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New York State Museum Bulletin

Published by The University of the State of New York

No. 315

ALBANY, N. Y.

September 1938

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Charles C. Adams, Director

1 ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER

OZARKIAN OF NEW YORK with a Chapter
on the Importance of Coralline Algae as Reef
Builders through the Ages

2 ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PREVIOUSLY

DESCRIBED DEVONIAN CRINOIDS

By

Winifred Goldring D.Sc.

Assistant State Paleontologist,

New York State Museum

3 FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY,
NEW YORK
By

Gerrard R. Megathlin Ph.D.

ALBANY

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

_ 1938

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THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

Regents of the University
With years when terms expire

1943 Thomas J. Mangan M.A., LL.D., Chancellor - Binghamton

1945 William J. Wallin M.A., LL.D., Vice Chan-

cellor - Yonkers

1950 Roland B. Woodward M.A., LL.D. - - - - Rochester

1939 Wm Leland Thompson B.A., LL.D. - - - - Troy

1948 John Lord O’Brian B.A., LL.B., LL.D. - - - Buffalo

1940 Grant C. Madill M.D., LL.D. ------ Ogdensburg

1942 George Hopkins Bond Ph.M., LL.B., LL.D - Syracuse

1946 Owen D. Young B.A., LL.B., D.C.S., LL.D. - New York

1949 Susan Brandeis B.A., J.D. - -- -- -- New York

1947 C. C. Mollenhauer LL.D. ------- Brooklyn

1941 George J. Ryan Litt.D., LL.D. ------ Flushing

1944 Gordon Knox Bell B.A., LL.B. ----- New York

President of the University and Commissioner of Education

Frank P. Graves Ph.D., Litt.D., L.H.D., LL.D., D.C.L.

Deputy Commissioner and Counsel

Ernest E. Cole LL.B., Pd.D., LL.D.

Associate Commissioner and Acting Assistant Commissioner for Instructional Supervision

George M. Wiley M.A., Pd.D., L.H.D., LL.D.

Associate Commissioner and Acting Assistant Commissioner for Higher and
Professional Education

Harlan H. Horner M.A., Pd.D., LL.D.

Associate Commissioner and Acting Assistant Commissioner for Vocational and
Extension Education

Lewis A. Wilson D.Sc., LL.D.

Assistant Commissioner for Research

J. Cayce Morrison M.A., Ph.D., LL.D.

Assistant Commissioner for Teacher Education

Hermann Cooper M.A., Ph.D., LL.D.

Assistant Commissioner for Personnel and Public Relations

Lloyd L. Cheney B.A., Pd.D.

Assistant Commissioner for Finance

Alfred D. Simpson M.A., Ph.D.

Director of State Library

Director of State Museum

Charles C. Adams M.S., Ph.D., D.Sc.

State Historian

Alexander C. Flick M.A., Litt.D., Ph.D., LL.D., L.H.D.

Directors of Divisions

Adult Education and Library Extension, Frank L. Tolman Ph.B.,
Pd.D.

Examinations and Testing,

Health and Physical Education, Hiram A. Jones M.A., Ph.D.
Higher Education, Irwin A. Conroe M.A.

Law, Charles A. Brind jr B.A., LL.B.

Motion Picture, Irwin Esmond Ph.B., LL.B.

Professional Education, Charles B. Heisler B.A.

Research, Warren W. Coxe B.S., Ph.D.

School Administrative Services, Ray P. Snyder

School Buildings and Grounds, Gilbert L. Van Auken B.Arch.

N ew Y ork State Museum Bulletin

Published by The University of the State of New York

No. 315 ALBANY, N. Y. September 1938

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Charles C. Adams, Director

1 ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER

OZARKIAN OF NEW YORK with a Chapter
on the Importance of Coralline Algae as Reef
Builders through the Ages

2 ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PREVIOUSLY

DESCRIBED DEVONIAN CRINOIDS

By

Winifred Goldring D.Sc.

Assistant State Paleontologist,

New York State Museum

3 FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY,
NEW YORK

By

Gerrard R. Megathlin Ph.D.

ALBANY

THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK

1938

Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2017 with funding from
IMLS LG-70-15-0138-15

https://archive.org/details/newyorkstatemuse3151newy

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Figure i Outline map of northern New York and western Vermont show-
ing occurrences of Cryptozoon 9

Figure 2 Section of topographic map showing distribution of Crypto-

zobn in Saratoga Springs area 11

Figure 3 Cryptozoon proliferum reef, “Petrified Gardens” 13

Figure 4 One of the largest stocks of Cryptozoon proliferum 14

Figure 5 Cryptozoon proliferum reef in “Petrified Gardens,” showing

coarse sand filling 15

Figure 6 Slab of Hoyt limestone showing macerated remains of Crypto-
zoon proliferum 16

Figure 7 Solution crevice in Cryptozoon proliferum reef, “Petrified

Gardens.” Vertical sections and attachment of heads shown. . 19

Figure 8 Vertical section of single head of Cryptozoon proliferum 20

Figure 9 Cryptozoon proliferum reef in Lester park 25

Figure 10 Stringers of Cryptozoon proliferum in rill channels. North of

Lester park 26

Figure 11 Exhibition group of Cryptozoon proliferum in New York State

Museum 29

Figure 12 Thin sections of Cryptozoon proliferum showing budding and

oolites 33

Figure 13 Cryptozoon proliferum: A, thin section with oolites ; B, polished

section of small head 34

Figure 14 Photomicrographs of Cryptozoon proliferum 37

Figure 15 Photomicrographs: A, Cryptozoon proliferum; B, C. ruede-

manni 38

Figure 16 Cryptozoon ruedemanni reef in Hoyt quarry near Lester park. . 39

Figure 17 Cryptozoon ruedemanni stock on hill four miles west of Sara-
toga Springs 40

Figure 18 Photomicrographs of Cryptozoon ruedemanni 41

Figure 19 Slab of Cryptozoon undulatum, “Petrified Gardens” 45

Figure 20 Specimen of Cryptozoon undulatum used as bird bath, “Petrified

Gardens” 46

Figure 21 Weathered specimen of Cryptozoon undulatum 47

Figure 22 Photomicrographs of Cryptozoon undulatum 48

Figure 23 Crinoids : Gennaeocrinus similis, Gilbertsocrinus spinigerus,

Craterocrinus schoharie 79

Figure 24 Crinoids : Craterocrinus schoharie 80

Figure 25 Index map showing the location of the Mohawk Valley region

and its relation to the major structures 87

Figure 26 The St Johnsville escarpment 89

Figure 27 Geologic sketch map of a portion of the Mohawk Valley 95

Figure 28 Exposure of the Manheim fault on East Canada creek 103

Figure 29 The Manheim fault on East Canada creek 107

Figure 30 Structure section along line A- A hi

[3]

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. ... ;

1 ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER
OZARKIAN OF NEW YORK with a Chapter
on the Importance of Coralline Algae as Reef
Builders through the Ages

By

Winifred Goldring

CONTENTS

The reefs 7

The nature of Cryptozoon 21

Supplementary note 31

The three species of Cryptozoon 32

Cryptozoon proliferum . . 32

Cryptozoon ruedemanni 36

Cryptozoon undulatum 43

Alteration of coralline algal deposits 49

The importance of coralline algae as reef -builders through the ages 51

Bibliography 67

Supplementary note 74

[5]

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THE REEFS

In Lower Ozarkian times (uppermost Cambrian of authors) a
notable succession of barrier reefs, composed entirely of species of
the calcareous alga Cryptozoon, bordered the oldland of the Adiron-
dacks, stretching from the east around the southern end of the oldland
through the Mohawk Valley area and westward for an unknown dis-
tance beyond the present site of Utica.

Following the deposition of the Grenville sediments in the Adiron-
dack region and their invasion from beneath by great- masses of
igneous rock, there ensued a very long period of erosion of the
region during which it was above sea level. According to Cushing
(1916, p. 55), “there is no evidence to controvert the statement that
the Adirondack region was a land area throughout all the great lapse
of Precambrian time following Grenville deposition . . This long
erosion period continued throughout the Cambrian in this area. A
great thickness of rock was removed from the surface, resulting finally
in the reduction of the entire region to one of low altitude and small
relief. The Adirondack region then developed a tendency to doming
upward centrally with sagging at the margins. Depression occurred
on all four sides of this region permitting invasions of the sea and
the formation of deposits on the old erosion surface. Deposition began
in the northeast (Clinton county) in Lower Ozarkian time with coarse
conglomerates followed by sands, constituting the initial deposits of
the Potsdam sandstone. Sagging was extended progressively and
slowly to the southward up the Champlain trough and westward up
the St Lawrence trough, only the upper part of the Potsdam formation
being found in the Saratoga region. As shown by the marine fossils,
the upper portion of the formation must have been laid down in
shallow marine waters. Succeeding the sands of the Potsdam is the
series of alternating sands and dolomites constituting the Theresa for-
mation. Through lowering of the bordering lands by erosion the sand
supply was lessened, calcareous matter was increased and dolomite
began to be deposited. The trough or bay along the St Lawrence line
was landlocked on the north, south and west. As with the underlying
sandstone, thickness increases eastward and diminishes westward in
the St Lawrence trough and southward in the Champlain trough. As
the sands steadily diminished in frequency and thickness the Theresa
formation graded up into the thick Little Falls dolomite, also marine,
(locally the Hoyt limestone) in the Mohawk and Champlain valleys.

8

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

I

Uplift following Theresa sedimentation raised the northern part of the
State above sea level, so that no representation of the Little Falls is
found in the northern part of the Champlain valley and there is nothing
in the St Lawrence region which can be directly correlated with the
Little Falls unless the heavy sandstone (Heuvelton beds) at the top of
the Theresa represents the upper cherty beds seen at Little Falls and
elsewhere (Cushing, 1916, p. 34).

Great reefs of Cryptozoon species have been found at several hori-
zons in exposures of Little Falls throughout its extent. The profusion
of growth of these calcareous algae indicates a congenial climate and
conditions supporting abundant life. The Hoyt limestone is a more
calcareous and more fossiliferous phase of the lower portion of the
Little Falls dolomite, and is preeminently a reef formation, carrying
three horizons of reefs, each built up by a different species. (See
Cushing and Ruedemann, 1914; Cushing, 1916.)

Following the deposition of the Little Falls dolomite mild uplift
brought fhe troughs above sea level and they existed as land for a
time. Eventually depression was renewed, apparently beginning simul-
taneously on the west, south and east sides of the Adirondacks and the
Tribes Hill formation (calcareous sandstones, sandy limestones and
dolomites), constituting basal Canadian (Lower Ordovician of
authors) was laid down on the south, west and north of the Adiron-
dacks in the Mohawk valley and the St Lawrence region. Uplift fol-
lowing brought the south and west sides of the district above sea level,
and subsidence continued only in the Champlain valley and the deposi-
tion of the great thickness of the later Beekmantown beds (Canadian)
began (divisions B [in part] and C). As Beekmantown time con-
tinued the St Lawrence trough became involved, the depression extend-
ing westerly up that trough to the Ogdensburg region, and the deposi-
tion of the Ogdensburg limestone (age of division D) went on as
Beekmantown deposition continued in the Champlain trough. At the
close of the Beekmantown the whole region was raised above sea level
(Cushing and Ruedemann, 1914; Cushing, 1916). Species of Cryp-
tozoon have been found in the basal Cassin formation (Beekmantown,
upper D) of the Champlain valley (Ruedemann, 1906) and in the
Bald Mountain limestone (correlated with Cassin beds; Beekmantown
D, E) at Middle Falls and Bald mountain, Schuylerville area (Ruede-
mann, 1914). Two horizons of different species are reported from the
Ogdensburg limestone (Cushing, 1916).

Evidently reef conditions continued into Beekmantown (Canadian)
time but the reefs were not as frequent or as well developed. The

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

9

Ozarkian reefs stretched from the east side of the Adirondack region
southward and westward through the Mohawk Valley region, while
the Canadian reefs were formed in the submerged areas to the east,
northeast and northwest of the Adirondack region and stretched north-
ward (figure i).

Figure i Outline map of northern New York and western Vermont
showing the distribution of reported occurrences of Cryptozoon.
O = Ozarkian (uppermost Cambrian of authors); Q — Canadian:
Beekmantown or its equivalent (Lower Ordovician of authors).

The Little Falls dolomite and its calcareous basal phase the Hoyt
limestone, as pointed out above, carry reefs built by three species of
calcareous algae, Cryptozoon proliferum Hall, C. ruedemanni Roth-
pletz and C. undulatum Bassler (see p. 32). The first two species,
so far as known, only occur in the Hoyt limestone ; C. undulatum in
both the Hoyt and the Little Falls. In the Mohawk valley Cryptozoon
reef conditions have been found nearly as far west as Utica. About a

10

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

quarter of a mile south of Middleville along the Herkimer-Middleville
state highway is a 500-foot exposure of Little Falls dolomite showing
a reef of C. undulatum. This species has also been found along the
Saratoga-East Galway state road (route 29), two and a quarter miles
directly east of East Galway and about one-half mile beyond (west of)
the bridge across Kayaderosseras creek. Here undulatum is found in
what the writer has interpreted as basal Little Falls, at least the occur-
rence is close to the boundary between the Theresa beds and the Little
Falls dolomite. C. undulatum is found, associated with oolite, in the
Hoyt limestone of the Saratoga Springs area in the Greenfield railroad
cut just east of the junction with the Greenfield-South Greenfield road
and east of this in the Corinth state road cut at the underpass ; three-
eighths of a mile south of South Greenfield four corners on the east
side of the road ; just southeast of the above locality in the brook on the
north side of the road following the Milton-Greenfield town line and
in Ritchie park, forming the ledge upon which the house stands. In
the Little Falls dolomite of this area undulatum occurs in the bank
above (south of) Disappearing brook, about half a mile east of the
Ritchie place. This species has also been found two miles north of
Mayfield along the Sacandaga state road in Walker’s quarry, which is
in the Little Falls dolomite near the base of the formation, and Cushing
and Ruedemann (1914, p. 45) have reported the species from the
summit of the Little Falls at Ticonderoga.

C. proliferum, so far as is known, is found only in the Hoyt lime-
stone. In the Saratoga Springs region (figure 2) it is found in Ritchie
and Lester parks, whence it continues northward, and in the railroad
quarry one mile north of the city. In the same area prolifdrum occurs
near the summit of a hill about three-quarters of a mile somewhat
northeast of North Milton. The rock in this area was originally
mapped by Cushing as Little Falls dolomite (Cushing and Ruedemann,
1914) but later as Hoyt limestone (Colony, 1930). Both the reef
occurrences and the character of the rock indicate that the Hoyt con-
tinues into this area. Proliferum has also been found (Ruedemann)
at the top of Skene mountain north of Whitehall.

C. ruedemanni has the same distribution as proliferum in the Sara-
toga Springs region and has not been found elsewhere. It occurs as
a reef several feet above the proliferum reef in the Hoyt limestone.

The three algal reefs and their relations are best studied in the Sara-
toga Springs area (figure 2) and particularly in Ritchie park, which
comprises over 20 acres. Ritchie and Lester parks are located respec-
tively two and a quarter and two and a half miles west of Saratoga

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

II

Springs on the east side of a road running north from the State
highway (route 29) to Greenfield Center. Ritchie park (“Petrified
Gardens”) is three-quarters of a mile north of the state road; Lester
park a little over a mile and a quarter. The same reefs continue
through both parks and northward. The Ritchie house stands on a

Figure 2 Section of topographic map showing the distribution of species
of Cryptozoon in the Saratoga Springs area. P, prolijerum; R,
ruedemanni; U, undulatum.

ledge composed of beds dipping S. 28° W. at an angle of 70. The
top of the ledge is formed by a four-foot reef of C. undulatum, beneath
which are 40 inches of gray, sandy dolomite and below again to the
base of the ledge 34 inches of coarse sandstone with little if any lime.
The ruedemanni reef is exposed in the field east of the house (150
feet) and slightly northeast (200 feet), the top being eight feet below
the base of the undulatum reef. The prolijerum reef outcrops about
400 feet east of the house and the top of the reef is 16 feet below the
base of the undulatum reef. The ruedemanni reef as shown in the
ledge east of the house has a thickness of about 28 inches below which
is exposed about one foot of coarse sandy dolomite and above three
feet of sandy dolomite. The prolijerum beds here have a dip of 70

12

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

to 8° in a direction S. 330 W. Between 500 and 600 feet southeast of
the Ritchie house in Ritchie park is a ledge of ruedemanni, 40 feet
below the top of the undulatum ledge on which the house rests. About
150 feet northeast in the woods is a quarry showing well the ruede-
manni reef at practically the same elevation as the occurrence at the
ledge above. At the base of the old quarry wall are shown 5 inches
of coarse sandstone with little lime, followed by 31 inches of thin-
bedded sandy dolomite, 40 inches of ruedemanni reef (the lower 22
inches most typical), 37 inches of thin-bedded dolomite without Cryp-
tozoon, but with sandy layers and lenses ; 20 inches of coarse heavily
bedded sandstone, with little if any lime ; something over 5 feet of
sandy dolomite, more thin-bedded in the basal foot. The top of the
ledge here as in the locality just mentioned shows specimens of ruede-
manni smaller and more scattered than in the exposures near the
house. Some of the individuals are drawn out in stringers as though
they grew in rill channels. These stringers run roughly N. io° E.
The shore line must have been at right angles to these rill channels,
that is, running roughly close to an east-west direction.

Between 200 and 300 feet southeast of the quarry in Ritchie park
is found the finest exposure of C. proliferum known (figure 3).
Between this spot and the outcrop east of the house, this reef is gradu-
ally being uncovered through the efforts of Robert Ritchie, the owner,
so that soon there will be a continuous exposure. There are between
five and eight feet from the base of the ruedemanni reef in the
quarry to the top of this proliferum reef. The beds here dip S. 30°
W. at an angle of 50. The proliferum reef is 12 to 15-f- inches thick
in this locality. Under the reef in the crevices (figure 7) are exposed
something over six feet of sandy dolomite, and then below this again
is calcareous sandstone. Oolitic structure is shown in the rock beneath
the proliferum specimens, which is also an indication of reef condi-
tions (figure 12, 13 A). The proliferum heads or stocks are concentric
growths, somewhat resembling a cabbage in structure, which in general
have had their tops sheared off by the glacier that passed over the
region. The stocks are very large in this most southern exposure in
Ritchie park. They are usually composed of a number of budded
individuals (figure 12 A) growing together into specimens reaching
two to three feet and over in diameter (figure 11). Sometimes one
individual may attain this size (figure 4). Evidently in this part of
the reef the conditions were most favorable to growth, because indi-
viduals and stocks are also very closely crowded together. There is a
coarse sand filling between the separate heads or stocks of proliferum ,
which through weathering stands out in places as conspicuous ridges

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Figure 4 One of the largest stocks taken from the Cryptozobn proliferum reef, ‘ Petrified Gardens
( Ritchie park). Approximately three feet in greatest diameter. (Photograph by E. J. Stein).

[15]

Figure 5 Section of the Cryptosoon proliferum reef showing the coarse sand filling between individual
heads or stocks. "Petrified Gardens” (Ritchie park). (Photograph E. J. Stein).

[16]

Figure 6 Slab of Hoyt limestone showing the macerated remains of Cryptosoon proliferum, giving the
appearance of an edgewise conglomerate. “Petrified Gardens” (Ritchie park). (Photograph by

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

17

(figure 5). This condition would seem to favor organic rather than
inorganic origin for these structures. In the sand filling have been
found fragments of trilobite remains and in places macerated pieces
of Cryptozoons, usually long strips. In the area in process of being
cleared there are spots where the macerated remains of these algae
constitute a filling of considerable mass, giving the appearance of an
edgewise conglomerate (figure 6). Many individuals show well the
dichotomous budding which is characteristic of plants, another fact in
favor not only of organic but of plant origin.

In Lester park a little over half a mile to the north and along the
same road is an exposure of the same reef. Here, although there are
some fair-sized specimens, the preponderance of the stocks and indi-
vidual heads are fairly small and considerably less crowded together
(figure 9). The coarse sand filling is well shown here, too, but no
macerated Cryptozoon material was seen. Just north of Lester park
a road comes in from the east (right). In the field on the north side
of this road, near the junction, this reef again outcrops but the habit
of the individuals is quite different. The specimens of proliferum
apparently grew in rill channels and instead of forming the cabbage-
like growths so characteristic are drawn out in long stringers (figure
10). These rill channels with the stringers run N. 35 °-37° W. There
are some heads and stocks in addition to the stringers, but they are
fairly small and more scattered in distribution.

The character of the proliferum reef as shown in the outcrops dis-
cussed above indicates to the writer that the specimens exposed in the
southern end of Ritchie park are on the outer side of the reef toward
the open ocean where the waters were purer and conditions more
favorable to growth. The abundance of macerated Cryptozoon
material here would also indicate the same thing, since specimens
would be broken up by storm waves. Lester park then would be on
the shore side, as would be expected from the more sandy character of
the rock, the smaller more scattered specimens, and the stringers of
proliferum found in the rill channels just to the north. These rill
channels must have run roughly at right angles to the shore line
which therefore extended in a northeast-southwest direction.

The ruedemanni reef followed the proliferum reef after the deposi-
tion of five to eight feet or more of coarse limy sand and sandy
dolomite. One of the best exposures of the reef is found in the face
of the Hoyt quarry across the road (west) from Lester park (figure
16). Here the reef is five feet thick. At the summit of the hill about
three quarters of a mile northeast of North Milton is a reef of ruede-
manni with individuals between two and three feet in diameter and

i8

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

some even reaching a diameter of around four feet. In spots the
ruedemanni is found growing in stringers with the direction N. i8° E.
About five feet under this reef proliferum and ruedemanni are found
together and below again proliferum alone. It would seem that the
proliferum requires more favorable conditions, particularly purer
waters, in which to have its best development. In the locality just
discussed ruedemanni apparently came in with a scattered distribution
as more sand appeared and the proliferum grew less profusely.
Another fine exposure of ruedemanni occurs south of South Green-
field corners and four miles west of Saratoga Springs (Cushing and
Ruedemann, 1916, p. 45, pis. 9, 10). In each locality where the
ruedemanni reef has been studied it has been seen to follow sandy
dolomite and coarse limy sand or thin-bedded limestone and sandstone.
So far as present records go, the proliferum does not appear anywhere
above the Hoyt limestone and there only in the purer limestone phase.
During the growth of the ruedemanni reef in the Saratoga Springs
area the shoreline was somewhat changed from the northeast-south-
west direction it held while the proliferum reef flourished. In both
Ritchie park and the hill northeast of North Milton the stringers of
ruedemanni in rill channels have a northeast-southwest direction
(N. io° -180 E.), which would indicate a nearly east-west shore line.

C. undulatum like ruedemanni apparently thrived in less pure, more
sandy waters. The beds in which the undulatum reefs occur weather
very sandy, as also the beds of sandy dolomite and coarse limy sand-
stone found just beneath the reef. In the Ritchie park area the undu-
latum reef follows about eight feet above the top of the ruedemanni
reef in the upper part of the Hoyt formation. Reefs of this species
have been found in the lowest Little Falls dolomite (or uppermost
Theresa), in the basal part of the formation, toward the middle and
in the uppermost beds. Conditions must have been very congenial
throughout Little Falls time to permit the development of such a
succession of reefs.

The three species of Cryptozoon are discussed in detail below. They
are so very distinct in their habit of growth that they may be readily
recognized in the field. C. proliferum grows in heads or budded stocks
up to considerable size (figure 11), three feet and over in the case
of the largest stocks and sometimes individuals, which roughly resem-
ble cabbage heads and also have a very striking irregularly concentric
structure. The concentric structure is brought out beautifully by the
planing off of the upper parts of the heads during the continental
glaciation. In ruedemanni the concentric layers are more regularly
distributed and one finds instead of the compound, budded stocks as

Figure 7 One of the solution crevices in the Cryptosoon prolifermn reef,
southern part of the “Petrified Gardens’’ (Ritchie park). Vertical sec-
tions and the attachment of the heads are shown. (Photograph by
E. J. Stein).

[19J

[20]

Figure 8 Vertical section of a single head of Cryptosoon proliferum along a crevice, showing mode of
attachment and slightly rounded (unglaciated) upper surface. (Photograph by E. J. Stein).

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

21

in proliferum simple individuals up to about four feet in diameter
(figure 17). C. undulatum differs strikingly from the other two
species (figures 19-21). This form is composed of thin laminae, the
basal ones practically horizontal to the bedding plane. Soon a strong
wavy character is developed with frequent narrow or broad undula-
tions with narrower or sharper down-bending of the laminae. On the
bedding planes the wavy outlines seen in cross section appear as con-
centrically lined areas of varying diameter, corresponding to the width
of the undulation seen in transverse section.

In these calcareous algae, the remains are not those of the plant
itself, simply secretions of calcium carbonate upon the tissue of the
plant, the form of the plant, however, being well preserved in the lime-
stone secretions.

THE NATURE OF CRYPTOZOON

Steele (1825) in his paper on the limestones about Greenfield, Sara-
toga county, describes an oolitic formation, the first definite notice
of American oolites and one of the earliest of all references to the
oolitic horizons of the Paleozoic (Wieland, 1914). Steele calls
attention to the presence in this formation of a bed two feet in
thickness which “has imbedded, throughout its substance, great
quantities of calcareous concretions of a most singular structure ;
they are mostly hemispheral but many of them are globular and
vary in size from half an inch to that of two feet in diameter; they
are obviously composed of a series of successive layers, nearly
parallel and perfectly concentric; these layers have a compact tex-
ture, are of a dark blue or nearly black colour, and are united by
intervening layers of a lighter-coloured calcareous substance, either
stalactical or granular, they are very thin and I have counted more
than a hundred in one series” (ref. cit. p. 17). This was the first
mention of the Cryptozoon.

Hall in 1847 in a descripition of the “Calciferous sandstone” of
the Saratoga region mentions “a great number of what appear to
be the remains of sea plants” (p. 5) ; and points out that “it is
impossible in these, as in nearly all the remains of marine plants of
the Paleozoic rocks, to detect any structure which can be reliable
in making distinctions” (ref. cit.). In 1883 he described these bodies
as plants belonging to a new genus, Cryptozoon, with one species,
Cryptozoon proliferum. Here also Hall discusses the Hoyt farm
exposure and the continuation of this outcrop (our reef) for two
miles southward. The fossil is also cited as found at Little Falls,

22

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Herkimer county. Dana in his Manual of Geology, 1896 (p. 500)
places Cryptozoon proliferum with the hydrozoans, “if really organic.”
Walcott (19x2, p. 257, 258) repeats Hall’s description and figures,
with sections, specimens from “the Upper Cambrian [Ozarkian]
shaly calcareous sandstone resting on massive layers of Potsdam
sandstone east side of the town of Whitehall, Washington county,
New York.” Cryptozoon has also been found in Dutchess county in
the lower Wappinger limestone of Hoyt Age ( see Knopf, 1927,
p. 438).

Since the first description of Cryptozoon from the Cambrian
(Ozarkian) limestone at Saratoga, species have been described from
Ozarkian and Ordovician (Canadian) rocks in various places in this
country and others, as in the Cambrian rocks of Norway and
Lower Paleozoic strata of Ellesmere Land and elsewhere (Holtedahl,
1917, 1919) and the Ordovician of Eastern Asia (Kobayashi, 1931c,
p. 134; 1931&, p. 6, 8, 10, 12; 1933c, p. 62-64, 77; 1933&, p. 251-52).
Kobayashi writes (March 6, 1934) that this Ordovician Cryptozoon
reef constitutes a great display in South Manchuria and North Korea
and marks the base of the Ordovician ; that only the stratigraphical
horizon has been studied and no special study has yet been carried
out on the structure of this Cryptozoon. Cryptozoonlike forms have
been reported from Precambrian rocks and from more recent forma-
tions (Permian, Triassic, Cretaceous), some of which, at least,
are undoubtedly of inorganic origin; and doubt has been thrown on
the organic nature of all such forms (Seward, 1931, p. 86; see
discussion below).

Seely (1906, p. 160-68) describes, besides C. proliferum Hall,
three new species of Cryptozoon from the Beekmantown (Canadian)
of the Champlain valley: steeli, wingi and saxiroseum. The new
species are not accurately delineated or figured. Both the figures
and descriptions of steeli and wingi indicate that they are prob-
ably proliferum. C. steeli is recorded from the original locality of
Steele along the Greenfield-Ballston Spa, N. Y. road; from the
Beekmantown of Shoreham, Vt., where as in the original locality
the Cryptozoons rest upon oolitic rock ; and the Beekmantown of
Phillipsburg, Canada. C. wingi is also from the Beekmantown. Its
primary station is Mount Independence, Orwell, Vt., 100 rods
southeast of Fort Ticonderoga; Fort Ann, Washington county, N. Y.
and Colchester, Vt. C. saxiroseum was found in the Beekmantown
at East Beekmantown, Clinton county. He also cites from the Beek-
mantown formation, Lachute, P. Q., C. lachutense Dawson (1897,
p. 203). Seely calls attention to the fact that these fossils especially

ALGAL BARRIES REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

23

should be looked for wherever the oolitic strata of the Beekmantown
are exposed. He describes the sea in which these organisms grew
“as sweeping in an irregular crescent from Atlantic back to Atlantic
through the depression of the St Lawrence, broadening at Lake
Champlain. . . In these waters sea plants ; and animals of every
known type but one, found here their home. . . Among the lowly
forms of animals growing in the shallower waters was one increasing
by concentric laminae producing a rounded calcareous mass . . .

Cryptozoon” (ref. cit. p. 173). Seely places this organism with the
stromatoporoids (p. 171). Dawson (ref. cit. p. 205-211) in his
discussion of C. prolife rum and the new species described by him-
self from Canada and Winchell (1885) and Chaney (1889) from
the Upper Cambrian of Minnesota says “fossils of the type of
Cryptozoon constitute a type differing from that of the ordinary
Stromatopora, and probably inferior to them in organization.”

Grabau in his Index Fossils (1909, v. I, p. 46) places Cryptozoon
with the stromatoporoids, diagnosing it as follows: “Coenosteum of
irregular concentric laminae, transversed by minute canals which
branch and anastomose irregularly.” In his paper Further Notes
on Ozarkian Seaweeds and Oolites, Wieland (1914) discusses
Cryptozoon. After a survey of various described species he writes,
“Cryptozoon and the cherts, calcareous and siliceous oolites are
notable features of the Ozarkian, ever recurring together in the
field as objects of widening geologic interest. . . In the present paper
we briefly consider the evidence now going to show that Cryptozoon
belongs to a group of Algae which formed vast reefs in the Ozarkian
oceans, and also describe from the Conococheague of Pennsylvania
a new species, likewise of the reef-making type” (p. 237). This
new species from the lowermost Conococheague (Cryptozoon bassleri
Wieland) occurs closely associated with fine-grained oolites. Wieland
points out that the algal nature of Girvanella (Rothpletz, 1908), closely
related to Cryptozoon, and allied Asiatic genera Metasolenopora and
Petrophyton (Yabe, 1912) has been established, “although only
critical study as yet difficult to make can finally serve to separate
these several genera from the Stromatoporoids” (ref. cit. p. 239).
In the description of C. bassleri he calls attention to the cell struc-
ture as essentially the same as the highly palisaded Lithothamnium
type. C. bassleri is assumed to be of an algal nature because of
unquestioned relationship to C. proliferum (ref. cit. p. 244). In
concluding his discussion Wieland remarks: “it is now believed that
at least all those forms once included amongst the Stromatoporoids,
which lack a tubule system with corresponding surface pustulations

24

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

and are in greater part of characteristically laminate, linear, or much
branched Lithothamnium form, are all primative algae which form
the abundant record of a far more luxuriant seaweed growth than
has hitherto been understood to have characterized the Paleozoic
{ref. cit. p. 246).

In an article on The Cambrian and Ordovician Deposits of Mary-
land Bassler (1919) discusses two species of calcareous algae {Crypt-
ozoon proliferum and C. undulatum, a new species with laminae of
equal undulations) which have an important bearing on the age
determinations of certain formations in the Appalachian valley.
These two species occur in the Conococheague limestone (Ozarkian)
of Maryland and beds of the same age in Pennsylvania and New
Jersey. Southward in the Appalachian valley through Virginia,
Tennessee and Alabama and farther west in Oklahoma and Texas
the same Cryptozoon forms are also known in the Ozarkian (Dake
and Bridge 1932, p. 727). In describing the Conococheague of the
section in Hagerstown valley, Md., Bassler notes “a basal division
of 250 feet of oolite, edgewise conglomerate and Cryptozoon reefs,
the latter in a massive dark blue to light coloured rather pure lime-
stone constituting the lower 50 feet. . . The edgewise conglo-

merates and the oolites are shallow water deposits and the rounded
quartz grains occuring with them indicate nearby land (p. 78). . .

The two calcareous algae {Cryptozoon proliferum Hall and C. undul-
atum new species) at the base of the formation are found in abun-
dance wherever these beds are exposed” ( p. 82).

Farther on in his discussion (p. 84) Bassler calls attention to
the quite similar laminated structures in the Proterozoic rocks of
the West, described by Walcott and shown to represent the secre-
tions of calcareous algae, and continues : “The Proterozoic forms
of calcareous algae have been described under six genera, but all
of the Cambrian and Early Ordovician forms have been referred
to the single genus Cryptozoon” (p. 85). He describes a strongly
laminated type of Cryptozoon found near the top of the Conoco-
cheague limestone in both the eastern and western areas of outcrop
in Maryland. “Natural sections in the rock show that the undulations
are 18 or more inches in width and that the zone of strong undulations
rises in the stratum to a height of two feet or more. This Cryptozoon
sometimes consists of a single mass of strongly marked undulating
layers one-half inch apart rising in the rock like a column. . . This
particular Cryptozoon is of special interest in having oolites one-eighth
of an inch in diameter abundantly developed in the areas between the
downfolds of the laminations. The formation of these oolites appears

[25]

Figure 9 Cryptosoon prolifentm reef in Lester park, where the stocks are smaller and less crowded
and the budding is well shown. (Photograph by H. P. Cushing; plate 3, N. Y. State Mus. Bui.
169).

[26]

Figure io Long stringers of Cryptosoon proliferum which grew in rill channels, near road junction north
of Lester park. (Photograph by E. J. Stein).

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

27

to have been connected with the life activities of the plant” (p. 85, 86).
Bassler also notes the occurrence in the Beekmantown (just above the
Stonehenge limestone member) in southern Pennsylvania and Mary-
land, of a Cryptozoon zone (referred by him to Cryptozoon steeli
Seely) in which these organisms are associated with an oolitic, cherty
blue and gray limestone (p. 93, 101). “This fossil occupies a similar
position in the Beekmantown throughout the Appalachian Valley and
is so abundant and characteristic that the division is termed the Cryp-
tozoon steeli zone” (p. 101).

Rothpletz, while visiting in this country in 1913, made a one-day
trip to the Saratoga area and studied the Cryptozoon exposures there.
He describes (1916) three species, C. proliferum Hall, C. ruedemanni
Rothpletz and Cryptozoon sp. nov., which now is C. undulatum Bass-
ler. A fourth form described by him as a type showing cauliflower
stocks, apparently is C. proliferum developing large heads. Rothpletz
calls attention to the association of Cryptozoon here with a sandy
oolitic limestone. His description of the Saratoga species is referred
to below under the description of species. Cryptozoon is placed by
him with the Hydrozoans (stromatoporoids).

Seward (1931, p. 83—89) in Plant Life Through the Ages discusses
the various views on the nature of Cryptozoon and states :

The general belief among American geologists and several European
authors in the organic origin of Cryptozoon is, I venture to think,
not justified by the facts. The Cryptozoon structure differs essen-
tially from Calcareous Algae, such as Lithothamnium and other
genera ... in the absence of any characters suggesting a cellular
frame work. They are precisely the same in their series of concentric
shells as many concretions which are universally assigned to purely
inorganic agencies. . . It has been asserted that cells and chains of
cells comparable in size and shape to those of existing Blue-Green
Algae have been found in some sections of CryptozoonAdkt structures.
The term cell may be correctly used, but one would like to have evi-
dence more convincing than the photographs and drawings which have
so far been published (p. 86, 87).

Liesegang’s rings, referred to by Seward (p. 87, 88) are quite dif-
ferent in structure from the true Cryptozoon as exemplified by our
Saratoga specimens. It is from a study of these rings (developed in a
coagulated colloidal material, a gel, containing a substance in solution
by reaction of a second solvent with the former) that Seward con-
cludes : “A deposit of a colloidal calcareous mud on the floor of a sea
might provide conditions favorable to the formation of concentric shells
of carbonate of lime and the ultimate development of masses con-
structed on the plan of Cryptozoon” (p. 87).

28

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In 1926 in his Pflanzen als Gesteinsbildner (p. 51, 52) Pia in his
discussion of calcareous algae regards Cryptozoon and Collenia as
undoubtedly algal masses, probably built up by several species. The
latest reference to the algal nature of Cryptozoon that I have found is
that by Hadding (1933) in a discussion of algae as limestone formers:

On the formations termed Collenia and Cryptozoon we may be
brief, as to our knowledge they do not play any role in the sedimentary
series of strata in Sweden. Their organic or inorganic formation has
been disputed and so has their position in the organic world after they
have been definitely counted in this. After having long been numbered
with the Stromatoporoids (Nicholson 1878; Rothpletz, 1916), these
calcareous formations have more and more been regarded as belonging
to the vegetable kingdom and there as a rule counted among lime
producing algae (Walcott, 1914, Wieland, 1914, Pia, 1926). Pia
thinks that they show a structure mostly reminding us of the blue-
green algae (p. 16). . .

A closer estimation of the systematic position and mutual relations
of the different algae forms is often very uncertain, as the structural
features desirable for the estimations have not, or only imperfectly,
been preserved by the incrustation of calcium carbonate (p. 14). . .

Precipitation of calcium carbonate by the activities of certain algae
results from their extraction of carbon dioxide from the water. The
decrease of carbon dioxide in the water also diminishes its power of
dissolving calcium carbonate, and an excess of this salt must therefore
be precipitated from a previously saturated solution. The role of the
algae as limestone formers consequently is that they provide the condi-
tions favourable for an inorganic precipitation. . . As in the case of
bacteria, the precipitation of calcium carbonate through algae can take
place outside and quite independent of these organisms’ own structure.
In certain algae, however, it can also take place inside or on the surface
of the cellular structure. In such cases certain structural features of
the organism can of course be preserved (p. 12).

The structure of the three New York species of Cryptozoon will
be discussed below. As pointed out above, there are several facts that
seem to indicate organic origin for these forms at least. The dichoto-
mous budding (figure 11) is characteristic of plants. The proliferum
exposures show particularly well a coarse sand filling between the
separate stocks, which would seem to favor organic origin ; and in the
sand filling are found fragments of trilobite remains and in places
macerated pieces of specimens of Cryptozoon, usually long strips.
In Ritchie park, near the quarry, where the finest specimens are
exposed on what has been interpreted to be the shore side of the reef
are areas where the macerated remains of Cryptozoon, broken by
storm waves, constitute a filling of considerable mass, giving the

[29]

Figure ii Group of entire specimens of Cryptosoon proliferum from the “Petrified Gardens” (Ritchie park) on exhibition in the
New York State Museum. The large examples measure two and a half feet in diameter ; the specimen in the fore-
ground shows well the dichotomous budding. (Photograph by j. E. Glenn).

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

31

appearance of an edgewise conglomerate. In the exposure north of
Lester park specimens of proliferum apparently grew in rill channels
and are drawn out in long stringers. The same is true of ruedemanni
in the vicinity of the quarry. This would indicate not only organic,
but plant origin for these forms, an indication strengthened by the
association with oolites ( see p. 21-24).

Supplementary Note

Dr Oskar Baudisch, director of the New York State Research In-
stitute for Hydrotherapy, Saratoga Springs, N. Y., has recently writ-
ten a paper on “The Isotopes of Potassium and Lithium in Saratoga
Mineral Water and Cryptozoon” (1937), which sets forth evidence
that confirms the view that the Cryptozoon reefs are of plant origin.
The abundance ratio of the two principal isotopes of potassium (K39,
K41) has been found to vary in plant and animal tissue from the
ocean water ratio (14.20), in the case of kelp showing an abnormally
high concentration of K41 (heavy postassium). Consequently it was
decided to make a study of a formation presumed to be of marine
plant origin, such as the Cryptozoon beds of the Saratoga area. The
results show “an appreciable concentration for K41 in the mineral
water and a small concentration for the Cryptozoon formations. The
overlying shale, however, does not differ appreciably from that nor-
mally present in rocks of this type” {ref. cit., p. 1579). In discussing
his results not only for the isotopes of potassium but also for those of
lithium and rubidium, for which the ratio in Saratoga water does not
differ appreciably from normal, Doctor Baudisch states:

The results just described are of interest in that they represent the
only inorganic source so far discovered in which the K41 [heavy
potassium] content is appreciably higher than normal. It is signifi-
cant that the lithium isotope ratio does not deviate correspondingly.
It would appear, in consequence, that the process which concentrated
K41 does not concentrate Li7 [heavy lithium] ; this precludes most
physical mechanisms for the isotope effect since they would be
expected to result in larger deviations for lithium than for potassium.
The simplest interpretatons for these results is, therefore, that the
salt deposits from which the water arises are of marine plant origin
rather than that any isotope effect is occurring at the present time,
which would result in an abnormal abundance ratio for potassium
{ibid). [See Baudisch, Science, 86:531, 532. 1937.]

32

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

THE THREE SPECIES OF CRYPTOZOON

Cryptozoon proliferum Hall

Figures 3-1 5 A

Hall (1883) described the genus Cryptozoon, based on specimens of
Cryptozoon proliferum, as follows :

In the town of Greenfield, Saratoga county, there occurs a bed of
limestone which presents a very remarkable appearance, the surface
being nearly covered by closely-arranged circular or subcircular discs
which are made up of concentric laminae, closely resembling in general
aspect the structure of Stromatopora. It very often happens that
within these larger discs there occur two or more smaller ones, each
with its own concentric structure and exterior limitation, and appearing
as if budding from the parent mass. A farther examination shows
that the entire form of these masses is hemispheric or turbinate, with
the broadest face exposed upon the upper surface of the limestone
layer ; that their growth has begun from a point below and, rapidly
expanding upwards, has often extended one or two feet in diameter,
as now shown upon the exposed surface of the limestone bed. . .

These bodies have long been known under the name of Stromato-
pora, from their general resemblance in form and structure to that
fossil ; but their position in reference to the bedding of the rock is uni-
formly the reverse of that of Stromatoporae, which occur in the higher
limestones, growing from a broad base which is covered by an epitheca,
while these bodies under consideration grow upward and expand from
a point below, while the convex surface is on the lower side. A careful
examination of the nature of these bodies proves that while having
the concentric structure common to Stromatopora they have not the
regular succession of layers of tubuli characteristic of the species of
that genus and cannot properly be included under that term (descrip-
tion with plate 6).

Rothpletz (1916) describes this species from the section at the
Hoyt farm (Lester park), where the Cryptozoon proliferum bed rests
upon oolitic limestone and then is followed by an oolitic limestone. In
Ritchie park, where there is by far the finest display, the proliferum
bed has a thickness of 12 to 15-f- inches and rests upon about six feet
of sandy oolitic, dolomitic limestone, as seen in the crevices, below
which occurs a coarse calcareous sandstone.

The cabbagelike heads or stocks of proliferum are composed of
alternating limy and sandy layers. As pointed out above (p. 12), due
to the shearing off of the surface by the ice during the Pleistocene
time, they have been given the appearance of circular or subcircular
discs made up of concentric layers, resembling most strongly a cabbage
head sliced horizontally. The attachment of the individuals by a small
point from which they expand upward into a hemispheric or turbinate

Figure 12 Thin sections of Cryptosvon prolifermn from the Hoyt limestone,
Greenfield. A. Portion of individual with three buds ; oolites and quartz
grains between the laminae. B. Portion of a larger individual with center
filling of oolites and some quartz (clear). C. Enlargement of oolitic area
of same, X3. (Photographs by E. J. Stein).

[33]

Figure 13 A. Photomicrograph, X30, of a thin section of Cryptosoon
prolife rum, showing oolites and quartz grains (clear) ; Hoyt limestone,
Greenfield. B. Polished vertical section of a small head of Cryptozoon
proliferum from Lester park. xJ. (Photographs by E. J. Stein).

[34]

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

35

form is shown in the crevices and in a few places, in vertical sections
in crevices, where the stocks are well covered by the rock the upper
surface is seen to be slightly rounded (figure 7, 8, 13B). Stocks of
proliferum grew to a large size reaching two or three feet and over in
diameter, the larger specimens being composed of a number of budded
individuals, according to the writer’s interpretation. Rothpletz
(p. 10), regarding these organisms as stromatoporoids, interprets the
condition differently. He believes the larger stocks are composed of
neighboring smaller stocks which have grown together and become
surrounded by a common layer. The largest and best developed stocks,
as discussed above, are found in Ritchie park, particularly in the
southern area (figures 3, 4, 5) which has been interpreted as the
seaward side of the reef. Here the stocks are so crowded that they
touch and the spaces between are filled with coarse sand carrying
fragments of trilobites and macerated Cryptosoon. Pieces of mace-
rated Cryptozoon also fill the sandy limestone covering of the stocks,
when preserved. Approaching the shore, that is northward in this
area, the stocks become smaller and are more scattered in the rocks
until, as north of Lester park, in the rill channels the individuals lose
their characteristic shape and have grown out into long stringers
(figure 10). These must be the specimens referred to by Rothpletz
(p. 11 ) as having a breadth of one hand and a length of two meters.

Rothpletz, from thin sections, describes the structure of the C. pro-
liferum as that of a branching network or mesh of thicker and finer
branches composed of coarsely crystalline calcite, appearing lighter in
section, with a filling of a microscopic, crystalline, dense aggregate
of calcite ; and points out that in all its peculiarities “this network
agrees completely with the coenosarc tubes of the Spongiostroma and
the dense filling in the interspaces to the original coenosteum of these
Hydrozoans. Corresponding to this the lighter line aggregate repre-
sents the filling of coenosarc tubes which did not form until the death
of the animal and during the process of fossilization. The dolomitiza-
tion, however, as far as it has affected not only this filling but also the
coenosteum must be considered as a still later process which has
changed the original material partly, and in many places totally, and
thereby has also eradicated the Hydrozoan structure more or less.
The calcite filling of the coenosarc tubes on the other hand was per-
haps affected already through the decaying organic substance of the
Cryptosoon animals or at least initiated by it. For the dolomitization,
however, this cause can hardly be cited, at least microscopic study gives
no clues in that direction” (ref. cit. p. 13).

36

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The photomicrographs in figure 14 and figure 15A show well the
structure of this species. The general ground mass or background is
formed by a very finely granular calcite in which banding is shown by
clearer areas against dense dark areas. In this ground mass are seen
the branching tubes of varying thickness filled with microscopic, crys-
talline calcite, lighter than the background. Any structure that may
have been present in these tubes has been obliterated. Small pressure
cracks likewise have a filling of this lighter crystallized calcite. Scat-
tered quartz grains are present in the ground mass and fine dark iron
particles. In the specimens of proliferum studied little dolomitization
has taken place, less than in either of the other two species. The
filling of the meshwork of tubes is somewhat affected and in places
coarse dolomite crystals encroach upon the dense, granular ground
mass. The difference undoubtedly has something to do with the water
content of the beds in which this species occurs.

Cryptozoon ruedemanni Rothpletz
Figures 15B-18

The distribution of the ruedemanni reef is discussed above. The
species has the same distribution as proliferum in the Hoyt limestone,
and occurs five to eight feet above the latter following beds of sandy
dolomite and coarse limy sand or thin-bedded limestone and sandstone.
The species was described by Rothpletz in 1916:

Already from their outer form these stocks are seen to be different
from those of the Hoyt farm and make it apparent that they belong
to another species. . . . The characteristic construction of a single
stock from a number of smaller stocks grown together is absent
here (p. 16).

These simple individuals (figure 17) show sizes up to about four
feet in diameter, and in them the wavy concentric layers are more
regularly distributed. Rothpletz continues his discussion of the small
piece of a specimen of this species which he had for study:

But one can see quite well from the edge of this piece that there
the layers of the stock quickly bend down and over into a steeper
position from the wavy horizontal position which controls the whole
center of the stock, just as is the case with Cryptozoon proliferum. A
peculiarity of the stocks of this locality, which I have not observed
in Cryptozoon proliferum, is the fine bands which stand forth in
brownish colors through the weathering of the upper surface . . . and
give this Cryptozoon a peculiar appearance. They run almost in the
direction of the larger structure of the Cryptozoon and could be inter-
preted as sand layers lodged in it. But the agreement is only apparent
for often they cut the Cryptozoon bands at varying angles and enter
into connection with the neighboring strands, so that in the stock they

Figure 14 Photomicrographs of Cryptozoon proliferum from Ritchie park,
X30. A. Horizontal section : general ground mass of finely granular calcite
with branching tubes filled with microscopic, crystalline calcite ; banding
shown by clearer area against dense dark areas. B. Horizontal section :
dolomitization shown in lower portion. C. Vertical section : pressure cracks
filled with calcite; dolomitization in upper portion. D. Vertical section:
large tubes filled with crystalline calcite; scattered quartz grains (clear).
(Photographs by E. J. Stein).

(37]

A

Figure 15 Photomicrographs, X75. A. C. prolife rum, horizontal section:
branching tubes filled with crystalline calcite in ground mass of finely
granular calcite; denser granular area at right, separated by dolomitized
band with large quartz grains (clear) in lower portion. B. C. ruedemanni,
horizontal section ; branching tubes in dense ground mass ; iron particles and
quartz grains (clear) in filling at center. (Photographs by E. J. Stein).

[38]

[39]

Figure 16 The five-foot thick Cryptozoon ruedemanni reef shown in the face of the Hoyt quarry, across
the road (west) from Lester park. (Photograph by E. j. Stein).

HPr-

[40]

Figure 17 Cryptosoon ruedemanni stock, summit of hill four miles west of Saratoga Springs and three
quarters of a mile south of South Greenfield. (Photograph by H. P. Cushing; plate 10, N. Y. State
Mus. Bui. 169).

Figure 18 Photomicrographs of Cryptozoon ruedemanni. A. Vertical section
X30; upper portion dolomitized ; sandy band (quartz grains clear) between
dense areas of granular calcite with branching tubes filled with finely
crystalline calcite. B. Horizontal section, X30 ; sandy band with abundant
quartz grains between densely granular calcite areas with fine branching
tubes. C. Vertical section, X75 ; dense granular calcite ground mass and
branching tubes. (Photographs by E. J. Stein).

[41]

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

43

build an anastomosing network which by its origin is at any rate
younger than the Crypto-soon. Under the microscope one recognizes
that it is composed of a stratified accumulation of finest quartz dust
and dark little iron bodies which are welded together through a
dolomitic binder. These layers are usually only 6o/x to 120 /*, thick and
only here and there increase to greater breadth. The course of these
lace-like bands reminds one throughout of that of pressure sutures and
as such must accordingly be interpreted, for they are properly not
other than a distribution of insoluble constituents which otherwise are
enclosed in the Cryptosoon layers. The structure of the lime stock is
similar to that of Cryptosoon proliferum, only the coarse coenosarc
tubes are not so close together. The coenosteum takes up more space
and the finer coenosarc tubes prevail over the coarser ones. . . .

Likewise in this species dolomitization has taken place, but in still
another way than with Cryptosoon proliferum. The coenosteum has
remained calcareous and is quickly dissolved in diluted acid with strong
effervescence. The coenosarc tubes on the other hand are filled with
a light dolomitic aggregate which after careful etching on polished
surfaces stands up distinctly above the coenosteum portion. Appar-
ently also the hollow coenosarc tubes have here become filled with
dolomite immediately after the death of the animals and not as with
Cryptosoon proliferum at first with a lime filling which was only later
changed into dolomite.

The structure of C. ruedemanni is well shown in thin sections as
seen in the photomicrographs in figures 15B, 18. The anastomosing
sandy bands referred to by Rothpletz show numerous, mostly angular
pieces of quartz in the filling in places and dark iron particles. The
iron particles and some quartz grains are scattered through the ground
mass. The ground mass, as in proliferum is composed of dense,
granular calcite in which is seen a meshwork of anastomosing tubes
filled with clear crystallized calcite. Pressure cracks are also filled
with calcite. Dolomitization has gone further than in proliferum and
in places is seen to encroach considerably upon the ground mass as well
as the filling of the meshwork of tubes. In some sections the granular
background shows dark, denser bands and lighter bands which brings
out the laminations distinctly. The anastomosing tubes are fewer and
finer in the denser areas.

Cryptosoon undulatum Bassler
Figures 19-22

This species was recognized as possibly new by Rothpletz (1916)
in his discussion of the Cryptozoon species in the Saratoga area and
referred to as the Cryptozoon in the Greenfield railroad cut. In
comparing with C. proliferum Rothpletz writes :

In outer form both have great similarity, though the explanation
is of a different kind. While at the Hoyt farm in particular the upper

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

surfaces of the stocks are separated, in the railroad cut this is not the
case. Therefore one has here excellent vertical sections, which show
well the growth of the stock from the stock-forming floor and from
that spreading out universally in peripheral direction. The internal
microscopic structure has become entirely lost through complete
dolomitization, so that an identification with Cryptozoon proliferum is
not possible. Also the heterogeneous layers, so far as they stand out
of the limestone, are altered so that only the quartz grains can be dis-
tinguished as such. The dolomite stands out in an aggregate of poly-
gonal crystals which lie close to one another and fluctuate in diameter
mostly between 60 ^ and 300/A, but they also grow up to 500^ at times.
They are covered over with the finest dust and appear likewise some-
what discolored. Many times there lie enclosed in these dolomite
crystals still smaller rhombohedrons which resemble those isolated
dolomite rhombohedrons in Cryptozoon proliferum and therefore indi-
cate that here complete dolomitization apparently was a gradual
process, having first passed through the dolomite stage of Cryptozoon
of the Hoyt farm. The irregular, angular dolomite crystals are sur-
rounded almost always by a fine, brownish film whereby their outlines
stand out clearly. It appears then as if these substances were collected
on their sides with the crystallization of the limestone. As it appears
the lime content of the sandy layers is doubtless likewise dolomitized,
but the dolomite crystals, for the most part much smaller and more
robust, are discolored by dust particles and small iron particles.
Accordingly one can already recognize with the naked eye the order
and dissemination of sand layers. Of oolites, which apparently were
also present here, nothing more is seen. Under these conditions it is
possible to place and recognize this species ; but its identity with
Cryptozoon proliferum is not excluded, for the apparent greater bevel-
ing of the upper side of the stocks at the Hoyt farm is only a
consequence of the erosion [glaciation] which has befallen the lime-
stone beds and with them also the separated Cryptozoon stocks and
has scoured away their uppermost part (p. 15).

In good exposures of C. undulatum its distinction from C. pro-
liferum may be clearly seen. C. undulatum, as pointed out above
(p. 21 ) , differs strikingly from the other two species in that the laminae
composing this form begin horizontal to the bedding and soon develop
a strong wavy character with frequent narrow or broad undulations
with narrower or sharper down-binding of the laminae (figure 19).
On the bedding planes the wavy outlines seen in cross-section appear
as concentrically lined areas of varying diameter (figure 21) giving a
superficial resemblance to Cryptozoon proliferum, as noted by Roth-
pletz. In his paper on The Cambrian and Ordovician Deposits of
Maryland Bassler (1919) notes the occurrence of this new species
forming reefs in the Ozarkian with the well-known C. proliferum,
and discusses it as follows :

Comparison of the two species will bring out the essential charac-
ters of the present new one. . . In C. undulatum the laminae are at

[45]

Figure 19 Slab of Cryptosoon undulatum from the reef forming the ledge at Ritchie house; Ritchie park
(“Petrified Gardens”). This specimen has been set up in the rock garden. The strong undulating
character of the laminae is particularly well shown. (Photograph by E. J. Stein).

Figure 20 Specimen of Cryptosoon undulatum used as a bird bath in the
rock garden at Ritchie house, "Petrified Gardens.” The center has been
removed through frost action; the undulations are well shown at the
water’s edge. (Photograph by E. J. Stein).

[46]

Figure 21 Weathered specimen of Cryptosoon undulatum from Disappearing
brook, east of Ritchie house, Ritchie park. A. Vertical surface; length
of original 8i inches. B. Horizontal surface, length of original 102 inches.
(Photographs by E. J. Stein).

[47]

c

Figure 22 Photomicrographs of Cryptozoon undulatum. A. Vertical section,
X30; incomplete dolomitization with scattered quartz grains (clear); lack
of structure. B. Vertical section, X30; complete dolomitization and lack of
structure. C. Similar section, X75. (Photographs by E. J. Stein).

[48]

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

49

first evenly undulating, forming in edge view, a pseudo-columnar
structure, the columns averaging 20 mm in width. A cross-section
through this part of the fossil shows these column-like areas to be
of equal size and totally unlike the corresponding portion of C. pro-
liferum. Following the undulating zone in C. undulatum the laminae
go through a stage in which the distinct lamination disappears. Then,
with a new growth, the characteristic undulations of the species
reappear (p. 190).

The photomicrographs in figure 22, show the almost complete
dolomitization of this species, with consequent loss of internal struc-
ture. The laminations are shown because their boundaries are
marked by a fine dust. In some sections there are areas still show-
ing a granular ground mass, but with dolomite crystals rapidly
encroaching upon it. In these areas the granules are coarser than
in the ground mass of either proliferum or ruedemanni. In general
the dolomite crystals are coarse but finer crystals are seen near the
edges of the layers where they are stained with a fine dark dust.
Scattered quartz grains are seen throughout the ground mass and
in some places are quite abundant and comparatively large. The
more complete dolomitization of undulatum is probably due to some
difference in the water content.

ALTERATION OF CORALLINE ALGAL DEPOSITS

It can be readily understood that little or no structure could be
expected in algae from Cambrian rocks in which such a high degree
of metamorphism has taken place. Alteration in the structure of
organisms composing a reef, even recent ones, has been recognized
for some time. Walther in his Allgemeine Palaeontologie (1919,
Pt I, p. 181) states:

The earthy decay and the succeeding consolidation of the reef
limestone causes most of the organic remains active in the up-
building of the reef to become so indistinct that well-formed corals
are changed into branching “Lithodendrons,” finely decorated
echinoderms into crystalline “crinoidal limestones,” calcareous algae
and Stromariae into granular amorphous limestone, between the
masses of which appear only isolated nests of well-preserved fossils,
especially so in the area of the “fore-reef,” where the metamorphism
of the organic tissues was less thorough in the limestone tongues.

An earlier paper (1885) embodies the results of studies of a Litho-
thamnium bank in the Bay of Naples, about 30 meters below the sur-
face of the water, which are summarized by Seward (1894) :

By action of the percolating water the Lithothamnium structure is
gradually obliterated, and the calcareous mass becomes a structureless

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

limestone. Walther applies his knowledge of this recent algal deposit
to the examination of a Tertiary “Nulliporenkalk” near Syracuse.
In many parts of this formation there occur well-preserved speci-
mens of Lithothamnium, but in others a gradual obliteration is
observed of all plant structure until the rock becomes entirely struc-
tureless. A similar instance of structureless limestone is described
from the Lias of the Todte Gebirge; the strata consist of coral rock,
detrital calcareous deposits, and associated with these, masses of
limestone in which microscopic examination fails to detect either
vegetable or animal structure. These structureless beds are con-
sidered to have been Lithothamnium banks from which percolating
water has removed all trace of algal cells. It is suggested that the
infiltrating water was supplied by the Lithothamnium thallus with the
necessary amount of carbonic acid, and was thus enabled to remove
all direct evidence of the existence of calcareous algae. In connection
with this solvent power of the water Walther asks the question :
“What becomes of plant cellulose in the process of fossilization?”
An instructive comparison is made between the chemical composition
of compact Lithothamnium masses from the Secca di Penta palumno
and the Tertiary Lithothamnium limestones in the neighborhood of
Syracuse ; in the former the CaCOa reaches 86% and the organic
substance 5% ; in the latter the CaC03 reaches 98%, and the organic
substance 0.28%. The organic substance of the algae became
chemically altered in the Syracuse beds, and in the course of such
changes carbonic acid was evolved; this was readily taken up in
solution by percolating water which was thus supplied the means of
obliterating all traces of Lithothamnium structure.

Thus it is shown that in masses of calcareous algal remains there
is an “endogenous source” of carbonic acid which may frequently
result in the removal of all signs of phytogenetic origin. On the
other hand, in many calcareous beds the percolating waters have
not found the same amount of carbonic acid, and their solvent power
has not been sufficient to effect the destruction of the organic remains
from which the strata have been formed. If the calcareous deposits
are protected from .the circulation of carbonated water by overlying
impervious beds, the organic structures would not be removed. It
would seem, therefore, that under certain circumstances, in which
calcareous deposits are freely exposed to infiltrating water, there is
much greater probability of all structure being removed in the case
of those formed from calcareous algae than in deposits which are
not of phytogenetic origin (p. 19, 20).

In his paper Origin of the Bighorn Dolomite (1913) Blackwelder
suggests, because of certain peculiar structures, the influence of
marine algae of the bank-forming type in the deposition of this
comparatively pure Ordovician dolomite. He points out the
dichotomous habit of branching, repeated ad infinitum, among these
structures in successive outcrops, which with their form are more
or less significant of colonial organisms, particularly certain types

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

51

of corals and calcareous algae; and adds, “It is an unfortunate fact,
however, that no trace of definite internal structure now remains”
(p. 615). After a discussion of recent lime-secreting red algae, he
continues (p. 618) :

These facts have been discussed in some detail in order to show
that the modern coralline algae seem to fill the requirements of the
case for the Bighorn dolomite . . . Therefore it appears to me
probable that the peculiar structures of the Bighorn dolomite are of
organic origin, and that the more massive coralline algae, such as the
modern genus Lithopliyllum, may fairly be regarded as competent to
make such structures, if indeed they are not the only organisms
which could have done so.

Since the positive identification of algae depends almost entirely
on the recognition of their delicate, cellulose structures under the
microscope, it is unlikely that the problematical growths of the Big-
horn terrane can ever be satisfactorily recognized, inasmuch as
nearly all traces of original organic structures have been obliterated.
The cells of the modern algae, such as Lithophyllum, average about
.01 millimeter in diameter, but the Bighorn rock is crystallized in
grains .05 to .10 millimeter in diameter. Under these circumstances
we ought not to expect to find the algal cells preserved. . .

This disappearance of minute structures, one of the inevitable
results of the process of crystallization, may well explain the fact
that marine algae, although often reported from Paleozoic lime-
stones, have in perhaps no instance been satisfactorily identified
from internal cell characters.

In a recent paper on algal limestones from the Oligocene (Tertiary)
of South Park, Colorado, J. Harlan Johnson (1937) in his discussion
of the character of the reef-forming organisms points out (p. 1233)
that “unforunately, at many localities, the limestones, even though
showing some macro-structure, have been so altered by solution,
recrystallization, and silicification that all trace of the original cellulose
structure has been obliterated.” ( See p. 66).

THE IMPORTANCE OF CORALLINE ALGAE AS
REEF-BUILDERS THROUGH THE AGES

The literature relating to the importance and geologic significance
of calcareous algae has become extensive in recent years, so much so
that there will be no attempt here to give a complete review of it.
Most of the papers cited in the bibliography give footnote references
or bibliographies, but especially among these are to be consulted
Bigelow (1905), Blackwelder (1915), Bonney and others (1904),
Fenton (1931, 1933), Garwood (1913, 1931) Hadding (1933), H<£eg,
(1932), Howe (1912, 1932), King (1930, 1932), Pia (1924, 1926),
Seward (1898, 1931), Van der Gracht (1931), Wieland (1914).

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

In Great Britain, A. C. Seward (1894, 1898, 1923, 1931) and
E. J. Garwood (1913, 1931), especially, have emphasized the geologic
importance of calcareous algae, although Seward casts doubt (1931,
p. 83-87) on the algal nature of the so-called organisms which have
been referred to Cryptozoon (see p. 27) and the Algonkian lime-
stones which have been described and figured by Walcott (1914;
see below, p. 60).

Calcareous algae are commonly referred to by geologists and zoolo-
gists, and sometimes botanists, as nullipores, and include in their
numbers genera belonging to both red and green algae. Among the
red algae the genera belonging to the subdivision Corallinaceae,
Lithothamnium, Lithophyllum, Melobesia and others, are those that
play a very important part in the building and cementing of coral
reefs (Seward 1898, p. 184, 185) ; among the green algae Halimeda
holds a prominent place. Setchell (1926, p. 136) discussing Nulli-
pore Versus Coral in Reef-Formation points out that

The presence of nullipores (or corallines) as well as corals as
components of a coral reef was recognized by Darwin and noted for
particular reefs in the Indo-Pacific region (1842, etc.). Dana (1849,
1872, etc.) also mentions nullipores (as included under the term
coral) but neither he nor Darwin seem to have considered the asso-
ciation of nullipores with corals as of significance in any way except
possibly as contributing to bulk. Semper (1863) and Sir John
Murray (1880) have practically disregarded nullipores in their
theories, although the latter was certainly in a position to be aware
of their existence and to a certain extent at least of their prevalence
and striking association with corals on the reefs of Tahiti and else-
where . . . Alexander Agassiz (1888) realized that calcareous algae
were important in reef formation, particularly as contributors to bulk.
The true relation of nullipore to coral in reef formation began to be
visualized during the Funafuti Expeditions (1896, 1897, 1898).

Even as late as 1911 and still later in 1919 a coral reef was authori-
tatively defined (Vaughan, p. 238) as “a ridge or mound of limestone,
the upper surface of which lies, or lay at the time of its formation,
near the level of the sea, and is predominately composed of calcium
carbonate secreted by organisms of which the most important are
corals.” Since the publication by the Royal Society of London in
1904 of the results of the work on Funafuti, increased attention has
been given to the importance of certain lime-secreting marine algae.
Howe in his paper The Building of “Coral” Reefs (1912) challenges
the above definition, remarking (p. 839) :

It is not to be denied that this last statement embodies the long-
standing and still prevalent view as to the origin and composition of
coral reefs and, in fact, it might seem at first to be quite axiomatic

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

53

that corals should be the most important constructive agents in the
formation of “coral” reefs. But in view of the fact that some rather
recent studies indicate that lime-secreting plants have been much
more important than the corals in the formation of “true coral reefs”
and in view of the few borings and analytical studies of so-called
“coral” reefs thus far made, there would seem to be sufficient ground
for contending that the whole question as to the relative general
importance of lime-secreting animals and lime-secreting plants in
the formation of reefs is still an open one. From what may be
observed today in the tropics as to the relative abundance of cal-
careous marine plants and calcareous marine animals and from what
has been determined by the study of the cores obtained by boring
into coral reefs, it would appear that sometimes the plants pre-
dominate and sometimes the animals.

After a discussion of some of the work that has been done in this
field he comes to this conclusion (ref. cit. p. 841 ) :

With the dominance in reef-building activities resting sometimes
with the calcareous algae and sometimes with the corals, and with
the Foraminifera and other groups also playing their parts, the
problem of determining “the most important” constructive element
in the calcium carbonate reefs of the world, ancient and modern,
is naturally a most complicated and difficult one and one that may
never be solved to the full satisfaction of those most interested.
. . . However, since the day of the first illuminating borings into
the “true coral atoll” of Funafuti, much evidence has accumulated
tending to show that the importance of the corals in reef-building
has been much over-estimated and that the final honors in this con-
nection may yet go to the more humble lime-secreting plants.”

In his later work on The Importance of the Lime-Secreting Algae
(1931) Howe refers to the above quotation and adds (p. 59) : “It
seems to me that the final honors can now be bestowed, and, without
minimizing the contributions of the corals, there may be added that
without nullipores no ‘coral reefs’ can be or would be formed.”

The atoll of Funafuti was selected for study by the reef com-
mittee of the Royal Society of London because it was considered to
be a “typical coral” reef or island. There were three successive
expeditions, the results of which were made known in a report of the
Royal Society (Bonney and others, 1904). Several borings were
made, the main boring having a depth of 1114^2 feet (Judd, 1904,
p. 169). Judd in his discussion of the materials sent from Funafuti
remarks, “Dr. Hinde’s carefully drawn-up lists show that from top
to bottom the same organisms occur, sometimes plants, sometimes
foraminifera and sometimes corals predominating” (ref. cit. p. 173).
Lithothamnium occurred more or less abundantly through the entire

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

length of the boring and Halimeda was locally abundant. A. E.
Finckh, one of the members of the expedition, wrote for the report
a chapter on Biology of Reef-forming Organisms at Funafuti Atoll
in which he groups the organisms found in the order of their
importance as reef-builders (1904, p. 133): (1) Lithothamnium,
(2) Halimeda, (3) Foraminifera, (4) Corals (see also David, 1904,
p. 155). The calcareous algae thus are seen here to hold the first
two places, while the “corals, the ‘most important’ reef-building
organisms of Vaughan’s definition and still prevalent popular belief
hold fourth place” (Howe, 1912, p. 838). In his later paper on
the importance of calcareous algae Howe adds that “there are doubt-
less ‘true coral reefs’ and islands that have been actually built, in a
predominant way by corals, but Funafuti is evidently not one of
them” (1931, p. 58), and points out that Funafuti is not an isolated
example of reefs built by plants rather than animals. The correct-
ness of this statement is attested by the observations of many
students of coral reefs, particularly in the Pacific ocean, among them
Chapman and Mawson (1906), Finckh (1904), Foslie (1907),
Gardiner (1898, 1931), Hoffmeister (1929, 1932), Mayor (1921),
Pollock (1928), Setchell (1926).

Besides Funafuti (Ellice islands), among the Pacific coral reefs
studied are the Fiji islands, Rotumna, the New Hebrides, Gilbert
islands (Onoatoa), Tongan group, Samoan group (Tutuila, Rose
atoll), Solomon islands, Society islands (Tahiti), Hawaiian islands
(Oahu) and the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, Gardiner in his
paper on The Coral Reefs of Funafuti, Rotumna and Fiji, in con-
nection with a discussion of the structure of a reef, observes (1898,
P- 477) :

The parts of “compact homogeneous texture” are very numerous
and are formed, I believe, mainly of the carbonate of lime secreted
by incrusting nullipores. The importance of the incrusting nulli-
pores, in the formation of the reefs of the Central Pacific, cannot be
overestimated. . . The incrusting nullipores of the reef belong to
the genus Lithothamnion, which Walther [1885, p. 329] has shown
covers and has apparently formed the greater part of certain shoals
in the Bay of Naples.

This observation is emphasized in his later (1931) work on Coral
Reefs and Atolls where he states :

The importance of “nullipores,” as these algae are usually termed
in the literature of coral reefs, in the formation of exposed coral
reefs has been emphasized by all recent investigators of the same.

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

55

... It is not until a depth of 5 to 6 fathoms is reached that the
position is reversed, and corals become the important builders,
nullipores now merely serving to fill up their interstices (p. 72, 75).

Setchell (1926) also discusses the reefs of the Pacific and con-
cludes (p. 138) : “It is sufficient here to call attention to the fact that
nullipore action is not only the controlling factor in each form (or
type) of reef or bank but that there is also a definite nullipore
specificity, due to ecological and growth form peculiarities, for each
type of reef or bank as well as for depth.” Yonge (1930, p. 67,
145) points out the importance of nullipores and in particular
Lithothamnium in building the outer barrier reefs of the Great
Barrier Reef of Australia (see Seward, 1898, p. 184). “They
appear to grow in the greatest abundance on the weather surface of
the reefs in the region where the surf strikes and where, incidentally,
their cementing action is most urgently required” (ref. cit. p. 67).

Corals do not flourish below a certain level so that if the surface
of a submarine bank “lies below the depth limit of reef-building
corals, other organisms, such as foraminifera and algae, will be the
important limestone builders until the bank reaches a level at which
corals can flourish” (Hoffmeister, 1929, p. 470). All of the investi-
gations made in the Pacific ocean show that the calcareous algae
which play an important part in reef -building are Halimeda and
especially, the Lithothamnium group (Archaeolithothamnium, Litho-
thamnium, Goniolithon, Lithophyllum and Mastophora) , which has
been shown to be richly represented in the tropics (Foslie 1903,
p. 460; Gardiner 1931, p. 68) and for representatives of which many
writers, in describing the occurrence of nullipores, use Lithothamnium
only as an all-inclusive term. In this group Lithothamnium is an
important builder up of submerged shoals in the tropics, but Litho-
phyllum is the chief genus in the seaward growth of the reef edge
(Gardiner, 1931, p. 77). Chapman and Mawson in a discussion of
the importance of Halimeda and the Halimeda- limestone of the New
Hebrides remark that “the importance of Halimeda as a reef-forming
agent has, until of late years, been greatly overlooked” (1906, p. 702)
and call attention to the record of a true Halimeda- limestone by Dr
H. B. Guppy (1887, p. 74) in his description of the calcareous rocks
of the Solomon islands. A specimen of rock obtained at the island
of Santa Anna was entirely composed of the joints of Halimeda
opuntia. The Halimeda-limestones of the New Hebrides, also “cal-
careous rocks, formed almost entirely of the remains of Halimeda-
joints, are represented in three of the islands. . .” (ref. cit. p. 706;

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

see Mawson 1905). These authors also cite the older Tertiary lime-
stone of Christmas island, Indian ocean, shown in specimens from
the central plateau at 800 feet above sea level to be a crystalline
limestone crowded with Halimeda and Lithothamnium which, they
remark, “in its general manner of occurrence may be compared with
Halimeda-limestones from the New Hebrides” (p. 704). As pointed
out by Gardiner and others, “the genus Halimeda is almost confined
to tropical seas, the lowest suitable temperature being about 6o° F.,
this allowing it to live also in the warm Mediterranean. Less than
ten species are known. . . Their importance on coral reefs is that
they can grow on every kind of bottom found in the lagoon and on
the encircling reef. Indeed, in some of these positions Halimeda
was the chief builder” (Gardiner, 1931, p. 79). Calcareous algae,
which flourish in greater depths than the corals, also in general “are
not primarily associated with tropical areas, about twice as many
species being found in temperate as in warm seas, a few extending
into the Arctic regions. In such temperate areas there are many
known banks covered by these plants in such numbers as appreciably
to raise their surfaces ; a bottom of less depth than 50 fathoms
recorded on charts of temperate regions as ‘coral’ very frequently
consists of them” (ref. cit. p. 76). The Lithothamnium group has
such a wide temperate range. Lithothamnium is the most widely
distributed and best known genus. It occurs in all parts of the
world from 73^4° south latitude to 790 56' north latitude, that is
from Arctic Ellesmere Land to South Victoria Land and Louis
Philippe Land in the Antarctic (Foslie, 1903, p. 462; igoyb, p. 177;
Howe, 1912, p. 841; Seward, 1931, p. 102; Kjellmann, 1883, p. 88,
96). “In company with large Brown Algae it flourishes in Arctic
seas, and off the coasts of Spitzbergen it forms calcareous banks
many miles in extent where the temperature does not usually rise
above o°C” (Seward, ref. cit.).

A few examples may be cited to show that calcareous algae rather
than corals are at least sometimes the dominant reef formers in the
Indian ocean as well as the Pacific. Gardiner in his paper Investi-
gations in the Indian Ocean writes :

The reefs of the Chagos are in no way peculiar, save in their
extraordinary paucity of animal life. . . However, this barrenness
is amply compensated for by the enormous quantity of Nullipores
(Lithothamnia, etc.), incrusting, massive, mammilated, columnar and
branching. The outgrowing seaward edges of the reefs are prac-
tically formed by their growth, and it is not too much to say that,

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

57

were it not for the abundance and large masses of these organisms,
there would be no atolls with surface reefs in the Chagos (Gardiner
1906, p. 332, 333; see Howe 1912, p. 839; Foslie 19076, p. 177,
178).

The Siboga Expedition found Lithothamnium forming extensive
banks and reefs near the southwest point of Timor, in the Dutch
East Indies (Weber-van Bosse, 1904, p. 4; quoted in Howe, 1912,
p. 840). The important part played by both Lithothamnium and
Halimeda in the coral reefs of the Indian ocean is discussed by
Gardiner in The Fauna and Geography of the Maidive and Lacca-
dive Peninsulas (1903, ch. I). In the chapter on their formation
he remarks, “It has been pointed out by myself and others that reefs
are largely formed by calcareous algae (Lithothamnion) , and that
corals, which cover the reefs, feed mainly by their commensal algae.
... It would seem to me that about 30 fathoms is the extreme limit
in depth of the growth of the effective reef-building corals” (p. 175,
176) ; and refers to the “increasing importance of the nullipores on
increase in depth” (p. 179). The Halimeda- limestone of Christmas
island is mentioned above.

Gardiner (1931, p. 77) calls attention to the fact that calcareous
algae only play a part in the coral reefs discussed though

no coral reef is known in the Indo- Pacific which could be con-
ceived as reaching the surface and forming a firm front to the ocean
without their help. . . It is different in the Atlantic where off certain
bays in the Cape Verde islands fringing reefs have been formed
almost entirely by them, no true reef corals being found thereon.
Off the Brazilian coast, too, they are described as the chief con-
solidators of sand and builders of reef from 180 S. to the fresh-
waters off the Amazon mouth.

The extensive banks of the Arctic and Antarctic have been touched
upon above (p. 56). Foslie (1903, p. 462) notes banks formed
by a species of Lithothamnium off the coasts of Ireland and Green-
land, north of the polar circle on the coast of Norway where “banks
have been met with which cover the bottom for several miles,” also
farther to the south, as in the Trondhjem fiord and along the south-
west coast where a solitary species forms rather large banks. True
nullipore reefs flourish in the Mediterranean, one of which described
by Walther (1885, p. 329) from the Gulf of Naples is referred to
in the discussion of the Cryptozoon reefs (p. 49). As pointed
out by Howe:

Bermuda was commonly considered a “true coral” island until the
studies of Alexander Agassiz [1895] and Henry B. Bigelow [1905]

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

indicated that the corals have played a rather minor part in its
upbuilding. Bigelow believes [ref. cit. p. 583] that “algae probably
form the greatest mass” of what he terms the “shell sands” of Ber-
muda, and it is of interest to note that Sir John Murray in reporting
the results of the Challenger Expedition intimates that the calcareous
seaweeds and their broken down fragments were the dominating
elements in three out of four analyzed samples of so-called “coral”
sand or mud from Bermuda (1912, p. 840).

Bigelow in his paper, The Shoal-Water Deposits of the Bermuda
Banks, discusses the dredgings on the Challenger Bank and con-
cludes that they

add to the evidence already accumulated to prove the great importance
of the nullipores as reef builders. . . The nullipores gradually form
incrusting masses about various objects or grow up independently
on stalks which later become broken; in these ways the spherical
concretions begin. . . This process taking place over the Challenger
Bank, where there is no direct evidence of either elevation or sub-
sidence, has raised it to within some thirty to fifty fathoms of the
surface of the sea, a depth where a few corals already flourish. If
we imagine this process as continuing until the bank rises to within
about twenty fathoms of the surface, we should then have excellent
conditions for the formation of a coral reef. Of course in such
upbuilding the nullipores constitute only a part, though a most
important one, of the whole growth” (ref. cit. p. 589, 590).

Agassiz (1895, p. 253) remarks in reference to the “serpentine
reefs” which are most numerous off the south shore that “in fact, it
would be as correct in some localities to call them Algae or Coralline
Atolls.” In his summary of conditions in Bermuda, southern Flor-
ida and West Indies Howe (1912, p. 840) points out that, even
though the “true atolls” of the Pacific and Indian oceans may be
rare or quite wanting, in their distribution and association many of
the general types described for those areas are found. His discus-
sion continues:

There are banks and reefs that appear to consist almost wholly of
calcareous plants, others that are almost “pure stands” of corals, and
yet others where these two elements are intermingled. . . It v/ould
be a bold man who would venture to say that the corals are secreting
any more calcium carbonate in the West Indian region than are the
calcareous algae. The massive beds of Halimeda opuntia off the
Florida Keys are striking, as are the banks of Goniolithon strictum
in the Bahamas and reefs of Lithophyllum daedaleum along the
shores of Porto Rico, yet probably none of these are so conspicuous
and massive as are certain local aggregations of living corals in the
same general regions (ref. cit. p. 842).

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

59

In his discussion of calcareous algae Garwood (1913a, p. 552)
remarks,

Another interesting point is the constant association of fossil Cal-
careous Algae with oolitic structure and also with dolomite. Thus
oolites occur in connection with Solenopora in the lower Cambrian
of the Antarctic, in the Craighead limestone at Tramitchell in the
Ordovician rocks of Christiana and the Silurian of Gotland and in
the Lower Carboniferous limestone of Shap; while in the Jurassic
rocks of Gloucestershire and Yorkshire it occurs in the heart of the
most typical oolitic development to be met with in the whole geo-
logical succession.

The association of calcareous algal deposits, recent and fossil, with
oolites has been noted by a number of other writers, among them
Seward (1894, p. 12-17; I93I» P- 80-83), Rothpletz (1892, 1916,
1922), Seely (1905), Wieland (1914), Bucher (1918), Bassler
1919, p. 101), Bradley (1929). The association of oolites with
Cryptosoon has been discussed above (p. 21-23). A recent
example from the Bay of Naples of alteration of algal (Lithotham-
nium) deposits (see p. 49) was studied by Walther (1885) and
these studies have been summarized by Seward (1894, p. 19, 20)
and others. In his Allgemeine Palaeontologie (1919) Walther again
discusses the alteration of reef limestones ( see p. 49). Skeats
(1918&, p. 185), refers to this widespread dolomitization and states
that “long before the rock is completely dolomitized it must be
reduced to a quite structureless mass, and all traces of organisms
must necessarily disappear” (p. 190; see also Seward 1895, p. 175).
Garwood also points out that, “the presence of dolomites in connex-
ion with algal growths at different geological horizons appears to
show that the beds have accumulated under definite physiographical
conditions similar to those which obtain today in the neighborhood of
coral reefs” (1913a, p. 552). Howe (1931, p. 59, 60) discusses
the importance, as agents of limestone production, of the blue-green
algae (Cyanophyceae), of greater antiquity than the coralline (Litho-
thamnium) group, and notes the

superficial evidence that many, at least of the most ancient limestones
of Cambrian and pre-Cambrian age were laid down by the agency
of these blue-green algae and that in mass production of limestone
these lowly organisms were much more active than they are at the
present time. . . It is to be freely conceded, however, that no one of
these supposed algal limestones of Cambrian or pre-Cambrian age,
when examined microscopically, either decalcified or in ground sec-
tion, shows any incontestable evidence of an algal nature. In view
of the extreme age of these supposed plants and the extreme delicacy

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of the gelatinous cell walls ... it seems unreasonable to expect any
preservation of their microscopic cell structure. . . In the calcareous
travertine or tufa now being laid down by various blue-green algae
in lakes and streams in the United States, it is commonly difficult to
demonstrate and identify the contributing organisms except in the
superficial layers. Why should one expect then delicate structure
to persist for millions of years? Nevertheless, one who is accustomed
to see and to handle the algae of the present day may feel convinced
from the macroscopic characters that certain laminated ancient lime-
stones were laid down by algae. . .

It is not intended here to make a complete survey of even all of
the more extensive fossil algal deposits. Seward and Garwood, who
have probably done more than any others to emphasize the importance
of the algae, have given full surveys of the geologic occurrences and
distribution of calcareous algae through the ages (Seward, 1894,
1898, 1923, 1931; Garwood, 1913, 1931). In closing one such dis-
cussion (1913, p. 121) Garwood remarks:

The facts given above regarding the geological distribution and
mode of occurrence of these organisms lead us to several interesting
conclusions. In addition to the evidence of the important part they
play as rock-builders, it is evident that certain forms flourished over
wide areas at the same geological periods, and might well be made
use of in many cases with considerable reliability as proofs of the
general contemporaneity of two deposits. Thus, as general examples,
we may cite the wide distribution of Solenopora compacta in the
Baltic provinces, Scotland, England, Wales, and Canada during
Llandeilo-Caradoc (Ordovician) times.

Among the Precambrian deposits should be cited the Algonkian
algal formations of the Cordilleran area described by Walcott (1914),
although doubt has been cast upon their algal nature by Seward
(1931, p. 80). Walcott assigns these deposits to the activity of the
blue-green algae. These structures, believed of algal origin, form, in
Montana, reefs and banks through a thickness of several thousand
feet of strata (Walcott, ref. cit. p. 94-100). Of these beds Walcott
says (p. 94) : “The limestones of the Newland formation have more
or less magnesian content, but many of the layers are pure limestone,
especially those containing the reefs or banks of algae.” Later
studies (1931, 1933, 1936) were made in these formations by C. L.
and M. A. Fenton and in concluding a paper on the Beltian algae of
Glacier National Park, Montana, they state “the formation of the
masses which we regard as algal deposits cannot at present be
explained as an inorganic process. On the other hand, analogy fur-
nishes strong evidence that these masses were organic in origin”

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

6l

(1931, p. 681). Answering English geologists (Seward) and Holte-
dahl’s suggestion that they either are a “chemical precipitation that
probably came into existence through the organic processes of living
organisms” (1919, p. 90) or “formed secondarily by very important
radical internal changes in the rocks” the Fentons say :

For the second of these interpretations no field evidence could
be found. The characters of these supposed algal colonies are sur-
prisingly uniform at given horizons regardless of obvious secondary
changes — very rarely uniform over wide areas — in the strata bearing
them. . .

Of greater weight, at least in the present case, is Holtedahl’s first
suggestion that the “algae” are consequences of organically initiated
precipitation, but are not actual petrifactions. . . We have such

species as Collenia columnaris, C. symmetrica and C. undosa, all form-
ing sharply delimited masses, all as stable in their characters as any
coral, all readily recognizable in the field. We wish to emphasize
that, so far as general characters alone are considered, all of the
forms just named are more readily and more uniformly recogniz-
able than are members of such genera as Prismatophyllum, Favosites
or Columnaria. That such structures should result from chemical
precipitation alone, even though originated by the action of organ-
isms, is very difficult to believe (1931, p. 681).

Moore (1918, p. 420-29) describes algal concretionary deposits
from the iron-bearing formations of the Belcher islands, situated
off the coast of Hudson bay. Although bearing a strong resem-
blance to Cryptozoon they are regarded as deposits made by a new
group of algae, and the similarity to the forms described by Wal-
cott from the Algonkian rocks of Montana is pointed out. These
bodies form whole reefs in the more or less silicified limestone of
the Belcher series, making up a thickness of over 400 feet. By
some these rocks are considered Precambrian ; others have considered
them Cambrian. Twenhofel (1919) describes reeflike masses
(referred to Collenia') over 22 feet in thickness and 55 feet wide
from the Precambrian (Lower Huronian, Kona dolomite) of the
Marquette region Michigan; and Rutherford (1929) describes con-
centric structures of supposed algal origin from a limestone of Pre-
cambrian age in the Great Slave Lake region, with a thickness of
some 50 feet and extending for about three miles along the lake. In
discussing Precambrian algal deposits Garwood (1931, p. Ixxvii)
writes, “It is evident that structures attributed to an algal origin
were developed over a large area in North America in Pre-Cambrian
times, and that they play an important part in the formation of the
calcareous deposits in the Huronian rocks,”

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

The wide distribution of species of Cryptozdvn in beds of Ozarkian
age (uppermost Cambrian of authors) has been discussed above
(p. 23). Blackwelder (1915, p. 646-49) has described from
the Middle Cambrian of the Teton mountains, about 400 feet below
the base of the Bighorn dolomite, a seven-foot reef bottomed by
limestone and characterized by nearly hemispherical bodies which
he ascribes to colonial organisms, such as corals, hydroids, bryozoans
or algae. He concludes, however,

Since corals and bryozoans are often found well preserved in
rocks no more altered than these, their absence here creates a strong
presumption that the domes are not of coralline or bryozoan origin.
They are best referred to some organism of extremely delicate inter-
nal structure such as many of the modern calcareous algae. In view
of the fact that algae even today are known to construct large and
strong masses of lime carbonate which constitute important or even
predominant parts of many so-called coral reefs, the writer believes
that the bee-hive shaped masses here described were built by colonies
of algae (p. 650).

Algal deposits of a Cryptozoonlike nature have been described from
the Cambrian and Precambrian of South Australia, and in Central
Australia in pre-Ordovician rocks, believed to be most likely of Cam-
brian age, extensive deposits occur (McDonnell Ranges). Here
series of limestones 1330 feet thick “appear moderately dolomitic”
and exhibit “an extraordinary development of fossil algae of several
varieties. . . Much of the limestone is solidly made up of the remains
of these algae. They evidently flourished in dense masses, growing
in shallow waters. The living growth was analogous to the coral-
reef formations of later times” (Mawson and Madigan, 1930, p. 422).

Of the Ordovician algae Garwood writes : “The very important
part played by calcareous algae in the formation of rocks of Ordovi-
cian age in the Baltic Provinces, Scandinavia, and Scotland is well
known, and was described some years ago by Stolley, Kiaer, Nichol-
son and others, and a summary of their distribution was given in
my 1913 British Association address. Since then further investigation
has tended to confirm the importance of these organisms as rock-
builders in Ordovician times in northern Europe” (1931, p. lxxxii).
He cites among recent literature Kiaer’s summary of Norwegian
occurrences published in 1920 ( see H<£eg, 1932). A noteworthy
Ordovician deposit ascribed to calcareous algae is the Bighorn dolo-
mite (Blackwelder, 1913) discussed above (p. 50).

No particularly considerable Silurian deposits have been reported,
and not many Devonian occurrences. Rothpletz (1908, 1913)

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

63

describes the algal development (Solenopora, Sphaerocodimn and
Hedstromia) in the Silurian of Gotland and refers to their impor-
tance as rock-builders and their wide distribution. Garwood calls
attention to the extensive occurence of Solenopora in the Silurian
(Woolhope limestone) of the Old Radnor district of Southern
Wales, where it “forms a considerable portion of the limestone and
extends through the whole 60 feet of the deposit, though most abun-
dant near the base” (ref. cit., p. lxxxvii).

Among Carboniferous algal deposits Garwood (ref. cit. p. lxxxv
and lxxxvi) mentions the Fusulina limestone of Carinthia, Austria,
in which the “coralline alga not infrequently forms nearly the whole
of the deposit,” and the Mizzia dolomite of northern Dalmatia. In
Britain “in Lower Carboniferous times calcareous algae attained their
widest geographical distribution . . . extending then from the

Scottish Border through Northumberland, Cumberland, Westmorland
and West Yorkshire and reaching Mitcheldean and the Bristol dis-
trict” (ref. cit. p. xc). The most striking and most important algal
development is in the Cementstone Group near the Scottish Border
where the development consists of a number of algal bands, occur-
ing at intervals through the Cementstones, which extend over an
area of at least 1200 square miles (ref. cit. xci, xcii). Garwood states :

At one horizon, so abundant are these algal growths that the beds
in which they occur assume a reef-like development which may be
compared with recent Lithothamnion banks. An interesting feature
of these algal bands is their constant association with annelids (Ser-
pula and Spirorbis) and also with oolites and occasional dolomite.
They seem to have flourished under lagoon conditions and to have
extended over a considerable area (ref. cit. p. xci).

A large mass of limestone of Permo-Carboniferous age occuring
in Queensland, Australia, is described by Richards and Bryan (1932)
as “made up almost entirely of the microscopic remains of calcareous
algae” (p. 289). The limestone examined for the presence of algae
“extends as an irregular lenticular mass in a north-northwesterly
direction for approximately four miles, its greatest width being a
little under one mile. The main mass, composed essentially of algal
remains, measures approximately 1,100 feet in stratigraphical thick-
ness, while the ascertained stratigraphical range of the algal lime-
stones is considerably more than twice as great” (ref. cit. p. 291).
In concluding their paper Richards and Bryan state that “the com-
paratively poor development of reef-building corals at this time, as
compared with the present day, may have been an important negative
factor contributing towards the purity of the algal reef, although

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

pure stands of Lithothamnion are known to occur at the present
day” (P- 300)-

One of the most striking examples of a fossil reef is found in
the Capitan limestone and equivalent formations of Permian age
in New Mexico and Texas, about which, because of its importance in
the field of oil geology, many papers have been written in recent
years (among them Blanchard and Davis, 1929; Crandall, 1929;
Keyes, 1929, 1936; King, P. B., 1930, 1932, 1934; King, P. B. &
King R. E., 1928; Lloyd, 1929; Ruedemann, 1929; Van der Gracht,
I925» i926, j929> i931)- This immense reef, first, described as a coral
reef (Van der Gracht, 1925, 1926) was discovered by Ruedemann
in the early summer of 1927 to be in large part of algal origin (in
King, 1928, p. 139; in Lloyd, 1929, p. 648). Ruedemann writes:
“The coralline algae appear mostly as more or less rounded balls,
ranging from the size of a pea to that of a cabbage head and showing
concentric structure. . . Much of the limestone of the Guadalupe
range consists of such variously shaped nodules, mostly of smaller
size. . . It seems to me the problem of the algal reefs in the south-
west is a big one and also very important for the oil geologist”
(1929, p. 1079). Lloyd (1929, p. 645) points out that the Capitan
formation is dolomite, though referred to as a limestone and
continues :

Dolomitization is a characteristic feature of almost all reefs, both
recent and fossil. Dolomite is probably not deposited as such, but
results from the alteration of calcite or aragonite by reactions within
the sediments of the sea bottom. Dolomitization destroys the fos-
sils, as does change from aragonite to calcite. In general, the more
complete the dolomitization, the more complete is the destruction of
the organic remains until a perfectly homogeneous dolomite may
be formed. . . The Capitan reef rock shows plentiful organic

remains, but for the most part so altered that few recognizable forms
can be collected. Oolites are a common feature associated with
reefs and these are found plentifully northwest of the reef rock
proper. . . In the Capitan fauna as described by Girty corals

are very poorly represented. . . Locally the reef rock contains

numerous fragments of unidentified corals (ref. cit. p. 647, 648). . .
The Capitan reef is one of a group of reefs on the southwest side
of the Permian basin beside which the Niagaran reefs pale into
insignificance. These have been described as “the grandest system
of fossil reefs in the American Continent” (ref. cit. p. 655; Niagaran
reefs: Cumings and Schrock 1928, p. 599).

The Capitan reef, or series of reefs, extends through the Guada-
lupe mountains (Capitan limestone: 1800 feet at Guadalupe Point)
and also the Apache, Glass and Delaware mountains (Lloyd, 1929;

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN 65

Van der Gracht, 1931; King, P. B., 1930, 1932, 1934; King, P. B.
& King R. E., 1928). Crandall (1929, p. 944) in discussing its
extent writes:

The great thickness of the Capitan and its remarkable lateral
persistence of at least 25 miles in the Guadalupe Mountains, 20 miles
in the Glass Mountains on the southeast, where P. B. King and R. E.
King have suggested both the time equivalency with the Capitan and
the reef origin of the Vidrio, Gilliam and Tessey formations, make
it and its related formations the largest fossil reef yet described
with the exception of the Schlern dolomite of Triassic age in the
southern Tyrol. The similarity evidently existing between this
latter formation and the Capitan is noteworthy ( see Blanchard and
Davis 1929, p. 975; Keyes 1929; Lloyd 1929, p. 655; Van der
Gracht 1931, p. 83).

Keyes in a recent paper (1936) dealing with the Guadalupe reef
states, “Originally such a reef probably extended from El Paso to
Omaha, a distance of 1000 miles, and it thus rivaled the present-
day 1000 mile long Great Barrier reef of Australia. . . ” (p. 38).

Of the Triassic deposits referred to in the quotation above Seward
writes (1931, p. 295) :

From the limestones and dolomites of the Tyrolese Alps and the
Himalayas it is possible to form a general idea of the algal flora
of the Triassic sea. Scattered through the uplifted rocks carved
into the peaks and precipitous walls of the Dolomites are shattered
masses of old coral reefs, of reefs made of calcareous seaweeds. . .
The sloping strata of the Schlern dolomite on the face of the
Fermeda Turm . . . are rich in the calcareous casings of Diplo-

pora and other algae.

Solenopora, a calcareous alga agreeing closely in its compact cel-
lular structure with Lithothamnium, which is recorded from Ordo-
vician and later rocks in many parts of the world, “played a prominent
part also in the construction of Jurassic limestones. In later geo-
logical periods Lithothamnium and allied genera carried on the
tradition established in earlier times by Solenopora ” (Seward 1931,
p. 108). Lithothamnium and its allies began to make their appear-
ance in the Cretaceous and their deposits are widely distributed (Gar-
wood 1913a, p. 551), but it is not until we reach the Tertiary rocks
that Lithothamnium is found occuring massively (Seward, 1931,
p. 424; Murray, 1894, p. 44). Its recent importance is discussed
above (p. 55). Seward (1898, p. 187, 188) calls attention to
the Miocene Leithakalk of the Tertiary Vienna basin, which con-
sists in part of limestone rocks composed to a large extent of Litho-
thamnium, and to a “Lithothamnium bank, probably of Upper

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Oligocene age, in Val Sugana, in the Austrian Tyrol” ; and Murray
(ref. cit.) notes, besides the Leitha limestones, the ‘‘Pisolitic lime-
stone and the Nummulitic rocks” which “owe their origin in great part
to this contemporary genus.” Howe (1934) in a paper on the
Eocene Marine Algae (Lithothamnieae) from the Sierra Blanca
Limestone discusses the Sierra Blanca reef, Santa Barbara county,
California, described by Keenan (1932) as 160 feet thick and
characterized by its high content of calcareous algae. “It is not
simply a matter of the algae being imbedded in a limestone matrix :
the algae themselves, with microscopic cell structure beautifully pre-
served, are the dominant factor in the composition of the limestone”
(Howe, ref. cit. p. 508). Howe reviews the occurrence of fossil
Lithothamnieae noted at several localities on the Pacific coast of
North America, mostly within recent years, and then states:

The most massive deposit of marine-algal limestone thus far
described from the Pacific Coast, except for the Sierra Blanca (reef),
appears to be one (or more?) of Paleocene age in the Santa Ynez
Canyon of the Santa Monica Mountains, Los Angeles County, Cali-
fornia, described by Hoots. . . Hoots writes of this Eocene reef :
“The algal limestone is one of the most striking and probably the
most unusual rock type in the Santa Monica Mountains. It occurs
in prominent white reefs from a few feet to several hundred feet
thick, which vary in lateral extent from only a few feet to about
4000 feet and commonly terminate in an abrupt wall” (ref. cit. p. 510).

Bradley (1929) describes algal reefs occurring abundantly in
the Green River (Eocene) formation of Wyoming, Colorado and
Utah. “Locally they constitute more than 8 per cent of the basal
member of the formation and occur in single reefs or groups of
reefs as much as 5.5 meters (18 feet) thick. Oolitic limestone and
algal pebble beds are also plentiful but thinner . . . although

formed in inland lakes during the middle part of the Eocene epoch,
(these reefs) are remarkably similar to those found in the Miocene
lake beds of the Rhine Valley, Germany” (ref. cit. p. 203). Brad-
ley also calls attention to algal reefs of the same nature now forming
in Green Lake, N. Y., fringing reefs and thick incrustations which
owe their origin to Blue-green and some Green algae (p. 204). (See
Johnson, p. 51).

Future studies will undoubtedly add to the importance of cal-
careous algae, particularly in fossil deposits. We see, as Garwood
points out (1913a, p. 551), that “there can be no doubt from the
examples described above that they play a very striking part as
rock-builders at many different horizons in the geological series” ;

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

6 7

and, as rocks today built up largely of calcareous algae have lost
their structure, so it is legitimate to infer that some of the limestone
rocks of yet unknown or doubtful origin “which show no traces of
organic structure may have been in part derived from the calcareous
incrustation of various algal genera” (Seward, 1898, p. 175).

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ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

69

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19070 Marine Algae II, Corallinaceae. Natural History 3. 2p.

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1925 Lithothamnhnn ellisiamim, sp. nov., from the Jurassic Ellis for-
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1937 Algae and Algal Limestone from the Oligocene of South Park,
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1904 General Report on the Materials Sent from Funafuti, and the
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ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

7 1

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1932 The Eocene Sierra Blanca Limestone at the Type Locality in
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1930 Geology of the Glass Mountains, Part 1, Descriptive Geology.

Univ. Texas Bui., No. 3038. i67p.

1932 Limestone Reefs in the Leonard and Hess Formations of Trans-
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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

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ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

73

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

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SUPPLEMENTARY NOTE

It has seemed advisable, for the benefit of residents of the Capital
District, and more particularly for tourists unfamiliar with the area,
to give more definite directions for reaching Lester and Ritchie
parks and a few more details about these areas. Saratoga Springs
is approximately 30 miles north of Albany and may be reached by
route 9. In Saratoga Springs take route 29 west and continue for
about three miles to the junction with the Greenfield Center road,
turning north at this four corners. Mr Ritchie has placed here, on
the north side of the state road, a signboard indicating the direction
of the “Petrified Sea Gardens” (Ritchie park) which are located on
the right side of the road three-quarters of a mile north of the four
corners. Lester park is about half a mile beyond this, also on the
right (east) side of the road. Traveling by way of Schenectady
(route 5, northwest from Albany to Scotia) and Ballston Spa (route
50 out of Scotia, north) one can enter Saratoga Springs and take
route 29 west as before, or, better yet, just before the state road
crosses the railroad tracks, one mile out of Saratoga Springs, take the
road to the left, which meets route 29 one mile to the north.

The Lester Park area, besides the Cryptozoon proliferum reef, has,
as discussed in the paper, other features of interest such as the
C. ruedemanni reef in Hoyt quarry and the stringers of C. pro -

ALGAL BARRIER REEFS IN THE LOWER OZARKIAN

75

liferum , developed in rill channels, which are located in the field along
the east-west road to the north. The “Petrified Sea Gardens” or
Ritchie park, where reefs belonging to three species of Cryptozoon
are displayed ( C. proliferum, C. ruedemanni and C. undulatum) , is
privately owned by Robert R. Ritchie, of Saratoga Springs, and is
in a much better state of preservation. The “Gardens” area, com-
prising some 20 acres of land entirely underlain by these reefs of
calcareous seaweeds, constitutes one of the most remarkable dis-
plays in the State, even in the country and perhaps in the world.
The remarkable nature of this exposure, particularly as regards the
C. proliferum reef, is to considerable extent due to the fact that the
ice sheet which covered this part of the country during the Glacial
Period sheared off the tops of the concentric seaweed growths. The
wide crevices that are found everywhere cutting through the lime-
stone and the reef, and in which vertical sections of the seaweeds
are displayed, are due to solution along the joint cracks that occur
in the rocks ; and in places pot-holes have been developed. Mr Ritchie
is continuing the work of clearing away the veneer of soil that
still covers parts of the “Gardens” and has laid out well-kept paths
designed to give the best views of the reefs. The place as a whole,
particularly the northwest corner where his summer home is located,
is attractively landscaped. In addition Mr Ritchie maintains an
adequate and well -instructed guide service and has for sale, at a
small price, a popular pamphlet on the area written by Professor
Harold O. Whitnall, of Colgate University, and a short article by
the writer. Near the entrance gate Mr Ritchie maintains a picnic
grounds and a small museum in which is an interesting fireplace
built of Cryptozoon heads or stocks. In this museum are displayed
local fossils and minerals, some of which are for sale, as well as
specimens acquired from various parts of the country, either through
exchange or by gift. So popular have the “Petrified Sea Gardens”
become, and so widely known, that in the past season (1936) there
were more than 15,000 visitors from 44 states and several foreign
countries. Many prominent scientists of this country and from
abroad have visited the place.

Lester park may be viewed free of charge. A small entrance
fee is asked for the “Petrified Sea Gardens” and special rates
have been made for schools. This fee entitles the visitor to the tour
of the grounds, including the museum, and he may stay as long as
he pleases. Lunches are not yet served there, but picnic parties are
encouraged and ice cream and soft drinks are sold in the museum
building.

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.

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.

2 ADDITIONAL NOTES ON PREVIOUSLY
DESCRIBED DEVONIAN CRINOIDS

BY

Winifred Goldring

Through the courtesy of Fred Wattles, an amateur collector of
Buffalo, N. Y., and Irving G. Reimann, of the Buffalo Museum of
Science, the writer has had the opportunity of studying a small col-
lection of crinoids which has afforded new facts for previously
described species.

Craterocrinus Schoharie Goldring
Figures 23 (6), 24

The original description of this species (Goldring, 1923, p. 189,
pi. 20, fig. 9) was based on a single dorsal cup in the collection of
the New York State Museum, accompanied by a label stating that
it was collected from the New Scotland limestone at Schoharie. The
only other species of this genus, C. ruedemanni Goldring, comes from
the Onondaga limestone, Cherry Valley, N. Y. The preservation
of the specimen of C. schoharie did not seem to be what should be
expected in the New Scotland shaly limestone, but there was no
rock attached and the formation was accepted as designated.

In the collection under study are two crushed dorsal cups, from
the Onondaga of the Williamsville quarry, Erie county, that unques-
tionably belong to C. schoharie and show the same kind of preserva-
tion as is seen in the type. The writer, therefore, feels sure that the
type also was collected from the Onondaga limestone.

In the two specimens under discussion the primary interbrachials
are 12-sided in the regular interradii, 14-sided in the anal interradius.
In each half-ray on the inner side there are four tertibrachs before
the arm becomes biserial, the first large, the next three very short;
on the outer side two tertibrachs, the first one comparatively large.
The larger specimen, though poorly preserved, shows at least one
division of the stout arms above the tertibrachs, giving 40 arms in
all. The column in the smaller specimen shows a five-lobed central
canal.

Horizon and locality. Onondaga limestone, Williamsville quarry,
Erie county.

[77]

7«

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Gennaeocrinus similis Goldring

Figure 23 (1 and 2)

This species (Goldring, 1935, p. 358, 359, pi. 26, figs. 7, 8) was
based upon a single, partially preserved cup, in the collection of Percy
R. Powell, of Niagara Falls, N. Y., which, however, showed enough
distinctive characters to assure future identification of the species.
In the collection of Mr Wattles is a nearly complete dorsal cup of a
younger specimen of this species, which permits fuller description.

In each radial series the primibrach is followed by two secundi-
brachs in each half-ray. In the right posterior ray only are more
than two tertibrachs preserved. Here in the left half-ray both the
outer and inner divisions of the arm become biserial after the fourth
tertibrach. The inner arm is preserved undivided for a quarter of
an inch more. No statement can be made as to the total number
of arms, but it would appear that there are fewer than 30.

In the anal interradius the plates have the succession x, 3, 5, 7
( ?) ; in the regular interradii 1, 2, 2.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES
Figure 23

Gennaeocrinus similis Goldring

1 Posterior view of calyx xi£.

Hamilton: Ludlowville shale (Pleurodictyum beds); Cazenovia creek at
Gebaurer’s farm, between Ebenezer and Springbrook, Erie county, N. Y.

2 Basal view of same, xi£, showing well the basal projections and the anal
interradius

Gilbert so crinus spinigerus (Hall) var.

3 Lateral view of calyx, right postero-lateral interradius, x2.

Hamilton: Ludlowville, Tichenor limestone; near Springbrook, Erie county,

N. Y.

4 Tegmen of same, x2, showing numerous spiny nodes

5 Basal view, x2

Craterocrinus Schoharie Goldring

6 Basal view of type ( 4I23£. in New York State Museum). Left anterior

interradius; posterior interradius at lower right.

Onondaga limestone; Schoharie, N. Y.

Figure 24

Craterocrinus Schoharie Goldring

1 Basal view of dorsal cup from inside. Left posterior interradius at top;
posterior radius at left.

Onondaga limestone; Williamsville quarry, Erie county, N. Y.

2 Basal view of larger dorsal cup, exterior; posterior interradius at top
Onondaga limestone; Williamsville quarry, Erie county, N. Y.

Note. Types, except as otherwise indicated, in the collection of Fred Wattles,
Buffalo, N. Y.

Photographs by E. J. §tein, New York State Museum

Figure 23

[79]

Figure 24

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON DEVONIAN CRINOIDS

8l

The reticulated character of the surface is distinct, but not so
well shown as in the more mature specimen and in places tends to
be granulose. The projecting basals show the tuberculated margins.
The left-hand ridge from the center of the first anal to the basal
ends in an additional tubercle giving four to this basal. An incipient
ridge on the basal represents the right-hand ridge from the first anal.
Otherwise the pattern of the ridges is the same as in the mature speci-
men. The six-sided figure formed by the ridges extending from
center to center of radials and first anal is quite distinct. A more
prominent ridge extends up the anal series of plates. In the anal
interradius there is a prominent node at the center of each plate with
well-developed connecting ridges. The nodes at the centers of the
plates of the regular interradii are less prominent and the connecting
ridges are indistinct or interrupted. The ridges traversing the radial
series are strong and the low nodes at the centers of all plates,
together with the depressions where the ridges cross the sutures,
give a beadlike effect. This is true much less distinctly of the
ridges in the interradial areas.

Horizon and locality. From the Hamilton beds (Ludlowville :
Pleurodictyum beds), Cazenovia creek, at Gebaurer’s farm, between
Ebenezer and Springbrook, Erie county.

Remarks. This species has been compared with G. peculiaris
Goldring. It is found to differ also in having two secundibrachs in
each half-ray, fewer plates in the second and third ranges of the
regular interradii (anal interradius not preserved in peculiaris),
fewer intersecundibrachs and the presence of radiating ridges above
the first primibrachs and first interbrachials.

Gilberts ocrinus spinigerus (Hall) var.

Figure 23 (3-5)

G. spinigerus was originally described and figured by Hall (1862,
p. 128; 1872, pi. 1 a, fig. 9) and more recently by the writer (1923,
p. 96-99, pi. 3, figs. 1-6) with full synonomy. The types from the
Hamilton (Moscow) of New York are rather crushed, but better
preserved material from the Hamilton (Ludlowville) of Erie county
in the collections of Percy R. Powell, of Niagara Falls, and the
Buffalo Museum of Science (Irving G. Reimann, coll.) has more
recently been studied by the writer. All these specimens, as well as
the types from Clark county, Indiana {Ibid figs. 3—6; Springer

82

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

collection, U. S. Nat. Mus.) show a low tegmen made up of numerous
small plates of rather irregular arrangement, nodose in the ambula-
cral areas and oral region ; with depressed interambulacral areas.

In the Wattles collection is a single well-preserved calyx that shows
a variation from the types and other material studied. The nodes
on the tegmen are more numerous and more strongly developed,
almost spiny in places, and they are found on all plates, except those
in the deepest parts of the interambulacral depressions. A small
central node or tubercle occurs on the higher interradial plates;
also on the first intersecundibrachs, sometimes on the others. Some
of these plates show in addition a granular surface. A distinct ridge,
not so prominent as that of the radial series follows the anal series
of plates. The spines are equally developed on the radials, first
primibrachs, primary interbrachials and first anal. The first inter-
secundibrach is followed by the series 2, 3, 2, 1, where the plates
are distinguishable.

The variation in the more extensive development of tubercles or
nodes on the tegmen and certain plates of the cup is the only respect
in which this specimen differs from the types, and this is not suffi-
cient to justify a varietal name, particularly when there is only one
specimen. Another species of this genus, G. greenei Miller & Gurley,
has been found to show some variability (Goldring, p. 186, 1934).

Horizon and locality. From the Hamilton (Ludlowville : Tichenor
limestone) near Springbrook, Erie county, N. Y.

Remarks. After this paper was handed in for publication Mr
Wattles submitted a second specimen from the Ludlowville shale
(Wanakah member, Pleurodictyum beds), Athol Springs. The speci-
men is imperfect but shows the same characters as the type.

Edriocrinus pyriformis Hall

This species was originally described by Hall (1862, p. 115, 116)
from the “limestone of the Upper Helderberg group” (Onondaga
limestone) south of Utica, as stated by the writer in the discussion
of this species in the Devonian Crinoids of New York (1923, P- 452)-
Specimens from this locality are listed from the Onondaga lime-
stone in the old locality catalog of the New York State Museum
and in the type catalog of the American Museum of Natural History.
The specimens in the Springer collection, originally in the Lyon
collection, were obtained by exchange from Hall and were similarly
labeled. Mr Springer, in his discussion of the horizon and locality

ADDITIONAL NOTES ON DEVONIAN CRINOIDS

83

of this species (1920, \ >. 21), points out what he believed to be an
error in citation, interpreting the quarry from which the specimens
came as the Eastman’s [uarry “located ten or twelve miles southeast
of Utica, in the region of Litchfield, where the Coeymans limestone
of the Helderbergian is well developed.” This correction was cited
by the writer (ref. cit. p. 452).

E. pyriformis is also recorded in the New York State locality book
from the Onondaga limestone of Babcock hill, Bridgewater, Oneida
county, where there is no chance of confusion with the Coeymans
limestone; and in Mr Wattles’ collection are a number of specimens
collected from the Onondaga limestone at Williamsville, Erie county.
There is some variation among the Williamsville specimens, but only
what might be expected in such an abnormal form. The base or
peduncle sometimes has the appearance of a short, stout column
as in the type; again, it is somewhat contorted. In some specimens
the slender base appears to be attached to a short swollen column
with a constriction at the point of attachment. There is no doubt
that these specimens represent the same species as the type of
E. pyriformis. Crinoid species, as a rule, appear to have only a short
range, and it would be very strange to have such an abnormal type
repeated in the Onondaga. Hall knew his formations very well, and
this taken with the known Onondaga occurrences of the species
suggests to the writer that the original citation from the quarry south
of Utica is correct and that this species occurs only in the Onondaga
limestone.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Goldring, Winifred

1923 Devonian Crinoids of New York. N. Y. State Mus. Mem., 16,
67op., 60 pi.

1934 Some Hamilton Crinoids of New York and Canada. Buffalo Soc.

Nat. Sci. Bui., 25:182-94, pis. 1, 2

1935 New and Previously Known Middle Devonian Crinoids of New

York. Carnegie Mus. Ann., v. 24:349-68, pis. 25-27

Hall, James

1862 Some of the Species of Crinoids Known in the Upper Helderberg
and Hamilton Groups of New York. 15th Ann. Rep’t N. Y.
State Cab. Nat. Hist., p. 115-53, pi- 1
1872 Descriptions of New Species of Crinoidea. N. Y. State Mus. Bui.,
1, pi. 1 a, fig. 9 (photographic plates distributed privately)

Springer, F.

1920 Crinoidea Flexibilia. Smith Inst. Pub. 2501, 48p., A, B, C & 76 pi.,
51 text figs.

'

3 FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY

BY

Gerrard R. Megathlin
CONTENTS

PAGE

Introduction 85

Acknowledgments 85

Location and Topography 86

General Geology 88

Stratigraphy 93

Geologic column 93

General description 93

Precambrian 93

Paleozoic 94

Ozarkian 94

Canadian 98

Ordovician 98

Post-Utica 101

Cenozoic 102

Pleistocene-Recent 102

Faults 105

Age and Origin of the Faults 115

Bibliography 120

INTRODUCTION

Extensive faulting along the southern edge of the Adirondacks in
the Mohawk valley has been largely responsible for the major topo-
graphic features of that region, and for much of our early knowledge
of the lower Paleozoic stratigraphy of New York State. In addition,
it has influenced the location of extensive quarry operations and has
also had an appreciable effect on the settlement of the area. The
major displacements were recognized at an early date, and several
authors have described in greater or less detail the region discussed
here. More than half of the area, however, has not been geologically
mapped on the topographic sheets, and in addition, several problems
relating to the faults have been left unsettled. It was with the
object of obtaining data which might lead to a solution of these
problems that portions of the summers of 1930 and 1931 were spent
in geologic investigation of the area.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To Dr H. Ries, of the Department of Geology of Cornell Uni-
versity, who suggested the Mohawk valley as a field for geologic
study, the writer expresses his thanks. He is especially indebted to
Dr Charles M. Nevin, of the same department, who outlined the

[85]

86

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

problem and supervised the work and whose helpful criticisms and
suggestions are gratefully acknowledged. To Dr Rudolf Ruede-
mann, of the New York State Museum, the writer is obligated for
his many identifications of fossil specimens and for his kindly inter-
est. Thanks are also extended to Dr David H. Newland and to
Chris A. Hartnagel, both of the New York State Museum, for the
assistance and suggestions they rendered. While in the field the
writer received much help and information from many residents of
the area, and for this he expresses most sincere appreciation.

LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY

The location of the region studied and its relation to the major
structural features are indicated in figure 25. The district measures
about 46 miles by 29 miles.

The largest river is the Mohawk, which crosses the southern part
of the area in a winding course with a general east-southeast direc-
tion. This river lies in a comparatively young valley, one to two
miles in width and from 400 to 500 feet in depth. On either side
of this, a wider and more mature valley extends as uplands of gradu-
ally increasing height, to the Helderberg escarpment to the south,
and to the foothills of the Adirondacks to the north.

Several of the larger faults of the region cross the valley and
have brought up areas of more resistant rocks, which often cause a
local narrowing of the valley and a steepening of the grade of the
river, as at Little Falls and the Noses. The positions of the major
faults are easily traceable northward from the river, as prominent
east-facing escarpments (figure 26). These are fault-line scarps,
since they have been produced primarily by erosion rather than
faulting. Between each escarpment, the surface gradually slopes
westward to the base of the next escarpment, and this, together with
the dip of the formations, indicates a westerly tilt of each block
between major faults.

The Precambrian areas in the northern part of the region are
rugged, with altitudes of from 1800 to 2000 feet or more. Lakes
and sites suitable for reservoirs are numerous, and because of the
fall afforded, electric power is frequently developed. The flood areas
of recent reservoirs, since they postdate the topographic maps, are
shown only approximately.

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY

87

The settlements of the region are mostly along the Mohawk valley
and on the surrounding areas of Paleozoic sediments, and are only
sparsely distributed on the more rugged Precambrian rocks because
of their ledgy character and a relatively thin infertile soil.

74* 7H‘ If

0 so 100

Figure 25 Index map showing the location of the Mohawk Valley region
and its relation to the major structures.

88

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

GENERAL GEOLOGY

The geologic history of the region (more complete descriptions
are given by Cushing, 19050, p. 4-15, 51-59, 66-68; 1905&, p. 272-94;
Miller, 1911, p. 7, 50-54, 56-59; 1917, p. 31-73; 1924, p. 31-118)
begins with Precambrian deposition of several thousand feet of
Grenville sediments, which have since been highly metamorphosed to
gneisses, marbles, schists and quartzites. Large masses of igneous
material of varied, but chiefly syenitic and granitic, character were
intruded into this series. A long period of erosion followed, during
which some thousands of feet of material were removed. This Gren-
ville-igneous complex was intruded by small dikes of gabbroic, peg-
matitic and diabasic character. With respect to the last-named, “the
fine-grained texture of these rocks, often with borders of glass,
shows that they must have cooled close to the surface, and hence it is
evident that most of the Precambrian erosion of the region had been
accomplished before the diabases were erupted” (Miller, 1924, p. 41).
The erosion surface developed at the end of the Precambrian, or the
beginning of the Paleozoic, was remarkably smooth with very few
minor irregularities. The present slope of this surface is to the
west and southwest at a rate of from 100 to 200 feet a mile.

The great land mass or dome of the Adirondacks began to sink
in the early Paleozoic. This sinking was not uniform all around the
dome, as is shown by variations in the Paleozoic sediments deposited
unconformably on the old erosion surface. The Mohawk Valley
area, especially the western portion, appears to have been submerged
somewhat later than the regions to the east and northeast. This
sinking was occasionally interrupted, as is indicated by the presence
of disconformities in the strata. As sinking continued, the younger
sediments extended progressively farther north up the side of the
dome, thus overlapping the older ones and thinning in that direction.

In the Mohawk valley, submergence began first in the eastern
part with deposition of the Potsdam sandstone in the upper Ozarkian.
Above the Potsdam there is an alternating series of sandstones and
dolomites called the Theresa formation. This was not certainly
identified beyond the limits of the Broadalbin quadrangle in the
northeast part of the region, and it seems to be confined largely to
that portion. The Hoyt limestone, which overlies the Theresa in the
Saratoga quadrangle (Cushing & Ruedemann, 1914, p. 38-42) just
east of the area, is absent from the Broadalbin quadrangle. The
Theresa grades upward into the massive dolomite of the Little Falls,

[89]

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY

91

which is present throughout the area, and, in the western half,
replaces the Theresa and directly overlies the Precambrian. Thus the
whole region became submerged in the late upper Ozarkian.

The end of Ozarkian deposition is marked by a disconformity
at the top of the Little Falls, indicating uplift of the region before
renewed subsidence allowed accumulation of the Canadian deposits.
The Tribes Hill limestone of the lower Canadian attains its greatest
development between Cranesville and Tribes Hill and thins both
north and west from there. The middle and upper Canadian Beek-
mantown limestone, which is so well developed east and northwest of
the Adirondacks, was not certainly identified in the Mohawk region;
it may be present, but if so, it is very thin. Like the Ozarkian, the
Canadian is closed by a disconformity.

In the Mohawk region the Black River beds form the basal por-
tion of the Ordovician strata, and the Chazy beds, which underlie
the Black River in the Champlain region, are absent. This suggests
that the region was undergoing erosion during early Ordovician, and
may account for the comparative thinness of the Canadian series and
for the possible absence of the upper part. The basal Black River,
which is the Lowville — or a limestone very much like it lithologically
— is present over practically the whole area, in contrast to the other
Black River beds, namely : the Leray limestone, which immediately
overlies the Lowville, and which may be in the extreme western part
but was not certainly identified ; the Watertown limestone, which
appears with slight thickness in the western portion of the region;
and the Amsterdam limestone which is confined to the eastern part
of the valley.

That an uplift followed the Black River deposition is evidenced
by a disconformity, with a basal conglomerate in the Trenton lime-
stone overlying the Lowville. The fossiliferous shell limestone of
the Trenton is practically continuous throughout the valley. In the
western third of the region, the Dolgeville limestones and shales of
Canajoharie age form a transitional phase between the Trenton and
the overlying Utica shale. In the remainder of the valley, the Tren-
ton is succeeded by the Canajoharie shale; and this in turn by the
Schenectady shales and sandstones, whose thickness of some 2000
feet is thought (Ruedemann, 1930, p. 34) to have been caused by
deposition in a sinking basin in front of the rising Green mountains
to the east.

The Utica shale is the youngest existing Palezoic formation of
the region, all younger ones, if such were ever present, having been

92

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

removed by erosion. The problem of whether Silurian or even
Devonian sediments were ever deposited on the Adirondack dome
may never be solved, but the northward projection of the Silurian
and Devonian strata, with their present dip, would carry them well
up the southern slope of the Adirondacks. The consensus seems to
be that sediments of these periods were deposited well toward the
northern boundary of the area discussed here, and possibly beyond
it (Cushing, 1905a, p. 65; Miller, 1924, p. 53; Goldring, 1931, p. 312,
3I5~'i6, 367; Ruedemann, 1931, p. 434).

Following the Paleozoic deposition, this region was uplifted, and
the rocks were sheared by north-south faults, whose interpretation is
the purpose of this discussion. Some time later, dikes of alnoite
were intruded, but over how extensive a region it is impossible to
tell. One of these dikes is found in the Manheim fault on East
Canada creek, and four others have been observed in the immediate
vicinity (Smyth, 1896; Schneider, 1905). Their intrusion obviously
postdates the faulting.

The succeeding long erosion of the Mesozoic produced a surface of
low relief toward the close of this era, and was followed, either then
or at the opening of the Cenozoic, by an uplift. This uplift may
have been accompanied by renewed displacements along the faults,
since a fault, once formed, constitutes a zone of weakness along
which adjustments may take place in subsequent periods.

Since the opening of the Cenozoic, the original radial consequent
drainage of the Adirondacks has been modified by stream piracy into
its present tangential form (Ruedemann, 1931). For example, the
upper drainage of the old Susquehanna has been captured by the
Mohawk, which has also developed terraces or cuestas on its southern
side as it migrated down the slope of the Adirondack dome.

Pleistocene glaciation (more complete descriptions are given by
Fairchild, 1912, and Brigham, 1929) deposited a mantle of drift,
often of considerable thickness, over the area and caused marked
changes in the drainage. This is evidenced by the numerous lakes
of the region, the shifting of the Mohawk divide from Little Falls
westward to Rome, and the diversion of the Sacandaga river from
the Mohawk to its present course to the Hudson. Subsequent events
include the formation of deltas and of other stream or lake deposits
and a postglacial warping of uncertain magnitude.

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY

93

STRATIGRAPHY

GEOLOGIC COLUMN

Cenozoic

Pleistocene — Recent
Glacial drift and alluvium
Post-Utica — Alnoite dikes
Paleozoic
Ordovician
Utica shale
Schenectady beds
Canajoharie shale
Dolgeville shale
Canajoharie shale, s.s.

Trenton limestone
Black River beds
Amsterdam limestone
Watertown limestone
Lowville limestone
Canadian

Tribes Hill limestone
Ozarkian

Little Falls dolomite
Theresa formation
Potsdam sandstone
Precambrian (Undifferentiated)
Gabbro, pegmatite, diabase dikes
Syenite and granite intrusions
Grenville series — gneisses, marbles,
schists, quartzites

GENERAL DESCRIPTION1
Precambrian

The formations of this age are grouped together with no attempt
at separation into lithologic units, since this differentiation is beyond
the limits of the fault problem. Descriptions of the chief rock types
already mentioned will be found in the references previously cited.

*For more complete descriptions the reader is referred to the following works
and the references therein:

Precambrian: Kemp & Hill, 1901; Cushing, 1905a, p. 15-24; Miller, 1911,
p. 8-25 ; Miller, 1917, p. 31-43 ; Miller, 1924, p. 31-41 ; Goldring, 1931, p. 204-
11.

Paleozoic: Vanuxem, 1842, p. 28-67; Darton, 1894; Cushing, 1905a, p. 24-35,
62-64; Cushing, 1905&, p. 354-99; Miller, 1911, p. 25-38; Cushing & Ruedemann,
1914, p. 32-53; Goldring, 1931, p. 233-48, 263-300; Ruedemann, 1932; Kay,
1937.

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Paleozoic

Ozarkian. Potsdam sandstone. In general, this formation is a
rather massively bedded, ripple-marked sandstone, but may contain
thin shaly or dolomitic layers. In the northeast part of the area the
Potsdam is often strongly conglomeratic in that portion just above
the Precambrian, but elsewhere this character is by no means so
marked. Both the lithology and thickness may change greatly within
rather short distances, because of differing degrees of submergence
as well as the somewhat greater local irregularity of the Precambrian
floor in the northeastern part of the region.

In the Saratoga quadrangle, just east of the area, Cushing states
the Potsdam to be from 50 to 150 feet thick. Miller records a maxi-
mum thickness of about 50 feet for it in the Broadalbin quadrangle.
In the southwest part of the Gloversville quadrangle, about one-
quarter of a mile north of Keck Center, at least 40 feet of massive
white sandstone is exposed, with the top of the formation not reached.
No sandstone appears on the upthrown side of the St Johnsville
fault, some six and one-half miles to the westward of Keck Center.
About four-tenths of a mile south-southwest of Lassellsville a light
red, sandy layer, about six inches thick, occurs in the pebbly basal
portion of the Little Falls dolomite, with the Precambrian near-by.
Because this reddish layer seems to be of only local extent, with the
nearest sandstone outcrops a little more than six miles away to the
east- southeast, the writer prefers to regard it as merely a variation
of the basal phase of the Little Falls dolomite rather than as a
representative of the Potsdam. At the Noses, on the Mohawk river,
the Little Falls is almost on the Precambrian, with only a few feet
of highly weathered material between the two rocks (Beecher &
Hall, 1886). Apparently the Potsdam disappears somewhat north
of the Noses. Another weathered zone, along the Precambrian-
Little Falls contact, occurs at Diamond hill in the Little Falls quad-
rangle, but Cushing does not regard it as representing the Potsdam.
The foregoing observations indicate that the Potsdam is limited to
the eastern half of the region and to that portion lying north of the
Mohawk river.

Theresa formation. The Potsdam sandstone grades upward into
the Little Falls dolomite through the transition beds of the Theresa
sandstones and dolomites, which are of such marked similarity to
both the overlying and the underlying formations that they can not
be sharply separated from either. As a recognizable formation the
Theresa seems to be confined very largely to the Broadalbin quad-

74°45'

7H°3<y

ins'

“ 1— Glacial Drift anti Alluvium heavy cover concealing bedrock

Utica Shale block shale with thin beds of black limestone in lower portion
Schenectady Beds - black and <jray shales with interbedded (jrits and sandstones

S \\2ZA Cana-joharie Shale — block shale

Trenton and BlacK "River Limestones — thin to massive, dark to liqht <,ray limestones

| fllllllJ Little Falls Dolomite massive ^ray dolomite

Potsdam Sandstone — ».«,*. „hit. »„d buff sandstones
£< E 1 Undifferentiated

43° 00'

gneiss, syenite, etc

■" Faults

74°30'

Figure 27 Geologic sk<

* V T

• ■ "

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY

97

rangle, where Miller reports a thickness of about 200 feet. The
Theresa was not certainly identified, although it may exist, elsewhere
in the region. In the Saratoga quadrangle, the Hoyt limestone forms
a local offshore phase of the upper Theresa, but this limestone does
not extend westward into the area discussed in this paper.

In view of the difficulty of identifying the Theresa, and in order
to show the relatively thin Potsdam on a geologic map with the scale
of the one (figure 27) accompanying the paper, the two formations
have been mapped together as Potsdam sandstone.

Little Falls dolomite. This is one of the persistent formations of
the Mohawk region. In the eastern part it grades downward
through the Theresa formation into the Potsdam sandstone, but to
the west it overlies the Precambrian directly, the unconformity being
well shown at Little Falls and Diamond hill. In general, the forma-
tion is a massively bedded, gray, fine-grained dolomite, which is occa-
sionally arenaceous and locally cherty. Its massiveness and resist-
ance to erosion are responsible for the cliffs along the Mohawk river,
as at Little Falls and the Noses, and also for the rock terraces along
many of the streams. The prominence of the upthrown sides of the
major faults is frequently attributable to this formation.

Upon weathering the dolomite becomes brown and usually shows
a sandy surface. A few cavernous areas have been reported (St
Johnsville Enterprise and News, 1922), but so far as the writer
could ascertain, these were caused by local solution along joints and
are of no great extent.

A feature of rather frequent occurrence in the dolomite is the
presence of small cavities which are lined with quartz crystals. These
crystals are mostly small, but are sometimes of considerable perfec-
tion, so that the district is well known to mineralogists. Masses and
crystals of calcite and dolomite are fairly common. Glauconite and
pyrite are occasionally found. Sphalerite is rare and occurs only in
very small, and wholly unworkable amounts. Some cavities contain
masses or films of a black, brittle asphaltic residue. Cushing men-
tions small quantities of galena and chalcopyrite, but these were not
observed by the writer.

At Little Falls, the type locality, this dolomite attains a thickness
of 450 feet, and at the Noses it is close to 500 feet. At Hoffmans
about 300 feet is exposed, but the base is concealed. From these
localities on the Mohawk the dolomite thins northward by overlap on
the Precambrian, and eventually disappears through removal by ero-
sion.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

98

Canadian. Tribes Hill limestone. This formation, the “fucoidal
layers” of Vanuxem, was once included with the Little Falls dolomite
as the “Calciferous” group. Cleland (1900, 1903) noted that the
fauna of the upper part of this group was an isolated one, and later,
Ulrich and Cushing (1910) established the existence of an uncon-
formity between the upper and lower parts, and separated the Tribes
Hill as a distinct formation of Canadian age.

The Tribes Hill consists of limestones and dolomites. The former
are frequently sandy and pyritiferous, and show fossiliferous layers,
while the latter are not appreciably different from the dolomite of the
Little Falls.

The thickness of the Tribes Hill near Cranesville, in the eastern
part of the Mohawk valley, is given as 168 feet (Ulrich & Cushing,
1910, p. 116-18). [A thickness of only 15 to 40 feet, however, is
assigned to the formation by Ruedemann (1932, p. 125).] A nearly
equal amount (168 feet) may be present at Tribes Hill, but here the
lower portion of the section is very incompletely exposed. Just north-
west of Little Falls the formation measures 50 feet or less and
disappears a few miles beyond. Northward from the Mohawk the
Tribes Hill thins by overlap. In the Broadalbin quadrangle it is
almost, if not wholly, absent, and the sedimentation conditions in other
parts of the area suggest that it is thin or lacking. These irregulari-
ties in thickness may result from deposition in basins on the uneven
surface of the Little Falls, or from erosion of a part, or all, of the
formation in certain portions of the region.

Because of the unconformity at the top of the Tribes Hill, any
younger Canadian deposits in the Mohawk valley are probably very
thin, if indeed they are present at all.

On the geologic map (figure 27) the Tribes Hill is not differ-
entiated as a separate formation, because of the difficulty of distin-
guishing its limestone beds from those of the overlying formations,
and its dolomitic layers from those of the underlying Little Falls.
Accordingly, the top of the Little Falls has been mapped so as to
include most of the dolomitic layers, thus leaving the limestone layers
with the Trenton-Black River group above.

Ordovician. Black River beds. In the Mohawk region this
group is represented by the Lowville, Watertown and Amsterdam
limestones. The Leray limestone, which overlies the Lowville on the
west side of the Adirondacks, was not observed in the area. If
present, it is probably thin and is to be found only in the northwestern

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY

99

portion. For convenience, these limestones have been grouped with
the Trenton.

Lowville limestone. This is a rather thick -bedded, fine-grained,
dove limestone which weathers to a gray color. A feature of fre-
quent, though not universal, occurrence is the presence of more or
less vertical worm tubes which are usually filled with calcite. When
seen in cross section these tubes resemble bird’c eyes and have led to
the name “Birds-eye” limestone. Because of its massiveness and
purity the Lowville has been rather extensively quarried. In thick-
ness it ranges up to 20 or 25 feet and is present throughout most of
the region.

Watertown limestone. This formation, a black, blocky limestone,
is more thinly bedded than the Lowville, and contains shaly partings.
It is limited to the Little Falls quadrangle and is exposed at only a
few places where it reaches a thickness of about ten feet.

Amsterdam limestone. This is a blue-gray to dark-gray, crystal-
line limestone, somewhat thin-bedded and rather fossiliferous. It is
found in the eastern third of the area, and has a maximum thickness
of about 60 feet.

Trenton limestone. The major part of this formation consists of
gray, rather coarsely crystalline, very fossiliferous, thin-bedded lime-
stones, whose layers are separated by black shaly partings. Along
with this “shell rock,” which is present in most of the area, are some
black, brittle, fine-grained limestones, which are usually somewhat
more thickly bedded than the fossiliferous layers.

In the western part of the area, the Trenton, where it overlies the
Lowville limestone, shows a few inches of basal conglomerate con-
taining rather angular Lowville pebbles. This unconformity at the
base of the Trenton is even more marked south of Canajoharie, where
the Black River beds are absent, and the Trenton lies directly on the
Little Falls.

The Trenton, while fairly persistent, is variable in thickness. In
the vicinity of Little Falls it reaches a maximum of about 80 feet,
although it is much thicker to the west and northwest of the area dis-
cussed here. The formation thins rapidly eastward to only 17 feet
at Canajoharie. In the Broadalbin quadrangle at least 20 feet is
exposed, but the summit is not present; and in the lower Mohawk
valley, between Amsterdam and Hoffmans, the thickness varies from
20 to about 36 feet. ( Addendum. Since this paper was submitted for
publication, a detailed description of the Trenton by G. Marshall

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Kay (1937) has been published. The reader should supplement the
description of the Trenton in the present paper with that given by
Doctor Kay.)

Canajoharie shale. In the eastern three-fourths of the area, the
Trenton is overlain by the Canajoharie black shale, of carbonaceous
and somewhat calcareous character. The formation is generally very
uniform, and although a few thin black limestone beds are occasion-
ally present in the lower portion, they are neither as marked nor as
numerous as in the Utica shale. Early investigators regarded the
black shales of the Mohawk valley as belonging to the Utica, but
Ruedemann showed (1930, p. 29-33) that the Canajoharie was char-
acterized by a fauna of its own, and distinguished five graptolite
zones. The formation is stated by Ruedemann to have a thickness
of more than 1200 feet south of Amsterdam. To the west, the shale
passes into limestones of middle and lower Trenton age, its upper-
most member being the Dolgeville shale. Erosion, especially north of
the Mohawk river, has removed a considerable part of the formation,
so that the amount now present is very variable.

Dolgeville shale. In the western part of the area, the Trenton
limestone grades upward into the Utica shale through the uppermost
member of the Canajoharie shale, a series of alternating black lime-
stones and shales which Cushing at first called the “Trenton-Utica
passage beds,” but later (Miller, 1909) termed the Dolgeville shale,
from their occurrence on East Canada creek below Dolgeville. This
type locality is now mostly flooded by the reservoir north of Ingham
Mills. The limestones of this formation range from a few inches up
to 18 inches in thickness and are black, hard and fine-grained, much
like some layers of the Trenton. The shales of this series are black
and calcareous, similar to the overlying Utica beds. Limestones
appear to predominate in the lower, and shales in the upper part of the
formation. Since the Utica shale above contains some limestone beds
in its lower portion, the upper contact of the Dolgeville is somewhat
indefinite. It has been drawn at the point where the marked alter-
nation of limestone and shale ceases, so that most of the limestone
beds are placed in the Dolgeville. In being transitional between the
Trenton and the Utica, the Dolgeville is comparable to the Theresa
formation, which forms a gradational series from the Potsdam to the
Little Falls.

In the Little Falls quadrangle, the Dolgeville ranges from 25 to
100 feet in thickness. To the eastward it thins so rapidly that it has
almost disappeared in the vicinity of St Johnsville. Because the

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY

IOI

Dolgeville is comparatively thin and local in character, and because
the Canajoharie shale is very uniform lithologically, it has been
thought best to include the Dolgeville with the Trenton-Black River
group on the geologic map (figure 27).

Schenectady beds. In the extreme southeastern part of the region,
east of the Hoffmans fault, the Canajoharie shale is overlain by the
Schenectady beds. These were once placed in the “Hudson River
group,” but have been distinguished as a separate formation by
Ruedemann (1930, p. 33-37). The Schenectady consists of black
and gray shales, generally less carbonaceous than those of the Cana-
joharie. Uniformly interbedded with these shales are grayish sand-
stone layers which may reach several feet in thickness. Ruedemann
gives the thickness of the Schenectady as 2000 feet or more, and
attributes this large amount to deposition in a sinking basin in front
of the rising Green mountains to the east. Whether this thickness is
present in the area discussed here can not be stated, since the upper
contact was not observed, but according to Ruedemann, more than
1000 feet occurs near Rotterdam Junction.

Utica shale. Formerly the black shales of the Mohawk valley were
placed in this formation, but the work of Ruedemann (1925), who
has recognized three graptolite zones in the formation, has limited the
true Utica to about the western fourth of the area discussed here.
The Utica is a black, carbonaceous and calcareous shale. It grades
downward through the transitional shales and limestones of the
Dolgeville into the Trenton, and its basal portion shows a number of
thin black limestone beds similar to, but less numerous than, those of
the Dolgeville. Consequently, the lower contact of the Utica is not
lithologically sharp. The formation has a thickness of about 800 feet
in the type section near Utica, and, according to Cushing, close to
600 feet is present south of Little Falls. Because of erosion north
of the Mohawk, the greatest thickness is now found south of the
river.

Post-Utica

Alnoite dikes (Smyth, 1892, 1893, 1896, 1898; Schneider,
1905). Intruded along the Manheim fault on East Canada creek
is a small dike of alnoite (figure 28), and others occur in the
immediate vicinity. They are unknown elsewhere in the area.
The dike in the fault is about ten inches wide, and Smyth
estimates its length at not over 150 feet. The largest dike is about
six feet wide. The minerals — biotite, serpentine, melilite etc. — are
greatly altered, and the dikes are so weathered that they are often

102

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

concealed. These dikes show a close relationship in character to
other similar ones in central New York and in Kentucky and Arkansas.
Like the rest of the New York peridotites, the East Canada Creek
dikes are not known to be diamantiferous. In their occurrence here,
the youngest formation cut by the dikes is the Dolgeville shale of
Ordovician age. Similar dikes near Ithaca, N. Y., cut upper Devo-
nian rocks. Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks are intruded by
the dikes in Kentucky and Arkansas respectively. Smyth suggests
the close of the Carboniferous as the time of dike intrusion. Mar-
tens (1924), who has studied the central New York peridotites,
cites the previous conclusions, but does not commit himself on the
question, pointing out “that like petrographic character is not con-
clusive evidence of like age.” With the time of dike intrusion thus
unsettled, it seems doubtful also whether the dikes can be used to
date the age of the faulting.

In connection with the dike along the fault is a one-inch vein of
calcite carrying galena and pyrite which was worked about 100
years ago (Conrad, 1837; Vanuxem, 1838, p. 256, 264-65). The
occurrence is of no commercial importance.

Cenozoic

Pleistocene-recent. Glacial drift and alluvium (Fairchild, 1912;
Brigham, 1929). The mantle of drift varies up to 100 feet, or even
150 feet in exceptional cases, and blankets many formations. This
masking is especially complete on the till plain between Broadalbin
and Perth and along the interlobate moraine, which extends gener-
ally west-southwest across the east-central part of the area. Heavy
drift also occurs in the vicinity of Oppenheim, at several points on
the Mohawk river, and west of Mayfield, where it has been so piled
against the Noses escarpment that the exact position of the fault
plane is uncertain. Exposures in many other parts of the region are
almost equally well concealed.

Fluvio-glacial deposits occur at many points, especially in the belt
of kames along the interlobate moraine. Delta and terrace sands
and gravels are scattered throughout the area. Along the Mohawk
river they are especially prominent to the east of each of the major
faults. Laminated clay deposits also exist at a number of places and
have been worked just west of Dolgeville.

Figure 28 Exposure of the Manheim fault on the west side of East Canada
creek just south of the power house. Gently dipping Little Falls dolo-
mite at the right; Dolgeville shales and limestones, showing marked
drag, at the left. An alnoite dike occurs between the two rocks, its
approximate position being shown by the hammer. The greatly weath-
ered character of the alnoite is evident.

ti03]

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY

105

FAULTS

The displacements of this region (Conrad, 1837; Vanuxem, 1842,
p. 203-11; Darton, 1895; Cumings, 1900; Cushing, 19050, p. 12-13,
38-47> 71-73; Cushing, 1905&, p. 286-87, 405-12, 421-23, 43!~32;
Ruedemann, 1909, p. 167, 172, 184-88; Miller, 1911, p. 38-50;
Roorbach, 1913) were first noted by Conrad as early as 1837, were
described later by Vanuxem, and in greater detail by Darton in 1894.
Since then, three quadrangles within the area have been geologically
mapped, two of which, the Little Falls and Broadalbin, have been
described, while the Amsterdam quadrangle has been mapped but not
systematically described. In addition, the fault block topography
of the Mohawk valley has been discussed by Roorbach.

The general strike of the displacements is north-northeast-south-
southwest, and although there are departures from this trend by
both the major and the minor faults, as will be evident by reference
to the geologic map, the trends lie almost wholly in the northeast
quadrant, only occasionally changing to directions in the north-
west quadrant.

Previous writers have emphasized the essentially vertical posi-
tions of the fault planes, and the few exposures of these fault sur-
faces are not far from vertical. It would seem unwise to assume,
however, that this attitude continues with depth, for the exposures
of the actual fault planes, even that of the Manheim fault on East
Canada creek, are nowhere of any great vertical extent. On the
south side of the Mohawk river, the straight course of the Noses
fault up a slope of 200 feet or more seems a better indication of a
vertical fault plane, but since this straightness is toward the top of
the slope, while near the bottom of the valley the fault trace is
rather irregular, the implied verticality may not continue downward.

One of the best local indications of the presence of a fault is
the steepening of the dip of the shales on the downthrown sides
because of drag (figure 29). The same action has caused the turn-
ing of the strike of the shales around to parallelism with the fault
trend. The dip of the dragged shales, while marked near the
faults, dies out rapidly and disappears within a few hundred feet.
In general, these dips, where adjacent to the fault planes, do not
exceed 70°, and the average is in the vicinity of 6o°. In view of
this marked control which the drag has on the shales, it would seem
logical that the dip of the dragged shale beds should be some indica-
tion of the dip of the fault plane, and hence, would not be far from
the dip of the fault plane itself. If this be true, then the fault planes

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NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

are not vertical, but dip toward the downthrown sides at angles
somewhat greater than those of the dragged shales.

By reference to the structure section (figure 30), it will be seen
that the blocks between the major faults all have a westward tilt.
This tilting necessitates that the fault planes be curved and inclined
toward the downthrown sides, for with vertical faults it is impos-
sible to tilt the blocks without a wholly illogical distortion. Since
the fault planes dip toward the downthrown sides, the displacements
are normal in character.

The major faults are all, with one exception, upthrown on the
west, and a majority of the minor faults are also uplifted on this
side. The writer has observed no evidence that indicates any dif-
ference in age, character or origin between those faults upthrown on
the west and those on the east.

At the Mohawk river all the major faults have throws of over
500 feet, and where largest, the displacement is at least 1500 feet.
In all the major, and most of the minor, faults, the throw increases
northward from the Mohawk river at least to the points where Pre-
cambrian rocks appear on both sides. Beyond these points the
faults were not traced, except where a definite scarp persisted,
because of the indecisive evidence of displacement in the Pre-
cambrian formations and because of the difficulty of differentiating
the rocks of the basement complex. That the faults do extend
farther north, however, and well into the Adirondacks, is indicated
by the occurrence of Paleozoic outliers, as at Wells, several miles
inside the southern edge of the Precambrian massif (Miller, 1916).
In a few minor faults the throw increases to a maximum, and then
apparently decreases from there northward, although this is often
difficult to determine because of the heavy drift covering.

Southward from the river the faults die out, both by actual
decrease of throw and by passage into shale which is probably taking
up some of the displacement by adjustments within itself. On the
geologic map accompanying this paper, the faults have been mapped
only as far as definite evidence of displacement existed. Beyond
this point the shale exposures on either side show only the slightest
disturbance by drag and appear, from the fossils which the writer
collected and which Dr Rudolf Ruedemann very kindly examined,
to be of practically the same horizon within the formation. It is
probable that the disturbance caused by the faulting extends south-
ward as monoclinal folding beyond the points shown on the geo-
logic map, but the preceding evidence seems to indicate that the dis-
tance can not be very great.

Figure 29 The Manheim fault on East Canada creek. View north-northeast
from near the power house. Little Falls dolomite at the left; steeply
dragged Dolgeville shales and limestones, with Trenton limestone at the
base, at the right. The excavation is the adit of an abandoned silver
mine.

[107]

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY

109

The displacements of the region are classed as hinge faults, since
the rotational movement is wholly in one direction, with the throw
increasing northward from an axis normal to the fault plane and
near its southern end.

In the cases of the major faults, and in a number of the minor
ones, the upthrown sides form prominent topographic features
(figure 26) because of the greater resistance of the formations,
especially the Precambrian, on those sides than on the downthrown
sides, where relatively weak shales are present. In as much as the
region has been peneplained, possibly several times, the present
fault block topography is the result of erosion rather than fault-
ing, and hence the scarps are fault-line, and not true fault, scarps.
This is further evidenced by the occurrence of high scarps where
erosion is greatest and of low scarps at points where it is less
effective. These fault-line scarps are most prominent northward
from the Mohawk river, and, in some cases, may be traced for
many miles. South of the river, however, only two of the largest
faults show distinct escarpments, and these are traceable for only
a few miles.

With some of the faults downthrown on the west, while the
majority have been upthrown on that side, the occurrence of troughs
and horsts is expectable. A few of these features appear in the
structure section (figure 30). It is to be noted that because the
present scarps have been produced by erosion, the difference in
elevation between the surfaces of the upthrown and downthrown
sides of a block does not represent the real displacement, although
the relief may afford some indications of it.

The largest trough lies in the Broadalbin quadrangle in the valley
bounded by the Noses escarpment on the west and the Batchellerville
escarpment on the east, the latter fault being the only major one
which is upthrown on the east side. Much of the floor of this graben
which is somewhat irregular because of the presence of a number
of minor faults, lies 1200 feet or more below the highest parts of
the scarps on either side. In determining the throw, Miller states
the thickness of the Paleozoic formations on the downthrown side
to be of the order of 200 feet, so that, considering the amount of
the Precambrian which must have been eroded from the upthrown
sides, the total throw can hardly be less than 1500 feet. A good
share of the depressed block is now occupied by the Sacandaga
reservoir. On the geologic map of New York State this trough
appears as a marked extension of the Paleozoic rocks northward into
the Precambrian area of the Adirondacks. The upthrown side

no

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

of the Batchellerville fault extends eastward into the Saratoga quad-
rangle, and there is bounded by the prominent east-facing escarp-
ment of the Hoffmans fault. The region between these two faults
thus forms a great uplifted block or horst rising 1200 feet or more
above the depressed blocks on either side.

Another, though much smaller trough, lying only a few hundred
feet below the tops of the adjacent upraised blocks, is found in the
vicinity of Ephratah. Here the valley of Caroga creek is bounded
on the west by the high scarp of the St Johnsville fault (figure 26),
and on the east by the much lower, terrace-like scarp of the Ephratah
fault which is upthrown on the east side. The throw of St Johns-
ville fault is difficult to determine because only shale is exposed on
the downthrown side, and because the underlying formations from
just south of Garoga are entirely concealed by heavy drift to the
northward. Yet here if we assume 450 feet of Paleozoics, which
does not seem excessive, and to this add the 500 feet of present
relief, plus an unknown amount of material eroded from the upthrown
side, there can hardly be less than 1000 feet of displacement. The
relative lowness of the scarp of the Ephratah fault is to be attributed
to the less effective erosion on this southeastern side of the trough as
compared with the northwestern side, where Caroga creek lies
rather close to the St Johnsville fault, and shows clearly the fault-
line character of these scarps.

The maximum throw of the Ephratah fault is given by Darton
as 250 feet. Heavy cover masks the Paleozoic formations in the
trough east of Ephratah, and their thickness is difficult to determine.
The most reasonable estimate, 600 feet, would place the Precambrian-
Paleozoic unconformity on the downthrown side nearly 500 feet
below its altitude on the upthrown side, but since the thickness of
the Paleozoic formations is uncertain, the true figure may be greater
by as much as 150 feet. The upraised block of the Ephratah fault
is bounded on the east by the escarpments of the Noses and Keck
Center faults. This horst, because of drift, and because erosion
has not yet progressed as far here as at the Mohawk river where the
scarp is higher, is only a few hundred feet above the surface of the
depressed block to the east. The relief here is, consequently, much
less than the throws. The Keck Center fault shows about 130
feet difference in elevation between the Precambrian surface on the
west and the base of the Potsdam on the east, and if the amount
of material eroded from the upthrown side be considered, the throw
would seem to be about 200 feet.

STRUCTURE SECTION

ALONG LINE

A-A

LITTLE FALLS

AMSTERDAM

GLENVILLE

MOHAWK

RIVER

EAST CANADA
CREEK

ZIMMERMAN

CREEK

CAROGA

CREEK

CAYADUTTA DANOSCARA

CREEK CREEK

MOHAWK

RIVER

CRANE CRABS

HOLLOW KILL

A

LITTLE FALLS FAULTS
MAJOR

MANHEIM

FAULT

ST. JOHNSVILLE
FAULT

NOSES

FAULT

MINOR

CRUM CREEK
FAULT

EPHRATAH

FAULT

TRIBES HILL
FAULT

HOFFMANS

FAULT

SCALES

HORIZONTAL ' 2 ? * ? ? MILES

VERTICAL i — i20,00 FEET

LEGEND

ORDOVICIAN

OZARKIAN

l0,#l

PRE-CAMBRIAN

UTICA SHALE

SCHENECTADY BEDS

CANAJOHARIE SHALE

TRENTON AND BLACK RIVER LIMESTONES

LITTLE FALLS DOLOMITE

POTSDAM SANDSTONE

UN DIFFERENTIATED - GNEISS, SYENITE, ETC.

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY 1 13

The determination of the amount of displacement of the Noses
fault is complicated by the large area on the downthrown side which
shows only shale for several miles to the east and southeast, and
which has a heavy drift covering in many places. Projection of the
formations westward with the dip of the exposures which occur
north of Tribes Hill would indicate a throw of the order of 1500
feet west of Sammonsville. But because the effect of low folds,
such as the one near Fonda, would be to elevate the formations
with consequent decrease of throw, this figure is very probably in
excess of the true amount. Poor exposures make the evidence so
inconclusive that no accurate calculation of the modifying effect of
folding is yet possible, and hence the throw shown in the structure
section (figure 30) is the maximum.

The valley of East Canada creek at Dolgeville lies in a small
trough between the scarp of the Little Falls fault on the west and the
less prominent one of the Dolgeville fault on the east. The latter
fault is downthrown on the west. The depressed block is only 200
or 300 feet below the tops of the adjacent uplifted blocks. The
throw of the Little Falls fault west of Dolgeville is estimated by
Cushing to be from 650 to 750 feet, and that of the Dolgeville fault,
south of the village, to be at least 300 feet.

One other minor depressed block lies between the Manheim and
Crum Creek faults, the latter being upthrown on the east, and is
occupied by East Canada and Crum creeks. The displacements here
are of rathef small magnitude and the area so filled with glacial
drift that no prominent trough is evident. The bottom of the trough
is from 100 to 150 feet below the tops of the upthrown sides. The
displacement of the Manheim fault at the point where it crosses
East Canada creek was measured as 152 feet by hand leveling from
the top of the Trenton limestone on the downthrown side to the
summit of the same formation on the upthrown side. Probably less
complete exposures available at this locality at the time of Darton’s
investigation account for the 60 feet of throw which he assigned
to this same fault. In the case of the Crum Creek fault, the Trenton,
Lowville and part of the upper Little Falls are cut out at the point
of. maximum displacement where the throw is about 60 feet. From
here the fault dies out both to the north and south.

The stream arrangement on each of the major fault blocks is very
similar (Roorbach, 1913, p. 60-61). North of the Mohawk river
each block usually shows a main stream flowing southward roughly
parallel to the scarp of the adjacent block and comparatively close
to its base. The long tributaries entering this main stream from

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

I 14

the east follow down the gentle dip slope of the block, while the
short tributaries from the west rise but a short distance back from
the adjacent scarp. “The raised edge of each block constitutes a
divide between the local stream systems” (Roorbach). South of
the river, however, the directions of the streams are mostly inde-
pendent of the fault structure, only a few small tributaries following
the weaker rocks along the faults.

Most of the faults of the region have been described in some
detail by the authors mentioned at the beginning of this section, and
further descriptions would not add materially to what is already
known. The writer has made only minor changes in the locations
of the faults in the quadrangles previously geologically mapped.
In the other quadrangles, for which no detailed geologic maps have
been made, the faults have been located as accurately as possible
on the topographic sheets.

In several cases the locations and trends of the faults differ from
those shown on the geologic map of New York State. Thus, the
St Johnsville fault is shown east and southeast of St Johnsville
rather than as curving north around the village, a position which
does not accord with the field evidence. The shale exposure on
which Vanuxem based his evidence for this curving position was
not observed by the writer ; and Darton states that it was covered
at the time of his investigation. The trend of the Tribes Hill fault,
as shown in figure 27, differs markedly from that given on the state
geologic map. The present mapping is essentially in agreement with
that of Cleland (1900, 1903). The exact location of the Noses
fault in the region north of Gloversville is somewhat uncertain
because of heavy drift piled against the escarpment. In figure 27
the fault is placed at the base of the scarp, a position which is
probably not in error by more than one-quarter of a mile.

The Crum Creek fault, here mapped for the first time, is a minor
displacement located in the southwest rectangle of the Lassellsville
quadrangle, between East Canada creek and St Johnsville. Unlike
most of the faults of the region, it is upthrown on the east side.
The actual fault plane was nowhere observed. From just north
of the Mohawk river, where displacement first becomes evident,
the fault trends about N. 20° E. for one and three-fourths miles,
then turns to a course N. 350 E. for a little more than a mile before
it dies out by passage into shales. At the southern end, where Crum
creek crosses the former state highway, Route 5, Lowville limestone,
showing minor folding as a result of drag, appears on the upthrown
side. The downthrown side is heavily drift-covered for some dis-

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY 115

tance northward. On the upthrown side further upstream, Little
Falls dolomite forms the stream bed, with Lowville again exposed
for a short distance about one-fourth of a mile north of the state
road. Beyond this point the topographic map is inaccurate, the
courses of both Crum creek and a small tributary from the northeast
being incorrectly located. The region is under heavy cover and
evidence of the fault is concealed until about 0.7 of a mile north
of the state road, where Canajoharie shale and Trenton limestone
appear on the downthrown side along the small tributary. A few
hundred yards to the north, Canajoharie shale, showing moderate
drag, is within about ioo yards of an exposure of dolomite on the
upthrown side to the east. The Trenton, Lowville and a portion
of the upper Little Falls have been cut out, and the throw here can
not be much more than 60 feet. To the north the bedrock is con-
cealed, but the course of the fault lies along the hillside, turning
somewhat northeast. Near the county line, where somewhat disturbed
Dolgeville shales and limestones appear on both sides, the fault has
lost much of its throw, and to the north it dies out rapidly in the
Canajoharie shales.

The Keck Center fault, also previously unmapped, lies in the
southwest rectangle of the Gloversville quadrangle along the foot
of the hill just west of Keck Center. It seems to be a branch of
the much greater Noses fault, and like it, is upthrown on the west,
so that the land descends eastward by steps. The fault trends
somewhat west of north, with Precambrian rocks on the upthrown
side, and Precambrian and a small wedge of Potsdam sandstone
on the downthrown side. To the north the displacement seems to
be cut off by the Ephratah fault. The base of the Potsdam on the
downthrown side is about 130 feet below the top of the hill to the
west. If some allowance be added for erosion of the Precambrian
rocks from the upthrown side, the throw of the fault would appear
to be about 200 feet.

AGE AND ORIGIN OF THE FAULTS

Vanuxem (1842, p. 203-11), who gave the earliest comprehensive
description of the faults, related them to “those great derangements
... of the Atlantic region of the United States,” but failed to
recognize the fault-line character of the scarps, since he stated the
uplifts to have occurred “subsequent to the excavation of a valley”
in the Utica shale.

Darton (1895), while describing most of the faults, made no state-
ments regarding their age or origin.

Il6 NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Cushing (1905a, p. 12-13, 38-47) describes the faults of the Little
Falls quadrangle, but regards their age as uncertain. He states, how-
ever, that it is possible that “the first faulting of the region took
place . . . coincidently with the Taconic disturbance,” but recognizes
that renewed displacements may have occurred during subsequent
revolutions.

In a later bulletin on the Northern Adirondack region (1905&,
p. 286-87, 4°5> 411-12), Cushing reiterates the possibility of the
initiation of the faulting by the uplift at the close of the Ordovician
sedimentation. He recognizes that normal faults, such as those of the
Mohawk region, imply tension rather than compression, and that this
tension seems to have followed the period of compression. This
fact, together with that of “the great earth disturbances which pre-
vailed in the Appalachian zone toward the close of the Paleozoic”
lead him to favor the association of the major faulting with the forces
of the Appalachian revolution. He argues against associating these
faults with those of “the Newark Mesozoic of New England and the
Middle Atlantic states,” because the latter “are of a different type”
from the Mohawk faults.

Chadwick (1917) presented a theory which related the “Adiron-
dack-Mohawk step faults to the great charriage movements of New
England over eastern New York, which, by overloading, may have
depressed successive fragments of the overridden area.” This theory,
published in abstract, has not since been elaborated, so far as the
writer is aware. To attribute to loading the formation of these
normal faults as far west as Little Falls, would necessitate an over-
riding along the thrust plane of some 60 miles, a distance which
appears to be unreasonable (Ruedemann, 1930, p. 133-43).

Miller (1924, p. 61, 71-75) admits that the age of the faulting
is not certain and follows Cushing in placing it at the time of the
Appalachian revolution. He also states that some displacements
occurred during the Cretaceous period, or possibly even later. Like
Cushing, Miller believes that the Triassic faulting did not affect the
Adirondack area but was “closely confined to the Triassic basins.”

Cushing and Ruedemann, in their bulletin on the Saratoga quad-
rangle (1914, p. 144-45), stated that it is “quite possible that faulting
began in the district early in the Paleozoic.” The apparent absence
of normal faults in the thrust faulted area seemed to them “to indi-
cate that, in the Saratoga region, the bulk of the thrust-faulting is of
later date than the normal faulting.” More recently, however,
Ruedemann (1930, p. 141-43) has found evidence which leads him

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY 117

to state that the normal faults are demonstrably later than the
overthrusts of the Taconic revolution.

Quinn has described the normal faults of the Lake Champlain
region (1933) and has related the Mohawk Valley faults to them.
He states that “as far as has been determined in this [Champlain]
region the normal faults do not cut the overthrust faults ... It is
believed that the absence of the normal faults in the overthrust area
is due to their having been covered by the overthrust masses. If so,
the normal faults are older and the time of overthrusting is the later
limit to the time of normal faulting.”

The present writer has not seen the Lake Champlain faults, and
hence can not make any statements regarding them. He does not
feel, however, that Quinn’s conclusions can be applied to the
Mohawk faults, because not only do these faults cut younger forma-
tions than do those in the Champlain region, but also the evidence
indicates that at the time of deposition of the Schenectady beds,
which are faulted, the compression of the Taconic revolution had
already begun. Hence Quinn’s statements that the overthrusting
postdated the normal faults, and that these could not have been
formed by relaxation after overthrusting, while possibly true for
the Champlain region, are certainly not applicable to the Mohawk
valley.

Quinn also states that “the normal faults appear to have been
formed during the geosynclinal stage ... by the sagging of the
geosyncline under the weight of accumulating sediments or to ten-
sional forces which cause the geosynclines.” He suggests “that
there were tensional forces acting downward toward the east” and
relates the faults primarily to the Green mountains and secondarily
to the Adirondacks.

In the writer’s opinion not all of these conclusions are applicable
to the Mohawk faults. The faults were certainly formed by tensional
stresses which were stronger toward the east side, as is indicated by
the fact that the majority of the faults are downthrown on that side.
The tension also appears to have been of greater magnitude toward
the north, since all the major faults increase in throw in that direc-
tion. If the faults were related to the geosynclinal sagging, it
would be expected that they would increase to the south toward the
area of greatest accumulation of sediments, rather than increasing
toward the north where the sedimentary cover was relatively
thinner.

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

118

Because the faults of the region imply tensional rather than
compressional stresses, they can not be contemporaneous with the
compressive phase of any revolution. But since such mountain
deformations are usually followed by periods of relaxation, the
resulting tension may be expected to produce normal faults at some
time subsequent to the period of compression. Cushing thinks that
this “argues for the late Paleozoic date of the faulting,” but
obviously, it would argue equally well for the tensional stresses
following any revolution which affected the area.

That the faults can not be contemporaneous with the compression
of the Taconic revolution is evidenced by the fact that the Schenec-
tady beds, which are cut by the Hoffmans fault, were deposited,
according to Ruedemann (1930, p. 34), “in a basin formed by
sinking foreland in front of the rising Green Mountain folds to the
east, which basin was being rapidly filled with sediments.” Further-
more, that the period of tension was even later is shown by the fact
that the youngest formation known to be cut by the faults is the
Utica shale, which is still younger than the Schenectady beds. The
earliest possible age for the faulting is, therefore, after the cessation
of the first compressive stresses of the Taconic revolution, or late
Ordovician.

With the lower limit of time of faulting established, an upper
limit may be sought. The preglacial divide of the Mohawk river
was at Little Falls (Cushing, 19050, p. 78; Miller, 1924, p. 109),
its location there being caused by the presence of resistant dolomites
along a typical fault-line scarp. The faults, then, are older than
the river. According to Ruedemann (1931), the Mohawk has been
developed since early Tertiary. This would place the upper limit
of the age of faulting as late Mesozoic, or possibly, early Tertiary.
In view of the fact, however, that the region must have been affected
two or three times in earlier periods by forces quite competent to
cause the scale of faulting now observed, the reference of the
initiation of the displacements to so late a date does not seem at
all consistent.

As has been noted previously in the description of the alnoite dikes,
Smyth (1892, 1893, 1896, 1898) suggests the close of the Car-
boniferous as the time of their intrusion. In as much as one of
these dikes occurs along the Manheim fault, Smyth’s suggestion, if
correct, would limit the upper age of the faults to late Paleozoic.
Martens (1924), however, who studied the central New York

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY 1 19

peridotites in some detail, did not commit himself as to the age
of these dikes.

It might be expected that the faults would show some corre-
spondence in their trends with those of the folds which were
produced by the revolution of which the faults may have been a
late phase. In the region along the Hudson river, however, both
the Taconic and Appalachian folds frequently have the same trend,
about N. io° E. (Pepper, 1934), which is not far from that of the
faults. Apparently the earlier Taconic lines of weakness in many
places guided the trend of the later Appalachian folding, and it is
difficult to separate these two deformations. Trend, therefore, while
suggestive, would seem to be of doubtful value in correlating the
faults with either deformation.

It has already been pointed out that the throws of the faults
increase to the north and decrease toward the south. So pronounced
is this dying out of the faults, that southward from the Mohawk
river, only a few of the major ones can be traced for more than a
mile. This dying out is accentuated by the passage of the faults
into the incompetent Ordovician shales, where the displacement
may be taken care of by drag and by adjustments along the bedding
planes. The northward increase in throw of the faults indicates
that these displacements are related to forces which affected essen-
tially the Adirondack region to the exclusion of areas to the south
and west. Hence it would seem logical to attribute the initiation
of the faulting to the effects of that disturbance which not only
acted closest to the region but which was the first to affect it after
the formation of the now-faulted strata. These conditions are not
met by the Appalachian revolution in point of time or by the
Caledonian or Acadian periods of deformation in point of proximity.
As has been shown previously, the Taconic revolution was the first
which could have so affected the region as to produce the faulting.
In respect to proximity, the western boundary of distinct Taconic
folding (Ruedemann, 1930, geologic map) lies only six to nine miles
east of the eastern edge of the area discussed here, with the western
boundary of intense Taconic folding but four or five miles beyond
to the east. An overthrust zone lies just east of the Hudson river,
much closer to the region than areas correspondingly affected by
either the Caledonian or Acadian disturbances. Hence, it seems
most reasonable to regard the tensional stresses of the period of
relaxation following the Taconic revolution as being responsible for
the initiation of the faulting. It is curious that in the field these

120

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

faults have not yet been found cutting the Taconic thrust, and of
course until this evidence is discovered, the question of relative age
can not be said to be definitely settled.

The northward increase in throw of the faults argues for a
primary relationship to the Adirondacks. During the Taconic dis-
turbance the forces of compression in the sedimentary troughs were
relieved by folding and thrusting. In the much more resistant Pre-
cambrian rocks of the Adirondacks, however, these stresses were
resolved so that the eastern part of the massif was uplifted (New-
land, 1932) rather than folded and thrust-faulted. The greatest
uplift very likely took place northward from the Mohawk valley
and away from the area of thicker sediments. After the Taconic
compression had ceased, relaxational movements began, and the
east and south sides of the Adirondack area were cut up by normal
faults. Most relaxation occurred where the preceding compression
had caused greatest uplift, and consequently the throws of the
faults increase to the north. Subsequent revolutions may well have
caused additional adjustments along these faults.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beecher, C. E. & Hall, C. E.

1886 Field Notes on the Geology of the Mohawk Valley. Rep’t State
Geol., 1885, p. 8-10

Brigham, A. P.

1929 Glacial Geology and Geographic Conditions of the Lower Mohawk
Valley. N. Y. State Mus. Bui., 280: 5-85

Chadwick, G. H.

1917 Hypothesis for the Relation of Normal and Thrust Faults in East-
ern New York. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bui., 28: 160-61 (abst.)

Cleland, H. F.

1900 The Calciferous of the Mohawk Valley. Bui. Amer. Pal., 3,
No. 13, 26p.

1903 Further Notes on the Calciferous (Beekmantown) Formation of
the Mohawk Valley, with Descriptions of New Species. Bui.
Amer. Pal., 4, No. 18, 24P.

Conrad, T. A.

1837 First Annual Report on the Geological Survey of the Third Dis-
trict of the State of New York. N. Y. Geol. Surv., First Ann.
Rep’t, p. 163-64

Cumings, E. R.

1900 Lower Silurian System of Eastern Montgomery County, New
York. N. Y. State Mus. Bui., 34: 449-50, 467-68

FAULTING IN THE MOHAWK VALLEY

121

Cushing, H. P.

19050 Geology of the Vicinity of Little Falls, Herkimer County. N. Y.
State Mus. Bui., 77, 95p.

1905& Geology of the Northern Adirondack Region. N. Y. State Mus.
Bui., 95: 271-453

— & Ruedemann, R.

1914 Geology of Saratoga Springs and Vicinity. N. Y. State Mus. Bui.,
169, I78p.

Darton, N. H.

1894 Geology of the Mohawk Valley in Herkimer, Fulton, Montgomery,

and Saratoga Counties. Rep’t State Geol., 1893, p. 407-29

1895 A Preliminary Description of the Faulted Region of Herkimer,

Fulton, Montgomery, and Saratoga Counties. Rep’t State Geol.,
1894, p. 31-53

Fairchild, H. L.

1912 Glacial Waters in the Black and Mohawk Valleys. N. Y. State
Mus. Bui., 160: 19-39

Goldring, W.

1931 Handbook of Paleontology for Beginners and Amateurs. Part

2. The Formations. N, Y. State Mus. Handbook, 10, 488p.

Kay, G. M.

1937 Stratigraphy of the Trenton Group. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bui., 48:
233-302

Kemp, J. F. & Hill, B. F.

1901 Preliminary Report on the Precambrian Formations in Parts of
Warren, Saratoga, Fulton, and Montgomery Counties. N. Y.
State Mus. Rep’t, 53: p. r 17-35

Martens, J. H. C.

1924 Igneous Rocks of Ithaca, New York, and Vicinity. Geol. Soc.
Amer Bui., 35: 305-20

Miller, W. J.

1909 Geology of the Remsen Quadrangle, Including Trenton Falls and
Vicinity in Oneida and Herkimer Counties. N. Y. State Mus.
Bui., 126: 21 (footnote by H. P. Cushing)

1911 Geology of the Broadalbin Quadrangle, Fulton-Saratoga Counties,
New York. N. Y. State Mus. Bui., 153, 6sp.

1916 Geology of the Lake Pleasant Quadrangle, Hamilton County,

New York. N. Y. State Mus. Bui., 182: 32-49

1917 The Adirondack Mountains. N. Y. State Mus. Bui., 193, gyp.

1924 The Geological History of New York State. N. Y. State Mus.

Bui., 255, 148P.

Newland, D. H. & others

1932 The Paleozoic Stratigraphy of New York. XVI Internat. Geol.

Cong. Guidebook, 4: 17

Pepper, J. F.

1934 The Taconic and Appalachian Orogenies in the Hudson River
Region. Science, 80: 186

122

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Quinn, A. W.

1933 Normal Faults of the Lake Champlain Region. Jour. Geol., 41:
H3-43

Roorbach, G. B.

1913 The Fault Block Topography of the Mohawk Valley. Geog. Soc.
Phila. Bui., 11 : 51-66

Ruedemann, R.

1909 Types of Inliers Observed in New York. N. Y. State Mus. Bui.,

133: 164-93

1925 The Utica and Lorraine Formations of New York. Part 1. Stra-
tigraphy. N. Y. State Mus. Bui., 258: 7-84

1930 Geology of the Capital District. N. Y. State Mus. Bui., 285, 2i8p.,

geologic map

1931 The Tangential Master-Streams of the Adirondack Drainage.

Amer. Jour. Sci., 5th ser., 22: 431-40

& others

1932 The Paleozoic Stratigraphy of New York. XVI Internat. Geol.

Cong. Guidebook, 4: 124-28

St Johnsville Enterprise and News

1922 New series, v. 22, No. 5, July 5; No. 6, July 12

Schneider, P. F.

1905 The Correlation of Some Alnoite Dikes in East Canada Creek.
Science, 22: 673

Smyth, C. H.

1892 A Third Occurrence of Peridotite in Central New York. Amer.

Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 43: 322-27

1893 Alnoite Containing an Uncommon Variety of Melilite. Amer.

Jour. Sci., 3d ser., 46: 104-7

1896 Note on Recently Discovered Dikes of Alnoite at Manheim, New
York. Amer. Jour. Sci., 4th ser., 2: 290-92
1898 Weathering of Alnoite in Manheim, New York. Geol. Soc. Amer.
Bui., 9: 257-68

Ulrich, E. O. & Cushing, H. P.

1910 Age and Relations of the Little Falls Dolomite (Calciferous) of

the Mohawk Valley. N. Y. State Mus. Bui., 140: 97-140

Vanuxem, L.

1838 Second Annual Report of . . . the Geological Survey of the Third
District of the State of New York . . . N. Y. Geol. Surv., 2d
Ann. Rep’t, p. 253-86

1842 Geology of New York. Report on the Third District. 3o6p.

INDEX

Agassiz, A., cited, 52, 57, 58, 67
Algal deposits, alteration, 49-51 ; im-
portance of coralline algae as reef-
builders, 51-67; reefs, 7-21
Alluvium, 102
Alnoite dikes, 101
Amsterdam limestone, 99

Bassler, R. S., cited, 24, 27, 44, 59, 67
Baudisch, O., cited, 31, 67
Beecher, C. E. & Hall, C. E., cited,
94, 120
Bermuda, 57

Bibliography, algal barrier reefs,
67-74; crinoids, 83; faulting in Mo-
hawk valley, 120-22
Bigelow, H. B., cited, 51, 57, 58, 67
Black River beds, 98
Blackwelder, E., cited, 50, 51, 62, 67
Blanchard, W. G. jr & Davis, M. J.,
cited, 64, 65, 67

Bonney, T. G. & others, cited, 51, 52,
53. 67

Bradley, W. H., cited, 59, 66, 67
Brigham, A. P., cited, 92, 102, 120
Bucher, W. H., cited, 59, 67

Canadian formations, 98
Canajoharie shale, 100
Capitan limestone, 64
Cenozoic formations, 102
Chadwick, G. H., cited, 116, 120
Chaney, L. W., cited, 23, 67
Chapman, F. & Mawson, D., cited, 54,
55, 68

Clarke, F. W. & Wheeler, W. C.,
cited, 68

Cleland, H. F., cited, 98, 114, 120
Collenia, 28, 61
Colony, R. J., cited, 10, 68
Conrad, T. A., cited, 102, 105, 120
Coralline algae, alteration of deposits,
49-51; importance as reef-builders,

51-67

Crandall, K. H., cited, 64, 65, 68
Craterocrinus Schoharie, 77

Crinoids

Craterocrinus schoharie, 77
Edriocrinus pyriformis, 82
Gennaeocrinus similis, 78
Gilbertsocrinus spinigerus, 81
Cryptozoon, nature 21-31 ; reefs, 7-21 ;
species, 32-49

Cryptozoon proliferum, 32-36
ruedemanni, 36-42
undulatum, 43-49
Cumings, E. R., cited, 105, 120
Cumings, E. R. & Schrock, R. R.,
cited, 64, 68

Cushing, H. P., cited, 7, 8, 68, 88, 92,
93, 94, 97, 100, 101, 105, 1 16, 1 18,
121

Cushing, H. P. & Ruedemann, R.,
cited, 8, 10, 18, 68, 88, 93, 116, 121

Dake, C. L. & Bridge, Josiah, cited,
24, 68

Dana, J. D., cited, 22, 52, 68
Darton, N. H., cited, 93, 105, 1 14,

1 15, 121

David, T. W. E„ Halligan, G. H.

& Finckh, A. E., cited, 54, 68
Davis, W. M., cited, 68
Dawson, Sir W., cited, 22, 23, 68
Devonian crinoids, see Crinoids
Dikes, 101
Dolgeville shale, 100
Dolomite, 97

Edriocrinus pyriformis, 82

Fairchild, H. L., cited, 92, 102, 121
Faults, 105-15; age and origin, 115-20;

location and topography, 86-87
Fenton, C. L. & Fenton, M. A.,
cited 51, 60, 61, 68
Finckh, A. E., cited, 54, 69
Foraminifera, 54

Foslie, M., cited, 54, 55, 56, 57, 69
Funafuti, 52, 53, 54

Gardiner, J. Stanley, cited, 54, 55,
56, 57, 69

Garwood, E. J., cited, 51, 52, 59, 60, 61,
63, 65, 66, 69
Gennaeocrinus similis, 78

[123]

124

NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM

Geologic column, 93
Geology, general, of barrier reefs,
7-21 ; of Mohawk valley, 88-92
Gilbertsocrinus spinigerus, 81
Glacial drift and alluvium, 102
Glock, W. S., cited, 69
Goldring, W., cited, 77, 78, 81, 82, 83,
92, 93, 121

Grabau, A. W., cited, 23, 69
Guppy, H. B., cited, 55, 69

Hadding, A., cited, 28, 51, 69
Halimeda, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58
Hall, James, cited, 21, 32, 69, 81, 82,

83

Hinde, G. J., cited, 53, 70
Hoeg, O. A., cited, 51, 62, 70
Hoffmeister, J. E., cited, 54, 55, 70
Holtedahl, Olaf, cited, 22, 61, 70
Hoots, H. W., cited, 66, 70
Howe, Marshall A., cited, 51, 52, 54,
56, 57, 58, 59, 66, 70

Johnson, J. H., cited, 51, 66, 70
Judd, J. W., cited, 52, 70

Kay, G. M., cited, 93, 100, 121
Keenan, M. F., cited, 66, 71
Kemp, J. F. & Hill, B. F., cited, 93,
121

Keyes, C., cited, 64, 65, 71
Kiaer, J., cited, 62, 71
King, P. B., cited, 51, 64, 65, 71
Kjellmann, F. R., cited, 56, 71
Knopf, E. B., cited, 22, 71
Kobayashi, T., cited, 22, 71

Lester Park, 10, 17, 74
Liesegang’s rings, 27
Limestones, 98-99
Lithophyllum, 51, 55, 58
Lithothamnium, 23, 24, 49, 53, 54,
55, 56, 57, 59, 65
Little Falls dolomite, 97
Lloyd, E. R., cited, 64, 65, 71
Lowville limestone, 99

Martens, J. H. C., cited, 102, 118,
121

Mawson, Sir D., cited, 56, 71
Mawson, Sir D. & Madigan, C. T.,
cited, 62, 71

Mayor, A. G., cited, 54, 72
Miller, W. J., cited, 88, 92, 93, 94,
97, 100, 105, 106, 109, 116, 1 18, 121
Mineral water, 31

Mohawk valley, faults, 105-15; faults,
age and origin, 115-20; general
geology, 88-92; location and topog-
raphy, 86-87

Moore, E. S., cited, 61, 72
Murray, G., cited, 52, 65, 66, 72

Newland, D. H. & others, cited,

I2X

Nicholson, H. A. & Etheridge, R.,
cited, 28, 62, 72
Nullipores, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56

Oolites, 10, 23, 24, 31, 59
Ordovician formations, 98
Ozarkian formations, 94

Paleozoic formations, 94-101
Pepper, J. F., cited, 119, 121
Petrified Sea Gardens, see Ritchie
Park

Pia, Julius, cited, 28, 51, 72
Pleistocene-recent formations, 102
Pollock, James B., cited, 54, 72
Post-Utica formations, 101-2
Potsdam sandstone, 94
Powell, Percy R., 81
Precambrian formations, 93
Proliferum, Cryptozoon, 32-36 ; oc-
currence, 9-21
Pyriformis, Edriocrinus, 82

Quinn, A. W., cited, 117, 122

Reefs, 7-21; alteration of coralline
algal deposits, 49-51 ; importance
of coralline algae as reef-builders,
51-67

Reimann, Irving G., 77, 81
Richards, H. C. & Bryan, W. H.,
cited, 63, 72
Ritchie Park, 10, 74
Roorbach, G. B., cited, 105, 113, 114,
122

Rothpletz, A., cited, 23, 27, 28, 32, 35,
36, 43. 44. 59, 62, 72

INDEX

125

Ruedemann, R., cited, 8, 10, 64, 72,
91, 92, 93, 98, 100, 101, 105, 106,
1 16, 1 18, 1 19, 122

Ruedemanni, Cryptozoon, 36-43; oc-
currence, 9-18

Rutherford, R. L., cited, 61, 72

St Johns ville Enterprise and News,
cited, 97, 122
Sandstones, 94
Saratoga mineral water, 31
Schenectady beds, xoi
Schneider, P. F., cited, 92, 101, 122
Schoharie, Craterocrinus, 77
Seely, H. M., cited, 22, 23, 59, 72
Setchell, W. A., cited, 52, 54, 55, 73
Seward, A. C., cited, 22, 27, 49, 51,
52, 55, 56, 59, 60, 61, 65, 66, 67, 73
Shales, 100-1
Similis, Gennaeocrinus, 78
Skeats, E. W., cited, 73
Smyth, C. H., cited, 92, 101, 102, 1x8,
122

Solenopora, 63, 65
Spinigerus, Gilbertsocrinus, 81
Springer, F., cited, 83
Steele, J. H., cited, 21, 73
Stratigraphy, algal barrier reefs, 7-10 ;

Mohawk valley, 93
Stromatoporoids, 23, 27, 28

Theresa formation, g4
Topography, Mohawk valley, 86-87
Trenton limestone, 99
Tribes Hill limestone, 94
Twenhofel, W. H., cited, 61, 73

Ulrich, E. O. & Cushing, H. P.,
cited, 98, 122

Undulatum, Cryptozoon, 43-49; oc-
currence, 9-21
Utica shale, 101

Van der Gracht, W. A. J. M. van
W., cited, 51, 64, 65, 73
Vanuxem, L., cited, 93, 98, 102, 105,
1 14, 1 15, 122

Vaughan, T. W., cited, 52, 73

Walcott, C. D., cited, 22, 24, 28, 52,

60, 73

Walther, J., cited, 49, 50, 54, 57, 59,
74

Watertown limestone, 99
Wattles, Fred, 77, 82, 83
Weber-van Bosse, Mme. A., cited,
57, 74

Wieland, G. R., cited, 21, 23, 28, 51,
59, 74

Winchell, N. H., cited, 23, 74

Yabe, H., cited, 23, 74
Yonge, C. M., cited, 55, 74

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New York Botanical Garden Library

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