 165-76

Birds of New York, 21

Botanist, report, 50-54

Brick, 253-55

Buddington, Dr A. F., field opera-
tions, 24; report on Lake Bona-
parte quadrangle, 30

Catskill mountains, glacial phenom-
Chia 32

Cement, 249-50

Ceratodictya oryx, 180-81

Champlain Assembly, Cliff Haven, -

geological features at, paper, 149-
60

Clark Reservation, 19

Clarke, John M., The philosophy of
geology and the order of the
State, 93-106; Devonian. glass
sponges, 177-98; Strand and un-
dertow markings of Upper De-
vonian time as indications of the
prevailing climate, 199-238; Pri-
mary and secondary _ stresses
recorded in the Percé rock, 239-40

lay251-55

Cliff Haven, Champlain Assembly,
interesting geological features at,
paper, 149-60

Cryptodictya, 183-84
tylea, 184

Cushing, H. P., report on Gouver-
neur quadrangle, 24; field opera-
tions, 24

Darton, N. H., cited, 35

Delaware watershed, ice movements,
34

Economic geology, accessions to
collection, 78

Embryocrinus problematicus, 162-63

Entomologist, report, 55-64

Esopus watershed, ice movements,

34

Faunal studies, 61-64
Feldspar, 255-57

Flies, 59

Forest tree pests, 590
Fruit tree insects, 55-57

Gabbro, 27

Gall midges, 60

Garnet, 257-58

Geological survey, report on, 24-49

Geology, The philosophy of geology
and the order of the State, paper,
93-106

Geology and public service, paper,
135-44

Glacial geology, 32

Gouverneur quadrangle, 24

Granite, 27, 28, 203-04

Graphite, 259-63

Grass and grain pests, 58

Gravel, 288-90

Greenhouse pests, 59

Grenville limestone, plastic deforma-
tion of, 145-47

Grenville schist, 26

Guide to mineral collection, 48

Guide to the paleontologic collec-
tions, 42

Gypsum, 263-65

Hudson, George H., Interesting
geological features at the Cham-
plain Assembly, Cliff Haven, 149-

60; Structural features of a fos-
sil embryo crinoid, 161-63

306

Hydnoceras, ontogeny of, 177
walcotti, 180

Hydnocerina, 181-82
armstrongi, 182-83

Industrial geology, 30-41
Insect galls, key to, 60
Iron ore, 265-71

Jones, Robert W., Cement, 249-50;
_ Clay, 251-55

Lake Bonaparte quadrangle, 30

Lake, Placid quadranele, 120

Lectures, 17, 48

Wester Park, 16

Limestone, 294-06

Local museums, supervisory affilia-
tion with, 23

Mammoth, occurrences of, 43-47

Marble, 296-98

Mastodon, occurrences of, 43-47

Miller, W. J., field operations, 24;
statement on Lake Placid quad-
rangle, 29; on Schroon Lake
quadrangle, 30

Mineral waters, 271-74

Mineralogy, 48-49; accessions to
collections, 78

Mining and quarry industry of New
York State, 247-304

Mining summary, 39, 40

Molybdenum, 274-76

Mushroom models, 52-54

Natural gas, 276-79

New York State Archeological As-
sociation, 17, 70-75

Newland, David H., report on in-
dustrial geology, 39-41; The min-
ing and quarry industry of New
Mork. State, 247—304 ele lastic
deformation of Grenville lime-
stone, 145-47

Northumberland volcano, 19

Nursery inspection, 64

Ozospongia, 185-86
johnstoni, 185-86

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Paleontology, 41-48; accessions to
collection, 80

Paleontology of arrested evolution,
paper, 107-34

Parker, Arthur C., Notes on) the
banner stone, 165-76

Percé rock, primary and> seconds
ary stresses, 239-40

Petroleum, 279-81

Plastic deformation of Grenville
limestone, paper, 145-47

Porphyritic granite, 28

Primary and secondary stresses in
the Percé rock, paper, 239-40

Publications, Department, 21

Pyrite, 281-85

Quarry materials, 40

Reservations belonging to the Mu-
seum, condition of, 19-20

Ruedemann, Rudolf, Paleontology
of arrested evolution, 107-34

St Lawrence county, zinc mining, 40

Salt, 285-87

Sand and gravel, 288-90

Sandstone, 298-300

Schoharie valley, ice movements, 36

Schroon Lake quadrangle, 30

Scientific papers, 93-240

Scientific reservations belonging to
the Museum, condition of, 19-20

Shade tree insects, 58-59

Smith, George Otis, Geology and
public service, 135-44

Smyth, C. H. jr, field operations, 24;
report on Lake Bonaparte quad-
rangle, 30

Sponges, Devonian glass
paper, 177-98

Staff of the Department of Science,
To,

Stark’s knob, 19

State Museum, considerations for
future growth of, 22; dedication,
17-18; legal status and scope, 9; ©
present condition, 10-18

Stone, 200-93

sponges,

INDEX TO REPORT OF DIRECTOR IQI16 307

Strand and undertow markings of | Van Name, Dr Willard G., resig-

Upper Devonian time as_ indica- nation, 65
tions of the prevailing climate,
paper, 199-238 Wild flowers of New York, 21, 50

Surficial geology, 32
Zinc, 40, 303-4
Zoologist, report, 65-66

Zoology, accessions to collection,
Urasterella, 161 81-90

Talc, 301-2
Trap, 300-1

The Unversity of the State of New York
New York State Museum

JOHN M. CrLarxe, Director
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T2 (1892) $.50 I7 $.75 Dit $.A0
14 5 18 aS 22 -40
LS, 2v- 2 IQ .40 23 -A45
16 I 20 .50 [See Director’s annual reports]

Paleontologist’s annual reports 1899-date.

See first note under Geologist’s annual reports.

Bound also with museum reports of which they form a part. Reports for 1899 and 1900
may be had for 20c each. Those for I90I-3 were issued as bulletins. In 1904 combined
with the Director’s report.

_Entomologist’s annual reports on the injurious and other insects of the
State of New York 1882—date.
Reports 3-20 bound also with museum reports 40-46, 48-58 of which they form a part.

Since 1808 these reports have been issued as bulletins. Reports 3-4, 17 are out of print,
other reports with prices are: .

Report Price Report Price Report Price
I 50 II a2 2 (Bul. 104) $.25

2 30 I2 5S; 220 (Ch ieh nO) 25

5 JOE I3 Out of print 23ni(a 124) 75

6 sit I4 (Bul. 23) .20 BAN nr LZ) 35

7 .20 EShGnt Soa. AUS 2500 oe DAL), eas

8 525 Guava SO) 2s ZOU (Gin ast) Maas

9 25 18)( 64) ),20 2H D5) Grae
nae) 35 uy (C29 GE) i aes 250(no ee LO 40
20 OT) 40 208G elas AS

Reports 2, 8-12 may also be obtained bound in cloth at 25c each in addition to the price

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

given above.

Botanist’s annual reports 1867-date.
Bound also with museum reports 21-date o

report appeared in the 21st museum report and is numbered 21.

were not published separately.
Separate reports for 1871-74, 1876, 1888-98 are out of print.
hese reports have been issued as bulletins.

for 20c; 1900 for 50c.

19 __ Since 1901 t
Descriptions and _ illustrations of edible, poisonous and
have also been published in volumes 1 and 3 of the 4

1 of the goth (1895), 51st (1897), 52d (1808), 54th (1900),

56th (1902), in volume 2 of the 57th (1903)
of the 59th (1905), in volume 1 of the 6ot
(1908), 63d (1909), 64th (1910), 65th (1911) reports.
edible and unwholesome species contained in the 49
vised and rearranged, and, combined with others more recently prepare

Memoir 4.

Museum bulletins 1887—date.
a year for division (1) geology, economic geology, pale
50¢ each for division (2) general zoology, archeology, miscellaneous, (3) botany,

Bulletins are groupe

(4) entomology.

8vo.

The divisions to which bulletins belong are as follows:

© OID BWN HA

Zoology

Botany

Economic Geology
Mineralogy
Entomology

Economic Geology
Botany
Zoology
Economic Geology

“

Entomology
Geology

Economic Geology
Archeology
Economic Geology
Archeology
Geology
Entomology
Geology
Archeology
Entomology

Botany
Entomology

Botany

Zoology

Economic Geology
Entomology
Archeology
Zoology

Geology

Economic Geology
Entomology

Zoology
Paleontology
Zoology
Archeology
Geology

Zoology

Economic Geology
Paleontology
Entomology

Geology
Paleontology
Archeology
Zoology
Paleontology
Entomology
Botany
Archeology
Geology
Entomology
Mineralogy

Entomology
Zoology
Economic Geology
Miscellaneous
Geology
Entomology
Paleontology
Miscellaneous
Botany
Entomology
Paleontology
Mineralogy
Zoology
Entomology
Archeology
Entomology
Botany
Entomology
Geology
Archeology
Entomology
Paleontology
Geology

“

“

Economic Geology
Entomology
Archeology
Zoology
Archeology
Paleontology
Zoology
Paleontology
Economic, Geology
Botany

Geology

Entomology
Mineralogy
Paleontology
Economic Geology
Paleontology
Economic Geology
Entomology

Botany

Geology

Geology and Paleontology
Archeology :
Entomology

Geology

Economic Geology
Archeology
Geology

Botany

, in volume 4 0

ILI 7/
118
T19
120
121
122
1233
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
TAO
IAL
142
143
I44
I45
146
147
148
149
150
I51
152
153
154
155

156

LES af)
158
159
160
IOI
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
EGP it
72
173
174

f which they form a part; the first Botanist’s
Reports 21-24, 29, 31-41

Report for 1899 may be had

unwholesome fungi of New York
8th (1894) museum report and in volume
55th (1901), in volume 4 of the
f the 58th (1904), in volume 2
h (1906), in volume 2 of the 61st (1907), 62d
The descriptions and illustrations of
th, 51st and 52d reports have been re-
d, constitute Museum.

To advance subscribers, $2 a year, or $%
ontology, mineralogy;

d in the list on the following pages according to divisions.

Archeology
Geology
Economic Geology

Director’s report for 1907
Botany

Economic Geology
Entomology

Archeology

Geology

Geology

Entomology

Zoology

Botany

Economic Geology
Director’s report for 1908
Entomology

Geology

Entomology

Geology

Botany

Director’s report for 1909:
Entomology

Economic Geology

Archeology
Geology

Entomology
Geology
Director’s report for 1910:
Botany
Economic Geology
Geology

“

Entomology

Botany
Director’s report for 1911
Geology

Economic Geology
Geology

Archeology
Director’s.report for 1912:
Entomology

Economic Geology
Botany

Geology

Director’s report fer Owes
Economic Geology

MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS

175 Entomology 183 Geology 190 Geology

176 Botany 184 Archeology IOT

177 Director’s report for 1914 185 Geology 192 if

178 Economic Geology 186 Entomology 193 ‘

179 Botany 187 Director’s report for 1915 194 Entomology

180 Entomology 188 Botany 195 Geology

181 Economic Geology 189 Geology 196 Director’s report for 1916

182 Geology

Bulletins are also found with the annual reports of the museum as follows:

Bulletin Report Bulletin Report Bujletin Report Bulletin Report
12-15 INS Vo UE 79 SVE Du 2) hLO—2 te Ole veube enls(s Ocsiverz
WO), 307) 50, v. I 80 Bio Ws Wy ioe. 16 AS Ol,avai2) > E50 OSsuver2
18, 19 Saey aie nL 81, 82 58, v. 3 123 One Ses 7 O53 va 2
20-25 BH VWs 1 83, 84 Bq Wo AE 124 Orn ie Bs 65, v. I
26-31 Sai, Ais. ab 85 58, v. 2 125 OAs iB. IG) O55 Yo 1
32-34 ily Ais ae 86 58, v. 5 126-28 O2Fi VA TOO Os Wi ie
35, 30 SARA 87-890 58,v.4 129 OB Ao BD | aGic OStaver2
37-44 54, Vv. 3 90 x84 Wo S} 130 OB. We) Oe OS We 2
45-48 54, Vv. 4 Cone 58, v.4 1B A OP WB ~~ 10(0)8} (5 Wa Y
49-54 B55 Wo 2 92 58, v. 3 133 02a TOM! GOmnvant
55 56, v. 4 93 58, v. 2 134 62, Vv.2 165-67 66, v. 2
56 56, v. I 94 58, v.4 135 63,Vv.I 168-70 £466,v.1
57 56, v. 3 95, 96 58, v. I 136 63,V.2 171-76 67
58 56) val 97 5 Wo 137 63, Vv. I 177-80 £68
59, 60 56, v. 3 98, 99 507 Ve 2 138 OB We

TI HO, We 100 SOnWanE 139 63, v. 2 Memoir
62 56, v. 4 IOI SOpnven2 I40 OShivaaee 49, Vv. 3
63 56, v. 2 HOA Oy aS i IAI OBR D9 Bo Al SSuavene,
64 56, v. 3 103-5 59, Vv. 2 142 Oy 2 Gy O 57, V- 3
65 BOnsvene 106 50, v. I T43 O85 Wee 7 57,V.4
66, 67 BOs Wa 4 107 60, v. 2 144 Oi Wo QB fy joe Roy, Wo 3
68 Os. 75 33 108 60, v. 3 T45 OA VaDE mS pie 50, V.4
69 56, v. 2 I09, IIO 60, v. I 146 “ls Ws ify KH 0, Vv. 4
70, 71 S75 Wo Wy iO ae 60, v. 2 I47 OAR WAN2nOspptn2 62, Vv. 4
me Sila No We 101 Bn 60, v. I 148 OYAS Vin 2 1) 60, v. 5
73 Sinn wwie 2 WI 60, v. 3 I49 (Vals Vo 1k, Abie ODaverS
74 Solo Wei ee abaaAL (OO Ws I50 Ol, Si DBD UB, OGH LOB, Wh B
75 Sin We. 2 II5 60, v. 2 I5I (My We 2. UB, we DB GO, Wo B
76 S75 Wo Ip 1s BIL (0) 60, v. I 152 OMe oD 1033 O34 Wo Zl
77 Saf Wa Mg one 1h = 2038) 60, v. 3 153 OA Wwe Wl, Wet OB, Wz
78 Sap we-2 I18 OO, Wo i I54 OMe We BAA, We 2 Oy Wo ZI

The figures at the beginning of each entry in the following list indicate its number as a
museum bulletin.

Geology and Paleontology. 14 eeu J. F. Geology of Moriah and West-
port Townships, Essex Co., N. Y., with notes on the iron mines. 38p.
Ua7ply > imaps. Sept. 1895; Bree,

19 Merrill, F. J. H. Guide to the Study of the Geological Collections of
the New York State Museum. 164p. 119 pl. map. Nov. 1898. Out of print.

21 Kemp, J. F. Geology of the Lake Placid Region. 24p. ipl. map. Sept.
1898. Free.

34 Cumings, E. R. Lower Silurian System of Eastern Montgomery County;
Prosser, C. S. Notes on the Stratigraphy of Mohawk Valley and Sara-
toga County, N. Y. 74p. 14pl.map. May goo. I65c.

39 Clarke, J. M.; Simpson, G. B. & Loomis, F. B. Paleontologic Papers 1.
f2pleatopl: Oct: 1900. 15¢c-

Contents: Clarke, J. M. A Remarkable Occurrence of Orthoceras in the Oneonta Beds of
the Chenango Valley, N. Y.
—— Paropsonema cryptophya; a Peculiar Echinoderm from the Intumescens-zone
(Portage Beds) of Western New York. ;
—— Dictyonine Hexactinellid Sponges from the Upper Devonic of New York.
The Water Biscuit of Squaw Island, Canandaigua Lake, N. Y
Simpson, G. B. Preliminary Descriptions of New Genera of Paleozoic Rugose Corals.
Loomis, F. B. Siluric Fungi from Western New York.

42 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Hudson River Beds near Albany and Their Taxo-
nomic Equivalents. 116p.2pl.map. Apr. 1901. 25¢c. oa.
45 Grabau, A. W. Geology and Paleontology of Niagara Falls and Vicinity.

286p. il. 18pl. map. Apr. 1901. 65c; cloth, 90c.
48 Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene Geology of Nassau County and Borough
of Queens. 58p. il. 8pl.map. Dec. 1901. Out of print. |
49 Ruedemann, Rudolf; Clarke, J.M. & Wood, Elvira. Paleontologic
Papers 2. 240p.13pl. Dec. 1901. Out of print.

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Contents: Ruedemann, Rudolf. Trenton Conglomerate of Rysedorph Hill.

Clarke, J. M. Limestones of Central and Western New York Interbedded with Bitumi-
nous Shales of the Marcellus Stage.

Wood, ae Marcellus Limestones of Lancaster, Erie Co., N. Y.

Clarke, J. M. New Agelacrinites.

Value of Amnigenia as an Indicator of Fresh- water Deposits abe tiae the Devonic of

New York, Ireland and the Rhineland.

52 Clarke, J. M. Report of the State Paleontologist 1901. 280p. il. 1op!.
map, 1 taba july 1602. 40c:

56 Merrill, F. J. H. Description: of the State Geologic Map of 1901. 42p.
DeMAaps eva. IN Ove TOO2 sree.

63 Clarke, J. M. & Luther, D. D. Stratigraphy of Canandaigua and Naples

Quadrangles. 78p. map. June 1904. 25¢c.

65. Clarke, J. M. Catalogue of Type Specimens of Paleozoic Fossils in the
New York State Museum. 848p. May 1903. $1.20 cloth.

69 —— Report of the State Paleontologist 1902. 464p. 52pl. 7 maps. Nov.
1903. $1, cloth.

77. Cushing, Hales “Geology Jol rthe Cee of Little Falls, Herkimer Co.
98p. al. 15pl. 2 maps. . Jani1905.) 30c

80 Clarke, J. M. Report of- the State Paleontologist 1903. 396p. 29pl.
2maps. Feb. 1905. 85c, cloth.

81 Clarke, J. M. & Luther, D. D. Watkins and Elmira Quadrangles. 32p.
map. Mar. 1905. 265c. °

82 —— Geologic Map of the Tully Quadrangle. 4op. map. Apr. 1905. 20c.

83 Woodworth, J. B. Pleistocene Geology of the Mooers Quadrangle. 62p.
25pl. map. June 1905. 25c. ;

Ancient Water Levels of the Champlain and Hudson Valleys. 206p.
il. ripl. 18 maps. July 1905. 45c.

90 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Cephalopoda of Beekmantown and Chazy For-
mations of Champlain Basin. 224p. il. 38pl. May 1906. 75c, cloth.

92 Grabau, A. W. Guide to the Geology and Paleontology of the Schoharie
Region. 314p. il. 26pl. map. Apr. 1906. 75c, cloth.

95 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Northern Adirondack Region. 188p.
P5pl. samaps Goept. 1905.) oc.

96 Ogilvie, I. H. Geology of the Paradox Lake Quadrangle. 54p. il. 17pl.
map. Wee 1905. 0c:

99 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Buffalo Quadrangle. 32p. map. May
1906. 20c.

tor —— Geology of the Penn Yan-Hammondsport Quadrangles. 28p.
map. July 1906. Oui of print.

106 Fairchild, H. L. Glacial Waters in the Erie Basin. 88p. 14pl. 9 maps.
Feb. 1907. Out of print.

107 Woodworth, J. B.; Hartnagel, C. A.; Whitlock, H. P.; Hudson, GC. Ee
Clarkes sin, vies White, David & Berkey, CrP Geological Papers. 388p.
54pl. map. May 1907. 90c, cloth.

_ Contents: Woodworth, J. B. Postglacial Faults of Eastern New York.

Hartnagel, C. A. Stratigraphic Relations of the Oneida Conglomerate.

Upper Siluric and Lower Devonic Formations of the Skunnemunk Mountain Region.

Whitlock, H. P. Minerals from Lyon Mountain, Clinton Co.

Hudson, G. H. On Some Pelmatozoa from the Chazy Limestone of New York.

Clarke, ie M. Some New Devonic Fossils.

An Interesting Style of Sand-filled Vein.

—— Eurypterus Shales of the Shawangunk Mountains in Eastern New York.

White, David. A Remarkable Fossil Tree Trunk from the Middle Devonic of New York.

Berkey, C. P. Structural and Stratigraphic Features of the Basal Gneisses of the High-
lands.

11r Fairchild, H. L. Drumlins of New York. 60p. 28pl. 19 maps. July
1907. Out of print.

114 Hartnagel, C. A. Geologic Map of the Rochester and Ontario Beach
Quadrangles. 36p. map. Aug. 1907. 20c.

115 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Long Lake Quadrangle. 88p. 2opl.
Map: .oept. LO07. |. 25¢-

118 Clarke, J. M. & Luther, D. D. Geologic Maps and Descriptions of the
Portage and Nunda Quadrangles including a map of Letchworth Park.

50p. 16pl.4 maps. Jan. 1908. 35c.

34

\ ; MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS

126 Miller, W. J. Geology of the Remsen Quadrangle. 54p. il. 11pl. map.
Jan. 1909: 25c.

127 Fairchild, H. L. Glacial Waters in Central New York. 64p. 27pl. 15
maps. Mar. 1909. 40c..

128 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Geneva-Ovid Quadrangles. 44p. map.
At. 1900; | 2OC. .

135 Miller, W. J. Geology of the Port Leyden Quadrangle, Lewis County,
Nea o2pe tl ripli imap. ~ fan. 1910. 25¢:

137 Luther, D. D. Geology-of the Auburn-Genoa Quadrangles. 36p. map.
Mar. 1910. 20c.

138 Kemp, J. F. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Geology of the Elizabethtown
cuGiMmeorbaidenty \Ouadrangles... 176p. il; 20pl. 3 maps. Apr: 1910.7 Onz
of print.

145 Cushing, H. P.; Fairchild, H. L.; Ruedemann, Rudolf & Smyth, Cyne.
Geology of the Thousand Islands Region. 194p. i 62pl. 6 maps) (Dee:
I910. $1.00, cloth.

146 Berkey, C. P. ‘ Geologic Features and Problems of the New York City
(Catskill) Aqueduct. 286p. il. 38pl. maps. Feb. 1911. 75c; cloth, $1.

148 Gordon, C. E. Geology of the Poughkeepsie Quadrangle. 122p: il
Poplymap. Apr. TOL1. | 30c.

152 Luther, D. D. Geology of the Honeoye-Wayland Quadrangles. 30p.
map Oc TORT? \20c.

153 Miller, William J. Geology of the Broadalbin Quadrangle, Fulton-
Paravoga Counties; New York. 66p. il: 8pl. map. Dec: 19911. ~ 25¢.

154 Stoller, James H. Glacial Geology of the Schenectady Quadrangle. 4ap.
Gpleimeap. |Wec. Torr. 20c.

159 Kemp, James I’. The Mineral Springs of Saratoga. 80p. il. 3pl.. Apr.
1952.) a 5c

160 Fairchild, H. L. Glacial Waters in the Black and Mohawk Valleys. 48p.
ile spl. t4 maps. May 1912. 50c.

' 162 Ruedemann, Rudolf. The Lower Siluric Shales of the Mohawk Valley.
ravenionsol. Ae: TO12, 35¢c.

168 Miller, William J. Geological History of New York State. 130p. 43pl.

PerOunans. . Dec. TO13.. 40c.

169 Cushing, H. P. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Geology of Saratoga Springs and
Wiemmtyen isp. il: 20pl map. « Feb: 1914. 40c.

170 Miller, William J Geology of the North Creek Quadrangle. gop. il. r4pl.
eb rOi4s | 25C. :
171 Hopkins, T. C. The Geclogy of the Syracuse Quadrangle. 8op. il. 2opl.

map july 1914. 25¢-

172 Luther, D. D. Geolcgy of the Attica and Depew Quadrangles. 32p. map.
August 1914. 15¢c.

182 Miller, William J. The Geology of the Lake Pleasant Quadrangle. 56p.
ie hOpuamap.) seb. 19616, ~25c:

183 Stoller, James H. Glacial Geology of the Saratoga Quadrangle. 5op. il.
iplaimapon Var: 1, 1916: 25c.

185 Martin, James C. The Precambrian Rocks of the Canton Quadrangle.
mip Zope map. May 1; 1916.) 30c.

189 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Paleontologic Contributions from the New York State
Museum: 225p.il. 36 pl. Sept. 1916. 5oc.

191 Cushing, H. P. Geology of the Vicinity of Ogdensburg. 6 4p. il. 6pl. map.
Nov. 1916. 25c.

192 Miller, William J. Geology of the Blue Mountain Quadrangle. 68p. il.
miolkama oa Oec TOLO,,: 25C. ae

193 The Adirondack Mountains. 97p.il. 30pl.2 maps. Jan.1917. 35c.

195 Fairchild, H. L. Postglacial Features of the Upper Hudson Valley. 22p.
map. Mar. TNO 76 2/5C8

Luther, D. D. Geology of the Phelps Onadeanele! In preparation.

Whitnall, H. O. Geology of the Morrisville Quadrangle. Prepared.

Hudson, Cur Geology of Valcour Island. Jn preparation.

Economic Geology. 3 Smock, J.C. Building Stone in the State of New York.
154p. Mar. 1888. 30c.

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

7 —— First Report on the Iron Mines and Iron Ore Districts in the State
of New York. 78p.map. June 1889. 25c.

10 Building Stone in New York. 210p. map, tab. Sept. 1890. 4o0c.

tr Merrill, F. J. H. Salt and Gypsum Industries of New York. 94p. 12pl.
2 maps, 11 tab. Apr. 1893. Not available.

12: Ries, Heinrich. Clay Industries of New York. 174p. il. 1pl) maps Mem
1895. 30c.

ro Viernes inte ee Resources of New York. 240p. 2 maps.
Sept. 1895. [50c]

17 Road Materiais and Road Building in New York. 52p. 14pl.
Zamapss Octaieoz7e, 156.

30 Orton, Edward. Petroleum and Natural Gas in New York. 136p. il.
2 maps NOVe L6OOmm 5c

35 Ries, Heinrich. Clays of New York; Their Properties and Uses. 456p.
14g0pl.map. June 1900. $1.00 cloth.

Lime and Cement Industries of New York; Eckel, E. C. Chapters
on the Cement Industry. 332p. rorpl. 2 maps. Dec. tgo0t. 85c, cloth.

61 Dickinson, H. T. Quarries of Bluestone and Other Sandstones in New
York. 114p.18pl.2 maps. Mar. 1903. 35c.

85 Rafter, G. W. Hydrology of New York State. oo02p. il. 44pl. 5 maps.
May 1905. $1.50, cloth.

93 Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York. 78p.
July 1905. Out of print.

100 McCourt, W. E. Fire Tests of Some New York Building Stones. 4op.
Z2oply 7 heb: 1900.) 15sec:

102 Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1905.
L62p:) une, 1906s .25e:

112 Mining” and Quarry Industry of New York 1906. 82p. July
1907. Out of print.

119 —— & Kemp, J. F. Geology of the Adirondack Magnetic Iron Ores
with a Report on the Mineville-Port Henry Mine Group. 184p. 14pl.
8 maps. Apr. 1908. 35c.

120 Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1907. 82p.
July 1908. 15c.

123 & Hartnagel, C. A. Iron Ores of the Clinton Formation in New
York State. 76p.il. 14pl.3 maps. Nov. 1908. 265c.

132 Newland, D. H. Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1908. 98p
July 1909. 15c.

142 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York for 1909. 98p. Aug.
I9IO. 15¢.

44

143 Gypsum Deposits of New York. 94p.20pl.4 maps. Oct. 1910. 35¢

I51 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1910. 82p. June 19QII. I5¢c.

161 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1911. I14p. July 1912. 20c.

166 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York I912. 114p. August 1913.
20.

174 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1913. 111Ip. Dec. 1914
20€.

178 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1914. 88p. Nov. 1915. 15c.

181 The Quarry Materials of New York. 212p. 34pl. Jan. 1916. 4oc.

190 Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1915. 92p. Oct. 1916. 5c.

Mining and Quarry Industry of New York 1916 (see Mus. bul. 196).

Mineralogy. 4 Nason, F. L. Some New York Minerals and Their Localities.
AOA iol, TANI. 1888. Free.

58 Whitlock, H. P. Guide to the Mineralogic Collections of the New York
State Museum. T50p. il. 39pl. 11 models. Sept. 1902. 4oc. —

70 New York Mineral Localities. rrop. Oct. 1903. 20c.

98 —— Contributions from the Mineralogic Laboratory. 38p. 7pl. Dec.
1905. Out of print.

Zoology. 1 Marshall, W. B. Preliminary List of New York Unionidae.
20p. Mar. 1892. Free.

9 —— Beaks of Unionidae Inhabiting the Vicinity of Albany, N. Y. 3o0p.
Fple pA SOOr bree:

MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS

29 Miller, G. S., jr. Preliminary List of New York Mammals. 1424p. Oct.
1899. I15c.

33 Farr, M.S. Check List 0° New York Birds. 224p. Apr. 1900. 25c.

38 Miller, G. S., jr. Key to the Land Mammals of Northeastern North
America. 106p. Oct. 1900. 15c.

40 Simpson, G. B. Anatomy and Physiology of Polygyra albolabris and
Limax aes and Embryology of Limax maximus. 82p. 28pl. Oct.
IQOI. 25

43 etiggs or L. Clam and Scallop Industries of New York. 36p. 2pl.
map: Apr. 1901. Eree:

51 Eckel, E. C. & Paulmier, F. C. Catalogue of Reptiles and Batrachians
of New York. 64p.il.1pl. Apr. 1902. Out of print.

Eckel, E. C. Serpents of Northeastern United States.
Paulmier, F. C. Lizards, Tortoises and Batrachians of New York.

ae T. H. Catalogue of the Fishes of New York. 784p. Feb 1903.

1, cloth.

71 Kellogg, J. L. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus mercenaria. 30p
4pl. Sept. £903. Aree;

88 Letson, Elizabeth J. Check List of the Mollusca of New York. 116p.
May 1905. 20c

91 Paulmier, F. CS Higher Crustacea of New York City. 78p. il. June
1905. 20c.

13? Shufeldt, R. W. Osteology of Birds. 382p. il. 26pl. May 1909. 5oc.

Entomology. 5 Lintner, J. A. White Grub of the May Beetle. 34p. il.
Nov. 1888. Free.

6 Cut-worms. 38p.il. Nov. 1888. Free.

13 San José Scale and Some Destructive Insects of New York State.
54p. 7pl. Apr. 1895. 15c.

20 Felt, E. P. Elm Leaf Beetle in New York State. 46p. il 5pl. June
1898. Free.
See 57.

23

14th Report of the State Entomologist 1898. 150p. il. 9pl. Dec.
1898. 20c.

Memorial of the Life and Entomologic Work of J. A. Lintner Ph.D.
State Entomologist 1874-98; Index to Entomologist’s Reports 1-13. 316p.
apie Oct 199. - 35C.

Supplement to 14th report of the State Entomologist.

2

Collection, Preservation and Distribution of New York Insects.
36p. il. Apr. 1899. Out of print.

Shade Tree Pests in New York State. 26p. il. 5pl. May 1899. Out
of print.

15th Report of the State Entomologist 1899. 128p. June 1900.

31
36

15¢.

16th Report of the State Entomologist I900. 118p. 16pl. Mar.
FOOT.» 25c.

3 z Catalogue of Some of the Mofe Important Injurious and Beneficial
Insects of New York State. 54p.il. Sept. 1900. Free.

46 —— Scale Insects of Importance and a List of the Species in New York
State. g4p. il. 15pl. June 1901. 25c.

47 Needham, J. G. & Betten, Cornelius. Aquatic Insects in the Adiron-
dacks. 234p. il. 36pl.. Sept..1901. 45c.

53 Felt, E. P. 17th Report of the State Entomologist 1901. 232p. il. 6pl.
Aug. 1902. Out of print.

Elm Leaf Beetle in New York State. 46p. il. 8pl. Aug. 1902.

Out of print.

This is a revision of Bulletin 20 containing the more essential facts observed since that
was prepared.

59
See 72.

57

Grapevine Root Worm. 4op. 6pl. Dec. 1902. I5c.

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

64 —— 18th Report of the State Entomologist 1902. i11op. 6pl. “May
OOS MN IZOc.

68 Needham, J. G. & others. Aquatic Insects in New York. 322p. 5apl.
Aug. 1903. 80c, cloth.

72 Felt, B. P. Grapevine Root Worm: 58p. 12pl. Nov. 1903.) 20c

This is a revision of Bulletin 59 containing the more essential facts observed since that
was prepared.

74 —— & Joutel, L. HW. Monograph of the Genus Saperday) (3spa ier
UNS LOOAN Te 5c.

76 Felt, E. P. 19th Report of the State Entomologist 1903. 1150p. 4pl.
1904. I5C.

79. —— Mosquitos or Culicidae of New York. 164p. i. 57pk tabeOer
1904. 40c.

86 Needham, J. G. & others. May Flies and Midges of New York. 352p..
il. 37pl. June 1905. 80c, cloth.

97 Felt, E. P. 20th Report of the State Entomologist 1904. 246p. il. ropl.
Nov. 1905. 40c.

103 Gipsy and Brown Tail Moths. 44p.t1opl. July 1906. Out of print.

104 21st Report of the State Entomologist 1905. 144p. 1opl. Aug.
1906. 25c.

tog —— Tussock Moth and Elm Leaf Beetle. 34p. 8pl.. Mar. 1907. Out
of print.

IIo 22d Report of the State Entomologist 1906. 152p. 3pl.. June

1OO72 ) 25¢)

124 23d Report of the State Entomologist 1907. 542p. il. 44pl. Oct.
1908. 75¢.

129 —— Control of Hottsehold Insects. 48p.il. May 1909. Out of print.

134 24th Report of the State Entomologist 1908. 208p. il. 17pl.
Sept. 1909. 35¢.

136 —— Control of Flies and Other Household Insects. 56p. il. Feb.
I9IO. 15¢.

This is a revision of Bulletin 129 containing the more essential facts observed since
that was prepared.

141 Felt, E. P. 25th Report of the State Entomologist 1909. 178p. il. 22pl.
July 1910. 35c.

147 26th Report of the State Entomologist 1910. 182p. il. 35pl. Mar.
LOT 6 S5C-

155 27th Report of the State Entomologist 1911. 1098p. il. 27pl. Jan.
1912. 40c.
156 Elm Leaf Beetle and White-Marked Tussock Moth. 35p. 8pl. Jan.

TOL si 2OC:

165, 28th Report of the State Entomologist 1912. 266p. 14pl. July 1913.
40c

175 29th Report of the State Entomologist 1913. 258p. 16pl. April
OSs | ASCs

180 30th Report of the State Erromeleg: 1914. 336p. il. Tope au.
1916. 50c.

186 —— 31st Report of the State Pataanalocise 1915. 215p. il. Te plata jume
LE etOLO.n ) 25C:

194 Household and Camp Insects. (84ip: il) Heb.1, 1017. 5c)

Needham, J. G. ‘Monograph on Stone Flies. In preparation.

Botany. 2 Peck, C. H. Contributions to the Botany of the State of New
Mork: 720. 2ply,) Mayatse7s 1 20c:
8 Boleti of the United States. 98p. Sept. 1889. Out of print.

25 —— Report of the State Botanist 1898. 76p. 5pl. Oct. 1899. Out of print.
28 —— Plants of North Elba. 206p. map. June 1899. 20c.

54 —— Report of the State Botanist 1901. 58p. 7pl. Nov. 1902. 40c.

67 —— Report of the State Botanist 1902. 1196p. 5pl. May 1903. 50c.

75 —— Report of the State Botanist 1903. 7op. 4pl. 1904. 40c.

04 —— Report of the State Botanist 1904. 60p. Iopl. July 1905. 40c.

105 —— Report of the State Botanist 1905. 108p.12pl. Aug. 1906. 50c.

MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS

116 ——— Report of the State Botanist 1906. 120p.6pl. July 1907. 35¢c.
| 122 —— Report of the State Botanist 1907. .178p. 5pl. Aug. 1908. 4oc.
-131 —— Report of the State Botanist 1908. 202p. 4pl. July 1909. 4oc.
139 —— Report of the State Botanist 1909. 116p. 1opl. May 1910. 45c.
750 ——— Report of the State Botanist 1910. 1100p. 5pl. May torr. 30c.
i577 Report of the State Botanist 1911. 1140p. opl.. Mar. 1912. 35c.
LOZ weporu OL tae state Botanist 1912. “138p.. 4pl. . Sept. 1913. | 30c.
t76—— Report of the State Botanist 1913. 78p: 17pl. June 19r5. 20c.
179 Report of the State Botanist 1914. 108p. ipl. Dec. 1915. 20c.

186 House, H. D. Report of the State Botanist 1915.- 118p. il. gpl. Aug. 1,
1916. 30c.

Archeology. 16 Beauchamp, W. M. Aboriginal Chipped Stone Implements
ot New York. 86p: 23pl. Oct. 1897. 25c.

18 —— Polished Stone Articles Used by the New York Aborigines. 104p.
35pl. Nov. 1897. 25c.

22 —— Earthenware of the New York Aborigines. 78p. 33pl. Oct. 1808.
256.

32 Aboriginal Occupation of New York. 190p. 16pl. 2 maps. Mar.
NOOO: BOC:

4i —— Wampum and Shell Articles Used by New York Indians. 166p.

28pl. Mar. 1901. Out of print.

50 Horn and. Bone Implements of the New York Indians. t12p. 43pl.
Mar. 1902. Out of print.

55 —— Metallic Implements of the New York Indians. 94p. 38pl. June
1902. 25C.

73 Metallic Ornaments of the New. York Indians. 122p. 37pl. Dec.
1903. 30C.

78 History of the New York Iroquois. 340p. 17pl. map. Feb. 1905.

ase

87 Perch Lake Mounds. 84p. 12pl. Apr. 1905. 20c.

89 Aboriginal Use of Wood in New York. 1190p. 35pl. June 1905.

Not available.

108 Aboriginal Place Names of New York. 336p. May 1907. 40c.

rr3 Civil, Religious and Mourning Councils and Ceremonies of Adop-
Hone Inspy 7ple june 1907. 25¢.

m17 Parker, A. ©. An .Erie Indian Village and Burial Site. 102p. 38pl.
Dee ero07-- 130:

125 Converse, H. M. & Parker, A. C. Iroquois Myths and Legends. 1096p.
teminolaoWecsTOO8. 50c.

144 Parker, A. C. Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants. 120p.
il. 31pl. Nov. 1910. Out of print.

163 —— The Code of Handsome Lake. 1r44p. 23pl. Nov. 1912. 25c.

184 —— The Constitution of the Five Nations. 158p. 8pl. April1, 1916. 30c.

Miscellaneous. 62 Merrill, F. J. H. Directory of Natural History Museums
in United States and Canada. 236p. Apr. 1903. 30c.

66 Ellis, Mary. Index to Publications of the New York State Natural
History Survey and New York State Museum 1837-1902. 418p. June
LOOZ) 75C, CLOLI.

Museum memoirs 1889-date. 4to.

t Beecher, C. E. & Clarke, J. M. Development of Some Silurian Brachi-
opoda. 96p. 8pl. Oct. 180- $1.

2 Hall, James & Clarke, J. M. Paleozoic Reticulate Sponges. 35o0p. il. 7opl.
1898. $2, cloth.

3 Clarke, J. M. The. Oriskany Fauna of Becraft Mountain, Columbia Co.,
NEVE 12s. opl, Oct. 1900.) ~Soc:

4 Peck, C. H. N. Y. Edible Fungi, 1895-99. 1106p. 25pl. - Nov. 1900. 75c,
This includes revised descriptions and illustrations of fungi reported in the 4oth, 51st and

52d reports of the State Botanist.

5 Clarke, J. M. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. Guelph Formation and Fauna of
New York State. 1096p. 21pl. July 1903. $1.50, cloth.

6 Clarke, J. M. Naples Fauna in Western New York. 268p. 26pl. map.
1904. $2, cloth.

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

7 Ruedemann, Rudolf. Graptolites of New York. Pt 1 Graptolites of the
Lower Beds. 350p. 17pl. Feb. 1905. $1.50, cloth.

8 Felt, E. PR. Insects Affecting Park and Woodland DPrees))yo1. “coms
il. 48pl. Feb. 1906. $2.50, cloth; v. 2. 548p. il. 22pl. Feb. 1907. $2, clot
$4. for the two volumes.

g Clarke, J. M. Early Devonic of New York and Eastern North America.
Pt 1. 366p. il. 7opl: 5 maps. Mar. 1908. $2.50, cloth; Pt 2. 250p. il. 36pl.
4 maps. Sept. 1909. $2, cloth.

to Eastman, C. R. The Devonic Fishes of the New York Formations.
236p. I5pl. 1907. $1.25, cloth.

tr Ruedemann, Rudolf. Graptolites of New York. Pt 2 Graptolitessyor
the Higher Beds. 584p. il. 31pl. 2 tab. Apr. 1908. $2.50, cloth.

12 Baton, E. H. Birds of “New York. v. 1. 5Sorp. il) 4242p Apia come
$3, cloth; v.2,719p.il. 64pl. July 1914. $4, cloth. $6. for the two vo!umes.
106 colored plates in portfolio $1.

13 Whitlock, H. P. Calcitesof New York. tIg9o0p.il 27pl. Oct. 1910. $1, cloth.

14 Clarke, J. M. & Ruedemann, Rudolf. The Eurypterida of New York. v. 1.
Text. 44op. il. v.2 Plates. 188p. 88pl. Dec. 1912. $4, cloth.

15 House, Homer D. Wild Flowers of New York. In press.

Natural History of New York. 30 v. il. pl. maps. 4to. Albany 1842-94.

DIVISION I zooLoGy. De Kay, James. E. Zoology of New York; or, The
New York Fauna; comprising detailed descriptions of all the animals
hitherto observed within the State of New York with brief notices of
those occasionally found near its borders, and accompanied. by appropri-
ate illustrations. 5v. il. pl. maps. sq. 4to. Albany 1842-44. Oui of ee
Historical introduction to the series by Gov. W. H. Seward. 178p.

Vik pil Mammalia. i13r 4-46p-) 5 3aplar) Teqo.

300 copies with hand-colored plates.

Ve 2ape2, Birds, s 512) e250 p) wlan oly sodas
Colored plates.

v. 3 pt3 Reptiles and Amphibia. 7 + 98p. pt 4 Fishes. 15 + 415p. 1842.
pt3—4 bound together.

v. 4 Plates to accompany v. 3. Reptiles and Amphibia. 23pl. Fishes.
79pl. 1842.

300 copies with hand-colored plates.

v. 5 pt5 Mollusca. 4 + 271p. 4opl. pt 6 Crustacea. 7op. 13pl. 1843-44:
Hand-colored plates; pt5-6 bound together.

DIVISION 2 BOTANY. ‘Torrey, John. Flora of the State of New York; com-
prising full descriptions of all the indigenous and naturalized plants hith-
erto discovered in the State, with remarks on their economical and medical
properties. 2v. il. pl. sq. 4to. Albany 1843. Out of print.

v. 1 Flora of the State of New York. 12 + 484p. 72pl. 1843.

300 copies with hand-colored plates.

v. 2 Flora of the State of New York. 572p. 89pl. 1843.

300 copies with hand-colored plates.

DIVISION 3 MINERALOGY. Beck, Lewis C. Mineralogy of New York; com-
prising detailed descriptions of the minerals hitherto found in the State
of New York, and notices of their uses in the arts and agriculture. il. pl.
sq. 4to. Albany 1842. Out of print.

v. I ptr Economical Mineralogy. pt2 Descriptive Mineralogy. 24 + 536p.
1842.

8 plates additional to those printed as part of the text.
DIVISION 4 GEOLOGY. Mather, W. W.; Emmons, Ebenezer; Vanuxem, Lard-

ner & Hall, James. Geology of New York. av. il. pl. sq. 4to. Albany
1842-43. Out of print.

v. 1 ptr Mather, W. W. First Geological District. 37 + 653p. 46pl. 1843. ~

TT Oe kg

MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS

vy. 2 pt2 Emmons, Ebenezer. Second Geological District. 10 + 437D-
17pl. 1842.

v. 3 pt3 Vanuxem, Lardner. Third Geological District. 306p. 1842.

vy. 4 pt4 Hall, James. Fourth Geological District. 22 +> 683p. gpl.
map. 1843.

DIVISION 5 AGRICULTURE. Emmons, Ebenezer. Agriculture of New York;
comprising an account of the classification, composition and distribution
of the soils and rocks and the natural waters of the different geological
formations, together with a condensed view of the meteorology and agti-
cultural productions of the State. 5v. i. pl. sq. 4to. Albany 1846-54.
Out of print.

vy. I Scils of the State, Their Composition and Distribution. I! 37 hd 2 NL
1846.

y 2 Analysis of Soils, Plants, Cereals, etc. 8 + 343 + 46p. 42pl. 1849.

With hand-colored plates.

v. 3 Fruits, etc. 8 + 340P. 1851.
v. 4 Plates to accompany Vv. 3. gs5pl. 1851.

Hand-colored.

v. 5 Insects Injurious to Agriculture. 8 + 272p. 5sopl. 1854.
With hand-colored plates.

DIVISION 6 PALEONTOLOGY. Hall, James. Paleontology of New York. 8v.
il. pl. sq. 4to. Albany 1847-94. Bound in cloth.

vy. 1 Organic Remains of the Lower Division of the New York System.
23 + 338p. 99pl. 1847. Out of print.

vy. 2 Organic Remains of Lower Middle Division of the New York System.
8 + 362p. 104pl. 1852. Out of print.

' vy. 3 Organic Remains of the Lower Helderberg Group and the Oriskany
Gandstone. ptr, text. 12 + 532p. 1859. [$3-50]

ata Ip Ler. [$2.50]

vy 4 Fossil Brachiopoda of the Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage and
Chemung Groups. If + 1 + 428p. 6opl. 1867. $2.50.

Wea Dur f Lamellibranchiata 1. Monomyaria of the Upper Helderberg,
Hamilton and Chemung Groups. 18 + 2068p. 45pl. 1884. $2.50.

__ __ [amellibranchiata 2. Dimyaria of the Upper Helderberg, Ham-
iitton, Portage and Chemung Groups. 62 + 2903p. 5ipl. 1885. $2.50.

—— pt 2 Gasteropoda, Pteropoda and Cephalopoda of the Upper Helder-
berg, Hamilton, Portage and Chemung Groups. 2v. 1879. vV- 1; text.
Tee Aogps .ve2- L2opl. $2.50 for 2 v.

—_— & Simpson, George B. v. 6 Corals and Bryozoa of the Lower and Up-
per Helderberg and Hamiiton Groups. 24 + 2098p. 67pl. 1887. $2.50.

meee Olarke,. joon,M.. Vv. 7 Trilobites and Other Crustacea of the Oris-
kany, Upper Helderberg, Hamilton, Portage, Chemung and Catskill
Groups. 64 + 236p. 46pl. 1888. Cont. supplement to v. 5, pt 2. ‘Ptero-
poda, Cephalopoda and Annelida. 42p. 18pl. 1888. $2.50.

& Clarke, John M. v. 8 ptl. Introduction to the Study of the Genera
of the Paleozoic Brachiopoda. 16 + 367P. 44pl. 1892. $2.50.

—— & Clarke, John M. v. 8 pt 2 Paleozoic Brachiopoda. 16 -F 394P. 64pl.
1894. $2.50.

Catalogue of the Cabinet of Natural History of the State of New York and
of the Historical and Antiquarian Collection annexed thereto. 242p. 8vo
1853. Out of print.

Handbooks 1893-date.
New York State Museum. §2Pp- il. 1902. Out of print.

Outlines history and work of the museum with list of staff 1902.

Paleontology. 12p. 1899. Ouft of print.

_Brief outline of State Museum work in paleontology under heads: Definition; Relation to
biology; Relation to stratigraphy; History of paleontology in New York.

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Guide to Excursions in the Fossiliferous Rocks of New York. I24p. 1899.
Free.

Itineraries of 32 trips covering nearly the entire series of Paleozoic rocks, prepared specially . |
or the use of teachers and students desiring to acquaint themselves more intimately with the

classic rocks of this State.

Entomology. 16p. 1899. Out of print.

Economic Geology. 44p. 1904. Out of print.

Insecticides and Fungicides. 2op. 1909. Free.

Classification of New York Series of Geologic Formations. 32p. 1903. Out
of print. Revised edition. 96p. 1912. Free.

Geologic maps. Merrill, F. J. H. Economic and Geologic Map of the
State of New York; issued as part of Museum Bulletin 15 and 48th Museum
Report, val) (50 x 67 em.) 1804) Seale 14 mules to 1 inch. Pyiye

—— Map of the State of New York Showing the Location of Quarries of
Stone Used for Building and Road Metal. 1897. Out of print.

—-— Map of the State of New York Showing the Distribution of the Rocks
Most Useful for Road Metal. 18097. Out of print. : :

—— Geologic Map of New York. 1901. Scale 5 miles to 1 inch. Jn aflas
form $2. Lower Hudson sheet 60c.

The lower Hudson sheet, ‘geologically colored, comprises Rockland, Orange, Dutchess,
Putnam, Westchester, New York, Richmond, Kings, Queens and Nassau counties, and parts
of Sullivan, Ulster and Suffolk counties; also northeastern New Jersey and part of western

onnecticut. ; ;

Map of New York Showing the Surface Configuration and Water Sheds.

I90I. Scale 12 miles to1inch. 15c.

Map of the State of New York Showing the Location of Its Economic
Deposits. 1904. Scale 12 miles to 1 inch. I5c.

Geologic maps on the United States Geological Survey topographic base.
Scale I in. = 1 m. Those marked with an asterisk have also been pub-
lished separately.

Albany county. 1898. Out of print.

Area around Lake Placid. 18098.

Vicinity of Frankfort Hill [parts of Herkimer and Oneida counties]. 1899.

Rockland county. 1899.

Amsterdam quadrangle. 1900.

*Parts of Albany and Rensselaer counties. 1901. Out of print.

“Niagara river. 1901. 25¢c.

Part of Clinton county. 1901.

Oyster Bay and Hempstead quadrangles on Long Island. 1gor.

Portions of Clinton and Essex counties. 1902.

Part of town of Northumberland, Saratoga co. 1903.

Union Springs, Cayuga county and vicinity. 1903.

*Olean quadrangle. 1903. Out of print.

*Becraft Mt with 2 sheets of sections. (Scale 1 in. =m.) 1903. 20¢.

*Canandaigua-Naples quadrangles. 1904. 20c.

*Little Falls quadrangle. 1905. Free.

*Watkins-Elmira quadrangles. 1905. 200.

*Tully quadrangle. 1905. Free.

*Salamanca quadrangle. 1905. Out of print.

*Mooers quadrangle. 1905. Free.

Paradox Lake quadrangle. 1905.

“Buffalo quadrangle. 1906. Free.

“Penn Yan-Hammondsport quadrangles. 1906. 2o0c.

*Rochester and Ontario Beach quadrangles. NOOVe) OC:

*Long Lake quadrangle. 1907. Free.

*Nunda-Portage quadrangles. 1908. 20c.

*Remsen quadrangle. 1908. Free.

*Geneva-Ovid quadrangles. 1909. 20¢.

*Port Leyden quadrangle. 1910. Free.

*Auburn-Genoa quadrangles. 1910. 20¢.

*Elizabethtown and Port Henry quadrangles. LOLOnn ses

*Alexandria Bay quadrangle. 1910. Free.

MUSEUM PUBLICATIONS

*Cape Vincent quadrangle. 1910. Free. _

*Clayton quadrangle. i910. Free.

_*Grindstone quadrangle. i1g1o. Free.

*Theresa quadrangle. 1910. Free.

*Poughkeepsie quadrangle. i911. Free.

*Honeoye-Wayland quadrangles. I9II. 20c.

*Broadalbin quadrangle. I911. Free.

*Schenectady quadrangle Ig11. Free.

*Saratoga-Schuylerville quadrangles. 1914. 20¢.

*North Creek quadrangle. i914. Free.

*Syracuse quadrangle. I914. Free.

*Attica-Depew quadrangles. I914. 20c.

*Lake Pleasant quadrangle. I916. Free.

*Saratoga quadrangle. 1916. Free.

*Canton quadrangle. 1916. Free.

*Brier Hill, Ogdensburg and Red Mills quadrangles. 1916. 20c.

*Blue Mountain quadrangle. 1916. Free.”

*Brier Hill, Ogdensburg and Red Mills quadrangles. I916. I5c.

*Blue Mountain quadrangle. 1916. Free.

*Glens Falls, Saratoga, Schuylerville, Schenectady and Cohoes quadrangles.
ROL 72.7 20C.

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