780 NOAA Technical Report NMFSSSRF-780 r w ^ \ % History of Scientific Study and IVIanagennent of the Alasl, 8 August 1949; Lavrenty Stepetin foreground (photo b.\ V. B. Scheffer). Bottom: Superinten- dent Edward C. Johnston warding off a harem bull during the annual bull count, Zapadni Rookerj, 18 July 1948 (photo by K. W. Kenyon). 8) At the conclusion of their report, the team noted that "no bibhography relating to the Pribilof fur seals has ever ap- peared" (Osgood et al. 1915:149). They met the need with a list of over 200 titles. "Their carefully prepared report agreed in every respect with the findings of previous commissions, but [Secretary] Redfield paid no attention to its recommendations" (Jordan 1922, vol. 1, p. 611). He ignored principally the recommenda- tion that killing of superfluous young males be resumed. Parker continued an interest in the fur seal herd, especially in its growth (Parker 1915, 1917, 1918, 1928). He concluded (Parker 1915:3, 6) that "the natural relations are not far from one male to thirty or forty females." He interpreted the dis- crepancy in sexes as "imperfect" evolution, and adaptation of the fur seal as a "poor fit." As late as 1928 he still held the misconception that "the young cows are first impregnated at the end of their second year" (Parker 1928:1057). As a matter of fact, the females mature later than this. None are impreg- nated at the end of their second year, and few at the end of their third. The age of sexual maturity was not clearly under- stood until 1952, when, for the first time, large numbers of fe- males were killed for scientific study. A U.S. Navy radio station was established on St. Paul Is- land in 1914 and the Navy crew showed the first motion pic- tures on the Pribilofs on 21 June, in the carpenter shop (Parker 1946:153). Preble continued to collect information on the wildlife of the Pribilofs, though he did not return to the islands after 1914. He and Waldo L. McAtee, a fellow naturalist of the Bu- reau of Biological Survey, published a general account of the wildlife there (Preble and McAtee 1923). McAtee never visited the islands. In the account, the only new information on fur seals was a note (Preble and McAtee 1923: 142) that the sea lion louse ("Echinophlhirius flucnis" Ferris, 1916) also occurs on the fur seal. This parasite was called Proechinophthirius fluc- rM5 by Ferris in 1951 (p. 300). growth rate of 6.5% for a herd newly spared from pelagic seal- ing. They also indicated that great fluctuation should be ex- pected as a normal feature of the annual birth rate. (This con- cept was overlooked in later years when the herd was, for a time, routinely managed without benefit of scientific studies.) The survival rates of young seals to killable age could only be learned, wrote the study team, if commercial sealing were to be resumed. It was not in fact resumed until 1918 (Parker 1917, 1918). 6) The team stressed the value of permanently branding a number of 3-yr-old males each year in order to insure a future breeding stock (Osgood et al. 1915:80). The idea was attractive but impractical. It was carried out only once, 9 yr later, when 5,047 males about 3 yr old were branded (Bower 1925a: 118). 7) The team pointed out that body length of a seal, from nose to root of tail, on the killing field, is a better index of its age than is skin weight (Osgood et al. 1915:90). They designed the first calipers for use in the field. A breakdown of the Prib- ilof kill by age as determined from body length was first pub- lished for the season of 1917 (Hanna 1918:118) and last for the season of 1954 (Thompson 1956:64). The Bureau of Fisheries had abandoned, at the end of 1911, the practice of recording the salted-skin weight of every seal killed (Lembkey 1912:98). The weights of 1 1,733 skins taken that year ranged from 4 to 9.5 lb (1.8 to 4.3 kg). Routine Management for 25 Years, 1915-39 The management recommendations of Osgood, Preble, and Parker in 1914 were largely accepted by the Bureau of Fisher- ies. Under the careful leadership of Ward T. Bower, routine techniques for counting bulls and pups, for measuring rookery areas, for photographing the rookeries, and for estimating the age composition of the annual kill were gradually developed. These tasks fell to the island managers, administrative assis- tants, storekeepers, or schoolteachers. At the same time, many improvements in methods of harvesting seals and of processing their skins were made. Unfortunately, as we shall point out, no biologists or naturalists were on the scene, and scarcely any zoological research on fur seals was carried on during the 25-yr period. The main scientific and technological advances from 1915 to 1939 are given in the following pages. In 1915 a U.S. industry was born. "The actual treatment of raw sealskins was begun at St. Louis in December, 1915 [by the Gibbins and Lohn Fur Skin Dressing and Dyeing Company]" (Bower and Aller 1917:107; Scheffer 1962:41). The first lot of processed skins was sold the following year by the Govern- ment's broker, Funsten Brothers and Company. In 1921, the Government transferred its contract from Funsten to Gibbins and Lohn, and in 1922, the principals of Gibbins and Lohn re- organized as the Fouke Fur Company, still in existence. 23 The old London terminology for finished sealskin grades was abandoned in 1918 in favor of the present one (Bower 1919:97). A "Middling Pup" skin, for example, became a "Medium." In 1917, Arnold C. Reynolds and G. Dallas Hanna mea- sured the space occupied by breeding seals on the Pribilofs (Hanna 1918:112). They proposed to establish a "square feet per breeding seal" ratio which could be used in the future as a census tool when the pups would become too numerous to count. Their estimate of the number of breeding seals was based on two fallacies: That the pregnancy rate is 100% and that the female is first bred at age 2. The sizes of the rookery areas in 1917 were: 1,354,546 ft- (125,841 m') on St. Paul Is- land; 172,305 ft' (16,008 m') on St. George Island; and a total on both of 1,526,851 ft' (141,849 m'). The areas of St. Paul represented 89%, those on St. George 11%, of the total. In 1949, Kenyon et al. (1954:28) computed the rookery areas from aerial photographs at 3,566,519 ft' (331,340 m'), or more than twice the 1915 value. The St. Paul-to-St. George ratio in 1949 was 81 to 19. By 1917 the pups had become so numerous that they could be counted on only 1 1 of the 22 rookeries. Through strenuous effort they were counted in 1922 on all rookeries; this was the last complete count. The age composition of a kill was first estimated in 1917 (Hanna 1918:118). The estimate was based on body length measurements of branded, known-age seals. The all-summer kill in 1917 included: 3-yr-olds, 57%; 4-yr-olds, 32%; and other ages, 11%. From an old photograph we learn that Han- na constructed in 1915 the wooden calipers which were first used in 1918 for measuring seals on the killing field and were last u,sed in 1961. After 1961, the practice of measuring seals was abandoned and the method of estimating their ages on the basis of tooth-layer counts was accepted and used. All of the Pribilof rookeries were photographed at the peak of the breeding season in mid-summer 1895 and in at least 5 other years: by Lembkey in 1905 (Lembkey 1905, 1905(1911):178); by Hanna in 1917 (Bower and AUer 1918:97); and by Johnston in 1922 (Bower 1923:111), 1925 (Bower 1926: 1 16), and 1948 (Thompson 1952a:45). The first series was reproduced in Townsend's 1896 report (Part 2-Atlas). Photo- prints of the 1905 and 1948 series are filed in the Marine Mam- mal Biological Laboratory in Seattle. We do not know whether photographs taken in other years have survived. Originally, the intent was to photograph the rookeries at approximately 5-yr intervals from the camera stations established in the 1890's (Hanna 1918:97; Johnston 1923:111; Bower 1928:153). The photographs were a useful record of changes in the seal population from 1895 to about 1940, when the herd ceased to grow. Today, there is less reason to continue the program of photographing from prescribed camera stations, and more reason for exploring the possibility of aerial photography, fol- lowed by area mapping of the rookeries from vertical views. Preble and McAtee (1923:117-118) gave numerous records of killer whales seen from 1875 to 1917. One killer whale seen off the Reef on 2 December 1902 "was playing havoc with a band of seals." At Northeast Point on 6 November 1904 "fragments of both cows and pups, the work of killer whales, were found strewn along the beach." Evidence of predation by killer whales upon seals has not, we believe, been reported since 1917. We conclude that killer whales have not changed their habits, but that Pribilof residents now spend less time watching the beaches than they used to. Experiments in the use of seal by-products were conducted in 1917 during a wartime economy (Bower and Aller 1918:84-86). Bones, intestines, blubber oil, flipper gelatine, salted shoulders, and other products were examined. (A brief history of the use of by-products has been written by Baker 1950.) The first unit of a reduction plant was built on St. Paul Island in late 1918, to prepare meal and oil from seal carcasses (Bower 1919:83). It was operated in most years from 1919 to 1961 and converted into a freezer plant in 1964. In 1917 dogs were prohibited on the Pribilofs (Bower 1919:107). This was presumably a reaffirmation of the ban of 1869 or 1870. Further to avoid disturbing the seals, sight-see- ing trips to the rookeries and hauling grounds were first regulated in 1920. "Observation Rock," on Gorbatch, still marked by a painted arrow, was designated as a place where visitors might watch the seals (Bower 1921:73). The Fur Seal Treaty of 1911 was slated to be reviewed in 1926. Partly to stimulate public discussion of a new treaty, five concerned naturalists of the American Association for the Ad- vancement of Science formed, on 4 August 1921, a "Commit- tee on Conservation of Marine Life of the Pacific" (Hanna 1922; Evermann 1922; Hanna footnote 9, p. 46; Nelson 1923). The Committee was later enlarged to 17. It recommended 1) that all maritime nations be parties to the treaty, 2) that pelagic sealing against both northern and southern fur seals be banned in all seas of the world, 3) that the clause permitting aborigines to kill seals be dropped, 4) that sealskin harvests on land not be shared by party nations, and 5) that all marine mammals and birds of the Pacific be protected by treaty. To date (1965) none of the recommendations has been acted upon. When commercial killing was resumed in 1918, the Bureau of Fisheries took 34,890 skins, the greatest annual harvest in 29 yr. Faced with technological problems, the Bureau hired William P. Zschorna in 1919 to make a study of killing, cur- ing, and processing skins. (Zschorna was later employed by the fur processing companies.) During the period 1919-22, three important changes were introduced (Bower 1920:77, 1921:75, 1922:54-55 and figs. 16, 17). First, skins were blubbered on the islands rather than at the St. Louis factory. Second, skins were washed and cooled in seawater rather than being placed, dirty from the field, into salt. Third, "stripping" replaced "knife skinning." Although "Old Jake Kochutin could skin a seal in less than two minutes" (Hanna footnote 9, p. 119), the new method of jerking the skin off the body was much faster, re- quiring only 10-15 s. We do not know when the special tongs now used in stripping were introduced. They have been im- proved several times; they are not patented. As late as 1943, a few skins were still being removed by knife (Bower 1944b:41). As a result of the harvest of oversize males or "halfbulls" in 1918-20, many enormous skins were placed on sale. It is of historical interest to read that "the average price obtained for the entire take of bulls, including the minimum of 50C and the maximum of $169.00, was about $46.00 per skin" (G. Donald Gibbins, Fouke Fur Company, in letter of 13 October 1923 to G. Dallas Hanna). During the closed season on commercial killing from 1912 to 1917, surplus male seals accumulated on the breeding grounds. Until their numbers were reduced, starting in 1918, they ex- erted a depressing effect on the size of the average harem. That is, "bull pressure" reduced the number of breeding cows that 24 a harem could effectively hold. The average harem fell to 26 or 27. Year 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 Average harem 60 66 60 48 33 26 27 30 41 45 Thus the closed season, now seen by hindsight as a manage- ment error, provided us with biological evidence on the bull- to-cow relationship. In 1921, two wooden towers with elevated approaches or "catwalks" were erected on the Reef to improve visibility for bull counting (Johnston 1922:78 and fig. 21). Many other towers have been erected on the rookeries since. Before 1921, the annual bull count had been made from high points on land, from ladders, from portable tripods, and from boats. The bull count first became an annual event in 1904. In 1922 "at least 95 percent" of all pups on the Pribilofs were counted under the direction of Edward C. Johnston, storekeeper (Bower 1923:92). A full count has not been made since. Johnston started his career in 1911 as a clerk on the Albatross, spent the years 1919 to 1927 in teaching and ad- ministrative work on the Pribilofs, returned in 1939 as superin- tendent, and retired in 1949 as general manager (Bower 1920: 74; Thompson 1952b:57). Also in 1922, the sizes of the rookery areas were estimated and were reported to be no larger than in 1916. The rookeries were photographed from fixed camera stations, as they had been in 1917 (Bower 1923:93). Hanna (1921a) described the organs of two hermaphroditic seals obtained on the killing fields in 1918. No one has reported since on this abnormality in fur seals, though Scheffer (1951) has described cryptorchidism. Hanna also measured heart temperature in 71 seals. He con- cluded that "the normal temperatures of bachelor seals as received on the killing fields in a thoroughly cooled condition are about 101 °F" (Hanna 1924:53). This value is too high; it probably represents the temperature of excited seals. Hanna also found that one seal, which died in convulsions during a drive, had a temperature of 108. 9°F (42.7°C). "Upon exami- nation it was found that the fur [of this seal] had loosened and could be easily plucked with the fingers." For many years, the skin from a seal which died from exhaustion and overheating in a drive was known as a "roadskin" and was marked for special attention by a loop of rope through the armhole. No special handling is given to such skins today. In mid-July 1922, Leonhard Stejneger stopped briefly at St. Paul Island en route to an inspection of the Commander Islands rookeries (Stejneger 1923, 1925). At Bering and Cop- per Islands, he saw the old flag of Imperial Russia still flying, 6 yr after the Revolution. He visited certain rookeries where he had stood just 40 yr before, in July 1882. The seal industry of the Commanders was in deplorable condition and the seal population had fallen to about 18,000, mainly as a result of pelagic sealing. A Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce report for the following year, 1923, gave the Commander population as only 12,562 (Bower 1926:160). In 1923, the Bureau of Fisheries decided to insure an escape- ment of males for the breeding reserve by marking and sparing a prescribed number during the harvest. That year, 10,017 seals were marked by shearing or hot-iron branding, or both (Bower 1925a: 1 19). The task must have been difficult. In later years, branding was resorted to intermittently and on a small scale only. After 1926, shearing operations were postponed until the close of the killing season; after 1932, marking for the breeding reserve was abandoned (Bower 1933:64; Scheffer 1950d:6-7). "Of the animals marked by shearing [in the second year of reserving operations, 1924], 1 ,000 were further marked by clipping off the tips of both ears" (Bower 1925b: 149). The results of this experiment are not recorded. In 1922, Henry W. Elliott persuaded Senator Hiram W. Johnson to introduce a bill (S. 3731, 67th Congress) which would change the method of harvesting and selling sealskins (U.S. Congress, Senate 1923). For each skin, its "salted length and girth [width]" (U.S. Congress, Senate 1923:1) would be measured; no seal could be killed, the skin of which when salted was < 37.5 in (95 cm) long; all skins would be sold in raw salted condition. At a Senate committee meeting on the bill on 2 February 1923, Elliott again met in debate his old adversary, David Starr Jordan. The bill was not endorsed by the committee (U.S. Congress, Senate 1926:2). In 1926, Elliott lobbied successfully for the introduction of a bill similar to the one proposed in 1922. It went further. It would oblige the Bureau of Fisheries to mark permanently all 3-yr-old males spared annually for the breeding reserve (U.S. Congress, Senate 1926). Elliott, at the age of 80, appeared before the Senate committee to speak for the bill and to reiter- ate charges that the Bureau was deliberately and illegally kill- ing yearling seals. His effort brought no new legislation, though perhaps his self-appointed role as watchdog of the seal herd may have been useful in exposing management to public criticism. Johnston (1925:136) observed that "cows that were branded in 1902, or before, with a single bar across the back continue to appear on the rookeries of St. George Island. Three were seen in 1923. These are at least 21 years old. . . ." No older seals were recorded until the 1960's, when improved methods of reading the age of a seal from its teeth were developed. The first report of twin fetuses in a fur seal was obtained in 1923 on the 10th of May, when a Bureau of Fisheries agent ex- amined an adult female killed by Tlingits off Biorka Island in Sitka Sound (Johnston 1925:136). In 1923 "Mr. Keishi Ishino, fur-farming expert of the Im- perial Fisheries Bureau [of Japan]" spent a month on the Prib- ilofs "making a careful study of questions pertaining to fur seals" (Bower 1925a: I II). He returned in 1926 (Bower 1927:303). His second visit was doubtless concerned, in part, with international relations. The Fur Seal Treaty of 1911 was to continue in force until 15 December 1926 and thereafter un- til terminated by 12 mo written notice given by one or more of the parties. "In January, 1926, Japan proposed to the other three signa- tory Powers that a conference be called to revise the 191 1 Con- vention, to make the regulations less stringent in order to decrease the number of seals . . . coming into Japanese seas and seriously damaging the Japanese fishing industry; but as 25 the United States had not then . . . recognized the Soviet Government in Russia, it dechned to join in any conference or to discuss any new agreement with Soviet Union representa- tives" (Ireland 1942:406). Many years after Ishino's second visit in 1926 we found out the main reason for it. About 1925, Japanese fishery agents first learned that Pribilof-marked seals were showing up on the Commander Islands, on Robben Island, and in waters off Japan (Japanese Bureau of Fisheries 1933). Ishino wrote that "when I went to the Commandovsky (sic) group in 1925 ... I happened to find there several animals bearing tags [they could only have been brands or sheared areas] of the Pribilof Islands. I found some of these marks also at Seal [Robben] Island . . . [My idea on intermingling] was then communi- cated to the American authorities who, however, refused to ac- cept my theory" [Isino (sic) 1939:43-44]. Twenty-five years elapsed from the first notice of intermingling in 1925 until Austin and Wilke (1950:34) made the first attempt to estimate the magnitude of it. When, therefore, Ishino arrived on the Pribilofs in 1926 he arranged that "for the purpose of investigating the route of . . . migration, special marks should be put on males of three years of age each year for three years after 1926 at both the American and Japanese breeding grounds" (Japanese Bureau of Fisheries 1933:11-12). Accordingly, in July 1927, Pribilof Superintendent Harry J. Christoffers placed small aluminum fish tags on the flippers of 200 bachelor seals esti- mated to be 3-yr-olds. He repeated the tagging in 1928 and 1929 (Scheffer 1950d:8). The experiments were not publicized, though they were recorded in the St. Paul Island log. Subse- quently, 28 tags were recovered on the Pribilofs, 28 in waters off Japan, and 1 on the Commander Islands. We believe that all of the rookeries were photographed from land stations in 1925, though not mentioned in the published annual report for that year. (See under photographs for 1948.) Ten fur seal heads were collected from the killing fields in 1926, packed in dry salt, and shipped to A. Gerson Carmel, Department of Anatomy, University of Cincinnati. Carmel pubHshed in 1928 (p. 347) a beautiful roentgenogram of one of the heads. In the summer of 1928, Harry W. May of the Fouke Fur Company first visited the Pribilofs. E.xcept for the war year 1942, he returned each summer through 1962 and again in 1965, setting a record of 35 summers on the islands. During most of the later years he was in charge of island operations (curing and barreling) for the Company. He retired in Septem- ber 1965. The first Soviet visitors to the islands spend 1 1 d there in June 1929, "observing fur seals and making general observa- tions of the activities" (Bower 1930:333). They were Leonty Vasilievich Boitsoff and Titus Ardeevich Malkovich. In 1930, the practice of killing seals in autumn was discon- tinued (Bower 1931:80). During most years from the beginning of U.S. ownership a small fraction of the annual harvest had been taken in autumn, mainly to provide the Aleuts with food. The so-called "food killings" had dwindled to 800 seals in 1929. A fur seal breeding in captivity was first recorded in the Na- tional Zoological Park in Washington, D.C., in 1932. Two males and four females, all about 2 yr old, had been delivered to the Park in 1928. On 31 July 1932, the only survivor gave birth to a stillborn pup (Bower 1929:323, 1933:72). Japan had opened negotiations in 1926 to revise the Fur Seal Treaty and she did so again in 1936, to no avail. The Japanese "built their whole case on the unproved assumption that the wintering seal population off Japan is composed of most of the Commander and Robben Island seals, plus one-half the Pribilof herds" (Austin and Wilke 1950:25). The claimed an- nual damage to the Japanese commercial fishery as a result of predation by seals was about $7 million. R. A. Partridge, a student from the University of Cincin- nati, visited the Pribilofs about 1936 and systematically col- lected samples of skin from six bachelor seals. He later pub- lished an analysis of lipid materials (Partridge 1938). Nothing had been known of the food habits of fur seals dur- ing migration south of the Gulf of Alaska. In the 1930's, four studies were carried on by fishery agencies of the United States and Canada, designed to evaluate the importance of predation by seals upon salmon and other commercial fishes (Clemens and Wilby 1933; Clemens et al. 1936; Schultz and Rafn 1936; May 1937). The results were summarized by Scheffer (1950f:8-9). Altogether, 256 seal stomachs containing food were purchased from Indians at Sitka, Alaska; at points along the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia; and at La Push, Wash. The principal food remains, listed in order of frequency were: Pacific herring, Clupea harengus pallasi; squid; smelt; salmon; greenling; and pilchard. Pacific herring appeared in stomachs more often than all other food species combined. After the 1930's, no food habit studies were made until Kenyon visited Sitka in March 1950. The first aerial survey of the rookeries was made in 1938, when Pribilof Superintendent Harry J. Christoffers "made a trip from the [St. Paul] village landing to Northeast Point and return" in a small seaplane from the U.S. Coast Guard cutter Chelan (Christoffers 1940:162). Motion pictures and still pic- tures taken by the Coast Guard did not show the seals dis- tinctly. On 1 July 1939, the Bureau of Fisheries, Department of Commerce, and the Bureau of Biological Survey, Department of Agriculture, were transferred to the Department of the In- terior. A year later, on 30 June 1940, the two Bureaus were merged to form the Fish and Wildlife Service (Sater 1960:9). THE MODERN PERIOD, 1940-64 Establishment of Continuous Research, 1940-51 Preface Some information on research during the modern period is available in scientific journals or special Government reports; some is scattered through the published annual reports of the fur seal industry through 1956; much of it is contained in un- published administrative reports. Annual progress reports of the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory have now started to appear in print. In the following section, where the source of a statement is not shown, it is manuscript material in the research files of the Laboratory. While the headings by year are shown, scientific studies are not necessarily described in chronological order. The origin of a project or idea is dated by the initial year; it may be followed by a description of later, long-time developments. 26 1940 The year 1940 is important in fur seal history for three reasons: 1) By 1940 or thereabouts, the Pribilof seal herd had reached a population plateau. Limited by its natural environ- ment and by commercial cropping, the herd was no longer able to grow. The fact was not recognized in 1940 (Kenyon et al. 1954, fig. 13 on p. 42). 2) On 23 October 1940, the Japanese Government gave formal notice of abrogation of the Treaty of 1911, on the ground that the increased number of fur seals in the North Pacific was causing serious damage to her fishing in- dustry (Bower 1942:54; Tomasevich 1943:66; Roberts 1945: 270). This brealc eventually led to a better treaty in 1957 con- taining provision for a sustained research program. 3) On 30 June 1940, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service was created. As a result, mammalogists and fur seal managers, brought to- gether for the first time in the same Service, were able to take a fresh look at fur seal biology and the fur seal population. Since then (except for the war year 1942), the seal herd has been under continual study by one or more biologists. By 1939, two reliable statistics of the herd — the number of harem bulls counted and the number of seals killed in June and July — were falling progressively each year below expectations. This led to suspicion that the method of annually computing herd size was faulty. So firmly established, however, was the method that it remained in use until 1947 by which time it was producing figures far removed from reality and its use was abandoned (Thompson 1952a:51). In early 1940, Ira N. Gabrielson, then chief of the Bureau of Biological Survey, learned that he would soon be responsible for the fur seal herd. He asked Frank Getz Ashbrook, in charge of fur-animal investigations for the Biological Survey, to draft a plan of research on seals. As part of that plan, collaborator Robert K. Enders, of Swarthmore University, listed (in memo of 2 May 1940) many important, unanswered questions with regard to fur seal reproduction. Among them were: When do the males and females mature sexually? What is the average length of their breeding life? Is implantation delayed? What is the optimum sex ratio of breeding adults? Enders did not have an opportunity to visit the seal islands, though he and two of his graduate students maintained an in- terest in fur seal reproduction and published three papers on the subject (Enders 1945; Enders et al. 1946; Pearson and Enders 1951). Gabrielson and Ashbrook visited the Pribilof Islands in the summer of 1940 and became acquainted with the research problems involved in seal management. Also present was Harry C. Fassett, who had collected plants at Unalaska in 1890. He was an amateur naturalist, and formerly captain's clerk of the research vessel Albatross. He was appointed agent of St. Paul Island in 1914 and remained on the Pribilofs for some years thereafter. Also present in 1940 was Victor Blan- chard Scheffer, a biologist of the Biological Survey who was sent to the Pribilofs in June for 4 mo to study the seal popula- 'ion (Scheffer 1940'°). He had spent the summers of 1937 and 1938 in the Aleutian Islands (Murie 1959). Part of his job on the Pribilofs was to criticize the methods of estimating age and sex composition of the herd, and where methods were found inadequate or obsolete, to recommend new ones. Of historical interest are the following points in his report: 1) With the help of Aleuts who remembered how counting had been done in 1924, all pups on Zapadni Reef were rounded up, made to "run the gantlet," and were counted on 13 August. The total was 3,250 ± 100 living pups and 196 dead. These figures did not agree with the official ones arrived at by pure computation— 1,200 living and 10 dead (Johnston 1942: 71). The discrepancy highlighted the need of research. 2) During September, 5,000 pups were hot-iron branded in order to provide specimens of known age for future anatomi- cal studies and to establish a basis for Peterson-type (1896) population studies. Pups had last been branded for scientific purposes in 1912. Branding in 1940 (Fig. 6 top) was a slow and disagreeable job, and was probably harmful to the pups. 3) Noting that only two females from the 1912 brandings had later been killed for study, Scheffer (footnote 10) (Fig. 6 bottom) recommended that known age females from the 1940 brandings be killed systematically to provide information on reproductive anatomy. He was handicapped in 1940, however. the '"Scheffer, V. B. 1940. Report on studies in the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, summer of 1940. Section on fur seals followed by correspondence and com- ments. Unpubl. rep.. 224 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar, Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. Figure 6. — Top: Branding seal pups on llie Reef, 27 September 1940 (phnio by V. B. Scheffer). Boltom; Victor B. Scheffer in his SI. Paul laboratory 8 July 1945. self-portrait (pholo by V. B. Scheffer). 27 by the terms of the Treaty of 191 1, which made no provisions for taking specimens. 4) Bewildered by the numbers of seals on the breeding grounds and their constant movement, he recommended that "an intimate life history study of a single harem throughout a summer" be made (Scheffer footnote 10, p. 223). 5) He wrote that "determined efforts . . . should be made to perfect a technique of airplane reconnaissance of the seal grounds" (Scheffer footnote 10, p. 215). 6) He was disturbed by a discrepancy between the observed rate of increase in number of bachelors killed and the com- puted rate of increase in number of breeding cows, the latter rate being about three times the former (Scheffer footnote 10, p. 219). He questioned the computation system and especially the publication of its results in minute detail. As a visiting British scientist wrote later: "The annually published compu- tation, despite small textual disclaimers, has suggested to the world a knowledge of the composition of the herd which goes far beyond what is proven" (Bertram 1950:81). 1941 With the Fur Seal Treaty due to expire in October, the U.S. Government made plans early in 1941 to investigate the food habits and migration routes of fur seals at sea. The main pur- pose was to find out how many Pribilof-born seals were win- tering in waters off Japan, and what they were eating there. The Secretary of the Interior wrote to the President on 7 March 1941 recommending that funds be made available to support a sea-going vessel, a staff of five biologists, and cler- ical help. The sum of $290,000 was appropriated on 30 June. On 7 March the Secretary of the Interior proposed to in- crease the 1941 take of fur seals by about 30,000 as a step in the direction of reducing the Pribilof herd. The kill was, in fact, increased by 29,750 over that of the previous year (Bower 1943:47). When funds were appropriated, the following biological staff was assembled: Victor B. Scheffer (in charge), A. Henry Banner, Kelshaw Bonham, Wilbert M. Chapman, Donald D. Shipley, and Ford Wilke. A 3-masted motor vessel, the Black Douglas, was purchased and refitted for pelagic research. When the United States entered World War 11 on 7 December 1941, the vessel was given to the U.S. Navy and all plans for pelagic research were shelved. Meanwhile, during the summer and fall of 1941, Wilke and Banner were carrying on research on the Pribilofs. Their main accomplishments were: 1) Between 18 August and 16 Septem- ber they counted 19,000 dead pups on all of the St. Paul rookeries, representing a mortality of at least 4.2% (Kenyon et al. 1954, table 11, p. 30). Here was the first evidence that pup mortality was beginning to increase as a result of population pressures. 2) Between 23 September and 8 October they branded and tagged 10, (XX) pups, experimenting with different tags and different tag positions on the body (Scheffer I950d:4, 9). From this experiment, the present monel metal tag applied to the fore flipper evolved. (In 1941, 5,000 of the tags applied were of stainless steel; this metal was not used again.) The main purpose of the 1941 marking was to identify animals of Pribilof origin, some of which could later be collected by the Black Douglas biologists studying intermingling of seals off Japan. Tags of the 1941 series were recovered over a period of 20 yr; four tagged females were observed in 1961. Sex was recorded at time of tagging for the 10,000 pups, and also for 1,000 pups tagged in 1945. Sex was not recorded in tagging operations after 1945. How accurate were the sex determinations of 1941 and 1945? Of 511 seals recovered in later years: 82% proved to be males correctly identified, 10% proved to be females correctly identified, 1 seal proved to be a male incorrectly identified, and 8% proved to be females in- correctly identified. Thus, the only important mistake was in identifying many male pups as females. 3) Between 7 October and 7 November, they collected and measured 18 branded yearlings. Their collection of skins and skulls is still the largest for known-age yearlings. They started the "BDM" (Black Douglas Mammal) catalog in which specimens are still being listed. 4) They stood a 24-h watch on one of the rookeries and learned that seals are active and vocal at night as well as day. 5) They studied U.S. Weather Bureau records, and could find no correlation between Bering Sea weather and the time of arrival of bachelor seals in June and July. 6) They made the first col- lection of genital tracts from known-age females: 6 tracts from branded yearlings which were subsequently sent, we believe, to Robert K. Enders. 7) In late November and early December they experimented with snaring and crating live fur seals. Ten crated seals left St. Paul Island by boat on 1 1 December, but only seven arrived, somewhat the worse for wear, in Seattle on 3 January 1942. They were placed in the Seattle Zoo on the same day (Anonymous 1942). One survived for as long as 110 d. This one "fed heavily for a 47-day period during which its average daily consumption of fish was 5.73 pounds or 14 per- cent of its weighted average body weight" (Bonham 1943). Here was the first attempt to estimate the food consumption of the fur seal. Leon J. Cole collected seal pituitaries on St. Paul Island in the summer of 1941 and sent them to Roland K. Meyer (both men from the University of Washington). Scheffer collected 13 pituitaries in 1946 and sent them to Robert K. Enders. We do not know the fate of any of these specimens. The Fur Seal Treaty expired on 23 October 1941. By an ex- change of notes between the United States and the Dominion of Canada, a provisional arrangement was made on 19 Decem- ber 1942, in which the United States was to receive 80% and Canada 20% of the annual sealskin take. A domestic Fur Seal Act embodying all important features of previous protective legislation was signed by the President on 26 February 1944 (Public Law 237, 78th Congress, Chapter 65, 2nd Session). The provisional agreement remained in effect until 1957. An important feature of the 1944 Fur Seal Act was that it provided for the killing of fur seals "for scientific purposes under special permit issued therefor by the Secretary (of the Interior)" (Section 16). It also required each party to report at the end of each calendar year the number of seals taken for research use, and the data obtained from them. Such a report, usually consisting of from one to three pages, was submitted annually by the United States (and we presume by Canada also) through 1956. 1942 In the spring of 1942, the Aleutian Islands became an active war theater. By military order, the residents of the Pribilof Islands were moved on 16 June and were relocated in Funter Bay, southeastern Alaska. (Roy D. Hurd was, for a week, the 28 only human on the islands.) The people were returned in early summer 1944 (Bower 1944a:42, 1946:55). Fur seal research came to a halt. Wilbert M. Chapman con- tinued for several months to study the bony skeleton of fishes. He reported (Chapman 1943:157-158) that the mysterious "seal fish" of Lucas (1899c), hitherto known only from fur seal stomach contents, was actually the deepsea form Bathy- lagus sp. Strangely, the "seal fish" was not identified in seal stomachs in the 20th century until the summer of 1963. Chap- man (1942:194) also made an estimate of the amount of fish and squid consumed annually by the Pribilof seal herd: 2.5 billion pounds (1.1 billion kg). A closer estimate today would be 1.5 billion pounds (0.7 biUion kg). 1943 Sealing was resumed in 1943 under a wartime blackout. The take of 117,164 skins was the largest since the uncontrolled slaughter of the year 1868. It represents about as many 3- and 4-yr-old males as can be taken on land in a season. From 15 May to 4 October 1943, Lawrence J. Palmer, a Fish and Wildlife Service biologist with long experience in studies of reindeer, was stationed on St. Paul Island (Palmer 1943"). His main assignment was to record the number of branded male 2- and 3-yr-old seals appearing in drives, and from the resulting data, to estimate the total size of each age group. He recorded the following numbers of branded animals (Palmer footnote 11, p. 31-32): Total adjusted for seals released and recurring Males Clubbed Released Total in drives 2-yr 138 134 111 — 3-yr 448 285 733 589 Unfortunately, he had no good way of calculating the pro- portion of branded to unbranded animals within the 3-yr-old age group, i.e., he had no good way of estimating the total number of 3-yr-olds killed. The age composition of the kill was (as we now know) very imperfectly indicated by the data ob- tained in 1943 from measuring the "field length" of seals killed. At any rate. Palmer (footnote 1 1 , p. 34) approached the truth in concluding that the computed herd size was one-half million too large. Palmer obtained the first quantitative information on the percentage of marked animals returning to the place of their birth. Of 1 1 1 tagged 2-yr-old males recovered in 1943, 28% were on a hauling ground adjacent to the home rookery (Palmer footnote 11, p. 40). 1944 Scheffer returned to the Pribilofs in the summer of 1944 and in many subsequent summers. The main research accomplish- ments in 1944 were as follows: 1) A collection of known-age (marked) specimens was begun. From 43 males and one 4-yr- " Palmer. L. J. 1943. Investigations of branded fur seals, Pribilof Islands, Alaska, 1943. Unpubl. manuscr., 45 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab.. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. old female, the measurements, skulls, and skins were saved. The systematic collecting of reference material was carried on in later years until seals through age 10 had been represented. The specimens and measurements proved to be of value later in describing special features such as the pelage and dentition. 2) Further evidence was obtained that the "field length" of a seal, while it may have been a useful index of age in 1915-16, when the age-length relationship was calculated, was no longer valid. Of known 3-yr-olds measured in 1944, 82% fell within the standard range; of known 4-yr-olds, only 50%. Later, Scheffer concluded that the average fur seal had diminished in size over a 30-yr period as a result of population crowding (Scheffer 1955). 3) Hookworms, Uncinaria lucasi, in seal pups were recorded for the first time since 1912. Ten carcasses selected at random from 127 found on the white sands below Hutchinson Hill proved to be infested. The question loomed: "Is this another symptom of a herd which has ceased to grow?" 4) A peculiar nasal mite, Orthohalarachne altenuata (Banks), had been described in 1910 from specimens found on a fur seal pup. When Scheffer returned to St. Paul Island in the summer of 1944, he noted that nasal mites were common in seals of all ages. He collected specimens and forwarded them to G. F. Ferris and Irwin M. Newell. In the meanwhile, Doet- schman (1944) had described a new species, (Halarachne) O. diminuata, from the California sea lion, Zalophus californi- anus. Shortly thereafter, Newell (1947:256, 260) reported that O. diminuata was present, along with O. attenuata, in the col- lections made on St. Paul in 1944 and 1945. Kenneth A. Neiland, of the Alaska Department of Fish and Game, re- ported (in letter of 25 January 1962) that he had found a young fur seal suffocated by a heavy infestation of nasal mites. 5) In the summers of 1944, 1945, and 1946, acanthocephalans (thorny-headed worms) were collected from the intestines of killing-ground seals. Some were sent to James E. Lynch, who forwarded them to Harley J. Van Cleave, and some were sent directly to Van Cleave. As a result, acanthocephalans were recorded for the first time from the fur seal. Three species were identified: Corynosoma semenne (Forssell) 1904, C. strumo- sum (Rudolphi) 1802, and C. villosum Van Cleave 1953. For details, see Van Cleave (1953a, b). 6) The testes of about 130 seals were collected, measured, and preserved as evidence of the age when spermatogenesis first begins. The collection was later lost, though measurements of these and other specimens subsequently showed that the testes grow most rapidly in weight in the third or fourth years, especially the fourth year (Scheffer 1950e:389). 7) An inquiry addressed to the Pacific Scientific Research Institute of Marine Fisheries and Oceanog- raphy (TINRO), Vladivostok, U.S.S.R., in 1944 was answered from Moscow the following spring. Seals with U.S. tags had, indeed, been recovered on the Commander Islands (Taylor et al. 1955:63). While seals thought to have been branded or sheared on the Pribilofs had been recovered from time to time on Asian breeding grounds, here was clear proof of intermingling. 8) In 1944 a bachelor seal wearing a peculiar, soft, black-rubber col- lar was captured on St. Paul Island (Scheffer 1950d:20). Up to the end of 1948, 10 seals with similar collars were recovered, and as late as 1965 Peterson (1965b:18) wrote that "fur seals continue to appear on the Pribilofs every year wearing black rubber collars of unknown origin." The most plausible expla- nation is that the collar is the rolled-sheet-remnant of a rubber food bag manufactured in Japan. 9) Bulls were counted on selected rookeries on St. Paul Island at 10-d intervals in May, 29 June, and July 1944. The results suggested that maximum numbers of harem bulls are on station by the end of June. 10) A "cryptorchid" seal was collected for study. In later years four others, ranging in age from 10 to 15 yr and in weight from 190 to 329 lb (86 to 149 kg), were examined (Scheffer 1951). The name "cryptorchid" was not entirely appropriate. True, the testes in such individuals fail to descend (cryptorchidism) but they also fail to develop normally. Such individuals are locally known as "big cows." 1945 Up to 1945, no naturalist had described an early fetus of the fur seal. On 16 January 1945 a fisherman found a seal tangled in his net off the Oregon coast. It was delivered to the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory in Seattle and found to con- tain a fetus of 372 g (Scheffer 1946) (Fig. 7 top). Scheffer and the first of a long series of "summer biolo- gists," Norman O. Levardsen, spent the summer of 1945 on the Pribilofs, mainly in collecting, measuring, and photo- 'U graphing material from known-age seals. On 24 and 25 August they placed large tags, larger than either of those used in 1941, on 973 pups on Tolstoi Rookery. The tags were later found to be successful, though at the time of application, they seemed too large (Scheffer 1950d, fig. 5, p. 12). Hookworms obtained from a seal pup in July 1945 enabled Baylis (1947) to redescribe Uncinaria lucasi Stiles 1901. "Un- cinaria sp." had been sketched by Stiles and Hassal (1899: 165) on the basis of five worms collected by Lucas in 1896. The authors stated that additional specimens were collected by Lucas in 1897, too late to be described in the (Jordan Commis- sion) monograph. Later Stiles (1901) mentioned that he had named the worm "'Uncinaria lucasi" but gave no further description of it. Seals with reddish patches on the guard hair are frequently seen on the killing fields. In 1945 it was learned that the color is caused by red algae. To date the following species of algae commensal on fur seal hair have been identified: (Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory, file 6.05/05) diatoms (Gram- matophora sp. and Licnwphora sp.), brown algae (Eclocarpus (siliculosisl) and E. sp.), and red algae (Erythrocladia subin- tegra and E. {polystromatica'!)). The first planned attempt to use aerial photography as an aid in counting seals was made on the afternoon of 9 July 1945. At the request of the Fish and Wildlife Service, the U.S. Navy sent an amphibious plane (PBY) from Adak. The air- craft flew at elevations between 300 and 500 ft (90 and 150 m). A photographer shooting through a hatch in the floor of the tail took at least 83 photographs of St. Paul Island rookeries. Photoprints, but not negatives, are on file in the Marine Mam- mal Biological Laboratory. They are unsharp and are not suit- able for area mapping, since many of them represent oblique shots. In July, Anne K. Wogan, food technician from Philadel- phia, set up a small cannery and smokehouse on St. Paul Island and experimentally preserved liver paste, sausage, groundmeat patties, and other products from fur seal car- casses. "The concensus was that products of a similar nature, already on the market, were as good or better, and probably far less costly to produce in quantity" (Ralph C. Baker, in let- ter of 30 August 1965). 1946 In 1946, Georges Prefontaine (University of Montreal) and G. Clifford Carl (British Columbia Provincial Museum)'^ rep- resented the Canadian Government as observers. They were the first Canadian biologists on the islands since Macoun and Harmon in 1914. A newborn, 9-lb (4 kg) seal pup was placed in a tank of sea- water. It swam vigorously for 20 min, disproving a longheld contention that the pup must be taught to swim. Tapeworms, common in the fur seal, had never been identi- fied. Specimens were collected in 1945 and were sent to Horace W. Stunkard; others were collected in 1946 and were sent to Robert A. Wardle. No satisfactory name for genus or species resuhed (Wardle et al. 1947; Stunkard 1947, 1948). Stunkard Figure 7. — Top: The first small felus of a fur seal to be studied by the Pribilof biologists; a female weighing 0.8 lb taken from a seal drowned in a shark net off Uepoe Ba.v, Orcg.. 16 February I94S (photo by V. B. Schefferl. Biillom: (iary A. Baines counting dead seal pups on Polovina, .1 September 1957. He is mark- ing each with a dash of white plaster (photo by F. Wilke). •Prefontaine, C and G. C. Carl. 1946. Report on a visit to the fur sealing grounds. Pribilof Islands, Alaska, in 1946. Unpubl. rep., 30 p. with various maps and blank record forms, also 36 photographs. Fish. Res. Board Can., Par. Biol. Stn., Nanaimo, B.C. V9K5K6Can. 30 decided that the worms from the fur seal "represent 2 species, one monogonadic, the other diplogonadic" (Stunkard 1947: 19). It is unlikely that a satisfactory name for the tapeworm of the fur seal will be agreed upon in the near future (Vik 1964). Fur seals had long been known to have "worms." Stiles and Hassal (1899:109) were first to identify the stomach round- worm as " Ascaris decipiens Krabbe, 1878." After examining a collection of worms sent to him in 1946, Baylis reaffirmed (in letter of 25 November 1946) that ''Porrocaecum decipiens (Krabbe) 1878" is the common stomach worm. Myers (1959) proposed the generic name Phocanema for the ascarids of marine mammals, and Neiland (1961) found ''Phocanema decipiens (Krabbe, 1878) Myers, 1959" in the stomach of a pelagic yearling fur seal at Valdez. At time of writing (1965) we believe that Phocanema deci- piens is the only ascarid worm recorded from Callorhinus in the eastern North Pacific. Others would be expected, particu- larly Phocascaris osculata (Rudolphi) 1802, which was re- ported by Baylis (1937:124) and Berland (1963:20) in many northern and southern pinnipeds, including the South Ameri- can fur seal, Arctocephalus australis. In 1946, the skins of 523 male seals were marked on St. Paul Island according to "field length" in inches, and the skins were followed through the factory in St. Louis to the final auc- tion. In each of 11 classes there were approximately 50 skins. The classes and the mean sale returns were as follows: Field length (inches) 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 Dollars 56 59 60 68 69 75 78 79 81 80 79 The mean return of Group III skins (from 41- to45-in (104-1 14 cm) seals) was $62.27 and from Group IV skins (from 46- to 51-in (1 17-129 cm) seals) was $77.97. The results were used as an argument in favor of killing a greater percentage of large seals each summer. Samples of fur seal liver were frozen and shipped to Seattle in 1946, 1947, and 1948 for analysis of vitamin A content. At that time, vitamin A had not been synthesized and natural sources were in great demand. Over 400 lb (180 kg) of liver were analyzed (Miyauchi and Sanford 1947; Sanford et al. 1949; Scheffer et al. 1950). The light, yellowish-brown livers contained more oil and distinctly more vitamin A than did the dark, reddish-brown ones. The content ranged on the order of 1 to 1,000. The biological reason for the variation has never been explained. One liver contained $4.25 worth of vitamin A at going prices. Clegg (1951) analyzed oil from cold-rendered seal blubber collected in 1949. It was fairly unsaturated (iodine number 108) and had 1.58% free fatty acid. Wilber (1952) analyzed a sample of orange blubber. He was unable to identify the carotenoid (?) responsible for the color. He found 0.24% cholesterol and 4.3% phospholipid. A report by Enders et al. (1946) on the reproductive anat- omy of the female seal was the first to be published since the 1890's. The authors examined preserved tracts collected on the Pribilofs between 1940 and 1945. They discovered and de- scribed the blastula. They reported that the post- parturient uterine horn shrinks rapidly, within a week or so. They first postulated delayed implantation; they estimated 2 mo, though the delay is in fact about 4 mo. Fredericka Martin's book ''The hunting of the silver fleece" appeared in 1946. It pointed out inequalities between the treat- ment of "natives" (Aleut-speaking) and "whites" on the Prib- ilofs. As one result, a Government committee was sent to St. Paul Island from 2 to 9 October 1949 to investigate hving con- ditions (Martin 1946b; U.S. Interior Department 1951). 1947 In 1947, after the war, plans to reactivate the Black Douglas and to undertake pelagic fur seal research were laid. Congress appropriated $62,500. Biologists William H. Sholes, Jr., Karl Walton Kenyon, and Robert Zanes Brown entered on duty in May and June. Raul Vaz-Ferreira, of Servicio Oceanografico y de Pesca, Uruguay, was on the Pribilofs and on the Black Douglas as an observer during summer and fall. He had stud- ied South American fur seals on the islands off the Uruguayan coast. In 1947, the Black Douglas cruised 17,256 mi (27,771 km) in two trips out of Seattle. The first one took her to the Pribilofs and return, with side trips, from May to August. The second one took her to Attu Island, westernmost of the Aleutians, from September to November. As a seal-hunting base the ship was much too large. Biologists aboard her in 1947 shot and recovered no seals. On the first cruise, on 6 June, they dis- covered about 100 fur seals hauled out on Samalga Island, in the eastern Aleutians. This was the first evidence that Alaskan fur seals land outside the Pribilofs. On the second cruise in late October and November, along the full length of the Aleutian chain, the biologists saw only 10 seals. Marking operations were resumed in 1947 with the tagging of 19,183 pups. For the first time, a "checkmark" was placed on each pup when tagged: a small hole punched in the web of a hind flipper. A checkmark of one kind or another is now routine. Pups have been tagged annually since 1947 (Fig. 8), when the "A" series tags were applied (except in 1950). We will give only highlights of later tagging programs. Efforts were continued to photograph the rookeries for cen- sus purposes. A camera was sent aloft on small captive bal- loons (Fig. 9) in 1947-49 but the resulting pictures were un- sharp. An infrared photograph taken from a ground station in 1947 was distinct, though little more so than an ordinary photograph. An observation blind was built beneath one of the catwalks on Polovina with the thought that a photographer could ob- tain intimate, eye-level shots of seals. However, the approach was via trapdoor in the catwalk and the seals took alarm at see- ing a man above them. An "average harem" statistic was last pubhshed for the year 1947 (Johnston 1950:74). "The computed average harem con- Figure 8. — Top: Tagging seal pups with "A" series monel lags on Polovina Raol(er>. 24 Seplemher 1947. William H. Sholes, Jr., a( right (pholo by K. W. Kenyon). Bottom: Removing an adult from a pod of pups during tagging opera- tion: St. Paul Island 1962 (pholo hy R. I). Bauer). tained 94.55 cows," an estimate which is surely two or three times too high. On 4 October 1947, 173 seal pups were weighed. The means were, for males 13.9 kg; for females, 12.0 kg. In a period of 3 mo, the pups had increased to approximately 2.5 times their newborn weight. 1948 The year 1948 marked an important breakthrough in popu- lation studies. On the mornings of 14 and 15 July, in brilliant weather, Scheffer and Kenyon flew over all of the Pribilof rookeries in a twin-engine land plane equipped with an F-56 camera with an 8.5-in lens. They photographed the rookeries from directly above, at elevations of 900 to 1,200 ft (275 to 365 m), and at a ground speed of about 90 mph (145 km/h). On photo enlargements, Kenyon estimated the area occupied by breeding animals and pups on each rookery. From counts made on foot the following year of the number of pups on six sample rookeries, he extrapolated to the total number of pups born in 1949, or 580,000 (Kenyon et al. 1954:26-29). This esti- mate resembled five others obtained by other means, ranging "■"*^*^, ^1 Figure 9. — 1 op: An attempt lo photograph Polovina Rookery from a captive-balloon lamera M) June 1947. Fell to right: Raul Va? Fer- reira. Karl W . Kenyon. William H. Sholes. Jr.. and R l'<4(i. Measuring »as discontinued al the end of I%1 (photo by \ . B. Scheffer). Bottom: Weighing a known age (tagged) "J-yr-old male seal on the Keef. weight 415 lb. I July I V. B. Scheffer). 34 The term "group," to designate male seals in a certain body length range, was introduced by Kenyon et al. (1954:15). "Group III," for example, included seals 41 to 45% in (104 to 116 cm) in length, a group formerly known as "3-year-olds." At the end of the 1961 season, the practice of measuring body length was abandoned. While studies of the tooth-ridge technique were under way in 1949, a parallel investigation was being made of ways to esti- mate the age composition of the kill from skin weight and from baculum size. (The baculum method had been tested briefly in 1944.) For two kills that included about 3,000 males, the freshly blubbered skins of 1,000 were weighed and the cleaned bacula of 1,(XX) were measured. The results suggested a bimodal distribution, i.e., two important age classes in the kill, but could not be satisfactorily analyzed. Further study was dropped. On 2 July 1949 at Northeast Point, 5,329 sealskins were taken, a record kill for any single day in the 20th century. The area occupied by breeding seals on all rookeries had been measured the previous summer (1948). Now, to obtain an esti- mate of the area occupied by one pup, the biologists counted, on 9- 1 1 August , live and dead pups on six sample rookeries on St. Paul Island: Lukanin, Kitovi, Polovina and Little Polovina, Morjovi, and Zapadni Reef. They counted live pups partly by making them run the gantlet and partly by scanning groups from a high vantage point. They counted dead pups by walking over the six rookeries and adjacent hauling grounds, dropping a pinch of lime on each carcass (Fig. 7 bottom). Up to 1949, population studies of the seal herd had been car- ried on by biologists with limited training in methods of statis- tical design and analysis. In fact, wildlife research in the Uni- ted States was only then entering the computer age; in this respect lagging behind agricultural research. In 1949, Z. William Birnbaum, director of the Laboratory of Statistical Research at the University of Washington, kindly agreed to look at a sample fur seal problem. He applied Pearson Type III curves (Kendall and Stuart 1965:152) to the kills of "3- year" (actually Group III) males in 1938 and 1948, and esti- mated that the postseason escapements were, respectively, 15.4% and 18.3%. One of Birnbaum's staff, Douglas G. Chapman, became chief consultant to the fur seal program in 1950. The pregnancy rate in fur seals had always been regarded as 100%. At the request of the biologists, the St. Paul Island agent conducted a kill of 100 female seals on 27 October 1949. He shipped to Seattle the frozen genital tracts and teeth. Biolo- gists fixed half of the tracts in Formalin and half in Bouin's solution and forwarded them to Anita K. Pearson, then work- ing with Enders at Swarthmore College. Of the 100 seals, 1 was a 2-yr-old; the others were 4-yr-olds or older. From gross examination of the uterine horns, Kenyon con- cluded that 83 of the 99 had borne a pup in 1949. Later, Pear- son wrote that, from examination of ovaries as well as horns, 93 had borne a pup. And on 13 May 1950, Harry May (Fouke Fur Company) sorted the salted, blubbered skins of the cows into two piles: 92 "nursing" skins and 8 "nonnursing" skins. It was perhaps coincidental that Pearson and May found simi- lar pregnancy rates. Scheffer examined the skins along with May and concluded that some borderline skins could not sure- ly be identified as those of nursing individuals. At any rate, the 100-cow kill of 1949 produced evidence, later to be amplified, that the overall pregnancy rate is < 100%, over a period of several years (Abegglen and Roppel 1959, table 2, p. 76). Special kills on St. Paul Island to provide female reproduc- tive tracts were again made in 1951 and 1952. In the mean- while, tracts or reproductive records were coming into the laboratory from seals killed accidentally during the regular seasons of 1950-52, from seals killed by natives at Sitka in 1950 and 1951, and from seals taken at sea during the 1952 pelagic investigation. By the time Kenyon had assembled his data at the end of 1952, he was able to show that, in 894 females sam- pled in their fourth year or later, the mean pregnancy rate was 69% (Kenyon et al. 1954:34). Among endoparasites which he found in seal viscera sent to him in 1949, John T. Lucker, Bureau of Animal Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, said that he found filariid worms, hitherto unknown from the fur seal. They were larval forms in a spleen and could not be identified. Microfilariae were next observed in blood of a fur seal killed in the Seattle Zoo on 7 February 1958. Anderson (1959) concluded that slen- der, thready worms from the testicular sheath of a fur seal were similar to, if not the same as, Dipetalonema ( = Filaria) spiro- cauda (Leidy, 1858), hitherto known only from the harbor seal, Phoca vitulina. We note for the record that the seal tags used in 1949 were mistakenly stamped "CS", for C Series, whereas a simple "C" had been ordered. 1950 The year 1950 opened with outstandingly the coldest, snow- iest month in the 60 yr of Washington State climatic records. The emaciated bodies of 29 tagged yearling fur seals were re- covered from Washington-Oregon beaches in January and February, suggesting that about 700 tagged as well as untagged yearlings had stranded there (Scheffer 1950b). Here was evi- dence that exposure and starvation may be important factors in juvenile mortality among seals. On 3 February 1950, Kenyon and Scheffer flew in a U.S. Coast Guard airplane (PBY-5A) from Port Angeles, Wash., to the California-Ore- gon border and back to look for any unusual distribution of seals as a result of the cold weather. From an altitude of about 200 ft (60 m) they counted 85 seals, mostly solitary, mostly along the edge of the continental shelf. They saw no dead seals. Early in 1950, plans were made to tap a new source of re- search information, namely, pelagic sealing by aborigines. The main objective was to investigate the pregnancy rate of females killed on their winter feeding grounds. A sample taken here should, in theory, be more representative of the female class than one taken on the Pribilof "maternity wards." Through- out history, aborigines living along the west coast of North America have been privileged to hunt fur seals by primitive methods. The "aborigines" (Aleuts and Indians) are no longer primitive and they rarely exercise the privilege of sealing. We have mentioned that fur seal stomachs were purchased in the 1930's, from Indians of La Push, Vancouver Island, and Sitka. Between 24 March and 1 April 1950, Kenyon collected stom- achs, genital tracts, fetuses, and other parts, as well as mea- surements, from 41 seals killed by Tlingits in Crawfish Inlet, 25 mi from Sitka. He found that all seals were adult females and that 31 (76%) were pregnant. The stomach contents were 35 almost 100% Pacific herring. Only one early fetus of the Pribi- lof fur seal had previously been known. Kenyon's trip brought to light 31, some of which were later used in describing fetal pelage and dentition. A positive correlation between size of fetus and size and age of mother was clearly indicated. Pelagic collections since 1950 have repeatedly confirmed this relationship. So far as we know, however, no one has studied the relationship between size of the newborn and size and age of the mother. Kenyon documented, perhaps as fully as it will ever be, the Tlingit methods of sealing (Kenyon 1955). An Indian fisher- man told him that "in shallow water, about 30 fathoms [55 m], a fur seal will swim along a line and rip strips of skin from hooked fish" (Kenyon 1952:246). The next winter, Wilke went to Crawfish Inlet and examined 107 seals taken by natives between 16 and 27 January 1951. Again all were adult females and again the stomach contents were over 99% Pacific herring (Wilke and Kenyon 1952). Wilke collected here the first series of adult skulls for taxo- nomic comparison with those of Asian seals (Wilke 1951:12). After the 1951 Sitka expedition, no further attempt was made to exploit aboriginal sealing for research purposes. The inter- national pelagic research programs launched in 1952 provided a better way to obtain information. The summer of 1950 on the Pribilofs was a busy one. Ken- yon and others made a full-scale test on all rookeries of the "reconnaissance" method of estimating pup populations. During the last 14 d of July, living pups were estimated on both islands. (For St. George Island, this was the first pup count since 1924.) Dead pups were counted individually on most of the rookeries and were estimated by reconnaissance on the others. The reconnaissance technique was tried again in 195 1 and never thereafter on a large scale. The results obtained in 1950-51 seem to have been well within the limits of possi- bility, however, and the technique should perhaps be re- studied. The 1951 totals were (Kenyon et al. 1954:29, with corrected arithmetic): St. Paul Island Living Dead All Percentage pups pups pups dead 280,400 76,300 356,700 21.4 Extrapolated to the Pribilof Islands on the basis that the St. Paul harem bull count is 0.829 of the Pribilof count, the num- ber of pups born in 1951 was about 440,000. The highest pup mortality, 39%, ever estimated for a rook- ery was on Polovina in late August 1950 (Kenyon et al. 1954, table 12, p. 31). In 1950 the returns from the first all-out tagging program were studied. In 1947, 19,183 pups of both sexes had been marked with A-series tags. In 1950 there were recovered 1,264 A-tagged 3-yr-old males, representing 13% of those tagged (Kenyon et al. 1954:71). The first estimate, by the Petersen- index method, of a fur seal year class indicated that 530,000 pups were born on the Pribilofs in 1947 (Kenyon et al. 1954:22). It was also the first estimate based on tooth-ridge counts, rather than body length, as an index of age. Daily throughout the killing season on St. Paul Island 20 right upper canine teeth were analyzed. A crude hut (blind) was erected above Kitovi Amphitheater on the site of the present concrete structure, and photographs of the rookery were taken at 5- or 10-d intervals from 15 May to 27 September 1950. The results were useful in 1952 to George A. Bartholomew when he studied the Kitovi Amphi- theater harems in detail (Bartholomew and Hoel 1953). The re- sults also showed that all harem bulls were on station by early July. This in turn led, in 1951, to an advance of 5 d in the start- ing date of the annual bull count (Thompson 1954:61). By starting on 10 rather than 15 July, the counting crew now has more leeway before the late July breakup of harems. In 1950, 100 fur seal hearts and 100 salted, dried diaphragms were sent to the Bureau of Animal Industry Laboratory at Beltsville, Md., to be examined for filariid worms and trichinid worms. None was found. The testes of about 150 seals, ages 3, 4, and 5, and those of about 20 bulls were preserved in Bouin's solution and sent to Richard G. Blandau, of the University of Washington School of Medicine, in 1950 and 1951. His findings were summarized by Kenyon et al. (1954:49-50). Evidently sperm formation may begin in a few precocious 3-yr-olds but is not routine until the fifth year. All healthy bulls, whether "idle" or "harem" are evidently producing sperm throughout the summer. No study of male fecundity has subsequently been made. During the killing season of 1950, Kenyon weighed the testes of 222 tagged 3-yr-olds. '■■ He reasoned that, because older males arrive on land in summer ahead of younger ones, the sexually more mature members within an age class may arrive ahead of the sexually less mature ones. He found, however, no important difference in testes weights of earlier arriving and later arriving males, as follows: Number of Mean and range of Date killed seals weights (g) 17-28 June 90 27.93 (9-74) 22-26 July 132 27.03 (10-78) The 3-yr-olds were screened for size by the killing crew. If a random sample of 3-yr-olds had been taken it might have shown the effect that Kenyon postulated. The bacula of a few known-age seals collected in 1950 were sectioned and stained by a technician at Providence Hospital, Seattle. The slides did not show evidence, as had been hoped, of annual growth layers. Kenyon and Scheffer identified the sex of 1 ,000 seal pups on St. George Island on 4 August 1950 and found 505 males to 495 females. (Ten years later, Niggol (1960) reported that the ratio in 6,729 fetuses and pups was 51.7% males.) On 3 October 1950, Kenyon supervised the killing of 100 female seals on Northeast Point Rookery. He sent the genital tracts to Oliver P. Pearson and Anita K. Pearson. The Pear- sons had worked with Enders and were now continuing their studies of mammalian reproduction at the University of Cali- fornia. The Pearsons' report (1950)" confirmed the fact of delayed implantation in the fur seal. "Kenyon, K. W. 1950. Analysis of lagged 3-year-old fur seal lesied samples, 1950 kill. Unpubl. manuscr., 2 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Scrv., NOAA. 7600 Sand Point Way NE.. Seattle, WA 98115. "Pearson. A. K., and O. P. Pearson. 1950. Delayed implanlalion in the northern lur seal. Unpubl. manuscr. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. 36 On 20 December 1950, the Fish and WildUfe Service con- tracted with the University of Washington for the part-time statistical advice of Douglas G. Chapman. Essentially the same contract has been kept alive down to the present. The second Alaska fur seal bred and born in captivity saw light in the San Diego Zoo on 20 July 1950. It was a male and on 22 July weighed 9 '/4 lb (4.2 kg). It died of an unknown ail- ment on 7 September 1950, at which time it weighed about 28 lb (12.7 kg). After the breakup of the Fur Seal Treaty in 1941, the United States and Canada entered into an executive agreement in 1942 to regulate sealing in the northeastern Pacific; this agreement was renewed in 1947. By public statement in Tokyo on 12 June 1951, Japan agreed to prohibit pelagic sealing, pending the conclusion of a new fur seal treaty (Anonymous 1951). By 1951, plans were being laid by the United States to draw the four nations of the North Pacific again into a fur seal con- vention. In a memo of 16 April 1951, William C. Herrington, of the State Department, proposed an international study of the migration, numbers, and food habits of fur seals. The study got under way in the next year, 1952, when the peace treaty with Japan was also signed. 1951 While the need was recognized in 1951 for renewed studies of the Pribilof herd, funds were short and the Fish and Wild- life Service conducted only a modest program of research that year. The old, unsatisfactory laboratory on St. Paul Island was still in use. Its facilities were overcrowded in summer by five collaborators and visiting scientists, namely: George A. Bar- tholomew (University of California at Los Angeles), who stud- ied seal behavior; O. Wilford Olsen (Colorado Agricultural and Mechanical College), who launched the first of an annual series of hookworm studies; Raymond Aretas (Office de la Recherche Scientifique d'Outre-mer, Laboratoire des Peches et Productions Coloniales, Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris), an observer; Karre Rodahl (Arctic Aeromedical Labo- ratory, Ladd Air Force Base, Fairbanks), who studied infec- tion known as "spekkfinger"; and William L. Jellison (U.S. Public Health Service), who was interested in parasites and diseases of wild animals and man (Bartholomew and Hoel 1953; Olsen 1958; Aretas I95I; Rodahl 1952, 1953; Jellison 1951", 1952; Jellison and Milner 1958). Wilke had served in the old Food Habits Laboratory of the Fish and Wildlife Service. During the summer of 1951 on the Pribilofs he noted fur seal "spewings" on the beaches, as well as numerous fish otoliths (ear bones) which had resisted weathering of the spewings. He and Kenyon collected otoliths and found that all were from codlike fishes up to a foot long; Theragra chalcogramma, Gadus macrocephalus, Microgadus pro.ximus, Boreogadus saida, and Eleginus gracilis. He tenta- tively concluded that "fur seals depend to a large degree on small fishes of the family Gadidae during their stay in the Ber- ing Sea" (Wilke and Kenyon 1952:397). In 1954, Kenyon pursued further the idea that information on food habits might be obtained on land. Little attention had been given to the stomachs of seals on land, for it was known that they were usually empty. Kenyon had the sealers slit open the stomachs of 50,239 seals and he found that about 1 in 1,500 contained appreciable food remains. The remains were 94% by volume Pacific sandfish, Trichodon trichodon, and 6% sturgeon poacher, Agonus acipenserinus. Neither species had previously been recorded as fur seal food (Kenyon 1956). Funds being short, only 1 ,0(X) seal pups were tagged in 1951. On 100 of the pups, half of the left ear was cHpped off. (Ear clipping had last been tried in 1924.) No clipped seals were seen later, probably because the sample was too small. In 1951 for the first time a plot of breeding ground was marked off as a counting area for estimating pup mortality during summer. The rate started at zero on the 1st of July, reached a peak in late July, and dropped to zero in mid- August. In O. W. Olsen's first summer on the islands, he examined 722 animals, mostly fur seals and sea lions (O. W. Olsen 1951"). He found hookworms in the intestines of many fur seal pups, but in no older seals, though he examined several hundred 2-yr-olds and older. The over-winter reservoir of the hookworm was to remain a mystery until 1961 . Olsen or one of his graduate students, Carl F. Dixon, Dale R. Masters, or Eugene T. Lyons, was on the Pribilofs each summer from 1951 to 1962, with the exception of the 3-yr period 1956-58. The biologists and G. A. Bartholomew collaborated in tak- ing the temperature of 322 seals. "The bulls and cows at rest have a mean deep body temperature of 37.7 °C [99.9°F]. Pups have a mean rectal temperature of 38.2°C [1{K).8°F]. Body temperatures may [under stress] rise as high as 43.9°C [111.0°F], but temperatures higher than 41.5 [106.7°F] are found only in animals incapacitated by heat exhaustion" (Bar- tholomew and Wilke 1956:336). Wilke collected a sample of fur seal milk in 1951 for analysis and found that it was 46.0% fat (Wilke 1958). Two samples were taken from a female in estrus, about 6 d after parturition. On 19 July 1951, Kenyon photographed several breeding and hauling grounds from a U.S. Navy helicopter at altitudes between 20 and 300 ft (6 and 90 m). The flight was on an over- cast day between 2:15 and 3:00 p.m. The aircraft threw the seals into a panic and, though the photographs were reason- ably sharp, Kenyon concluded that the method was unsatis- factory. We have mentioned Bartholomew's 41-d study of seal be- havior in 1951 at Kitovi Amphitheater. It is historically impor- tant as the first attempt to use statistical methods for deter- mining the time relationships of reproduction in the fur seal. Important results (mean parameters) are listed below (Bar- tholomew and Hoel 1953): Mean date of the pupping season (half of the pups born), 16 July. From arrival of the female to parturition, 2 d. From parturition to estrus, 6 d. Departure for sea after onset of estrus, 1 d. Duration of first trip to sea, 5 d. Mar. Mammal Lab.. Nail. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 76(X) Sand Poinl Way NE., Seattle, WA 98115. "Jellison, W. L. 1951. Sealer's finger or speckfingcr. Unpubl. manuscr.. 4 p. U.S. Public Health Service, Rocky Mountain Laboratory, Hamilton, MO 64644. "Olsen, O. W. 1951. Report on investigations of hookworms, Uncinaria lucasi Stiles, 1901, and hookworm disease of fur seals, Callorhinus ursiiius, on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska from July 7 to September 2, 1951. With sup- plementary report by W. L. Jellison. Unpubl. rep., 98 p. Colorado State Univer- sity and U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv., Denver, CO 80521. 37 Duration of stay ashore between trips to sea, 2 d or less. Size of average harem, 39. A female copulates only once a season. Bartholomew discussed in two other papers (Bartholomew 1953, 1959) other aspects of fur seal behavior. The ailment "spekkfinger" (seal finger, blubber finger) was tentatively identified for the first time on the Pribilofs in 1951 when Rodahl and Jellison examined a hard, persistent swelling on the finger of a temporary biologist. The ailment is uncom- mon here and is disappearing from sealing areas over the world as a result of improved sanitation. Svenkerud et al. (1951) pro- posed to call the causative organism Corynobacterium phocae. "Salmonella enteritidis was isolated from blood and viscera of 5 and 12 sick fur-seal pups . . . during the late summer of 1951. Lice from one of the pups . . . also harbored S. enteri- tidis. Salmonellosis may contribute significantly to mortality of seal pups" wrote Jellison and Milner (1958:200). The Three-Nation Investigation of 1952 Canada, Japan, and the United States agreed in 1952 to launch a joint investigation of the distribution and food habits of northern fur seals (Taylor et al. 1955:ii). The agreement entered into force with respect to the United Stales and Japan on 8 February, and with respect to Canada on I March. "The Soviet Government declined [to join] but expressed an interest in reestablishing international arrangements for the conserva- tion of the seals" (Taylor et al. 1955:1). Why a new investigation? In 1896 the Jordan Commission had been instructed "to conduct a scientific investigation . . . of the present condition of the fur-seal herds on the Pribilof, Commander, and Kurile islands" (U.S. Treasury Department 1896:5). That investigation and the treaty which followed in 1911 were conceived in desperation, in an effort to save the seals from destruction. In 1952, though the security of the seals was no longer threatened, the question of how best to uti- lize the herds was faced by the North Pacific nations. Japan had lost her sealing grounds on Robben Island and the Kuriles to the U.S.S.R. in 1945. Intermingling of seal stocks of Asian and North American origin, flatly denied in Jordan's time, was now confirmed and was suspected of being important. The people of Japan now numbered about 90 million and their demand for food fish had risen greatly; the extent of predation by seals on commercial fish was a correspondingly greater con- cern. Pelagic sealing by Japanese during World War II had reduced the Commander Island's herd, though to what new level was unknown. These and other considerations lay behind the joint investigation of 1952. "Two expeditions were, therefore, organized in February 1952. One using six vessels operated off the coast of north- eastern Japan from 19 February to 17 June; the other using two vessels off the coast of North America. The latter investi- gation was divided into two parts, the first operating off Cali- fornia, Oregon, and Washington from 8 February to 30 April and the second off Alaska from 4 June to 13 July. All three Nations took part in the investigations off Japan, but Japan was unable to participate in the investigations off North America. The vessels hunted in waters important in pelagic- sealing days. Seals were killed with shotguns and were ex- amined by biologists with respect to presence or absence of a tag or marks, the sex, age (determined by tooth-ridge counts). stomach contents, body length and weight, and length and weight of fetus when present" (Taylor et al. 1955:2). Off Japan, 2,329 seals were taken and off North America, 686. The principal biologists in charge were: for Canada, Fred H. C. Taylor (western expedition) and James I. Manzer (eastern); for Japan, Fukizo Nagasaki; for the United States, Ford Wilke (western) and Victor B. Scheffer (eastern). The investigation showed that three nations can jointly ex- plore the biological bases for a treaty. It provided North American biologists with a chance to develop a pelagic sealing technique which they were later to use on many occasions. Listed in order of importance, the main findings of the investi- gation were as follows: I) Seals of Pribilof origin composed about 30% of the seals in waters off Japan in spring. (The small sample taken in 1950 had indicated 10 to 25%.) 2) For every age class, the pregnancy rate was higher in Asian than in North American seals. Weighted to reduce sampling errors, the overall rate for Asian seals was 80%; for North American seals 68%. A large part of the difference has been explained by assuming that Asian seals mature earlier than do North Ameri- can seals. This assumption was first published in 1964 (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission 1964). "A comparison of sam- ples from the eastern and western Pacific shows that female groups of mixed origin in the western Pacific have a pregnancy rate of approximately 50 percent in the fourth year, and those mostly of Pribilof origin from the eastern Pacific have a rate of approximately 50 percent in the fifth year" (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission 1964:10). "A consistent difference of one year in the age of reproductive maturity" was reiterated by Pike et al. (1965", p. 3). 3) Of the stomach contents of seals taken off Japan, 3 1 % (by volume) represented species of some commercial value; off North America, 36%. The main prey species off Japan were lanternfishes and squids, 87% by volume. Many kinds of fishes and squids were taken off North America. Before 1952, almost nothing was known about the food habits of seals south of Washington State. 4) In a com- parison of skull measurements of 523 female seals 6 yr old or older, it was concluded that seals from Asian waters and North American waters are indistinguishable. Similar results were ob- tained from a covariance study of body length against condy- lobasal length. Wilke (1951) had anticipated this finding, though on the basis of a smaller sample. 5) Pregnant females were found to be longer in body and to have heavier teeth than nonpregnant females of the same age. This phenomenon could mean that larger (and stronger?) individuals tend to have a higher pregnancy rate or it could mean that gestation brings changes in the vertebral column and teeth. 6) Over 400 fetuses were measured and weighed. On the basis of those taken in North American waters. Chapman was able to estimate that "the mean date of implantation is quite certainly in early November" (Scheffer 1962:9). The joint investigation was carried out in 1952; the report did not appear until 1955. As Kenyon wrote (in letter of 6 May 1954) "the area of disagreement among biologists of the three countries is very small but because the report has been ex- amined in the light of its political implications complete agree- ment is difficult to reach." The release of the report in 1955 "Pike, G. C, I. B. MacAskie, and A. Craig. 1965. Report on Canadian pe- lagic fur seal research in 1954. Unpubl. rep., 16 p. Fish. Res. Board Can., Pac. Biol. Sin., Nanaimo, B.C. V9R 5K6 Can. 38 coincided with a growing, worldwide interest in marine mam- mals, and the printing of 1,000 copies was soon exhausted. The U.S. biologists were busy with pelagic research in 1952 and had little time for studies on the Pribilofs. However, "Ap- proximately 20,000 pups were tagged on St. Paul Island in September. Data were obtained on animals tagged in previous years, studies were resumed on the reproductive success of the herd, and pup mortality was again recorded" (Thompson 1954:53). The biologists embalmed two seals and sent them to a bio- logical supply house, which injected them and forwarded them to Robert B. Chiasson, University of Arizona. Chiasson (1955a) used them for a doctoral dissertation on the anatomy of the seal. He used photographs of cross sections of another seal. A 50-lb (23 kg) bachelor, frozen in 1952, was shipped to Seattle and was cut with a band saw transversely into 14 2-in (51 cm) discs (Fig. 12 top). In addition to his thesis, Chiasson published two papers on seal dentition (Chiasson 1955b, 1957). Two seal pups were flown to the Seattle Zoo and a patch was shorn from the silvery pelage of each on 24 November 1952 (Scheffer 1962:27). The regeneration of guard hair and under- fur was noted at intervals until the captives died in 1953 and 1954. The experiment gave evidence on the duration of molt, about 15 wk. Similar studies, though incomplete, were carried out on four bachelor seals in 1954 and an adult and a subadult female in 1957. The two pups captured on the Reef on 22 November 1952, shipped to Seattle in an aluminum dog crate, and placed in the Seattle Zoo on 24 November, were the first seals sent by air from the Pribilofs. The historical period which we have termed "establishment of continuous research" closed in 1951-52 when a deadline was drawn on the inclusion of new material in Kenyon et al. (1954:4). In that report all useful evidence, old and new, on the age and sex composition of the herd was reviewed. While bet- ter evidence has since been obtained, the report is useful in describing the population structure at the end of a 40-yr man- agement regime in which only males were cropped. It is also valuable in presenting the first life tables for male and female seals based on known-age stock (Kenyon et al. 1954:38, 40). Studies in tlie Harvesting of Female Seals, 1953-57 1953 In the early 1950's, biologists concerned with the Pribilof herd realized that it had ceased to grow, yet they were uncer- tain what changes to recommend in harvesting practice to meet the new situation. They agreed that release of population pres- sure was called for. One thought was to increase the kill of males by 6 or 7% per annum. Another thought, and the one which was translated into action, called for the killing of females. This proposal would both reduce the herd and correct a possible (?) imbalance of sexes. Steady pressure from the Japanese Government to reduce the herd was still being felt, as it had been in 1941 when the United States cropped an extra 30,000 males. Furthermore, the joint investigation of 1952 had shown that the pregnancy rate of Pribilof seals was low. If due to a low ratio of males to females, some argued, then killing of females would be desirable. The idea of killing "sacred cows" met resistance at first from the Aleut inhabitants, steeped as they were in the tradi- Figure 12. — Top: Section through the head of a bachelor seal killed on 21 Au- gust 1952. The carcass was frozen and cul into 2-in Ihick discs from snout to tail for study of anatomy (photo by V. B. Scheffer). Bottom: Weighing seal pups on SI. Paul, l%2: Ford Wilke at left with pup (photo by R. D. Bauer). tions of the islands, and from Fouke Fur Company employees who considered the subadult male Government Alaska Sealskin a "gold standard" among furs. Females were first deliberately killed in 1953 on an experimental basis. The most in a single year, 47,413 were killed in 1957. After 1963 the kill was held to a sustained annual level of about 18,000. Between 15 June and 4 September 1953, Wilke supervised the experimental killing of 607 females on St. Paul Island rookeries (Thompson 1955:61, 72). He and Robert Krear selec- ted specimens at random, killed them by .22-rifle fire, and dragged them to one side of the rookery. The kill was useful in two ways: it showed that "harem raiding" is a poor way to harvest females and it produced the first good evidence on age, pregnancy rate, and body size among rookery females throughout an entire sealing season. 39 Also in 1953 on St. Paul, 244 females were killed acciden- tally during regular male kills; many of these were examined by Wilke. (Females were not killed intentionally with males until 1954.) Comparisons given below illustrate some interesting re- sults of Wilke's studies in 1953. In age composition the rookery sample of females clustered around years 5, 6, and 7; the hauling ground sample around years 4, 5, and 6. (The following figures are reworked from Wilke 1953", table 10.) Area Number killed T Percentage killed of each age ~4 5 6 7 S P 10 10 + 3 6 14 15 10 8 8 6 30 Rookeries 551 Hauling grounds 164 3 16 49 19 5 2 1 5 A similar relationship was confirmed many times in later studies (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission 1964, table 9). With respect to pregnancy rates, Wilke (footnote 19, p. 23) found that they average 89% for rookery seals and 67% for hauling ground seals. A similar relationship was confirmed later (Abegglen and Roppel 1959:78-79). He also noted that, of 34 rookery 4-yr-olds, 23% were pregnant, while of 27 haul- ing ground 4-yr-olds, only 7% were pregnant. We do not know that the discrepancy has ever been explained. Wilke (footnote 19, table 8) observed a strong tendency for females to arrive on the rookery in reverse order of age, the oldest in early July and the youngest in late August. He also noted (his table 2) that, within an age class, the heaviest females tend to arrive earlier on the rookeries and hauling grounds than do the lightest. The difference in weight between the first and the last arriving groups was about 12%. (Excluded from the samples were females obviously pregnant, i.e., with near-term fetus.) In summer of 1953 Robert W. Rand, an observer for the Union of South Africa, visited the Pribilofs (Rand 1955). He was at that time engaged in studies of the biology and manage- ment of the South African fur seal, Arctocephalus pusillus. The Fouke Fur Company had started before 1950 to experi- ment with brine curing of sealskins to replace conventional dry salting. By 1953, about two-thirds of all skins taken were brin- ed, and within a year or so all were brined (Thompson 1955:61). In 1953, the Company experimented with a beaming machine to replace blubbering by hand. It proved to have little value because of the individual variation in thickness and elasticity of skins. Scheffer transferred to headquarters" in Colorado in Sep- tember 1953 and returned to the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory in July 1956. A seal exclosure was built on Vostochni Rookery in May 1953 to test whether hookworm larvae could move horizontal- ly through soil. Exclosures of one kind or another are common research tools of the wildlife biologist. The Vostochni struc- ture may represent the first to be used for a marine mammal. "Wilke. F. 1953. Alaska fur seal invesligalions, Prlbilof Islands. Alaska, sum- mer of 1953. Unpubl. rep.. 34 p. Northwesi and Alaska Fish. Cenl., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Scrv., NOAA. 7600 Sand Point Way NE.. Seattle, WA 981 15. " Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Col- orado State University, Ft. Collins, CO 80521 . While North American "aborigines" even today have a treaty right to hunt fur seals pelagically, they have taken al- most none since 1953. The high point in aboriginal sealing had been reached in 1925, when the natives took 6,412 seals, repre- senting 24% of the Pribilof harvest for that year (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission 1964:31). 1954 Female seals, as well as males, from 41 to 45 in ( 1 .0 to 1 . 1 m) in length were deliberately killed in the drives of 1954. This was done with the expectation of harvesting 5,000 females without disturbing the rookeries. Plans fell short; only 658 females were taken (Thompson 1956:53, 64). Evidently this number represents about all that can be taken when seals in conven- tional drives are killed for size but not for sex. O. W. Olsen had found that hookworm larvae survive over winter in great numbers on the rookeries, even under ice. He had found in laboratory studies that certain chemicals will kill larvae in soil. In early summer of 1954, therefore, nematocides (coal tar derivatives) were sprayed over 6.2 acres (2.5 ha) of rookeries on St. Paul Island. None reduced the pup mortality caused by uncinariasis (Kenyon 1954:4^'; Dixon 1955:23"; Thompson 1956:56). The count of dead pups continued to rise. It was about 20,0(X) in 1941 on both islands and it reached 11 1,000 in 1954 and 120,000 in 1956. Dead seals older than pups were counted in 1954 on St. Paul Island for the first time since the I890's. The totals were 221 males and 423 females, or fewer than 1 % of the population. In the work plan for the summer of 1954 is a statement that "specimens of diseased skin" were to be obtained for Cleve- land J. White, of Chicago. In answer to an inquiry. Dr. White replied (in letter of 3 July 1964): "According to my record, 1 found an injurious fungus Trichophyton gypseum ( = T. men- tagrophytes) on slides, both on microscopical examination and, of course on Sabaraud's medium ... I did not publish the findings." In the years between 1940 and 1955, before pup tagging started on St. George Island, search was often made for tagged seals on breeding grounds there. If it could be shown that seals born on one island rarely take up breeding stations on another island only 40 mi (66 km) away, then it could be argued that few Pribilof seals "defect" to Asian islands. Up to the end of 1954, wrote Kenyon (footnote 21, p. 26), only one St. Paul seal, a bull, had been seen on a St. George rookery. Kenyon studied the wandering of pups on land in late sum- mer. Ten thousand had been tagged on 7-10 September 1954. On 20-21 September, 236 tagged pups were rounded up on five rookeries; only 14 pups (or 6%) were found to have strayed from home. He marked 30 bulls with white paint in 1954 and observed their territorial movements (Kenyon 1960). He found that bulls tend to choose their territories in early summer without regard to locations most likely to be selected by the first arriv- "Kenyon, K. W. 1954. Alaska fur seal investigations, Pribilof Islands, sum- mer of 1954. Unpubl. rep., 48 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab.. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. "Dixon, C. F. 1955. Report on the fourth summer of investigations on hook- worms, Uncinaha liicasi Stiles. 1901, and hookworm disease of fur seals. Callo- rhinus ursiniis Linn., on the Pribilof Islands. Alaska, from May 31 to September 7, 1954. Unpubl. rep., 36 p. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Washington, D.C. 40 ing females. Displaced bulls return stubbornly to their former stand. Early arriving bulls stay on station for an average of 54 d. Two museum studies were published (King 1954; Sivertsen 1954) both of which illustrated and compared the skulls of northern (Callorhinus) and southern (Arctocephalus) genera of fur seals. 1955 In 1955, as in the previous year, female seals were killed for size in regular male drives; 726 were taken (Thompson 1957:79). By 1955 the mass of research data including tag numbers recovered from seals, body measurements, and information on reproductive condition, had grown to the point where it called for automatic data processing. Simple Keysort cards were used at first, and in 1957 the IBM system was adopted. Tagged in 1955 were 49,870 pups, more than ever before in 1 yr. The aim was to provide a better statistical base for estimating the size of the Pribilof population and the degree of intermingling of North American and Asian seals. Over an 8-yr period, 50,(XX) to 60,(X)0 pups, representing 6 to 10% of those born, were tagged annually. The tagging slacked off in 1963 when evidence of tag-induced mortaHty was first recognized. Approximately one-fifth of the tags applied in 1955 bore the serial letter "H", while four-fifths did not. "In an attempt to learn more about fur-seal feeding habits and in particular to determine the effect of the seal popula- tion on salmon feeding in or passing through waters in the vicinity of the Pribilof Islands, the [biologists] in 1955 cap- tured 204 fur seals at sea" (Thompson 1957:69-70). "In the stomachs of 1 17 fur seals . . . capelin was the domi- nant food near the Aleutian Islands (52 per cent of total food by volume) and was replaced offshore by squid and Alaska pollack which there made up 47 per cent of total food by volume. Salmon . . . and sand lance each appeared once" (Wilke and Kenyon 1957:238). The seals were collected from the Paragon, the first time that a halibut schooner had been used for pelagic fur seal research. Fukuzo Nagasaki, of the Japanese Fisheries Agency, spent 6 wk in 1955 on St. Paul Island as an observer. He was later to figure prominently in fur seal treaty meetings. 1956 From 28 November 1955 to 9 February 1957, the North Pacific Fur Seal Conference alternately met and recessed. It was successfully concluded, and in 1958 a four-nation research program got under way. We will discuss this later. In the meanwhile, during Conference discussions, the objective of "maximum sustainable productivity" of the fur seal herds was often discussed. In line with this objective, the United States made an effort in 1956 to reduce the size of the Pribilof herd. Females were deliberately killed, the length standards for males were raised in order to provide more large animals, and the kilHng season was extended into September. When the season closed, 122,826 skins had been taken; the greatest number harvested on land since the uncontrolled season of 1868. Details of the kill were given by Thompson and Erickson (1960:69-70). Ferhales were picked up from hauling grounds and rookeries throughout the season. Many seals were picked up from grounds not ordinarily visited by the sealing gang; all were killed, as usual, by club. "Harem raids" were again made as in 1953, though on a much smaller scale. Hundreds of skins were found to be stagy (molting) in August and September. The herd reduction program continued for 8 yr, through 1963. During this period the mean annual kill of females was 33,745 (4,315-47,413), while the mean annual number of female skins saved for the market was 27,336 (4,296-47,423) (Roppel et al. 1963:1, 1965b:l, 17; North Pacific Fur Seal Commission 1964:85; Power 1964:11). That is, 81% of the skins were used. During the 1956 kill, a record was kept for the first time of the color of the whiskers (vibrissae) of females ( Abegglen et al. 1956:82-'). The purpose was to find an age index which could quickly be spotted on the killing field. The 5-yr-old (entering 6th year) was found to exhibit the greatest variability in color; most younger seals having black whiskers, most older ones white. Scientific studies of the fur seal received new emphasis in 1956. Biologists Carl E. Abegglen and Alton Young Roppel joined Wilke on the permanent research staff (Abegglen left in 1962). During the summer of 1956 the new laboratory on St. Paul Island was occupied for the first time. On St. George Island, a small laboratory was set up in the hospital, pup tag- ging was initiated, and a summer biologist was first assigned to the island. In winter, the Seattle research headquarters were moved from Edmonds to Sand Point Naval Air Station. "Biological research" attained the status of a separate chapter in the annual report of the Pribilof fur seal business (Thomp- son and Erickson 1960:72). The Bureau of Commercial Fisheries was established as a component of the Fish and Wildlife Service by a law which became effective on 6 November 1956 (70 Stat. 1119 (1956); U.S. Congress, House 1958:156-160). More tooth samples were collected in 1956 than ever before. The sample quota was raised to 10% of males and 20% of females. Biologists extracted, cleaned, and counted layers on the right upper canine of about 7,000 males and 4,000 females. By 1964 the sampling schedule for males had become routine, as follows: "10 percent of a kill of 300 or more; 20 percent of 100 to 3(K); and 30 percent or more of 100 or fewer animals" (Roppel etal. 1965a:3). The mortality of pups on land was high in 1956, partly because lactating mothers were killed throughout the summer. The count of dead pups by 26 August was 1 19,505 (including a 5% markup for pups overlooked). This is still the highest count on record; it represents a mortality of 12% (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission 1964, tables 12, 16). It is a con- servative estimate, for pups continued to die after 26 August, especially from starvation. About 46 man-days were spent in making the count on both islands. To simplify the task in the future, 10 sample plots representing about one-third of the pupping area on St. Paul Island were delineated. Most of the plots were marked with -'Abegglen, C. E., A. Y. Roppel, and F, Wilke. 1956. Alaska fur seal inves- tigations, Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Report of field activities June-September 1956. Unpubl. rep , 145 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent.. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. permanent signs reading "Research Area." Through 1964, dead pups were counted outside, as well as inside, the plots. At the end of 1956, after two summers of experimentation, large scale soil treatments for the control of hookworm were abandoned. They were found ineffective, for a reason that we will explain later. A temporary employee on St. George Island in 1956 set up a blind near the center of North Rookery and made periodic observations of adult male seals (McGilvrey 1957). He was on watch about 3 h daily during the "pre-breakup" period from 30 June to 27 July, and during the "post-breakup" period from 28 July to 24 August. During the first period he saw only one harem bull ousted by an idle bull. During the second period, however, 8 out of 10 matings were effected by idle bulls. He concluded that a management policy which provides for equal numbers of idle and harem bulls at the height of the season in mid-July will insure impregnation of all females in estrus. 1957 In April 1957, Karl Niggol joined the staff of the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory to take charge of pelagic research, a position which he held until he left the Laboratory in 1962. Gary A. Baines started work as a temporary assistant in June 1957, joined as a permanent biologist in 1962, and resigned in 1964. Clifford Hunter Fiscus joined the pelagic re- search team in 1958 and became its leader in 1962 when Niggol left. Leo P. Doyle, Professor Emeritus of Veterinary Science, Purdue University, spent the summer of 1957 on St. Paul Island. Through examination of about 1 ,800 dead pups, he ap- praised the causes of mortality such as physical injury, in- herited defects, starvation, and hookworm anemia. "Would these causes eventually change in relative importance as a result of the herd reduction program?" he asked. Doyle stud- ied the "before" aspects in a before-and-after kind of in- vestigation; the "after" aspects are still being studied. The reduction program ended with the killing season of 1963. Doyle concluded (1957:9-') that "injuries and starvation were responsible for most deaths . . . before 15 July. After 15 July, hookworm infestation was more important. Many path- ological conditions were found but only a few were common. Hookworm, emaciation, ruptured liver, and head injury each caused 10 percent or more of the deaths amoung the pups . . . Salmonella entehtidis was isolated from one of 58 pups ex- amined bacteriologically." Wilke found that the body temperature of a seal pup, especially one in weakened condi- tion, may drop sharply during a rainstorm. In 18 dying pups the rectal temperatures were from 65.1° to 78.4°F, (18.4° to 25.8°C) whereas the normal temperature is 100.8°F (38.2°C). Doyle also found in seals the ubiquitous Escherichia coli. J. L. Hamerton, of the British Museum (Natural History), found a "diploid chromosome number of almost certainly 2n = 36" in fur seal spleen (letter of 17 December 1957). A seal pup on St. Paul Island in July 1957 was treated with colchicine to initiate mitosis. About an hour later, it was killed and its spleen removed. Spleen and bone marrow tissues from an adult female killed at the Seattle Zoo on 7 February 1958 were also sent to Hamerton. (The female had miscarried a few days previously.) We believe that fur seal blood samples were taken in 1957 for George J. Ridgway, Pacific Salmon Investigations of the Fish and Wildlife Service. Others were taken for him the next summer. Twelve hundred pups were weighed in late August 1957 on St. Paul Island in the first of a series of measurements of "condition factor" (Fig. 11 bottom). It was hoped that evidence obtained over a span of years would enable the biolo- gists to correlate body condition in late summer with survival 3 and 4 yr later. At the end of 1964, however, biologists wrote that "Preliminary studies are not encouraging" (Roppel et al. 1965a:22). Tagged pups, male and female, proved to be lighter than un- tagged ones. Here was unpleasant evidence that tagging in- duces mortality and that it must be taken into account in any population computation based on tag recoveries. Stainless steel trays with 100 compartments were put into use during 1957 for cleaning right upper canine teeth. A "half snout" was placed in each compartment on the killing field; a cleaned tooth was later removed from each compartment in the laboratory. As an index of reproductive condition, the presence or absence of milk in the mammary glands was recorded for most females killed in 1957 and 1958. It proved to be a poor index, since it depended largely on individual judgment. It was not used after 1958. In their population report, Kenyon et al. (1954) had not discussed the homing tendency of seals, though they had given a breakdown by rookery of the number of A-tagged males re- turning as 3- and 4-yr-olds in 1950-51 (Kenyon et al. 1954:71). Nagasaki and Matsumoto (1957) analyzed the data further and developed equations. They showed that the kill on a particular rookery included from 51 to 81% native males, where 20% would be expected on the basis of chance alone. All recent annual reports of research on the Pribilof Islands have included tables on homing. For example, Roppel et al. (1963:24) gave tables on homing according to age, sex, and rookery of birth. The mass of information on homing tenden- cy accumulated since 1951 has not been summarized. The Four-Nation Investigations of 1958-64 The long-awaited North Pacific Fur Seal Conference opened in Washington on 28 November 1955. Representatives of Canada, Japan, the U.S.S.R., and the United States met to negotiate a treaty to replace the one which had been m force from 1912 to 1941. On 9 February 1957, an Interim Conven- tion on Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals was signed; it came into effect on 14 October 1957 (U.S. Congress, Senate 1957; North Pacific Fur Seal Commission 1958", 1964). Its main provisions are listed below. ■'Doyle, L. P. 1957. Investigation of death losses in fur seal pups on St. Paul Island, Alaska, June 28 10 August 15, 1957. Unpubl. manuscr., 10 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent.. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Wav NE.. Seattle. WA 981 15. ■■'North Pacific Fur Seal Commission. 1958. Report of first meeting, .lanuary 13th to 17th, 1958. Unpubl. rep.. 18 p- North Pac. Fur Seal Comm., c/o Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, Washington. D.C. 20235. 42 1) Pelagic sealing was prohibited except for research pur- poses. A recommendation was to be made at the end of the fifth year (14 October 1962) as to the best methods of sealing. Behind this provision lay Japan's hope that the best method would prove to be pelagic sealing, and that she would again be permitted to take part directly in cropping the North Pacific Fur seal resource. 2) A 6-yr cooperative research program (to 14 October 1963) was set up to determine the measures necessary to achieve maximum sustainable productivity. 3) The seal harvests were to be shared. Of the U.S. harvest from the Pribilofs, 15% was to be delivered to Canada and 15% to Japan; of the Soviet harvest from her islands, 15% to Canada and 15% to Japan. (As a result of a 1963 amendment, the U.S.S.R.'s contribution was reduced to 10% for the 3-yr period 1964-66.) 4) A four-man commission was established. The North Pacific Fur Seal Commission was organized and held its first meeting in Washington on 13-17 January 1958. The commis- sioners were George R. Clark, Kenjiro Nishimura, Alexsandr A. Ishkov, and Arnie J. Suomela. (Mr. Clark died in 1963.) 1958 Early in 1958 the joint research program got under way. For 6 ensuing years the biologists of Canada, Japan, the U.S.S.R., and the United States studied abundance, distribution, and food habits of seals at sea. Simultaneously, biologists of the two nations which own seal islands — the U.S.S.R. and the United States — continued to study seals on land. Some of the studies on land and sea were prescribed by the Convention; some would have been carried on in its absence. United States biologists chartered two halibut schooners and one purse seiner and took 1,503 seals off the west coast of North America (Wilke et al. 1958-') (Fig. 13). A section of the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory in Seattle was con- verted to a "wet lab" where seal stomach contents could be analyzed and where seal teeth could be sectioned. Fiscus gradually built up a reference collection of fishes and in- vertebrates, plus a few marine birds and mammals, for use in identifying remains in stomachs. The task of identifying partly digested remains on the basis of such hard parts as bones, otoliths, scales, eye lenses, and beaks is not easy. Fortunately, the remains in seal stomachs are usually schooling fishes and the identification of one specimen leads to quick recognition of others. An improved technique for estimating the age of a seal from the right upper canine tooth was developed in 1958 (Wilke et al. footnote 26, p. 10-15). Charles M. Kirkpatrick (Purdue University) had shown in an unpublished report in 1957 that longitudinal sections reveal growth layers more clearly than do surface ridges. In the pelagic research report for 1958 (Wilke et al. footnote 26, table 4) there was given the first breakdown of ages beyond 10 yr from a sample of teeth. The oldest of 1,321 females was 22 yr. David F. Riley made a photographic study of teeth in 1959. Scheffer in 1962 examined sections of the lower jaw and found that the bone is reworked during life, "Wilke. F., K. Niggol. and C. H. Fiscus. 1958. Pelagic fur seal mvcsligaiions/ California. Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. 1958. Unpubl. rep.. 96 p. Norih- wsi and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Nail. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. Figure 13.— Harold L. Hansen weighing a seal aboard Ihe MV II indttard, 1%0 (pholo by Pelagic Section, NMML). eventually obscuring the pattern of annual layers. Fiscus ex- amined lower canine teeth in 1963 and concluded that they are less useful than upper teeth for routine age estimation. Today, the so-called "aging method" is essentially the one developed in 1958. "An 11 -year-old female, carrying two well-developed, equal-sized female fetuses, was taken on 9 May 1958, fur- nishing the first record known to the United States of twins in the northern fur seal" (Wilke et al. footnote 26, p. 2) although there was one earlier report (Johnston 1925). Later, Niggol and Fiscus (1960) summarized information on four sets of twins. The two observed combinations were: same sex and dif- ferent uterine horns, different sexes and same horn. We will not dwell on the yearly pelagic programs after 1958, since they are summarized in the report of the North Pacific Fur Seal Commission (1964). This report covers the first 4 yr of the 6-yr investigation; it was issued in order to give the Commissioners time to study it before they were called upon to draft an extension (protocol) of the Convention. The report contains an enormous amount of information in its text and 137 tables. It is the best modern reference to statistics of the northern fur seal herds. While the 1958 pelagic program was under way, research continued on the Pribilof Islands. Gordon Pike and Fukuzo Nagasaki visited St. Paul as official observers for Canada and Japan, respectively, under terms of the Convention. Biologists of the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory completed their second summer of training under general manager Clarence L. Olson in the technique of counting bulls. In 1959, the biologists assumed responsibility for the count. For the first time, a seal marked on the western side of the Pacific was recovered on the eastern side. At Northeast Point on 16 August 1958, a 6-yr female seal wearing a Commander Islands tag was killed. The design of the U.S. tag was improved by moving the serial number to the upper, or clinching, side where it is less subject to wear. Five thousand pups were double tagged as a 43 check on percentage of tag loss. Three years later, in 1961, it was found that the probability of one tag being lost was 67%; of both tags, 3%. In 1960, the lettering "Washington, D.C." was replaced by "Seattle, Wash." In 1958, Maynard Murray, of Chicago, asked the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries to obtain 50 lb (23 kg) of fur seal thymus. "We are investigating whether or not the thymus in a seal atrophies after puberty as it does in many land mammals. The answer . . . would be critical in our (cancer?) research" (letter of 16 June 1958). In September 1958, Scheffer collected various bodies from the ventral thorax of 13 seals and sent them to Murray; none proved to be thymus. An entire newborn pup collected in July 1959 and preserved in Formalin was later sent to Murray. The project was dropped after 1959. A curious relationship between high air temperature on St. Paul Island in January to March and low pup mortality on land the following summer was discovered by Abegglen in 1958. It was examined further by Roppel et al. (1963:40) who showed on the basis of 12-yr data that "The mean air temperature for St. Paul Island ... 1 July to 30 June, and the total count of dead pups in the following August continue to show a significant inverse relationship [which] cannot be explained." In 1958, whole blood or blood serum samples were collected from fur seals at the request of four individuals: B. S. Blumberg, Kazuo Fujino, George Ridgway, and H. R. Wolfe. Two of these later published on results of their studies (Blumberg et al. 1960; Fujino and Cushing 1960). Wolfe had earlier published on serology of pinnipeds other than fur seals (Pauly and Wolfe 1957). A brief resume of Ridgway's findings was placed in the unpublished annual report for 1958 (Abeg- glen et al. 1958:53"). Much work remains to be done on fur seal blood. Eventually we may be able to identify the birthplace of a seal, at least its native island, through blood analysis. Fujino and Cushing (1960) found that "individual variations exist in the erythrocyte antigens of fur seals" collected off Japan in the spring of 1958. In a total of 234 blood samples they found nonrandom distribution of types, "suggestive that some local- ization of breeding stocks is maintained within the winter population from year to year." A small-scale study of the quality of skins taken from females on land was launched in 1958. It represented an effort to evalu- ate skins new to the fur trade, namely, those of older females. According to Abegglen et al. (1959:39") the skins of 248 known- age females collected on St. Paul Island in August 1958 were graded by the Fouke Fur Company. The percentages of "Regu- lars" (Fines, One's, and Two's) were as follows: Body length (in) (cm) Percentage regulars 40 41 42 43 44 45 46-52 102 104 107 109 112 114 117-132 57 64 46 56 34 34 22 The study demonstrated the rapid dropoff in quality of larger skins from older animals. About 24 of the skins were rejected in routine processing. All skins processed by a new shearing technique (later known as Lakoda) were finished satisfac- torily. For the record, we give a brief account of the origin of the shearing technique. In the fall of 1957, Lavrenty Stepetin kill- ed 10 tagged yearlings on St. Paul Island, primarily for their known-age teeth. He sent the skins to the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory. One of them was forwarded to the New Method Fur Dressing Company (San Francisco), where the pelage was sheared near the outer level of the fur. "This unusual treatment is a test of utilization of fur sealskins having poor quality fur" (entry in BDM catalog under specimen no. 511). On 24 February 1958, the Laboratory sent the sheared skin to Ralph C. Baker (Central office, U.S. Bureau of Com- mercial Fisheries), who forwarded it to the Fouke Fur Com- pany for examination. The Company filed a patent claim on 18 March 1959 for the shearing process (Pingree 1961). The first sheared skins, under the Fouke trade name "Lakoda," were sold in October 1960. "It seems obvious," wrote Baker in a letter of 13 June 1962 to the Directory of the Bureau of Com- mercial Fisheries, "that the idea of shearing sealskins came to Mr. Pingree after they received the sheared skins sent to them by the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries." (Pingree may have seen only the one skin, or he may have seen others, since the New Method firm sheared other specimens for the Laboratory in the spring of 1958.) The word "Lakoda" is derived from "lakudaq — fur of a sea-bear; female seal pup (Pribilof Island dialect)" (Geoghegan 1944:113). Two studies of pelage anatomy and histology were carried out between 1957 and 1961. The first resulted in a general description of the pelage (Scheffer 1 962); the second in a calen- dar of molt stages according to age and sex (Scheffer and Johnson 1963). In the latter study, the investigators were sur- prised to find that fur fibers accumulate in the skin with age; a silver pup has about 15 per bundle and an old adult over 50. They also found that only three-fourths of the guard hairs molt annually. During the study, the mammary gland-complex was dissected for the first time. It is very large, reaching from the fore flippers to the heels (Scheffer 1962:54-55). Seals with abnormal pelage known as "rub" are frequently seen on land and at sea. Over the rubbed area the guard hairs are absent or sparse, and the fur fibers are snarled and matted (Scheffer 1962, pis. 77B, 78, 79). Pelage specimens from the two adult seals illustrated in Scheffer's plates were sent frozen and in Formalin to a Public Health Service laboratory in 1958. Robert W. Menges reported (in letter of 2 March 1959) that neither specimen showed evidence of ringworm or sarcoptic mange. The origin of "rub" is still a mystery. Population estimates made by Chapman on the basis of 8 yr of tag returns between 1950 and 1957 contained unresolved discrepancies; Chapman (1958:65)" concluded that new "Abegglen, C. E., A. Y. Roppel, and F. Wilke. 1958. Alaska I'ur seal inves- tigations, Pribilof Islands. Alaska. Report of field ailiviiies, June-Sepiember 1958. Unpubl. rep., 187 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. "Abegglen, C. E., A. V. Roppel, and F. Wilke. 1959. Alaska fur seal inves- tigations, Pribilof Islands. Alaska. Report of field activities, June-September 1959. Unpubl. rep., 132 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Nail. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA. 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. ■■•Chapman, D. G. 1958. Population estimates of Pribilof fur seal pups based on 1957 data. In C. E. Abegglen. A. V. Roppel, and F. Wilke, Alaska fur seal investigations, Pribilof Islands. Alaska. Report of field activities, June- Septem- ber 1958, p. 65-82. Unpubl. rep. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent.. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA. 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle. WA 981 15. 44 studies of the tag-estimation procedure were needed. This seems to have been the first reahzation that unknown factors (such as tag-induced mortaUty?) were causing bias in the an- nual Petersen-type estimates. At various times over an 8-yr period, adult female reproduc- tive tracts were collected on the snowy Pribilof Islands during November and December. They were examined without suc- cess for early embryos. Finally, on 3 December 1958, three out of five adults taken on St. Paul Island contained implanted embryos, the largest embryo being only 20 mm long (Scheffer 1960b; Abegglen et al. footnote 28, p. 20). A proper study of fur seal embryology is still to be done. Material must be col- lected at sea in winter, a time when pelagic sealing is difficult and dangerous. David E. Sergeant (Fisheries Research Board of Canada) drev,' plans in 1958 for transplanting Alaskan fur seals to cer- tain islets off northeastern Newfoundland (in letter of 5 Oc- tober 1964). He later decided that southern fur seals (Arc- tocephalus sp.) would be more promising subjects since they do not migrate far from their breeding grounds. 1959 The sealing season of 1959 brought a shock — the take of males was only 30,195, the smallest since 1927. Was the new policy of killing females responsible? Biologists argued two points to dispel this idea: 1) Only 10,000 males of the class of 1956 appeared in drives in 1959 when 30,000 had been ex- pected. In 1956 the first large killing of females took place. Of 27,599 killed, about 12,700 had born a pup that summer (Abegglen and Roppel 1959, table 2). If all of the male pups, or 6,350, had lived to enter the 1959 harvest, the harvest of 3-yr-olds would still have been 13,650 short of expectations. 2) The count of dead pups on land in 1956 was the highest on record. Were the survivors in poor body condition when they set out to sea and, as a consequence, did few return to con- tribute to the harvest of 1959? The season of 1959 brought widespread realization that sur- vival of individual year classes in the Pribilof herd would fluc- tuate widely as long as the herd remained close to the limiting factors in its environment. Harvest management would be im- proved if a method of forecasting the size of the harvest could be developed. Ways of predicting the size of a 3-yr class were discussed by Chapman (1959)'° among them the following: 1) Counting dead pups and weighing live ones each summer. Both would provide evidence of the general welfare — the start in life — of the current year class. 2) Studying the kill of 2-yr- olds. Over a period of years, a relationship between the kill of 2's in one year and 3's the next might be calibrated. A trial prediction was made in 1960; the results were as follows: Kill of 3 -year males on St. Paul Island, 1961 Predicted Actual Kill through 31 July 19,000 29,523 Kill through 7 August 34,500 40,172 3) Studying the early season kill of 3-yr-olds. The kill for the first 15 d would indicate the probable take for the season. This method was tried in 1959. The forecast for St. Paul Island was 9,469; the actual take was 10,494. Such a short-term forecast can never be of much value; it nips too close to the heels of the fact. 4) Studying the weather records for St. Paul Island. The belief was held for a while that, when the mean annual temperature for year X ending 30 June is high, the return of 3-yr males in year A" 4- 3 will be high (Abegglen et al. 1961:15"). 5) Studying the pelagic take of males, by year class, at ages 1, 2, and 3, in advance of the land take. For example, if the class of 1960 contributed strongly to the pelagic take of yearlings in 1961, of 2-yr-olds in 1962, and of 3-yr-olds in early 1963, it would presumably contribute strongly to the land take of 3-yr- olds in later 1963 (Abegglen et al. footnote 31, p. 39-41). The low harvest of 1959 suggested that crowding in the fur seal population causes increased fluctuation in survival rate of the young. Chapman (in Abegglen et al. footnote 31, p. 71-73) pointed to another demonstration. For the period of 1947-55 he showed that the proportion of returning bachelors tended to vary inversely as the size of the year class. That is, when the number of male pups estimated in September was high, the fraction returning 4 yr later was low, around 10-11%. When the number estimated was low, the percentage was high, around 26-28%. (Not only the proportions, but the absolute numbers, of returning 4-yr-olds varied with the pup estimates.) Chapman's correlation has not been challenged in principle, though some of the figures he used in 1959 have been adjusted in the light of recent information. It is advisable at this point to discuss a paradox: 1) A high count of dead pups in 1956 was used to explain a low return of bachelors in 1959. 2) A high count of dead pups means poor survival into September and consequently a low estimate of living pups at time of tagging. 3) A low estimate, according to Chapman's correlation, means a high return of bachelors. The explanation: A high count of dead pups is important as an in- dicator of a weak class — one which will experience severe mor- tality later at sea. A high count of dead pups is relatively less important as a factor in the September pup estimate, for dead pups make up only a fraction of the total class. The relation- ship under 1) above is therefore determining. Fur seal biologists for a decade or more have wondered "Is mortality equal for the sexes up to age 3 or 4?" Today the evidence points to a higher rate for males. The evidence began to accumulate in the late 1950's when the herd-reduction pro- gram first brought in hundreds of tagged adolescent females, as well as males. As early as 1959, however, Karl Niggol had made a "search for sex disparity in fetal death rates" (Niggol 1960:428). He argued that, if the mortality during ges- tation shifts measurably in favor of the survival of one sex, then we might conclude that the trend persists in the yearlings and 2-yr-olds, both of them classes which are difficult to sam- ple. Niggol tabulated the sex ratios of 3,081 fetuses by lO-d periods during the last 6 mo of gestation. The ratios were re- '"Charman, D. G. 1959. Preliminary report on forecasting the kill of male fur seals on the Pribilofs. In C. E. Abegglen, A. Y. Roppel, and F. Wilke. Alaska fur seal investigations, Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Report of field activities, June- September 1959, p. 49-58. Unpubl. rep. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. "Abegglen, C. E., A. Y. Roppel, A. M. Johnson, and F. Wilke. 1961. Fur seal investigations, Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Report of field activities, June- November 1961. Unpubl. rep., 148 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE.. Seattle, WA 981 15. 45 markably uniform; they deviated only at random from a mean of 50.9% males. In 1959, Allison M. Craig (Pacific Biological Station, Fish- eries Research Board of Canada) began a study of the repro- ductive cycle of the female seal with special emphasis on the histology and histochemistry of tissues. She carried on where the Pearsons had left off. Between 1959 and 1964, she ex- amined many hundreds of tracts collected by Canadian and U.S. biologists. Her first report was released in 1963 (Craig 1963"). William Shapeero joined the staff of the Marine Mam- mal Biological Laboratory in 1960 to carry on similar studies. He left in 1961 after a fire destroyed his histological work room. Live pup counts were made on 5 August 1959 on two sample areas on St. Paul Island rookeries. From high vantage points, 2,147 pups were counted on a portion of Kitovi and 702 on a portion of Tolstoi. The objective was to get a quick estimate of pups without waiting 3 or 4 yr for tag returns. However, by 1963 it was evident that the annual counts were inconsistent. The count for one area might go up and for another down over the same 2-yr span. In 1964, therefore, a new and larger system of study plots was designated; these are still in use (Roppel et al. 1965a: 19). From 1959 to 1962, Scheffer and Bertram S. Kraus (Depart- ment of Orthodontics, University of Washington) collaborated on a study of the gross morphology and development of decid- uous and permanent teeth of the fur seal (Scheffer and Kraus 1964). They examined the dentitions of approximately 200 fetal and older seals. They found that: "The deciduous teeth are essentially nonfunctional; two-thirds of them are usually shed in fetal life. The permanent teeth begin to calcify very early; all have erupted from the jaw, though not all from the gum, at birth. Root growth continues through life, especially in teeth which retain an open pulp canal for 20 years. The 1st premolar and all molars in each quadrant are primary perma- nent teeth. A "lower 1st incisor" was presumably lost in the evolution of the seal. Cusplets and a double root on certain teeth suggest that modern teeth are derived from more com- plex ones" (Scheffer and Kraus 1964:293). Three of Kraus' students, Bokstrom, Lamb, and Takano, studied fur seal specimens while writing master's theses (see literature cited by Scheffer and Kraus 1964). Kraus transferred to the University of Pittsburgh in 1963. Annual reports in the series "Alaska Fishery and Fur Seal Industries," started by Barton Warren Evermann in 1911, were discontinued at the end of 1959. 1960 On 1 January 1960, the State of Alaska assumed respon- sibility for its own fisheries, though the Federal Government continued to manage the fur seal industry. In 1954, Kenyon et al. (1954, table 15) had published a life table with a summary estimate of 1.3 million female seals alive at the beginning of the year (15 June). In 1960, Abegglen et al. (1960, tables 27-29") erected three new tables with estimates of 1.2 to 1.4 million females. None of the tables proposed thus far is regarded with great confidence; too many factors remain unknown. Chapman (in Abegglen et al. footnote 33, p. 37) examined tag recovery records, searching for significant runs of one sex. He found no evidence that seal pups segregate themselves by sex at time of tagging. On 7 August 1960, sealing was terminated by the Govern- ment on St. Paul Island, partly on the advice of Fouke Fur Company employees who judged that the proportion of "stagy" skins had reached a critical level. In later discussion it was agreed that a few standard sealskins in critical molt should be processed and sent to the Pribilofs for the future guidance of the men responsible for closing the sealing season. Six skins in advanced molt were accordingly selected by Harry May from the 1961 crop, two of which were sent to St. Paul Island (Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory, File 8.05.01). At the conclusion of male killings in 1960 the practice of counting "rejects," or animals released from the killing pods, was abandoned. The counts had been made for at least 20 yr but had never been published. The skulls of 24 bull seals were collected on St. Paul Island in 1960 and were sent to Soviet fur seal biologist Scgei Vasilievich Dorofeev (in 1961). About 1963, bull skulls from Soviet seal rookeries were received in exchange. Dorofeev had proposed to make a systematic comparison of Asian and North American seals. We believe that the project was drop- ped after his death in 1962. In 1960 the "first recognized post-partum animal that had delivered twins on land" was killed on Reef Rookery (Abeg- glen et al. footnote 33, p. 27). She was a 4-yr-old taken in a sealing drive; her pups were not identified. Another female killed was carrying a full term fetus in her abdominal cavity; the placenta was entwined among the intestines. This the only record of ectopic pregnancy. In the summer of I960, Chapman visited the Pribilofs in order to familiarize himself with research operations, such as tagging, upon which his statistical analyses for nearly a decade had been based. Upon his return, he was in a position to dis- cuss past and future statistical work with a new appointee to the Laboratory, Ancel M. Johnson. Johnson transferred to Seattle in 1960 from a background of statistical work for the Fish and Wildlife Service in Denver. Chapman also developed "a simple model ... on the premise that reduced survival [to age 3] is due to pressure on the food supply around the islands which affects the survival of the seal pups in their first year" (Chapman 1961:356). He gave two equations, the results of which were similar, for the relationship between pup popula- tion and survival. Also at the Pribilofs in 1960 were three Soviet observers representing the first U.S.S.R. -United States exchange of visitors as provided for by the Convention of 1957. They were P. G. Nikulin (who had written as early as 1937 about nor- thern pinnipeds), T. K. Kostarnov, and L. V. Kostin. Scheffer visited Robben Island that summer, though too late to see the '^Craig, A. 1963. Key lo Uie reproductive condition of female fur seals {Callo- rhinus ursinus) and the reproductive cycle of mature female fur seals. Manuscr. Rep., Biology 754, 25 p. Fish. Res. Board Can., Pac. Biol. Stn., Nanaimo, B.C. V9R5K6Can. "Abegglen, C. E., A. Y. Roppel, and F. Wilke. 1960. Alaska fur seal investi- gations, Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Report of field activities, June-October 1960. Unpubl. rep., 165 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 98115. 46 sealing season (Scheffer I960")- The following year, Wilke and party visited the Commander Islands (Wilke et al. 1961") and in 1963 Wilke visited Robben Island. Wilke (1963") thus became the first American since Stejneger in 1922 to land on the three breeding resorts of the northern fur seal. We will not dwell on international exchanges of personnel after 1960. W. J. L. Sladen (Johns Hopkins University) began in 1960 a study of upper respiratory infections of Pribilof Islanders. He had been a biologist and medical officer for the Falkland Islands Dependencies Surveys in Antarctica in 1947 and later. His interest soon extended to fur seals; he collected blood sam- ples and biopsies in 1960 and 1961. He isolated Clostridium perfringens from seals in 1961; this probably causes enteritis in pups (Keyes 1963). (For further technical details, see Abegglen et al. footnote 31, p. 50, 58.) One of his students, Richard S. Peterson, later made an important behavior study of fur seals on Kitovi Rookery. In May 1960, Andrine Merculief, a native of St. George Island, found the fresh carcass of a large dog about 500 ft (150 m) inland from Zapadni beach. Small boys had heard a dog barking on the drift ice about 2 wk earlier. Presumably the animal was a sledge dog from St. Lawrence Island or the main- land. The incident shows that Pribilof foxes and seals are not completely insulated from the parasites and pathogens of car- nivores from other shores. Larry R. Nygren (1963) successfully fed a captive pup. "One pup learned to suck warm fur seal's milk from a human baby bottle. The hole in the tip of the nipple had been enlarged to accomodate the thick milk. To my knowledge this was the first successful bottle-feeding involving a captive fur seal pup." Nygren wrote (in a letter of 15 September 1965) that the pup had been taken by caesarean section in late June or early July and was still alive in September. The first of many attempts to anesthetize or tranquilize fur seals for research purposes was made in 1960 (Abegglen et al. footnote 31, p. 69). The Palmer "Cap Chur Gun," firing a drug-loaded syringe, had been released for sale in 1958 in Georgia. It soon became a popular research tool for wildlife managers. Against fur seals in 1960 it was not a success. Be- tween 1961 and 1964, however, Peterson and Keyes carried on further experiments in immobihzing seals and were satisfied with the results. A report of their successes and failures was not immediately released to the public because of the potential hazard of certain drugs used in the studies (Peterson 1965a). The crew of a pelagic sealing vessel collected a killer whale near Kodiak, Alaska, in 1960. It was killed with a 50 mm Norwegian harpoon gun mounted on the bow of the vessel. It was the first of a small series of specimens of killer whales and sharks taken in an effort to learn more about the predators of seals. We believe that it was the first killer whale taken for research purposes in North American waters, though several "Scheffer, V. B. 1960. Observations on Robben Island, U.S.S.R., in summer of 1960. Unpubl. manuscr., 29 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. "Wilke, F., A. Y. Roppel, and K. Niggol. 1961. Observations on Medny and Bering Islands, Kamchatka, U.S.S.R., in July 1961. Unpubl. rep., 40 p. North- west and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA98115. '•Wilke, F. 1963. A visit to Robben Island, U.S.S.R., in 1963. Unpubl. manuscr., 20 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv.. NOAA. 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA98115. had been taken by commercial shore- whalers. The following summer, a killer was taken off San Francisco. In its stomach were fragments of northern elephant seal, Mirounga angusti- rostris, California sea lion, and a small cetacean. The pelagic research crew in 1960 obtained evidence that nursing female seals may forage out to 206 nmi (382 km) from the Pribilof Islands. In midsummer in Unimak Pass they col- lected seals which, upon examination proved to be post par- tum. Scheffer (1960a) compared the weights of 10 organs oi glands in the fur seal with those in the dog. He found no im- portant differences, though, from the evidence of one sample, the fur seal thyroid is relatively small. The routine of weighing 1,200 pups each summer had been estabhshed in 1957. This was the basis for determining whether body condition at age zero (summer of birth) in autumn is related to survival at the ages of harvest. To measure the variability in body weight at the age of harvest and relate it to the body condition at age zero, a portable scale-and-rule was trundled along the killing fields of St. Paul in 1960 and 1,672 known-age 2-, 3-, and 4-yr-olds of both sexes were weighed and measured." At the end of 1963 the project was abandoned because it produced no meaningful data. In 1960 the length measurements of pregnant and nonpreg- nant seals were compared. The data from seals killed on land were inconclusive; those from seals killed at sea in 1958 and 1959 indicated that pregnant animals are longer than nonpreg- nant ones of the same age. This curious relationship was discovered in the pelagic research of 1952 (Abegglen et al. footnote 33, p. 74). A test run was made on two small rookeries in 1960 to find the ratio of tagged to untagged pups of the current year class. Workmen removed all dead pups from Zapadni Reef and Lit- tle Polovina just before they started the annual tagging opera- tion here. Several weeks later, they examined (for tags) 747 live pups and 278 dead ones. The experiment was encouraging; it was extended in 1961 to all St. Paul rookeries, though dead pups were not removed. It yielded an estimate of 275, (XX) pups at time of tagging, or definitely fewer than had been estimated in recent years by other means. In the third year, 1962, the estimate was 231,8(X) pups. Starting in 1963, fall pup sampling was based on individuals especially marked by shearing, rather than on individuals wearing metal tags. The pup sampling trials of 1960-62 were important in focusing attention on the weaknesses of the conventional Petersen-index method based on returns of subadults. The "Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory" received its name in July 1960. Wilke (1960) summarized information on the life history and exploitation of the northern fur seal. His summary was later incorporated in a more extensive publica- tion by Baker et al. (1963). Gerald J. Oppenheimer, librarian for the University of Washington's Fisheries-Oceanography Library, compiled a list of reference sources for marine mam- malogy (Oppenheimer 1960). In 1960, C. Howard Baltzo became Program Director of a newly formed Marine Mammal Resources Program." Research "A. Y. Roppel, wildlife biologist, National Marine Mammal Laboratory, Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 98115, pers. commun. 1964 '"Marine Mammal Resources Program, now the Pribilof Islands Program, Northwest Regional Office, Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. 47 and management of fur seals have, since then, been closely coordinated. 1961 A dying, emaciated yearling seal crawled out on the beach at Valdez, Alaska, in January 1961, and a State biologist later autopsied it (Neiland 1961). He found that "it was heavily in- fected with seven species of helminths." He was first to record trematodes (flukes) from the Alaska fur seal; in fact, he found three species: Pricetrema zalophi (Price 1932), Phocitrema fusiforme (Goto and Ozaki 1930), and Cryptocotyle jejuna (Nicoll 1907). Phocitrema sp. had been reported in 1941 from a Commander Islands seal; "fluke eggs" had been found by Doyle (footnote 24) in seal carcasses at the St. Paul Island by- products plant. In 1961, Delyamure published a long list of marine mammal parasites, including 12 species from Callorhinus ursinus col- lected in the western Pacific and adjacent seas. None of the 12 had been collected in the eastern Pacific through 1964, sug- gesting that American zoologists have much to learn about the parasites of the Alaska fur seal. The harvest of bachelor seals in 1961 was very high: 82,197. The poor harvests of the past 4 yr were forgotten; the policy of killing female seals was generally accepted. The summer of 1961 brought a breakthrough in the long and discouraging study of hookworm. Lyons and Olsen (1962)" found that the fur seal pup gets its initial infection through mother's milk. Larvae wintering over in the rookery soil are not essential in the life cycle of the worm. Olsen (1962:247-250) and Olsen and Lyons (1962) summa- rized the life cycle of the worm. An egg passed in the feces of an infected pup develops to a third stage strongyliform larva, within its egg case, in rookery soil. In late summer it hatches into a free-living third stage larva. Some larvae penetrate the naked flippers of adult female seals and migrate to the belly blubber and mammary tissue. Others winter over in the soil. (In certain years free-living third stage larvae are hard to find in soil in summer or spring.) During the first few days of lacta- tion, larvae enter the mother's milk and pass into the intestine of the nursling. In about 2 wk, or in the latter half of July, the larvae mature in the lower intestine and enter their most destructive phase. This is the only intestinal phase of the worm; it lasts 4 or 5 mo, or until autumn. Almost no worms can be found in the intestine in September. An important 3-yr study of the behavior of fur seals on land was started in 1961 by Richard S. Peterson, candidate for degree of D.Sc, Johns Hopkins University. He was attracted to the problem because "fur seals are among the very few mammals in the world whose behavior can be easily observed and documented without disturbance, and [there is] need for knowledge of comparative mammal behavior" (Peterson 1962"°). He observed seals from a hut on Kitovi Rookery from 1 September to 26 November 1961, from 14 May to 26 November 1962, and from 12 June to 7 October 1963 (Peter- son footnote 40, 1963", 1964, and in letter of 11 November 1964). He developed new and useful techniques for immobili- zing and marking seals, and for defining and categorizing be- havior traits. He marked 1,300 seals, concluding that the best method was to shear a pattern in the pelage and follow with a peroxide foam bleach. Sixteen marked bulls holding inland positions on Kitovi Rookery held their stations from 13 to 77 d, with a mean of 47 d (Peterson 1965b:52-54). Peterson and Reeder (1966:52) described three twin births in the fur seal— "the first descriptions of multiple births among the Pinnipedia." In one case, the mother delivered twins in captivity. Peterson immobilized her, injected her uterus with a radiopaque fluid, and made a roentgenogram which proved that both pups had been delivered from the same horn. The mother recovered and was released with her pups. She later abandoned them. The authors were unable to find any record of a mother having raised two pups to weaning age. In 1961, yearling seals were tagged for the first time, to get evidence on mortality rates from birth to age 1 yr and from age 1 to 3. The number tagged was disappointingly low; yearlings were hard to find. Fourteen were known-age (tagged as pups), 740 were judged to be yearlings on the basis of size. The sex ratio appeared to be 1 male to 4.3 females, whereas in all previous collections of known yearlings on land in autumn, the males had been more numerous. Suspicion rose that many small females thought to be yearlings in 1961 were actually 2-yr-olds. The following year, "twenty-three animals tagged as yearlings in 1961 were recovered from the kill . . . age deter- mination from canine teeth revealed that only one was a year- ling when tagged" (Roppel footnote 37). The stomachs of four seal pups were examined at St. Paul Island in October 1961. The contents included sandfish, walleye pollock, smelt, and amphipods. The sample was small but important; it contributed to our still meager knowledge of the weaning food of the seal. The question of processing the skins of old female seals con- tinued to be troublesome. Scheffer and Johnson (1963)'^ developed a method for counting the number of fur-fiber bundles per unit area of skin, and for counting the number of fibers per bundle. The results showed nothing unusual about these parameters in females as compared with males. Why old female skins tend to lose fur during the unhairing process is still uncertain. Scheffer (1964) continued the study of pelage fibers and worked out a method making thermoplastic impres- sions of shaved skins. The skin of an adult female seal contains about 300 million fibers. Following a study begun in 1958 of the commercial value of female skins, 1 17 skins of females of known ages 2 to 5 yr were collected in August 1961. They were later processed as conven- tional black-dyed skins; 72% of them graded as "Regulars" (Scheffer and Johnson 1962"). For sale purposes they were "Lyons, E. T., and O. W. Olsen. 1962. Reporl on the eighth summer of investigations on hookworms. Uncinaha liicasi Stiles, 1901 . and hookworm dis- eases of fur seals, Callorhinus ursmus Linn., on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska, from 7 June to 6 November. 1961. Unpubl. rep., 61 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent.. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Nail. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point WayNE.. Seattle, WA98115. '"Peterson, R. S. 1962. Behavior of fur-seal pups during autumn; report of a preliminary study, 1961. Unpubl. manuscr., 59 p. Johns Hopkins University, School of Hygiene and Health. Baltimore, MD 21205. "Peterson, R. S. 1963. 1962 summary of fur seal behavior study. Unpubl. manuscr., 9 p. Johns Hopkins University, School of Hygiene and Health, Baltimore, MD 21205. "Scheffer, V. B., and A. M. Johnson. 1963. Report on a sample of sealskins taken on St. Paul Island. Alaska, in 1962. Unpubl. manuscr., 20 p. North- west and Alaska Fish. Cent.. Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. "Scheffer. V. B., and A. M. Johnson. 1962. Report on a sample of female sealskins taken on St. Paul Island, Alaska, m 1961. Unpubl. manuscr., 13 p. 48 distributed among lots of male skins and they apparently returned an average of $107 each. A similar sample was taken the following year (Scheffer and Johnson footnote 42). By then, the biologists had realized that lumping experimental skins of females with conventional male skins was an un- satisfactory way of arriving at dollar evaluation. For the 1962 sample, they developed a system of "index numbers." The in- dex number for a skin can be calculated immediately after grading. The 1962 sample suggested that the grade of a female skin begins to level off or decline in the "black-and-white- whisker" group of animals, ages 5 to 6. Samples of female skins were also taken in 1963, 1964, and 1965. Fiscus collected fur seal hearts and livers at sea off Califor- nia in early 1961 and delivered them fresh at the San Francisco dock to Thomas Richardson (Chemist, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Davis, Calif.). Richardson's interest was in fat metabolism as indicated by mitochondria. Public interest was developing in the whole problem of fatty foods versus human health and longevity. Nagasaki (1961) made a thorough analysis of statistics of the Pribilof herd. It was a highly technical account which we are not prepared to evaluate. It represented the main contribution of Japan to the North Pacific Fur Seal Commission (1964) on the subject of fur seal populations. Laurence Irving, known for his studies on the physiology of aquatic animals, visited St. Paul Island in 1961. With associates Leonard Peyton, Cordell Bahn, and Richard S. Peterson, he made studies of the maturation of diving adapta- tions and heat regulation in seals (Irving et al. 1962, 1963) (Fig. 14 top). He concluded that young seals can dive safely for 2 min, adults for 5-6 min. The large bare flippers enable the seal quickly to adjust to changes in the surrounding temperature. William G. Reeder and Wallace 1. Welker, of the depart- ments of zoology and physiology. University of Wisconsin, were on St. Paul Island for a week in the summer of 1961. They collected perfused brains of three fur seals, the whole body of another, and the skeleton of three others. Through their work with Laughlin's team on Kodiak Island, they had developed an interest in identifying remains of marine mam- mals (Laughlin and Reeder 1962). Welker donated to the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory in 1964 a plastic cast of a male fur seal brain. 1962 The Standing Scientific Committee of the North Pacific Fur Seal Commission met in Seattle in February and March 1962. Committee members were G. C. Pike (Canada), F. Nagasaki (Japan), F. Wilke (United States), and S. V. Dorofeev (U.S.S.R.). Dorofeev died suddenly on 16 February and his place was taken by S. G. Fedorov. The report (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission 1964) was a very useful catalogue of biological data on the northern fur seal. It has not been equal- ed as an appraisal of the numbers, distribution, and economic status of the North American and Asian seal populations. When the annual take of seal skins was increased in the late 1950's by the killing of females, the Fouke Fur Company mov- ed to a larger factory in Greenville, S.C. Between June 1960 Kicure 14.— Top: Lawrence Irving (right) and Cordell H. Bahn (left) preparing to "tesldive" a seal pup in a tank of seawaler, St. Paul Island, in a physiological study; August 1%1 (photo by V. B. Scheffer). Bottom: Shearing seal pups on Zapadni Rookery. 3 August 1963, to provide a basis for estimating the size of the population. Left to right in foreground: John Haxton, Anccl M. Johnson: left lo right in background: Ken Thompson. Richard Stroud, Pete Uzikiewic/, Frank Reberger (photo by R. S. Peterson). and December 1961, processing gradually came to a halt in St. Louis and increased to full tempo in Greenville. "The decision of the Company to relocate its complete operations without discussion with the Department [of Interior] and without regard to the public interest"" led to a break in the long series of contracts between the Company and the Government. The Interior Department gave other reasons, as well, for its deci- sion to terminate the current contract on 31 December 1962 (Anonymous 1962). An invitation to bid for a new contract was issued in June 1962 and four firms responded: Pierre Laclede Fur Co. (St. Louis), Supara, Inc. (Chicago), Fouke Fur Co. (Greenville), and Martin-Rice, Ltd. (London). Supara seemed to be the suc- cessful bidder, but the Attorney General in 1963 declared that the award was invalid. A new invitation was issued and three Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab.. Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE.. Seattle, WA 981 15. "Interior Department, October 1961, 9 p. Washington. D.C. 49 firms responded in 1964: Superior Seal, Inc. (Chicago), Laclede, and Fouke. A letter of intent covering a contract to Fouke was issued on 31 March 1965. The new contract specified that up to one- eighth of the raw sealskins would be retained annually for sale to other firms. A press agent wrote (on 7 May 1965) that the Government continues to be concerned with improving process- ing techniques as well as developing competitive "knowhow" in the handling of sealskins. Laclede was the first company to benefit by the experiment claus; it received on 1 September 1965 a contract to process 5,(X)0 experimental skins. On 13 April 1964, 206 tanned sealskins were donated to the Seattle Indian Center "to be handicraft ed into small items of cultural, artistic, curio, or novelty nature" (Mammal Biologi- cal Laboratory, File 8.05.02). The skins had been variously bleached, dyed, and processed by Supara in competing for the Government contract. We mention the donation because it represents the first use in modern times of "government" seal- skins for other than garments. During the 8-yr period 1956-63, the herd reduction program on the Pribilof Islands had removed 270,054 female seals (Roppel et al. 1965b:8). One visible effect was the decline in numbers of females on hauling grounds. Where 16,498 females of ages 3 and 4 yr were killed in 1958, only 646 were killed dur- ing a comparable period in 1963 (Roppel and Davey 1963:16", 1965). Annual pup recruitment, mortality of pups on land, annual return of males, and pregnancy rate of mature females had not changed as expected (Roppel et al. 1963). The "biological momentum" of a large and complex herd could not quickly be altered by herd reduction at the intensity then practiced. After the 1961 season, no record was kept of the field length of seals killed. Thereafter, when length was occasionally measured, it was only as a guide to the clubbers in selecting animals to be killed. In the summer of 1962, William G. Reeder and James W. Nybakken (University of Wisconsin) spent 2 wk on St. Paul Island "making a preliminary study of fur seal vocal patterns, particularly those contributing to mother-young recognition" (Roppel et al. 1963:52; Peterson and Reeder 1966). Roppel col- lected skulls, bacula, and flippers for Reeder, who proposed to estimate age from calcium and phosphate content. Tongues and larynxes of 25 fur seals and 5 northern sea lions were collected in 1962 and sent to Jean A. Pierard (New York State Veterinary College) as a contribution to his study of the comparative anatomy of these organs in carnivores (Pierard 1963). Terramycin was injected peritoneally in two seal pups on 8 July 1962 and the pups were killed 10 d later. It was hoped that this drug would deposit in the teeth and bones, and that it could be used on a larger scale in the future for the internal marking of seals. Douglas Weber (Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, Fish and Wildlife Service, Seattle, Wash.) examined by fluoroscopy thin sections of the teeth of the two pups and found well-marked traces of the drug (Roppel et al. 1963:53; and unpubl. notes). Selvig and Selvig (1962) compared the mineral content in dentin and cementum of fur seal teeth. We do not know where they got their specimens, the upper canines of three seals. Mark Chenault Keyes joined the Laboratory as a veterinar- ian in 1962 and visited the Pribilofs that summer. He began to gather anatomical evidence that the conventional method of tagging seal pups at the wrist was injurious. By 1962, the evidence from 6 yr of pup weighing (in autumn each year about 1 wk after tagging) was conclusive that both males and females lose weight after tagging. The weight loss is partly overcome during the ensuing 2 mo. Richard G. Bauer joined the Laboratory as a biologist in June 1962 and transferred to the U.S. Forest Service in May 1963. Hundreds of dead seals approximately 2 and 3 yr old were observed on St. George Island in early September 1962. Food poisoning from "red tide" organisms (Gonyaulax spp.) was suggested as a possible cause of death, though there was no evidence of a red tide at the time. Similar mysterious die-offs had been reported from Caton Island, just south of the Alaska Peninsula, in 1934 (13 carcasses) and in 1941 (40 carcasses) (Scheffer 1950a:26). Many years earlier, the death of a St. George Island woman had been ascribed to shellfish poisoning. In the island log" for 23 August 1878 (p. 165) the following statement appears: "At 11:45 a.m. the son of Zahar Oustigoff called his father from work to come and assist his mother who was sick and unable to walk. She had been under the cliffs west of the landing gather- ing fuel, and while on the beach had eaten some mussels or other shellfish .... The woman was taken to her house . . . but she became paralized (sic) very soon and died at 12:20 p.m. Good landing [the latter with reference to surf conditions]." Biologists tagged newborn pups in late June 1962 and later recovered specimens of known ages 73 to 103 d. The dentitions were studied as evidence of the eruption and loss of teeth; pelage samples were studied as evidence of the mean date of molt from black to silver pelage. This date was estimated to be 13 wk after birth, or 7 October (Bauer et al. 1964b). In the late 1950's, Rexford D. Lord, Jr. (Illinois Natural History Survey) had suggested that, since the eye lens in mam- mals apparently increases in weight throughout life, weight might be used as an indicator of age. Eye lenses of 181 seals were collected in 1958 and 1962 as a test of this proposition. Lens weight was found to increase geometrically in both sexes and was still increasing in the oldest specimens studied: a 14-yr male and a 21-yr female. "When only the lens weight and sex are known, the age of a seal can be identified to the nearest year through age 2" (Bauer et al. 1964a:374). In short, the method is too inexact to be valuable in fur seal research. A 2-yr-old female seal tagged as a pup on a Soviet breeding island was recovered in Unimak Pass on 4 October 1962 (Fiscus et al. 1964:26). It was the first seal with a Soviet tag col- lected in eastern Pacific waters, though several had been recovered on the Pribilof Islands. No Soviet seals were taken through 1964 in North American waters south of Unimak Pass. "Roppel, A. Y., and S. P. Davey. 1963. Evolution of fur seal management on the Pribilof Islands. Unpubl. manuscr., 24 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE.. Seattle, WA98115. "Official Journal. St. George Island, Alaska. October 1870 - December 1886. (Thts journal is handvi'ritten by the resident island manager.) Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. 50 South of the Aleutians, Fiscus et al. (1964:40) found lac- tating females about 250 mi (400 km) from St. George Island and 290 mi (470 km) from St. Paul. This is evidence that seals may travel at least 500 mi (800 km) between successive nursing periods. It extends the feeding range as given by Lucas as "75 to 150 miles to the southward and eastward ... of the Pribilofs" (Lucas 1899c:65). Yearlings were first tagged in 1961 and 1962. Body weight was used in estimating age in 1961, body length in 1962. Length was the better criterion. It resulted in a sample contain- ing more males than females; the known sex ratio of yearlings on land is about 4 males to 1 female (Roppel et al. 1963:27, table 18). The first motion pictures for specific use in television were taken on St. Paul Island in the summer of 1962 by Warren Garst (Don Meier Productions), starring Marlin Perkins director of the St. Louis Zoological Park. The by-products plant on St. Paul Island, built in late 1918, closed on 16 August 1961 after producing 312 tons (283 metric tons (t)) of seal meal and 52,458 gallons (198,575 1) of seal oil that summer (Power 1963:326). In 1962, an experiment in the salvaging of seal carcasses as food for ranch furbearers was at- tempted. Marine Products, Ltd., of Vancouver, British Col- umbia, spent 22-28 July off St. Paul Island icing down about 150 tons (135 t) of seal carcasses. These were unloaded in Van- couver on 9 August, barely short of putrid. In 1953 the com- pany took about 250 tons (225 t) of seal carcasses. In 1964, Pacific Fur Foods of Boring, Oreg., signed a 5-yr contract for carcasses and installed a sharp-freezer in the old by-products plant. The company used 85 "/o of the carcasses from the 1964 kill on St. Paul and produced about 744 tons (675 t) of ground, bagged, frozen "sealburger." Seal blubber continued to be saved as in the past, to be used in the processing of sealskins. From 100 to 200 barrels (55 gal capacity, 208.2 1) of salted, raw blubber are used each year. In August 1962, Stuart P. Davey joined the Pribilof Fur Seal Program as the first Wildlife Management Biologist. Among his responsibilities were the gathering of routine biological data and the carrying out of routine biological operations. These included 1) age classification of the kill by tooth-layer counts, 2) recovery of tags, 3) application of tags, 4) bull counts, and 5) dead pup counts. Davey was also assigned the task of training five Pribilof Aleuts as assistants. The main idea was that a year-round resident management biologist and resident helpers would do many of the tasks that the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory, with the help of college students enlisted in summer, had been doing. Davey resigned in autumn 1963 and his place was taken by Richard A. Hajny. 1963 On 8 October 1963 a protocol amending the Interim Con- vention on Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals was signed in Washington, D.C., by representatives of the four parties (U.S. Congress, Senate 1963; U.S. State Department 1964). It entered into force 10 April 1964. It extended the Convention for another 6 yr, or until 14 October 1969. It relaxed certain research requirements such as the number of seals to be col- lected at sea by each party in each year. It changed slightly the apportionment of sealskins to Canada and Japan. At the re- quest of Japan, it called for study of the "effectiveness of each method of sealing from the viewpoint of management and ra- tional utilization of fur seal resources for conservation pur- poses (and) quality of sealskins by sex, age, and time and method of sealing" (Article II). At the close of the 1963 season, a halt was called to "herd reduction," an operation which had been designed to reduce the herd to the level of maximum sustainable productivity. In the last year, methods of harvesting and curing had been so improved that over 97% of the female skins taken were cured; fewer than 3% were condemned and destroyed on the islands. Curing was performed for the first time in history by Govern- ment employees. Former employees of the Fouke Fur Com- pany were hired by the Government to train new men in blub- bering, brining, and the other operations of curing. An important pup shearing program, designed to provide an early estimate of the population, was initiated in 1963 (Fig. 14 bottom). Galvanized stakes were set in concrete early in the summer to mark off sample transects; 21,929 pups were sheared in late July and early August (Roppel et al. I965b:26-27). To obtain an estimate of the population, the marked-to-unmarked ratio in samples of 25 pups was ascer- tained a week or two after marking. From the results, it was estimated that 229,900 pups were alive at time of shearing on St. Paul Island. Next year, the same methods were used, though shearing effort was distributed within each rookery ac- cording to the harem bull count (Roppel et al. 1965a: 18-20). In early August 1964, 27,716 pups were sheared; later in the month, about 21,000 pups were examined on sample plots; of these, about 1 in 9 was seen to be sheared. To test the assumption that older and stronger pups will bet- ter survive the effects of tagging, a late-season operation was carried out on St. Paul Island in 1963. As a control group, 10, (XK) pups were tagged near the usual time, 12-21 August, while 10,000 were tagged between 20 and 26 September (Rop- pel et al. 1965b: 12). The test was repeated in 1964 though, through a misunderstanding, the tagging site on the fore flip- per was shifted 2 in (5 cm) for the September pups, thus in- troducing a new variable. In 1963, the genital tracts of 310 known-age 3- and 4-yr females were examined with special reference to ovulation (Roppel et al. 1965b: 11). A seal was classified as "preovula- tion" if her ovaries contained one or more Graafian follicles, each 5 mm or larger in diameter. She was classified as "post- ovulation" if one ovary contained a developing corpus luteum. The basis for judging postovulation was satisfactory; the postovulation rates were similar to the known pregnancy rates of 3- and 4-yr-olds. The criterion for preovulation gave results that could not be explained. The biologists concluded that many of the seals classified as "preovulation" do not in fact ovulate that year, or do not conceive, or lose the concep- tus early in gestation. The first general "glossary of terms used in fur seal research and management" was published in 1963 (North Pacific Fur Seal Commission 1963). It defined 114 terms. Some of the terms and several new ones, were later defined by Roppel et al. (1965b:36). Ten veterinary terms were defined by Keyes (1964: 71)." "Keyes, M. C. 1964. Research in fur seal mortality, St. Paul Island, Alaska, 8 July to 24 September 1963. Unpubl. rep., 60 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. A skeleton of a fur seal was prepared in 1963 for use in the Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory. A rough-trimmed carcass was placed in Village Lagoon, St. Paul Island. Within a few days, large marine amphipods which swarm in these waters had cleaned off all but finer shreds of connective tissue. The "seal-fish" Balhylagus spp. was identified in 92 seal stomachs collected in the Bering Sea in 1963 (Fiscus et al. 1964:13, 14). It had last been reported in seals in the 1890's. Hiroshi Kajimura joined the Laboratory in November 1963 to assist in pelagic research. Jones (1963) summarized reports that fur seals in winter oc- casionally cross the Alaska Peninsula. They may travel up to 3 mi (5 km) on land. Yearlings were first tagged in 1961; tagged individuals were looked for and recovered on the killing fields in 1962. In 1963, the search for tagged yearlings was extended to the rookeries; 73 were found on St. Paul Island between 17 September and 17 October (Roppel et al. 1965b:l8-19). When it was first being developed in 1963 the "yearling survey" required 2 d; later, when it was concentrated on nine sample plots, it required only 7 h. In 1964, a total of 47 tagged yearlings were counted (Roppel et al. 1965a: 11). During pelagic investigations in the Bering Sea in midsum- mer 1963, a special effort was made to collect and examine paired seals for evidence of mating at sea (Fiscus et al. 1965:7). Ten females from pairs were collected this year and seven in 1964 (Fiscus and Kajimura 1965:12). Sixteen of the 17 females had recently ovulated or were about to ovulate. One of the males persisted in staying near the dead body of the female. These observations suggested, but did not prove, that copula- tion may occur at sea. Keyes began a study in 1963 of artificial diets capable of maintaining seal pups in captivity. (The problem is aggravating and of long standing. Zoo keepers over the world have dif- ficulty in weaning young seals.) Earlier efforts by Olsen and Lyons had been unsuccessful. The 1963 experiment, utilizing 20 captive pups, was also unsuccessful; none of the pups gain- ed weight, though one lived for 25 d (Keyes footnote 47, p. 2-21). He isolated three organisms not previously known from the fur seal; Proteus mirabilis, Aerobacler aerogenes, and "Strep- tococcus sp. (probably enterococcus)" (Keyes footnote 47, p. 27). He found microfilariae in the blood of 35 of 40 bachelors, a suprisingly high incidence (Keyes footnote 47, p. 44). He obtained good samples of seal milk which were analyzed by U. S. Ashworth. He reported on certain features of seal blood, heart rate, respiration rate, body temperature, stomach capacity, and speed of mammary regression (Keyes footnote 47, p. 56-57). In the field of pharmacology, he tested tran- quilizing and anesthethizing drugs, anthelmintics, and milk- releasing drugs. He embalmed and injected a bachelor seal for anatomical study (Keyes footnote 47, p. 65). One or more Fish and Wildlife Service biologists had been studying the fur seal herd almost continuously since 1940. In December 1963 the Service began to publish their research findings in two series of annual progress reports, one dealing with Pribilof studies and one with pelagic studies (Roppel et al. 1963; Fiscus et al. 1964). The publications were retroactive to the field season of 1962. 1964 In a critical study of fur seal population estimates. Chapman (1964) called attention to two basic unresolved questions. Why does the estimated number of pups-at-time-of-tagging vary widely from year to year — as much as 29%? Is the survival rate of females from birth to age 3 actually, or only apparent- ly, greater than that of males? In answer to the first, he con- cluded that variation is mainly a result of tag-induced mortal- ity. Tagged pups are more sensitive to environmental stress than are their untagged classmates; and since the tagged pups are the source of estimates, they unduly affect the estimates. In answer to the second question. Chapman used elaborate rea- soning (which we will not detail here) to deduce that about 125 females survive to age 3 for every 100 males. Allison M. Craig visited St. Paul Island in August to con- duct experiments on the effects of pituitary extracts of seals on the reproductive organs of captive female seal pups. She was the first woman to engage in scientific studies of the fur seals on the Pribilof Islands. Her important paper on fur seal repro- duction appeared the same year (Craig 1964). It presented new evidence that: 1) Follicular activity is not resumed until 6 mo after parturition in the ovary of the parturient horn. 2) First ovulation in the nulliparous female occurs in late August or September, 1.5-2 mo later than subsequent ovulations. 3) The percentage of 4-yr-olds ovulating is greater than the percentage of 5-yr-olds pregnant, suggesting a scarcity of breeding males when the young females first ovulate. (This theory is uncon- firmed.) 4) After double ovulation, one blastocyst may mi- grate to the opposite horn, resulting in twins. Craig coined the term "missed pregnancy" to describe failure of the reproductive apparatus (for any reason) between ovulation and implantation. For 8 d, beginning 17 July 1964, during the kills on St. Paul Island, the minimum length limit was removed so that all 2-yr males appearing in drives would be taken (Roppel et al. 1965a:3). The immediate goal was to obtain a measure or index of the survival of the class of 1962; the final goal was to establish the relationship between the strength of any 2-yr class and the return of its survivors as 3-yr-olds the following year. A sample of 2-yr males was again taken in 1965, though only during 5 d, 22-26 July. Sampling was slated to be repeated in future years. As 2-yr males were being sampled, they were also being measured. Never before had body-length measurements been obtained from a random sample of hauling-ground 2-yr males, unharmed by brand or tag. From the length frequency dis- tribution of individuals taken during the sampling period in 1964 and 1965 it was possible to estimate the numbers of 2-yr males that would have been taken, had the entire sealing season been a sampling period. From time to time since the 1890's, live pups have been counted on sample rookeries by either of the methods known as "running the gantlet" or "reconnaissance." An annual count was started at Kitovi Amphitheater in 1959, extended to Little Polovina in 1963, and to Zapadni Reef and part of Morjovi in 1964 (Roppel et al. 1965a: 19). The numbers of pups on uncounted areas have been esti- mated by extrapolation from counted ones through use of the "average harem" concept. (We have mentioned another, and distinct, series of pup counts designed to reveal the percentage of sheared among unsheared individuals.) 52 Roppel et al. (1965a: 15-21) published a summary of pup population estimates through 1964. We give below data for the most recent year (totals for both sexes and both Pribilof Islands): 1. Based on counts of tags and tag-lost scars in the kill of males; numbers alive at time of tagging in 1962 372,882. la. Ditto, in the kill of females 158,881. 2. Based on the ratio of sheared to unsheared live pups on sample plots; numbers aUve at time of shearing in 1964 328,000. 3. Based on counts of hve pups on sample plots, with the "average harem" method; numbers alive at time of count in 1964 285,000. Methods of predicting the male harvest were first discussed in 1959. By 1964 the following methods were in use (Chapman 1965): Method 1) Based on the average relationship between the 4-yr kill and the 3-yr kill. Method 2) Based on the average relationship between St. Paul Island temperature during the gestation year and the survival of seals to killable age. Method 3) Based on the strength of the yearling class (as estimated from tag returns) and the survival of yearlings to killable age. In the pelagic fur seal investigations of 1964, a 5-yr-old male was collected on the Farallon grounds, the oldest male col- lected to date in California waters (Fiscus and Kajimura 1965:9). Fiscus and Kajimura (1965:16) concluded, from study of 1958-64 data, that the first fetus carried by a seal is more often in the left horn than in the right. The difference is slight, from 1 to 5% in favor of the left horn. Keyes (1965:1-11") picked up dead seal pups almost daily in July and August 1964 from a sample plot on Reef and autopsied 109. Malnutrition was the primary cause of death in 38% of the pups; injury in 17%; gastrointestinal and miscellaneous infection in 16%; other (and undetermined) in 18%; hookworm anemia in 12%. He examined the stomachs of 336 seals taken at sea in 1964 and found ascarids in all but 4. In a subsample of 54 yearlings and 2-yr-olds, he found up to 480 worms per stomach. Keyes applied a new kind of marker: a plastic tag on a stainless wire loop threaded through the nape skin of pups. He found that the insertion wound did not heal. He obtained packed cell volume (hematocrit) values ranging from 18.5 to 50.5 in the blood of bachelors. This was the first attempt to establish normal values. LITERATURE CITED sents a document of 1,232 pages covering the period 1904 to 1911. For republished reports we give the year of republication in parentheses, e.g., 1905 (191 1). Many of the entries are cross listed by agency and author. This enables the reader to further identify a cross-listed publication by looking it up in the Gov- ernment Document Catalog (in many libraries) and it intro- duces authors who have contributed to fur seal history. Nongovernmental sources include scientific journals, such as the Journal of Mammalogy, and books, such as Elliott's Our Arctic Province. With the establishment of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in July 1940, a "marine mammal research file" of manuscripts, field notes, photographs, punch cards, and other unpublished material has grown in the Marine Mam- mal Biological Laboratory, Seattle (at publication National Marine Mammal Laboratory, NWAFC, NMFS, NOAA, Seat- tle, WA 98115). It is the main source of information on scien- tific studies of the seal herd since 1940. Twelve Government documents which are perhaps better known by title than by sponsoring organization are listed below, each followed by its Literature Cited or Reference designation: Alaska fur seals. Hearing before the Committee on Com- merce . . . U.S. Congress, Senate, 1926. Alaska seal-fisheries . . . 1876 U.S. Congress, House, 1876a. Alaska seal fisheries . . . 1905 U.S. Congress, Senate, 1905b. Alaskan seal fisheries . . . 1906 U.S. Commerce and Labor Department, 1906. Fur Seals of Alaska. Hearings before the Committee on Ways and Means . . . U.S. Congress, House, 1904. Fur seal arbitration . . . U.S. Congress, Senate, 1895. Fur-seal and other fisheries of Alaska . . . U.S. Congress, House, 1889. Fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean . . . U.S. Treasury Department, 1898—99. Reports relating to Alaskan seal fisheries . . . U.S. Congress, Senate, 1908. Reports ... in relation to the condition of seal life . . . U.S. Congress, Senate, 1896a. Seal and salmon fisheries and general resources of Alaska . . . U.S. Congress, House, 1898. (4 parts) Seal-fisheries in Alaska . . . 1876 U.S. Congress, House, 1876b. Most of our historical sources are publications of those ex- ecutive and legislative branches of the U.S. Government which have been concerned with fur seal management. We have not always been able to find original publications and first edi- tions, especially for the years before 1911. Fortunately, Con- gress has periodically ordered the republication of certain literature on seals for the use of its committees. For example, the entry "U.S. Congress, House 1911, Appendix A" repre- "Keyes, M. C. 1965. Research in fur seal morlahty, St. Paul Island, Alaska, 5 July to 24 August 1964. Unpubl. manuscr., 48 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Cent., Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Pomt Way NE., Seattle, WA 981 15. ABEGGLEN, C. E., and A. Y. ROPPEL. 1959. Fertility in the northern fur seal. J. Wildl. Manage. 23:75-81. ALASKA HERALD. 1869. The Alaska seal fisheries. Alaska Herald, San Francisco, 1(26):2 only (from the Hartford CouranI, Dec. 30 [1868]). ALEXANDER, A. B. 1898. Observations during a cruise on the Dora Siewerd. in August- September, 1895. In Seal and salmon fisheries and general resources of Alaska, Vol. 4, p. 573-600. U.S. Congress, House, 1898. (Also part 3, p. 285-306. In The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean U.S. Treasury Dep. 1898-99.1 ALLEN, J. A., and C. BRYANT. 1870. On the eared seals (Otariadae), with detailed descriptions of the North Pacific species, together with an account of the habits of the north- 53 ern fur seal {Callorhinus ursinus). Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harv. Coll. 2:1-108. ANDERSON, R. C. 1959. The taxonomy of Dipelatoma spirocauda (Leidy, 1858) N. Comb. (= Skrjabinaria Spirocauda) and Dirofllaria roemeh (Linstow, 1905) N. Comb. ( = Dipelalonema Roemeri). Can. J. Zool. 37:481-493. ANDREWS, R. C. 1929. Ends of the earth. G. P. Putnam's Sons, N.Y., 355 p. ANONYMOUS. 1942. Seal herd moves in on Park Zoo. Seattle Post-Intelligencer, Seat- tle, Wash., January 9, part 3, page 1. 1948. Aleuts aid heart study. Sci. News Lett. 54:341. 1951. Japan agrees to temporarily prohibit pelagic fur sealing. Commer. Fish. Rev. 13(7):42-43. 1962. Furor over Alaskan seals. Bus. Week, 10 February, p. 60, 62, 64. ARETAS, R. 1951. Compte-rendu sommaire d'une mission aux lies Pribilof. Bull. Mus. Natl. Hist., Paris, 2nd Ser., 23:596-601. AUSTIN, O. L., Jr., and F. WILKE. 1950. Japanese fur sealing. [Tokyo] General Headquarters, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Natural Resources Section, Rep. 129, 91 p. (Reproduced as U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Wildl. 6, 91 p., September 1950). BADEN-POWELL, G., and G. M. DAWSON. 1893. Report of the British Behring Sea Commissioners. /n Behring Sea arbitration. Report of the Behrmg Sea Commission and report of Brit- ish Commissioners of June 21. 1892, Vol. 6, p. 13-333. Gov. Print. Off., Wash., D.C. (U.S. Congress, Senate, 1895, part 6.| BAKER, R. C. 1950. Byproducts of the Government-operated Alaska fur-seal industry. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Leafl. 380, 5 p. BAKER, R. C, F. WILKE, and C. H. BALTZO. 1963. The northern fur seal. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Circ. 169, 21 p. BANCROFT, H. H. 1886. History of Alaska, 1730-1885. In The works of Hubert Howe Bancroft, vol. 33, 775 p. A. L. Bancroft and Co., San Franc. BARRETT-HAMILTON, G. E. H. 1897. Account of his journey to the fur-seal islands of the North Pacific during the summer of 1896. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1897, p. 190-193. BARTHOLOMEW, G. A., Jr. 1953. Behavioral factors affecting social structure m the Alaska fur seal. Trans. Eighteenth North Am. Wildl. Conf., p. 481-502. 1959. Mother-young relations and the maturation of pup behavior in the Alaska fur seal. Anim. Behav. 7:163-171. BARTHOLOMEW, G. A., Jr., and P. G. HOEL. 1953. Reproductive behavior of the Alaska fur seal, Callorhinus ursinus. J. Mammal. 34:417-436. BARTHOLOMEW, G. A., and F. WILKE. 1956. Body temperature in the northern fur seal, Callorhinus ursinus. J. Mammal. 37:327-337. BAUER, R. D., A. M. JOHNSON, and V. B. SCHEFFER. 1964a. Eye lens weight and age m the fur seal. J. Wildl. Manage. 28:374-376. BAUER, R. D., R. S. PETERSON, and V. B. SCHEFFER. 1964b. Age of northern fur seal at completion of its first molt. J. Mammal. 45:299-300. BAYLIS, H. A. 1937. On the ascarids parasitic in seals, with special reference to the genus Contracaecum. Parasitology 29:121-130. 1947. A redescription of Uncinaria lucasi Stiles, a hookworm of seals. Parasitology 38: 160-162. BEHRING SEA COMMISSION. 1893. Behring Sea arbitration. Report of the Behring Sea Commission, and report of British Commissioners of June 21, 1892 . . . presented to both Houses of Parliament by command of Her Majesty. U.S. Con- gress, Senate, 1895, part 6, 333 p. (Also bears title "United States. No. 2 (1893)"; bound as vol. 6 of the 16-vol. fur-seal arbitration proceedings.] BERKH, V. 1823. [The chronological history of the discovery of the Aleutian Islands, or the exploits of Russian merchants with a supplement of historical data on the fur trade.) Transi. Dimitri Krenov. Edited by Richard A. Pierce: The Limestone Press, Kingston, Ont., 1974. For full description of the Russian original volume, see Wickersham, 1927, item 5685. We have seen only p. 81 of a translation of Dimitri Krenov, 1938, in the University of Washington library. BERLAND, B. 1963. Phocascans cystophorae sp. nov. (Nematoda) from the hooded seal, with an emendation of the genus. Arbok for Universitetet i Bergen, Mat.-Naturv. serie, 1963, No. 17, p. 1-21. BERTRAM, G.C. L. 1940. The biology of the Weddell and crabeater seals, with a study of the comparative behaviour of the Pinnipedia. Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), Sci. Rep. Graham Land Exped.. 1934-1937, 1(1):1-I39. 1950. Pribilof fur seals. Arctic 3:75-85. BLUMBERG, B. S., A. C. ALLISON, and B. GARRY. 1960. The haptoglobins, hemoglobins and serum proteins of the Alaskan fur seal, ground squirrel and marmot. J. Cell. Comp. Physiol. 55:61-71. BONHAM.K. 1943. Duration of life and behavior of Alaska fur seals in captivity. J. Mammal. 24:504. BOWER, W.T. 1919. Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 1918. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1918, Doc. 872, 128 p. 1920. Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 1919. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1919, Doc. 891, 160p. 1921. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1920. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1921, Doc. 909, 127 p. 1922. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1921. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1922, Doc. 933, 85 p. 1923. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1922. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1922, Doc. 957, 118 p. 1925a. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1923. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1925, p. 47-140. 1925b. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1924. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1925, p. 65-169. 1926. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1925. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1926, p. 65-166. 1927. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1926. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1927, p. 225-336. 1928. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1927. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1928, p. 61-171. 1929. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1928. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1929, p. 191-332. 1930. Alaska fishery and fur seal industries in 1929. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1930, p. 205-339. 1931. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1930. U.S. Bur. Fish., Admin. Rep. 2, 108 p. 1933. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1932. U.S. Bur. Fish., Admm. Rep. ll,78p. 1942. Alaska fishery and fur seal industries: 1940. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Stat. Dig. 2, 74 p. 1943. Alaska fishery and fur seal industries: 1941. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.. Stat. Dig. 5, 71 p. 1944a. Alaska fishery and fur seal industries: 1942. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.,Stat.Dig. 8, 52p. 1944b. Alaska fishery and fur seal industries: 1943. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Stat. Dig. 10, 57 p. 1946. Alaska fishery and fur seal industries: 1944. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Stat. Dig. 13, 79 p. BOWER, W. T., and H. D. ALLER. 1915. Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 1914. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1914, Doc. 819, 89 p. 1917. Alaska fishery and fur industries in 1915. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1915, Doc. 834, 140 p. 1918. Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 1917. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1917, Doc. 847, 123 p. BRYANT, C. 1880. . . . The result of my observations on the fur seals of Saint Paul's Island during eight years' residence as Treasury agent .... /n J. A. Allen, History of the North American Pinnipeds. A monograph of the walruses, sea-lions, sea-bears, and seals of North America, p. 382-41 1. U.S. Dep. Inter. Geol. Geogr. Surv. Territ., Misc. Publ. 12, Gov. Print. Off., Wash.. D.C. 1890. On the fur seal islands. Century Mag. 39:902-905. CARMEL, A. G. 1928. An inquiry into the phylogenetic basis of the flexuous arteria carotis interna of man (the arteriae carotides of the seal). Anat. Rec. 39:343-346. CHAPMAN, D.G. 1961. Population dynamics of the Alaska fur seal herd. Trans. 26th North Am. Wildl. Conf., p. 356-369. 54 1964. A critical study of Pribilof fur seal population estimates. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Fish. Bull. 63:657-669. 1%5. Prediction of 1965 male kill. In A. Y. Roppel. A. M. Johnson, R. E. Anas, and D. G. Chapman, Fur seal investigations. Pribilof Islands, Alaska, 1964, p. 26-29. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 502. CHAPMAN, W. McL. 1942. The latent fisheries of Washington and Alaska. Calif. Fish Game 28:182-198. 1943. The osteology and relationships of the bathypelagic fishes of the genus Balhylagus Giinther with notes on the systematic position of Leuroglossus slilbius Gilbert and Therobromus callorhinus Lucas. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 33:147-160. CHIASSON, R. B. 1955a. The morphology of the Alaskan fur seal. Ph.D. Thesis, Stanford Univ., Stanford, Calif., lOOp. 1955b. Dental abnormalities of the Alaskan fur seal. J. Mammal. 36:562-564. 1957. The dentition of the Alaskan fur seal. J. Mammal. 38:310-319. CHORIS. L. 1822. lies Aleoutiennes (p. 1-28 (subtitle lies S. -Georges et S.-Paul. p. 12-160). preceded by pis. XIV "Lions marins dans I'ile de St. Georges" and XV "Our marins dans Pile de St. Paul") In Voyage pittoresque autor du monde. . . . Paris. Firmin Didot. [Folio with many pages and plates, not consecutively numbered.] CHRISTOFFERS. H. J. 1940. Computation of fur seals, Pribilof Islands. 1938. In W. T. Bower (editor). Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1938. p. 161-168. U.S. Bur. Fish.. Admin. Rep. 36. CLARK, G. A. 1911. Report on condition of fur-seal herd, 1909. In Hearings before the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce and Labor, House of Representatives on House Resolution no. 73 to investigate the fur-seal industry of Alaska. Appendix A. p. 829-897. U.S. Congress. House. 1911. 1912. The fur seal census. Science (Wash., D.C.) 36:894-897. 1913. Conservation of fur seals. North Am. Rev. 197:640-644. CLEGG, W. 1951. Characteristics of oil from cold-rendered fur-seal blubber, Commer. Fish. Rev. I3(2):30-31. CLEMENS, W. A.. J. L. HART, and G. V. WILBY. 1936. Analysis of stomach contents of fur seals taken off the west coast of Vancouver Island in April and May, 1935. Can. Dep. Fish., Ottawa. 20 p. CLEMENS. W. A., and G. V. WILBY. 1933. Foodof the fur seal off the coast of British Columbia. J. Mammal. 14:43-46. COBB, J. N. 1906. The commercial fisheries of Alaska in 1905. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish.. 1905. Doc. 603, 46 p. COBB, J. N., and H. M. KUTCHIN. 1907. The fisheries of Alaska in 1906. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1906. Doc. 632, 70 p. COINDE, J. P. ^ I860. Notice sur la faune ornithologique de I'ile de Saint-Paul, suivie de Tenumeralion de quelqes especes d'insecles (Coleopteres) des Aleoutien- nes et du Kamtschatka. Revue et Magasin de Zoologie Pure et Apliquee. 2"^ serie. 12:396-405. CRAIG. A.M. 1964. Histology of reproduction and the estrus cycle in the female fur seal, Callorhinus ursinus. J. Fish. Res. Board Can. 21 :773-81 1 . CROWLEY. J. B. 1896. Report of Joseph B. Crowley, special Treasury agent, for the year 1895. In Reports of agents, officers, and persons acting under the authority of the Secretary of the Treasury, in relation to the condition of seal life on the rookeries of the Pribilof Islands, and the pelagic sealing in Bering Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, in the years 1893-1895. Part 1, p. 30-46. U.S. Congress, Senate, 1896a. DALL,W.H. 1870. Alaska and its resources. Lee and Shepard, Boston, Mass., 627 p. [According to Allen and Bryant (1870:18)this was published in June.] DELYAMURE, S. L. 1961. The necessity thoroughly and systematically to investigate parasites of commercial marine mammals. (0 neobkhodimosti vsestoronne i sistematicheski issledovat' parazitov promyslovykh morskikh ml- ekopitayushchikh). (Proceedings of the conference on the Sea Mammal Ecology and Trade) Moscow. Tr. Soveshch. Ikhtiol. Komm. Akad. Nauk SSSR 12:222-232. DOETSCHMAN, W. H. 1944. A new species of endoparasitic mite of the family Halarachnidae (Acarina). Trans. Am. Microsc. Soc. 63:68-72. ELLIOTT, H. W. 1874. Report on the Prybilov [sic] group, or seal islands, of Alaska. Wash. Gov. Print. Off., 227 unnumbered p. [According to Preble and McAtee (1923:123) it "bears date of 1873 on title page, and 1875 on cover, but was issued early in 1874." The 227 pages include 49 plates, of which the first two (p. 4. 5) are maps and the last two (p. 193, 195) have four sketches each. Pages 168-217 include "Ornithology of the Prybilov Islands, by Dr. ElHott Coues. U.S.A. (based on Mr. H. W. Elliott's manuscripts and collections)"; pages 218-219 include "The climatology of the Prybilov Islands." largely compiled by "Observer. United States Sig- nal-Service" for the 8-month period September 1872 to April 1873; pages 221-223 include the fur act of 1 July 1870; pages 224-225 the by-laws of the Alaska Commercial Company; pages 226-227 the regulations of the Alaska Commercial Company. This work is possibly the one referred to by Elliott (1882:158) as "as still briefer report of mine made upon the Pribylov islands m September 1873. and . . . printed by the Treasury Department during my absence in Alaska. Owing to causes of which I have necessarily no personal knowledge, only 75 copies of this report were struck off; it was illustrated by 50 quarto plates photographed from my drawings and paintings."] 1875. A report upon the condition of affairs in the territory of Alaska. U.S. Gov. Print. Off., Washington, D. C. 277 p. [Chap. 9. in- cludmg p. 168-212. is titled "Ornithology of the Prybilov Islands, by Dr. Elliott Coues. U.S.A." The pnnted letter of transmittal in the preface is dated 16 November 1874; 1874 is printed on the spine; 1875 on the title page; there are no maps or illustrations in the copy seen, which has original binding.] 1876. A report upon the condition of affairs in the Territory of Alaska. In Seal-fisheries in Alaska .... U.S. Congress, House, 1876b, p. 1-277. [Has date 1875 on title page; apparently identical with EUiotl 1875 except published as part of a Congressional document.] 1882. A monograph of the seal-islands of Alaska. U.S. Comm. Fish Fish.. Spec. Bull. 176, 176 p. [Reprinted, with additions, from the report on the fishery industries of the 10th Census; see Elliott 1881.) 1884. The habits of the fur seal. In G. B. Goode (editor). The fisheries and fishery industries of the United States. Sec. I, vol. 1, p. 75-113. U.S. Comm. Fish Fish., Washington. D.C. U.S. Congress. Senate. 1884-87. 1886. Our Arctic provmce. Alaska and the Seal Islands. Charles Scrib- ner's Sons, N.Y.. 473 p. 1887. The fur-seal industry of the Pribylov group. Alaska. In G. B. Goode (editor). The fisheries and fishery industries of the United States. Sec. 5, vol. 2. p. 320-393. U.S. Comm. Fish Fish.. Washington. D.C. U.S. Congress. Senate. 1884-87. 1889. Statement of Prof. H. W. Elhott. In The fur-seal and other fisheries of Alaska, p. 1 35- 1 52. U.S. Congress. House, 1 889. 1898. Report upon the condition of the fur-seal rookeries of the Pribilof Islands of Alaska. In Seal and salmon fisheries and general resources of Alaska, Vol. 3, p. 311-538. U.S. Congress, House, 1898. 1904. Statement of Mr. Henry W. ElHott [p. l-IO]. Additional statement of Mr. H. W. Elliott [p. 41-52]. Exhibits, etc., submitted by Mr. Elliott [p. 59-76]. In Fur seals of Alaska. Hearings before the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, 58th Congress, 2d Session. U.S. Congress. House, 1904. 1913. A statement submitted re the fur-seal herd of Alaska to the House Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce .... U.S. Gov. Print. Off.. Washington, D.C, 261 p. 1926. Statement of Henry W. Elhott. In Alaska fur seals, p. 5-84. U.S. Congress. Senate. 1926. [Elliott's statement and exhibits nearly fill this document.] ELLIOTT, W. H, and A. F. GALLAGHER. 1913. The report of the special agents of the House Committee on Ex- penditures in the Department of Commerce upon the condition of the fur- seal herd of Alaska and the conduct of the public business on the Pribilof Islands. U.S. Gov. Print. Off., Washington, D.C, 139 p. ENDERS, R.K. 1945. Research an important factor in fur seal management. Trans. 10th North Am. Wildl. Conf., p. 92-94. ENDERS, R. K., O. P. PEARSON, and A. K. PEARSON. 1946. Certain aspects of reproduction in the ful seal. Anat. Rec. 94:213-227. 55 EVERMANN, B. W. 1911. An experiment in fur-seal conservalion. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 40:227-234. 1912. Alaska Fisheries and fur industries in 1911. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1911. Doc. 766, 99 p. 1913. Fishery and fur industries of Alaska in 1912. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1912, Doc. 780, 123 p. 1914. Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 1913. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1913, Doc. 797, 172 p. 1919. The northern fur-seal problem as a type of many problems of marine zoology. Sci. Mon. 9:263-282. [Republished, December 1919, without il- lustrations and shghtly condensed, in Bull. Scripps Inst. Biol. Res. 9:13-26.] 1922. The conservation of the mammals and other vanishing animals of the Pacific. Sci. Mon. 14:261-267. EVERMANN, B. W., and F. M. CHAMBERLAIN. 1912. General administrative report. In B. W. Evermann (editor), Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 1911, p. 5-28. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1911, Doc. 766. FALCONER, S. 1874. Report on characteristics of fur seals. In Seal and salmon fisheries and general resources of Alaska, Vol. 1, p. 53-61. U.S. Congress, House, 1898. FERRIS, G.F. 1951. The sucking lice. Memo. Pac. Coast Entomol. Soc. 1:72-83, 300-301. FISCUS, C. H., G. A. BAINES, and H. KAJIMURA. 1965. Pelagic fur seal investigations, Alaska, 1963. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 489, 33 p. FISCUS, C. H., G. A. BAINES, and F. WILKE. 1964. Pelagic fur seal investigations, Alaska waters, 1962. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 475, 59 p. FISCUS, C. H., and H. KAJIMURA. 1965. Pelagic fur seal investigations, 1964. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 522, 47 p. FISH, P. A. 1899. The brain of the fur seal, Callorhinus ursinus: with a comparative description of those of Zaiophus californianus, Phoca vilulina, Ursus americanus, and Monachus Iropicalis. In The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean, part 3, p. 21-41. U.S. Treasury Department, 1898-99. ERASER, A. 1911. Testimony of Mr. Alfred Eraser. In Hearings before the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce and Labor, House of Representatives on House Resolution no. 73 to investigate the fur-seal in- dustry of Alaska. Hearing no. 1, p. 29-33. U.S. Congress, House, 1911. FUJINO, K., and J. E. GUSHING. 1960. Blood types in fur seals. Science(Wash., D.C.) 131:1310-131 1. GEOGHEGAN, R. H. 1944. The Aleut language. U.S. Dep. Inter., Wash. D.C, 169 p., edited by Fredericka I. Martin. GOFF.C. J. 1891. Annual report, 1890. In Letter from the Acting Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting, in response to a resolution of the Senate, reports concerning the condition of the seal islands of Alaska, 5Ist Cong., 2d sess., Ex. Doc. 49. U.S. Congress, Senate, 1891. |Followed, in the same document, by reports of various Government and private company agents concerned with sealing in 1890.] GRAY, J. E. 1 859a. On the sea bear of Foster, the Ursus marinus of Steller, Arcloceph- alus ursinus of aulhOTS. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1859:102-103. 1859b. On the sea-lions, or lobos marines of the Spaniards, on the coast of California. Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond. 1859:357-361. HANNA, G. D. 1918. Fur-seal census, Pribilof Islands, 1917. In W. T. Bower and H. D. Aller (editors), Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 1917, p. 97-123. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1917, Doc. 847. 1921a. Genital organs of hermaphroditic fur seals. Am, Nat. 55:473-475. 1921b. Fur-seal census, Pribilof Islands, 1920. In W. T. Bower (editor), Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1920. p. 104-121. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1921, Doc. 909. 1922. Why not protect the fur seal herds of the Southern Hemisphere. Aust. Zool. 3:11-14. 1924. Temperature records of Alaska fur seals. Am. J. Physiol. 68:52-53. 1932a. Barton Warren Evermann. Science (Wash., D.C.) 76:317-318. 1932b. Barton Warren Evermann, I853-I932. Copeia 1932:160-162. HEATH, H. 1911. Special investigation of the Alaska fur-seal rookeries, 1910. In Hearings before the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce and Labor, House of Representatives on House Resolution no. 73 to investigate the fur-seal industry of Alaska, Appendix A. p. 1209-1225. U.S. Congress, House, 1911. [Also in Bureau of Fisheries Document 748, 22 p.. 1911; not seen.] HENRIQUES, J. A. 1874. Alaska. Facts about the new northwest. In Papers read before the Kirtland Society of Natural Sciences, of Cleveland, Ohio. Fairbanks, Benedict and Co., Cleveland, 48 p. [Photocopy of p. 15-19seen.] HITCHCOCK, F. H. 1904. Statement of Mr. Frank H. Hitchcock, chief clerk of the Department of Commerce and Labor. In Fur seals of Alaska, p. 34-39, 52-59. Hearings before the Committee on Ways and Means. House of Representatives. 58th Congress. 2d Session. U.S. Congress. House. 1904. HORNADAY. W.T. 1920. The rescued fur seal industry. Wis. Conserv.. p. 2 only [with photograph of Hornaday). 1931. The fight that saved the fur seal industry. In W. T. Hornaday, Thirty years war for wild life. Gains and losses in the thankless task, p. 171-181. Charles Scribner's Sons, NY. HULTEN,E. 1940. History of botanical exploration in Alaska and Yukon territories fromtimeof their discovery to 1940. Bot. Not. 50:289-346. ICKES, H.I. 1943. Statement of Hon. Harold I. Ickes, Secretary of the Interior. In Transfer of certain functions of the Fish and Wildlife Service to the Department of Agriculture, p. 5-14. Hearings .... U.S. Congress, House. 1943. IRELAND, G. 1942. The North Pacific fisheries. Am. J. Int. Law 36:400-424. IRVING, L., L. J. PEYTON, C. H. BAHN. and R. S. PETERSON. 1962. Regulation of temperature in fur seals. Physiol. Zool. 35:275-284. 1963. Action of the heart and breathing during the development of fur seah iCaltorhinus ursinus). Physiol. Zool. 36:1-20. ISINO. K. 1939. Sea otters and fur seals. Japan's Fisheries Industry. Japan Times and Mail. p. 42-44. [Photostatic copy seen; date of issue unknown.) [JAPANESE] BUREAU OF FISHERIES. 1933. Migration of Pnbilof fur seals into the waters off the coast of Japan. [Tokyo?) Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, Bureau of Fisheries, 21 p. [Evidently printed for submission to the U.S. Govern- ment as a diplomatic position paper. A photostatic copy was sent by the Director of the Fish and Wildlife Service in December 1946 to what is now the National Marine Mammal Laboratory, NWAFC, NMFS.) JEFFRIES, N. L. 1870. [Letter dated 25 January 1870, from Jeffries, attorney for the Alaska Commercial Company, to Hon. Nathan F. Dixon, chairman of the House Committee on Commerce, relative to affairs on the Pnbilof Islands.) [No serial identification on the copy seen; p. 1-25; bound in U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, compilation of documents and other printed matter relating thereto, Alaskan seal fisheries, 1906, vol. 1 .] JELLISON, W. L, 1952. Anoplura from mammals of the Pribilof Islands. J. Parasitol. 38:274-275. JELLISON, W. L., and K. C. MILNER. 1958. Salmonellosis (bacillary dysentery) of fur seals. J. Wildl. Manage. 22:199-200. JOHNSTON, E. C. 1922. Fur-seal census, Pribilof Islands, 1921. In W. T. Bower (editor), Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1921. p. 78-85. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish.. 1922, Doc. 933. 1923. Fur-seal census. Pribilof Islands. 1922. In W. T. Bower (editor). Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1922. p. 111-118. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish.. 1923. Doc. 951. 1925. Fur-seal census, Pribilof Islands. 1923. In W. T. Bower (editor), Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries in 1923. p. 135-140. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1924, Doc. 973. 1942. Computation of fur seals, Pribilof Islands, 1940. In W. T. Bower, Alaska fishery and fur seal industries: 1940, p. 66-74. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Stat. Dig. 2. 56 1950. Compulation of fur seals, Pribilof Islands, 1947. In S. H. Thompson, Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries: 1947, p. 72-78. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Stat. Dig. 20. JOHNSTON, S. P. 1940. Alaska Commercial Company, 1868. .1940. Privately printed by W. E. Wachter, San Franc, 65 p. [On p. 3, Johnston is credited as editor; on p. 67 as author.] JONES, E. L. 1915. Report on Alaska investigations in 1914. |U.S.] Bur. Fish., Gov. Print. Off., Wash., D.C., 155 p. JONES, R. D.. Jr 1963. An overland migration of fur seals. J. Mammal. 44:122. JORDAN, D. S. 1922. The days of a man. Being memories of a naturalist, teacher and minor prophet of democracy. Vol. 1, 710 p; Vol. 2, 906 p. World Book Co.,N.Y. JORDAN, D. S., and G. A. CLARK. 1898a. The history, condition, and needs of the herd of fur seals resorting to the Pribilof Islands. In The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean, part 1,249 p. U.S. Treasury Department, 1898-99. 1898b. Record kept by G. R. Tingle. In The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean, part 2, p. 279-281 . U.S. Treasury Department, 1898-99. 1899. Practical experiments in the branding and herding of the seals. In The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean, part 3, p. 325-331. U.S. Treasury Department, 1898-99. Includes three appendices by Elmer E. Farmer, Joseph Murray, and James Judge, respectively. JORDAN, D. S., G. A. CLARK, and F. A. LUCAS. 1898. Daily journal of observations. In The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean, part 2, p. 293-514. U.S. Treasury Department, 1898-99. KENDALL, M. G., and A. STUART. 1965. The advance theory of statistics in three volumes. Vol. 1, Distribu- tion Theory, 2d ed. Hafner Publ. Co., N. Y., 43 p. KENYON, K. W. 1952. Diving depths of the Steller sea lion and Alaska fur seal. J. Mammal. 33:245-246. 1955. Last of the Tlingit sealers. Nat. Hist. 64:294-298. 1956. Food of fur seals taken on St. Paul Island, Alaska, 1954. J. Wildl. Manage. 20:214-215. 1960. Territorial behavior and homing in the fur seal. Mammalia 24:431-444. KENYON, K. W.. V. B. SCHEFFER, and D. G. CHAPMAN. 1954. 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Investigation of the fur- seal and other fisheries of Alaska. Report from the Committee on Mer- chant Marine and Fisheries of the House of Representatives. 50th Congr., 2d sess.. Rep. 3883, 415 p. 1898. Seal and salmon fisheries and general resources of Alaska. 55th Congr., 1st sess., House Doc. 92, 4 parts. [This important work was authorized in March 1896, by the House, with the Senate concurring, to in- clude "reports, correspondence, charts, maps, and other documents, now on file in the Treasury Dep., or other branches of the Government, re- lating to the fur seal, salmon fisheries, and other matters pertaining to the Territory of Alaska" (part 1, p. ii). A full citation to contents will be found in Wickersham's (References) entry 7655.] 1904. Fur seals of Alaska. Hearings before the Committee on Ways and Means, House of Representatives, 58th Congress, 2d session, 76 p. Gov. Print. Off., Washington, D.C. 191 1. Hearings before the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce and Labor, House of Representatives on House Resolution no. 73 to investigate the fur-seal industry of Alaska. 62d Congr., 1st sess. Hearings, 1-8, consecutively numbered p. 1-358, and Appendix A to Hear- ings p. 1-1232. (Appendix A is separately bound and identified as House Doc. 93. It contains all important correspondence, orders, and other docu- ments pertaining to the fur seal industry, 1 January 1904 to 24 June 191 1; compiled by the Secretary of Commerce and Labor.) 1912. Protection of fur seals and sea otter. Hearings before the Commit- tee on Foreign Affairs of the House of Representatives, January 3 and 1 1 , 1912onH.R. 16571. Gov. Print. Off., Washington, D.C, 150p. 1958. Review of Fish and Wildlife Service. 85lh Congr., 2d sess. Hear- ings ... of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, 378 p. U.S. CONGRESS, SENATE. 1876. Letter from the Secretary of War, transmitting a report of the commanding general. Department of the Columbia, of his tour in Alaska Territory, in June 1875. 44th Congr., 1st sess.. Senate Exec. Doc. 12, 33 p. [On p. 13-33 is "A history of the wrongs of Alaska," bound in U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, compilation of documents and other printed matter relating thereto, Alaskan seal fisheries, 1906, vol. 1.] 1895. Fur seal arbitration. Proceedings of the tribunal of arbitration, con- vened at Paris under the treaty between the United Stales of America and Great Britain concluded at Washington February 29, 1892, for the deter- mination of questions between the two governments concerning the juris- dictional rights of the United States in the waters of Bering Sea. 53d Congr., 2d sess.. Senate Exec. Doc. 177, pans 1-16. (This important work, occupying a 2-foot bookshelf, contains virtually everything that was known about fur seals through 1892.) 1896a. Reports of agents, officers, and persons, acting under the authority of the Secretary of the Treasury, in relation to the condition of seal life on the rookeries of the Pribilof Islands, and to pelagic sealing in Bering Sea and the North Pacific Ocean, in the years 1893-95. 54th Congr., 1st sess.. Senate Doc. 137; part 1, 379 p. [reports of C. S. Hamlm. J. B. Crowley, Joseph Stanley-Brown, and Joseph Murray); part 2, 154 p. 20 plates of photographs, 11 maps, 1 diagram [reports of C. H. Townsend, F. W. True, and A. B. Alexander); part 2-atlas "illustrations showing condition of fur-seal rookeries in 1895 and method of killing seals, to accompany report of C. H. Townsend ..." 4 p., 46 pis. [mostly folding plates mounted on linen). 1896b. Mr. Frye, from the Committee on Foreign Relations, submitted the following report to accompany H. R. 3206. 54th Congr., 1st sess.. Senate Report 402, 2 p. [Includes a copy of House Report 451, same session.) [Bound in U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, compilation of documents and other printed matter relating thereto, Alaskan seal fish- eries, 1906, vol. 5.) 1908. Reports relating to Alaskan seal fisheries. Letter from the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, transmitting, pursuant to Senate Resolution of March 2, 1908, certain reports relating to the Alaskan seal fisheries. 60th Congr., 1st sess.. Senate Doc. 376, 120 p. (Preliminary and annual reports of W, I. Lembkey, agent in charge, 1906-07.) 1923. Fur seals. Hearings before the Committee on Commerce, United States Senate, Sixty-seventh Congress, second and fourth sessions, on S. 3731, a bill to prevent the extermination of fur-bearing animals in Alaska. 67th Congr., 2d and 4th sess., 204 p. 1926. Alaska fur seals. Hearing before the Committee on Commerce, United States Senate, Sixty-ninth Congress, first session, on S. 3679, a bill to amend an act entitled "an act to prevent the extermination of fur- bearing animals in Alaska," etc. 69th Congr., 1st sess., 84 p. 1957. Interim convention on conservation of North Pacific fur seals. Message from the President of the United States transmitting a certified copy of an interim convention . . . 85thCongr., 1st sess.. Exec. J.. 16p. 1963. Protocol amending the interim convention on conservation of North Pacific fur seals. Message from the President of the United States trans- mitting a protocol. . . . 88th Congr., 1st sess.. Exec. Off.. 6 p. US. INTERIOR DEPARTMENT. (1951.) The Pribilof report; living conditions among the natives of the Pribilof Islands and other communities of the Bering Sea area [September- October 1949). Bureau of Indian Affairs and Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C, 81 p. U.S. STATE DEPARTMENT. 1964. North Pacific fur seals. Protocol between the United States of America, Canada, Japan, and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics amending the interim convention of February 9, 1957. Treaties and other Internation Acts Series 5558, Washington, D.C, 20 p. U.S. TREASURY DEPARTMENT. 1896. Observations on the fur seals of the Pribilof Islands. Preliminary report by David Starr Jordan, Leonard Siejneger. Frederic A. Lucas, Jef- ferson F. Moser, Charles N. Townsend, George A. Clark, and Joseph Murray. Document 1913, 69 p. (Bound in U.S. Department of Com- merce and Labor, compilation of documents and other printed matter re- lating thereto, Alaskan seal fisheries, 1906, vol. 6.) 1898. Second preliminary report of the Bering Sea fur seal investigations, by David Starr Jordan, Leonard Stejneger, Frederic Augustus Lucas, and George Archibald Clark 1897. Doc. 1994, 48 p. [Bound m U.S. Depart- ment of Commerce and Labor, compilation of documents and other printed matter relating thereto, Alaskan seal fisheries, 1906, vol. 6.) 1898-99. The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean, Doc. 2017, 4 vols. VANCLEAVE, H. J. 1953a. A preliminary analysis of the acanthocephalan genus Corynosoma in mammals of North America. J. Parasitol. 39:1-13. 1953b. Acanthocephalaof North American mammals. 111. Biol. Monogr. 23(1-2), 179p. VENIAMINOV, 1. 1 840. Zapiski ob ostrovakh Unalashkinskago otdela. (Notes on the Islands of the Unalaska district.) St. Petersburg, Imp. Acad. Sci., 3 vols, in 2. (Not seen: Wickersham's [References] entry 5825; see also Veniaminov, 1892.) 1840 (1892). Table I in Part II of Veniaminof's "Notes on the Islands of the Unalaska District," showing the seal-catch during the period of gradual diminution of life on the Pribilof Islands, from 1817 to 1837 [part 2 (Appendix 1 to the case of the United States), part 2 of same, p. 126). In Fur-seal arbitration. Appendix to the ca.se of the United States before the tribunal of arbitration to convene at Paris under the provisions of the trea- ty between the United States of America and Great Britain, concluded February 29, 1892. U.S. Congress, Senate, 1895. (Veniaminov's notes, originally published in 1840, were republished in 1892 in Appendix 1, and republished in 1895 in part 2 of the 16-part Senate document.) VIK,R. 1964. The genus Diphyllobolhrium, an example of interdependence of systematics and experimental biology. Exp. Parasitol. 15:361-380. WARDLE, R. A., J. A. McLEOD, and I. E. STEWART. 1947. Ltihe's ••DiphyUobothrium" (Cestoda). J. Parasitol. 33:319-330. WILBER, C.G. 1952. Fur seal blubber. J. Mammal. 33:483-485. WILKE,F. 1951. Pelagic fur seal research off Japan in 1950. Tokyo. General Head- quarters, Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers. Natural Resources Section, Preliminary Study 67, 35 p. (Reproduced as U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Lean. WL-338, January 1952.) 1958. Fat content of fur seal milk. Murrelet 39:40. I960. The northern fur seal. Alaska Sportsman 26(1 2): 16- 18. WILKE, F.. and K, W. KENYON. 1952. Notes on the food of the fur seal, seal-lion, and harbor porpoise. J. Wildl. Manage. 16:396-397. 1954. Migration and food of the northern fur seal. Trans. 19lh Am. Wildl. Conf., p. 430-440. 1957. The food of fur seals in the eastern Bering Sea. J. Wildl. Manage. 21:237-238. WILLIAMS, W. 1943. Reminiscences of the Bering Sea arbitration. Am. J. Int. Law 37:562-584. 61 WRIGHT, E.W. (editor). 1961. A brief history of the British Columbia sealing industry. In Lewis & Dryden's marine history of the Pacific northwest, p. 425-455. First published 1895 by Lewis and Dryden Printing Co.; reprinted with correc- tions in 1961 by Antiquarian Press, Ltd.. N.Y. ZAGOSKIN, L. A. 1847. lAccount of pedestrian journeys in the Russian possessions in America in 1842, 1843 and 1844 years.] St. Petersburg, 2 parts. (Type- script copy of translation by Mrs. Antoinette Hotovitsky filed in Dept. Anthropology and Sociology, Univ. Calif. Los Angeles.) REFERENCES ALLEN, J. A. 1880. History of North American pinnipeds, a monograph of the walruses, seal-lions, sea-bears and seals of North America. U.S. Dep. Inter., U.S. Geol. Surv. Territ., Misc. Publ. 12, 785 p. U.S. Gov. Print. Off., Washington, D.C. ANONYMOUS. 1963. Trident. A long range report of the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. U.S. Fish Wildl.Serv.,Circ. 149, 113 p. BAKER, R. C. 1957. Fur seals of the Pribilof Islands. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv,, Conserv. in Action 12, 24 p. BANKS. N. 1910. New American miles (Arachnoidea, Acarina). Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 12:2-12. CHAMBERLAIN, F. M., and J. N. COBB. 1912. Statistics of the fisheries of Alaska for 1911. In B. W. Evermann, Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 191 1, p. 29-65. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish. 1911, Doc. 766. CHANCE, W. S. 1900. Seal fisheries of Alaska. In Annual report of the supervising special agent for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1900, p. 7-9. U.S. Treas. Dep. Doc. 2204. ELLIOTT, H.W. 1874. The fur seal millions on the Pribylov Islands. Harper's New Mon. Mag. 48:795-805. 1881. The seal-islands of Alaska. In G. B. Goode, The history and present condition of the fishery industries, 176 p. U.S. Dep. Inter., 10th Census of the United States. [Elliott's work separately paged and bound.) 1898. Report on the seal islands of Alaska. In Seal and salmon fisheries and general resources of Alaska, part 3, p. 1-285. U.S. Congress, House, 1898. FARMER, E. E. 1899. Report on the electrical experiments in the branding of the fur- seal pups— season of 1897. In The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean, part 3, p. 333-336. U.S. Treasury Department, 1898-99. HANNA, G. D. 1919. Fur-seal census, Pribilof Islands, 1918. In W. T. Bower, Alaska fisheries and fur industries in 1918, p. 116-128. Rep. U.S. Comm. Fish., 1918, append. 7, Doc. 872. JUDGE, J. 1899. Branding on St. George. In The fur seals and fur-seal islands of the North Pacific Ocean, part 3, p. 338. U.S. Treasury Department, 1898-99. KENYON, K. W., and F. WILKE. 1953. Migration of the northern fur seal, Callorhinus ursinus. J. Mammal. 34:86-98. LEMBKEY, W. 1. 1905. Annual report to Department of Commerce and Labor, 1904. In Alaskan seal fisheries. Letter from the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, transmitting, pursuant to Senate Resolution No. 15, of December 7, 1905, copies of certain reports relating to the Alaskan seal fisheries, p. 3-62. U.S. Congress, Senate, 1905a. [Preceded by his preliminary report, p. 2-3.) 1905(1911). Annual report to Department of Commerce and Labor, 1904. /n Hearings before the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Com- merce and Labor, House of Representatives on House Resolution no. 73 to investigate the fur-seal industry of Ala.ska, Appendi.x A, p. 59-115. U.S. Congress, House, 1911. 1908. Annual report seal fisheries of Alaska [for 1907]. In Reports relating to Alaskan seal fisheries, p. 72-120. U.S. Congress, Senate, 1908. 1908 (191 l)a. Annual report seal fisheries of Alaska, 1906. In Hearings be- fore the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Commerce and Labor, House of Representatives on House Resolution no. 73 to investigate the fur-seal industry of Alaska, Appendix A. p. 260-313. U.S. Congress, House, 1911. 1908 (1911)b. Annual report seal fisheries of Alaska [tor 1907). In Hear- ings before the Committee on Expenditures in the Department of Com- merce and Labor, House of Representatives on House Resolution no. 73 to investigate the fur-seal industry of Alaska, Appendix A, p. 486-533. U.S. Congress, House, 1911. LYONS, E.T. 1964. Biology of the hookworm, Uncinaha lucasi. Stiles, 1901, in the northern fur seal, Callorhinus ursinus (Linn.) on the Pribilof Islands, Alaska. Ph. D. Thesis, Colo. State Univ., Fort Collins, 109 p. NIGGOL, K., C. H. FISCUS, Jr., T. P. O'BRIEN, and F. WILKE. I960. Pelagic fur seal investigations, Alaska, 1960. Unpubl. manuscr., 61 p. Northwest and Alaska Fish. Center, Natl. Mar. Mammal Lab., Natl. Mar. Fish. Serv., NOAA, 7600 Sand Point Way NE., Seattle, WA981I5. NORTH PACIFIC FUR SEAL COMMISSION. 1962. Report on investigations from 1958 to 1961, 183 p. Issued from the Headquarters of the Comniission, Washington, D.C. See also 1964. PETERSON, R. T., and J. FISHER. 1955. Wild America. Houghton Miffiin Co., Boston, 434 p. [An ap- pendix, p. 420-425, is titled "History of the fur seal herds" and includes a graph of fur seal statistics from 1786 to 1950.] SCHEFFER, V. B. 1958. Seals, sea lions, and walruses: a review of the Pinnipedia. Stanford Univ. Press. Stanford. Calif., 179 p. SCHEFFER, V. B., and D. W. RICE. 1963. A list of the marine mammals of the world. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Spec. Sci. Rep. Fish. 431, 12 p. THOMPSON, S.H. 1950. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries: 1947. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv.,Stat.Dig. 20, 78p. 1953. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries: 1950. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Stat. Dig. 29, 68 p. 1954. Alaska fishery and fur-seal industries: 1951. U.S. Fish Wildl. Serv., Stat. Dig. 31,70p. U.S. COMMERCE DEPARTMENT. 1913. Alaskan seal fisheries; compilation of documents and other printed matter relating thereto. [Original papers published from 1868 to 1913, assembled by the Bureau of Fisheries and bound by the Government Printing Office in 1913; vols. 11-16. See also U.S. Commerce and Labor Dept., 1906.] U.S. COMMERCE AND LABOR DEPARTMENT. 1906. Alaskan seal fisheries; compilation of documents and other printed matter relating thereto. [Original papers published from 1868 to 1905. assembled by the Department in 1906 and bound by the Gov. Print. Off., Vols. 1-8.] U.S. CONGRESS, HOUSE. 1876a. Alaska seal-fisheries. Letter from the Secretary of the Navy, trans- mitting a copy of the report of Lieut. Washburn Maynard, United States Navy, on the subject of seal-fisheries. 44th Congr., 1st sess.. House Exec. Doc. 43, 23 p. [Bound in U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, compilation of documents and other printed matter relating there- to, Alaskan seal fisheries, 1913, vol. 12.] 1876b. Seal-fisheries in Alaska. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting in response to resolution of the House of Representatives, information relating to the seal-fisheries in Alaska. 44lh Congr., 1st sess.. House Exec. Doc. 83, p. 207-277. [The first series of pages, 1-201, covers fur seal management from 3 August 1870 to 17 January 1876. The second series of pages, 1-277, is a republication of Elliott 1875. | 1896. Letter from the Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting ... the report of Henry W. Elliott on the condition of the fur-seal fisheries of Alaska, together with all maps and illustrations accompanying said report. 54th Congr., 1st sess.. House Doc. 175, 240 p. 1906. Report on the Alaskan fur-seal fisheries, by Edwin W. Sims, solicitor of the Department of Commerce and Labor, August 31, 1906. 59th Congr., 2d sess.. House Doc. 251, 59 p. [Appendix A, p. 31-42, con- tains "statistics of the Pribilof fur-seal herd from the discovery of the Pribilof Islands, 1786, to 1906, inclusive." A rare document.] 1943. Transfer of certain functions of the Fish and Wildlife Service to the Department of Agriculture. 78th Congr., 1st sess. Hearings ... of the Committee on Merchant Marine and Fisheries, 378 p. U.S. CONGRESS, SENATE. 1884-87. The fisheries and fishery industries of the United Slates. Pre- pared through the co-operation of the Commissioner of Fisheries and the Superintendent of the 10th Census by George Brown Goode ... and a 62 staff of associates. 47th Congr., 1st sess.. Senate Misc. Doc. 124, 5 sec- tions in 7 vols. (For titles of sections and their authors see Wickersham, entry 8766, or Library of Congress card 20-35 .| 1891. Letter from the acting Secretary of the Treasury, transmitting . . . reports concerning the condition of the seal islands of Alaska. 51st Congr., 2d sess.. Senate Exec. Doc. 49, 35 p. [Letters, reports, and tables concerning the fur seal industry in 1890.) 1905a. Alaskan fur-seal herd . . . Letter from Henry W. Elliott, of Lakewood, Ohio, relative to the rules and regulations governing the agents of the Government in charge of the seal islands of Alaska and the condi- tion of the fur-seal herd thereupon. 58th Congr., 3d sess.. Senate Doc. 149, 7 p. 1905b. Alaskan seal fisheries. Letter from the Secretary of Commerce and Labor, transmitting . . . certain reports relating to the Alaskan seal fisheries. 59th Congr., Isl sess.. Senate Doc. 98, 115 p. [Mainly reports of W. 1. Lembkey, agent in charge, for 1904-05.] WARDMAN, G. 1884. A trip to Alaska; a narrative of what was seen and heard during a summer cruise in Alaskan waters. Lee and Shepard, Boston, Mass., 237 p. [Popular account of Pribilof Islands, p. 89-1 18. Author took a trip to Attn. Pribilof Islands, and other places in Alaska in summer of 1879 on U.S. revenue steamer Richard Rush. He was U.S. Treasury agent at the Seal Islands.) WICKERSHAM, J. 1927. A bibliography of Alaskan literature, 1724-1924. Misc. Publ., Alaska Agric. Coll- and School of Mines 1, 635 p. [Contains on p. 1-37 "Outlines of the history of Alaskan literature, 1724-1924"; title page bears date 1927. p. v bears date 15 March 1928. 63 INDEX Abegglen, C. E., 41, 44 , and A. Y. Roppel, 35, 40, 45 , A. Y. Roppel, and F. Wilke,41, 44, 45, 46, 47 , A. Y. Roppel, A. M. Johnson, and F. Wilke, 45, 47 aboriginal sealing, 35, 36, 40 acanthocephaians, 29 aerial observations (see also photography), 35 Aerobacter, 52 age, estimation of, from baculum, 35, 36 body length, 22, 23, 24, 29, 34, 35, 50 bone, 43 C and P deposits, 50 eye lens weight, 50 general features, 9 skin weight, 16, 23, 35 teeth, 33, 34, 36, 41, 42, 43 terramycin deposits, 50 whiskers, 41 agreements (see treaties) air travel, 33 Alaska, 4, 46 Alaska Commercial Company, 5, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12 Alaska Herald, 5 Albatross, 10, 13, 14, 25, 27 Alexander, A. B., 13, 15, 16 Alexander, F., 33 algae on pelage, 30 Allen, J., and C. Bryant, 6 Aller, H., 21, 22, 23, 24 Allison, A. — see Blumberg et al. anaesthetizing (see immobilizing) Anas, R. E. — see Roppel et al. anatomy, 14, 20, 39, 44, 49, 50 Anderson, R., 35 Andrews, R. C, 18 Anonymous, 33, 37, 49 Antarctophthirus (see lice) Anti-Monopoly Association, 7 Archimandritov, I., 9 Arclocephalus, 31, 45 Aretas, R., 37 Artamonov, K., 1 1 ascarids, 9, 31, 53 Ashbrook, F. G., 27 Ashworth, U. S., 52 asphyxia neonatorum, 21 Austin, O., and F. Wilke, 26, 33 automatic data processing, 41 average harem, 13, 23, 25, 31, 38, 52 Baber, A. W., 18 Baden-Powell, G. S., II , and G. Dawson, 2, 5, 8, 12, 13 Bahn, C— see Irving et al. Baines, G. A. — see Fiscus et al. Baker, R. C, 24, 44 , F. Wilke, and C. H. Baltzo, 47 Baltzo, C. H., 47 — see Baker et al. Bancroft, H., 2, 3, 5 Banner, A. H., 28 Baranov, A., 3 barnacles, 15 Barnes [Lieutenant], 6 Barrett-Hamilton, G. E. H., 13, 14 Bartholomew, G. A., 37, 38 and P. Hoel, 37 , and F. Wilke, 37 Bauer, R. D., 50 , A. M. Johnson, and V. B. Scheffer, 50 , R. S. Peterson, and V. B. Scheffer, 50 — see Roppel et al. Baylis, H. A., 30, 31 "BDM", 28 Bear, 19, 20 bears, polar, 4 behavior studies, 28, 33, 36, 37, 42, 48, 50 Behring Sea Commission, 8, 12 Berkh, V., 1 Berland, B., 31 Bertram, G. C. L., 28, 33 bibliography, 23 biologist (see also naturalist), 17, 27, 41, 51, 52 Birnbaum, Z. W., 35 birth in captivity, 26, 37 premature, 33 Black Douglas, 28, 31, 33 Blandau, R. G., 36 blind or hide (see behavior studies) blood, 33, 42, 44, 52, 53 blubber and fat, 31, 40, 49, 51 Blumberg, B. S., A. Allison, and B. Garry, 33, 44 body size, 6, 9, 22, 23, 29, 34, 40, 47, 51, 52 Boitsoff, L. v., 26 Bonham, K., 28 Bower, W. T., 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25 , and H. Aller, 21, 22, 24 Bowers, G. M., 16 Boyden, A. A., 33 brain, 14, 49 branding, 15, 16, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 29 breeding reserve, 16, 25 Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, 16 Brown, R. Z., 31 Bryant, C. — see Allen and Bryant Bulkley, C. S., 4 bulls, counting of, 13, 16, 17, 20, 22, 25, 29, 36, 43 killing of, 24 territorial behavior, 33, 36, 37, 40, 42 by-products of sealing, 3, 9, 24, 30, 51 Caldera, 5 caliphers, 23, 24 Callorhinus (see seal, names) camera stations (see photographs) Camp-Fire Club of America, 19 Canadian observers, 11, 13, 14, 22, 30, 43 captive seals, 4, 12, 15, 19, 20, 26, 28, 39, 47, 52 64 cards (see automatic data processing) Carl, G. C. — see Prefontaine and Carl Carmel, A. C, 26 census (see population estimates) cestodes, 9, 31 Chamberlain, F. M., 21 — see Evermann and Chamberlain Chapman, D. C, 44, 45, 46 — see Kenyon et al. — see Roppel et al. Chapman, W. M., 28, 29 charts (see maps) Chelan, 26 Chiasson, R. B., 39 Choris, L., 4 Christoffers, H. J., 26 chromosomes, 19, 42 circulation (see also heart), 14, 33, 52 Clark, E., 19 Clark, G. A.— see Jordan and Clark; see Jordan et al. Clark, G. R., 43 Clegg, W., 31 Clemens, W. , and G. Wilby, 26 J. Hart, and G. Wilby, 26 Clostridium, 47 Cobb, J. N., 5, 10 , and H. Kutchin, 11 Coinde, J. P., 4 Cole, L. J., 28 collar, 29 Colyer, V., 5 Commander Islands, 5, 14, 25, 26, 29, 38, 47 commissions, (of 1891), 11, 12, 13 (of 1896), 13, 14, 15 (of 1914), 22 (of 1957), 42, 43, 49 Committee on Conservation of the Marine Life of the Pacific, 24 computation system, 22, 28, 33 condition factor, 34, 42, 45, 47 conferences (see treaties) Constanline, 5 conventions (see treaties) copulation at sea, 52 Corwin, 10, 15 Corynobacterium (see spekkfinger) Corynosoma (see acanthocephalans) Craig, A. M., 46, 52 — see Pike et al. Crowley, J. B., 13, 14 Cryptocotyle (see trematodes) cryptorchid, 6, 25, 30 curing skins, 3, 24, 40, 51 Gushing, J. — see Fujino and Gushing Cygnet, 5 Dall, W. H., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 Davey, S. P., 51 — see Roppel and Davey Dawson, G., 11 — see Baden-Powell and Dawson death causes (see mortality) Delyamure, S. L., 48 dentition, 14, 39, 46, 50 Dexler, H., 20 diaphragm, 36 Dipetalonema {see filariids) diving ability, 49 Dixon, C. F., 37,40 Doetschmann, W., 29 dog, 5, 24, 47 Dorofeev, S. V., 46, 49 Doyle, L. P., 42, 48 Drake, F. J., 14 driving of seals, 7, 9, 15 earthquake, 4 Echinophihirius (see lice) Ectocarpus (see algae) EUiott, H. W., 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 16, 19, 20, 21, 25 , and A. Gallagher, 21 embalming, 39, 52 embryo and fetus, 30, 35, 36, 38, 43, 45, 46, 53 Enders, R. K., 27, 28, 33, 36 , O. P. Pearson, and A. K. Pearson, 27 — see Pearson and Enders enteritis, 47 Erickson, D.— see Thompson and Erickson Erythrocladia (see algae) Escherichia, 42 Evermann, B. W., 10, 13, 14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 46 , and F. M. Chamberlain, 16 exclosure (see plot) extermination of seals, 11 eye lens, 50 Falconer, S., 9 Fassett, H. C, 27 fasting (of bull), 33, 48 females, killing of, 3, 8, 10, 14, 19, 35, 36, 39, 40, 41, 42 Ferris, G. F., 15, 29 fetus (see embryo and fetus) field length (see killings, size and sex specifications for; also age, estimation of, from body length) filariids, 35, 36, 52 Fiscus, C. H., 42, 49 , G. A. Baines, and F. Wilke, 15, 50, 52 , G. A. Baines, and H. Kajimura, 52, 53 , and H. Kajimura, — see Niggol and Fiscus — see Wilke et al. Fish, P. A., 14 food habits, 10, 12, 13, 15, 25, 26, 33, 35, 36, 37, 38, 41, 43, 48, 52 forecasting (see killings, quotas for) Fouke, P. B., 22 Fouke Fur Company, 22, 23, 26, 33, 35, 39, 40, 44, 46, 49, 51 fox, 4 Eraser, A., 8 Fujinaga, M. — see Taylor et al. Fujino, K., 44 , and J. Gushing, 44 Funsten Brothers and Company, 22, 23 65 Fur-Seal Board, 16 Gabrielson, I. N., 27 Gallagher, A.— see Elliott and Gallagher gantlet, 27, 52 Garry, B. — see Blumberg et al. Geizan Maru, 33 Gibbins, G. D., 24 Gibbins and Lohn Fur Skin Dressing and Dyeing Company, 23 glossary, 51 Geoghegan, R., 4, 44 Goff, C. J., 10, 11, 13 Gonyaulax (see poisoning, paralytic shellfish) grades, sealskin, 24, 44, 48 Grainmatophora (see algae) Gray, J. E., 4 group, 35 Hahn, W. L., 19, 20 Hajny, R, A., 51 Halarachne (see mites) Halkett, A., 13 Hamerton, J. L., 42 Hanna, G. D., 13, 14, 15, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25 Harmon, B. W., 22 Harriman, E. H., 16 Hart, J. — see Clemens et al. Hassall, A. — see Stiles and Hassall head, 26 heart (see also circulation), 36, 49, 52 Heath, H., 20, 21 hematocrit, 53 Henderson (Lieutenant], 6 Henriques, J. N., 5 Henry, J., 8 herd reduction (see females, killing of) hermaphrodites, 6, 25 Herrington, W. C, 37 Hitchcock, F. H., 16 Hoel, P. — see Bartholomew and Hoel homing ability (see also migration), 4, 6, 29, 40, 41, 42 hookworm, 9, 15, 17, 21, 29, 30, 37, 40, 42, 48 Hornaday, W. T., 19 Hulten, E., 4, 10, 11, 14, 16 Hurd, R. D., 28 Hutchinson, H. M., 7, 9 Hutchinson, Kohl and Company, 5, 6 ice (see also weather), 4, 47 Ickes, H., 7 illustrations (see also photographs), 4, 6, 7 immobilizing, 47, 52 Ino, 7 intermingling, 12, 26, 28, 29, 33, 38, 41, 43 investigations, Congressional and Departmental, 7, 21, 31 Ireland, G., 26 Irving, L., 49 , L. Peyton, C. Bahn, and R. S. Peterson, 49 Ishino, K., 25, 26 Ishkov, A. A., 43 Ixodes (see ticks) Japanese Bureau of Fisheries, 26 Japanese observers, 14, 22, 25, 26, 41, 43 Jellison, W. L., 37, 38 and K. Milner, 37, 38 Jeffries, N. L., 5, 7 Johnson, A. M., 46 — see Abegglen et al. — see Bauer et al. — see Roppel et al. — see Scheffer and Johnson Johnson, H. W., 25 Johnston, E. C, 7, 24, 25, 27, 31 Jones, E. L., 21 Jordon, D. S., 13, 14, 16, 17, 23, 25 andG. A.Clark, 3,5,7,9, 10, II, 13, 14, 15, 21 Judge, J., 16, 17, 19 Kajimura, H., 52 — see Fiscus et al. — see Fiscus and Kajimura Kathgard [Captain], 8 Kendall, M., and A. Stuart, 35 Kennicott, R., 4 Kenyon, K. W., 9, 31, 35, 40 , V. B. Scheffer, and D. G. Chapman, 9, 15, 20, 21, 24, 27, 28, 32, 35, 36, 39, 42, 46 — see San ford et al. — see Wilke and Kenyon Keyes, M. C, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53 killer whales, 6, 24, 47 killings, quotas for (predicting), 3, 6, 7, 10, 28, 39, 45, 46, 53 size and sex specifications for (see also females, killing of, age estimation oO, 6, 12, 16, 21, 25, 35, 41, 50 summary of, (1786-1867), 2, 3, 4; (1786-1828), 4 (1870-1897), 14; (1786-1906), 18; (1868-1911), 8 (1870-1910), 20; (record year-males), 29; (record day), 35 (record year-males and females), 41; (sudden decrease), 45; suspension of, 3, 5, 10, 20, 24, 26; (food killings), 26 Kincaid, T., 16 King, J., 41 Kirkpatrick, C. M., 43 Kitahara, T., 22 Kochulin, J., 24 Kohl, W., 7 Kostarnov, T. M., 46 Kostin, L. v., 46 Kraus, B. S. — see Scheffer and Kraus Krear, R., 39 Kurile Islands, '38 Kutchin, H. — see Cobb and Kuichin laboratory, (MMBL), 20, 37, 41, 43, 47 Laclede, Pierre, Fur Company, 49 La Grange [Inspector], 5 Lakoda, 44 Lampson, C. M., and Company, 8 land, seals on, 31, 52 larynx, 50 Laughlin, W. S., 33 , and W. G. Reeder, 49 leases, 7, 10, 19 66 Lembkey, W. 1., 3, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21 Leone, C. A., and A. L. Wiens, 33 Lepas (see barnacles) Levardsen, N. O., 30 lice, 15, 23, 38 Licmophora (see algae) life tables, 12, 39, 46 liver, 31,49 longevity, 12, 25, 34, 49 Lucas, F. A., 6, 14, 16 — see Jordan et al. Lucker, J. T., 35 lungworm (see filariids) Lutke, F., 4 Lynch, J. E., 29 Lyons, E. T., 37 and O. W. Olsen, 48 — see Olsen and Lyons MacAskie, G. — see Pike et al. Macoun, J. M., 11, 13, 14, 22 Malkovich, T. A., 26 mange, 44 Manzer, J. 1., 38 maps and charts, 2, 6, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 20, 22 Marine Mammal Biological Laboratory (see laboratory) Marine Products, Ltd., 51 marking (except branding and tagging), 4, 6, 12, 16, 25, 37, 40, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53 Marsh, M. C, 15, 16, 17, 20, 21 Martin, F., 3, 7, 9, 19, 22, 31 Martin-Rice, Ltd., 8, 49 Masters, D. R., 37 mating (see copulation) Matsumoto, K. — see Nagasaki and Malsumoto May, H., 26, 35, 46 Maynard, W., 5, 6, 9 McAtee, W. L. — see Preble and McAtee MacFarland, F. M., 19 McGilvrey, F., 42 Mclntyre, H. H., 3, 5, 12 McKay, H., 7 McLean, J. T., 5 McLeod, J. — see Wardle et al. measurements and weights (see age, estimation of; body size; killings, size and sex specifications for; weight of skins) Meier, Don, Productions, 51 Mendenhall, T. C, 11 , and C. H. Merriam, 12 Merculief, A., 47 Merriam, C. H., 11, 16 —see Mendenhall and Merriam Meyer, R. K., 28 microfilariae (see filariids) migration, 14, 15, 28, 33, 35, 40, 50 milk and lactation, 8, 13, 37, 42, 44, 47, 48, 51, 52 Miller, N. B., 13 Miller, R. C, 21 Milner, K.— see Jellison and Milner mites, 19, 29 mitochondria, 49 Miyauchi, O., and F. B. Sanford, 31 modus Vivendi, 10, 11 molting, 3, 7, 39, 41, 44, 46, 50 Morgan, E., 5 Morgan, T. F., 5, 7 mortality, 4, 12, 14, 15, 17, 21, 27, 28, 35, 36, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 50, 52, 53 Moser, J. F., 13, 14 Murie, O. J., 27 Murray, J., 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 Murray, M., 44 museum, 20 Nagasaki, F., 34, 38, 41, 43, 49 , and K. Matsumoto, 42 naturalist (see also biologist), 16, 17, 20, 21 Neah Bay, 6, 7, 10 Neiland, K, A., 29, 48 Nelson, E., 24 Newell, L M., 19, 29 New Method Fur Dressing Company, 44 Niggol, K., 42, 45 , and C. H. Fiscus, 43 — see Wilke et al. Nikulin, P. G., 46 Nishimura, K., 43 North Pacific Fur Seal Commission, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 49, 51 North American Commercial Company, 5, 10, 16, 19, 20 Norton, E., 6 Noyles, L. A., 10 Nybakken, J. W., 50 Nygren, L. R., 47 oil and blubber (see by-products) Okun, S., 3, 4, 5 Olsen, O. W., 37, 40, 48 — see Lyons and Olsen , and E. T. Lyons, 48 Olson, C. L., 43 Oliver, J. R., 19 Oppenheimer, G. J., 47 Orthohalarachne (see mites) Osgood, W. H., 22 E. A. Preble, and G. H. Parker, 10, 13, 21, 22, 23 Otter Island, 10 Pacific Fur Foods, 51 Palmer "Cap Chur Gun", 47 Palmer, L. J., 29 Palmer, W., 11 Paragon, 41 parasites (see also specific kinds, such as ascarids), 4, 47, 48; (anthelmintics), 52 Paris Tribunal and regulations, 11, 13, 19 Parker, G. H., 22, 23 — see Osgood et al. Parrott, John, and Company, 5 Partridge, R. A., 26 Pauly, L., and H. R. Wolfe, 44 Pearson, A. K., 36 and O. P. Pearson, 36 67 _ — see Enders et al. ., and R. K. Enders, 27 Pearson, O. P., 36 — see Enders et al. — see Pearson and Pearson pelage, 26, 31, 39, 40, 44, 48, 49, 50 pelagic research, 10, 13, 31, 33, 38, 41, 42, 43, 45 pelagic sealing, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 36, 37, 51 Perkins, R. M., 51 Peru, 5 Petersen, C. G. J., 27 Petersen index, 36, 45 Peterson, R. S., 29, 47, 48, 49 — see Bauer et al. — see Irving et al. , and W. G. Reeder, 33, 48, 50 Peyton, L. — see Irving et al. Phoca (see seal, names) Phocanema (see ascarids) Phocascahs (see ascarids) Phocitrema (see trematodes) photographs, aerial, 26, 30, 31, 32, 37 movie, 18, 22, 23, 51 still, 7, 10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 17, 24, 25, 26, 31, 33, 39 Pierard, J. A., 50 Pingree, S. J., 44 Pike, G., 43 , G. MacAskie, and A. M., Craig, 38 pituitary, 28, 52 plot or quadrat, sampling, 37, 40, 41, 46, 51 poaching, 5, 8, 11, 18 poisoning, paralytic shellfish, 50 Poland family, 8, 22 population estimates, 4, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 20, 22, 24, 29, 31, 32, 33, 36, 39, 44, 45, 47, 49, 52, 53 Porrocaecum (see ascarids) Power, E., 41, 51 Preble, E. A., 22, 23 — see Osgood et al. , and W. L. McAtee, 4, 20, 21, 23, 24 predation (see food habits) predicting (see killings, quotas for) Prefontaine, G., 30 , and G. C. Carl, 30 pregnancy rate, 35, 38, 40, 51, 52 Pribilof, G. G., 1 Pribilof Islands, discovery of, 1 Pricelrema (see trematodes) processing skins, 4, 7, 22, 24, 44, 48, 49, 50 Proteus, 52 pups, artificial feeding of (see captive seals) pups, counting of, 18, 19, 20, 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 32, 33, 35, 36, 41, 45, 46, 47, 51, 52, 53 pups, killing of, 3, 7, 11, 19 weight of, 32; (revised), 42, 47 Rafn, M. — see Schultz and Rafn raids (see poaching) Rand, R. W., 40 red tide (see poisoning, paralytic shellfish) Redfield, W. C, 21, 22, 23 Reeder, W. G., 49 — see Laughlin and Reeder — see Peterson and Reeder rejects, 46 reports, research, 52 reproduction, female (see also behavior studies; embryo and fetus; pregnancy rate), 13, 14, 28, 31, 36, 52 reproduction, male (see also age, estimation from baculum), 14, 19, 29, 36 reservation (refuge), 19 reserve (see breeding reserve) Reynolds, A. C, 24 Rezanov, N., 3, 4 Rice and Brothers, 22 Richardson, T., 49 Ridgway, G. J., 42, 44 Riley, D. F., 43 Riley, F., 3, 8, 10 ringworm (see fungi) "roadskins", 25 Robben Island, 5, 14, 26, 38, 47 Roberts, B., 27 rocks (see rookery marks) Rodahl, K., 37, 38 roentgenograms, 26, 33, 48 rookery areas, 6, 9, 10, 11, 24, 25, 32, 35 rookery marks, 12, 13, 14, 24 Roppel, A. Y., 41 — see Abegglen and Roppel — see Abegglen et al. , and S. P. Davey, 50 , A. M. Johnson, R. D. Bauer, D. G. Chap- man, and F. Wilke, 41, 42, 44, 50, 51 , A. M. Johnson, R. E. Anas, and D. G. Chap- man, 41, 42, 46, 51, 52, 53 , A. M. Johnson, and D. G. Chapman, 41, 50, 51 _ — see Wilke et al. Rosted, A. F. — see Svenkerud et al. Rothermel, J. H., 21 rub (on pelage), 44 Russian-American Company, 2, 3, 4, 9 St. George, 1 St. Louis Zoological Park, 51 sales, seal skin, 22, 48, 49, 50 salmonellosis, 38, 42 Samalga Island, 31 Sanford, F. B. — see Miyauchi and Sanford , K. W. Kenyon, and V. B. Scheffer, 31 — see Scheffer et al. Sater, E., 16, 26 Sauer, M., 1 Scammon, C. M., 4, 6 Scheffer, V. B., 15, 16, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 38, 40, 44, 46, 47, 48, 50 — see Bauer et al. —see Kenyon et al. — see Sanford et al. , N. L. Karrick, and F. B. Sanford, 31 , and A. M. Johnson, 44, 48 68 _, and B. S. Kraus, 46 ., and F. Wilke, 9 Schultz, L., and M. Rafn, 26 seal (see systematic status) seal-fish, 29, 52 Seattle Indian Center, 50 Selvig, K. A., and S. K. Selvig, 50 Selvig, S. K. — see Selvig and Selvig Le Seniavine, 4 Sergeant, D. E., 45 sexual maturity (see also pregnancy rate), (female), 23, 33 (male), 36 sex ratio, 9, 15, 28, 36, 45, 46, 48 Shapeero, W. L., 46 shearing (see marking; breeding reserve) Shipley, D. D., 28 Shisenekoff, K. (spelling varies) 4, 6 Sholes, W. H., 31 Sims, E. W., 3, 5, 7, 16, 18 Sitka, 35, 36 skeleton and skull, 4, 6, 33, 34, 41, 46, 49, 52 skinning, 7, 24 Sivertson, E., 41 Sladen, W. J. L., 47 Snodgrass, R. E., 14 Soviet observers, 26, 46 specimens (see also captive seals; embalming; skeletons and skulls), 4, 10, 12, 16, 28, 29 spekkfinger, 37, 38 Stanley-Brown, J., 11, 12 Starks, D., 19 statistical methods, 35, 37, 41, 42, 46, 49 Stejneger, L., 1, 13, 14, 15, 16, 25, 47 Steller, G. W., I Stepetin, L., 33, 44 Stewart, I. E., 30 — see Wardle et al. Stevenson, C, 4 Stiles, C. W., 30 , and A. Hassall, 15, 31 stomach contents (see food habits) Stoves, J. L., 8 Streptococcus, 52 stripping, 24 Stuart, A.— see Kendall et al. Stunkard, H. W., 30 Suomela, A. J., 43 Supara, Inc., 49 survival (see mortality) Svenkerud, R. R., 38 , A. F. Rested, and K. Thorshaug, 38 Swan, J. G., 10 swimming ability, 10, 30, 50 systematic status of fur seal, 1, 12, 15, 33, 36, 38 Taggart, H., 5 tagging, 26, 28, 29, 31, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, 42, 43, 48, 50, 51, 53 tapeworms (see cestodes) Taylor, F. H. C., 38 M. Fujinaga. and F. Wilke, 29, 38 teeth (see age; dentition) television, 51 temperature, body, 17, 25, 32, 42, 49 temperature (see weather) Terramycin, 50 testes (see reproduction, male) Thomas, G. H., 5 Thompson, D'A. W., 5, 13 Thompson, S. H., 23, 27, 34, 36, 39, 40, 41 , and D. Erickson, 41 Thorshaug, K. — see Svenkerud et al. Thurber, ,1., 19 thymus, 44 thyroid, 47 ticks, 15 Tingle, G. R., 6, 10 Tikhmenev, P., 1,2 Tomasevich, J., 20 tongue, 50 tourism, 24, 33 towers and catwalks, 25 Townsend, C. H., 8, 10, 13, 14, 15, 16 tranquilizing (see immobilizing) transect (see plot) transplanting seals, 19, 45 treaties, 10, 11, 19, 20, 24, 25, 27, 28, 37, 38, 41, 42, 51 trematodes, 48 trichinids, 36 True, F. W., 13, 14 Turner, L. M., 9 twin seals, 25, 43, 46, 48 two-year-olds, 52 Uncinaria (see hookworm) United American Company, 2 U.S. Commission of Fish and Fisheries, Bureau of Fisheries, Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, and Fish and Wildlife Ser- vice, 7, 12, 13, 16, 17, 19, 20, 23, 25, 26, 37, 41, 46 U.S. Congress, House, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 1, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 U.S. Congress, Senate, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 16, 21, 22, 25, 42, 51 U.S. Interior Dep., 31 U.S. State Dep., 51 U.S. Treasury, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 16, 38 Van Cleave, H. J., 29 Vaz-Ferreira, R., 31 Veniaminov, I., 1,3 vibrissae (see whiskers) Vik, R., 31 vital staining, 50 vitamin A (see liver) vocal patterns, 50 Wardle, R. A., 30 , J. McLeod, and I. E. Stewart, 30 Warneck [Doctor], 4 Waterman, R. H., 5 weaning (see also captive seals; milk and lactation), 48 weather (relation to seals) (see also ice), 10, 28, 35, 44, 45, 53 Weber, D., 50 Webster, D., 5, 16 weight of skins, 12, 16, 21, 23, 35 69 Welker, W. 1., 49 whiskers, 41 White, C. J., 40 White IDoctor], 9 Wicker, F. N., 7 Wiens, A. L. — see Leone and Wiens Wilber, C, 31 Wilby, G. — see Clemens and Wilby — see Clemens et al. Wilke, F., 28, 33, 34, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 42, 47 —see Abegglen et al. — see Austin and Wilke — see Baker et al. — see Bartholomew and Wilke — see Fiscus et al. — see Roppel et al. — see Scheffer et al. — see Taylor et al. and K. W. Kenyon, 33, 37, 41 , K. Niggol, and C. H. Fiscus, 43 A. Y. Roppel, and K. Niggol, 47 Williams, C. A., 7 Williams, D., 4 Williams, Haven and Company (title varies), 5, 6 Williams, W., 11 Wilson, J. S., 5, 6 Wogan, A. K., 30 Wolfe, H. R., 44 — see Pauly and Wolfe World War II, 28 Wright, E., 8 yearlings, 15, 21, 28, 33, 35, 48, 51, 52 Zagoskin, L. A., 4 Zschorna, W. 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